United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory
P.O Box 15027
Las Vegas NV89114
EPA-600/4-79-018
March 1979
Research and Development
Environmental
Monitoring Series
Surface Water
Quality Parameters
for Monitoring Oil
Shale Development
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad categories
were established to facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster
technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series.This series
describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instrumentation
for the identification and quantification of environmental pollutants at the lowest
conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine the ambient
concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of pollutants as a
function of time or meteorological factors.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
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EPA-600/4-79-018
March 1979
SURFACE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING
OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
by
W. L. Kinney, A. N. Brecheisen, and V. W. Lambou
Monitoring Operations Division
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
LAS VEGAS, NEVADA 89114
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory-Las Vegas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for
publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
Protection of the environment requires effective regulatory actions which
are based on sound technical and scientific information. This information
must include the quantitative description and linking of pollutant sources,
transport mechanisms, interactions, and resulting effects on man and his
environment. Because of the complexities involved, assessment of specific
pollutants in the environment requires a total systems approach which
transcends the media of air, water, and land. The Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas contributes to the formation and enhancement
of a sound monitoring data base for exposure assessment through programs
designed to:
develop and optimize systems and strategies for
monitoring pollutants and their impact on the
environment
demonstrate new monitoring systems and technologies by
applying them to fulfill special monitoring needs of
the Agency's operating programs
This report assesses the potential local and regional impact of an oil
shale industry on surface water resources within the Colorado River Basin, and
recommends chemical, physical, and biological parameters which can be used to
assess the environmental impact on surface water resources. Potential users
of the information include federal, state, and local environmental and public
health agencies as well as private organizations engaged in water quality
monitoring and assessment. For further information contact the Water and Land
Quality Branch, Monitoring Operations Division.
George B. Morgan
Director
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas
iii
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PREFACE
The status of oil shale as an alternative domestic energy source has been
in a state of flux since the inception of the prototype leasing program in
1971. Initially, four tracts of public land, of approximately 2,070 hectares
each, two in Colorado and two in Utah, were leased to private industry for the
purpose of commercial development of shale oil on a prototype scale, using
various technologies and technology mixes. Original plans for development on
all tracts involved surface or underground mining followed by surface
processing of the oil shale and shale oil. In situ processing technology was
still in the experimental stages when the federal lease program was initiated,
and prospects for application of in situ technology on a commercial scale
prior to 1980 seemed remote.
A number of factors have significantly altered the direction and rate of
development of the industry. Spiraling developmental and production costs
coupled with uncertain world market crude oil prices have purportedly dampened
the economic incentive of many of the participating companies, and a number of
original investors have withdrawn from the venture. The lease of the Utah
tracts has been suspended and currently there are no firm plans for
development in these tracts. Development in Colorado's Piceance Basin appears
imminent but current plans are to use modified in situ processes on both the
C-a and C-b tracts. Modified in situ technology requires some surface
processing and/or stockpiling since about 20 percent of the shale must be
mined out, processed, and disposed of or stockpiled at the surface before in
situ retorting can occur.
Our consideration of the environmental problem addressed in this report
was predicated on the assumption that surface processing would follow
underground or aboveground mining rather/ than through utilization of modified
in situ technology. Although surface retorting is not currently being
considered as a primary processing technique for development on federally
leased tracts C-a and C-b, it is likely that application of surface retorting
technology will escalate throughout the oil shale area as the industry
continues to develop. A federally sponsored surface retort is currently in
operation at Anvil Points producing shale oil for large scale refining tests
by the Office of Naval Research which is investigating the feasibility of
converting shale oil to fuel for use in military vehicles. The Department of
Energy (DOE) is apparently promoting continued development of surface
retorting technology, and is requesting 1979 funding for emergency leasing of
a full-scale surface module. The Director of the Department's Laramle Energy
Research Center (LERC) feels that by the 1990's surface techniques will be
stronger than in situ techniques and many surface facilities will be in
operation (Maugh 1977).
iv
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ABSTRACT
This report develops and recommends prioritized listings of chemical,
physical, and biological parameters which can be used to assess the
environmental impact of oil shale development on surface water resources. The
derivation of the list and the prioritization of the parameters are based on a
review of current information regarding potential pollutants and the severity
of the possible impact on ambient water quality with respect to water use
criteria.
Each of the potential water-related problems is addressed in the context
of the probable cumulative regional impact of a maturing, commercial oil shale
industry and in terms of local impact resulting from the prototype operation
initially planned on leased public lands. The possible effects of potential
pollutants on ambient water quality and the resulting impact on aquatic life,
public water supplies, livestock, irrigation agriculture, and selected
industries are evaluated. Where sufficient data are available, attempts are
made to relate historical, current, and projected water quality data to water
quality criteria for various water uses.
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CONTENTS
Foreword ill
Preface iv
Abstract . v
List of Figures tx
List of Tables x
Sections
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions and Recommendations 6
3. Water Requirements and Availability 10
Use Requirements 10
Supply 10
Surface Water 10
Subsurface Water .17
By-product Water 19
4. Potential Impact of the Oil Shale Industry 21
Salinity 21
Sources 21
Ambient Levels 25
Impact 37
Toxic Substances 45
Sources 45
Ambient Levels 50
Impact 55
Nutrients 64
Sources 64
Ambient Levels 66
Impact 69
Hydrographic Modification 70
General 70
Creation of New Impoundments 71
Drainage of Existing Impoundments 71
Diversion of Natural Drainage 71
Flow Depletions 71
Streambed Disturbance 72
Impact 72
Microorganisms 73
vli
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Radioactivity 74
Sources 74
Ambient Levels 74
Impact 76
Oil and Grease 77
Temperature 77
Causes of Temperature Alteration 77
Impact 78
Sediments 79
Sources 79
Ambient Levels 79
Impact 80
Dissolved Oxygen 83
Sources of Oxygen and Causes of Depletion 83
Ambient Levels 85
Impact 88
Acidity, Alkalinity, pH, and Carbon Dioxide ... 89
Relationships and Causes of Variations 89
Ambient Levels 91
Impact 91
5. Recommended Water Quality Parameters 96
Chemical and Physical 96
Biological 112
Significance of Biological Monitoring 112
Selection of Parameters . 122
References 126
Appendix A: Conversion of Text Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8 to
Metric Units 132
vlii
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
1 Location of oil shale deposits of the Green River Formation.
Tracts U-a/U-b, C-a/C-b and the major drainages are shown. . . 3
2 Map showing the drainages in the oil shale area of Utah and
Colorado 4
3 Seasonal runoff patterns of the White River at Ignatio Station
near Watson in water year 1970 15
4 Variability of discharge of the White River at Ignatio Station
near Watson, Utah, years 1924-70 16
5 Diagrammatic section across the Piceance Creek Basin, Colorado. 18
6 Range of water quality in the lower Uinta Formation (formerly the
Evacuation Creek Member of the Green River Formation) and in the
Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation 26
7 Map of the principal drainages of the Colorado River Basin and
locations of the U.S. Geological Survey sampling stations used
to determine ambient water quality 31
8 Surface water quality stations and biological sampling sites
near Federal tracts U-a/U-b. 38
Ix
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1 Contingent water consumption forecasts for a 1-million-
barrel-per-day shale oil industry .............. 11
2 Ranges of water use for various rates and methods of shale
oil production ....................... 12
3 Summary of streamflow records of streams draining the
Colorado oil shale area ................... 14
4 Water required and produced by two single mines for a
projected 30-year period of shale oil production ...... 20
5 Causes of salinity changes at Hoover Dam (1942-61 period of
record adjusted to 1960 conditions) ............. 22
6 Mineral composition of spent shale ash ........... 24
7 Typical composition of raw oil shale sections averaging
25 gallons of oil per ton from the Mahogany zone of
Colorado and Utah ..................... 24
8 Summary of geologic units and their water-bearing
characteristics in the Piceance Creek Basin ......... 27
9 Ranges and mean values of major specific ions, total
dissolved substances, and specific conductivity in the
Colorado River Basin surface waters at selected locations
during 1964-65 ....................... 32
10 Ranges and mean values of major specific ions, total
dissolved substances, and specific conductivity in the
Colorado River Basin surface waters at selected locations
during 1968-69 ....................... 34
11 Selected water quality data near tracts U-a/U-b, White River 39
12 Piceance Creek water quality data December 1970 to
December 1972 ........................ 40
13 Piceance Creek water quality data October 1972 to
September 1973 ....................... 41
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Number
14 Recommended guidelines for salinity in irrigation waters
for arid and semiarid regions 42
15 Guidelines for the use of saline waters for livestock and
poultry 43
16 Summary of specific quality characteristics of surface
waters that have been used as sources for industrial
water supplies 44
17 Concentrations of minor constituents in water after
intimate contact with retorted shale 46
18 Concentrations of trace elements in spent oil shale ash
from the Mahogany ledge of the Green River Formation
in Colorado and Utah 46
19 Concentrations of trace elements in pyrolyzed oil shale
from the Mahogany ledge of the Green River Formation in
the Piceance Basin in Colorado 47
20 Catalysts and chemicals required for a 50,000-barrel-
per-day operation 48
21 Maximum concentrations of trace minerals reported at
selected sampling locations on the Green River and
Colorado River during 1962-67 51
22 Minimum and maximum concentrations of various inorganic
constituents reported in the Colorado River at Yuma,
Arizona during 1958-59 52
23 Maximum concentrations of Boron, Fluoride and Iron at
selected sites on the Colorado, Green and White Rivers
during the 1964-65 and 1968-69 water years 53
24 Maximum concentrations of trace elements reported at four
sites on the White River adjacent to leased tracts U-a/U-b
during period from late August 1974 to August 1975 54
25 Ranges and mean concentrations of phenols and cyanides
reported in the White River and Evacuation Creek adjacent to
tracts U-a/U-b during the period August 1974 to August 1975 55
26 Concentrations of various pesticides reported at selected
locations in the Colorado River System during 1964-68 .... 56
xi
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Number Page
27 Maximum concentrations of specific constituents in waters
that have been used as sources for industrial water
supplies 57
28 Water quality criteria for maximum recommended concentrations
of trace elements in cropland irrigation waters 59
29 Water quality criteria for maximum recommended concentrations
of trace elements in waters to be used for drinking water,
livestock and the support of aquatic life 60
30 Recommended maximum concentrations of common insecticides
in whole (unfiltered) water for the protection of aquatic
life 61
31 Recommended maximum concentrations of selected pesticides
in waters used for human intake and livestock 62
32 Recommended maximum concentrations of herbicides, fungicides
and defoliants in whole (unfiltered) water for the protection
of aquatic life 62
33 Various toxic substances in water and recommended maximum
concentrations for the protection of man and aquatic life . . 63
34 Estimates of nutrient contributions from various sources ... 65
35 Ambient levels of nitrate nitrogen (N03~N) in the Colorado,
Green and White Rivers at selected locations during water
years 1965 and 1969 67
36 Ambient nutrient data for the White River near tracts
U-a/U-b, August 1974 through August 1975 68
37 Nutrient water quality criteria for designated beneficial
water uses 70
38 Radionuclide emissions to the air from a 100,000-barrel-
per-day oil shale mining, retorting, and upgrading operation . 75
39 National drinking water regulations for radioactivity .... 76
40 Maximum daily suspended sediment concentrations at selected
locations 81
xli
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LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Number Paee
41 Maximum, minimum and mean dissolved oxygen, chemical
oxygen demand and total organic carbon levels reported at
selected locations on the Green, White and Colorado Rivers
during the period 1968-76 .................. 86
42 Maximum, minimum and mean dissolved oxygen, chemical
oxygen demand and total organic carbon values reported
in the White River, Utah during the period 1974-76 ..... 87
43 Ranges and mean pH values reported in Colorado River Basin
surface water at selected locations during 1964-65 and
1968-69 ........................... 92
/
44 Ranges and mean pH and C0£ values in the White River
adjacent to leased tracts U-a/U-b, August 1974 to
August 1975 ......................... 93
45 Recommended pH Water Quality Criteria for designated
beneficial uses of surface waters .............. 94
46 Maximum recommended limits for alkalinity, acidity, and
pH for water to be used for various industrial purposes ... 95
47 Prioritization of parameters for monitoring the impact
of oil shale development on surface water quality ...... 99
48 Priority "A" Chemical and Physical Parameters to be
measured in surface waters ................ 113
49 Priority "B" Chemical and Physical Parameters to be
measured in surface waters ................ 115
50 Priority "C" Chemical and Physical Parameters to be
measured in surface waters
51 Priority "A" Biological Parameters ............ 123
52 Priority "B" Biological Parameters ............ 125
xiii
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1. INTRODUCTION
Development of an oil shale industry on the semiarid western slope of the
Rocky Mountains poses a threat to the water resources of the Colorado River
Basin. A mature oil shale industry (l-milllon-barrels-per-day)aand associated
industrial and urban development would consume large quantities of high
quality water and require the disposal and displacement of large volumes of
wastewater and saline ground water. In addition, contamination of surface
waters from point and nonpoint sources would be an ever present threat during
developmental and operational stages. This report develops and recommends
prioritized listings of chemical, physical, and biological parameters which
can be used for monitoring and assessing the environmental impact of oil shale
development on surface water resources.
High quality freshwater is a scarce resource throughout much of the
western United States. Any activity which potentially degrades or consumes
large quantities of freshwater must therefore be continually scrutinized and
rigorously controlled to ensure that the impact on water resources is
minimized.
The total impact of a mature oil shale industry on water resources cannot
be quantitatively assessed until long after production on a commercial scale
has begun. Many unknowns confront the investigator who attempts to develop
predictive capabilities to forecast the nature and magnitude of such effects.
Accurate prediction requires a thorough knowledge of the hydrological and
geological regimens of the area and an understanding of the transport routes
and fates of pollutants mobilized by man's activities and released to
subsurface and surface water. Although the oil shale area has been studied
for many years, most efforts have been directed towards delineating the areas
of high quality, oil-bearing shale. Until recently, the water resources of
much of the area had only been superficially studied. Consequently, the
geology of the area is fairly well described, but hydrological data,
particularly subsurface water data in some sectors are conspicuously lacking.
aTo aid readability, the units (acre-ft) and (ft^/s) expressions
(English) are maintained in the text followed by the metric equivalents [in
cubic meters (m^) and cubic meters per second (m^/s), respectively] in
parentheses. The unit "barrel" is neither a metric nor an English measurement
but is an industrial term. One barrel equals 42 gallons or 158.87 liters of
oil. We believe presenting the data in this manner renders the information
more meaningful to personnel involved in all disciplines. All other units of
measure are expressed in accordance with the modernized metric system.
Totally converted tables using metric units appear in Appendix A.
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The Federal prototype oil shale leasing program is designated to provide
for the assessment of the environmental impact of development and operation of
small-scale commercial industries using various mining and processing
technologies. [See USDI (1973) vol. Ill, ch. V, for discussion of mitigating
measures and lease provisions.] Four tracts of public lands of approximately
2,073 hectares, two in Colorado and two in Utah (Figures 1 and 2), were leased
by industry from the Federal government for purposes of oil shale development.
Extraction and processing would occur under rigorous guidelines as stipulated
by the conditions of the lease in an effort to minimize environmental impact.
If development proves to be environmentally acceptable and economically
profitable, a mature commercial industry may evolve from the Federal prototype
leasing program.
Provisions of the lease require self-monitoring by the industry as
specified by the Area Oil Shale Mining Supervisor of the U.S. Geological
Survey prior to, during, and subsequent to developmental activities (USDI
1973, vol. Ill, p. V-42). Baseline environmental quality data collection
systems were in operation for approximately two years.
The Water and Land Quality Branch, Monitoring Operations Division, of the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Environmental Monitoring and Support
Laboratory, Las Vegas, Nevada, has been conducting a program designed to test
and evaluate water quality monitoring techniques in the oil shale area of
Colorado and Utah as part of its nonpoint source pollution assessment and
monitoring procedures development program. The Las Vegas laboratory's
experimental monitoring program was operated and tested primarily on the reach
of the White River adjacent to the Utah tracts, with minimal testing in the
upstream reaches in Colorado. Since water quality data compiled by the
industry and the U.S. Geological Survey were available for comparative
purposes, an excellent opportunity was presented for testing and assessing
monitoring techniques and procedures.
An initial step in monitoring design is the identification of those
biological, chemical, and physical parameters most appropriate for measurement
as a mechanism for quantitating the impact of development of the industry on
surface water resources. The derivation of the list of recommended parameters
presented in this report is based on a review of current information regarding
potential pollutants from oil shale development and their possible impact on
water quality and the biota.
Each of the potential water-related problems is addressed in the context
of the probably cumulative regional impact of a maturing, commercial oil shale
industry and in terms of local impact resulting from the prototype operation
initially planned on leased public lands. The possible effects of potential
pollutants on ambient water quality and the resulting impact on aquatic life,
public water supplies, livestock, irrigation agriculture, and selected
industries are evaluated. Where sufficient data are available, attempts are
made to relate historical, current, and projected water quality data to water
quality criteria for the various water use categories.
The water quality criteria data were extracted primarily from an EPA-
funded document entitle "Water Quality Criteria - 1972" produced by the
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CO
\ -
Index Map
Figure 1. Location of oil shale deposits \
of the Green River Formation. \
Tracts U-a/U-b,-C-a/C-b and the \
major drainages are shown.
Source: Marshall (1974).
\
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4 ir'
r-4 f
I J .-
Jl ." \ ' / , " -' / -^ i - ;. - » ?.
i '!/^ v
Figure 2.
4'
Map showing the
drainages in the
oil shale area of
Utah and Colorado
Source: U. S. Geological
Survey (1958, 1954a)
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National Academy of Sciences (NAS 1973). The Agency has recently released a
preliminary draft of its own water quality criteria document which differs
somewhat from the NAS (1973) version. The NAS document, however, was the most
current published water quality criteria document available through the Agency
at the time this report was prepared.
The parameter list presented here is tentative and subject to revision as
circumstances dictate. Possibly, additional parameters will be added, some
existing parameters deleted or assigned different priorities as information
gained from field and laboratory testing warrants. The parameter list is not
all-inclusive and should not be interpreted as meeting Agency water quality
sampling or monitoring requirements for oil shale development, but it is
envisioned that such a parameter list may evolve from the program.
Absence of a particular parameter from the list should not be construed
to mean that the parameter in question is of no significance and can be
ignored. Insufficient information is currently available to assess the
pollution potential or level of hazard of a number of constituents (e.g.,
trace organics) which may be subject to release and mobilization as a result
of industrial and associated urban development. The report makes no attempt
to recommend sampling frequencies, techniques, detection levels, or locations
at this stage in the program. These monitoring aspects will be addressed in
later reports.
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2. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The establishment of a commercial oil shale industry on the western slope
of the Rocky Mountains poses a threat to the water resources of the Colorado
River Basin, both on a Regional and local scale. The nature and magnitude of
the impact to water resources as a consequence of oil shale development cannot
be predicted with certainty. A number of extractive and processing
technologies are currently approaching commercial developmental stages and
several small-scale facilities have been periodically operated on a prototype
scale for several years. However, none ha,s been applied ip, thi.s. country. ifl a
full-scale commercial venture.
The potential impact to water resources varies greatly with the different
mining and retorting methods utilized and with the size of the operations.
Water use requirements, with respect to both quality and quantity, are highly
variable depending upon the technology applied. Similarly, volumes of solid
wastes and wastewaters generated (including highly mineralized groundwater
from mine dewatering operations) and subsequent disposal requirements are also
primarily dependent upon the technologies utilized and volumes of raw
materials processed.
The Federal prototype leasing program was designed in part to provide for
the assessment of the environmental impact of small-scale commercial oil shale
industries utilizing a mix of technologies at various rates of operation. To
effectively assess the impact of such development on water resources and
beneficial water uses, thorough baseline characterization of water quality and
quantity during pre-developmental stages is a fundamental prerequisite. An
obvious additional requirement for the detection and quantification of
physical, chemical and biological changes and for relating such changes to
causative factors is the establishment and operation of an effective
monitoring system.
An initial step in the design of monitoring systems is the identification
of those parameters most appropriate for incorporation into a comprehensive
monitoring network. This is an extremely critical aspect of monitoring design
for new industries such as oil shale, since the impact on beneficial water
uses could be substantial.
This report presents a prioritized list of chemical, physical and
biological parameters recommended for monitoring surface waters potentially
impacted by oil shale developmental activities. Parameters recommended
include those substances which in themselves are potential pollutants and are
measurable directly, as well as those indicator parameters whose measurements
provide an indirect measure of environmental disturbance or pollution or are
required for the interpretation of other water quality data.
6
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Physical and chemical parameters recommended for monitoring are
categorized by priority "A", "B" or "C", and the specific form most
appropriate for monitoring is identified. Priority "A" physical and chemical
parameters are recommended for intensive monitoring because: (1) very slight
changes in their ambient levels would render water unacceptable for specified
designated beneficial water uses; (2) changes in ambient levels would be
indicative of potentially deleterious changes in water quality
characteristics; or (3) data are required for the interpretation of other
water quality data. Priority "B" physical and chemical parameters are
recommended for routine monitoring of a lower intensity than that for those
parameters in the priority "A" category because slight changes in ambient
levels can be tolerated without exceeding established limits for designated
beneficial water uses. The measurement of parameters in this category should
be in addition to those in the priority "A" category but at reduced frequencies,
Priority "C" physical and chemical parameters are recommended for periodic
monitoring in addition to those in the "A" and "B" categories to characterize
water quality with respect to ambient levels of particular constituents and
designated beneficial water uses.
An increase in salinity is one of the major potential impacts resulting
from developmental activities, through both salt loading and salt
concentrating effects. To assess the rate and impact of increased salinity
levels, total dissolved solids, conductivity, hardness and the principal
cations and anions (sodium, potassium, magnesium, sulfates and chloride) are
recognized as highly significant parameters (priority "A" parameters) and are
recommended for intensive monitoring. Calcium and carbonates are priority "B
salinity-related parameters recommended for routine monitoring.
Among the trace elements aluminum, boron, copper, fluoride, iron, lead,
magnesium, manganese, mercury, molybdenum, nickel and zinc are recommended as
priority "A" category parameters. The potential for release and mobilization
of these elements as a result of development is high, and very slight changes
in ambient levels could render water unacceptable for a number of beneficial
water uses. Such elements as arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium,
cobalt, lithium-, selenium, and silver are recommended as priority "B"
parameters. While these elements are potential pollutants, ambient levels are
relatively low, and slight increases in levels would not interfere with
beneficial water uses. Antimony, bismuth and bromine are examples of priority
"C" parameters which require periodic monitoring.
f»T) It
A number of miscellaneous toxic substances are identified as potential
pollutants, but only cyanide, phenols, and organochlorine pesticides are
recommended as priority "A" parameters. Organophosphorus pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls and phthalate esters are recommended as priority "B"
parameters, and the LAS detergent builders and certain miscellaneous
pesticides are in the priority "C" category.
Macronutrients which promote excessive growth of aquatic plants include
various forms of nitrogen and phosphorus. Since eutrophication is not
expected to be a major problem as a consequence of development of an oil shale
industry, most nutrient forms fall in the priority "B" or "C" categories.
However, because slight increases in nitrate nitrogen and ammonia could render
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water unacceptable for certain designated beneficial uses, these nitrogen
forms are recommended as priority "A" parameters.
None of the radionuclides are expected to increase to the level where
beneficial water uses will be impaired as a result of oil shale development.
All radionuclides are recommended as priority "B" or "C" parameters.
Since potential for release of oils is relatively high, intensive
monitoring of visible oils on the surface and emulsified oils is recommended
(priority "A"). Hexane extractable substances in streambed sediments are
recommended for periodic monitoring (priority "C" parameter).
Temperature is a critical measurement for two reasons: (1) increases may
occur as a result of developmental activities to the point where aquatic life
may be adversely affected, and (2) temperature affects the chemical and
biological activity of a number of parameters. Consequently, water
temperature is a priority "A" parameter recommended for intensive monitoring.
Suspended sediment levels can be expected to increase as a result of
developmental activities. Both suspended sediments (solids) and turbidity (an
indication of suspended sediment levels in the water column) are recommended
as priority "A" parameters.
Ambient dissolved oxygen (DO) levels may be altered by the introduction
of oxygen demanding substances to the point where aquatic life may be
adversely affected. In addition, water uses for industrial purposes and
irrigation of croplands may be impaired by waters with high chemical oxygen
demand (COD) levels. Both DO and COD are recommended as priority "A"
parameters.
Since Colorado River system waters are well-buffered, few changes are
expected in ambient pH levels as a result of developmental activities.
However, since the possibility of disturbance to the equilibrium of the
bicarbonate/carbon dioxide/carbonate system exists, for example as a result of
acid rain-out, all alkalinity-related parameters are recommended as priority
"B" parameters.
One of the most crucial parameters for interpreting water quality data is
volume of flow or discharge (priority "A"). Since many perturbations in water
quality are flow rated, flow measurements and discharge computations must be
an integral component of surface water quality monitoring design.
Biological parameters recommended for monitoring are categorized by
priority "A" or "B". Priority "A" biological parameters are recommended for
routine monitoring in any basic water quality monitoring program designed to
assess the environmental impact of oil shale and associated development on
aquatic ecosystems. Priority "B" biological parameters are not recommended
for monitoring unless a specific problem is encountered or suspected in a
particular environment.
Examples of priority "A" biological parameters include counts and
identification, biomass determinations and community composition and diversity
measurements of macrobenthic and periphyton communities.
8
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Counts and identification of phytoplankton, determination of growth rates
of fish, and species identification of macrophytes are examples of additional
measurements recommended if specific problems are encountered (priority "B"
parameters).
The prioritized list of parameters recommended for monitoring must be
viewed as tentative and subject to revision as additional information becomes
available. No attempt was made to address the many trace organic constituents
which have recently been identified as potential pollutants with carcinogenic,
mutagenic or teratogenic effects on the biota and man. Additional research is
needed to further identify these various organic compounds, their potential
for release to the environment and effects of exposure to receptors including
man.
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3. WATER REQUIREMENTS AND AVAILABILITY
USE REQUIREMENTS
Assuming extraction of shale oil proves to be economically advantageous
and environmentally acceptable on a prototype scale, the single factor which
will eventually limit the size of the industry will undoubtedly be water
availability. Although dewatering of mines and certain processing operations
produce water, the quantity required for the total operation of a mature
industry exceeds that produced.
Nearly all phases of the industry consume water (Table 1). The greatest
consumptive use requirements are for disposal of processed shale and oil
upgrading (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-37). Associated urban growth and
ancillary industrial development will also consume substantial quantities of
water. Projected water demand estimates for processing requirements and urban
development vary considerably depending on the rate of shale oil production
and the mining techniques utilized (Table 2). The most likely water use
requirements for a 1-million-barrel-per-day industry range between 121,000 and
189,000 acre-ft (1.49 x 108 to 2.33 x IQSrn3) per year. The projected
water needs for mining, crushing, retorting and upgrading are fairly well
defined, but the actual requirements for spent shale disposal and revegetatlon
have not been firmly established for large-scale operations and could deviate
substantially from current estimates.
Water quality requirements vary with intended uses. High quality water
which is low in total dissolved solids (TDS) is necessary for retorting,
upgrading, power generation, revegetation, sanitary use, and associated urban
development. Mining and crushing operations and disposal of spent shale can
be accomplished with low quality water such as that produced by oil upgrading
and retorting.
SUPPLY
Surface Water
Colorado's Piceance Creek Basin, the area of the richest oil shale
deposits, is drained to the north by Sheep, Piceance, Yellow, Spring, and
Douglas Creeks, all of which flow into the White River. Parachute and Roan
Creeks drain the southern part of the oil shale area into the Colorado River
(Figures 1 and 2). Streamflow in the Basin is highly variable with most
streams sustaining substantial flow only during periods of snowmelt or after
10
-------
TABLE 1. CONTINGENT WATER CONSUMPTION FORECASTS FOR A 1-MILLION-BARREL-PER-DAY SHALE OIL INDUSTRY
Requirements
Range of Water Consumption (acre-ft/yr)
Lower Range
Most Likely
Upper Range
Processing:
Mining and crushing
Retorting
Shale oil upgrading
Processed shale disposal
Power
Revegetation
Sanitary use
Subtotals
6,000
9,000
17,000-21,000
24,000
10,000
0
1.000
67,000-71,000
6,000- 8,000
9,000- 12,000
29,000- 44,000
47,000- 70,000
15,000- 23,000
0- 12,000
1,000- 1.000
107,000-170,000
8,000
12,000
44,000
84,000
37,000- 45,000
18,000
1,000
204,000-212,000
Associated Urban:
Domestic use
Domestic power
Subtotals
TOTALS
9,000-11,000
0
9.000-11.000
76,000-82,000
13,000- 17,000
1.000- 2,000
14.000- 19,000
121,000-189,000
17,000
2,000
19.000
223,000-231,000
Ancillary Development:
Nahcolite/daws oni te
GRAND TOTALS
76,000-82,000
121,000-189,000
32,000- 64.000
255,000-295,000
Sowrce: Modified from USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 111-44).
-------
TABLE 2. RANGES OF WATER USE FOR VARIOUS RATES AND METHODS OF SHALE OIL PRODUCTION (acre-ft/yr)
Shale Oil Production (barrels per day) /Method of Production
50,000/ 100, OOO/ 50,000/ 400,0007 1,000,0007
Underground Mine
Requirements
Processing:
Mining and crushing
Retorting
Shale oil upgrading
Processed shale disposal
Power
Revegetation
Sanitary use
Subtotals
i «
to
Associated Urban:
Domestic use
Domestic power
Subtotals
GRAND TOTALS
MEAN VALUES
370-
580-
1,460- 2,
2,900- 4,
730- 1,
0-
20-
6,060- 9,
670-
70-
740- 1,
6,800-10,
8,700
510
730
190
400
020
700
50
600
910
90
000
600
Surface Mine
730- 1,020
1,170- 1,460
2,920- 4,380
5,840- 8,750
1,460- 2,040
0- 700
30- 70
12,150-18,420
1,140- 1,530
110- 150
1,250- 1,680
13,400-20,100
16,800
In Situ
Mining
1,460-2,
730-1,
0-
20-
2,210-4,
720-
70-
790-
3,000-5,
Technology Mix Technology Mix
220
820
700
40
780
840
80
920
700
2
4
11
20
5
44
5
5
50
4,400
,600- 3,
,100- 5,
,700-17,
,400-30,
,800- 9,
0- 4,
200-
,800-71,
,400- 6,
500-
,900- 7,
,700-79,
65,000
600
100
500
900
200
900
300
500
900
600
500
000
6,
9,
29,
47,
15,
1,
107,
13,
1,
14,
121,
000-
000-
000-
000-
000-
0-
000-
8,000
12,000
44,000
70,000
23,000
12,000
1,000
000-170,000
000-
000-
000-
17,000
2,000
19,000
000-189,000
155,
000
Source: Modified from USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 111-34).
-------
heavy rains (Table 3). Piceance Creek, which has the largest drainage area of
any tributary in the Basin, has a mean annual discharge of only 17 cubic feet
per second (ft3/s) (0.48 m3/s) at the White River confluence.
The White River also exhibits wide seasonal and annual variability in
flow as indicated by discharge records at Ignatio Station near the U-a/U-b
tracts (Figures 3 and 4). As these data indicate, the streamflow of the river
is far too irregular to be used as a reliable water source for industrial use
in the natural flow state. Water could be available for purchase from
proposed public and private projects on the White and Yampa Rivers (USDI 1973,
vol. I, p. 11-133). Proposed dams (Yellow Jacket and Rio Blanco or Sweetbriar
projects) could yield as much as 165,000 acre-ft (2.04 x 10°m3) when, and
if, completed (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-133).
Water from the Colorado River and its tributaries is available through
the U.S. Bureau of Land Management at a cost of 10 to 40 dollars per acre-ft
(1,233.5 m3) (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-133). The purchaser would have to
assume the substantial costs of transporting the water from the main channel
or releasing reservoir to the point of use. Impoundments where water is
currently available are Ruedi and Green Mountain Reservoirs. In theory, the
Bureau of Land Management could make up to 200,000 acre-ft (2.47 x lO^m3)
of water available for use in the Piceance area from existing and proposed
projects including the purchase of existing senior water rights (USDI 1973,
vol. I, p. 11-133).
Possible sources of surface waters for an oil shale industry in Utah's
Uinta Basin include the Green, White, and Yampa Rivers (Figure 1). The Green
River with a mean flow of 4,307 ft3/s (121.9 m3/s) is the main flowing
body of water in the area, traversing the richest oil shale deposits in a
northeast to southwest direction. The White River, with a mean flow of 703
ft3/s (19.9 m3/s), flows into the Green from the east within the bounds of
the Uinta-Ouray Indian Reservation. The Yampa, also a westward flowing
stream, has its confluence with the Green within the boundaries of the
Dinosaur National Monument north of the major oil shale deposits.
Approximately 107,000 acre-ft (1.32 x lo) of water annually are
potentially available frpm the Green, White, and Yampa Rivers for development
of oil shale in the Uinta Basin (USDI 1973, vol". I, p. 11-26). Utilization of
water from the White and Yampa would require construction of dams and
reservoirs. A proposal to dam the White River in the vicinity of the U-a/U-b
tracts is currently being considered. The Green River is already impounded at
Flaming Gorge Reservoir.
Under existing agreements with Mexico, the States involved, and private
interests, the surface water potentially available for oil shale development
has been calculated at 341,000 acre-ft (4.21 x lO^m3). The distribution
of the water is as follows (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-27):
13
-------
TABLE 3. SUMMARY OF STREAMFLOW RECORDS OF STREAMS DRAINING THE COLORADO OIL SHALE AREA
Streamflow station Period of record
(mo/yr)
West Fork Parachute Creek near
Grand Valley
Parachute Creek near Grand Valley
Parachute Creek at Grand Valley
Roan Creek at Simmons Ranch
Roan Creek above Clear Creek
Roan Creek near DeBeque
Piceance Creek at Rio Blanco
Piceance Creek near Rio Blanco
Piceance Creek below Ryan Gulch
Piceance Creek at White River
Yellow Creek near White River
10/57-9/62
10/48-9/54
10/64-9/67
4/21-9/27
10/48-9/54
6/35-9/35
4/36-10/36
3/37-9/37
10/62-9/67
4/21-9/26
10/62-9/67
10/52-9/57
10/40-9/43
10/64-9/67
10/64-9/66
10/64-9/66
Drainage
area
OnO
48
144
200
79
151
321
9
153
485
629
258
Average
discharge
CftJ/s)
4.37
17.7
30.3
~
14.8
40.0
1.40
20.3
12.5
17.0
1.37
Extremes of discharge
(ftJ/s)
Maximum
147
738
912
142
800
1220
23
430
400
550
1060
Minimum daily
0
0
0
0
1.0
3.2
0.1
0.1
0.8
0.9
0
Source: Modified from Coffin, et al. (1971).
-------
WHITE RIVER NEAR WATSON (IGNATIO STATION)
-------
CO
o
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000 _
900 .
800 .
700 .
600 .
* 500
400
300
200
O
n
o
^)-
01
o
un
CTl
o
ir>
en
Year
o
r-~-
en
1800
1700
1600
1500
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
Figure 4. Variability of discharge of the White River at Ignatio Station near Watson,
Utah, years 1924-70.
Source: USGS (1954b, 1973).
-------
State acre-ft
Colorado 167,000 2.06 x 108
Utah 107,000 1.32 x 108
Wyoming 67,000 8.26 x 107
Totals 341,000 4.21 x 108
Subsurface Water
In general, ground water supplies in the oil shale areas of Utah are
meager. The best possibilities for significant quantities of ground water lie
in the Piceance Creek Basin.
The Uinta Basin in Utah is a good example of an oil shale area in which
the ground water in storage is thought to be of little or no use to large-
scale industrial development (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-230). The Green River
Formation is the principal aquifer and yields as much as 29.5 ft3
(0.834 m3) per minute to wells; however; yields that large cannot be
expected throughout the Formation (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-56).
The Uinta Formation overlying the Green River Formation yields as much as
30 ft3 (0.85 m3) per minute from springs (USDI 1973, vol, I, p. 11-56).
Although the potential yield from wells could be as large, the overall volume
of water in storage would be considerably less than that in the Piceance Creek
Basin (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 11-230).
More detailed information concerning ground water availability and
quality in the Uinta Basin can be found in the U-a/U-b final environmental
baseline report for the White River shale project, Voorheis-Trindle-Nelson of
Colorado 1977 (environmental ta&eltne data collection contractor).
USDI (1973, vol. I, pp. 11-48 through 11-55) identified three sources of
ground water in the Piceance Creek Basin: (1) alluvium, (2) upper aquifer,
and (3) lower aquifer or "lower leached-zone" (Figure 5). The water in the
overlying alluvium, due to the limited volume, is of little significance for
industrial purposes.
The upper aquifer comprises the lower portion of the Uinta Formation
[formerly known as the Evacuation Creek Member of the Green River Formation,
nomenclature revised by Cashion and Donnell (1974)] and the part of the
Parachute Creek Member which lies above the Mahogany zone. The upper aquifer
is a relatively good aquifer where water has a TDS content generally less than
1,000 mg/liter.
The upper aquifer and the lower aquifer are separated by the Mahogany
zone. The Mahogany zone is less permeable than either aquifer and generally
acts as a barrier between them. However, water is occasionally transmitted
through the Mahogany zone by fractures which permit communication.
17
-------
East
00
Ajluyi
Uinta Formation
2
Lower aquifer Parachute Creek Member/
4000'-
3000*
rBOOO'
. 2500
^7000'
-2000
-6000'
-5000'
-1500
-4000'
-1000
VERTICAL EXAGGERATION X20
20 Z 4
-J-3000'
6 MILES
Meters
DATA ARE MEAN SEA LEVEL
EXPLANATION
Sand
«1
$$$$i
;^^
and gravel and,
congbmeratt
So
11
ndttom and, Marlstoiwt contain
>r, litttton* and little or no k
High ritittivity ZOM
structurally lowest part of basin
Figure 5. Diagrammatic section across the Plceance Creek Basin, Colorado.
Source: Modified from Coffin, et al. (1968).
-------
The lower aquifer, the area below the Mahogany zone, consists of the
remaining portion of the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation
and is the most extensive and permeable aquifer in the Basin. The TDS
concentrations increase with depth from the edges toward the center of the
Basin with concentrations ranging from 2,000 to 63,000 mg/liter (Coffin, et
al. 1968).
Extensive work attempting to define the ground water quality and quantity
in the Piceance Creek Basin has been done by the lessees of the C-a and C-b
Federally leased tracts. This information can be found in:
1) The final environmental baseline report for tract C-a and vicinity.
May, 1977, prepared by Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project, 2 volumes.
2) Oil shale tract C-b final environmental baseline program final
report, November 1974 - October 1976, prepared by C-b Shale Oil
Venture, 5 volumes.
By-Product Water
Mining of oil shale from the Mahogany zone of the Piceance Creek Basin
must be preceded or accompanied by the dewatering of the enclosing aquifers.
It is not known what the initial pumping rates will be. Based on hydrological
data, the present best estimate is a maximum of 30 ftVs (0.849 m^/s) for
surface development and 40 ft^/s (1.13 m^/s) for underground development
or an overall requirement of 22,000 to 29,000 acre-ft (2.71 x 107 to 3.5 x
107m3) per year (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-53). The estimated amount of
water required and the quality and quantity of water produced by underground
and surface mines over a 30-year period were summarized in USDI (1973)
(Table 4). Of the overall waters to be removed from the subsurface, 30 per-
cent are estimated to be fresh and 70 percent saline to briny (USDI 1973,
vol. I, p. 111-57).
The oil shale retorting process itself is a producer of water, yielding
from 7 to 28 liters per metric ton (2 to 10 gallons per ton) of shale pro-
cessed. The amount of water produced in this manner by a 1-million-barrel-per-
day industry based on an average yield of 25 gallons of oil per ton of shale
would range from 10.3 to 51.5 acre-ft (12.7 x 10 to 63.5 x 10 m ).
When this amount is compared to the overall needs of a mature industry, the
water produced is insignificant.
19
-------
TABLE 4. WATER REQUIRED AND PRODUCED BY TWO SINGLE MINES FOR A PROJECTED 30-YEAR PERIOD OF SHALE
OIL PRODUCTION
Shale. Oil Production (barrels per day)/Type of Mine
Requirements
50,000/Underground Mine
100,000/Surface Mine
to
o
Water Water
Require- Water Excess Diverted Require- Water , Excess Diverted
ments Produced Water Water
ments
Produced Water
Water
Processing:
High quality water
Low quality water
Subtotals
Associated Urban:
High quality water
TOTALS
75-127
88-133
163-260
20- 27
183-287
175
373
548
548
60-100
240-285
300-385
300-385
0-12
0-12
20-27
20-39
151-234
178-266
329-500
34- 45
363-545
175
373
548
*
548
25-46
107-195
132-241
132-241
22- 58
22- 58
34- 45
56-103
In thousands of acre-ft.
This would represent the maximum diverted surface water requirements should no water be available from
processing or from the mines.
Assumes a maximum pumping rate of 40 ft /s: declining to 18 ft /s in the 30fc year.
j Assumes a maximum pumping rate of 30 ft /s declining to 18 ft3/s in the 30th year.
Source: Modified from USDI (1973, vol. I p. 111-60).
-------
4. POTENTIAL IMPACT OF THE OIL SHALE INDUSTRY
SALINITY
Sources
Increasing salinity is the major water quality problem throughout much of
the Colorado River Basin. Salinity levels have been steadily increasing
throughout the lower Basin as a result of two basic processes: salt loading
(i.e., Increasing the total mineral burden by adding salts to the river) and
salt concentrating (i.e., the selective removal of high quality water thereby
concentrating the total salt burden in a smaller volume). Salt loading
results from both natural conditions and man-induced causes; salt
concentrating results when water is lost through consumptive uses,
transpiration, or evaporation.
Although adequate information is lacking to accurately identify all
contributing sources of salinity to the Colorado River, studies conducted over
the past 20 years have identified the major sources of increasing salinity
from the headwaters to the Gulf of California (USEPA 1971). The relative
effects of salt loading and salt concentrating factors on the salinity of the
river at Hoover Dam for the period 1942-61 were estimated by USEPA (1971)
(Table 5). Nearly two-thirds of the average annual salt load and one-half of
the concentration at Hoover Dam during this period were attributed to natural
causes (USEPA 1971). Of the portion attributable to natural sources, about
82 percent was from diffuse (nonpoint) sources and about 18 percent from point
sources (USEPA 1971). Irrigation agriculture, which increases salinity both
through salt loading and salt concentrating, was estimated to contribute 33
percent of the total annual salt load and 37 percent of the salinity
concentration at Hoover Dam during this period (Table 5).
Although industrial and municipal discharges accounted for only about one
percent of the salt load and salinity concentration at Hoover Dam during this
period (Table 5), a mature oil shale industry and related industrial and urban
development could, over the long term, increase the salinity at Hoover Dam
through both salt concentrating and salt loading processes. Salt
concentrating effects would occur as relatively high quality surface waters
are withdrawn for consumptive uses and as a result of evaporation from storage
reservoirs. Assuming substantial amounts of ground water and process water
are available for use as discussed previously (USDI 1973, vol I, p. 111-75),
it is not anticipated that salt concentrating effects will add to the salinity
detriment of the Colorado River until many years after development is
instituted. Salt loading could occur as a result of landscape disturbances
resulting from construction activities and from the actual mining operation.
21
-------
TABLE 5. CAUSES OF SALINITY CHANGES AT HOOVER DAM (1942-61 PERIOD OF RECORD ADJUSTED TO 1960 CONDITIONS)
Factor
Natural diffuse sources
Natural point sources
Irrigated agriculture
Salt loading
Salt concentrating
Municipal and industrial
Exports out of the Basin
Evaporation and phreatophytes
Storage release from Hoover
Totals
Salt Loada
(millions
of tons)
5.41
1.28
3.54
0.54)
CO )
(0.15)
-0.04
0.00
0.39
10.73
Percent of
Salt Load
50.4
11.9
33.0
C33.0)
( 0 )
1.4
-0.4
0.0
3.7
100.0
Salinity
Concentration
Ascribable to
Each Source
(mg/liter)
275
59
253
(178)
( 75)
10
20
80
0
697
Percent
Salinity
Concentration
Ascribable to
Each Source
39
8
37
(26)
(11)
1
3
12
0
100
Computed annual values for balancing based upon the net drawdown over the 1942-61 period.
Source: Modified from USEPA C1971).
-------
Additional loading could result from leaching of spent shale disposal piles or
by-products storage piles; release of saline mine waters; ground water
disturbances caused by reinjection of excess waters; and municipal and
industrial waste discharges.
Construction of roadways and utility corridors, removal of overburden,
and the actual mining operations would enhance weathering and erosion of
exposed materials thereby increasing the potential for mineral release to
surface waters directly and via subsurface waters.
Leachates from spent shale are a potential source of salt loading to
surface water owing to the proposed disposal methods and the physical and
chemical characteristics of spent shale (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-77).
Disposal of spent shale will be accomplished by creating disposal sites and
possibly by backfilling mined-out areas. Even if backfilling is practiced,
some above ground shale disposal will be necessary since the volume of
compacted spent shale is greater than its inplace volume due to void spaces in
the mass of crushed and retorted materials (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 1-22). The
mineral composition of spent shale varies somewhat depending on the retorting
process used due to differences in peak temperatures reached in the various
retorts. The Union Oil Company (UOC) retort reaches a peak temperature of
approximately 540° C causing almost complete decomposition of carbonates and
other temperature-sensitive materials (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 1-24). The Oil
Shale Company (TOSCO) retort, which operates at a temperature of 482° C,
causes very little mineral decomposition (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 1-24).
Regardless of the process used, spent shale materials are represented
primarily as oxides of the various minerals present in raw shales (Tables 6
and 7), many of which are highly water soluble (USDI 1973, vol. I, pp.
1-24,25). Ward et al. (1971) investigated the water pollution potential of
spent shale residues from various retorts. Analyses of water after intimate
contact with spent shale from the TOSCO and UOC retorts revealed high
concentrations of sodium, calcium, and magnesium in the form of sulfates.
Leaching tests demonstrated that soluble salts are readily leached from spent
shale columns, consequently a definite potential exists for high
concentrations of the major ions (Na+, Ca2+} Mg2+} and S0?~) in the
runoff from spent oil shale residues (Ward, et al. 1971).
The mechanical instability of processed shale and the susceptibility of
shale piles to leaching of salts pose serious potential hazards to the water
quality of streams in the area. Although there has been no actual experience
with disposal of spent shale on a large scale, some potential problems can be
anticipated. The possibility of disposal-pile failure, i.e., the "falling in"
of the face of the pile with a subsequent increase in erosion and salt loading
to local streams and the expected impact on water quality, has been assessed
in a hypothetical situation (USDI 1973, vol. I, pp. 111-81-89). In this
example, it was estimated that leaching of a 283.3-hectare spent shale pile
during an intensive 6-hour rainstorm of 1.27 centimeters per hour would
increase the total salt load of the receiving stream (Piceance Creek) by 2,177
to 4,989 metric tons.
Weathering and leaching of spent shale piles will occur over long periods
of time, but the rate of release of minerals to surface waters cannot be
23
-------
TABLE 6. MINERAL COMPOSITION OF SPENT SHALE
ASH
TABLE 7. TYPICAL COMPOSITION OF RAW OIL SHALE
SECTIONS AVERAGING 25 GALLONS OF OIL
PER, TON FROM THE MAHOGANY ZONE OF
COLORADO AND UTAH
ro
Component
Composition ex-
pressed as oxide
weight (percent of
ash)
Silica dioxide (Si02)
Iron oxide (Fe«0_)
Aluminum oxide
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Sulfur trioxide (SO )
Sodium oxide (Na_0)
Potassium oxide (KJO)
Total
42.3
4.5
13.0
23.1
9.9
1.8
3.1
2.3
100.0
Source: Modified from Matzick, et al.
(1966), as compiled by USDI Q-973, vol.
I, p. 1-25).
ORGANIC MATTER
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)
Sulfur (S)
Oxygen (.0)
Total
MINERAL MATTER
Carbonates, principally dolomite
Feldspars
Quartz
Clays, principally illite
Analcite
Pyrite
Total
TOTAL
Percent by weight
13.8
86.2
100.0
80.
10.
2.4
.0
.8
100.0
48.0
21.0
13.0
13.0
4.0
1.0
100.0
Source: Modified from U.S. Bureau of Mines (1970),
compiled by USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 1-10).
-------
predicted (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-89). Even though attempts will be made
to stabilize the piles with natural soil and vegetative cover, erosion and
leaching of dissolved solids will undoubtedly occur, particularly during the
periods of active disposal and shale pile buildup.
Raw wastewater produced by retorting oil shale contains a variety of
constituents, thus presenting a wastewater disposal or treatment problem. If
the untreated water is used to moisten shale piles as has been proposed, the
mineral components may be physically or chemically trapped within the shale
pile temporarily, but the potential for leachates eventually moving through
the pile would seemingly be increased. A possible alternative is to treat the
wastewater for subsequent use within the plant, thus partially offsetting the
requirements for water from outside sources.
In the Piceance Basin, disposal of excess mine waters poses a potential
problem which may be intensified as the oil shale industry matures. During
the early stages of operation, excess water is expected to be of high quality
and may be released directly to local streams, but through time the excess
water will increase in salinity, and discharge to local streams may not be
permitted (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-61). It may be necessary during initial
development to store excess or poor quality ground water in impoundments and
during later stages of development to reinject the excess water in aquifers
(USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-62). Both methods of disposal could potentially
result in release of saline waters into streams; the first through failure of
a dike impounding saline waters; and the second through upward movement of
poor quality ground water and eventual discharge to surface waterways (USDI
1973, vol. I, pp. 111-77-94).
Ranges of dissolved constituents in ground waters in the lower Uinta
Formation and Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation differ
considerably (Figure 6, Table 8). In general, water quality decreases with
depth, with the poorest quality water occurring in the deeper portions of the
Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation.
Municipal and industrial developments could cause additional salinity
problems. As the population of the area expands, increased amounts of salts
may enter surface waters via municipal and industrial discharges thereby
increasing the total mineral burden in localized areas. Since the nature and
extent of urban and associated industrial growth cannot be predicted with
certainty, the extent to which such growth will compound the salinity problem
is unknown.
Ambient Levels
As a means of characterizing ambient water quality in those surface
waters potentially subject .to impact as a result of oil shale development,
historical data for salinity related parameters were compiled, summarized, and
tabulated for selected U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) water quality monitoring
stations on the White, Green and Colorado Rivers (Figure 7). Ranges and mean
values for specific ions, total dissolved residues and specific conductance
summarized for water years 1964-65 and 1968-69 (USGS 1970, 1974) characterize
25
-------
S i 1 i ca
Calci urn I
Sodium and Potassium
I Bicarbonate and Carbonate
Sulfate
Chloride
Dissolved Sol ids
0.1
1.0
10 100 1000
Concentration in mg/liter
10,000
100,000
The Lower Uinta Formation
The Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation
Figure 6. Range of water quality in the lower Uinta Formation (formerly
the Evacuation Creek Member of the Green River Formation) and
in the Parachute Creek Member of the Green River Formation.
Source: USDI (1973).
26
-------
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN
Alluvium, 0-140 feet thick; Holocene and Pleistocene in age:
Physical Character
Water Quality
Sand, gravel and clay partly fill major valleys
as much as 140 feet; generally less than one-half-
mile wide. Beds of clay may be as thick as 70 feet;
generally thickest near the center of valleys. Sand
and gravel contain stringers of clay near mouths of
small tributaries to major streams.
Near the headwaters of the major streams, dissolved-
solids concentrations range from 250 to 700 mg/liter.
Dominant ions in the water are generally calcium,
magnesium, and bicarbonate. In most of the area,
dissolved solids range from 700 to as much as
25,000 mg/liter. Above 3,000 mg/liter the dominant
ions are sodium and bicarbonate.
Hydrologic
Character
Water is under artesian pressure where sand and
gravel are overlain by beds of clay. Reported
yields as much as 1,500 gpm . Well yields will
decrease with time because valleys are narrow
and the valley walls act as relatively impermeable
boundaries., Transmissivity ranges from 20,000 to
150,000 gpd per ft. The storage coefficient
averages 0.20.
Uijita Formation, 0-1,250 feet thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character
Water Quality
Intertonguing and gradational beds of sandstone,
siltstone and marlstone: contains pyroclastic
rocks and few conglomerate lenses. Forms surface
rock over most of the area; thins appreciably
westward.
Water ranges from 250 to 1,800 mg/liter dissolved-
solids.
a
Gallons per minute.
Gallons per day.
(Continued)
27
-------
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Unita Formation, 0-1,250 feet thick; Eocene in age: (Continued)
Hydrologic
Character
Beds of sandstone are predominantly fine grained
and have low permeability. Water moves primarily
through fractures. The part of the Formation
higher than valley floors is mostly drained.
Reported to yield as much as 100 gpm where tested
in the north-central part of the basin. Formation
has not been thoroughly tested, and larger yields
may be possible.
Green River Formation:
Parachute Creek Member, 500-1,800 feet thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character
Water Quality
Hydrologic
Character
Kerogenaceous dolomitic marIstone (oil shale) and
shale; contains thin pyroclastic beds, fractured to
depths of at least 1,800 feet. Abundant saline
minerals in deeper part of the basin. The member
can be divided into three zones which can be corre-
lated throughout the basin by use of geophysical
logs: CD high resistivity, (2) low resistivity
or leached, and (3) Mahogany (oldest to youngest).
Water ranges in dissolved-solids content from
250 to about 63,000 mg/liter. Below 500 mg/liter,
calcium is the dominant cation: Above 500 mg/liter,
sodium is generally dominant. Bicarbonate is
generally the dominant anion regardless of concen-
tration. Flouride ranges from 0.0 to 54 mg/liter.
High resistivity zone and Mahogany zone are relatively
impermeable. The leached zone (middle unit) contains
water in solution openings and is under sufficient
artesian pressure to cause flowing wells. Trans-
missivity ranges from less than 3,000 gpd per ft.
in the margins of the basin to 20,000 gpd per ft.
in the center of the basin. Estimated yields as
much as 1,000 gpm. Total water in storage in leached
zone 2.5 million acre-ft, or more.
(Continued)
28
-------
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Green River Formation: (Continued)
Garden Gulch Member, 0-900 feet thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Papery and flaky marlstone and shale; contains some
beds of oil shale and, locally, thin beds of sand-
stone.
Water Quality One water analysis indicates dissolved-solids
concentration of 12,000 mg/liter.
Hydrologic
Character Relatively impermeable and probably contains few
fractures. Prevents downward movement of water.
In the Parachute and Roan Creeks drainages, springs
are found along contact with overlying rocks. Not
known to yield water to wells.
Douglas Creek Member, 0-800 feet thick: Eocene in age:
Physical Character Sandstone, shale and limestone; contains oolites and
ostracods.
Water Quality The few analytical results indicate that dissolved-
solids content ranges from 3,000 to 12,000 mg/liter.
Dominant ions are sodium and bicarbonate, or sodium
and chloride.
Hydrologic
Character Relatively low permeability and probably little
fractured. Maximum yield is unknown, but probably
less than 50 gpm.
Anvil Points Member, 0-1,870 feet thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Shale, sandstone, and marlstone grade within a
short distance westward into the Douglas Creek,
Garden Gulch, and lower part of the Parachute
Creek Member. Beds of sandstone are fine grained.
Water Quality The principal ions in the water are generally
magnesium and sulfate. The dissolved-solids
content ranges from about 1,200 to 1,800 mg/liter.
(Continued)
29
-------
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Green River Formation: (Continued)
Hydrologic
Character Sandstone beds have low permeability. A few wells
tapping sandstone beds yield less than 10 gpm.
Springs issuing from fractures yield as much as
100 gpm.
Wasatch Formation, 300-5,000 feet thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Clay, shale, lenticular sandstone; locally beds of
conglomerate and limestone. Beds of clay and shale
are the main constituents of the Formation.
Contains gypsum.
Water Quality Gypsum contributes sulfate to both surface water
and ground water supplies.
Hydrologic
Character Beds of clay and shale are relatively impermeable.
Beds of sandstone are slightly permeable. The
Formation is not known to yield water to wells.
Source: Modified from Coffin et al. (1971).
those waters as to the TDS levels and identify the primary constituents
contributing to the salt load at various sites (Tables 9 and 10).
Although TDS and specific conductance levels fluctuated widely at each
site, a general trend of increasing mineral levels in a downstream progression
is clearly evident. Inspection of the data for trends relative to individual
constituents identifies calcium as the major cation in the upper basin with
sodium the most abundant cation in the more saline downstream reaches. A
similar pattern emerges relative to bicarbonates and sulfates. Mean
bicarbonate concentrations remained relatively stable throughout the basin,
but decreased downstream in relative contributions to total dissolved solids
concentrations. Sulfates on the other hand increased both in mean absolute
and relative abundance in a downstream progression, replacing bicarbonates as
the dominant anion in the lower Colorado River. Chloride concentrations
increased downstream also, as might be expected. Silica concentrations
remained relatively constant throughout the basin. Carbonates in carbonate
(CQ2-) form were not present in significant quantities in the surface
waters. Carbonates in these waters are present primarily as bicarbonates
30
-------
u>
\
\
NEVADA
WYOMING
RIVER |
GLENWOOD
SPRINGS
0 R A 0 0
\
\
Figure 7.
Map of the principal drainages
of the Colorado River Basin and
locations of U.S. Geological
Survey sampling stations used to
determine ambient water quality.
VEGAS
BELOW
HOOVER
MEXICO
J
-------
TABLE 9. RANGES AND MEAN VALUES OF MAJOR SPECIFIC IONS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY IN THE COLORADO
RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATERS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING 1964-65 (All values are based on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed in mg/liter except specific conductance which Is expressed in pmhos/cm at 25° C.)
U>
NJ
Calcium
Location (Ca)
Colorado River
near Glenwood
Springs, Colo.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N2
Colorado River
near Cisco, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Green River near
La Barge, Wyo.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
White River near
Watson, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Green River at
Green River, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
61
36
52
3
152
46
72
31
62
25
36
25
75 .
65
70
5
123
43
62
32
Magnesium
(Mg)
14
6.3
10.4
3
68
7.1
23
31
21
8.1
12
25
80
15
35
5
46
13
24
32
Potassium Sodium Bicarbonates
(K) (Na) (HC03)
2.7
1.0
1.9
3
5.8
1.8
4.7
4
3.8
0.8
1.4
25
5.7
1.7
2.8
5
3.2
2.2
2.7
4
148
1.8
38
24
255
21
65
31
24
6.1
10
25
168
22
63
34
127
24
60
32
240
103
119
24
228
112
151
31
225
113
147
25
292
148
202
34
248
137
190
32
Carbonates
(co3)
0
0
. . .
24
0
0
* *
31
0
0
*
25
4
0
0.12
24
10
0
0.65
32
Chlorides
(CD
200
1.9
50
24
335
17
65
31
6.5
1.5
2.6
25
194
14
48
34
53
11
24
32
Sulfates
(S04)
154
9.5
70
24
572
79
191
31
84
15
34
25
404
63
143
34
441
73
184
32
Silica Specific
(Si02) TDS Conductance
10
8.3
9.1
3
12
9.9
11.2
4
11
5.8
8
25
15
8.6
13.1
5
12
5.6
8.9
4
666
180
292
-24
1,420
256
530
31
315
125
191
25
1,050
250
457
34
934
267
472
32
1,100
296
483
24
1,900
404
791
31
498
211
303
25
1,520
403
707
34
1,280
424
705
32
N Number of observations.
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 9. RANGES AND MEAN VALUES OF MAJOR SPECIFIC IONS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY IN THE COLORADO
RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATERS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING 1964-65 (All values are baaed on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed in mg/liter except specific conductance which Is expressed in ymhos/cm at 25° C.) (Continued)
u>
Calcium Magnesium
Location (Ca) (Mg)
Colorado River at
Lees Ferry, Ariz.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Colorado River near
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
103
46
81
18
111
51
84
19
30
12
24
18
30
12
24
19
Potassium
(K)
5.5
2.4
4.1
4
5.1
3.0
3.8
4
Sodium Bicarbonates
(Na) (HC03)
103
33
79
18
120
50
92
19
180
120
161
18
216
140
176
19
Carbonates
(co3)
0
0
« .
18
0
0
0
19
Chlorides
(Cl)
76
18
57
18
110
42
72
19
Sulfates
(so4)
329
108
255
18
326
117
252
19
Silica
(S102)
12
10
11
4
13
11
12
4
Specific
TDS Conductance
754
296
609
18
853
360
655
19
1,120
99*
735
18
1,240
586
989
19
Colorado River below
Hoover Dam, Ariz.
and Nev.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
107
96
101.1
12
31
27
28.6
12
5.6
4.9
5.3
12
119
105
114.3
12
166
148
155.8
12
0
0
0
12
112
95
106.8
12
354
303
332.8
12
11
9
9.8
12
845
740
808.1
12
1,240
1,130
1,202.5
12
Colorado River below
Parker Dam, Ariz.
and Calif.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
102
87
93.5
14
32
28
30.3
14
. . .
. . .
0
130
104
113.7
14
156
144
151.1
14
4
0
0.3
14
115
97
104.9
14
354
298
324
14
32
10
15.5
14
818
705
758.9
14
1,250
1,120
1,180
14
Questionable value.
Source: USGS (1970).
-------
u>
TABLE 10. RANGES AND MEAN VALUES OF MAJOR SPECIFIC IONS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY IN THE COLORADO
RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATERS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING 1968-69 (All values are based on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed in mg/liter except specific conductance which is expressed in umhos/cm at 25 C.)
Calcium
Location (Ca)
Colorado River
near Glenwood
Springs., Colo.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N*
Colorado River
near Cisco, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Green River near
La Barge, Wyo.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
White River near
Watson, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
59
33
46
17
160
51
79
47
51
23
35
21
71
54
64
6
Magnesium
(Mg)
20
5.8
11
17
64
14
29
47
14
4.3
8.6
21
37
18
27
6
Potassium
(K)
...
...
. . .
0
222a
CJ
79a
6
6.5
1.2
1.7
21
4.0
1.3
2.8
6
Sodium Bicarbonates
(Na) (HC03)
70
13
36
17
(a)
(a)
(a)
30
4.4
9
21
80
36
58
6
143
99
120
17
219
130
166
47
177
75
125
21
298
137
203
56
Carbonates
(co3)
...
. . .
0
0
0
0
47
6
0
1
21
25
0
1
56
Chlorides
(CD
101
18
51
7
350
26
73
47
8.8
1.4
4.0
21
154
14
30
56
Sulfates
(so4)
102
31
68
7
579
94
240
47
72
5.9
33
21
450
56
128
56
Silica Specific
(S10.) TDS Conductance
12
7.3
9.3
7
18
6.2
10
47
12
4.9
6.8
21
15
8.3
12.4
56
433
182
297
7
1,250
320
631
47
j,
270?
9lb
161°
21
1,020
242
408
56
721
279
479
7
1,860
498
924
47
467
171
282
21
1,420
378
628
56
Potassium value includes sodium value.
Sum of constituents.
N = Number of observations.
f
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 10. RANGES AND MEAN VALUES OF MAJOR SPECIFIC IONS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY IN THE COLORADO
RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATERS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING 1968-69 (All values are based on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed in mg/liter except specific conductance which is expressed in umhos/cm at 25° C.) (Continued)
Calcium Magnesium
Location (Ca) (Mg)
Green River at
Green River, Utah
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Colorado River
at Lees Ferry,
Ariz.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
U)
tn
Colorado River
near Grand Canyon,
Arizona.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Colorado River
below Hoover Dam,
Ariz, and Nev.
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
145
42
63
49
100
66
81
17
97
70
85
12
94
89
92
12
43
16
28
49
42
21
29
17
36
19
29
12
36
27
30
12
Potassium
(K)
112a
31
63°
49
106a
69a
85a
12
CL
87a
106a
10
118J
110a
115a
9
Sodium Bicarbonates
(Na) (HC03)
Ca)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
238
146
193
49
186
144
169
17
196
156
188
12
174
159
165
12
Carbonates
(co3)
0
0
0
49
5
0
1
17
0
0
0
12
0
0
0
12
Chlorides
(Cl)
42
12
23
49
72
43
57
17
108
67
84
12
104
92
96
12
Sulfates
(so4)
505
92
209
49
338
206
274
17
332
210
277
12
327
301
318
12
Silica
(Si02)
11
4.6
7.8
49
12
9.8
11
14
13
10
11.25
12
9.7
8.6
9.2
12
Specific
TDS Conductance
t
994*
28°£
520*
49
t
Q
4?93*
711°
16
b
569,
685
12
751*
722*
741*
12
1,270
450
746
49
1,120
783
954
17
1,180
902
1,050
12
1,150
1,110
1,140
12
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 10. RANGES AND MEAN VALUES OF MAJOR SPECIFIC IONS, TOTAL DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES, AND SPECIFIC CONDUCTIVITY IN THE COLORADO
RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATERS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING 1968-69 (All values are based on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed in mg/liter except specific conductance which is expressed In pmhos/cm at 25 C.) (Continued)
Location
Calcium
(Ca)
Magnesium
(Mg)
Potassium
(K)
Sodium Bicarbonates
(Na) (HC03)
Carbonates Chlorides
(C03) (Cl)
Sulfates
(S04)
Silica
(S102)
Specific
TDS Conductance
Colorado River
below Par kef Dam,
Ariz, and Calif
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
96
85
90
12
32
27
29
12
130a
llla
118a
8
(a)
(a)
163
152
159
12
102
89
98.6
0 12
348
293
317
12
10
8.2
9.2
10
/O
695?
742*
11
1,200
1,070
1,151
12
Source: USGS (1974).
U>
-------
Selected water quality data compiled by Voorheis-Trindel-Nelson (VTN) at
four sites on the reach of the White River immediately adjacent to Federally
leased tracts U-a/U-b were summarized to depict ambient water quality (Figure
8, Table 11). These data represent ranges and mean values reported during the
period from late August 1974 to early May 1975. Inspection of these data
reveals considerable variability between stations for some parameters even
though the entire stream reach under investigation is only about 18 miles
long. For example, maximum chloride values at site S-ll immediately
downstream from the tract were nearly double the maximum values reported
during this time period at any of the other sites. Maximum sodium values were
50 percent greater at the same station than maximum values reported at any of
the other sites. As would be expected, correspondingly higher values were
also reported for TDS and conductivity at this site.
Water quality data for Piceance Creek, which were compiled at three sites
during the period from December 1970 to September 1973, indicate Piceance
Creek waters are much more highly mineralized than White River waters (Tables
12 and 13).
Impact
As water becomes highly mineralized, its utility for industrial and
agricultural purposes, public water supply, and as a medium for freshwater
organisms is impaired. Present salinity concentrations in the lower Colorado
River have reached the level where some impairment for industrial,
agricultural, and municipal uses is occurring (USEPA 1971). As levels
increase over 500 mg/liter, treatment costs soar for industrial and municipal
water users, and irrigated agricultural crops characteristically undergo
reductions in yield (NAS 1973). Highly mineralized water causes scaling and
corroding of water pipes, boilers, and heaters, adding to increased
maintenance and treatment costs for industrial and household users. As salt
concentrations in irrigation waters increase, soils become more saline,
thereby restricting the variety of crops which can be grown successfully (NAS
1973).
The effects of highly mineralized or saline water on aquatic life vary
tremendously with the concentrations of specific ionic constituents. Although
salinity in freshwater is defined as the total concentration of the ionic
components (Reid 1961, Hutchinson 1957), the most conspicuous anionic
substances which contribute to salinity in the Colorado River system are
bicarbonates, sulfates, and chlorides. These substances combine with the
metallic cations calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium to form ionizable
salts. Silica may b.e present in several forms including complex ions, as
colloidal silica or as sestonic mineral particles:, but most silicates- ±n
inland waters are probably present as undisassociated silicic acid (Hutchinson
1957). The absolute and relative abundances of these materials are important
factors regulating productivity of waters and influencing the structure of
communities.
Water hardness, a term closely related to salinity, is governed chiefly
by the presence of calcium and magnesium cations in waters. In general, the
37
-------
EPA-2U
OJ
00
WHITE RIVER
EVACUATION
rCREEK
KEY
A VTN/USGS WATER QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS
o VTN BIOLOGICAL SAMPLING SITES
a EPA WATER QUALITY SAMPLING SITES
EPA BIOLOGICAL SAMPLING SITES SCALE
0123
KILOMETERS
Figure 8. Surface water quality stations and biological sampling sites near Federal
tracts U-a and U-b.
-------
TABLE 11. SELECTED WATER QUALITY DATA NEAR TRACTS U-a/U-b, WHITE RIVER (All values are based on analyses of filtered samples
and are expressed In mg/liter except for specific conductance which is expressed in pmhos/cm at 25 C.)
Location and Calcium Magnesium
Period of Record (Ca) (Mg)
Potassium
(K)
Sodium
(Na)
Bicarbonates
(HC03)
Carbonates
(co3)
Chlorides
(Cl)
Sulfates
(so4>
Silica Specific
(Si02) TDS Conductance
Hell's Hole Canyon (S-l)
August 1974-
May 6, 1975
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
H*
Ignatio (S-3)
August 1974-
May 5, 1975
Maximum
Minimum
W Mean
vo
Southam Canyon (S-4)
August 1974-
May 6, 1975
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Asphalt Wash (S-ll)
August 1974-
April 23, 1975
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
83
61
70
17
120
60
72
20
82
62
71
17
83
61
72
16
32
23
27
17
39
24
29
20
36
23
28
17
36
24
29
16
4.0
0.9
2.4
17
2.8
1.0
2.3
20
5.0
1.1
2.4
17
6.1
1.1
2.4
16
110
57
74
17
120
60
78
20
130
60
77
17
180
54
80
16
266
193
240
17
288
208
241
20
295
153
246
12
280
223
248
16
22
0
1.7
17
3
0
0.2
18
3
0
0
17
5
0-
0
16
68
32
42
17
79
32
42
20
120
14
45
17
230
34
54
15
210
160
178
17
250
150
188
20
260
83
186
17
220
160
188
16
17
11
13
17
17
10
13
20
17
11
13
17
17
11
14
16
626
489
543
17
676
471
551
20
717
291
556
17
892
464
579
16
924
480
829
17
1,020
630
834
20
1,100
425
848
17
1,650
425
892
16
TJ Number of Observations.
Source: VTN 4th quarterly report (1975), and unpublished USGS/VTN data.
-------
TABLE 12. PICEANCE CREEK WATER QUALITY DATA DECEMBER 1970 TO DECEMBER 1972 (All values are based on analyses of filtered
samples and are expressed in mg/liter.)
Location
USGS #09306200,
Station 102
Maximum
Minimum
Mgan
USGS #09306210,
Station 103
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
USGS #09306222,
Station 104
Maximum
Minimum
Mean
N
Calcium
(Ca)
89
41
77
25
88
42
74
24
72
18
48
24
Magnesium
(Mg)
110
21
83
25
120
23
86
24
100
18
82
24
Potassium
(K)
4.8
2.4
3.5
25
4.9
2.5
3.5
24
8.3
3.0
4.7
24
Sodium
(Na)
31&
66
177
25
440
70
228
24
2,000
76
756
24
Bicarbonates
(HC03)
933
258
657
25
1,080
280
698
24
4,690
292
1,665
24
Carbonates
(co3)
0
0
0
25
24
0
1
24
389
0
51
24
Chlorides
(CD
25
10
18
25
32
11
20
24
1,000
11
157
24
Sulfates
(so4)
550
110
385
25
710
120
421
24
570
50
415
24
Silica
(Si02)
21
11
16.8
25
21
9.9
17.2
24
19
6.1
3.8
24
TDSfl
1,550
392
1,100
25
1,930
420
1,190
24
5,280
378
2,230
24
a Sum of Constituents.
" N Number of Observations.
Source: Ficke et al. (1974).
-------
TABLE 13. PICEANCE CREEK WATER QUALITY DATA OCTOBER 1972 TO SEPTEMBER 1973 (All values are based on analyses of filtered
samples and are expressed In mg/llter except specific conductance which is expressed in pmhos/cm at 25 C.)
Calcium
Location tr (Ca)
USGS f 09306200,
Station 102
Maximum
Minimum 1 1
Mean
USGS #09306210,
Station 103
Maximum
Minimum 11
Mean
USGS #09306222,
Station 104
Maximum
Minimum 13
Mean
100
73
83
94
68
80
77
34
62
Magnesium
(Mg)
110
75
84
110
67
84
110
66
83
Potassium
(K)
3.8
2.5
3.15
3.8
2.7
3.3
6.2
3.0
4.0
Sodium
(Na)
220
120
176
250
140
197
810
200
424
Bicarbonates
(HC03)
750
523
640
802
546
672
1,790
701
1,095
Carbonates
(co3)
4
0
0
4
0
0
143
0
19
Chlorides
(Cl)
25
12
15
20
13
16.6
120
16
57
Sulfates
(so4)
500
290
377
570
300
400
580
300
438
Silica
(sio2)
20
15
17.7
20
15
18
20
14
17.2
, Specific
TDS Conductance
1,330
851
1,075
1,460
892
1,133
2,470
1,040
1,630
1,910
1,230
1,528
2,040
1,310
1,624
3,531
1,460
2,349
^TJ m Number of Observations.
Sum of Constituents.
Source: Weeks and Welder (1974).
-------
biological productivity of a water body is directly correlated with its
hardness. However, hardness, per se, has no biological significance because
biological effects are functions of specific ions and combinations of elements
(NAS 1973). Many minor dissolved substances contribute to the total hardness
and salinity of waters, but as they are usually present only in trace
quantities, their total contribution from the standpoint of hardness is rather
insignificant.
Effects which may be expected as a result of utilizing waters of varying
IDS levels for cropland irrigation and livestock watering were summarized from
NAS (1973) (Tables 14 and 15). In terms of these guidelines the surface
waters of the Colorado River system are acceptable for livestock watering
purposes, but most of the main stem waters have for years exceeded the
guideline level for sensitive irrigated crops. Conductivity and TDS values
for these waters typically fall into the 750 to 1,500/-tmhos/cm and 500 to
1,000 mg/liter ranges, respectively, the level of possible detrimental effects
for sensitive crops.
TABLE 14. RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR SALINITY IN IRRIGATION
WATERS FOR ARID AND SEMIARID REGIONS
TDS Electrical
(mg/liter) Conductance
(/imhos/cm at 25° C)
Water for which no detrimental 500 750
effects are usually noticed
Water that can have detrimental 500-1,000 750-1,500
effects on sensitive crops
Water that can have adverse effects 1,000-2,000 1,500-3,000
on many crops
Water that can be used on tolerant 2,000-5,000 3,000-7,500
crops on permeable soils
Source: Modified From NAS (1973).
Levels of TDS, hardness, and specific constituents which normally
represent maximum acceptable limits for particular industrial purposes were
summarized from NAS (1973) (Table 16). While ambient surface water quality
throughout the Colorado River system is acceptable for a wide range of
industrial uses, concentrations of specific constituents which exceed the
recommended limits for cooling purposes and certain industrial process uses
have been reported (Tables 9^ 10, and 11). Piceance Creek waters exceed the
42
-------
TABLE 15. GUIDELINES FOR THE USE OF SALINE WATERS FOR LIVESTOCK
AND POULTRY
TDS (mg/liter)
Comment
Less than 1,000
1,000- 2,999
3,000- 4,999
5,000- 6,999
7,000-10,000
Over 10,000
Relatively low level of salinity. Excellent for
all classes of livestock and poultry.
Very satisfactory for all classes of livestock and
poultry. May cause temporary and mild diarrhea in
livestock not accustomed to them, or water drop-
pings in poultry.
Satisfactory for livestock, but may cause temporary
diarrhea or be refused at first by animals not
accustomed to them. Poor waters for poultry, often
causing watery feces, increased mortality, and
decreased growth, especially in turkeys.
Can be used with reasonable safety for dairy and
beef cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. Avoid
use for pregnant lactating animals. Not acceptable
for poultry.
Unfit for poultry and probably for swine. Consider-
able risk in using for pregnant or lactating cows,
horses, sheep, or for the young of these species.
In general, use should be avoided although older
ruminants, horses, poultry, and swine may subsist
on them under certain conditions.
Risks with these highly saline waters are so great
that they cannot be recommended for use under any
conditions.
Source: Modified from. NAS (1973).
43
-------
TABLE 16. SUMMARY OF SPECIFIC QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF SURFACE WATERS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS SOURCES FOR INDUSTRIAL
WATER SUPPLIES (All values are maximums and are expressed in ing/liter.)
Sodium and
Calcium Magnesium Potassium Bicarbonates Sulfates
Water Use
Boiler makeup:
Industrial 0 to 1,500 psiga
Utility 700 to 5,000 psig
Cooling:
Freshwater -
Once through
Makeup recycle
Brackish water -
Once through
Makeup recycle
Industrial processing:
Textile
Pulp and paper
Chemical
Petroleum
Mining-
Copper sulfide
concentrator
Copper leach solution
Pounds per square inch.
Water containing in excess
CCaCO,.
(Ca) (Mg) (Na + K) (HCOj)
600
600
500 ... ... 600
500 ... ... 600
1,200 ... ... 180
1,200 ... ... 180
... ... ... ...
... ... ... ...
250 100 ... 600
220 85 230 480
1,500C
12,000
of 1,000 mg/liter TDS.
(sty
1,400
1,400
680
680
2,700
2,700
. *
. . *
850
900
1,634
64,000
Chlorides
(Cl)
19,000
19,000
600
500
22,000
22,000
. . .
200
500
1,600
12
Silica
(Si02) TDS
150 35,000
150 35,000
50 1,000
150 1,000
25 35,000
25 35,000
150
50 1,080
2,500
85 3,500
2,100
... ...
Hardness
(CaC03)
5,000
5,000
850
850
7,000
7,000
120
475
1,000
900
1,530
Source: Modified from KAS (1973).
-------
recommended guidelines for a number of industrial purposes (Tables 12 and 13).
Oil shale developmental activities on the Piceance Creek watershed are likely
to result in further degradation in the quality of the stream.
No specific maximum limits for hardness, or salinity (TDS) or specific
ions are specified for the protection of aquatic life. The NAS (1973) report,
however, recommended that bioassays and field studies be conducted when
dissolved materials are altered to determine the limits that aquatic
ecosystems can tolerate without endangering their structure and function.
Drinking water standards prior to 1975 recommended against using waters
with a TDS limit exceeding 500 mg/liter (USPHS 1962). This recommendation was
not adopted by NAS (1973). Also, in its revised drinking water guidelines
USEPA (1975b) did not adopt the previous recommendation since many public
drinking water supplies with TDS levels exceeding 500 mg/liter are in current
use with no ill effects to the consumers. Both NAS (1973) and USEPA (1975b)
did, however, recommend limits of 250 mg/liter for both chlorides and sulfates
in public drinking water supplies.
It is estimated that the salt concentrating effects of a 1-million-
barrel-per-day industry would increase the salinity at Hoover Dam by 10 to 27
mg/liter, depending on the quantities of water required (USDI 1973, vol. I, p.
111-76). The impact on the river would not be immediate, but as high quality
ground water supplies decrease and the rate of surface water withdrawal
increases, the effects would become more pronounced (USDI 1973, vol. I, pp.
111-75, 76).
TOXIC SUBSTANCES
Sources
Many activities associated with the development and operation of an oil
shale industry which could potentially increase the total salt burden of
surface waters could similarly increase the potential for contamination with a
variety of toxic substances including trace elements, pesticides and
miscellaneous substances.
Raw and retorted shale contain a number of potentially toxic substances
in varying concentrations. Ward et al. (1971) reported on concentrations of
minor constituents in water after intimate contact with raw and spent shale
(Table 17). Stanfield et al. (1951) and Stanfield et al. (1964) reported on
the trace element content of spent shale ash from the Green River Formation in
Colorado and Utah (Table 18). Cook (1973) reported the concentration of trace
elements in pyrolyzed shale (500° C) from the Mahogany zone in the Piceance
Creek Basin of Colorado (Table 19). Although wide discrepancies in the data
are apparent, these analyses demonstrate that retorted oil shale contains
numerous potentially toxic trace elements which may eventually reach surface
waters.
45
-------
TABLE 17. CONCENTRATIONS OF MINOR CONSTITUENTS IN WATER AFTER INTIMATE
CONTACT WITH RETORTED SHALE
Ion
Maximum
Concentration
Observed (mg/liter)
Source
Test
Al
Ba
Br
Cu
Cr
F
Fe
I
Mn
Pb
Zn
2.5
4.0
<0. 1
<0. 1
<0. 1
3.4
1.7
0.16
<0. 1
<0. 1
2.5
TOSCO
Raw
UOC
TOSCO
TOSCO
TOSCO
Column (first leachate)
Blender
Blender
Column (first leachate)
Column (first leachate)
Column (first leachate)
Source: Ward et al. (1971).
TABLE 18. CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN SPENT OIL SHALE ASH FROM THE
MAHOGANY LEDGE OF THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION IN COLORADO AND UTAH
(All concentrations expressed in mg/kg.)
Colorado
Shalea
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Boron (B)
Chromium (Cr)
Copper (Cu)
Gold (Au)
Lead (Pb)
Lithium (Li)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Sources: ,Stanfield
50
300
30
70
80
10
900
500
800
10
et al.
.4- »1
Utah ,
Shale
300
136
170
100
100
*
420
70
(1951).
ft OC./.\
Rubidium (Rb)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Strontium (Sr)
Thallium (Tl)
Titanium (Ti)
Vanadium (y)
Zinc (Zn)
Zirconium (Zr)
Colorado
Shalea
10
10
800
7,000
600
600
1,000
Utah ,
Shale
60
760
1,200
78
35
33
46
-------
TABLE 19. CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS IN PYROLIZED OIL SHALE FROM THE
MAHOGANY LEDGE OF THE GREEN RIVER FORMATION IN THE PICEANCE BASIN
IN COLORADO
Element
Antimony (Sb)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Beryllium (Be)
Bismuth (Bi)
Boron (B)
Bromine (Br)
Cadmium (Cd)
Cerium (Ce)
Cesium (Cs)
Chlorine (Ci)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Dysprosium (Dy)
Erbium (Er)
Europium (Eu)
Fluorine (F)
Gadolinium (Gd)
Gallium (Ga)
Germanium (Ge)
Gold (Au)
Hafnium (Hf)
Holmium (Ho)
Iodine (I)
Iridium (Ir)
Lanthenum (La)
Lead (Pb)
Lithium (Li)
Lutetium (Lu)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Concentration
(mg/kg)
0.39
7.20
32
35
0.36
140
0.01
0.14
1.6
1.2
72.0
49.0
39.0
15.0
0.40
0.27
0.12
1,700
0.40
2.2
0.40
<0.1
<0.1
0.07
<0.01
<0.1
1.4
10
850
0.01
34
<0.1
Element
Molybdenum (Mo)
Neodymium (Nd)
Nickel (Ni)
Niobium (Nb)
Osmium (Os)
Palladium (Pd)
Platinum (Pt)
Praseodymium (Pr)
Rhenium (Re)
Rhodium (Rh)
Rubidium (Rb)
Ruthenium (Ru)
Samarium (Sm)
Scandium (Sc)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Strontium (Sr)
Tantalum (Ta)
Tellurium (Te)
Terbium (Tb)
Thallium (Tl)
Thorium (Th)
Tin (Sn)
Titanium (Ti)
Tungsten (W)
Uranium (U)
Vanadium (V)
Ytterbium (Yb)
Yttrium (Y)
Zinc (Zn)
Zirconium (Zr)
Concentration
(mg/kg)
4.9
1.2
11
3.4
<0.1
<0.1
<0.1
0.25
<0.1
<0.1
29
<0.1
0.44
2.4
0.08
<0.01
69
0.04
<0.1
0.07
0.14
0.77
0.11
570
0.42
0.99
29
0.25
1.2
13
9.3
Source: Modified from Cook (1973)
47
-------
Leaching studies by Culbertson et al. (1970) and Ward et al. (1972) have
shown that soluble salts are readily leached from spent shale piles, but the
mobilization potential of minor elements is virtually unknown. Furthermore,
since few data are available on the trace element content of raw shales and
soils, the potential for release of trace elements from these sources and
subsequent transport to waterways as a result of landscape disturbances is
unknown.
Other possible sources of trace elements and other toxic substances
include stack emissions from processing operations, catalysts and chemicals
used in oil upgrading and gas processing, contact of high quality water with
highly mineralized ground water, municipal and industrial wastes from
expanding communities and development of ancillary extractive industries.
Airborne emissions would include fugitive dust from mining, crushing, and
conveying operations, as well as sulfur and nitrogen oxides from retorting
operations and power generation. Acid rain frequently associated with mining
and processing operations in some areas of the country could conceivably alter
the pH and buffering capacities of surface waters, and therefore the toxicity
of soluble substances.
Various catalysts and chemicals are required for oil upgrading and gas
processing operations (Table 20). All materials except monoethanolamine (MEA)
TABLE 20. CATALYSTS AND CHEMICALS REQUIRED FOR A 50,000-
BARREL-PER-DAY OPERATION
Type Tons Per Year
Nickel and cobalt-molybdate catalysts 1,420
Iron catalysts 158
Monoethanolamine (MEA) 50
Iron oxide 30
Char 10
Source: USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 1-88).
are solids; MEA in spent form is a highly water-soluble sludgelike liquid
(USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 1-88). The nickel and cobalt molybdate catalysts would
be reclaimed at plants outside the area, but the other chemicals,
approximately 45.4 metric tons (50 tons) of which would be MEA, would be
buried within the shale pile. Release of such waste materials would probably
be slow. Over a period of decades or centuries weathering and erosion of the
piles would probably expose the materials to runoff waters with unknown
consequences.
48
-------
Probably the greatest potential source of trace element contamination to
both high quality ground water and surface water is the highly mineralized
subsurface waters such as those in the Piceance Creek Basin.
Several possibilities exist for handling excess water in initial stages
of development including release to streams, treatment and release, or
storage in impoundments for future use (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-61). As the
industry matures and as the water table is lowered, increasing amounts of
mineralized water will be encountered and require disposal. Subsurface
reinjection of these highly mineralized waters into a lower aquifer has been
proposed as a means of disposing of excess low quality waters (USDI 1973, vol.
I, p. 111-62). This proposed method could degrade the quality of water in the
upper aquifer by upwelling of mineralized waters. Although the quality of
water in local streams would not be initially affected, over a period of time
upward movement and subsurface discharge of poor quality ground water would
undoubtedly impact streams (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-65).
Development of a 1-million-barrel-a-day oil shale industry would result
in substantial urban growth in the oil shale area. It is estimated that a
total population increase of 66,000 to 115,000 persons would be required to
support the industry, representing nearly a twofold increase over the 1970
population of the area (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. III-205).
The influx of people to the oil shale area may attract mobile home indus-
tries and light manufacturing industries. Industrial growth will undoubtedly
be restricted to operations which do not demand large quantities of water.
Potential toxicants which may be introduced to waters as a result of
industrial and urban growth include chlorine, cyanide, detergent builders,
phenolic compounds, phthalate esters, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's), and
toxic forms of nitrogen including ammonia, nitrites and nitrates.
Increased levels of pesticides and their residues in waterways can be
expected as pesticide usage increases. The creation of new lawns, parks, and
recreational facilities will likely result in greater domestic use of
pesticides by homeowners and communities. Expanded industrial growth also
characteristically results in increased usage of various pesticides, as does
maintenance of utility corridors and roadside right-of-ways.
The types and extent of ancillary industrial growth that may be
stimulated by oil shale development cannot be predicted with any certainty.
The extensive deposits of nahcolite and dawsonite found in association with
oil shale may lead to the recovery of soda ash, aluminum, or compounds
thereof. Technology for the recovery of sodium materials from these deposits
has been demonstrated on a pilot scale, but commercial extraction has not been
attempted. Aluminum and aluminum compounds contained in dawsonite have been
recovered from retorted shale on a small scale. Trona and halite occur to
some extent in the Green River Basin in Wyoming, and sodium materials,
petroleum, natural gas, asphalt, tar sands, and coal are scattered throughout
the Green River Formation of the oil shale area. It is not presently known if
all of these materials are present in commercially significant quantities.
49
-------
Ambient Levels
Concentrations of trace elements and other toxic substances vary widely
throughout the Colorado River system with time and location. Inspection of
trace element data summarized from Kopp and Kroner (1969) (Table 21) reveals
few conclusive trends with respect to trace metal concentrations relative to
location, but a few observations are noteworthy. Arsenic, beryllium, and
cadmium were not detected at all and cobalt and vanadium were each reported at
only one site; the former in the upper Green River and the latter in the upper
Colorado. Barium, boron, copper, iron, manganese, strontium, and zinc were
reported at all locations, but only boron exhibited conspicuously increasing
concentrations in a downstream progression. Silver and molybdenum were
detected at all but the lower Colorado main stem stations. The distribution
of lead, nickel and aluminum was sporadic, each being detected only in one or
two samples at various locations.
Additional data on the range of concentrations of trace metals in the
main stem of the Colorado at Yuma, Arizona during 1958-59 were summarized from
A. D. Little (1971) (Table 22). Maximum concentrations of aluminum, barium,
chromium, copper, iron, and manganese were in the range of those reported by
Kopp and Kroner (1969) at the same location, but the latter reported much
higher concentrations of boron and strontium. Conversely, nickel
concentrations were reported to be an order of magnitude higher during the
1958-59 study than were reported by Kopp and Kroner (1969). Rubidium and
titanium were present at Yuma in concentrations of less than 0.01 mg/liter
during 1958-59 (A. D. Little 1971).
Maximum concentrations of boron, fluoride, and iron at selected sites on
the Colorado, Green, and White Rivers during 1964-65 and 1968-69 were
extracted from USGS (1970, 1974) (Table 23). The boron data for the upper
watershed are in line with those reported by Kopp and Kroner (1969)
(Table 21), however, the USGS data do not show the increase in concentrations
in the lower watershed that was so apparent in the Kopp and Kroner (1969)
data.
Iron concentrations reported by USGS (1970, 1974) were typically lower
than those reported by Kopp and Kroner (1969) and A. D. Little .(1971) for the
same general area of watershed. Fluoride concentrations were not reported by
Kopp and Kroner (1969) or A. D. Little (1971), but USGS (1970, 1974) data show
relatively uniform concentrations ranging from 0.30-1.0 mg/liter throughout
the watershed.
Voorheis-Trindle-Nelson of Colorado (VTN) measured concentrations of
trace elements in the reach of the White River adjacent to Federal land tracts
U-a/U-b in Northeastern Utah (Table 24). Although these data represent a
relatively short period of sampling (August 1974 - August 1975), they provide
an indication of trace element concentrations in this reach of the White River
during the predevelopment era.
Data on ambient levels of such toxic substances as chlorine,
detergent builders, phenolic compounds, phthalate esters, and PCB's in the
Colorado River system are scarce or nonexistent. A single analysis for
50
-------
TABLE 21. MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE MINERALS REPORTED AT SELECTED SAMPLING LOCATIONS ON THE GREEN RIVER AND COLORADO
RIVER DURING 1962-67 (AH concentrations are expressed as dissolved and in mg/liter.)
Trace Minerals
Aluminum (Al)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Beryllium (Be)
Boron (B)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Silver (Ag)
Strontium (Sr)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
Green River at
Dutch
Max.
0.043
0.196
0.215
0.011
0.016
0.109
0.015
0.142
0.007
0.0045
0.437
0.036
John, Utah
N*
(1/9)
(9/9)
(9/9)
(1/9)
(5/9)
(6/9)
(4/9)
(2/9)
(1/9)
(2/9)
(9/9)
(4/9)
Colorado
at Loma,
Max.
0.029
0.082
0.232
0.019
0.035
0.062
0.049
0.444
0.038
1.800
0.003
0.013
River
Colo.
N
(1/22)
(22/22)
(22/22)
(5/22)
(7/22)
(11/22)
(11/22)
(18/22)
(3/22)
(22/22)
(5/22)
(1/22)
Colorado
at Page,
Max.
0.026
0.091
0.228
0.011
0.010
0.127
0.009
0.100
0.0035
1.250
0.077
River
Ariz.
N
(1/9)
(9/9)
(9/9)
(1/9)
(2/9)
(4/9)
(3/9)
(2/9)
(1/9)
(9/9)
(4/9)
Colorado
Boulder
Max.
__._
0.232
0.620
0.022
0.023
0.137
0.064
0.026
0.165
0.013
1.220
0.259
River at
City, Nev.
N
(0/10)
(10/10)
(10/10)
(2/10)
(1/10)
(4/10)
(2/10)
(4/10)
(3/10)
(1/10)
(10/10)
(5/10)
Colorado
River at
Parker Dam, Ariz.
Max.
0.156
1.036
0.036
0.020
0.251
0.038
0.020
0.074
0.027
1.221
0.312
N
(0/9)
(9/9)
(9/9)
(1/9)
(3/9)
04/9)
(1/9)
(3/9)
(4/9)
(2/9)
C9/9)
(9/9)
Colorado
at Yuma,
Max.
0.125
0.121
1.800
0.034
0.007
0.072
0.028
0.025
3.500
0.080
River
Ariz.
N
(1/10)
(10/10)
(9/10)
(2/10)
(1/10)
(3/10)
(2/10)
(1/10)
(10/10)
(2/10)
N = (number of positive occurences / total number of observations).
Source: Kopp and Kroner (1969).
-------
TABLE 22. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS INORGANIC CONSTITUENTS
REPORTED IN THE COLORADO RIVER AT YUMA, ARIZONA DURING 1958-59
Constituent Range (mg/liter)
Aluminum (Al) 0.012 -0.153
Barium (Ba) 0.128 -0.152
Boron (B) 0.034 -0.052
Chromium (Cr) 0.010 -0.024
Copper (Cu) 0.0085-0.0088
Iron (Fe) 0.111 -0.160
Lead (Pb) 0.008 -0.016
Lithium (Li) 0.035 -0.037
Manganese (Mn) 0.021 -0.037
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.0065-0.0069
Nickel (Ni) 0.0 -0.30
Rubidium (Rb) 0.0 -0.008
Strontium (Sr) 0.715 -0.802
Titanium (Ti) 0.008 -0.010
Reported as dissolved.
Source: As compiled by A. D. Little (1971) from Fabcr and Bryson (1960), and Durum
and Haffty (1961).
52
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TABLE 23. MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF BORON, FLUORIDE AND IRON AT SELECTED SITES
ON THE COLORADO, GREEN AND WHITE RIVERS DURING THE 1964-65 AND
1968-69 WATER YEARS (All concentrations are based on analyses of
filtered samples and are expressed in mg/liter.)
Location Boron Fluoride Iron .Samples
(B) (F) (Fe)
Colorado River near Glenwood Springs,
Colo.
1964-65 0.07 0.50 0.00 3
1968-69
Green River near La Barge, Wyo.
1964-65 0.25 0.60 0.02 25
1968-69 0.36 0.40 ... 21
Colorado River near Cisco, Utah
1964-65 0.14 0.50 0.46 4
1968-69 ... 1.0 ... 6
White River near Watson, Utah
1964-65 0.12 0.40 0.41 5
1968-69 ... 0.60 ... 5
Green River at Green River, Utah
1964-65 0.21 0.40 0.42 4
1968-69 ... 0.70 ... 12
Colorado River at Lees Ferry, Ariz.
1964-65 0.15 0.30 0.02 4
1968-69 0.17 0.40 ... 2
Colorado River near Grand Canyon, Ariz.
1964-65 0.51 0.30 0.11 4
1968-69 0.17 0'.40 0.01 2
Colorado River below Hoover Dam,
Ariz, and Nev.
1964-65 0.25 0.40 0.02 12
1968~69 0.21 0.40 0.02 3
Colorado River below Parker Dam,
Ariz, and Calif.
1964-65
_1968-69 Olii olio o.'oi 2
a. ~ ~~ ~ ~~
One sample
Source: USGS (1970,1974).
53
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TABLE 24. MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF TRACE ELEMENTS REPORTED AT FOUR SITES ON
THE WHITE RIVER ADJACENT TO LEASED TRACTS U-a/U-b DURING PERIOD
FROM AUGUST' 1974 to AUGUST 1975 (All concentrations are based on
analyses of filtered samples.)
Trace
Element
Aluminum (Al)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Beryllium (Be)
Bismuth (Bi)
Boron (B)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluoride (F)
Gallium (Ga)
Germanium (Ge)
Iron (Fe)
Concentration
(mg/liter)
6.0
0.004
0.14
<0.01
<0.015
0.19
<0.004
<0.02
0.002
0.34
0.4
<0.006
<0.017
0.270
Trace
Element
Lead (Pb)
Lithium (Li)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag)
Strontium (Sr)
Tin (Sn)
Titanium (Ti)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
Zirconium (Zr)
Concentration
(mg/liter)
0.007
<0.11
0.082
<0.0004
0.006
0.016
0.004
<0.002
1.3
<0.012
0.6
0.01
0.18
0.03
Source: VTN 4th and 5th quarterly reports, (1975).
methylene blue active substances (MBAS) on the White River near Watson, Utah
yielded concentrations of 0.02 mg/liter [USGS data from USEPA's water quality
computerized STOrage and RETrieval system (STORET)]. Water analysis for PCB's
on filtered, unfiltered, and suspended samples yielded no positive results,
but a single mud analysis revealed a concentration of 2.0 /-tg/kg on the
Colorado River near Cisco, Utah (USGS data from STORET).
Cyanide and phenol data were collected by VTN on the White River stations
adjacent to tracts U-a/U-b and on Evacuation Creek which transects the sites
(Table 25). Eighty-six analyses of White River water for phenols and fifty
analyses for cyanide revealed maximum concentrations of 0.014 mg/liter and
0.01 mg/liter, respectively. Maximum concentrations in Evacuation Creek were
0.024 mg/liter for phenols (30 analyses) and 0.02 mg/liter for cyanide
(18 analyses).
Low levels of chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticide residues have been
detected in the Colorado River system by a number of investigators. A. D.
Little (1970) summarized levels of organochlorine pesticides which have been
reported at various locations in the Colorado River system during 1964-68
(Table 26). Sufficient data are not available to discern trends with respect
to time or location.
54
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TABLE 25. RANGES AND MEAN CONCENTRATIONS OF PHENOLS AND CYANIDES REPORTED IN
THE WHITE RIVER AND EVACUATION CREEK ADJACENT TO TRACTS U-a/U-b
DURING THE PERIOD AUGUST 1974 to AUGUST 1975 (All concentrations
are expressed in mg/liter.)
Stations
Phenols
Maximum
Mean
N
Cyanides
Maximum
Mean
N
White
River:
S-l
S-3
S-4
S-ll
Evacuation
Creek:
0.009
0.006
0.014
0.014
0.0031
0.0034
0.0041
0.0037
23
19
23
21
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
N = Number of Observations
Source: VTN (1975) 4th and 5th quarterly reports.
13
12
13
12
S-2
S-6
S-7
0.025
0.024
0.014
0.0044
0.0038
0.0050
19
19
15
0.01
0.02
0.01
0.0015
0.004
0.001
12
11
9
Since metals and other toxic substances are usually present in waters in
trace quantities, they are of little significance in the total contribution to
the mineralization problem from an industrial water use standpoint. However,
unusually high concentrations of trace elements in intake waters may
substantially increase treatment costs.
Ambient water quality data (Tables 21 through 24) indicate trace metals
in surface waters of the Colorado River Basin do not constitute a problem from
an industrial use standpoint as ambient levels are well below the water
quality limits prescribed for particular industrial uses (Table 27).
Toxic substances in surface waters are primarily of concern because of
their potential impact on the aquatic biota, agriculture, and man. Since the
impacts of toxic materials on freshwater biota, livestock, irrigated crops,
and man are discussed in great detail by McKee and Wolf (1963), National
Technical Advisory Committee (1968), and NAS (1973), they are only
superficially addressed .in this report.
55
-------
TAIILE 26. CONCENTRATIONS OF VARIOUS PESTICIDES REPORTEU AT SELECTED LOCATIONS IN THK COLORADO RIVER SYSTEM DURING
1964-68 (All concentrations are expressed in ug/litor.)
Ui
Pesticide
Aldrin
Benzene
llexachlorlde
Dleldrln
DDE
DDT
Endrln
Hcptachlor
lleptachlor Epoxide
Llndane
Colorado River at
Lomn , Co lo .
Concentration Year
0.006*7 1966
0.008, ]964
0.002° 1966
Present" 1964
«._
__.
Colorado River at
Page, Ariz,
Concentration
0.085°
_.
0.006a
0.003°
Present
0.058
0.012a e
Present^
Present
Present
Year
1964
1964
1966
1966
1965
1964
1965
1965
1965
...
Colorado River at
Colorado River at Parker Dam, Ariz. Colorado River at
Boulder City, Nev. and Calif. Yuma, Ariz.
Concentration Year Concentration Year Concentration
Present0 1964 0.02^
_ ___
0.002° 1964 Present13 1964 Present"
o.oos"
0.004;}
0.010
0.02l"
0.070£
0.010£
0.010
Present" 1964 Present"
0.015
Present" 1964 0.01 ,
0.005,
0.005
Year
1967
1964
1966
1964
1966
1964
1966
1967
1968
1964
1966
1967
1966
1966
Source:
"Weaver et al. (1965), a« compiled by A. D. Little (1970).
&
Hanlgold and Schulze (1969). «B compiled by A. D. Little (1970).
Green et al. (1966), as coapiled by A. D. Little (1970).
d
Brown and Mlshioka (1967), as compiled by A. D. Little (1970).
Briedenbach et al. (1967). as conpiled by A. D. Little (1970).
-------
TABLE 27. MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF SPECIFIC CONSTITUENTS- IN WATERS THAT HAVE BEEN USED AS SOURCES
FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER SUPPLIES (All concentrations are expressed in rag/liter.)
un
Water Use
Boiler makeup:
Industrial 0 to 1,500 psiga
Utility 700 to 5,000 psig
Cooling:
Freshwater -
Once through
Makeup recycle
D
Brackish water -
Once through
Makeup recycle
Processing:
Industrial -
Textile
Pulp and paper
Chemical
Petroleum
Mining - copper leach solution
Oil recovery injection -
Seawater
Formation water
Aluminum Iron
(Al) (Fe)
3 80
3 80
3 14
3 80
1.0
1.0
0.3
2.6
10
15
12,000 12,000
0.2
13
Manganese
(Mn)
10
10
2.5
10
0.02
0.02
1.0
2
_
Copper Fluoride
(Cu) (F)
____ _«_»
___ ___
_-__ _»_
0.5
1.2
Pounds per square inch gauge.
Water containing in excess of 1,000 mg/liter TDS.
Source: Modified from NAS (1973).
-------
Many naturally occurring dissolved substances in water, although vital to
life functions in trace amounts, when present in high concentrations, they can
prove harmful or fatal to plants and animals, including man. The toxic
properties of trace metals such as arsenic, copper, and zinc, all essential to
human nutrition, are well known, and various compounds of these metals have
been used for years in the manufacture of pesticides.
The toxicity of metals in water varies considerably with the chemical and
physical characteristics of the water. For example, the pH of water
influences the solubility and, therefore, the toxicity of many metals
including aluminum, copper, and zinc.. The presence of certain metals in water
can enhance the toxicity of other metals by synergistic reactions. For
example, the toxicity of zinc, cadmium and mercury is increased by the
synergistic action of copper. On the other hand, the toxic effects of many
metals, including zinc, copper, lead, cadmium, chromium, and nickel, are much
less pronounced in highly mineralized (hard) waters than in soft waters owing
to the antagonistic action of calcium, carbonates, and other common hard water
constituents.
Cadmium, lead, chromium, and mercury are examples of nonessential,
nonbeneficial elements in the diet which are highly toxic to aquatic life,
humans, and livestock in low concentrations. Boron, cobalt, and molybdenum
are known to be essential to higher plants in trace quantities, but may be
deleterious to crops if highly concentrated in irrigation waters.
Water quality criteria recommendations for maximum concentrations of a
number of trace elements in waters to be used for cropland irrigation, and for
the protection of aquatic life, livestock, and human health were summarized by
NAS (1973) (Tables 28 and 29). Ambient surface water data for waters within
the Colorado River system (Tables 21 through 24) reveal that the maximum
concentrations of boron, molybdenum, and nickel exceeded the acceptable limits
for continuous irrigation at several locations. Maximum concentrations of
iron and lead at some stations in the lower Colorado exceeded the recommended
limits for drinking water. Lead concentrations in one sample in the lower
Colorado near Boulder City, Nevada also exceeded the maximum acceptable limit
for aquatic life.
These comparisons of water quality criteria with ambient water quality
data clearly illustrate that concentrations of certain trace minerals in"
Colorado River Basin surface waters at times exceed the maximum acceptable
limits for specified water uses. The utility of these waters can only be
further impaired by activities which disturb large areas of the landscape,
create large volumes of waste material for disposal, alter surface water and
ground water regimens and lead to increased usage of chemicals in the area
unless such developmental activities are carefully planned and closely
regulated.
Although concentrations of trace minerals in the surface of the Colorado
River Basin are not exceptionally high when compared with river basins in
heavily industrialized areas of the country, the extent to which the surface
water characteristics will be altered by industrialization and urbanization of
the area is unknown. For example, arsenic and cadmium, both highly toxic
58
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TABLE 28. WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED CONCENTRATIONS OF
TRACE ELEMENTS IN CROPLAND IRRIGATION WATERS (The concentration
is expressed in mg/liter.)
Parameter
Criteria
Parameter
Criteria
Aluminum (Al)
Arsenic (As)
Beryllium (Be)
Boron (B)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluoride (F)
5.0
0.1
0.1
0.75
0.01
0.1
0.05
0.2
1.0
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Lithium (Li)
Manganese (Mn)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Nickel (Ni)
Selenium (Se)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
5.0
5.0
2.5
0.2
0.01
0.2
0.02
0.1
2.0
Source: NAS (1973).
metals, are common constituents of rocks and could be released to the aquatic
ecosystem through weathering of the exposed bedrock, or as leachates from
spent shale. Numerous additional heavy metals could be released to waterways
in quantities sufficient to seriously impair the utility of these waterways
for specific beneficial uses.
In the Colorado River Basin, pesticides may constitute the greatest
potential hazard of all toxic substances of nonpoint source origin.
Pesticides include a myriad of natural and synthetic chemicals used to control
or destroy plant and animal species under a variety of situations. Depending
on the intended use or target organisms, pesticides are frequently categorized
as insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides, nematicides, etc.
The major threat of contamination of waterways arises from insecticides
and herbicides, because they are the most widely used categories of pesticides
and many are resistant to degradation, persisting in the environment in forms
which are toxic to aquatic and terrestrial life, including humans. The entry
ot pesticides into waterways in large doses, as frequently occurs with spills
or accidental discharges, may have an immediate and dramatic impact resulting
in annihilation of the biota and poisoning of public water supplies. More
aTres^J^T6^ T^J?! Pollution of waterways has a more subtle effect
as residue levels slowly-build up over time.
59
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TABLE 29. WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED CONCENTRATIONS OF
TRACE ELEMENTS IN WATERS TO BE USED FOR DRINKING WATER, LIVESTOCK
AND THE SUPPORT OF AQUATIC LIFE (All concentrations are expressed
in ing/liter.)
Parameter
Aluminum (Al)
Arsenic (As)
Barium (Ba)
Boron (B)
Cadmium (Cd)
Chromium (Cr)
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Fluoride (F)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Manganese (Mn)
Mercury (Hg)
Selenium (Se)
Vanadium (V)
Zinc (Zn)
Drinking
Water
NL^
0.1
1.0
NL
0.01
0.05
NL
1.0
1.4-2.4
0.3
0.05
0.05
0.002
0.01
NL
5.0
Livestock
5.0
0.2
NL
5.0
0.05
1.0
1.0
0.5
2.0
NL
0.1
NL
0.01
0.05
0.1
25.0
Aquatic
Life
NL
NL
NL
NL
0.0004-0.03
0.05
NL
AF*
NL
NL
0.03
NL
0.00005
NL
NL
AF
NL = No Limits.
AF means a safety factor is applied to LD,.-. bioassay data derived with a
sensitive species sought to be protected.
Source: NAS (1973).
60
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TABLE 30. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF COMMON INSECTICIDES IN WHOLE
(UNFILTERED) WATER FOR THE PROTECTION OF AQUATIC LIFE
Recommended Maximum
Insecticide Concentration (yg/liter)
Organochlorine:
Aldrin 0.01
DDT 0.002
TDE 0.006
Dieldrin 0.005
Chlordane 0.04
Endosulfan 0.003
Endrin 0.002
Heptachlor 0.01
Lindane 0.02
Methoxychlor 0.005
Toxaphene 0.01
Organophosphate:
Azinphosmethyl 0.001
Ciodrin 0.1
Coumaphos 0.001
Diazinon 0.009
Dichlorvos 0.001
Dioxathion 0.09
Disulfonton 0.05
Dursban 0.001
Ethion 0.02
EPN 0.06
Fenthion 0.006
Malathion 0.008
Mevinphos 0.002
Naled 0.004
Oxydemeton methyl 0.4
Parathion 0.0004
Phosphamidon 0.03
TEPP 0.4
Trichlorophon 0.0002
Carbamate:
Carbaryl 0.02
Zflttran 0.1
Concentrations were determined by multiplying the acute toxicity values for the
more sensitive species by an application factor of 0.01.
Source: NAS (1973).
61
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TABLE 31. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS
OF SELECTED PESTICIDES IN WATERS
USED FOR HUMAN INTAKE AND LIVESTOCK
TABLE 32. RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM CONCENTRATIONS OF HERBI-
CIDES, FUNGICIDES, AND DEFOLIANTS IN WHOLE
(UNFILTERED) WATER FOR THE PROTECTION OF
AQUATIC LIFE
Compounds
Recommended
Limit (mg/liter)C
Compound
Recommended Maximum
Concentration (yg/liter)
a
Chlorinated hydrocarbons:
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor Epoxide
S Lindane
Methoxychlor
Toxaphene
Carbamate pesticides (all):
Organophosphate pesticides (all)
Chlorophyenoxy herbicides:
2,4-D
Silvex
2,4,5-T
0.001
0.003
0.05
0.001
0.0005
0.0001
0.0001
0.005
1.0
0.005
0.1
0.1
0.02
0.03
0.002
Concentrations were determined by multiplying
acute toxicity values for the more sensitive
species by an application factor of 0.01.
Herbicides, fungicides,
defoliants:
Aminotriazole
Dalapon
Dicamba
Dichlobenil
Dichlone
Diquat
Diuron
2,4-D (BEE)
Fenac (sodium salt)
Silvex (BEE)
Silvex (PGBE)
Simazine
Botanicals:
Allethrin
Pyrothrum
Rotenone
300.0
110.0
260
37.0
0.2
0.5
1.0
4.0
45.0
2.5
2.0
10.0
0.002
0.01
10.0
Concentrations were determined by multiplying the
acute toxicity values for the more sensitive species
by an application factor of 0.01.
Source: NAS (1973).
Source: NAS (1973).
-------
Most pesticides undergo rapid degradation in the environment and, while
highly toxic for a short while, soon are degraded metabolically or otherwise
to relatively innocuous materials. On the other hand, some pesticides,
particularly the organochlorine insecticides, are extremely resistant to
degradation and are subject to biological accumulation directly from the water
and through the food web. This results in insecticide concentrations in
higher trophic-level organisms several thousand times higher than ambient
water levels.
Comparison of ambient water quality data for the Colorado River System
(Table 26) with water quality criteria recommendations (Tables 30 and 31)
reveals that concentrations of aldrin, DDT, dieldrin, and endrin approached or
exceeded the recommended maximum levels for the protection of aquatic life,
humans, and livestock at various locations. In recent years fish and bird
mortalities attributable to organochlorine pesticides have occurred in and
downstream from irrigation ditches in the Lower Colorado Basin.
Water quality criteria recommendations for other categories of pesticides
(Table 32) and other toxic substances (Table 33) were established by NAS
(1973) for various water uses including protection of aquatic life and humans.
Since few ambient data on levels of these substances in the Colorado River
system are available, it is not known whether or not they constitute a
potential hazard.
TABLE 33. VARIOUS TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN WATER AND RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF MAN AND AQUATIC LIFE
Substance
Water Use
Aquatic Life
Public Water Supply
Chlorine
Cyanide
Detergent, Detergent Builders
0.003 mg/liter
0.005 mg/liter/AF^
0.2 mg/liter
linear alkylate sulfonate (LAS)
Phenolic compounds
Phthalate esters
Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCB)
0.02 mg/liter/AF
0.1 mg/liter/AF
0.3 pg/liter
0.002 Mg/liter
0.5 mg/liter
1.0 yg/liter
NL
NL
a NL = No Limits
" AF means a safety factor is applied to LD5Q bioassay data derived with
a sensitive species sought to be protected.
Source: NAS (1973).
63
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Certain toxic substances (Table 33) generally occur in water at hazardous
levels only in heavily industrialized metropolitan areas. Consequently, it is
unlikely that they pose a serious hazard in the Colorado River Basin at the .
present time. Accelerated industrial and urban expansion, however, could
significantly increase ambient levels of these substances in the aquatic
ecosystem.
NUTRIENTS
Sources
The term "nutrient" can legitimately be applied to any element, vitamin,
hormone or other substance which is utilized metabolically for growth or
maintenance by living organisms. From the standpoint of water quality, the
nutrients of major concern are nitrogen and phosphorous owing to their
contributions to the eutrophication problems. It is these macronutrients
which are addressed in this section.
Both nitrogen and phosphorous enter surface waters by natural and
man-induced processes. Nitrogen enters waters naturally through fixation from
the atmosphere and through geologic and biogenic processes. Leaching of
phosphorous from calcium-phosphate rocks and soils along with the importation
of allochthonous organic materials are among the most important natural
sources of phosphorous in waters.
Nitrogen and phosphorus loading to waterways occurs as a result of many
human activities including agriculture, industrialization, and urbanization.
Goldberg (1970) summarized the estimated nutrient contributions of both
nitrogen and phosphorus from various common sources (Table 34). It is seen
that rural runoff is the single largest contributor of both elements, with
domestic wastes the second largest contributor in terms of total poundage.
Potential sources of nitrogen and phosphorus loading to the surface
waters as a result of the development of an oil shale industry include
municipal wastes, ground water discharge, stack emissions, runoff from raw and
spent shales and commercial fertilizers.
The primary effect of urban growth on water quality would result from
increased nutrient loading via domestic sewage. Most municipal treatment
plants in the Colorado River Basin provide secondary treatment plus
disinfection, which is the minimum degree of treatment required by the basin
states in populated areas.
An influx of people to the oil shale area will place an added burden on
existing sewage treatment plants requiring expansion of existing plants or
construction of new facilities if the state's water quality standards are to
be met. Increasing the capacity of municipal treatment plants should
partially alleviate the problems of additional nutrient releases to surface
waters as a result of population growth, but additional loading over the
present level is to be expected. Municipal wastes receiving secondary
64
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TABLE 34. ESTIMATES OF NUTRIENT CONTRIBUTIONS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
cr>
Nitrogen Phosphorus
Source
Domestic Waste
Industrial Waste
Rural runoff:
Agricultural
Land
Nonagricultural
Land
Farm animal waste
Urban runoff
Rainfall^
Pounds
per year
(millions)
1,100-1,600
>1,000
1,500-15,000
400-1,900
> 1,000
110-1,100
30-590
Usual
concentration Pounds
in discharge per year
(mg/ liter) (millions)
18-20 200-500
0-10,000 a
1-70 120-1,200
0.1-0.5 150-750
a a
1-10 11-170
0.1-2.0 3-9
Usual
concentration
in discharge
(mg/liter)
3.5-9.0
a
0.05-1.1
0.04-0.2
a
0.1-1.5
0.01-0.03
a
Insufficient data available to make estimate.
b
Considers rainfall contributed directly to water surface.
Source: Modified from Goldberg (1970).
-------
treatment are very high in plant-available nutrients, consequently the
increased volume of treated wastes will result in increased nutrient loading
to waterways.
Ground waters in the oil shale area are rich in nitrogen with
concentrations of nitrates as high as 55 mg/liter reported from a spring in
the Piceance Basin (Coffin, et al. 1968). Data available on phosphorus
concentrations in ground water indicate levels are not unacceptably high.
Release of ground water to surface waters, regardless of the mechanism,
represents a potential source of nitrogen loading, but probably does not
represent a significant source of phosphorus.
Stack emissions from industrial operations are a potential source of
nitrogen entry to waterways via atmospheric rainout. Nitrogen oxides will be
emitted from retorting operations and power generation, but the quantity of
nitrogen which will reach waterways via this route is unknown.
Leachates from spent shale piles are another possible mechanism by which
both nitrogen and phosphorus could reach surface waters. The study by Ward et
al. (1971) of the pollution potential of spent oil shale residues revealed
nitrate concentrations of 186 mg/liter in leachates from TOSCO shale and
phosphate concentrations of 35 mg/liter. Few data are readily available on
concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen in oil shale and soils in this area.
Goldberg (1970) points out that organic-rich shales can be a source of
nitrogen in water, with some Miocene shales contributing up to 8,600 mg
nitrogen/kg shale. Analysis of pyrolized shale by Stanfield et al. (1951) and
Stanfield et al. (1964) did not include nitrogen data, but concentrations of
phosphorus by weight were reported as 4,000 mg/kg and 1,500 mg/kg,
respectively. The potential for nitrogen and phosphorus release to surface
water from spent shale is unknown, but owing to the high concentrations of
these elements in the shales a potential certainly exists.
Ambient Levels
Nitrate nitrogen was the only nutrient parameter routinely measured and
reported by USGS for the Colorado, Green, and White Rivers during the 1964-65
and 1968-69 water years (USGS 1970, 1974). Maximum nitrate values reported at
selected stations reveal abnormally high concentrations in the Colorado River
at Cisco, Utah and the Green River at Green River, Utah (Table 35). Such
extremely high values are of questionable validity as nitrate values in excess
of 5.0 mg/liter in surface waters are rare.
Additional nutrient data on the reach of the White River adjacent to
tracts U-a/U-b in Utah during the period August 1974 through August 1975 were
reported by VTN (1975) (Table 36). Ignoring the obviously erroneous values
reported for orthophosphorus and orthophosphate at Station S-3, the data
indicate nutrient levels in this reach of the White River were not excessively
high during this period.
66
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TABLE 35. AMBIENT LEVELS OF NITRATE NITROGEN (N03 - N) IN THE COLORADO, GREEN AND WHITE RIVERS AT
SELECTED LOCATIONS DURING WATER YEARS 1965 AND 1969 CA11 concentrations are based on
analyses of filtere.d samples and are expressed in ing/liter.)
Colorado
Glenwood
Na
1965
3
1969
17
River
Springs,
Max
0.8
1.1
Colo.
Min
0.
0.
1
0
Colorado
River
Cisco, Utah
N Max
31 29.0
47 13.0
Min
0.9
0.7
White River Green River
Watson, Utah Green River, Utah
N
17
5
Max
2.2
4.3
Min N Max Min
0.2 4 4.7 1.3
0.1 12 12.0 0.8
Colorado
Lees
N
4
14
Ferry
Max
4.0
5.5
River
.Arizona
Min
2.4
3.1
N = Number of observations.
Source: USGS (1970, 1974).
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00
TABLE 36. AMBIENT NUTRIENT DATA FOR THE WHITE RIVER NEAR TRACTS U-a/U-b, AUGUST 1974 - AUGUST 1975
(All concentrations are based on analyses of filtered samples and expressed in mg/liter.)
Station S-l
Hells Hole Canyon
Ammonia
Nitrite
Nitrate
Kj eldahl
N02 + N03
Orthophosphate
Phosphorous
Or thophosphor ous
aN
24
24
23
24
24
24
24
24
Max
.29
.01
.50
4.9
.51
.12
.47
.04
Mean
.05
.00016
.127
1.06
.12
.053
.143
.02
Station S-3
Ignatio Station
N
24
23
22
26
27
27
23
27
Max
.19
.01
.39
3.3
.37
210*
1.1
68*
Mean
.05
.00
.12
.72
.12
7.82*
.19
2.53*
Station S-4
Southam Canyon
N
24
24
'22
24
23
24
24
24
Max
.12
.04
1.1
7.6
1.1
.18
1.9
.06
Mean
.04
.01
.13
1.11
.13
.06
.37
.02
Station S-ll
Asphalt Wash
N
22
22
21
22
22
22
22
22
Max
.15
.03
.52
2.5
.54
.12
.61
.04
Mean
.05
.00
.14
.60
.14
.05
.14
.018
N = Number of observations.
Obviously erroneous value.
Source: VTN 4th and 5th Quarterly Reports (1975).
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Impact
The significance of nitrogen and phosphorus in aquatic ecosystems is well
documented in the literature. A great deal of published information
discussing the role of these nutrients in the eutrophication process is
referenced by Mackenthun (1965), Likens (1972), and many others. For the
purpose of this discussion, let it suffice to say that nitrogen and phosphorus
are the two major nutrients most frequently singled out for control or removal
at waste treatment plants in an attempt to slow the eutrophication process.
Any nutrient can limit productivity if unavailable in quantities sufficient to
meet the minimum requirements of the biota relative to the availability of
other nutrients. However, many of the micronutrients need only be present in
minute quantities to satisfy basic biological requirements and their control
or removal is prohibitively costly, if indeed possible. Furthermore, the
removal of nitrogen and phosphorus at sewage treatment plants can frequently
be effected with existing technology and at feasible costs, thereby limiting
productivity and alleviating the eutrophication problem in a given water body.
Nutrients in various forms as well as the excessive productivity they
induce in aquatic systems can interfere with beneficial water uses. NAS
(1973) did not establish numerical water quality nutrient criteria for
purposes of limiting the productivity of aquatic life. It is necessary to
know the productivity responses of various water types to ambient nutrient
levels if realistic numerical limits are to be prescribed for ambient nutrient
concentrations or loading rates. Such relationships are presently being
developed and tested at EMSL-LV utilizing data obtained from lakes sampled in
the National Eutrophication Survey and may provide a basis for the development
of numerical criteria.
NAS (1973) established criteria .for particular nutrient forms for
beneficial water uses. Included were criteria for waters used for industrial
purposes, public water supplies, and livestock watering. In addition,
criteria were established for the protection of aquatic life from toxic
ammonia (Table 37).
Examination of water use criteria data (Table 37) suggests Colorado River
waters are acceptable for most beneficial uses, providing the abnormally high
nitrate values are erroneous. Additional nutrient loading in the Colorado
River system resulting from an oil shale industry and associated urban
development would undoubtedly adversely impact localized reaches of streams,
but the cumulative impact on the Colorado River system cannot be predicted
with certainty. The rate of loading will depend in part upon the distribution
and density of the human population, as well as the degree of treatment which
the wastes receive.
69
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TABLE 37. NUTRIENT WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATED BENEFICIAL WATER
USES (All units are in mg/liter.)
Water Use
Nutrient
Form
Ammonia
Nitrates
Nitrites
Phosphates
Public Water
Supply Livestock
0.5 NLa
10.0 100. 0°
1.0 10.0
NL NL
Industrial
Purposes
40.0
8.0°
NL
4.0^
Aquatic
Life
0.02/AF
NL
NL
NL
aNL = No limit.
AF means a safety factor is applied to LD5Q bioassay data derived with a
sensitive species sought to be protected.
^Includes nitrates and nitrites.
Only the most stringent industrial use criteria are listed.
Source: NAS (1973).
HYDROGRAPHIC MODIFICATION
General
Hydrographic modification refers to procedures that change the movement,
flow or circulation of any navigable waters or ground waters (USEPA 1975a). An
in-depth examination of all potential disturbances which could alter the water
balance of the oil shale area or the Colorado River Basin is beyond the scope
of this report. Consequently, in the following discussion, selected'types of
anticipated disturbances and their potential impacts are examined in an
attempt to provide insight into problems associated with hydrographic
modification and requirements for assessing the problems.
Anticipated disturbances can be categorized by the manner in which they
alter water systems as follows: (1) creation of new impoundments, (2)
drainage of existing impoundments, (3) diversion of natural drainage, (4) flow
depletions, and (5) disturbances to streambeds.
70
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Creation of New Impoundments
Withdrawal of surface waters for operational purposes will require the
construction of new reservoirs to assure an adequate supply of water during
all seasons. Since the Uinta Basin apparently does not contain large ground
water reserves, oil shale development in that area is contingent upon the
availability of surface waters. The White River is being considered as a
potential location for a reservoir to trap flood waters as a means of
providing a dependable supply to support operations on the Utah tracts. Plans
for the construction of the dam are not firm as appropriation rights are
somewhat clouded (See Section 2 of this report for further discussion of
available sources of surface waters).
Storage ponds may be required to store water imported to the tract site
and possibly to store excess water pumped from aquifers during mine dewatering
operations. The number and size of ponds which may be required for these
purposes are indefinite at present.
Additional impoundments may be required for disposal of liquid and slurry
wastes and for the containment of mud slides and spent shale or leachates in
the event of failure or leaching of disposal piles.
Drainage of Existing Impoundments
It is not anticipated that any major reservoirs will be modified by
developmental or operational activities, but small ponds In the area may be
drained or altered. Since ponds in the area are not abundant, such
occurrences would be uncommon.
Diversion of Natural Drainage
Natural drainage patterns will be disrupted by the network of roads,
powerlines and 'pipelines required to provide access and services to the area
and to transport oil and wastewater from the processing sites (USDI 1973, vol.
I, p. 111-21). Streams and washes will be disrupted by construction of roads
and utility corridors, but such disturbances are generally temporary and
localized. Diversion channels will be constructed along roadways to handle
storm runoff and to decrease the potential for washout.
Disposal of overburden and spent shale in box canyons will result in
eventual obliteration of the canyons and complete alteration of their drainage
patterns. Streamflow and runoff will have to be routed over, under, or around
the spent shale piles to provide adequate drainage, thereby minimizing the
potential for leaching of pollutants and failure of the disposal piles.
Flow Depletions
Consumptive uses of surface and ground water for industrial operations
and associated urban development would result in substantial reductions in
71
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both the quantity and quality of available surface waters. Projected water
requirements and available sources of water for various levels of industrial
development are discussed in detail in Section 2 of this report.
Streambed Disturbance
Streambed disturbance resulting from installation of culverts, and/or
temporary diversions, will be common. Since such disturbances usually are
confined to short reaches of streams, physical stabilization and biological
recolonization of such areas is usually rapid.
Impact
Historically, mining operations have been equated with landscape
destruction and water quality degradation. Typically, mining operations
involve the movement and relocation of large volumes of extracted material
resulting in drastic changes in the topography and drainage characteristics of
exploited areas. The oil shale industry is similar to most other extractive
mining and processing industries in that large expanses of the landscape will
be disturbed by the development and operation of a commercial industry
resulting in permanent alteration of the water storage and drainage system.
The evolution of the oil shale industry, however, differs from that of
most mining industries in that initial development will occur primarily on
Federal lands under rigid government controls and regulations instituted to
minimize the environmental impact of such development. Although the
development of the industry will occur in strict adherence to environmental
guidelines, unavoidable deleterious consequences will inevitably result. Many
of the disturbances will be localized and temporary, and the damage
repairable. These disturbances although locally and temporarily significant,
do not permanently alter the regional hydrological regimes. Conversely, those
disturbances which potentially alter the water budget of entire river systems
could seal the fate of the industry in the early developmental stages.
Activities such as road building, pipeline installation, shale disposal,
mine dewatering, etc., could permanently alter the hydraulics of streams in
the area. Ground water withdrawals will probably have the greatest impact as
continuous pumping over a period of years could dry up a number of springs in
the Piceance Basin and eliminate much of the seepage to surface waters. Mine
dewatering at the rate of 0.85 m^/s (30 ft^/s) for a 30-year period in
the C-a tract would lower the entire water table within an 8-nrlle radius
of the site (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-70). Up to 37 springs within this area
would experience adverse effects ranging from reduction of flow to complete
cessation of flow (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-70). Reduction in total flows
from springs will ultimately reduce the amount of water reaching Yellow Creek.
If excess ground water of suitable quality is available to replenish flows,
changes in stream hydraulics will be minimal. In the event high quality
ground water is not available to replenish surface flow, however, ground water
withdrawal could have a substantial impact on the hydrological regimes of the
area.
72
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The number of canyons to be used for disposal of spent shale and
overburden depends upon the mining and disposal methods used (USDI 1973,
vol. I, pp. III-H-30). Surface mining will require overburden disposal sites
which are not required for underground methods. Backfilling of surface or
underground mines with spent shale would substantially reduce the total area
and number of canyons required for shale disposal. For example, if tract C-b
is mined with underground techniques, and backfilling is not practical, three
canyons would be required for disposal and each would be filled to a depth of
75 m for several kilometers (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-14). If backfilling is
practiced, 60% of the spent shale could be placed in the mined out area and a
single canyon would be required for disposal of the remaining material (USDI
1973, vol. I, p. 111-15). Backfilling also greatly reduces the potential for
subsidence. Subsidence, if it occurs, could result in significant
modification of stream courses. Until mining and disposal methods to be used.
at each site are specified, the extent to which water courses will be altered
cannot be determined. It is obvious that changes will result regardless of
the methods employed. However, the extent of alteration can be minimized
where underground mining methods and backfilling are practiced.
Construction of dams to impound flowing waters destroys endemic
terrestrial or lotic communities in the inundated area, but in so doing
creates habitats for potential colonization by lentic aquatic species.
Although the impact of impoundment construction obliterates established biotic
communities, the long-term effects are not without certain benefits.
Reservoirs trap sediments and stabilize downstream flows, thus creating
more favorable habitats for some aquatic organisms. Dams which effectively
reduce sediment loads and the frequency and severity of flooding generally
result in colonization by greater numbers of aquatic plants and animals, both
in terms of diversity and total abundance, than formally occupied the stream
reach. Terrestrial and semi-aquatic communities may also become more stably
established along stream banks once flooding is curtailed.
MICROORGANISMS
Possibilities exist for the microbial contamination of surface waters as
a consequence of rapid population increases resulting in overloaded sewage
treatment facilities and the subsequent discharge of improperly treated
sewage. Bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and fungi are all potential waterborne
transmitters or causative agents of diseases. The extent to which public
health might be affected by expanded population cannot be projected at this
time (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. III-100). Proper precautionary sanitation
measures and construction or expansion of adequate sewage treatment facilities
would minimize risks of microbial contamination of waterways, and subsequent
potential public health hazards.
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RADIOACTIVITY
Sources
Assessment of naturally occurring radionuclides found in oil shale has
not been extensive. Natural radioactivity is inherent to oil shale as a
result of its genesis from the decay of ubiquitous uranium-238.
Lee et al. (1976) computed the atmospheric emissions expected to be
released by a 100,000-barrel-per-day mining, retorting, and upgrading opera-
tion (Table 38). Concentrations of uranium (U), thorium (Th), and potassium
(K) in the spent shale are reported by Lee et al. (1976) as 0.99 mg/liter,
0.77 mg/liter and 2.72% respectively.
The retorting process removes the organic portion of the oil shale, thus
concentrating the mineral matter in the spent shale. In order to determine
relative amounts of U, Th and K in raw or unprocessed shale, the spent shale
concentrations are multiplied by the percent of mineral matter in the raw
shale. Considering that mineral matter in the 35-gallon-per-ton oil shale is
82.6% and assuming that all U, Th, and K remain in the spent shale during
retorting, the uranium-238, thorium-232 and potassium-40 concentrations in raw
Colorado oil shale would be 0.82 mg/liter, 0.64 mg/liter and 2.7%
respectively.
The assumption made by Lee et al. (1976) that all the uranium-238,
thorium-232 and potassium-40 contained in the shale remain through the retort
process is supported by sketchy data collected by the USEPA*s Las Vegas Office
of Radiation Programs (Michael O'Connell, personal communication, December 8,
1976). The data indicate only small differences between the raw oil shale and
the retorted or spent shale with respect to uranium and radium concentrations.
Ambient Levels
Analysis of both ground water and surface water data in the Colorado River
and its tributaries indicate high levels of radioactivity may exist (USGS data
from STORET). Gross alpha readings for the Green River near Green River, Utah
indicate a maximum of 40 picocuries/liter (pCi/liter), and a mean of 12
pCi/liter. Analysis in 1972 of well water on Federal tract C-b indicates the
maximum dissolved beta activity expressed as cesium-137 to be 250 pCi/liter
(USGS data from STORET).
The United States Geological Survey expresses beta activity in equivalent
amounts of either cesium-137 or strontium-yttrium-90; therefore, the beta
activity reported is not cesium-137 or strontium-yttrium-90. Tritium levels
on the main stem of the Colorado River have been reported as high as 2,280
hydrogen-3 units or approximately 7,300 pCi/liter near Cisco, Utah (USGS data
taken from STORET). U.S. Geological Survey data for surface waters of the
Colorado River Basin show suspended beta expressed as cesium-137 to be 400
pCi/liter and dissolved beta expressed as cesium-137 to be 14 pCi/liter
(STORET data).
74
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TABLE 38. RADIONUCLIDE EMISSIONS TO THE AIR FROM A 100,000-BARREL-PER-DAY
OIL SHALE MINING, RETORTING, AND UPGRADING OPERATION
Radionuclide
Uranium-238
Thorium-234
Pro tact inium-234
Uranium-234
Protactinium-234
Thorium-230
Radium-226
Radon-222
Polonium-214
Lead-214
Bismuth-214
Polonium-214
Lead-210
Bismuth-210
Polonium-210
Thorium-232
Radium-228
Actinium-228
Thorium-228
Radium-224
Radon-220
Polonium-216
Lead-212
Bismuth-212
Polonium-212
Thallium-208
Potassium-40
Total
Dust Gases
(yCi/day) (yCi/day)
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
32,800
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.64
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.16
8,300
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.10
0.06
40
50.4 41,100
Particulates
(yCi/day)
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
4.9
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
1.3
0.9
0.4
310.0
390.3
Source: Modified from Lee, et al. (1976)
75
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High levels of suspended gross beta relative to dissolved gross beta can
be attributed to an increase in suspended sediments. Since gross alpha and
gross beta are typically reported in radioactivity nuclide per unit volume
(pCi/liter) rather than radioactivity per unit weight (pCi/g) the occurrence
of substantial amounts of suspended sediments in a sample may lead to gross
radioactivity values much higher than would be expected were there little or
no sediment.
Radiochemical data collected by the USEPA's Environmental Radiation Branch
of the Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas, (USEPA
1976a) indicates ambient levels of radionuclides in ground waters and surface
waters of the Colorado River System are well below the USEPA drinking water
standards (USEPA 1976b) .
Impact
The USEPA Drinking Water Regulations for radionuclides (USEPA 1976b)
(Table 39) specify that strontium-90 levels shall not exceed 8 pCi/liter,
tritium 20,000 pCi/liter, gross alpha 15 pCi/liter and that radium-226 and
radium-228 combined not exceed 5 pCi/liter.
TABLE 39. NATIONAL DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS FOR RADIOACTIVITY
Parameter Regulation
Gross Alphaa 15 pCi/liter
Gross Bet?. 50 pCi/liter
Radium combined 226, 228 05 pCi/liter
Strontium 90 08 pCi/liter
Tritium (H3) 20,000 pCi/liter
aWhen the gross alpha particle activity exceeds 5 pCi/liter further analysis
is required to define the alpha contributors.
Implied limit, not expressly given as a regulation.
Source: USEPA (1976b).
76
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An environmental impact study is currently underway in the Uinta Basin,
one portion of which addresses radioactive contaminants derived from oil
shale. The information available from this study indicates that for a
prototype industry, there is no clear or distinct threat of radioactive
contamination. However, no reliable data have been gathered on the impacts
resulting from mining or land reclamation concerning increased mobility of
uranium and radium by water saturation of the disturbed areas. It is clear
that a need exists for further research into this area.
OIL AND GREASE
The possibilities for oil losses exist wherever oil is produced,
processed, or transported. It is estimated that a mature 1-million-barrel-
per-day industry will require about 280 km (150 miles) of new pipeline to
transport shale oil to major existing pipelines (USDI 1973, vol. I,
p. 111-183). Predicted loss through spillage due to pipeline transport ranges
from 1-100 barrels/yr (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. III-183). However, the potential
for much larger volume spills exists.
In the event a large-volume spill reaches a waterway and the oil cannot be
contained or removed, very severe damage to the aquatic biota and waterfowl
would result. Smaller volume spills, such as those resulting from smaller
pipeline leaks, could cause local damage to the biota, and if undetected for a
long period of time, the damage could be substantial.
Oil and grease in public water supplies can also cause objectionable
taste, odor and appearance problems, and can be hazardous to human health (NAS
1973). To avoid such problems, NAS (1973) recommends that public water supply
sources be essentially free from oil and grease.
Aquatic life and wildlife should be protected where the following NAS
(1973) criteria are observed:
(1) no visible oil on surface of waters,
(2) emulsified oils do not exceed 0.05 of the 96-hr 1059 value,
(3) concentrations of hexane-extractable substances (exclusive of
elemental sulfur) in air-dried sediments do not increase above
1,000 rag/kg on a dry weight basis.
TEMPERATURE
Causes of Temperature Alteration
Temperature differences between the upper and lower reaches of the
Colorado River system are pronounced during all seasons due primarily to
climatic, geographic, and topographic factors. Natural temperature regimes of
the river system are disrupted by large reservoirs such as Flaming Gorge
77
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Reservoir on the Green River and Lakes Powell and Mead on the Colorado River.
The effect of the reservoirs is to lower summer temperatures and in some
cases increase winter temperatures for considerable distances downstream from
the discharge.
Thermal springs, waste discharges, and irrigation return flows may
increase the temperatures of receiving waters locally, but heat added from
these sources is usually dissipated quickly.
As the oil shale industry matures, stream temperatures may be altered
somewhat by municipal and industrial waste discharges, consumptive uses of
surface waters, lowering of the ground water table, landscape modifications,
and construction of new reservoirs. A major potential for temperature
increases is the discharge of heated water (used in cooling processes) from
power generating plants.
Impact
Considering the vastness of the Colorado River System and the inherent
wide natural variability in temperatures, thermal effects resulting from oil
shale development are expected to be of little significance in terms of the
natural temperature regime of the river system (USDI 1975, vol. I, p. 111-98).
Temperature is not a critical factor for water used for industrial,
agriculture, or public water supply purposes; but aquatic biota could be
adversely affected by localized thermal effects as aquatic invertebrates and
fish are very sensitive to temperature changes.
Many fish species can tolerate fairly wide ranges in temperature but
reproduction and growth can only occur within fairly narrow ranges.
Cold-water species, such as trout, for example, are found in waters whose
winter temperatures may drop below freezing and whose summer maximum may
exceed 22° C, while growth for such species occurs between 3.3° and 14.4°C
(USDI 1973, vol. I, p. III-181). If water temperatures in spawning grounds
are elevated beyond 12.8° C during the spawning seasons, successful
reproduction may not occur, even though adults may continue to flourish (USDI
1973, vol. I, p. III-181).
Extremes, variations, and particularly sudden changes in temperature
impact all components of the aquatic ecosystem. Temperature extremes and
changes not only affect the biota directly, but also influence their
susceptibility to disease and toxic compounds; likewise it affects the
solubility of oxygen and other gases, decomposition rates of organic
materials, and the community structure and stability of aquatic ecosystems.
Because temperature criteria for various aquatic species are so poorly defined
and variable, no attempt is made here to present recommended limits. For a
discussion of temperature requirements for various aquatic species, see NAS
(1973), Section III "Freshwater Aquatic Life and Wildlife, Heat and
Temperature", pages 151-171.
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SEDIMENTS
Sources
Erosion, transport, and deposition of particulate matter are natural
geologic sedimentation processes which have been in continuous operation for
millions of years. Much of the oil shale area is highly susceptible to both
wind- and water-induced natural sedimentation processes owing to the semiarid
climatic condition and the rugged topography characterizing much of the area.
The rather scant vegetation affords little protection against soil loss in an
area which receives much of its precipitation as snowfall and torrential
thunderstorms and is frequently exposed to high velocity, turbulent winds.
Development of an oil shale industry and associated activities will
exacerbate sedimentation problems by disturbing large expanses of the
landscape, thereby increasing the susceptibility of the area to erosion. Some
land forms are known to be less stable than others and, consequently, more
subject to erosion, but no attempt has been made to characterize the land
forms in the area as to their relative stability.
It is also known that three basic processes are most significant in
affecting erosion: (1) the scouring and transport of sediment by intermittent
and ephemeral streams, (2) slope erosion (sheet erosion, channel erosion, and
gullying of slopes), (3) downslope mass movement of consolidated materials
(Everett et al. 1974). However, the potential contribution of each process to
the total sediment load of perennial streams in the area has not been
quantified. These problems will have to be answered, at least in part, before
sedimentation sources can be identified and the relative contribution of each
to the stream sediment loads determined.
It is estimated that a 1-million-barrel-per-day industry would affect an
aggregate area of approximately 32,376 hectares (80,000 acres) over a 30-year
period, of which 20,235 hectares (50,000 acres) would be required for actual
production (disposal etc.), while the remainder would be required for utility
corridors, roads, and urban expansion (USDI 1973, vol. I, p. 111-12).
Accelerated sedimentation would necessarily result from such industrial
disturbances to the landscape as removal and deposition of overburden for open
pit mining; the construction of roads and pipelines and the disposal of spent
shales in high canyons, etc. The questions that emerge, however, are: to
what degree will erosion and sedimentation be increased; what materials will
be most susceptible to movement; and what will be the impact on waterways? At
the present time, these questions cannot be answered given the current state
of knowledge of the sedimentation potential and processes in the area.
Ambient Levels
Suspended sediment levels have been measured by USGS at several sites
throughout the Colorado River Basin since the early 1930's. In general, depth
integrated samples were collected daily, but during periods of high flow or
variable discharge, measurements were made as frequently as two or three times
79
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daily. During periods of stable flow, sajnples for a number of days were
composited to obtain average daily loads (USGS 1970). Monthly ranges of
suspended sediment concentrations at selected sites on the Colorado, Green and
White Rivers are summarized for water years 1965 and 1969 (Table 40). These
data, summarized from USGS (1970, 1974), provide an indication of the great
seasonal variability in concentrations of suspended sediment in these waters.
The total suspended sediment load in transport is a function of
concentration and discharge. Generally maximum sediment transport occurs
during periods of maximum discharge, but this is not always the case. The
manner in which precipitation and runoff occurs greatly influences the
suspended sediment concentration in flowing water and therefore the total
quantities of sediments in suspension. For example, much of the late spring
and early summer, flow is derived from snowmelt in the upper watershed. If
snowmelt is gradual, these waters may be relatively low in suspended sediment
concentration since little erosion and subsequent sediment transport has
occurred. On the other hand, highly intense summer thunderstorm activity may
induce severe erosion resulting in very high suspended sediment loading to
receiving water.
Impact
The composition and concentration of suspended sediments in surface waters
are important because of their effects on light penetration, temperature,
solubility products and aquatic life. Sediments in industrial waters also
erode power turbines and pumping equipment.
Absorption of light by natural waters is strongly affected by the presence
of suspended materials. Since the growth of aquatic plants is regulated by
the intensity of sunlight, suspended sediments may be one of the most
important factors influencing the productivity of a water body.
Because suspended sediment inhibits sunlight penetration, water
temperature may be affected by the concentration of sediment suspended in
surface waters. Highly turbid lentic waters warm more rapidly than clearer
waters, inducing pronounced thermal stratification early in the season which
may persist for several months. Vertical mixing of lentic waters is inhibited
by such warming of the surface layers reducing oxygen transfer to the
underlying water. Consequently, the increasing turbidity could alter the
temperature patterns and oxygen regimes of lakes and reservoirs thus creating
unfavorable habitats for the endemic biota.
Sediment deposition in flood plains damages valuable crops and croplands.
The scouring action of streambed sediments damages and kills aquatic
organisms, both plant and animal, and destroys their habitats.
The transport of sorbed pollutants by sediments is a major mechanism by
which pesticides and nutrients enter and are dispersed in waterways.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, nutrient phosphates, and numerous other pollutants
have a high affinity for clay particles which are easily transported to
streams via wind and surface runoff.
80
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TABLE 40. MAXIMUM DAILY SUSPENDED SEDIMENT CONCENTRATIONS AT SELECTED LOCATIONS (All values are
expressed in mg/liter.)
00
Month
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
Augus t
September
Colorado River
near Cisco, Utah
1964-65 1968-69
120
270
1,700
800
660
740
8,900
6,600
3,200
14,000
14,800
4,900
3,020
790
197
2,850
3,050
1,030
5,880
2,140
13,000
3,490
6,580
5,350
Green River at
Green River, Utah
1964-65 1968-69
810
450
930
410
3,200
5,200
7,000
4,600
6,000
14,000
12,000
7,900
1,270
174
442
555
665
4,320
5,910
3,320
5,000
1,410
23,800
12,900
Colorado River at
Lees Ferry, Ariz.
1964-65 1968-69
49
66
90
670
820
2,000
2,100
940
680
17
20
-
Colorado River near
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
1964-65 1968-69
3,800
1,300
6,000
13,000
4,400
12,000
13,000
5,200
2,500
21,000
15,000
8,600
12,200
912
300
7,620
2,520
2,920
3,740
900
846
8,900
3,920
11,400
Values published by USGS are daily means based on one or more measurements per day; values given in this
table are the maximum daily means per month.
Source: USGS (1970, 1974).
-------
Sediments produce direct detrimental effects to fish and their food
organisms. The European Inland Fisheries Advisory Board (EIFAB) lists the
following ways in which sediments may prove harmful to the fisheries of a lake
or river (EIFAB 1965):
(1) By acting directly on the fish swimming in water in which
solids are suspended, and either killing them or reducing
their growth rate, resistance to disease, etc.
(2) By preventing the successful development of fish eggs and
larvae.
(3) By modifying natural movements and migrations of fish.
(4) By reducing the abundance of food available to the fish.
(5) By affecting the efficiency of methods for catching fish.
With respect to chemically inert suspended solids and to waters that are
otherwise satisfactory for the maintenance of freshwater fisheries, EIFAB
(1965) reported:
(1) There is no evidence that concentrations of suspended solids less
than 25 mg/liter have any harmful effects on fisheries.
(2) It should usually be possible to maintain good or moderate
fisheries in waters which normally contain 25 to 80 mg/liter
suspended solids. Other factors being equal, however, the
yield of fish from such waters might be somewhat lower than
those yielded by category (1) waters.
(3) Waters normally containing from 80 to 400 mg/liter suspended
solids are unlikely to support good freshwater fisheries,
although fisheries may sometimes be found at the lower
concentrations within this range.
(4) At the best, only poor fisheries are likely to be found in
waters which normally contain more than 400 mg/liter suspended solids.
Based on the findings of the EIFAB (1965), NAS (1973) established the
following criteria for the protection of aquatic communities:
Suspended Sediments
High level of protection 25 mg/liter
Moderate level of protection 80 mg/liter
Low level of protection 400 mg/liter
Very low level of protection over 400 mg/liter
NAS (1973) also established maximum concentrations of suspended sediments
in waters used for a variety of industrial purposes. In general, industrial
uses of freshwaters are not impaired unless suspended solids concentrations
82
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exceed 1,000 mg/liter. Concentrations as high as 15,000 mg/liter are the
maximum acceptable levels for boiler and cooling makeup water.
Maximum suspended sediment concentrations in the Green and Colorado Rivers
exceeded the least restrictive water quality criteria limits for aquatic life
nearly every month of the year.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Sources of Oxygen and Causes of Depletion
Dissolved oxygen in surface waters is derived from two principal sources:
(1) from the atmosphere directly by diffusion at the surface and through
surface water agitation, and (2) from photosynthetic activity of
chlorophyll-bearing plants (Welch 1952). Ground water and surface runoff may
at times contribute substantially to the oxygen content of streams,
particularly if the subsurface flow is over broken rocks shortly before
reaching the surface and if overland runoff is rapid and vigorous (Reid 1961).
However, since ground water is frequently low in dissolved oxygen content and
since vigorous overland runoff is usually sporadic and coincident with intense
rainfall, the former source may be more of a liability to the dissolved oxygen
budget than an attribute, and the latter an unreliable source at best.
In clear quiet waters the photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton and
rooted vascular plants may be the primary source of oxygen during daylight
hours (Welch 1952). During the night, an oxygen deficit may develop in such
waters as diffusion from the atmosphere may be inadequate to replenish the
oxygen consumed.
Lentic waters exposed to wind action and turbulent flowing waters derive
oxygen directly from the atmosphere, and, if the water is clear, through
photosynthesis as well. In the near-shore wave swept zones of lakes and in
tortuous headwater stream reaches attached (lithophytic) algae may be the most
significant photosynthetic producers of oxygen. Oxygen deficits rarely occur
in clear, well-agitated waters. In fact the net production of oxygen in
upstream reaches frequently contributes to the oxygen content in the more
turbid, calmer downstream waters (Reid 1961).
While a number of forces are functioning to provide oxygen, opposing
factors tend to reduce the available oxygen supply, the following factors are
of major significance in reducing the oxygen supply in surface waters:
(1) Respiration of living organisms - Respiration of
plants and animals is a continuing process which
utilizes dissolved oxygen. The effects of
respiration on oxygen supply are most conspicuous
during the night when photosynthetic activity has
ceased, thereby causing substantial diurnal
fluctuations in dissolved oxygen levels.
83
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(2) Oxidation of organic matter - Bacterial action on
oxidizable solids such as those in sewage creates a
biological oxygen demand which may exceed the rate
of oxygen replenishment resulting in a deficit
in the oxygen budget some distance downstream
from the source. As the oxygen deficit, which
is cumulative, increases, uptake also increases
at a rate proportional to the oxygen deficit
(Hynes 1963). Consequently, as the amount of
organic materials decrease, the rate of oxygen
production exceeds that of consumption resulting
in an increase in the oxygen level.
(3) Temperature - The solubility of oxygen varies
inversely with temperature. Consequently,
raising the water temperature decreases the
solubility of oxygen resulting in a loss of
oxygen from the water.
(4) Atmospheric pressure - Since the solubility
of oxygen in water varies directly with
atmospheric pressure, a reduction in pressure
results in a decrease in dissolved oxygen
concentrations.
(5) Inorganic reactions - Certain inorganic
reactions in lakes and streams, such as the
oxidation of ferrous iron, sulfite and sulfides,
may contribute to the immediate loss of oxygen.
(6) Inflow of tributaries - The inflow of tributaries
of low oxygen content tends to decrease the
content of receiving waters. Tributaries
receiving the bulk of their flow from springs
and ground water seepage are of particular
significance in this respect.
Undoubtedly, organic loading to waterways and subsequent biological
activity associated with the digestion of oxidizable materials are the most
common causes of oxygen reduction in most surface waters. The oxygen demand
exerted by a given volume of water is approximately proportional to the amount
of oxidizable materials in the water. Consequently, the biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD) tests are frequently used to
estimate the requirements of a given water for oxygen or to quantitatively
evaluate the pollution load (Hem 1970). The BOD test, however, is of limited
value in measuring the oxygen demand of surface waters in which levels of
oxygen-demanding organic substances are low. The extrapolation of test
results to actual stream oxygen demands is highly questionable since the
laboratory environment does not produce stream conditions (APHA 1971). Both
the BOD and COD tests have their widest application in measuring waste
loadings to treatment plants and to evaluate the efficiency of such plants.
84
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In some instances a rough correlaation between BOD, COD, and total organic
carbon (TOG) has been established (APHA 1971). When such an empirical
relationship can be established the TOC determinations provide a speedy and
convenient way of estimating the other parameters that express the degree of
organic contamination (APHA 1971).
Ambient Levels
Dissolved oxygen, chemical oxygen demand, and the total organic carbon
data compiled by USGS over recent years are summarized for selected Colorado,
Green and White River stations (Table 41). Inspection of the dissolved oxygen
data indicates these waters are generally well aerated as mean dissolved
oxygen values equaled or exceeded 8.0 mg/liter at all sites. Since stress
conditions for the biota are induced by short periods of oxygen deficiency,
minimum values may be of greater significance than means with respect to fish
populations and aquatic invertebrates. The minimum dissolved oxygen values
recorded in the upper Colorado did not fall below 7.0 mg/liter, indicating an
ample oxygen supply is available year round. On at least one occasion,
however, total oxygen depletion was reported in the Green River at Green River,
Utah. Minimum oxygen values of 5.3 mg/liter were recorded on the White River
near Watson on at least one occasion, and mean values were substantially below
those reported in the upper Colorado. Minimum and maximum and mean dissolved
oxygen values in the lower Colorado Site at Lees Ferry were typically lower
than those in the upper reaches at Cisco, Utah and Glenwood Springs, Colorado
(Table 41).
Chemical oxygen demand data were rather scarce with replicate analyses
being reported at only 2 of the 8 sites selected as representative of the
river system; one on the main stem of the lower Colorado below Parker Dam.
The highest range of values was reported for the White River station with a
maximum of 81.0 mg/liter recorded and on at least one occasion none was
detectable.
Total organic carbon data were available for six of the eight stations,
but were based upon fewer analyses per station than the chemical oxygen demand
data. Mean TOC values ranged from a low of 4.2 mg/liter in the lower Colorado
to highs of 9.3 and 9.2 in the upper Colorado and Green Rivers, respectively.
USGS/VTN data taken from WATSTOREa on the reach of the White River
adjacent to tracts U-a/U-b suggest all three parameters are highly variable
within an 18-mile stream reach (Table 42). Dissolved oxygen values ranged
from 2.4 mg/liter at station S-4 to a high value of 15.0 mg/liter at station
S-3. COD values ranged from a low of 0.0 mg/liter at stations S-l and S-3, to
a maximum of 200 mg/liter at station S-4. TOC values followed a similar
pattern with values ranging from a low of 2.1 mg/liter at station. S-l, to a
high of 48 mg/liter reported at station S-4.
-------
TABLE 41. MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, AND MEAN DISSOLVED OXYGEN, CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND AND TOTAL ORGANIC
CARBON LEVELS REPORTED AT SELECTED LOCATIONS ON THE GREEN, WHITE AND COLORADO RIVERS
DURING THE PERIOD 1968-76 (All concentrations are expressed in mg/liter.)
00
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (C.O.D.)
Total Organic
Carbon (T.O.C.)
Colorado River
at Glenwood
Springs, Colo.
max min mean
Colorado River
at Cisco, Utah
N max min mean
5 16.0 3.7
9.3
White River near
Watson, Utah
N max min mean
Dissolved
Oxygen
55
12.5 7.0
9.6
42
14.2
7.1
10.0
64
15.0
5.3
8.8
29 81.0 0 15.2
6 14.0 3.1 7.0
Green River near
Green River, Utah
N max min
mean
Colorado River at
Lees Ferry, Arizona
N max min
mean
Dissolved
Oxygen
Chemical Oxygen
Demand (C.O.D.)
Total Organic
Carbon (T.O.C.)
44 13.6 0 9.4
1 9.7 9.7 9.7
9 20.0 3.8 9.1
44 9.8 6.0
8.0
14.0 1.0
5.8
N = Number of observations.
Source: USGS data acquired via STORET, (1976).
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TABLE 42. MAXIMUM, MINIMUM, AND MEAN DISSOLVED OXYGEN, CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND, AND TOTAL
ORGANIC CARBON VALUES REPORTED IN THE WHITE RIVER, UTAH DURING THE PERIOD
1974-76 (All concentrations are expressed in mg/liter.)
00
Hells Hole Canyon S-l
N^ max min mean
Dissolved
Oxygen 14 11.1 6.0 8.4
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand 26 140 0 22.7
Total
Organic
Carbon 5 39 2.1 10.8
Southam Canyon S-4
N max min mean
Dissolved
Oxygen 15 11.7 2.4 8.1
Chemical
Oxygen
Demand 28 200 2 30.4
Total
Organic
Carbon 5 48.0 3.1 14.7
Ignatio S-3
N max min mean
21 15.0 6.4 9.08
29 81 0 14.8
6 14 3.1 7.0
Asphalt Wash S-ll
-N max min mean
16 11.9 3.8 8.5
29 40.0 1.0 13.9
6 8.8 2.8 6.05
N = Number of observations.
Source: USGS Computerized data storage bank, WATSTORE, (1976)
-------
Impact
The consequences of exposure of fish and aquatic invertebrates to low
oxygen levels have been the subject of numerous investigations. In-depth
review of oxygen requirements of aquatic life have been presented by Duodoroff
and Shumway (1967), Doudoroff and Warren (1962), Ellis (1937) and Fry (1960).
One of the most comprehensive reviews was prepared by Douderoff and Shumway
(1970) for the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
The FAO recommendation, although slightly modified, served as a basis for NAS
(1973) in developing dissolved oxygen water quality criteria for the
protection of fish and aquatic life.
The NAS approach to establishing dissolved oxygen water quality criteria
for the protection of fish and aquatic life differs substantially from
previous efforts by other investigators. Whereas previous water quality
criteria recommended separate limits for the protection of warm water and
rough fish (ORSANCO 1955), or warm water and cold water biota (NTAC 1968), the
NAS document made no such distinction, but provides for various levels of
protection to be afforded all aquatic life based upon socioeconomic decisions.
It is the contention of NAS (1973) that there is no evidence to indicate
the more sensitive warm water species have lower dissolved oxygen requirements
than the more sensitive cold water fishes. It is acknowledged, however, that
many warm water species are exceedingly tolerant of oxygen deficiency (NAS
1973). The NAS document also makes an assumption that the dissolved oxygen
requirements of other aquatic communities are compatible with fish even though
certain important invertebrates may be more sensitive to low dissolved oxygen
than fish (Doudoroff and Shumway 1970).
No single arbitrary recommendation can be set-^for dissolved oxygen
concentrations that will be favorable for all kinds of fish in all kinds of
water or even a single kind of fish in a single water (NAS 1973).
In light of these considerations, the NAS document offers a choice of four
levels of protection to be afforded a given water body and fisheries depending
on the degree of protection desired; namely maximum, high, moderate, or low.
The selection document outlines the requirements of the species to be
protected, natural seasonal minimal oxygen concentrations in the water body
and corresponding temperatures of oxygen-saturated freshwater. A minimum
value of 4.0 mg/liter is recommended, except for waters which have- a natural
dissolved oxygen level of less than 4.0 mg/liter, in which case no further
depression is desirable (NAS 1973). The 4.0 mg/liter minimum is selected
because evidence indicates subacute or chronic damage to several fish may
occur below this concentration (NAS 1973).
Since waters of the Colorado River system differ dramatically in the types
of fisheries they support, seasonal temperature maxima, and major uses, it
would be beyond the scope of this report to review ambient dissolved -oxygen
levels in terms of the NAS water quality criteria described above. Anaerobic
conditions have been reported in the Green River (Table 41) and minimum values
below the 4.0 mg/liter recommended minimum have been reported at two of the
White River stations near the leased tracts. Therefore, it is obvious that
88
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stress conditions for a balanced fishery exist at times in the lower reaches
of both streams. Further depression of oxygen levels could be induced by oil
shale developmental activities and related industrial and urban development
thereby further jeopardizing the aquatic biota in these areas.
Any introduction of oxidizable materials, whether organic or inorganic,
creates an additional oxygen demand through increased biological or chemical
activity, or both. The primary potential sources of such materials would
undoubtedly be municipal wastewater discharges, but industrial discharges and
diffuse sources including ground water seepage also constitute a potential
threat. Increased oxygen consumption through respiration and decomposition of
aquatic biota may follow a general enrichment of localized stream reaches
resulting from increased nutrient impact as discussed in the previous
subsection.
ACIDITY, ALKALINITY, pH, AND CARBON DIOXIDE
Relationships and Causes of Variations
Acidity and alkalinity are related terms. Acidity is produced by
substances that yield hydrogen ions; alkalinity is produced by substances that
produce hydroxyl ions (NTAC 1968). Acidity in natural waters is caused by
carbon dioxide, mineral acids, weakly dissociated acids and the salts of
strong acids and weak bases. Alkalinity is caused by strong bases and the
salts of strong alkalies and weak acids (NTAC 1968).
Determinations of pH provide an indication of acidity and alkalinity, but
are not a direct measurement of either. Total acidity by definition is the
amount of standard alkali required to bring the pH of a single sample to 8.3;
total alkalinity is the amount of standard acid required to bring a sample to
pH 4.5 (NTAC 1968). Since the titration points for both measurements are pH
dependent, a relation between acidity, alkalinity and pH is apparent. Water
with a pH below 4.5 has no measurable alkalinity and water with a pH greater
than 8.3 has no measurable acidity (NTAC 1968). Water with a pH between these
values may have both acidity and alkalinity.
The pH of most natural waters usually falls in the 6.0-9.0 range. Under
some circumstances pH values greatly outside this range may occur in natural
waters. For example, Hutchinson (1957) mentions pH values as low as 1.7
reported in a volcanic lake and values of 12.0 in an effluentless alkaline
lake.
The pH of water receiving industrial wastes and mine drainage may be
drastically altered by the addition of acids or alkalies. Such additions,
particularly in poorly buffered systems, not only result in acidic or alkaline
conditions, but may increase the toxicity of various components in the water
(NAS 1973). In well-buffered systems the addition of small quantities of
acids has little effect on the pH of the system.
89
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The susceptibility of a given water to changes in pH values as a result of
additions of acids and alkalies is a function of the buffering capacity of
that water. The buffering capacity of freshwater in turn is dependent upon
the bicarbonate content of the water (Ruttner 1953). Most running waters are
bicarbonate waters in the limnological sense showing complicated relationships
between pH, CO2,", HCO~ H+, C02, H2C03, Ca2+ and Mg^+ (Hynes 1970). These
relationships are discussed in detail by Ruttner (1953), Hutchinson (1957) and
Reid (1961). For the purposes of this discussion it is sufficient to stress a
few points summarized by Hynes (1970):
1) Rainwater reaching watercourses or runoff from bogs,
dense forest litter and similar substrata tends to
have a low pH due to the hydrogen ions produced by
the dissociation of carbonic acid and the loss of
cations by base exchange with organic matter.
2) Water which has percolated through the soil is also
rich in carbon dioxide and similarly tends to be rich
in hydrogen ions (H20 + C02 *H2C03 H+ + HCO~).
3) Calcium carbonate which is a common constituent of
many rocks is almost insoluble in water, but it
dissolves rapidly as bicarbonate in carbonic acid,
and it neutralizes the soil where it occurs (CaC03 +
H2C03 Ca(HC03)2:^±Ca2+ + 2HCO~) .
4) Calcium bicarbonate in solution is a good buffer system
and thus resists change in pH, but it remains in solution
only in the presence of a certain amount of free carbon
dioxide, the so called equilibrium C02. Therefore, any
process which removes carbon dioxide, as does photosynthesis,
tends to precipitate calcium from solution, especially
where the bicarbonate is abundant.
Alkalinity in water is contributed by bicarbonates, carbonates and
hydroxides. In most natural systems alkalinity is practically all produced by
dissolved bicarbonates and carbonate ions.
Any ion that enters into a chemical reaction with strong acid can
contribute to titrated alkalinity provided the reaction takes place
significantly above the pH of the specified end point (Hynes 1970). However,
for the most part alkalinity is produced by anionic or molecular species of
weak acids (primarily carbonic acid found when carbon dioxide is dissolved)
which are not fully dissociated above a pH of 4.5 (Hynes 1970).
Frequently alkalinity is expressed in terms of an equivalent quantity of
calcium carbonate, and such terms as methyl-orange alkalinity, and phenol-
phthalein alkalinity are encountered. Results obtained from these
determinations can be used to stoichiometrically calculate relationships of
these principal forms of alkalinity and ascribe the entire alkalinity to
bicarbonates, carbonates and hydroxides. This classification sysLeai ignores
alkalinity attributable to weak acids such as silics, phosphorous and boric
acids which do contribute to titratable alkalinity. For a discussion of
90
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alkalinity relationships the reader is referred to Hynes (1970) and Standard
Methods (APHA 1971).
It is common practice with the USGS to report alkalinity in terms of
concentrations of bicarbonates since in most natural waters these anions
produce practically all the alkalinity (Hem 1970). For additional details on
units of reporting and relationships between pH, alkalinity, and various
carbon dioxide species, the reader is referred to Hem (1970).
Ambient Levels
Since data on levels of bicarbonates and carbonates occurring at selected
sites throughout the Colorado River system were presented and discussed under
the salinity subsection of this report, they will not be repeated here. This
portion presents pH data and, where available, data on the concentrations of
free carbon dioxide at selected locations in the Colorado River system (Tables
43, 44). It should be borne in mind that carbon dioxide dissolved in such
naturally circulating waters appears in chemical analyses principally as
bicarbonate and carbonate ions (Hem 1970). It is also worth mentioning that
the Colorado River System is a well-buffered bicarbonate system, which means
that the addition of carbon dioxide to the system through respiration and
decay will not usually lower the pH substantially as minerals which act as
proton receptors are present in great abundance in the water.
Impact
The NAS Water Quality Criteria document prescribed numeric pH limits for
most beneficial water uses (Table 45). Acidity and alkalinity limits were
specified only for water designated as industrial supplies (Table 46).
The most restrictive pH limits (6.5-8.3) are for waters used primarily for
recreation and aesthetics or for those waters where a high level of protection
for aquatic life is sought with pH limits of 6.5-8.5. The least restrictive
limits are for specific industrial uses such as primary metals industries and
make-up water for freshwater cooling systems with pH limits of 3.0-9.0 and
3.5-9.0 respectively.
Since ambient levels within the Colorado River system generally do not
fall below pH 6.5 or above pH 8.5, most water within the basin can be
considered acceptable for most beneficial uses with respect to these
parameters.
Although Colorado River waters are fairly alkaline, they do not exceed the
recommended limits prescribed (Table 46). Colorado River system waters
contain suficient C02 to maintain equilibrium in the bicarbonate system. It
is doubtful that oil shale developmental activities will substantially alter
the buffering capacity of the system unless considerable quantities of acids
are discharged to waterways. Substantial changes in pH or alkalinity
(bicarbonate) levels would serve as an immediate alarm that the buffering
system has been disturbed and the equilibrium upset, thereby signaling the
need for intensive investigation to determine the cause of the disturbance.
91
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TABLE 43. RANGES AND MEAN pHa VALUES REPORTED IN COLORADO RIVER BASIN SURFACE WATER AT SELECTED
LOCATIONS DURING 1964-65 AND 1968-69
1964-65
1968-69
Colorado R. near
Glenwood Springs, Colo.
Ni max min mean
24 8.2 7.2 7.6
17 8.2 6.7 7.4
Colo. R. near
Cisco, Ut.
N max min mean
31 8.1 7.5 7.8
47 8.1 6.6 7.6
Green R. near
LaBarge, Wyo.
N max min mean
25 7.9 6.5 7.2
21 8.4 7.1 7.8
vo
NJ
a
White R. near
Watson, Ut.
Colorado R. near
Grand Canyon, Ariz.
Green R. at
Green R., Ut.
Colo. R. below
Hoover Dam, Nev.
& Ariz.
, Mean pH values are time weighted.
N = Number of observations.
Source: USGS (1970, 1974).
Colorado River at
Lees Ferry, Ariz.
1964-65
1968-69
N
34
56
max
8.3
8.5
min
7.5
7.2
mean
7.8
7.9
N
32
49
max
8.5
8.2
min
7.5
7.3
mean
7.8
7.8
N
18
17
max
7.9
8.5
min
7.5
7.4
mean
7.6
7.9
Colo. R. below
Parker Dam, Ariz.
1965-65
1968-69
N
19
12
max
7.9
8.0
min
7.6
7.5
mean
7.7
7.8
N
12
12
max
8.0
8.0
min
7.5
7.6
mean
7.8
7.8
N
14
12
max
8.3
7.9
min
7.4
7.4
mean
7.8
7.6
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TABLE 44. RANGES AND MEAN pH AND CO, VALUES IN THE WHITE RIVER ADJACENT TO LEASED TRACTS U-a/U-b AUGUST 1974 to AUGUST 1975
(All CO- values are expressed in mg/liter.)
vo
u>
pH:
Aug 74 - Apr 75
May 75 - Aug 75
C02:
AUR 74 - May 75
May 75 - Aug 75
Hells Hole
N max
10 8.5
6 8.6
10 6.7
6 2.3
Canyon
S-l
min mean
7.8
8.0
1.1
0.6
8.2
8.3
3.0
1.5
Ignatio S-3
N max
14 8.6
6 8.4
4 4.6
6 10.0
min mean
7.9 8.2
7.4 8.1
1.5 2.4
1.2 3.3
Southam
N max
11 8.5
6 8.8
11 5.6
6 17.0
Canyon
S-4
min mean
7.8
7.2
1.2
0.4
8.2
8.1
3.3
4.3
Asphalt Wash
N
8
4
8
4
max min
8.6 7.6
8.3 7.6
8.2 1.0
8.2 1.9
S-ll
mean
8.3
7.9
2.8
4.1
N - Number of observations.
Source: VTN 4th and 5th Quarterly Reports, (1975).
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TABLE 45. RECOMMENDED pH WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR DESIGNATED BENEFICIAL USES OF SURFACE WATERS
Water Use
Recommended Limit
Comments
Recreation &
Aesthetics
6.5 - 8.3
5.0 - 9.0
Most Waters
Poorly Buffered Waters
Public Water
Supplies
5.0 - 9.0
VO
Aquatic Life
5.5 - 9.5 ApHa < 1.5 units
6.0 - 9.0 ApH < 1.0 units
6.0 - 9.0 ApH < 0.5 units
6.5 - 8.5 ApH < 0.5 units
Low Level of Protection
Moderate Level of Protection
High Level of Protection
Nearly Maximum Level of
Protection
Irrigation
4.5 - 9.0
Water with a pH in this
range should be usable if
care is taken to determine
indirect harmful effects.
a
ApH Refers to changes outside the estimated natural seasonal maximum and minimum.
Source: Modified from NAS (1973).
-------
TABLE 46. MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED LIMITS FOR ALKALINITY, ACIDITY, AND pH FOR WATER TO BE USED FOR VARIOUS INDUSTRIAL PURPOSES
Boiler Makeup Water
Alkalinity
(CaC03)
Acidity
(CaC03)
PH
Industrial
0 to 1500
Psig*
500
1000
-
Utility
50 to 5000
Psig
500
1000
5.
Cooling
Once
through
500
0
0 - 8.9
Water (Fresh)
Makeup
Recycle
500
200
3.5 - 9.1
Mining
Industry Oil Recovery Injection Water
CuS Copper Formation Water
Concentrator Leach
Process Solution
Water
415
-
>_ 11.7
-
-
3-3.5 >_ 6.5
Process Water
Textile Industry Lumber Industry
Pulp & Paper
Industry
Chemical Industry Petroleum Industry
Primary Metals
Industry
Alkalinity
Acidity
pH
6.0 - 8.0
5.0 - 9.0
4.6 - 9.4
500
5.5 - 9.0
500
6.0 - 9.0
200
75
3.0 - 9.0
pounds per square inch gauge x 703.12 - kg/m .
Source: NAS (1973).
-------
5. RECOMMENDED WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL
It is convenient to think of water quality parameters as belonging to one
of two broad categories; i.e., (1) specific constituents, or (2) indicator
parameters.
The first category is comprised of those constituents which in themselves
are potential pollutants and are directly measurable in waters. This group is
represented by substances identified as components of raw or retorted oil
shale, overburden, ground waters, industrial or urban wastes, etc., which may
be subject to mobilization and release to surface waters. Examples of
parameters in this group include dissolved, suspended and settleable residues,
both inorganic and organic; radioactive isotopes; specific cations and anions;
pesticides; and oil and grease.
The second category includes those parameters which in themselves are not
pollutants, but whose measurements provide a direct or indirect measure of
pollution or environmental disturbance or are required for the interpretation
of other water quality data. Examples of parameters in this group include
dissolved oxygen, pH, specific conductance, hardness, alkalinity, turbidity,
temperature and volume of flow (discharge).
As a means of identifying and prioritizing those parameters most
appropriate for monitoring, each potential pollutant addressed in Section 3 of
the text was incorporated into a matrix (Table 47) and evaluated in terms of
the projected impact on ambient water quality with respect to beneficial water
use criteria. Also included in the matrix are those "indicator parameters"
whose ambient levels are a function or product of pollution or environmental
disturbance, or whose measurements are required for purposes of interpreting
water quality data.
The matrix provides the mechanism for the selection and prioritization of
parameters for monitoring in the following manner: Each parameter addressed
in the text is listed on the Y axis under a heading corresponding to the
subsection heading in which it appeared in Section 3 of the text. The X axis
of the matrix is coded to seven water quality statements, any of which singly,
or in combination with certain others, may describe a given parameter as it
relates to ambient and projected water quality in the Colorado River System
with respect to specific beneficial water-use criteria recommendations . If a
recommendations except those for radioactive substances are based on
NAS (1973). Radioactivity criteria are based on USEPA (1976b) Drinking Water
Regulations.
96
-------
particular statement applies to a given parameter, a symbol keyed to a
specific beneficial water use is entered in the appropriate column.
Parameters described by statements 1, 2, or 3 for a particular water use are
categorized as "A" priority parameters. Those described by statements 4 and 5
are "B" priority parameters, and those described by statements 6 and 7 are "C"
priority parameters.
The choices of water quality statements offered for each parameter and the
code number identifying each statement used in the matrix (Table 47) are
categorized by priority as follows:
Code No.
Priority "A" Parameters
Water Quality Statement
2.
3.
Code No,
Those parameters which have been reported in surface
waters of the Colorado River Basin at levels equaling
or exceeding acceptable limits with respect to
beneficial water uses, and whose ambient levels in
surface waters are likely to be altered by activities
associated with the development and operation of an
oil shale industry to the point where further
impairment of beneficial water uses will result; or
those parameters for which water quality criteria
must be established for particular receiving waters
based on tolerance levels of important, sensitive
species in those waters, and whose ambient levels
in receiving waters are likely to be altered by
activities associated with the development and
operation of an oil shale industry to the point where
the biota may be adversely impacted; or
those parameters whose measurements are essential
for purposes of interpreting other water quality data,
Water Quality Statement
Priority "B" Parameters
Those parameters whose reported levels in the
Colorado River Basin are within acceptable
limits with respect to beneficial water uses,
but whose ambient levels in surface water could
be altered by activities associated with the
development and operation of the oil shale
industry to the point where impairment of beneficial
water uses may result; or
those parameters for which no water quality
criteria are established with respect to ambient
levels and. beneficial water uses indicated,
97
-------
but the significance of the parameter in the
aquatic environment is recognized and discussed,
and whose ambient levels in surface waters could
be altered by activities associated with the
development and operation of an oil shale industry
to the point where impairment of beneficial water
uses may result.
Code No. Water Quality Statement
Priority "C" Parameters
6. Those parameters for which water quality
criteria were not established, nor was the
significance of the parameter discussed in
terms of beneficial use criteria, but whose
ambient levels in surface waters could be
altered by activities associated with the
development and operation of an oil shale
industry with unknown consequences for the
beneficial water uses indicated; or
7. those parameters for which adequate surface
water quality data are unavailable to
characterize ambient levels in the Colorado
River Basin, but which have been identified
as potential pollutants subject to release
to surface waters by activities associated
with the development and operation of an oil
shale industry.
The symbols used in the matrix (Table 47) for identifying water quality
criteria recommendations for beneficial water uses are as follows:
Symbol Beneficial Water Uses
I = Irrigation Agriculture
L = Livestock Drinking
D = Drinking Water (public water supplies)
W = Industrial Uses
A = Aquatic Life and Wildlife
X = Statement Applies to Parameter in Question
Physical and chemical parameters recommended for monitoring are summarized
by priority category "A", "B" and "C" (Tables 48, 49, and 50). The form of
each recommended parameter is based upon the available knowledge of activities
and fates of pollutants in the aquatic environments.
Priority "A" parameters require intensive monitoring because: (1) very
slight changes in their ambient levels would render water unacceptable for
specified designated beneficial water uses; (2) changes in ambient levels
would be indicative of potentially deleterious changes in water quality
98
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.)
vo
Problem
Category
Salinity
Priority "A"
Parameter 123
Total Dissolved I,W A
Solids (TDS)
Sodium (Na) \f
Potassium (K) Wa - -
Magnesium (Mg) W - -
Calcium (Ca) -
Sulfates (SO^) D - -
Chlorides (Cl) D,W
Carbonates (CO ) -
Bicarbonates W - -
(HC03)
Silica (SI02) W - -
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
L D
I,D,A L
I, A D,L
I, A D,L
W I, A D,L
W I, A L
I, A L
A,W,D I,L
I,A,D L
I D,A,L
Numerical criteria for industrial water uses include sodium plus potassium.
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
o
o
Problem
Category
Salinity
Trace
Elements
Priority "A"
Parameter 123
Conductivity I - -
Hardness W - -
Aluminum (Al) I»W,L A
Antimony (Sb) -
Arsenic (As) -
Barium CBa) -
Beryllium (Be) -
Bismuth (Bi) -
Boron (B) I
Bromine (Br) -
Cadmium (Cd) -
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
D,A,L,W
I,D,A L
D
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D - A,W
D - I,L,W,A
I L D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A X
L D A,W
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,A - W -
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A" Priority "B" Priority "C"
Problem
Category Parameter 1
Trace
Elements
Cerium (Ce
Cesium (Cs)
Chromium (Cr)
H-1
0
M Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu) I
Dysprosium (Dy)
Erbium (Er)
Europium (Eu)
Fluorides (F) I
Gadolinium (Gd)
Gallium (Ga)
Germanium (Ge)
234567
- - - - I,L,D,W,A X
- - - - I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,A - W -
I,L D,A,W
A - L,D,W -
- - - - I,L,D,W,A X
- I,L,D,W,A X
- - - - I,L,D,W,A X
L,D,W - A -
- I,L,D,W,A X
- - - - I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
Problem
Category
Trace
Elements
Priority "A"
Parameter 123
Gold (Au) -
Hafnium (Hf)
Holmium (Ho) - -
Iodine (I)
Iridium (Ir) -
Iron (Fe) D,W
Lanthanum (La)
Lead (Pb) D,A,
Lithium (Li) -
Lutetium (Lu) -
Manganese (Mn) D,W,
Mercury (Hg) A - -
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,W,A X
I L A -
I,L,D,W,A X
L,I W
I - L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A X
I L A -
L,D - I,W,
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 93 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
o
U>
Problem
Category
Trace
Elements
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A" Priority "B"
Parameter 12345
Molybdenum (Mo) I - - - L
Neodymium (Nd) -
Nickel (Ni) I A - - -
Niobium (Nb) _____
Osmium (Os) -
Palladium (Pd) _____
Platinum (Pt) -
Praseodymium (Pr) -
Rhenium (Re) _____
Rhodium (Rh) _____
Rubidium (Rb) -
Ruthenium (Ru) _____
Priority
6
A,D,W
I,L,D,W,A
L,D,W
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
"C"
7
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 95 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
o
Ji-
Problem
Category
Trace
Elements
Priority "A"
Parameter 123
Samarium (Sm) -
Scandium (Sc) -
Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag) -
Strontium (Sr) -
Tantalum (Ta.) -
Technetium (Tc) -
Tellurium (Te) -
Terbium (Tb) -
Thallium (Ti) -
Thorium (Th) -
Tin (Sn) -
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B" Priority
456
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D - A,W
D I,L,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I,L,D,W,A
I L,D,W,A
"C"
7
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
Problem
Category
Trace
Elements
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A" Priority "B" Priority "C"
Parameter 1234567
Titanium (Ti) - - - - I , L,D,W,A -
Tungsten (W) - - - - I L,D,W,A X
Uranium (U) ----- I,L,D,W,A X
Vanadium (V) - - - I,L - D,W,A
Ytterbium (Yb) - - - - - I,L,D,W,A X
Yttrium (Y) ----- I,L,D,W,A X
Zinc (Zn) - A I,L,D - W -
Zirconium (Zr) - - - - - I,L,D,W,A X
Miscellaneous
Toxic
Substances
Chlorine (Cl) _____ I,L,D,W X(A)
Symbols in parentheses following X refer to those water uses for which criteria are established but
ambient water quality data are lacking.
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
Problem
Category
Parameter
Priority "A"
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B1
Priority "C'
Miscellaneous
Toxic
Substances
Cyanides (CN) A
Detergent builders -
linear aIkylate
sulfonates (LAS)
Phenols
Polychlorinated
Biphenyls (PCB)
Phthalate esters
Q
Pesticides
Organochlorine
Organophosphate
Miscellaneous
D
D
L,D
I
I
I,L,W
I,L,W
I,L,W
I,L,W
I,L,W
W
W
X(AD)
X(A)
X(A)
X
X(A,D,L)
X(A,D,L)
» Applies only to specific pesticides as discussed in Section 3 of the text.
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
M
»vl
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A"
Problem
Category Parameter 123
Nutrients
Nitrate - N D,W
(N03 - N)
Nitrite - N
(N02 - N)
Ammonia A - -
CNH - N)
Kjeldahl -
(Kjeldahl - N)
Organic -
(Organic - N)
Total Nitrogen -
(Total - N)
Total Phosphorus -
(P - TOT)
Total Dissolved -
Phosphorus (TOP)
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
LJ A 5 -L ~ ~*
D,L - A,I,W
D,W - L,I
I,L,D,W,A X
I,L,D,W,A X
A L,D,W,I
D,A I,L,W
I,L,D,W,A X
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
Problem
Category
Parameter
Radionuclides *
Gross Alpha
Gross Beta
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A" Priority "B"
12345
- - - D -
D
Priority "C"
6 7
-
o
00
Cerium-144 -
Cesium-137
Plutonium-238, 239 -
Radium-226, 228
Ruthenium-106
Strontium-89,90
Tritium
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
X
X
HJ.S. EPA (1976b) Drinking water regulations for radionuclides are used rather than NAS (1973)
fore, aquatic life, agriculture, livestock and irrigation uses are not discussed.
6Source: USEPA (1976a)
,. (Continued)
There-
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 95 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
o
VD
Problem
Category
Oil and
Grease
Temperature
Alteration
Sediments
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A" Priority "B" Priority "C"
Parameter 1234567
Visible Oil A,D - - - - L,I,W X
Emulsified Oil A D,L,I,W X
Hexane
Extractable _____ D,L,I,W X(A)
Substances
Temperature A - - W I,D L
Streambed
Sediments - - - - A I,D,L,W
Suspended
Solids A,W - - - I L,D
Turbidity A - - - D I,L,W -
Color _____ I,L,W X(A,D)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "A"
Problem
Category Parameter 123
Hydrographic
Modification
Water Volume
Oxygen
Dissolved oxygen A - -
(DO)
Biochemical oxygen -
demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen W - -
demand (COD)
Total organic - - -
carbon (TOG)
Dissolved organic - -
carbon (DOC)
Alkalinity
Alkalinity (Total) -
Acidity -
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
I,L,D,W,A
D I,L,W
I A,L,W,D X
I A,L,D
I,LSD,W,A
I,L,D,W,A X
A,W D,I L
A, I D,L X(W)
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 47. PRIORITIZATION OF PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING THE IMPACT OF OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT ON SURFACE
WATER QUALITY (See Pages 96 to 98 for an Explanation of Code Numbers and Symbols.) (Con.)
Problem
Category
Alkalinity
Priority "A"
Parameter 123
pH -
Bicarbonates
(HC03) W
Carbonates
(co3) -
Carbon dioxide
(co2) -
CODE NUMBERS
Priority "B" Priority "C"
4567
I,L,A,W,D -
I,A,D L
A,W,D I,L
A D,L,I,W
Interpretative
Parameters
Water Volume
Temperature
X
X
-------
characteristics; or (3) data are required for the interpretation of other
water quality data.
Priority "B" parameters require routine monitoring of a lower intensity
than that for those parameters in the priority "A" category because slight
changes in ambient levels can be tolerated without exceeding established
limits for designated beneficial water uses. The measurement of parameters
in this category should be in addition to those in the priority "A" category,
but at reduced frequencies.
Priority "C" parameters require periodic monitoring in addition to those
in the "A" and "B" categories to characterize water quality with respect to
ambient levels of particular constituents and designated beneficial water
uses.
BIOLOGICAL
Significance of Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring has long been recognized as an effective tool for
evaluating the stability and environmental quality of ecosystems. Biological
investigations are of special significance in water quality monitoring
programs because they offer a means of rapidly identifying areas affected by
pollution and for assessing the degree of stress for a relatively small
investment. In terms of time and money invested, biological monitoring in
many situations provides one of the most efficient approaches in evaluating
the nature and extent of pollution-related disturbances in aquatic ecosystems.
Aquatic organisms act as natural monitors of water quality in that they
respond in a measurable and predictable manner to stress induced by most types
of pollution. Since the composition and structure of aquatic plant and animal
communities are the result of all biological, chemical and physical
interactions within the system, communities reflect the summation of all
internal and external influences impacting the system including antagonistic
and synergistic actions.
Macrobenthic invertebrates are particularly useful natural monitors of
environmental quality in lakes and streams because of their sensitivity to
changes in environmental conditions, their stationary nature, and the relative
ease with which they are sampled. Since macroinvertebrates as a group are
relatively immobile, they cannot seek relief from unfavorable conditions even
of short duration. Consequently, the more sensitive members of a community
are unable to successfully inhabit an area subjected to continuous or even
intermittent pollution input or other disturbances. This results in
colonization by the more tolerant or opportunistic forms, which, in the
absence of competition and predation from more sensitive forms, may completely
dominate the community.
Since aquatic organisms serve as continuous monitors of the environment,
they sometimes provide information which is not obtained by direct measure-
ments of water quality. Pollutants such as heavy metals and pesticides tend
112
-------
TABLE 48. PRIORITY "A" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Aluminum
Ammonia
Bicarbonates
Boron, dissolved
Chlorides, dissolved
Conductivity
Copper
Cyanides
Fluorides
Hardness
Iron
Lead
Magnesium
Manganese
Mercury, total
Molybdenum, dissolved
Aluminum (Al), dissolved
Aluminum (Al), total recoverable
Nitrogen Ammonia (NH- - N)
Bicarbonate ion (HCO )
Boron (B), dissolved
Chloride ion (Cl), dissolved
Specific Conductance
a
Copper ion (Cu), dissolved
Copper (Cu), total recoverable'
Cyanide (CN), total recoverable
Fluoride (F), dissolved
Hardness, total as CaCO«
Iron ion (Fe), dissolved
Iron (Fe), total recoverable
Lead ion (Pb), dissolved
Lead (Pb), total recoverable'
a
Magnesium ion (Mg), dissolved
Magnesium (Mg)* total recoverable
Manganese ion (Mn), dissolved
Manganese (Mn), total recoverable
Mercury (Hg), total recoverable
Molybdenum ion (Mo), dissolved
a
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
ymhos/cm
at 25 C
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
a
To be measured in streambed sediments also (yg/kg).
(Continued)
113
-------
TABLE 48. PRIORITY "A" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Nickel, dissolved
Nitrogen, Nitrate
Oil and Grease
Oxygen
Oxygen demand, Chemical
Pesticides
Phenols
Potassium, dissolved
Sodium, dissolved
Silica
Solids, dissolved
/
Solids, suspended
Sulfates, dissolved
Temperature
Turbidity
Nickel ion (Ni), dissolved
Nitrate Nitrogen (N0_ - N)
Visible Oil
Emulsified Oils
Dissolved Oxygen
Chemical Oxygen demand (COD)
Organochlorine Pesticides J
Phenolics
Potassium ion (K), dissolved
Sodium ion (Na), dissolved
Silica, dissolved (SiO,)
Silica, total (SiO_)
yg/liter
mg/liter
Severity
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
Total dissolved (filtrable) residue mg/liter
Fixed dissolved (filtrable) residue mg/liter
Total suspended (non-filtrable)
residue mg/liter
Fixed suspended (non-filtrable)
residue mg/liter
Sulfate ion (SO,), dissolved mg/liter
Temperature
Turbidity
nephelometric turbidity units
(NTU)
Applies to specific organochlorine pesticides as discussed in Section 3
of the text.
(Continued)
114
-------
TABLE 48. PRIORITY "A" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters Constituent Reported Units
3
Water Volume Discharge m /sec
Zinc Zinc ion (Zn), dissolved yg/liter
Zinc (Zn), total recoverable yg/liter
115
-------
TABLE 49. PRIORITY "B" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Acidity, total
Alkalinity, total
Alpha, gross
Arsenic
Barium, dissolved
Beryllium, dissolved
Beta, gross
Cadmium
Calcium
Carbonates
Carbon dioxide
Chromium
Cobalt, dissolved
Lithium, dissolved
Nitrogen, Nitrite
Nitrogen, total
a
Acidity, total as CaCO,
Alkalinity, total as CaCO.,
Total Alpha Activity
Arsenic ion (As), dissolved
Arsenic (As), total recoverable
Barium ion (Ba), dissolved
Beryllium ion (Be), dissolved
Total Beta Activity
Cadmium ion (Cd), dissolved
Cadmium (Cd), total recoverable
Calcium ion (Ca), dissolved
Calcium (Ca), total recoverable
Carbonate ion (COO
Carbon dioxide (C0~), dissolved
Chromium ion (Cr) , dissolved
Chromium (Cr), total recoverable'
Cobalt ion (Co), dissolved
Lithium ion (Li), dissolved
Nitrite Nitrogen (N02 - N)
Total Nitrogen (N)
a
mg/liter
mg/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
To be measured in streambed sediments also (yg/kg).
Both trivalent and trivalent plus hexavalent forms should be measured.
(Continued)
116
-------
TABLE 49. PRIORITY "B" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Oxygen demand, biochemical
Pesticides
Phosphorus, total
Phthalate esters
PH
Polychlorinated Biphenyls
Radium 226, 228
Sediments, streambed
Selenium
Silver
Strontium 89, 90
Tin
Titanium
Tungsten
Tritium
Vanadium, total
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) mg/liter
Organophosphate pesticides 3 yg/liter
Total phosphorus (P-Total) mg/liter
Total phthalate esters yg/liter
pH Standard Units
Total polychlorinated biphenyls yg/liter
Radium 226, 228, dissolved
Radium 226, 228, total
Streambed sediments
Selenium ion (Se), dissolved
Selenium (Se), total recoverable
Silver ion (Ag), dissolved
Silver (Ag), total recoverable
Strontium 89, 90, dissolved
Strontium 89, 90, total
Tin (Sn), total
Titanium (Ti), total
Tungsten ion (W), dissolved
Tungsten (W), total
Tritium in water molecules
Tritium, dissolved
Tritium, total
Vanadium (V), total recoverable
pCi/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
pCi/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
Hydrogen units
pCi/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
'Applies only to specific organophosphate pesticides as discussed in
Section 3 of the text.
117
-------
TABLE 50. PRIORITY "C" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Antimony
Bismuth
Bromine
Carbon
Cerium
Cerium 144
Cesium
Cesium 137
Chlorine
Color
Detergent builders
linear alkylate sulfonates
(LAS)
Dysprosium
Erbium
Europium
Gadolinium
Gallium
Antimony ion (Sb) , dissolved
Antimony (Sb) , total
Bismuth ion (Bi) , dissolved
Bismuth (Bi) , total
Bromine (Br)
Bromide ion (Br) , dissolved
Organic Carbon, dissolved
Organic Carbon, total
Cerium ion (Ce) , dissolved
Cerium (Ce) , total
Cerium 144, total
Cesium ion (Cs) , dissolved
Cesium (Cs), total
Cesium 137, dissolved
Cesium 137, total
Residual chlorine (Cl) , total
True Color (Platinum Cobalt Units)
LAS, total
Dysprosium (Dy) , total
Erbium (Er) , total
Europium, (Eu) , total
Gadolinium (Gd) , total
Gallium ion (Ga) t dissolved
Gallium (Ga) , total
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
pCi/liter
pCi/liter
mg/liter
PCU
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
(Continued)
118
-------
TABLE 50. PRIORITY "C" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters
Germanium
Gold
Hafnium
Ho Imium
Iodine
Iridium
Lanthanum
Lutetium
Neodymium
Niobium
Nitrogen, Kjeldahl
Nitrogen, Organic
Oils and Grease
Osmium
Palladium
Pesticides
Phosphorus
Constituent Reported
Germanium ion (Ge) t dissolved
Germanium (Ge) , total
Gold (Au) , total
Hafnium (Ha), total
Ho Imium (Ho) , total
Iodine ion (I) , dissolved
Iridium (Ir), total
Lanthanum ion (La) , dissolved
Lanthanum (La), total
Lutetium (Lu) , total
Neodymium (Nd) , total
Niobium (Nb) , total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen, total
Organic Nitrogen, dissolved as N
Organic Nitrogen, total as N
Hexane Extractable Substances
Osmium (Os), total
Palladium (Pd) , total
Miscellaneous pesticides
Phosphorus, total dissolved
Units
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/liter
mg/kg
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
To be measured in streambed sediments only.
Applies only to specific pesticides as discussed in Section 3 of the text.
(Continued)
119
-------
TABLE 50. PRIORITY "C" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters
Constituent Reported
Units
Platinum
Plutonium 238, 239
Praseodymium
Rhenium
Rhodium
Rubidium
Ruthenium
Ruthenium 106
Samarium
Scandium
Strontium
Tantalum
Technetium
Tellurium
Terbium
Thallium
Thorium
Uranium
Ytterbium
Platinum (Pt), total
Plutonium 238, 239, dissolved
Praseodymium (Pr), total
Rhenium (Re), total
Rhodium (Rh), total
Rubidium ion (Rb), dissolved
Rubidium (Rb), total
Ruthenium (Ru), total
Ruthenium 106, total
Samarium (Sm), total
Scandium ion (Sc), dissolved
Scandium (Sc), total
Strontium ion (Sr), dissolved
Tantalum (Ta), total
Technetium (Tc), total
Tellurium (Te), total
Terbium (Tb), total
Thallium ion (Tl), dissolved
Thallium (Tl), total
Thorium (Th), total
Uranium ion (U), dissolved
Uranium (U), total
Ytterbium ion (Yb), dissolved
Ytterbium (Yb), total
yg/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
pCi/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
yg/liter
(Continued)
120
-------
TABLE 50. PRIORITY "C" CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PARAMETERS TO BE MEASURED IN
SURFACE WATERS (Continued)
Parameters Constituent Reported Units
Yttrium Yttrium ion (Y), dissolved yg/liter
Yttrium (Y), total yg/liter
Zirconium Zirconium ion (Zr), dissolved yg/liter
Zirconium (Zr), total yg/liter
121
-------
to accumulate in the biota in far greater levels than are found in the water
column as a result of uptake and concentration both through the food chain and
directly from the water. Thus, an examination of tissue may reveal the
presence of potentially hazardous substances in the biota which were not
detectable in the water.
Biological monitoring should be incorporated into any monitoring program
designed to assess the impact of development and operation of an oil shale
industry on the freshwater ecosystem and water quality. Subtle changes in
water quality characteristics may be indicated by changes in the aquatic biota
before they are detected by physical-chemical monitoring procedures.
Biological monitoring should not be viewed as an alternative to physical-
chemical monitoring, but rather as a complementary tool for improving the
efficacy of monitoring programs.
Selection oJj Parameters
Selection and prioritization of biological parameters were accomplished
by considering both the components of the aquatic community most responsive to
stress, and the measurement technique most appropriate for directly or
indirectly measuring such response. The parameters were categorized and
prioritized in accordance with the following criteria:
Priority "A"
(1) Measurement of those components of the
aquatic community which exhibit a predictable
and measurable response to the type of stress
conditions anticipated considering the nature
of expected pollutants and habitat alteration
associated with oil shale development
activities, and
(2) for which analytical and measurement
techniques provide rapid and reproducible
data with a minimum of monetary and manpower
investments.
Priority "B"
(1) Measurement of those components of the
aquatic community associated with particular
habitats that may be affected by particular
conditions which may be induced by
development of an oil shale industry and
associated activities.
Priority "A" parameters (Table 51) are recommended for routine monitoring
in any basic water quality monitoring program designed to assess the
environmental impact of oil shale and associated development on aquatic
ecosystems. Priority "B" parameters (Table 52) should not be routinely
monitored unless a specific problem is encountered or suspected in a
particular environment.
122
-------
TABLE 51. PRIORITY "A" BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
NO
CO
Community
Macroinvertebrates
Parameter
Counts and
Identification
Biomass
Analysis
N /Unit Substrate Area or
Unit Sampling Effort (time) or
Unit Sample
Total Wt./Unit Substrate Area
(ash- free) or
Unit Sampling Effort
Units
N/m2
N/min
N/Sample
g/m
g/min
Periphyton
Community Composition
and Diversity
Toxic Substances in
Tissue
Counts and
Identification
Biomass
Community Composition
and Diversity
Chlorophyll &_
n /Taxon
Wt. Substance/Unit Tissue Wt.
N/Unit Substrate Area
Diatom Species Proportional Count
Total Wt./Unit Substrate Area
(ash-free)
n/Taxon
Wt./Substrate Area
n/ith Taxon
S/N
Ug/g
N/cm
percent
mg/m
n/ith Taxon
ug/cm
N = Total Numbers.
n = Number of Individuals.
Q
S = Number of Taxa.
(Continued)
-------
TABLE 51. PRIORITY "A" BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS (Continued!
Community Parameter Analysis Units
Fish Counts and N/Unit Sampling Effort N/Sample
Identification
Biomass Total Wt./Unit Sampling Effort g/Satnple
(Wet Wt.)
Toxic Substance Wt. Substance/Unit Wt. Tissue mg/g
in Tissue
Community Composition Species List/Sample
-------
TABLE 52. PRIORITY "B" BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
Community
Parameter
Analysis
Units
Phytoplankton
Counts and Identification
Chlorophyll _a
Community Composition
and Diversity
N^/Unit Volume
Total Wt./Unit Volume
n /Taxon
SC/N
N/ml
Vig/liter
n/ith Taxon
S/N
Fish
Ul
Flesh Tainting
Growth Rate
Condition Factor
Taste Test Panel
Age/Length by Species
Length/Weight
Rating Scale
yr/mm
v - 10 x wt(gm)
Q
Length (L)
Macrophytes
Species Identification
and Community Association
Areal Coverage
and Community
Map of Species
Association
Bacteria
Total Coliform
Fecal Coliform
N/Unit Volume
N/Unit Volume
N/ml
N/ml
N = Total Numbers.
n = Number of Individuals.
Q
S = Number of Taxa.
-------
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131
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APPENDIX A: CONVERSION OF TEXT TABLES 1, 2, 3, 4, and 8
TO METRIC UNITS
132
-------
LIST OF APPENDIX TABLES
Table Page
A-l Contingent water consumption forecasts for a 1-million-
barrel-per-day shale oil industry (Table 1) 134
A-2 Ranges of water use for various rates and methods of shale
oil production (m3 x 106) (Table 2) 135
A-3 Summary of streamflow records of streams draining the
Colorado oil shale area (Table 3) 136
A-4 Water required and produced by two single mines for a
projected 30-year period of shale oil production (Table 4) 137
A-5 Summary of geologic units and their water-bearing
characteristics in the Piceance Creek Basin (Table 8) ... 138
133
-------
TABLE A-l. CONTINGENT WATER CONSUMPTION FORECASTS FOR A 1-MILLION-BARREL-PER-DAY SHALE OIL INDUSTRY
(Table 1)
Requirements
Processing:
Mining and crushing
Retorting
Shale oil upgrading
Processed shale disposal
Power
Revegetation
Sanitary use
£ Subtotals
*-
Associated Urban:
Domestic use
Domestic power
Subtotals
TOTALS
Ancillary Development:
Nahcolite/dawsonite
* GRAND TOTALS
Lower Range
7.4
11.1
20.9-25.9
29.6
12.3
0
1.2
82.5-87.5
11.1-13.5
0
11.1-13.5
93.6-101
-
93.6-101
Range of Water Consumption
Most Likely
7.4- 9.8
11.1-14.8
35.7-54.2
57.9-86.3
18.5-28.3
0 -14.8
1.2- 1.2
131.8-209.4
16.0-20-9
1.2- 2.4
17.2-23.3
149.0-232.7
-
149.0-232.7
(m3 x 106)
Upper Range
9.8
14.8
54.2
103.6
45.6-55.5
22.2
1.2
205.4-260.3
20.9
2.4
23.3
273.7-283.6
39.4- 78.9
313.1-362.5
Source: Modified from USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 111-44).
-------
TABLE A-2. RANGES OF WATER USE FOR VARIOUS RATES AND METHODS OF SHALE OIL PRODUCTION
(m3 x 106) (Table 2)
UJ
tn
Shale Oil Production (barrels per day) /Method of Production
50,0007 100,0007 50,0007 400, OOO/ 400,0007
Requirements
Processing:
Mining and crushing
Retorting
Shale oil upgrading
Processed -shale disposal
Power
Revegetation
Sanitary use
Subtotals
Associated Urban:
Domestic use
Domestic power
Subtotals
GRAND TOTALS
MEAN VALUES
Underground Mine Surface Mine
0.45
0.71
1.80
3.50
0.90
0.00
0.02
7.40
0.8
0.1
0.9
8.3
- 0
- 0
- 2
- 5
- 1
- 0
- 0
- 11
- 1
- 0
- 1
- 13
10.7
.62
.90
.70
.40
.20
.86
.06
.80
.1
.1
.2
.0
0.90
1.40
3.60
7.20
1.80
0.00
0.04
14.90
1.4
0.1
1.5
16.4
- 1.26
- 1.80
- 5.40
- 10.70
- 2.50
- 0.86
- 0.09
- 22.60
- 1.8
- 0.2
- 2.0
- 24.6
20.7
In Situ
Mining
1.80
0.90
0.00
0.02
2.7
0.8
0.1
0.9
3.6
- 2.70
- 2.20
- 0.86
- 0.50
- 6.30
- 1.0
- 0.1
- 1.1
- 6.9
5.4
Technology Mix
3.20 -
5.00 -
14.40 -
25.20 -
7.10 -
0.00 -
0.20 -
55.10 -
6.6 -
0.6 -
7.2 -
62.3 -
80.
4.40
6.30
21.60
38.10
11.30
6.00
0.40
88.10
8.5
0.7
9.2
97.3
1
Technology Mix
7.40 -
11.10 -
35.70 -
57.90 -
18.50 -
0.00 -
1.20 -
131.80 -
16.0 -
1.2 -
17.2 -
149.0 -
191
9.80
14.80
54.30
86.30
28.30
14.80
1.20
209.50
20.9
2.4
23.3
232.8
.2
Source: Modified from USDI (1973, vol I, p. 111-34).
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TABLE A-3. SUMMARY OF STREAMFLOW RECORDS OF STREAMS DRAINING THE COLORADO OIL SHALE AREA (Table 3)
Drainage Average Extremes
area discharge m
Streamflow station
West Fork Parachute Creek near
Grand Valley
Parachute Creek near
Grand Valley
Parachute Creek at
Grand Valley
Roan Creek at Simmons Ranch
Roan Creek above Clear Creek
Roan Creek near DeBeque
Piceance Creek at Rio Blanco
Piceance Creek near Rio Blanco
Piceance Creek below
Ryan Gulch
Piceance Creek at White River
Yellow Creek near White River
Period of record
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Apr.
Oct.
June
Apr.
Mar.
Oct.
Apr.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
Oct.
1957-Sept.
1948-Sept.
1964-Sept.
1921-Sept.
1948-Sept.
1935-Sept.
1936-Oct.
1937-Sept.
1962-Sept.
1921-Sept.
1962-Sept.
1952-Sept.
1940-Sept.
1964-Sept.
1964-Sept.
1964-Sept.
1962
1954
1967
1927
1954
1935
1936
1937
1967
1926
1967
1957
1943
1967
1966
1966
2 3
km m /second Maximum
124.
372.
518.
204.
391.
831.
23.
396.
1256.
1629.
668.
6 0.12 4.2
9 0.50 20.9
0 0.86 25.8
6 - 4.0
0 0.42 22.6
4 1.1 34.5
3 0.04 0.65
2 0.57 12.2
1 0.35 11.3
0 0.48 15.5
2 0.04 30.0
of discharge
/second
Minimum daily
0
0
0
0
.03
.09
.003
.003
.02
.02
0
Sources: Modified from Coffin et al. (1971).
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u>
TABLE A-4. WATER REQUIRED AND PRODUCED BY TWO SINGLE MINES FOR A PROJECTED 30-YEAR PERIOD OF SHALE
OIL PRODUCTION (Table 4)
Shale Oil Production (barrels per day)/Type of Mine
Requirements'2 50,000/Underground Mine 100,000/Surface Mine
Water Water
Require- Water Excess Diverted Require- Water , Excess Diverted
merits Produced Water Water ments Produced Water Water
Processing:
High quality water 0.09-0.15 0.21 0.07-0.12 0 -0.01 0.18-0.28 0.21 0.03-0.05 0.03-0.07
Low quality water 0.10-0.16 0.46 0.29-0.35 0.21-0.32 0.46 0.13-0.24
Subtotals 0.19-0.31 0.67 0.36-0.47 0 -0.01 0.39-0.60 0.67 0.16-0.29 0.03-0.07
Associated Urban:
High quality water 0.02-0.03 0.02-0.03 0.04-0.05
TOTALS 0.21-0.34 0.67 0.36-0.47 0.02-0.04 0.39-0.60 0.67 0.16-0.29 0.07-0.12
In cubic meters x 10
This would represent the maximum diverted surface water requirements should no water be available
from processing or from the mines.
Assumes a maximum pumping rate of 1.13 m /s declining to 0.51 m /s in the 30 year.
Assumes a maximum initial pumping rate of 0.85 m /s declining to 0.51 m /s In the 30 year.
Source: USDI (1973, vol. I, p. 111-60).
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TABLE A-5. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Table 8)
Alluvium, 0-43 meters thick; Holocene and Pleistocene (?) in age:
Physical Character
Water Quality
Sand, gravel and clay partly fill major valleys as
much as 42 meters; generally less than one kilo-
meter wide. Beds of clay may be as thick as
21 meters, generally thickest near the center of
valleys. Sand and gravel contain stringers of
clay near mouths of small tributaries to major
streams.
Near the headwaters of the major streams, dissolved-
solids concentrations range from 250 to 700 mg/liter.
Dominant ions in the water are generally calcium,
magnesium, and bicarbonate. In most of the area,
dissolved solids range from 700 to as much as
25,000 mg/liter. Above 3,000 mg/liter the dominant
ions are sodium and bicarbonate.
Water is under artesian pressure where sand and
gravel are overlain by beds of clay. Reported
yields as much as 5.7 m /min. Well yields will
decrease with time because valleys are narrow and
the valley walls act as relatively impermeable,
boundaries* Transmissivity ranges from 75.9 m /day
to 567.7 m /day. The storage coefficient averages
0.20.
Uinta Formation:
0-381 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Intertonguing and gradational beds of sandstone,
siltstone and marlstone: contains pyroclastic
rocks and few conglomerate lenses. Forms surface
rock over most of the area; thins appreciably
westward.
Hydrologic
Character
Water Quality
Hydrologic
Character
Water ranges from 250 to 1,800 mg/liter dissolved
solids.
Beds of sandstone are predominantly fine grained
and have low permeability. Water moves primarily
(Continued)
138
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TABLE A-5. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Uinta Formation (Continued):
Hydrologic
Character through fractures. The part of the Formation higher
(Continued) than valley floors is mostly drained. Reported to
yield as much as 0.37 m /min were tested in the
north-central part of the basin. Formation has
not been thoroughly tested, and larger yields may
be possible.
Green River Formation:
Parachute Creek Member, 152-548 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Kerogenaceous dolomitic marlstone (oil shale) and
shale; contains thin pyroclastic beds, fractured to
depths of at least 451 meters. Abundant saline
minerals in deeper part of the basin. The member
can be divided into three zones which can be
correlated throughout the. basin by use of
geophysical logs: CD high resistivity, (2) low
resistivity or leached, and (3) Mahogany zone
(oldest to youngest).
Water Quality Water ranges in dissolved-solids content from 250 to
about 63,000 mg/liter. Below 500 mg/liter, calcium
is the dominant cation: Above 500 mg/liter, sodium
is generally dominant. Bicarbonate is generally the
dominant anion regardless of concentration. Fluoride
ranges from 0.0 to 54 mg/liter.
Hydrologic
Character The high resistivity zone and Mahogany zone are
relatively impermeable. The leached zone (middle
zone) contains water in solution openings and is
under sufficient artesian pressure to cause flowing
wells.- Transmissivity ranges from less than
33.9 m /day per meter, in the margins of the basin
to 152 m /day per meter in the center of the basin.
Estimated yields as much as 3.7 m /min. Total water
in storage in the leached zone is 3,083 m or more.
(Continued)
139
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TABLE A-5. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Green River Formation:
Garden Gulch Member, 0-274 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Papery and flaky marlstone and shale; contains some
beds of oil shale and, locally, thin beds of sand-
stone.
Water Quality One water analysis indicates dissolved-solids
concentration of 12,000 mg1/liter.
Hydrologic
Character Relatively impermeable and probably contains few
fractures. Prevents downward movement of water.
In the Parachute and Roan Creeks drainages, springs
are found along contact with overlying rocks. Not
known to yield water to wells.
Douglas Creek Member, 0-244 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Sandstone, shale and limestone; contains oolites
and ostracods.
Water Quality The few analytical results indicate that dissolved-
solids content ranges from 3,000 to 12,000 mg/liter.
Dominant ions are sodium and bicarbonate, or sodium
and chloride.
Hydrologic
Character Relatively low permeability and probably little
fractured. Maximum yield is unknown, but probably
less than 0.19 m /min.
Anvil Points Member, 0-570 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Shale, sandstone, and marlstone grade within a
short distance westward into the Douglas Creek,
Garden Gulch, and lower part of the Parachute
Creek Member. Beds of sandstone are fine grained.
(Continued)
14Q
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TABLE A-5. SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC UNITS AND THEIR WATER-BEARING CHARACTERISTICS
IN THE PICEANCE CREEK BASIN (Continued)
Green River Formation (Continued):
Water Qualtiy The principal ions in the water are generally
magnesium and sulfate. The dissolved-solids
content ranges from about 1,200 to 1,800 mg/liter.
Hydrologic
Character Sandstone beds have low permeability. A few wells
tapping sandstone beds yield less than 0.03 m /min.
Springs issuing from fractures yield as much as
0.37 m /min.
Wasatch Formation, 91-1525 meters thick; Eocene in age:
Physical Character Clay, shale, lenticular sandstone; locally, beds
of conglomerate and limestone. Beds of clay and
shale are the main constituents of the formation.
Contains gypsum.
Water Quality Gypsum contributes sulfate to both surface-water
and ground water supplies.
Hydrologic
Character Beds of clay and shale are relatively impermeable.
Beds of sandstone are slightly permeable. The
Formation is not known to yield water to wells.
Source: Modified from Coffin et al. (1971).
141
t-U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1979-684-484 -«--r-«-
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/4-79-018
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
TITLE AND SUBTITLE
SURFACE WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR MONITORING
OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT
5. REPORT DATE
March 1979
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
W. L. Kinney, A. N. Brecheisen, and V. W. Lambou
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1BD884
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Las Vegas, NV
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/07
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report develops and recommends prioritized listings of chemical,
physical, and biological parameters which can be used to assess the
environmental impact of oil shale development on surface water resources.
The derivation of the list and the prioritization of the parameters are based
on a review of current information regarding potential pollutants and the
severity of the possible impact on ambient water quality with respect to water
use criteria.
Each of the potential water-related problems is addressed in the context
of the probable cumulative regional impact of a maturing, commercial oil shale
industry and in terms of local impact resulting from the prototype operation
initially planned on leased public lands. The possible effects of potential
pollutants on ambient water quality and the resulting impact on aquatic life,
public water supplies, livestock, irrigation agriculture, and selected
industries are evaluated. Where sufficient data are available, attempts
are made to relate historical, current, and projected water .quality data to
water quality criteria for various water uses.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
surface water
oil shale industry
water pollution
water quality
environmental survey
aquatic biology
water chemistry
monitoring
water quality parameters
water quality criteria
parameter priority
ranking
Colorado River Basin
oil shale development
06 F
07 B,
08 H
13 B,
18 H
H
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
156
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
AOS
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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