Environm'enTa, Protection EPA-600/6-81-001
Agency January 1981
4>EPA Research and
Development
PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE MUTAGENICITY
OF CARBARYL
Prepared for
SPECIAL PESTICIDE REVIEW DIVISION
OFFICE OF PESTICIDE PROGRAMS
Prepared by
Office of Health and
Environmental Assessment
Washington DC 20460
REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS ASSESSMENT GROUP
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(I'h-asc read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
. flfPORT NO.
EPA-600/6-81-001
OPli
TI/LE
2.
-zacaiicii IOTORMAIION
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4.
AND SUBTITLE
Preliminary Report on the Mrtagenicity of
Carbaryl
5. REPORT DATE
January 1981
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
Vicki Vaughan-Dellarco, Ph.D.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Reproductive Effects Assessment Group
Office of Health and Environmental Assessment
Office of Research and Development
U. S. EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
ABX E1A
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
In-house
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Special Pesticide Review Division
Office of Pesticide Programs
Office of Pesticide and Toxic Substances
U.S. EPA, Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Response Report
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16-ABSTRC§fbaryl has been reported to cause point mutations in bacteria,
Drosophila, and mammalian cells in vitro; unscheduled DNA snythesis in human
cells in culture; and chromosome effects (including spindle effects) in
plants, mammalian cells in vitro, and animals. Although there are
inadequacies in these studies, the results when considered together are
strongly suggestive that carbaryl may have the intrinsic ability to act as a
mutagen. It should be noted that because carbaryl appears to act as a weak
mutagen in the experimental test systems, it is likely to act as a weak
mutagen in humans as well. To cause heritable effects in humans, however,
carbaryl and/or an active metabolite(s) must reach the germinal tissue.
Evidence that carbaryl reaches the mammalian gonad is considered suggestive.
Adverse gonadal effects, e.g., abnormal sperm morphology (Degraeve et al.
1976), reduction in the number of spermatogonia and spermatozoa in the
seminiferous tubules, (Kitagawa et at. 1977) reduced sperm motility
(Shtenberg and Rybakova 1968), and decreased fertilization index (Collins et
al. 1971) have been reported in rodents exposed to carbaryl. In addition,
abnormal sperm head morphology has been reported in workers with known
exposure to carbaryl (Wyrobek et al. 1980). Therefore, carbaryl may have the
potential to act as a germ-cell mutagen.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
NTIS Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
47
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 3220-1 (9-73)
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THE REPRODUCTIVE EFFECTS ASSESSMENT GROUP'S PRELIMINARY REPORT
ON THE MUTAGENICITY OF
CARBARYL
Peter E. Voytek, Ph.D.
Di rector
Prepared by
Vicki Vaughan-Dellarco, Ph.D,
Participating Members
John R. Fowle III, Ph.D,
Ernest Jackson, M.S.
Donna K. Kuroda, Ph.D.
David Mann, B.A.
Carol N. Sakai, Ph.D.
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CONTENTS
Purpose 1
Overview 1
Review of Experimental Evidence on the Mutagenicity of Carbaryl 3
Evidence Concerning Gene Mutations 3
Bacteria
Mammalian Cells in Culture
Drosophila
Evidence Concerning Chromosomal Effects 17
Plants
Mammalian Cells in Culture
In Vivo Cytogenetic Studies
"Dominant Lethal Assay in Rodents
Evidence Indicative of Primary DNA Damage 27
Evidence Concerning Whether the Active Form of Carbaryl
Reaches or Affects Germinal Tissue 30
Review of Experimental Evidence on the Mutagenicity of Nitrosocarbaryl. . 35
Conclusion 37
References 39
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PURPOSE
The Reproductive Effects Assessment Group (REAG) conducted an extensive
review of published and unpublished data regarding the mutagenicity of
carbaryl (Sevin) at the request of the Special Pesticide Review Division of
the Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Pesticide Programs as part of
their Rebuttable Presumption Against Registration (RPAR). The acceptability
of the test results was determined and the mutagenic potential of carbaryl was
assessed.
OVERVIEW
Mutagenic chemicals are recognized as posing a potential risk to human
health because of their ability to cause heritable changes in genes and
chromosomes. Such germline changes, for example, can lead to spontaneous
abortions, birth defects, or the accumulation of deleterious mutations in the
human gene pool. In addition, somatic mutations may be involved in the
etiology of cancer.
The primary objective of a mutagenicity risk assessment is to determine
the potential of a chemical to cause heritable germline effects in man
(Environmental Protection Agency's "Proposed Guidelines for Mutagenicity Risk
.Assessment," Federal Register 45:74984, November 1980). Positive responses
have been reported in three gene mutation test systems (bacteria, Drosophila,
and mammalian cells in culture) using carbaryl (McCann, 1980 personal
communication, Cook et al. 1977, Rashid 1978, Egert and Greim 1976, Brzheskii
1972, Ahmed et al. 1977a). In addition, the results of cytogenetic tests
suggest that carbaryl may induce chromosomal aberrations in mammalian cells in
culture (Ishidate and Odashima 1977, Kazarnovskaya and Vasilos 1977); carbaryl
-------
h,as been shown to cause spindle effects in plants (Wuu and Grant 1966, Amer
1965, Amer et al. 1971, Amer and Farah 1968, Brankovan 1972) and may cause
spindle effects in rodents (Vasilos et al. 1975a, b) and in human cells j_n_
vitro (Vasilos et al. 1972, Shpirt 1975); and carbaryl has been shown to cause
unscheduled DNA synthesis, which is indicative of primary DMA damage, in
cultured human cells (Ahmed et al. 1977b). Although there are inadequacies in
the available studies, the results, when considered together, are strongly
suggestive that carbaryl may act as a mutagen.
To cause heritable effects in humans, however, a chemical with Intrinsic
mutagenicity must reach the germinal tissue. Evidence that carbaryl and/or
its active metabolites reaches mammalian gonads is suggestive. Adverse
gonadal effects, e.g., abnormal sperm morphology (Degraeve et al. 1976),
reduction in the number of spermatogonia and spermatozoa in the seminiferous
tubules, (Kitagawa et al. 1977) reduced sperm motility (Shtenberg and Rybakova
1968), and decreased fertilization index (Collins et al. 1971) have been
reported in rodents exposed to carbaryl. In addition, abnormal sperm head
morphology has been reported in workers with known exposure to carbaryl
(Wyrobek et al. 1980). Therefore, carbaryl may have the potential to act as a
germ cell mutagen.
Further experiments are needed, however, to better characterize the
mutagenic risk of carbaryl (e.g., gene mutation tests in Drosophila or
mammalian cells in vitro describing a dose-response, and data demonstrating
alkylation or radiolabeling in germ cell DNA of intact animals). It should be
noted that carbaryl is not a potent mutagen in the reported studies, and
probably acts as a weak mutagen only.
It is well-established that nitrosocarbaryl, a nitroso derivative of
carbaryl, is a potent mutagen in bacteria. A dose-related increase in mutants
-------
above the spontaneous mutation frequency has been observed (Blevins et al.
1977, Elespuru et al. 1974, Marshall et al. 1976, Seller 1977, Greim et al.
1977, and Uchiyama et al. 1975). Also, some investigators have shown that
nitrosocarbaryl can cause primary DNA damage as manifested by the ability to
strongly induce mitotic gene conversion in yeast (Siebert and Eisenbrand 1974)
and by the detection of DNA strand breaks and unscheduled DNA synthesis in
cultured human cells (Regan et al. 1976). Although, there is no available
evidence regarding the ability of nitrosocarbaryl to reach or affect the
mammalian gonads, nitrosocarbaryl is intrinsically mutagenic and thus likely
to cause somatic mutations in humans which may be involved in the etiology of
cancer. Some studies indicate that nitrosocarbaryl given orally to rats
results in the development of carcinomas in the forestomach (Eisenbrand et al.
1976, Lijinsky and Taylor 1976). Because the in vivo formation of this
compound in the human stomach from nitrites and carbaryl in the diet is
conceivable (Rickard 1979), nitrosocarbaryl should be included as a potential
parameter in the toxicological consideration of carbaryl.
REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE ON THE MUTAGENICITY OF CARBARYL
EVIDENCE CONCERNING GENE MUTATIONS
(Studies summarized in Tables 1 and 2)
Gene mutations are defined as point mutations and interstitial deletions.
Point mutations are limited to intralocus changes that affect one or a few
base-pairs out of about 10^ to 10$ base-pairs which constitute a gene
(e.g., base-pair substitutions, base-pair additions or deletions). An
interstitial deletion is a minor deletion which may involve several gene loci,
a single gene locus, or a part of a gene locus (Flamm 1977).
Before discussing the results of the mutagenicity tests, it should be
-------
emphasized that a negative result in a mutation test does not preclude the
mutagenic activity of a compound. The specificity of a test system for the
detection of a particular type of mutagen and the level of sensitivity should
be considered. Furthermore, the original form of a chemical may not be
mutagenic but rather one of its metabolites may be an active mutagen. Thus, a
compound inactive in the absence of metabolic activation in an in vitro test
should also be assessed in the presence of mammalian microsomal enzymes (e.g.,
S9 fraction). More importantly, the experimental assay may have been
conducted improperly. For example, concurrent negative and positive controls
must be included. In addition, before investigating the mutagenic effect of
any agent, it is essential to determine the quantitative dependence of cell
killing of the chemical dose to be tested. Not only should an appropriate
concentration range be examined but an adequate number of tests should be
performed to confirm a negative or positive result.
Bacteria
Bacterial tests in which carbaryl has been reported as negative include
back mutations in Bacillus subtil is, forward mutations in Haemophilus
influenzae, and back and forward mutations in Escherichia coli (Table 1).
Several of these reports (DeGiovanni-Donnelly et al. 1968, Egert and Greim
1976, Fahrig 1974, Fiscor and Lo Piccolo 1972, Shirasu et al. 1976, Uchiyama
et al. 1975) contained no or only a brief description of the protocol. Most
of these negative reports do not describe the toxicity of the test material
(see Table 1). The importance of toxicity measurements is that excessive cell
killing by the chemical could result in the elimination of revertants or
mutants (i.e., false negative result) or that an observation of a negative
result and no toxicity may be due to the fact that the test material did not
enter the cell (i.e., a no-test classification). In addition, because it has
-------
TABLE I. POINT MUTATION TESTS USING BACTERIA
en
Reference
Ashwood- Smith
et al. 1972
Blevlns
et al. 1977
Cook
et al. 1977
DeLorenzo
et al. 1978
Elespuru
et al. 1974
Test System
Reversion
to tryptophan
prototrophy In
E. coll;
spot test
Salmonella
test: plate
Incorporation
and spot test
Salmonella
test: plate
Incorporation
Salmonella
test: plate
Incorporation
Forward mutation
to novoblocln
resistance
in Haemophllus
Influenza
Strain
WP2(TRY-)
TA 1535
TA 1537
TA 1538
TA 98
TA 100
TA 100
TA 1535
TA 1537
TA 1538
TA 98
TA 100
Wild- type
Activation
System
None
None
None
Phenobarbltal
Induced rats,
(Sprague-
Dawley) S9
liver mix
None
reported
Concentration
Tested at a con-
centration of
10% (active In-
gredient) In
phosphate buffer
saline
50 nmole
or 11.5 ug/
plate, dissolved
in ethanol
(approximately
95% purity)
0.2. 2, 20.
400 ug/plate
10 ug to 1500
ug/plate.
dissolved In
DHSO
(96-99* purity)
0.1 mM
for 1 to 9
minutes
Result
Reported as
negative
Reported as
negative
Weakly
mutagenlc
at 400ug/
plate
Reported as
negative with
or without
metabolic
activation
Negative
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
1.
1.
2.
3.
Comment
Revertant count data not
presented
Concentration of carbaryl Is
above solubility In water
(0.01%, Carpenter et al . 1976)
Purity of carbaryl not given
Toxicity not described
Revertant count data not
presented
Brief description of protocol
Exact criteria for defining
a negative not given
One concentration examined
No concurrent positive
control data
Abstract without data
Data obtained by personal
communication
Protocol was not available
Data not presented
Did not examine a range of
concentrations
Purity of chemical not
given
Exposed to chemical for a
short time
(Continued on toilowing pageT
-------
TABLE 1. (continued)
cr>
Reference
Egert and
Cretin
1976
Egert and
Grelm
1976
Fahrig
1974
Test System
Mutation
to prototrophy In
E. coll:
TTquId suspension
Salmonella
test:
liquid suspension
Back mutation to
prototrophy In two
Strain
K12.
gal-
nad-
arg-
MTR-
TA 1538
Activation
System Concentration
House (male NMRI) Not reported
liver mlcrosomes
and NADPII cofac-
tors
Mouse (male 100 uM
NMRI) liver (solvent not
mlcrosomes reported)
and HAOPH.
mice were
phenobarbltal
Induced
Resul t
Reported as
negative with or
without metabolic
activation
Increase
In mutation
frequency after
activation
(response was weak)
Reported as
negative
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
1.
Comment
Insufficient Information on
protocol employed and
revertant count data
not presented
Purity of chemical not given
Chemicals tested were
reported not to reduce cell
survival by more than 20%
Positive results were not
confirmed by repeating
experiment
Dose-related response not
determined
Purity of chemical not
reported
Report was a review of
published and unpublished
auxotrophlc strains
of Serratia
marcescens, and
forward mutation
to galactose
prototrophy In
E^ coll: spot test
prototrophy
3.
4.
data
Protocol and data were not
given
Purity of carbaryl not given
Toxlclty not described
(Continued on following page)
-------
Reference
Fahrlg
1974
TABLE
Activation
Test System Strain System
Forward mutation to
streptomycin
1. (continued)
Concentration Result
Reported as
negative
Comment
1. Report was a review of
published and unpublished
resistance In E. coll:
Liquid holding test
data
Protocol and data were not
given
DeGlovanni-
Donnelly
et al.
1968
Flscor and
Lo Piccolo
1972
Marshall
et al.
1976
Back mutation
at Indole
locus of
Bacillus
subtil fs
Reversion
to prototrophy
in E. coll:
spoT~test
Salmonella
test:
plate Incor-
poration
1681-
lac-
leu-
cys-
TA 1535
TA 1536
TA 1537
TA 1538
None
reported
None
reported
Phenobarbital
Induced rats
(Male Sprague
Dawley) S9
liver prepa-
ration
0.07% solution
Isotax Insect
spray
with 51
carbaryl , exact
concentrations
used not reported
A
50 ug to
1000 ug/plate.
dissolved In
DMSO
Reported as
negative
Reported as
negative
Reported as
negative with
or without
metabolic
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
1.
2.
3.
Purity of carbaryl not given
Toxidty not described
Article was brief on
methodology
No concurrent positive controls
Purity of carbaryl not given
Concentration test of permitted
50% growth of control growth
Protocol and data not presented
Toxlcity not described
Data presented only for 1000
ug/plate where a twofold
Increase above background
was observed
Positive control data not
presented
Purity of chemical not given
(Continued on following pageT
-------
TABLE 1. (continued)
00
Reference
McCann
et al.
1975
McCann
1980 (personal
communication)
Test System
Salmonella
test:
plate incorpora-
tion
Salmonella
test
plate Incorporation
Strain
TA 1535
TA 1537
TA 100
TA 98
TA 1535
Activation
System
Aroclor 1254
Induced rats.
S9 liver nix
None
Concentration
up to
2000
ug/plate
"purest grade
available"
Analytical grade:
Exper.-6/ll/75
10. 100 ug/plate
Experiment-9/19/73
1000. 2000.
3000 ug/plate
Experiment 11/28/77-
10. 20. 50, 100.
250, 500. 1000
ug/plate
Result
Reported as 1 .
negative with or
without actlva- 2.
tion
Reported as 1.
weakly positive
Comment
Mass screening of 300
chemicals
Data only presented for 2000
ug/plate
Dose-related increase
Nagy
et al.
1975
Reversion
to tryptophan
prototrophy in
E. cpli:
spot test
WP2 uvrA Hone Sevin 85 exact Reported as
WP2 reported concentration used negative
not presented.
report only Indi-
cates that either
1 to 3 mg crystal
or 20-25 ul were
added to each disk
for the various
chemicals tested
1.
2.
3.
Revertant data not presented
Purity of chemical not given
Toxicity not described
(Continued on following page)
-------
Reference
Rashld
1978
Shlrasu
et al.
1976
Shlrasu
et al.
1976
Uchlyama
et al.
1975
Test System
Salmonella
test:
plate Incor-
poration
Salmonella
test:
plate Incor-
poration
Reversion
to tryptophan
pro to trophy In
E. coll:
spot test
Reversion
to tryptophan
prototrophy In
E. coll:
spot test
Strain
TA 1535
TA 1537
TA 1538
TA 100
TA 98
TA 1535
TA 1536
TA 1537
TA 1538
UP 2 uvrA
WP2
WP2
TABLE 1.
Activation
System
Aroclor 1254
Induced rats.
(male Sprague
Dawley) S9
liver prepa-
ration
None
reported
None
reported
None
reported
(continued)
Concentration
Analytical grade
5. 25, 25. 325.
625 ug/plate
without activation
5. 10. 50.
250. 1250 ug/plate
with activation
0.02 ml of
1 ing/ml solution
dissolve in DMSO
0.02 ml of
1 mg/ml solution
Up to
10 rag/plate
did not report
exact concentra-
tions used or
solvent
Result
Weakly
mutagenlc
In strain
TA 1535
In the absence
of metabolic
activation
Reported as
negative
Reported as
negative
Reported as
negative
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
Comment
Data not presented
Insufficient Information
on method
Purity of chemical not given
Toxicity of chemical not
described
No concurrent positive
controls
Revertant count data not
presented
Insufficient information
on method
Purity of chemical not given
Toxicity of chemical not
described
No concurrent positive
controls
Brief description of protocol
and revertant count not given
Purity of chemical not given
Toxicity not described
-------
not been clearly established that carbaryl does not require metabolic
* *
activation to produce a mutagenic effect, the incorporation of metabolic
activation by mammalian microsomal enzymes should be considered in the
experimental design. As shown in Table 1, the majority of these negative
tests did not use activation by an in vitro microsomal fraction.
Another point of concern about these negative tests is that the majority
of them were spot tests {see Table 1). Relatively water insoluble chemicals
are not easily detected as mutagens in a spot test assay (Ames et al. 1979).
In this method, a dose of the chemical to be tested is placed on a disk of
filter paper. The chemical then diffuses through the agar medium forming a
concentration gradient. Because carbaryl has a low solubility in water
(0.01%, Carpenter et al. 1961), it would diffuse poorly through the agar
medium. An adequate concentration range may not be tested or the chemical may
never leave the area of the disk, thus giving a false negative response.
Also, in a spot test the sensitivity is lowered because less bacteria on the
plate are exposed to the mutagenic agent at any particular dose in the
resultant concentration gradient. Table 1 describes the problems with each
test reported as negative. The negative results reported for the various
bacterial strains do not provide substantial evidence of nonmutagenicity and
do not reduce the weight of the positive results reported below.
Carbaryl mutagenicity was found only in the Salmonella assay using either
plate incorporation testing (Rashid 1978, Cook et al. 1977, McCann 1980,
personal communication) or liquid suspension testing (Egert and Greim 1976).
In plate incorporation, the mutagen is mixed with the bacteria tester strain,
the S9 mix, and the melted top agar and then poured on the plate. Generally,
a range of concentrations are tested in a series of plates. This method
allows a large population of cells to be exposed to a uniform concentration of
10
-------
mutagen thus Increasing the probability of detecting weak mutagenic activity.
»
*
The liquid suspension method is similar to the plate incorporation assay
except that the chemical to be tested is preincubated with the activation mix
(S9), and the bacteria. Afterwards, the top agar is added and the mixture is
poured onto plates.
In a study in which McCann et al. (1975) examined 300 chemicals,
carbaryl was classified as nonmutagenic in the plate incorporation test using
four Salmonella typhimurium histidine-requiring strains (Table 1). Metabolic
*
activation did not augment the mutation frequency. A conversation with Dr. J.
McCann (May 1980) revealed that subsequent more through testing of carbaryl
has indicated that it appears to possess weak mutagenicity. In three
independent experiments using TA 1535 (base-pair substitution sensitive), they
found that carbaryl appeared as weakly mutagenic (twofold or less increase in
background revertant counts) in the absence of metabolic activation. In one
experiment two replicates of eight doses were examined (0 to 1000 ug/plate)
and carbaryl exhibited a dose-response effect.
In general, a positive response in the Ames test is broadly defined as a
reproducible, dose-related increase in the number of histidine-independent
colonies (de Serres and Shelby 1979) but the precise criteria for the
designation of a weak response have not been established. Presently, McCann
and co-workers in collaboration with Malcolm Pike's group at the University of
Southern California are developing a statistical method for analyzing
dose-response data generated by chemical mutagens. When McCann and co-workers
used four different models for line-fitting to determine the significance of
the above dose-response data of carbaryl, they found that two of the models
showed a significant (P < 0.01) dose-response (slope was estimated at about 3
revertant colonies/100 ug increase in dose per plate); the other two models
11
-------
were rejected on the basis of a goodness-of-fit test. When this determination
* *
was carried out, excluding the two data points at 1000 ug/plate dose, on the
grounds that they were artifically low due to toxicity of carbaryl at that
dose, all four models were accepted by the goodness-of-fit test and a
significant (P < 0.002) dose-response (slope was estimated to be about 7
revertant colonies per 100 ug) was shown. It should be noted that these
statistical procedures are still under development, but McCann stated in a
letter (1980) that any further refinements are not likely to significantly
change the outcome of the basic result of carbaryl. McCann also noted that
because the mutagenic response was weak, one should consider the possibility
of an impurity with mutagenic activity.
The mutagenicity of carbaryl was also evaluated by Rashid (1978) employing
five strains of Salmonella typhimurium (Table 1). Rashid found that carbaryl
produced a weak response in only strain TA 1535 at 125 ug/plate {1.6-fold
increase above the spontaneous mutation frequency) and at 625 ug/plate
(1.9-fold increase above the spontaneous mutation frequency) in the absence of
metabolic activation. Carbaryl in the presence of rat liver (S9) microsomal
enzymes did not increase the spontaneous reversion frequency.
Cook and co-workers (1977) tested carbaryl at a concentration range of 0.2
to 400 ug/plate without metabolic activation using the base-pair substitution
sensitive strain TA 100. A weak mutagenic response (twofold response over
spontaneous mutation frequency) was found only at 400 ug/plate (Cook 1980,
personal communication). The data could not be evaluated because the protocol
was not available.
Egert and Greim (1976) investigated the mutagenic activity of carbaryl
using the Salmonella typhimurium strain TA 1538 (sensitive to frameshift
mutagens). These authors used a liquid suspension assay and treated bacterial
12
-------
ce,11s with 100 uM carbaryl (100% survival rate). Carbaryl was found to be
slightly mutagenic without metabolic activation. The spontaneous mutation
frequency of this strain was very low (< 1 revertant/lO^ cells) and the
Induced frequency without metabolic activation was 7 revertants/lO^ cells.
After prelncubatlon with phenobarbital-Induced mouse liver nricrosomes and
NADPH (Instead of the rat S9 fraction), however, an Increase 1n mutagenic
activity (80 revertants/lO** cells) was seen. The authors did not repeat the
assay to confirm this positive response and several concentrations of carbaryl
were not tested to demonstrate a dose-related effect.
In contrast, some investigators have reported negative responses with
carbaryl using the Salmonella/Ames test (DeLorenzo et al. 1978, Blevins et al.
1977, Marshall et al. 1976). These negative results could be explained by
solubility problems, or by cytotoxicity. Also, because the classification of
a result as weakly positive or negative is somewhat arbitrary, the reported
negative results may be explained by the criteria used to classify a result as
negative. The reported studies of DeLorenzo et al. (1978) and Blevins et al.
(1977) did not state the criteria used to define a negative result and did not
provide the revertant count data to support statements of a negative response.
Marshall et al. (1976) reported a twofold increase over the spontaneous rate
at 1000 ug/plate as a negative result. However, revertant count data for the
other concentrations tested were not provided and it was not stated if this
twofold increase observed at 1000 ug/plate was reproducible.
13
-------
Mammalian Cells in Culture
Ahmed and co-workers (1977a) examined the ability of 10 uM carbaryl (66%
survival) to generate drug-resistant mutants in V79 Chinese hamster cells
(Table 2). After carbaryl treatment and selection for mutants with 1 mM
ouabain, a steroid compound which inhibits membrane Na+/K+ ATPase
activity, these authors observed an induced mutation frequency (15.3
mutants/10^ survivors) significantly higher than the spontaneous mutation
frequency (1.8 mutants/106 survivors). The apparent ability of carbaryl to
generate ouabain-resistant mutants would be consistent with its activity as a
base-pair substitution mutagen. Although carbaryl was reported to be weakly
mutagenic in this assay, several inadequacies are apparent in this report
which reduce the weight of the positive result. The authors stated that the
altered phenotype of five randomly picked clones was stably transmitted
through many successive generations of growth in the absence of ouabain.
Nevertheless, they did not present data to support this statement, i.e., the
growth measurements describing the level of drug resistance acquired by these
induced clones or measurements demonstrating an altered Na+/K+ ATPase
activity. In addition, observations were not shown to be reproducible because
data were derived from a single experiment. Also, the authors did not conduct
experiments to show that the induced mutation frequency to ouabain resistance
increased proportionally with increasing carbaryl concentrations at a fixed
treatment time. Concurrent positive controls were not included in the study
design and the purity of carbaryl was not described.
Drosophila
Hoque (1972) reported carbaryl to be mutagenic in Drosophila melanogaster
(Table 1). The results of this study are highly questionable. Hoque exposed
wild-type females to various concentrations of carbaryl (1 ppm, 5 ppm, and 10
14
-------
TABLE 2. GENE MUTATION TESTS USING INSECTS AND MAMMALIAM CELLS IN CULTURE
Reference
Ahmed et al.
1977
Brzheskll 1972
Hoque 1972
Test System Activation System
Forward mutation None
to ouabaln resis-
tance In V79
Chinese hamster cells
Sex-linked recessive
lethal test in
Drosophila
Visible mutants In
In Drosophila
melanogaster
Concentration
10 uM
Purity 85%
1% suspension
for 24 hours
1 ppm, 5 ppm.
10 ppm for
5 hours
Result
Weakly mutagenlc
Reported as
weakly mutagenlc
Reported as
mutagenlc
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
1.
2.
3.
Comment
Experiments not performed to
demonstrate a dose-related
effect
No concurrent positive
controls
Old not demonstrate an alter
NZ+/K* ATPase activity
or growth measurement In the
presence of ouabatn
Purity of chemical not given
Evidence considered suggestive
Inadequate sample size
No concurrent positive control
Evidence considered suggestive
Article brief on methodology
Purity of chemical not given
Results are considered to be
invalid
-------
ppm in the culture medium) for 5 hours. Hoque did not describe either the
v
toxicity effects or the sterilizing effects of the three concentrations of
carbaryl used in this study. In addition, inordinately high frequencies (in
the FI generation, 69.4*; in the F2 generation, 71.8* at 1 ppm carbaryl)
of a visible variant phenotype (black eye) were observed. Such high
frequencies are not characteristic of variation due to genetic alterations,
and thus, in this case, phenotypic variation is most likely the result of some
developmental or physiological error. In addition, Hoque described an
*
anatomical defect (head merged with thorax) caused by carbaryl treatment, but
does not state the carbaryl concentrations where this anomaly is observed or
the frequency at which it occurs. Other deficiencies found in this study are:
1) insufficient sample size, 2) lack of positive control, and 3) lack of
statistical analysis.
Brzheskii (1972) used the Drosophila sex-linked recessive lethal test to
screen for carbaryl mutagenicity (Table 2). Drosophila melanogaster males
were exposed to a 1% suspension of Sevin (85% carbaryl) in dilute sugar syrup
for 24 hours. This treatment resulted in 50% survival. A small increase in
the percentage of complete (heritable mutations) and partial (not all
mutations transmitted to progeny) recessive lethals (0.2% +_ 0.07%) compared to
negative control values (0.0% experimental control, 0.05 + 0.02% in historical
negative controls) was observed. If only the heritable lethals are
considered, the frequency observed (0.091% +_ 0.04%) is not significantly
different from the spontaneous mutation values. A larger sample size would
have to be examined to conclusively classify carbaryl as weakly positive or as
negative.
In summary, the available evidence concerning the ability of carbaryl to
cause gene mutations is considered suggestive. Additional tests are needed
16
-------
which describe a dose-response curve, for example using mammalian cells j_n_
vitro or Drosophila. Furthermore, the dependence of carbaryl on metabolic
activation has not been systematically explored. Thus, it is not clear
whether carbaryl acts predominately as a direct mutagen or is metabolized to a
genetically active chemical.
EVIDENCE CONCERNING CHROMOSOMAL EFFECTS
(Studies summarized in Table 3)
Mutagenesis is not only characterized by gene mutations but also the gain,
loss, or rearrangement of portions of chromosomes and the gain or loss of
intact chromosomes.
Plants
Amer (1965) used root tips from Alii urn cepa (onion) to examine the ability
of carbaryl to induce chromosome aberrations. He found that both formulated
and "pure" (degree of purity not defined) carbaryl prepared at room
temperature or at 60°C produced C-mitotic effects. C-mitosis is described as
an inactivation of the mitotic spindle proceeded by a random distribution of
chromosomes (Grant 1978). When onion root tips were exposed for 4 hours to 25
ppm (0.25 saturated solution) and 50 ppm carbaryl (0.5 saturated solution),
multipolar anaphases, chromosome lagging, "disturbancy of metaphases" (term
not clearly defined), and multinucleated cells were reported. Continuous
treatment for 24 hours "nearly" arrested mitosis. This effect, however, was
temporary because the root tip cells recovered after a 48-hour replacement
period in water.
Amer and co-workers (1971) found similar results of carbaryl (noted as
"pure" Sevin in the report, however degree of purity not defined) on mitosis
of Vicia faba and Gossypium barbadense seeds. In this study, the authors
17
-------
TABLE 3. CYTOGENETIC TESTS
A. Plants
Reference
Test System
Dose
Result
Comments
Amer 1965
Root tips Of All!urn
cepa (onion)
85% sprayable powder
(Union Carbide)
25 ppm and 50 ppro
for 4 hours
C-mltotlc effects;
multipolar anaphases,
chromosome lagging,
multlnucleated cells
CO
Amer et al,
1971
Root tips of yicia
faba (broad bean)
and Gossyplum
barbadense (cotton)
Carbaryl described
as "pure" Sevln at
25, 50. and 100 ppm
for 4 hours for root
treatment (seed-soak
treatment was also
used; 100 ppm for 6,
12, 24. and 48 hours)
Abnormal mitosis
(reported as distur-
bancy of metaphase,
chromosome lagging.
tetraploid cells),
frequency of In-
duced "abnormalities"
Increased as treat-
ment time or concen-
tration was Increased
1. Frequency of different "abnormalities"
not reported for control cells
2. Disturbed metaphase and anaphase eported
as predominant effect, this effect
is defined as "chromosomes are spread
Irregularly over all cells"
Amer and
Farah 1968
Heiotlc effects
studied In Vlcia
faba pollen mother
ceTTs
Two-week-old plants
sprayed weekly with
saturated solution
of Sevln for one
month, sprayed every
two weeks for one
month, or sprayed
daily up to 8 days
Abnormal melosis
(reported as "ana-
phase bridges.
stickiness, poly-
ploid. lagging,
fragmentation,
disturbed")
1. Chromosome stickiness reported as common
abnormality, fragmentation was one of the
least common effects.
2. Treatment did not cause pollen sterility
3. Frequency of each abnormality not
reported for control cells
(Continued on following page)
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
A. Plants
Reference
Test System
Dose
Result
Comments
Brankovan
1972
Melotlc effects
studied In corn
Seeds treated wtth>
Sevln 50 at 0.12%
and 0.25% aqueous
solution for 48 hours,
0.25% solution was
Injected Into anthers
of plants and treat-
ment lasted for 6
hours
Seed treatment:
dose-related Increase
In frequency of "chromtln"
bridges (with and
without fragments)
Anther treatment
(sporogenesis):
chromosome stickiness
(primary effect).
C-mltotlc effects
1. Russian study
Wuu and
Grant 1966
Hltotlc effects
studied In Hordeum
yulgare (barleyl
pollen mother cells
Sevln (purchased
from Union Carbide),
seed treatment at 500.
1000, 1500 ppm for 6.
12. and 24 hours
Chromosome aberrations
(most common effect
reported was fragments,
other effects which
were less frequent
were chromosome lagging
late telophase or Inter-
phase bridges)
1. "mutant" seedlings reported for
second generation
Huu and
Grant 1967
Melotlc effects
studied In Hordeum
vulgare (barleyj
pollen mother cells
Seeds treated with
Sevln 80 (purchased
from Union Carbide)
at 1000 ppm aqueous
solution for 12 hours,
plants sprayed with
500 ppm
Chromosome aberrations
1. Frequency of each aberration not
reported.
TContlnued on following page)
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
B. Mammalian cells In culture
Reference Test System
Ishldate and Chinese hamster flbro-
Odashlraa 1977 blast cells In vitro
Kazarnovskaya Human embryonic
and Vasllos flbroblasts In vitro
1977
Vasllos et al. Human embryonic
1972 flbroblasts In vitro
Dose
(mg/ml )
0.0075
0.015
0.03
control
(reported In
article)
20, 40. and
80 ug/ml for 24
hours
20. 40, and
80 ug/ml for 6.
Result
Polyplo1d(%) Aberrant Cells!*)
24h
0
0
0
0.8+1
48h 24h 48h
2 2 1
1 12 24
1 29 35
0 1+0.9 1+0.6
Chromosomal aberrations
reported
"Pathological forms of
mitosis"
and antlmitotlc
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
1.
2.
Comments
Length of treatment time not
reported
Purity of chemical not reported
Toxlclty of doses tested not
clearly defined
Frequency of each particular
aberration not reported
Data obtained by personal communi-
cation
Russian study
Purity of carbaryl not reported
Russian study
Pathological forms of mitosis not
24. and 48 hours.
technical product
reported as con-
taining 84% active
Ingredient
effect reported
clearly defined
3. Purity of carbaryl not reported
Shplrt 1975
Human embryonic
flbroblasts in vitro
0.001. 0.01, 100,
and 1000 mg/ml
Dose-dependent antlraltotic
effect reported
1. Russian study
2. Carbaryl purity not described
3. 1000 mg/ml resulted In 01
viability
TContlnued on foTlowing page)
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
C. Rodents
Reference
Test System
Dose
Result
Comments
Degraeve et al.
1976
Mlcronucleus test In
mice
10-3 M intraperi-
toneally or dally for
one week via Intuba-
tion
Reported as nega-
tive
1. Criteria for selecting dose level not
defined or toxiclty of dose used not
Indicated
2. Purity of chemical not given
Epstein et al.
1972
Dominant lethal In
mice (ICR/Ha Swiss)
Orally for 5 consecu-
tive days at 200 nig/
kg/day and at 10 mg/
kg/day
Reported as nega-
tive
1. Data were not available for an evaluation
Vasllos et al.
1975a
Mitosis studied in
epithelium from small
Intestine crypts and
cornea of rats
85% commercial prepa-
ration. acute: 400
mg/kg (one half LD50)
80 mg/kg. 40 mg/kg,
and 20 mg/kg
Effects on mitotic
spindle (mitotic
arrest, C-mitosis.
and chromosome
fragmentation)
1. Russian study
Vasllos et al.
1975b
Mitosis studied in
splenic follicles.
corneal epithelium.
and epithelium of
glandulae intesti-
nales of rats
85% commercial prepa-
ration, subacute: 5
and 20 mg/kg (28
administrations)
orally chronic: O.OS
to 8 mg/kg/day for 6
months orally
Effects on mitotic
spindle (mitotic
arrest. C-mitosis,
chromosome fragmen-
tation)
1. Russian study
"TCorvtlnued on followlr.-j page)
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
C. Rodents
Reference
Test System
Dose
Result
Comments
Well et al.
1973
Domtnant lethals In
rats (Harlan-VHstar)
3-generatlon repro-
duction study, car-
baryl was given In
diet at maximum dally
doses of 200 mg/kg
and dally oral doses
as high as 100 mg/kg
Reported as negative
I. Number of males treated not reported
2. Number of virgin females mated with each
treated male not reported
3. Number of Implants and fetal deaths per
female of test or control groups not
reported
ro
ro
-------
found t-hat the percentage of induced chromosome effects (defined as abnormal
metaphases and anaphases) are dependent on the carbaryl concentration (25 ppm,
50 ppm, 100 ppm) and treatment time (4, 6, 12, 24, and 48 hours).
Amer and Farah (1968) studied the effects of carbaryl on meiosis of Vicia
faba. It was found that daily spraying with 0.01% (saturated solution) of
carbaryl on plants induced chromosome aberrations (chromosome stickiness,
lagging, fragmentation, anaphase bridges, univalents in diakinesis, and
multinucleated cells). Carbaryl treatment did not cause pollen sterility.
Similarly, Wuu and Grant (1966) induced chromosome effects in Hordeum
vulgare (barley) with 500 ppm, 1000 ppm, and 1500 ppm of carbaryl. Later, Wuu
and Grant (1967) found that carbaryl (80%) also affected meiosis in the mother
pollen cells of barley when seeds were treated (1000 ppm for 12 hours) or when
barley plants were sprayed with a aqueous solution of carbaryl (500 ppm).
Meiotic effects were also reported by Brankovan (1972) in corn after treatment
of the embryonic and generative phases of development with seed treatment of
0.12% and 0.25% solutions of Sevin 50 (50% carbaryl) for 48 hours and 0.25%
injected into anthers for 6 hours. Tables of data were not provided in the
translation of this report.
The aforementioned studies in plants indicate that carbaryl is capable of
breaking chromosomes; however, it predominantly causes mitotic disturbances by
interfering with the spindle mechanism in plants. This may result in
chromosome segregation errors (nondisjunction).
Although the events measured in plants are similar to those in mammalian
cells, their relevance to humans is sometimes questioned. It should be noted
that when one examines the literature an excellent correlation is seen between
the mutagenic effects demonstrated in plants and those in mammalian cells in
culture (Flamm 1977).
23
-------
Mammalian Cells in Culture
There is suggestive evidence that carbaryl may act as an antimitotic agent
in cultured mammalian cells. The evidence comes from studies conducted in
Russia. The conclusions presented in these reports are difficult to interpret
because these reports only briefly describe the methodology and results, and
the data expression is somewhat unconventional. Both Vasilos et al. (1972)
and Shpirt (1975) found that carbaryl inhibited the mitotic activity of human
embryonic fibroblasts in vitro. Shpirt (1975) reported that this antimitotic
effect was both dependent on the concentration of carbaryl and duration of
exposure. The most pronounced effects were observed at toxic levels of
carbaryl. Vasilos et al. (1972) also reported an increase in "pathological
forms of mitosis" of human embryonic fibroblast in vitro caused by 20 ug/ml,
40 ug/ml, and 80 ug/ml of carbaryl (reported as 84% active material) for 6,
24, and 48 hours, but do not clearly define these forms and only indicate that
the predominant pathological form consisted of C-mitosis. Kazarnovskaya and
Vasilos (1977) reported chromosome effects in human embryonic fibroblast
cultures treated with 40 ug/ml and 80 ug/ml of carbaryl for 24 hours. The
appearance of these aberrations was dose-dependent. Chromosome fragments were
observed at 40 ug/ml, a dose which is one-half of the dose (80 ug/ml) that
results in 50* growth inhibition. Chromosome and chromatid exchanges were
only reported at 80 ug/ml. Ring chromosomes and inversions were not reported.
Ishidate and Odashima (1977 and personal communication 1980) studied
effects of carbaryl on chromosomes of cultured Chinese hamster fibroblasts.
Three different doses (0.0075, 0.015, and 0.03 mg/ml) were added to cell
cultures and observations were made 24 hours and 48 hours after treatment. At
the maximum effective dose, 0.03 mg/ml, several types of chromosome effects
(35% aberrant cells: chromatid gaps and breaks, chromosome breaks,
24
-------
translocation, ring formation, fragmentation) were observed 48 hours after
treatment that were higher than in nontreated control cultures (1% aberrant
cells). The report does not indicate if the high, medium, or low dose is the
50% growth inhibition dose and does not define the toxicity of the maximum
effective dose. At lower doses, 0.015 mg/ml resulted in 24% aberrant cells
and 0.0075 mg/ml did not appreciably affect chromosome structure (1% aberrant
cells) 48 hours after treatment. The toxicity of the lower doses was not
given. Although the authors stated that "gaps" were the predominant
chromosomal effect, the occurrence for each particular type of aberration, or
the frequency of aberrations within a cell were not given. It should be noted
that gaps and breaks may be the result of cytotoxicity. A small number of
cells (100) were examined in this study, thus lowering the sensitivity of the
assay. The purity of carbaryl was not given in this report.
In Vivo Cytogenetic Studies
In a Russian report, Vasilos et al. (1975a) administered orally a single
dose (400 mg/kg, 0.5 of LDSQ) of commercial carbaryl (85%) to rats. The
mitotic activity of cells in both the cornea and the epithelium of the small
intestine were not affected at this dose. However, "pathological mitosis"
(e.g., C-mitosis, fragmentation, chromosome lagging, bridges, micronuclei)
were observed in the intestinal epithelium 12 to 72 hours after treatment.
C-mitosis was the most pronounced effect. Significant effects were not found
in the cornea cells. At lower doses, 20 mg/kg (single injection) did not
affect chromosome morphology, but 40 and 80 mg/kg (single injection) caused a
1.6- and twofold increase in "pathological" forms of mitosis in intestinal
epithelial cells.
Vasilos et al. (1975b) continued in vivo cytogenetic studies on rats.
They found altered mitosis in intestinal epithelial cells (e.g., C-mitosis,
25
-------
mi-cronuclei, "degenerative forms," chromatid and chromosomal bridges,
chromosome lagging, and fragmentation) after chronic low doses of 85% carbaryl
(1 to 8 mg/kg) were given orally to rats daily for 6 months.
In contrast, Degraeve et al. (1976) did not report adverse chromosome
effects in bone marrow cells or testicular cells of mice 24 hours and 48 hours
after 10~3 M carbaryl (reported to titrate at about 90% active principle)
was administered intraperitoneally or daily for one week by intubation. An
increase (approximately twofold) in the incidence of diakinesis and metaphases
with monovalent X and Y chromosomes in testicular cells was reported.
However, the results of this study are difficult to evaluate because the
report does not provide adequate information concerning the design and conduct
of testing. Thus, no information was provided on the number of animals
treated, and data are not presented concerning a determination of the toxicity
of the test substance to mice after exposure to arrive at a maximum tolerated
dose for conducting the in vivo cytogenetic assay.
Dominant Lethal Assay in Rodents
The dominant lethal assay detects chromosome damage in germ cells. Using
male Swiss mice, Epstein et al. (1972) administered 1000 mg/kg and 50 mg/kg of
carbaryl (reported as subtoxic) by gavage in daily portions over 5 consecutive
days and reported that this dosage schedule did not produce significant early
fetal deaths or preimplementation losses. Data were not presented to support
this statement.
Weil and co-workers (1973) looked for dominant lethality in rats using a
three generation study and found no significant lethal effects. This article
is unclear on several points. The number of males treated, the number of
virgin untreated females mated with each treated male, and the number of
implants and fetal deaths per female of test or control groups are not given
26
-------
i.n this report.
It should be noted that, in general, the dominant lethal assay in rodents
is recognized as an insensitive test for the detection of weak mutagens
because of the small number of animals used in such a study and the high
background of fetal wastage observed in control animals. In addition,
chromosomal effects are usually detected at higher chemical doses than are
gene mutations.
In summary, the available evidence that carbaryl causes chromosome
aberrations is merely suggestive. However, studies conducted in plants and
studies conducted in Russian using mammalian cells in vitro and in vivo
strongly suggest the ability of carbaryl to act as a spindle inhibitor. It
should be noted that spindle effects were primarily reported in studies using
commercial grades of carbaryl, thus the possibility of a genetically active
contaminant(s) should not be ignored.
EVIDENCE INDICATIVE OF PRIMARY DNA DAMAGE
(Studies summarized in Table 4)
The reports discussed in this section describe tests which detect the
ability of a chemical substance to cause primary DNA damage (for example, as
manifested by DNA repair) but do not provide a measurement of mutation per se
(Flamm 1977).
Unscheduled DNA synthesis is indicative of primary DNA damage and
subsequent DNA repair. Ahmed et al. (1977b) have shown that exposure of
virally transformed human cells (VA-4) in culture to carbaryl initiates
unscheduled DNA synthesis at exposures as low as 1 uM as determined by
photolysis of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdUrd), which is incorporated into DNA
during DNA repair synthesis. These authors found that the size of the repair
27
-------
TABLE 4. OTHER GENETIC EFFECTS OF CARBARYL
(Evidence Indicative of primary DNA damage)
no
oo
Reference
Ahmed et al .
1977b
Regan et al .
1976
Siebert and
Eisenbrand
1974
Test System
Unscheduled
DNA synthesis
as detected by
autoradio-
graphy and
bromodeoxy-
uridine phot-
tolysis
DNA strand
breaks as
determined
by sedimen-
tation pro-
files
Gene con-
version at
the loci ade-2
and try- 5
in Saccharomyces
Strain Activation System
SV-40 Liver extracts
transform prepared from
human rats/S9 mix
fibroblast
cells,
line VA-4
Human skin
fibroblasts
in vitro
D4
Concentration Result
BrdUrd Assay- Positive
1 to 100 uM
for 24 hours
autoradiography-
1 to 1000 uM for
8 hours
100 uM for Negative
1 hour
1000 ppm (4.97mM) Negative
dissolved in DMSO
for 16 hours,
purity 99.9%.
Comment
1. Metabolic activated
did not increase
genetic activity
2. Purity of chemical
not given
3. Toxicity of doses
used not described
1. Purity of carbaryl
not given
2. Toxicity of doses
used not described
1. Survival at dose
tested was 78%
cerevisiae
-------
region 'could be classified as UV-type repair. In addition, when the carbaryl
concentration (1 uM, 10 uM, 100 uM for 24 hours) was increased, there was a
concomitant increase in BrdUrd incorporation. The standard deviation or error
was not given for the BrdUrd photolysis data. Ahmed and associates also used
autoradiography after carbaryl treatment (1 uM, 10 uM, 100 uM, 1000 uM, for 8
hours) of human VA-4 cells as a method to detect unscheduled DNA synthesis.
Positive results were obtained from this assay thus confirming the results
derived from the BrdUrd photolysis assay. These authors did not present the
grain numbers for all of the carbaryl concentrations examined except at 100
uM. Therefore, it is not known if a dose-related effect was found with these
concentrations. Metabolic activation (liver extracts prepared from rats) of
carbaryl did not enhance its ability to induce unscheduled DNA synthesis. In
this study, neither the cytotoxicity of carbaryl for the concentrations
employed nor the purity of carbaryl was given.
When Regan et al. (1976) treated a culture of human skin cells with 100 uM
of carbaryl for 1 hour, no evidence of primary DNA damage was detected, but
the cell lines used, the technique employed, and the endpoint being measured
(DNA strand breaks) were not the same as that employed by Ahmed et al.
(1977b). Regan determined the sedimentation profiles in alkaline sucrose
gradients of cellular DNA treated with carbaryl as a method for the detection
of primary DNA damage.
Another system which is indicative of primary damage to DNA includes the
ability of a test agent to induce mitotic gene conversion (intragenic
recombination) in yeast cells. Siebert and Eisenbrand (1974) used a diploid
strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae heteroallelic at the gene loci ade-2 and
try-5 to test for the ability of carbaryl to induce mitotic gene conversion in
these loci. In this organism, genetic activity or genetic damage was not
29
-------
produced by a 16-hour carbaryl (1000 ppm, 99.9% purity) treatment. Yeast
cells cultured in this solution of carbaryl showed only a 22% lethality. The
low amount of toxicity caused by treatment with 1000 ppm of carbaryl may
indicate that treatment conditions were not sufficient to induce mitotic gene
conversion to a detectable level.
In summary, the results of Ahmed et al. (1977b) indicate the ability of
carbaryl to interact (directly or indirectly) with DNA and the negative
results reported by Regan et al. (1976) and Siebert and Eisenbrand (1974) are
considered not to contradict this conclusion.
EVIDENCE CONCERNING WHETHER THE ACTIVE FORM OF CARBARYL REACHES OR AFFECTS
GERMINAL TISSUE
In order for any mutagen to cause genetic alterations that may be
inherited by future generations, it must reach the gonads in an active form.
As articulated in the Agency's "Proposed Guidelines for Mutagenicity Risk
Assessments" (Environmental Protection Agency 1980), evidence that a chemical
reaches the gonads is provided by data demonstrating the alkylation of DNA or
other cellular molecules, unscheduled DNA synthesis, sister chromatid
exchange, or chromosome aberrations in germinal cells, and non-specific
accumulation of radioactive label in the gonads following administration of
the labeled chemical. When there is a lack of such data, other relevant
evidence includes adverse gonadal effects following acute, subchronic, or
chronic toxicity testing; and adverse reproductive effects such as decreased
fertilization index, reduced sperm count, or abnormal sperm morphology.
The sperm-abnormality assay is an indicator that a chemical agent may be
damaging the germ cells (Wyrobek and Bruce 1978). Wyrobek and associates
(1980) analyzed semen samples from 50 carbaryl production workers and 34 new
30
-------
hires who served as controls. Males exposed to carbaryl had sperm counts or
sperm with" fluorescent bodies (thought to be caused by meiotic
nondisjunction) similar to control values. The authors also reported a higher
incidence of oligospermic men (less than 20 million sperm/ml) in the exposed
group (14.6%) than in the control group (5.9%). However, this difference was
not statistically significant. There was a significant elevation (P < 0.005)
of sperm abnormalities (52.0 ^ 2.6%) with abnormal head morphology in
currently exposed workers compared to the controls (41.9 ^2.1). A one-tail
statistical analysis (P < 0.05) revealed that previously exposed workers (an
average of 6.3 years since last carbaryl exposure) exhibited a significant
elevation of sperm abnormalities from control values (Wyrobek 1980, personal
communication). Because of the sample size, however, it cannot be
conclusively established if carbaryl effects are permanent. When current
workers were classified as low (supervisors, foremen, maintenance personnel)
and high (baggers, operators) exposure groups, both groups were shown to have
significant differences in sperm abnormalities from the control group. But,
there were no appreciable differences between the high and low exposure
groups. In addition, there was a negative correlation between the number of
years the current workers had been exposed to carbaryl and the percentage of
abnormal sperm observed. Wyrobek and co-workers speculated on several
mechanisms to explain this odd relationship: 1) men working longer may be
exposed less because of seniority, 2) biological or pharmacological
adaptation to exposure, and 3) selection for non-affected males. Although
this study demonstrates a correlation between working in a carbaryl-exposed
area and an alteration of human spermatozoa, it only provides suggestive
evidence that these effects are due to carbaryl and/or its metabolites. It
must be established that these defects of sperm morphology are not the result
31
-------
of other factors, such as exposure to chemicals other than carbaryl.1
Whorton et al. (in press) in an earlier study, examined semen samples
provided by 47 former and current v/orkers at the same plant studied by Wyrobek
et al. (1980). Similar to the findings of Wyrobek et al. (1980), the cohort
with known exposure to carbaryl were found to have a higher incidence (14.9%)
of low sperm counts (oligospermia) than a control group (5.5%), but this
difference was not considered to be statistically significant (P = 0.686).
Blood levels of follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and
testosterone were not different from control values. It should be noted that
the control group was not composed of onsite controls but was composed of
historical controls (workers from a composite control population with no known
exposure to infertility-producing agents) collected by the Environmental
Health Associates during previous chemical industry studies. These data are
considered to be suggestive of a correlation between oligospermia and carbaryl
exposure.
In a study performed in Russia, Krylova and Denisova (1973) examined the
process of spermatogenesis in the Mongolian Tree Creeper, a small rodent.
These animals inhabit an area that was sprayed with 85% Sevin wettable powder
produced in America (flow rate, 2 to 2.5 kg/ha over 60 ha). One year after
treatment, 9 out of 22 of the exposed animals were found to have pathological
changes in the spermatozoa from the epididymis (spirally twisted tails, breaks
in the neck and tail, isolated heads and tails). There was a statistically
significant (P < 0.001) reduction in the number of spermatozoa, spermatids,
and spermatocytes from the control group (tree creepers residing in an area
that was not sprayed). Chemical analysis showed that 20 of the 22 exposed
animals contained extremely high quantities of carbaryl in their genitalia
(reported to be 0.5 to 1.5 mg/kg of body weight). The reproductive capacity
l$ee page 43 for an addendum to this study.
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of. the animals living in the carbaryl-exposed area appear reduced with respect
to the animals that resided in an area that was not sprayed. In this article,
the results were not fully interpretable because the description of the
protocol was brief. Also, interpretation of results is tenuous because
several factors, e.g., genetic variability of animals, duration and amount of
exposure to the chemical, and the age and health of the animals, cannot be
controlled in such a study.
Kitagawa et al. (1977) reported a reduction in the number of spermatogonia
and spermatozoa in the testes after rats (Wister) were orally administered 3
mg of carbaryl per rat per week for one year. Only photographs of
histological slides were provided in the report and not quantitative data to
confirm results. Although the authors reported that the total dose used was
equivalent to an acute dose representing the LDSQ, no information concerning
toxicity or the method used to determine the chronic dose level was provided.
The purity of carbaryl was not reported.
Degraeve et al. (1976) reported an increase in the incidence of abnormal
spermatozoa (no acrosome, abnormalities of flagellae) in the ductus deferens
in carbaryl-treated male mice (10~^ M administered per dose daily for one
week or single intraperitoneal injection). These authors, however, did not
demonstrate whether exposed mice showed dose-dependent increases in the
induction of abnormal sperm. A description of the toxicity of the dosage
level used was not provided in the report. Carbaryl was described as
commercial Sevin titrating at about 99* active principle.
Thomas et al. (1974) administered a single dose of radioactive [14C]
carbaryl (24 uCi/kg, 0.9 mg/kg) to Swiss-Webster albino mice. They found very
small amounts of labeled carbaryl and/or its metabolites in the prostate,
seminal vesicle, testes, seminal plasma, and epididymal fat. The radioactive
33
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CQunts Vere so low in this study, it is doubtful that these counts are
significantly different from background counts.
In a Russian study, Shtenberg and Rybakova (1968) found a decrease in
sperm motility in albino rats at 14 and 70 mg/kg/day after 6, 9, and 12 months
of carbaryl (reported as 100% active material) treatment. This effect on male
fertility was dependent on the carbaryl concentration and duration of
exposure. The most pronounced effect (P < 0.001) was observed at 70 mg/kg/day
after 12 months. Significant effects (P < 0.001) were also observed at the
lower doses after 12 months of treatment. The authors reported histological
changes, e.g., oedema of interstitial tissue, reduction in the number of
spermatocytes and spermatids, and destruction of germinal epithelium in rats
exposed to 70 mg/kg/day for one year. Slight interstitial oedema and some
depression of spermatogenesis were reported in rats exposed to 7 mg/kg/day for
1 year.
Collins et al. (1971), using a three-generation reproduction study,
administered orally to female rats (Osborne-Mendel) and gerbils 10,000 ppm of
carbaryl (technical grade, 99% purity). Impaired fertility (P < 0.05) was
reported. In addition, no litters were produced from the second mating of the
second generation of rats and the third generation of gerbils. It should be
noted that growth depression was observed at 10,000 ppm.
In contrast, some investigators have reported no significant gonadal
effects attributable to carbaryl. Dikshith et al. (1976) administered
technical (99% purity) carbaryl (200 mg/kg for 3 days a week) orally to male
albino rats for a period of 90 days. No histological changes were reported in
the testes and epididymis. Also, these authors found no effects on the
fertility of male rats. This study did not involve a quantitative assessment
of the effects on sperm (e.g., sperm morphology, sperm counts). Weil et al.
34
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(1972) observed no significant effects of carbaryl (10 mg/kg/day) on female
fertility in a three-generation rat study. However, a dose of 100 mg/kg/day
by intubation, which resulted in mortality, reduced fertility.
In summary, there is no direct evidence, e.g., the presence of a
radioactive label of the chemical in the gonads, that carbaryl and/or its
metabolite(s) reaches mammalian gonads. However, there are many reports
indicating adverse gonadal and reproductive effects after carbaryl exposure.
Therefore, the weight of evidence suggests that the active form of carbaryl
may reach the germinal tissue of mammals.
REVIEW OF EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE ON THE MUTAGENICITY OF NITROSOCARBARYL
In in vitro experiments, carbaryl has been shown to react with sodium
nitrite under acidic conditions (pH 1) to form nitrosocarbaryl (Eisenbrand et
al. 1974). Because nitrite is present in human saliva and food products, the
formation of nitrosocarbaryl in stomach physiology is conceivable due to the
widespread use of carbaryl. Rickard (1979) demonstrated the in vivo formation
of nitrosocarbaryl in the stomach of rats and guinea pigs. When guinea pigs
were given either simultaneous intubation of carbaryl (1 umol) and sodium
nitrite (1160 umol) or when these components were mixed with feed,
approximately a 1.5% yield of nitrosocarbaryl was detected. The formation of
this nitroso derivative was dependent on the amount of nitrite and the pH, and
was not particularly influenced by the amount of carbaryl. Increasing the
amount of carbaryl from 0.025 to 2.5 umol did not increase the yield of the
nitroso-compound. In rats, where the stomach pH (3.5 to 5.5) is higher than
in guinea pigs (pH 1.5), a very low yield of nitrosocarbaryl was found (0.02%)
at the same concentrations of nitrite and carbaryl.
35
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Nitrosocarbaryl has been shown to be strongly mutagenic in bacteria.
Blevins and associates (1977) found that the base-pair substitution sensitive
Salmonella strains TA 100 and TA 1535 were reverted by this agent without
metabolic activation. The reversion frequency in TA 100 was increased by
approximately 1.6 fold at 1.15 ug/plate and sixfold at 11.5 ug/plate and in TA
1535 by about threefold at 1.15 ug/plate and 76-fold at 11.5 ug/plate.
Nitrosocarbaryl was not as active on the frameshift sensitive strains TA 98,
TA 1537, and TA 1538. Marshall et al. (1976) found that nitrosocarbaryl
increased the number of histidine-independent colonies of TA 1535 by
approximately sixfold at 0.5 ug/plate and by 367-fold at 50 ug/plate without
metabolic activation. These authors also found nitrosocarbaryl to be slightly
active (above sixfold increase over background values) on the frameshift
sensitive strains TA 1537 and TA 1538 at 50 ug/plate. Both Blevins et al.
(1977) and Marshall et al. (1976) found that the mutagenic activity of
nitrosocarbaryl was dose-related.
Elespuru and co-workers (1974) measured the induction to novobiocin
resistance in Haemophilus influenzae. These authors found that
nitrosocarbaryl was approximately an order of magnitude more potent than the
well-known mutagen N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG). In
Escherichia coli, nitrosocarbaryl was also more potent in the induction to
arginine prototrophy than MNNG (Elespuru et al. 1974). Uchiyama et al. (1975)
found mutagenic activity as tested by the ability to cause reversion at the
tryptophan locus in Escherichia coli.
Generally, metabolic activation was not required for the mutagenic
response of nitrosocarbaryl. For example, when Marshall et al. (1976)
incorporated the S9 fraction in the Salmonella assay, a slight decrease in
mutagenic activity was observed. Greim et al. (1977), however, found an
36
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ipcrease in mutagem'city after metabolic activation by mouse-liver microsomes.
Siebert and Eisenbrand (1974) reported that nitrosocarbaryl was active in
causing mitotic gene conversion in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Incubation for 2
hours on 1 ppm of nitrosocarbaryl increased the relative conversion frequency
threefold for the ade-2 and fivefold for the trp-5 locus, and at 30 ppm
increases were 139-fold for the ade-2 locus and 885-fold for the trp-5 locus.
In this study, a dose-related effect was shown using five concentrations of
nitrosocarbaryl. Regan et al. (1976) demonstrated that nitrosocarbaryl was
able to induce DMA damage in cultured human cells as measured by unscheduled
DMA synthesis. In addition, by using methyl labeled [14C] and ring labeled
C^H] nitrosocarbaryl, Regan et al. (1976) found that the C^4C] label was
associated with cellular DNA, whereas the [^H] label was not. Because
nitrosocarbaryl has been observed to cause reversion of base-pair substitution
sensitive strains (TA 100, TA 1535), these results suggest that the
nitrosocarbaryl molecule was split and the resultant methyl group alkylates
DNA.
Ishidate and Odashima (1977) reported several chromosome aberrations (81%
aberrant cells) in Chinese hamster cells in vitro 24 hours after exposure to
nitrosocarbaryl (0.015 mg/ml). This was a significant increase compared to
control values (1% aberrant cells). The toxicity of the concentration used
was not given.
CONCLUSION
Although each individual study concerning the mutagem'city of carbaryl
contains deficiencies, the body of evidence (i.e., data regarding both the
intrinsic mutagem'city, spindle effects, and the presence of carbaryl or
37
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metabolites in mammalian gonads) strongly suggests that carbaryl may have the
potential to cause heritable genetic effects in humans. However, it should be
emphasized that because carbaryl appears to act as a weak mutagen in the
reported gene mutation test systems, it is likely to act as a weak mutagen in
humans as well.
In the case of nitrosocarbaryl, there is evidence that it causes point
mutations in bacteria and thus, it is likely to have intrinsic mutagenic
activity in other organisms. If nitrosocarbaryl were to be formed or were
present in humans, it might cause somatic mutations which may be involved in
the etiology of cancer. Although this is an assessment of genetic risk with
respect to somatic cell mutagenicity, an assessment of whether nitrosocarbaryl
has the potential to cause heritable mutations in humans could not be made
because there were no available data on its ability to reach or interact with
mammalian germinal tissue.
38
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ADDENDUM
With respect to altered sperm-head morphology reported in
carbaryl-exposed employees (Wyrobek et a', 1980, submitted January 6, 1981,
Environ. Health Perspec.) discussed on page 32 of this document, the
possibility of exposure to other chemicals was noted. Dr. H.M.D. Utidjian of
Union Carbide indicated in a letter to EPA on March 21, 1981 that the workers
studied by Wyrobek et al. (1980) were not occupationally exposed to other
pesticides. He stated, however, that there was a potential for concomitant
exposure to the reagent chemicals, alpha-naphthol and methyl isocyanate, and
the solvent toluene. Exposures to methyl isocyanate were kept at very low
levels (below 1 ppm). Presently, Union Carbide is collecting monitoring data
in the workplace on these chemicals. With respect to the ability of these
chemicals to induce sperm-head abnormalities, toluene has been reported as
negative (Topham 1980) and no information was located concerning the ability
of the alpha-naphthol or methyl isocyanate to alter sperm morphology.
It should be noted that the Reproductive Effects Assessment Group (REAG)
made a recommendation to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) Scientific Advisory Panel on July 23, 1980, that the
carbaryl-exposed workers be re-examined for altered sperm abnormalities to
confirm the initial findings of Wyrobek et al. (1980) and to better define the
dose-response relationship and address the question of the reversibility of
the effect.
REFERENCE
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identify mammalian mutagens rather than carcinogens? Mutat. Res.
74:379-387.
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