Tennessee
Valley
Authority
Office of Natural
Resources
Chattanooga TN 37405
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Research and Development
Office of Environmental Processes and
Effects Research
Washington DC 20460
EPA-600/7-80-180
June 1981
Production of Arthropod
Pests and Vectors in
Coal Strip Mine Ponds
Interagency
Energy/Environment
R&D Program
Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-80-180
TVA/ONR/WR-81/4
April 1981
PRODUCTION OF ARTHROPOD PESTS AND VECTORS
IN COAL STRIP MINE PONDS
By
Eugene Pickard
Office of Natural Resources
Division of Water Resources
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660
Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-D9-E721-DT
Project No. 81 BDT
Program Element No. INE-831
Project Officer
Clinton W. Hall
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, DC 20460
Prepared for
OFFICE OF ENERGY, MINERALS, AND INDUSTRY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, DC 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This report was prepared by the Tennessee Valley Authority and has
been reviewed by the Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and
policies of the Tennessee Valley Authority or the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial products-
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
11
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ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to determine the species of aquatic
arthropod pests, mainly mosquitoes, that were breeding in abandoned coal
strip mine ponds, their population densities, and whether these breeding
sites would serve as foci for annoyance to surrounding human populations.
Nine study ponds were selected in Marion County, Alabama, on the
basis of age since formation, with a total of three test ponds in each of
three age categories: 1-year-old, 5-year-old, and 10-year-old. These
ponds have been observed for three successive years; thus, all ponds are
now three years older than when observations first began. The six oldest
ponds will be observed for two more years and the three youngest ponds
will be observed for one more year. At the end of the studies, six ponds
will have aged five years since the beginning of observations, and three
will have aged four years.
Mosquito larvae of four genera including eight species were col-
lected from the strip mine study area from 1976 through 1978. Anopheles
punctipennis, Anopheles quadrimaculatus, and Culex erraticus were the
most prevalent species in ponds formed five or more years ago. Dipping
records showed that a small number of the floodwater mosquito larva,
Psorophora columbiae, occurred in the ponds. Although mosquitoes did
not occur in the 1-year-old ponds, they were present in small numbers in
the 2-year-old ponds. Mosquito species collected from 2-year-old ponds
included An. punctipennis, C_. erraticus, and Culex territans. Four
species of floodwater mosquito ova, Aedes vexans, Aedes sollicitans,
P. columbiae, and Psorophora cyanescens, were found in soil samples
taken from selected transects along pond margins. Ae. vexans was the
most abundant floodwater mosquito ova in the ponds. The largest number
of positive samples for mosquito ova were from ponds 10 years of age
and older. No floodwater mosquito ova were found in soil samples taken
from ponds three years old or younger. Only two species of mosquitoes
found in the strip mine ponds, C. territans and Uranotaenia sapphirina,
have little or no economic or medical importance.
Mosquito larvae in all the ponds were associated primarily with
areas colonized by variable-leaf pondweed (Potamogeton diversifolius),
woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), and cattail (Typha latifolia). In sum-
mary, data showed an unexpected diversity of mosquito species composition,
but breeding in all the ponds was light.
The total number of insect taxa collected in benthic and surface
samples in 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old ponds was 24, 43, and 54, respectively.
The largest group of insects, both in species composition and numbers
collected, was the Chironomidae, or "nonbiting midges." Two genera of
insects of public health importance, Palpomyia and Chrysops, were found
in small numbers in the 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old ponds.
111
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Benthic and surface samples in the 5-, 6-, and 7-year-old ponds
yielded 49, 55, and 62 aquatic insect species, respectively. Three
groups of insects of medical importance—Palpomyia, Chrysops, and
Tabamis—were found in dredge samples from the 5-, 6-, and 7-year-old
ponds.
Results from benthic and surface samples in the 10-, 11-, and
12-year-old ponds showed this age group to have the greatest insect
species diversity. Data from the 10-, 11-, and 12-year-old ponds showed
42, 58, and 66 insect taxa, respectively. Midge larvae, Procladius, were
the most abundant immature insects collected. A small number of larvae
of the biting midge, Palpomyia, and Chrysops larvae were found in the
10-, 11- and 12-year-old ponds. The number of insect taxa of medical
importance detected by dredge and net sampling methods during the 3-year
survey of the nine study ponds was sparse, both qualitatively and
quantitatively.
A total of 23 adult specimens, representing seven species of the
family Tabanidae (horse flies and deer flies), were collected from
inside a parked sedan car located near the strip mine study ponds.
Field plant surveys on the nine study ponds yielded a total of 69
macrophytes. The number of vascular species increased as the age of
the ponds increased, reflecting invasion by early successional dominants.
Two submersed aquatic macrophytes (P. diversifolius and Potamogeton
pusillus), both of which provide favorable mosquito habitat, became
established in the 2-year-old ponds. The most commonly occurring plants
found in all the ponds were the pondweeds (P. diversifolius), cattail
(Typha latifolia), woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), rushes (Juncus spp.),
sedges (Eleocharis spp.), smartweeds (Polygonmn spp.), panic grasses
(Panicum spp.), beggar ticks (Bidens frondosa), and Eupatorium spp. The
neighboring terrestrial species were jnostly "weedy" taxa commonly found
on disturbed sites.
Water chemistry data obtained during the 3-year study showed no
significant change in the pH of the water in the nine study ponds. The
pH of the ponds had a seasonal range of 6.0 to 8.7 in the 1- to 3-year-old
ponds, 5.7 to 9.0 in the 5- to 7-year-old ponds, and 5.0 to 8.6 in the
10- to 12-year-old ponds. The dissolved oxygen content of the water in
the ponds varied widely with seasonal changes, ranging from 4.1 to
14.1 ppm. Water temperatures did not vary significantly between the
nine study ponds. Water conductivity determinations in the 11- and
12-year-old ponds were significantly lower than determinations in the
other ponds. Water levels in the 5-, 6-, and 7-year-old ponds were more
variable throughout the study period.
This report was submitted by the Tennessee Valley Authority, Office
of Natural Resources in partial fulfillment of Energy Accomplishment Plan
81 BDT under terms of Interagency Agreement D9-E721-DT with the Environ-
mental Protection Agency. Work was completed as of December 1978.
iv
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CONTENTS
Page
Abstract iii
List of Figures vi
List of Tables vi
List of Abbreviations and Symbols vii
Acknowledgments viii
1. Introduction 1
2. Conclusions . 4
3. Experimental Procedures 5
Description of the study area 5
Materials and methods 6
4. Results and Discussion 8
Mosquito larval sampling 8
Mosquito ova sampling 10
Benthic and surface sampling for aquatic insects . 12
Adult Tabanidae collections 18
Woody and herbaceous vegetation 18
Water pH 21
Conductivity and salinity 23
Dissolved oxygen 23
Water temperature 23
Water level 23
References ' 26
v
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Number
LIST OF FIGURES
Aerial photograph of strip mine area showing
locations of the nine study ponds
Water level fluctuations in the nine coal strip
mine study ponds graphically illustrated for the
1978 growing season ,
Page
3
24
Number
LIST OF TABLES
Summary of Mosquito Production, Based on
Average Number of Larvae Per Dip in Coal Strip
Mine Ponds in Marion County, Alabama, April -
October 1976, 1977, and 1978
Species and Number of Floodwater Mosquito Ova
Collected from Soil Samples Taken in Coal Strip
Mine Ponds, Marion County, Alabama, April - October
1976, 1977, and 1978
Insect Taxa Taken from Coal Strip Mine Ponds in
Marion County, Alabama, April - October 1976,
1977, and 1978
List of Vascular Plant Species and Macroscopic
Algae Associated with Strip Mine Ponds of Various
Ages in Marion County, Alabama
11
13
19
Results of Monthly Monitoring in Three
Consecutive Years of Four Physical Parameters
of Nine Coal Strip Mine Ponds in Marion County,
Alabama, April - October 1976, 1977, and 1978
22
VI
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ppm —parts per million
Y.S.I. —Yellow Springs Instrument
S-C-T —Salinity-conductivity-temperature
km —kilometers
mmhos/cm —measurement of electrical conductance when measured
between opposite faces of a 1-cra cube
°C —degrees Celsius
I —Infrequent
C —Common
A —Abundant
ha —hectares
m —meter
cm —centimeters
VII
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The cooperation of several people in TVA's Water Quality and Ecology
Branch, Division of Environmental Planning, is gratefully acknowledged:
Bobby R. McDuff, John W. Upton, Thomas L. Willis, and Charles B. Beard,
who assisted in collecting the field data; John B. Moore, who prepared
illustrations and compiled and tabulated data for use in finalizing this
report; and Roy Smith, Jimmy G. Walden, and Larry K. Young from Support
Services, who helped identify the aquatic insects. We also thank A. Leon
Bates, David H. Webb, and Dr. Michael Dennis for their service in making
the plant inventories and succession analyses. We would like to express
our gratitude to Dr. Kenneth J. Tennessen for his work in identifying the
aquatic insect specimens in the benthic samples. We especially thank
Dr. Joseph C. Cooney for his assistance in the initial planning of the
study, for guidance with the field studies, and for critical review of
the manuscript.
Vlll
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Surface mining for coal is carried out extensively in several
counties in north Alabama, resulting in formation of numerous perma-
nent to semipermanent ponds. The ponds included in this study are
located near the eastern border of Marion County in the vicinity of
New River and in the community of Gold Mine, Alabama. An estimated
2428 to 2833 ha of surface coal mines exist in Marion County. Demand
for coal has been greatly accelerated by the recent energy crisis;
this demand, coupled with increases in the price of coal and the avail-
ability of larger and more powerful earth-moving equipment, has resulted
in the reopening and reworking of many abandoned surface mines that
could not be operated economically a few years ago. To support the
demand for coal, efforts have been increased to obtain property con-
taining coal suitable for strip mining; these efforts have resulted in
the encroachment of mining operations upon many rural towns with
moderate population densities. Extensive tracts of barren countryside,
containing many small lakes and ponds, often result from these strip
mining operations. These bodies of water may vary in size from a few
hundred square meters to several hectares. Water depths may vary from
2 to 15 m, depending on the depth of the final cut. The water level
in the ponds may fluctuate one to three times in a growing season, and
the amplitude in fluctuation may be from 1 to 2 m during certain dry
seasons.
For centuries man has fought insects as pests and vectors of disease.
Mosquitoes, probably the best-known group of insect pests, have adapted
themselves to various climates and are found in all the land areas of
the world, wherever pools of water are available for a few days or
longer for breeding and where sufficient numbers of host organisms are
present. Mosquitoes have probably had a greater influence on human
health and welfare throughout the world than any other group of insects.
The objective of this study was to determine what species of
medically important arthropods, particularly mosquitoes, are breeding
in coal strip mine ponds, to what extent, and whether these breeding
sites will serve as a focus of annoyance or a potential outbreak center
of arthropod-borne diseases to surrounding communities. Emphasis of
study involves a comparison of pond age with physical and chemical
characteristics of the water and associated vegetation communities. The
survey uses various sampling techniques to determine the composition and
density of all life stages of the aquatic insect fauna.
Of numerous ponds that were field-inspected, nine study ponds were
selected by age (time since formation). Three ponds in each of three i
age categories (1 year, 5 years, and 10 years) were selected for study
when the project was initiated in 1976. These ponds have been observed
for three successive years so that now all ponds are three years older
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than when the observations first began. Observations will continue for
two more years on the six oldest ponds and for one more year on the
three youngest ponds; at the end of the studies, six ponds will have
aged five years since the onset of observations, and three will have
aged four years. These nine study ponds are shown on an aerial photo-
graph (Figure 1). The study has been initially designed to progress for
five consecutive years, so that the data obtained would include 14
consecutive years of natural ecological succession. The project was
designed to show temporal changes in species composition and relative
abundance of aquatic fauna and flora.
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-3-
Figure 1. Aerial photograph of strip mine area, showing locations
of the mine study ponds.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
Results from this study showed that mosquito production did occur
in coal strip mine ponds, becoming evident during the second season
after pond formation. The degree of mosquito production and the diver-
sity of species composition increased as the ponds aged. Although
mosquito breeding occurred in all but the 1-year-old ponds, production
was sparse and restricted to narrow vegetated areas along shallow,
marginal shelves. The level of mosquito activity detected during this
3-year survey was not sufficient to cause severe annoyance to surrounding
communities. Mosquito larvae dipping records in early March showed that
strip mine ponds could provide many favorable sites where overwintering
females of An. punctipennis and An. quadrimaculatus could deposit eggs
for the first spring brood.
Data from benthic and surface sampling reflected a wide variety of
aquatic insect taxa in ponds of all age categories. However, the 12-year-
old ponds contained the largest number with a total of 68 species.
There was a paucity of insects of medical importance found in the nine
study ponds; only three genera of public health importance were collected,
which consisted of Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus. Based on the small
numbers of Palpomyia, Chrysops, and Tabanus collected from all pond age
categories no public health problem is anticipated.
Surveys of the vascular plants in each of the nine ponds yielded a
total of 69 species. The number of macrophyte taxa increased with the
age of the ponds. Two submersed aquatic species (P. diversifolius and
?• pusillus), both of which provide favorable mosquito habitat, first
became established in the 2-year-old ponds.
Cursory observations of abandoned coal strip mine ponds in north
Alabama indicate that efforts should be made to develop the ponds as
suitable habitats for waterfowl and other wildlife.
Water chemistry of all ponds studied showed very favorable conditions
for supporting various aquatic fauna and flora.
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-5-
SECTION 3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
Description of the Study Area
The slope of the spoil bank around two of the ponds that were one
year old at the beginning of the study was moderately steep and short.
The other 1-year-old pond was located along a final cut and was enclosed
by a 12- to 15-m abrupt spoil bank on one side and a high wall on the
other. The maximum water depth in the ponds was about 5 m, and the
sampling stations were located along the shallow margins. The water in
the ponds was replenished from rainfall runoff and subterranean seepage.
The slopes around the ponds were generally barren, except for sparse
pioneer colonies of species such as pokeweed (Phytolacca americana).
The margins around the ponds were abrupt, except for those areas in which
small alluvial deltas had been formed by siltation. The most recent
ponds were formed in the late spring of 1975.
All the ponds that were five years old at the beginning of the study
(5-year-old ponds) occurred along the base of high walls that ranged in
height from 9 to 12 m. The spoil was deposited in undulating ridges,
which averaged about 5 m in height. Except for access roads extending
into the pits, the slopes of the pond margins were very steep. The
average water depth in these ponds was about 3 m. The water depth at
the sampling stations ranged from 30 to 90 cm. Sericea (Lespedeza
cuneata) formed a dense colony on the spoil banks around two of the
ponds, whereas the other spoil area contained mixed colonies of
L. cuneata and P. americana with some bare soil. The pond water col-
lects from rainfall and subterranean seepage. The 5-year-old ponds
were formed in the fall and winter of 1970.
The original 10-year-old study ponds occurred in remote areas where
the coal had been covered by a shallow overburden. The ponds were enclosed
by high walls and spoil banks, ranging in height from about 6 to 9 m. The
dominant herbaceous vegetation on the spoil banks consisted of four genera:
Lespedeza, Rubus, Andropogon, and Phytolacca. Saplings of sweetgum
(Liquidambar styraciflua), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), black willow
(Salix nigra), and sumac (Rhus sp.) were present on the spoil slopes. The
average water depth was about 3 m. Water depth at the sampling stations
ranged from 30 to 90 cm. Except for the shallow areas along abandoned
access roads into the strip pits, the pond margins were very abrupt.
Water levels in the ponds were maintained by subterranean seepage and rain-
fall. The coal was mined from these strip pits in early 1965.
The topography in the Gold Mine area of Marion County is predominantly
hilly with;steep slopes. The soil is predominantly dark gray sand-loam,
with soil pH ranging from slightly acid to moderately alkaline. The
fertility is moderate and the soil is low in organic content. Percolation
is moderately rapid, and the available water storage capacity is medium to
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low. The plant root zone is very shallow due to the abundance of con-
solidated sandstone outcrops in the strip-mined areas. Erosion is
severe due to previous land use practices and especially severe where
strip mining operations have been conducted.
Materials and Methods
In each of the nine study ponds three sampling stations were estab-
lished, either in the vicinity of emergent aquatic vegetation or in shallow
marginal areas where emergent or submersed vegetation was likely to ecize.
Monthly surveys were conducted from April to October to determine the
species composition and relative abundance of aquatic arthropods in each
pond.
Mosquito larvae were sampled by using the standard dipper technique.
Fifteen dips were taken near each sampling station in the study ponds.
The number of mosquito larvae collected per dip and the stage of develop-
ment of each were recorded, and a representative sample was collected for
species identification. To determine the presence and species composition
of floodwater mosquito ova, soil samples (15- by 15- by 2.5-cm) were col-
lected from likely oviposition sites along established transect lines in
each study pond. Transects were established to coincide with anticipated
habitat and flooding contours within each pond. Each sample was processed
through a series of sieves, consisting of 40-, 60-, and 100-mesh sizes,
and through a flotation process, which separated the ova from the soil
(Horsfall 1956). The mosquito ova from each soil sample were counted and
identified to species. All soil samples were collected in the late fall.
Bottom samples for benthic organisms were taken with an Ekman dredge.
About 900 cm2 of substrate, consisting of four 15- by 15-cm samples, were
collected at each of the three stations in each pond. The sample was
washed through a 40-mesh sieve, and the remaining benthic organisms were
recovered and preserved in hood solution.
Water surface sampling for aquatic invertebrates was accomplished
by using a fine mesh aquatic dip net with a 30-cm opening. A sample
consisted of sweeping the net through about two linear meters of water
surface. Three samples were taken at each station.
Surveys were conducted in May and September to inventory the existing
plant species and to document their relative density and frequency in each
study pond. Vegetation was surveyed by visual inspection and enumeration
of areal cover along segmented transects. Physical and chemical parame-
ters of each pond were measured with portable instruments. The pH of the
water was determined with an Orion specific ion meter (model 407A). The
dissolved oxygen readings in the water were taken with a Y.S.I, model 54A
oxygen meter. The oxygen determinations were made between 9 a.m. and 3 p.m.
Water temperatures were recorded using a pocket thermometer. A Y.S.I.
model 33 S-C-T meter was used to measure salinity and conductivity. Due
to difficulties in obtaining an instrument, for determining conductivity
and salinity of water in the ponds, these measurements were not started
until June 1977. All readings were taken at a depth of about 5 cm.
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-7-
A staff gauge was placed in each study pond to detect water level
deviations from a baseline level. The gauge was constructed of a 1.8-m
(2.5- by 10-cm) board divided into 3-cm increments from a zero point at
the center of the staff. Water-level readings were made in conjunction
with each monthly insect survey. A photographic reference point was
established for each pond, and sequential photographs were made from
these points to provide a visual record of the physical changes occurring
during the course of the study.
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SECTION 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Mosquito Larval Sampling
Results obtained from larval sampling for mosquitoes in the nine
study ponds in 1976, 1977, and 1978 are given in Table 1. The average
number of larvae per dip listed for each age category is a composite
record for three study ponds in each age classification. The most sig-
nificant data relate to species composition and show that eight species
representing four genera of mosquitoes were collected during the 1976,
1977, and 1978 growing seasons. Six of the mosquito species collected
will bite man, and all have a flight range of about 2 km. However,
marked female specimens of Psorophora columbiae have been retrieved by
light traps at a distance of 9.7 km (Horsfall 1942). Culex territans
and Uranotaenia sapphirina, two of the eight species collected, are of
no known economic or medical importance in the Tennessee Valley.
Dipping records indicated that the 5-, 6-, and 7-year-old ponds
were the most productive for mosquitoes, both quantitatively and quali-
tatively. Seven species were represented in the 5- and 7-year-old pond
collections, respectively. Anopheles quadrimaculatus, the malaria vec-
tor, was found in significant numbers in ponds that have been established
for five or more years. In general, An. punctipennis and C. erraticus
were the most prevalent species present in all the ponds. Mosquito
production was not detected until ponds were two years old or older.
Several specimens of An. punctipennis and C. erraticus larvae were col-
lected from the 2-year-old ponds. Limited production of An. punctipennis
and C. erraticus was recorded in the 3-year-old ponds. C. erraticus egg
rafts were also found attached to leaf margins of floating leaves of
variable-leaf pondweed (Potamogeton diversifolius) in a 3-year-old pond.
Only one species of the floodwater or rainpool group of mosquitoes
was collected from the nine study ponds. One larval specimen of P.
columbiae was found in a 7-year-old pond. However, extensive rains in
August and September 1977 flooded many semi-aquatic depressions, colonized
by Typha latifolia, throughout the strip mine study area and produced a
brood of this floodwater mosquito. Larval sampling yielded an average
of three larvae per dip in the flooded depressions. P. columbiae deposits
its eggs on the damp soil in depressions that are intermittently flooded.
Usually, large numbers of larvae are produced at a hatching, and adults
may appear as early as six days after flooding. This species causes
serious annoyance to man and livestock and has also been incriminated
in the transmission of equine encephalitis and dog heartworm disease.
Several biting adult specimens of P. columbiae were collected near the
strip mine area.
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TABLE 1. SUMMARY OF MOSQUITO PRODUCTION, BASED ON AVERAGE NUMBER OF LARVAE PER DIP IN COAL STRIP MINE PONDS IN MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA, APRIL - OCTOBER 1976, 1977, and 1978
1.976
Species
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex restuans
Culex territans
Uranotaenia sapphirina
Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex territans
Species
Anopheles crucians
Anopheles punctipennis
Anopheles quadrimaculatus
Culex erraticus
Culex restuans
Culex territans
Psorophora columbiae
April
Pond age (y)
ia
-
5a 10a
0.00 0.00
0.07 0.04
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
April
Pond age (y)
2a
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6a 11"
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.02
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
April
Pond age (y)
3"
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7a 12a
0.00 0.01
0.00 0.10
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
May
Pond age (y)
1
I
Pond
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5 10
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.04
0.02 0.00
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
May
age (y)
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.37 0.01
0.03 0.00
0.06 0.01
0.00 0.31
May
Pond age (y)
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.06
0.01 0.01
0.00 0.06
0.01 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.00
Pond
1
i
Pond
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
Pond
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
June
age (y)
5 10
0.03 0.00
0.20 0.13
0.14 0.02
0.02 0.07
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.07
0.00 0.00
June
age (y)
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.07 0.22
0.07 0.28
2.04 0.97
0.00 0.00
June
age (y)
7 12
0.01 0.00
0.12 0.00
0.03 0.05
0.12 0.06
0.00 0.00
0.02 0.00
o.oo n.oo
Pond
1
1977
July
age (y)
5 10
0.17 0.00
0.81 0.43
0.48 0.30
1.43 1.92
0.00 0.00
1.94 0.00
0.02 0.00
July
Pond age (y)
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
1978
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.06 0.08
0.13 0.30
0.69 2.00
0.00 0.00
July
Pond age (y)
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.18 0.30
0.23 0.56
1.61 0.30
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
August
Pond age (y)
1
-
5 10
0.00 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.04 0.00
0.08 0.00
0.00 0.00
0 . 00 0 . 24
0.00 0.00
August
Pond age (y)
2
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.00
0.00
6 11
0.00 0.03
0.04 0.15
0.00 0.01
12.20 2.56
0.00 0.03
August
Pond age (y)
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.11
0.00
0.00
0.00
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.14 0.26
0.04 0.33
1.99 1.38
0.00 0.00
0 . 00 0 . 00
0.00 0.00
September
Pond age (y)
1 5 10
0.00 0.00
-. 0.01 0.17
0.09 0.02
0.92 0.66
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.01
0. 00 0.00
September
Pond age (y)
2 6 11
0.00 0.11 0.00
0.00 0.20 0.42
O.OCf 0.40 0.11
0.02 1.77 0.56
0.02 0.00 0.21
September
Pond age (y)
3 7 12
0.00 0.00 0.03
0.00 0.07 0.23
0.00 0.09 0.14
0.04 5.96 7.57
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (y)
1
-
5 10
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (y)
2
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
6 11
0.00 0.00
0.39 0.59
0.00 0.00
0.01 0.06
0.00 0.00
October
Pond age (y)
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7 12
0.00 0.00
0.40 0.65
0.20 0.02
0.10 0.61
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00
Pond
1
-
Total
age (y)
5 10
0.03 0.00
0.17 0.13
0.11 0.06
0.31 0.46
0.01 0.00
0.26 0.03
0.01 0.00
Total
Pond age (y)
2
0.00
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.01
6 11
0,01 0.01
0.20 0.21
0.06 0.08
1.45 0.71
0.00 0.08
Total
Pond age (y)
3
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.07
0.00
0.00
0.00
7 12
0.01 0.01
0.09 0.22
0.07 0.16
1.15 1.11
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
0.01 0.00
Average of three ponds.
-------
-10-
Heavy rainfall in February 1977 flooded vegetated marginal areas
of the study ponds. Supplemental larval dipping records in early March
showed mosquito production of An. punctipennis, An. quadrimaculatus,
C. restuans, and C. territans in areas colonized by T. latifolia in the
6- and 11-year-old ponds. Strip mine ponds could serve as a major
habitat for the first spring brood of permanent pool species of mosquitoes.
Mosquito larval occurrence in all the ponds was primarily associ-
ated with areas colonized by aquatic macrophytes such as variable-leaf
pondweed (P. diversifolius), woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), and cattail
(T. latifolia). The heaviest mosquito production occurred during July
through September.
Although data in Table 1 indicate significant mosquito production
in strip mine ponds that have been formed for five or more years, the
mosquito habitat occurred only around the periphery of the ponds and
consisted of only a small percentage of the total water surface area.
Most of the mosquito habitat was located in narrow vegetated areas along
shallow, marginal shelves. Because of the abrupt pond margins and the
small amount of vegetation in the ponds, the mosquito breeding poten-
tial, especially for permanent pool species, was limited in most of the
ponds. As a general rule, the intensity of mosquito production of per-
manent pool species is directly related to the amount of plant life and
flotage breaking the water surface (Bishop 1947). However, in those
ponds where the water level recedes and extensive shoreline areas are
dewatered, floodwater species of mosquitoes could become a problem.
Mosquito Ova Sampling
Table 2 summarizes data from soil samples collected to determine
the extent and successional changes of floodwater mosquito populations
along strip mine pond margins; oviposition data are used as an indica-
tor. The total number of soil samples collected from the different
pond age categories was governed by the size of the dewatered pond mar-
gin, with the maximum high water level serving as the upper limit.
The data in Table 2 show that most of the floodwater mosquito ova col-
lected were from the 10-, 11-, and 12-year-old ponds. Of the total
number of floodwater mosquito ova collected, about 90 percent were from
this age category, and 10 percent of the ova were from the 5-, 6-, and
7-year-old ponds. No floodwater mosquito ova were found in soil
samples collected from the 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old ponds. Floodwater
mosquito species present in the 'nine study ponds, as indicated by soil
sampling data collected over a period of three years, were Aedes vexans,
Ae. sollicitans, P. columbiae, and P. cyanescens. Data from soil samples
showed Ae. vexans was the predominant floodwater mosquito species in the
study ponds. Results from the soil sampling program showed only three
ova of Ae. sollicitans present, which were found in the 5- and 10-year-old
pond categories. Ova of P. columbiae and P. cyanescens were found in
sparse numbers in the 12-year-old ponds. No floodwater mosquito ova
were recovered in soil samples from the 7-year-old ponds. Due to high
water level in the ponds at the time soil samples were collected from the
-------
-11-
TABLE 2. SPECIES AND NUMBER OF FLOODWATER MOSQUITO OVA
COLLECTED FROM SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN IN COAL STRIP MINE PONDS,
MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA, APRIL - OCTOBER 1976, 1977, AND 1978
Samples taken
Samples positive for
mosquito ova
Percent positive samples
Aedes sollicitans ova
Aedes vexans ova
Samples taken
Samples positive for
mosquito ova
Percent positive samples
Aedes vexans ova
Samples taken
Samples positive for
mosquito ova
Percent positive samples
Aedes vexans ova
Psorophora columbiae ova
Psorophora cyanescens ova
November 1976
iya
22
0
0.0
0
0
November 1977
2y8
15
0
0.0
0
November 1978
3ya
25
0
0.0
0
0
0
From ponds aged
5ya
53
3
5.7
1
3
From ponds aged
6ya
39
3
7.7
13
From ponds aged
7ya
32
0
0.0
0
0
0
10 ya
42
14
33.3
2
98
11 ya
40
10
25.0
39
12 ya
46
5
10.8
6
2
1
a
Average of 3 replicates.
-------
-12-
2-, 6-, and 11-year-old ponds, the number of samples collected and the
number of sampling transects evaluated were limited in several study
ponds, and this limitation may have influenced the collection of mosquito
ova. Positive soil samples in all pond age categories were collected in
association with the following vegetation: T. latifolia, Salix nigra,
Scirpus cyperinus, Aster pilosus, and Andropogon virginicus.
Adult females of Ae. yexans, Ae. sollicitans, P. columbiae, and
P. eyanescens all feed readily on man, and being strong fliers, they
often migrate in large numbers from their breeding sites into populated
areas in search of a blood meal. The females of Ae. vexans, P. columbiae,
and P. eyanescens generally deposit their ova on the damp soil in vege-
tated depressions that are intermittently flooded. These three flood-
water mosquito species are widely distributed throughout the Tennessee
Valley and are three of the most important pest species. The females of
Ae. sollicitans normally deposit their ova on the soil in the tidewater
salt marshes containing brackish or saline water, which are subject to
intermittent flooding. Other oviposition sites may include pools of
effluents from certain factories, pools around oil wells, and coal mine
ponds (Horsfall 1955).
The paucity of floodwater mosquito production in most of the coal
strip mine study ponds is probably due in part to the frequent silting
of pond margins caused by extensive erosion from barren spoil areas
after heavy rains. Mosquito ova are covered by layers of silt during
the winter, and mosquito larvae from the enclosed ova cannot emerge
from beneath the soil when the habitat is inundated the following spring.
The lack of floodwater mosquito production along pond margins may also
be due to the sparse vegetation, surface detritus cover, and xeric soil,
which make these areas unattractive to ovipositing females.
Benthic and Surface Sampling for Aquatic Insects
The insect taxa from bottom and surface samples found in the strip
mine ponds for three years of the planned 5-year-succession study are
listed in Table 3. The dredge and net samples yielded about the same
number of insect taxa, but the species composition and the number of
specimens collected differed significantly, especially in the aquatic
Diptera. About 85 percent of all the insect genera collected are
predacious, either as adults or as immatures.
The number of insect taxa in the 1-, 2-*, and 3-year-old ponds
detected by dredge and net sampling methods was 24, 43, and 54 species,
respectively. The most significant increase, both in species composi-
tion and in the number of specimens collected, was in the Chironomidae,
or "nonbiting midges." By comparison, data from bottom samples yielded
the following Chironomidae counts: 1-year-old ponds—9 species, total
of 21 specimens; 2-year-old ponds—14 species, total of 147 specimens;
and 3-year-old ponds—20 species, total of 433 specimens. Larvae of the
mayfly, Hexagenia rounda elegans, were found in the 2-year-old ponds, the
youngest ponds in which they have occurred. This species was also found
-------
-13-
TABLE 3. INSECT TAXA TAKEN FROM COAL STRIP MINE PONDS IN
MARION COUNTT, ALABAMA, APRIL - OCTOBER 1976, 1977, AND 1978 x
Species composition
Ephemeroptera
Baetidae
Callibaetis
Cloeon
Caenidae
Caenis
Ephemeridae
Hexagenia munda elegans
Odonata
Aeshnidae
Anax junius
Anax longipes
Basiaeschna Janata
Coenagrionidae
Anomalagrion hastatum
Argia fumipennis
Argia sp.
Enallagma aspersum
Enallagma basidens
Enallagma civile
Enallagma doubledayi
Enallagma signatum (group)
Enallagma sp.
Ischnura posita
Corduliidae
Epitheca cynosura
Gomphidae
Dromogomphus spinosus
Gomphus exilis
Gomphus sp. .
Lestidae
Archilestes grandis
Lestes dis.junctus
Libellulidae
Celithemis elisa
Erythemis siroplicicollis
Libellula cyanea
Libellula sp.
Pachydiplax longipennis
Pantala flavescens
Planthemis lydia
Sympetruffl vicinum
Tramea sp.
Macromiidae
Didymops transversa
From ponds aged
Tears Tears
1 2 3 5 6 7 10
I C I C C C I
I
I C
C C A C I A
I C
I II I
I
I
I III
III
I I
I I C C C
I A
II I
I
I
C C
C C C I
I
1C IIC
C C C C C I A
C C
III
I
A
I
I I
I
I II C
I C I I
I
I C
C I I C C
Tears
11
I
I
A
C
I
I
I
C
I
I
C
C
I
I
C
I
C
12
I
A
I
I
I
C
C
C
I
I
I
I
I
I
C
I
I
-------
-14-
TABLE 3 (continued)
From ponds aged
Species composition
Orthoptera
Tridactylidae
Tridactylus
Hemiptera
Belostomatidae
Belostoma
Corixidae
Hesperocorixa
Sigara
Gerridae
Gerris
Limnogonus
Rheumatobates
Trepobates
Hydrometridae
Hydrometra
Mesoveliidae
Mesovelia
Naucoridae
Pelocoris
Nepidae
Ranatra
Notonectidae
Buenoa
Notonecta
Veliidae
Microvelia
Trichoptera
Polycentropodidae
Poly cent ropus
Coleoptera
Dytiscidae
Agabus disinegratus
Agabus (larvae)
Copelatus glyphicus
Coptotomus interrogatus
Deronectes
Hydroporinae (genus
unidentified)
Hydroporus rufilabris
Hydroporus undulatus
Hydroporus sp.
Hy grot us
Laccophilus maculosus
Laccophilus proximus
Thermonectus
Years Years
123567
I
III
I
I
II I
I I C I I
C I
I I
I A A A A
III
C C I C
III
I I I C I
I A I C
A A I A I
II A
I C C
I I
I
C I C C I
II A A
I
I
A A C A C I
I
I
Years
10 11 12
I
I
I I
ICC
I I
I
I
C A A
I I
III
C I
C C
A A A
C C C
I
I I
I
I C A
I
I
C I I
C I I
C A A
-------
-15-
TABLE 3 (continued)
From ponds aged
Years
Species composition 1
Elmidae
Gyrinidae
Dineutus A
Gyrinus
Haliplidae
Peltodytes
Hydrophilidae
Berosus infuscatus I
Berosus nr. aculeatus
Cymbiodyta blanchardi
Helochares maeulicollis
Helophorus
Paracymus (subcupreus group)
Tropisternus lateralis
Noteridae
Hydro canthus
Megaloptera
Sialidae
Sialis I
Diptera
Ceratopogonidae
Palpomyia C
Chaoboridae
Chaoborus
Corethrella
Eucorethra
Chironomidae
Ablabesmyia annulata
Ablabesmyia sp. I
Chironomus
Cladotanytarsus I
Coelotanypus
Clinotanypus
Cricotopus remus
Cricotopus sp.
Cryptochironomus sp. I
Cryptocladopelma
Cryptotendipes sp. 1
Cryptotendipes sp. 2
Dicrotendipes
Einfeldia
Endo chironomus nigricans I
Goeldichironomus holoprasinus
Harnischia
Miscropsectra
Microtendipes
Pagastiella
2 3
A A
C I
I
I
I C
C
A A
I
I
A A
I C
C A
I
C C
C I
I
I
C C
I
I I
I
Years
5 6
C A
I
C
I
C A
C I
C C
A A
I
I
I A
I A
I
I
I
I
I
I
C C
I
I I
7 10
I
A A
C I
I
I C
I
I
I
I I
I
A
C
A I
C
A I
A C
I
I
I I
I
I
A I
A C
C
I
Years
11
A
I
I
C
I
I
I
C
A
I
A
A
I
C
I
I
C
I
I
C
12
A
I
I
C
C
A
I
C
C
A
A
C
C
I
I
I
C
-------
-16-
TABLE 3 (continued)
Species composition
Paratendipes
Polypedilum
Procladius
Rheotanytarsus
Stictochironomus devinctus
Tanypus
Tanytarsus
Orthocladiinae (genus
unidentified)
Orthocladiinae (genus No. 2
unidentified)
Orthocladiinae (genus No. 3
unidentified)
Xeno chi ronomus
Stratiomyidae
Eulalia
Tabanidae
Chrysops
Tab anus
Tipulidae
Gonomyia
Tipula
Collembola
Isotomurus
Number of species
Years
1 2 3
I A A
I A A
I
I A
IIC
I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
24 43 54
From ponds aged
Years
5 6 7 10
I
I A A I
A A A A
I
A
C
I C A
I
I
I
I I I
I
I
49 55 62 42
Years
11 12
I
A A
A A
I
C
I I
A
A
I C
I
58 66
aThe presence and degree of abundance of the species in the ponds are
indicated by the following scale: I = 1 to 5, infrequent; C = 6 to
19, common; A = 20 and above, abundant.
-------
-17-
to be relatively abundant in some ponds that are five years old and older.
Mayflies occupy an important place in the food chain of aquatic communi-
ties because both the larvae and adults are eaten by fish. The most common
genera encountered in the 1- to 3-year-old ponds were Notonecta, Laccophilus,
Dineutust Ablabesmyia, and Procladius. Of particular significance was
the increase in the larval counts of the midge Procladius in the 2- and
3-year-old ponds. Results from bottom samples showed that larval counts
of Procladius increased from 29 specimens in the 2-year-old ponds to 152
specimens in the 3-year-old ponds. In the 1976 study many of the Procladius
larvae were found to exhibit abnormal mouthparts, especially those larvae
from ponds formed five or more years ago.
Survey results revealed the presence of only two genera of medically
important insects in the 1- to 3-year-old pond age category. Larvae of
Palpomyia (Ceratopogonidae), sometimes called biting midges or punkies,
were relatively abundant in the 2- and 3-year old ponds. Because of
their bloodsucking ability, the adults of Ceratopogonidae can be serious
pests along margins of streams and lakes. Two specimens of Chrysops
(deer fly) were found in the 3-year-old ponds. Chrysops, which are
persistent biters of man and livestock, are potential vectors of tularemia.
The data in Table 3 show that the 5- to 7-year-old ponds produced a
wide diversity of insect taxa. Data from surveys of the 5-, 6-, and
7-year-old ponds yielded 49, 55, and 62 insect taxa, respectively. The
dominant genera and species in the various insect orders, on the basis of
frequency in collected samples, were Callibaetis, Hexagenia munda elegans,
Enallagma basidens, Gomphys exilis, Trepobates, Dineutus, Berosus m.
aculiatus, Sialis, Palpomyia, Ablabesmyia, Chironomus, Polypedilum, and
Procladius.
Three insect genera of public health importance were recovered in
dredge samples from the 5-, 6-, and 7-year-old ponds. Larval specimens
of the very small biting gnat, Palpomyia, were abundant in the ponds,
especially in samples from the 5-year-old ponds. A total of six larval
specimens of the genus Chrysops was found in the 5- and 7-year-old ponds.
No Chrysops larvae were detected in samples from the 6-year-old ponds.
One larval specimen of Tabanus (horse fly) was found in samples from the
6-year-old ponds. Both deer flies and horse flies are fierce biters of
man and livestock and may cause transfer of blood-inhabiting pathogenic
organisms to man and animals (Jones 1964).
Data from benthic and surface samples in the 10-, 11-, and 12-year-
old ponds showed this age group to have the greatest aquatic insect
species diversity of the ponds studied. Sampling data from the 10-, 11-,
and 12-year old ponds showed 42, 58, and 66 insect taxa, respectively.
The most common genera and species were Hexagenia munda elegans,
Enallagma aspersum, Gomphus exilis, Trepobates, Beunoa t Laccophilus
maculosus, Dineutus, Ablabesmyia, Chironomus, Polypedilum, and Procladius.
Midge larvae, Procladius, were the most abundant immature aquatic insects
collected. This is of particular significance since many of the larvae
in this midge group in the 10-year-old ponds were found to possess the
mouthpart abnormality mentioned earlier. The genus characteristically
-------
-18-
has a 5-toothed ligula. Many of the larvae examined from these older
ponds had three to six ligular teeth, which were bifid, crooked, or
otherwise asymmetrical. A special project has been established to study
this unusual abnormality and to determine whether it might in some way
be related to water quality.
Data from the 10-, 11-, and 12-year-old ponds showed a paucity of
insects of medical importance, both in species composition and abundance.
Larvae of the biting midge Palpomyia were found in small numbers in the
11- and 12-year-old ponds, but only one specimen was detected in samples
from the 10-year-old ponds. Records from the 12-year-old ponds showed a
total of 16 Chrysops larvae.
Adult Tabanidae Collections
No adult specimens of the family Tabanidae (horse flies and deer
flies) were collected during the 1977 and 1978 seasons. However, several
adults were collected from inside a parked sedan car located near the
strip mine study ponds in 1976. These biting insects constitute one
of the most annoying groups of bloodsucking insects that attack livestock
and man. The eggs are laid in masses on vegetation extending over the
water surface or in emergent vegetation, where the larvae can develop
in water or damp soil. Most species of horse flies are strong fliers and
have a flight range of several kilometers from the larval habitat. Very
few tabanid larvae were detected in the benthic samples from the study
ponds because a concerted specialized effort is required to collect them
from pond margins. However, the strip mining occurs over an extensive
area, and many ponds and wet areas are found which are considered the
most likely source of production for those that were collected. Twenty-
three adult specimens of tabanids, representing two genera, were collected
in 1976; they included Hybomitra trispilus (1), Tabanus cheliopterus (2),
Tabanus melanocerus (1), Tabanus nigripes (2), Tabanus sparus milleri (2),
Tabanus fulvulus pallidescens (1), and Tabanus fulvulus (14).
Woody and Herbaceous Vegetation
A total of 69 plant species has been identified from the nine ponds
during the study period. These are categorized in Table 4, according to
their habitat zone, as submersed, emergent, wetland, or terrestrial.
The submersed vegetation consists of those plants that are rooted
in the substrate, but have emergent inflorescences. The emergent species
include plants that are firmly rooted in the substrate and have vegeta-
tive structures that extend above the water surface. The wetland species
include plants growing in the transition zone just above the waterline in
soils that are continually or seasonally saturated. Those plants grow-
ing above the transition zone in unsaturated soils are classified as
terrestrial.
Potamogeton diversifolius was the dominant submersed species found
in ponds more than one year old. Two other submersed species, Potamogeton
-------
-19-
TABLE 4. LIST OF VASCULAR PLANT SPECIES AND MACROSCOPIC
ALGAE ASSOCIATED WITH STRIP MINE PONDS OF VARIOUS AGES
IN MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA3
Plant taxon
Age category of ponds
1 2 3 5 6 7 10 11 12
Submersed
Chara sp.
Potamogeton diversifolius
Potamogeton pusillus
16557
1 2
1
3
Emergent
Eleocharis acicularis
Eleocharis engelmannii
Eleocharis obtusa
Juncus acuminatus
Juncus debilis
Scirpus cyperinus
Sparganium americanum
Typha latifolia
7 7
3
1
6
2
1
3
1
9
2
2
3
1
9
5
1
3
9
5
7
9
7
1
1
5
8
9
7
1
8
6
9
7
Wetland
Aster pilosus
Bidens frondosa
Cyperus odoratus
Echinochloa crusgalli
Eclipta alba
Eupatorium coelestinum
Eupatorium perfoliatum
Eupatorium serotinum
Eupatorium sessilfolium
Fimbristylis autumnalis
Hypericum mutilum
Ludwigia alternifolia
Mikania scandens
Panicum dichotomiflorum
Panicum lanuginosum
Panicum microcarpon
Panicum verrucosum
Panicum sp.
Pluchea camphorata
Polygonum hydropiperoides
111417
2699
3
118333
222
1776
1
333
236889
2 2 1
1 1
1334
4
6
1
1
3
3
3
1
1
5
9
1
1
3
3
3
3
1
2
8
1
1
5
1
1
1
4
3
5
3
3
1
-------
-20-
TABLE 4 (continued)
Plant taxon
Age category of ponds
1 2 3 5 6 7 10 11 12
Polygonum lapthifolium
Polygonum pennsylvanicum
Polygonum punctatum
Populus deltoides
Salix niera
226
556
1 1 3
635
1
1
1 1 2
999
1
2
1
2
1
8
Terrestrial
Acer rubrum
Ambrosia artemisifo1ia
Andropogon virginicus
Aristida dichotoma
Aristida oligolantha
Cassia nictitans
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium ambrosio ides
Desmodium perplexum
Digitaria ischaemum
Diodia teres
Diospyros virginiana
Erechtites hieracifolia
Erianthus a Ipjgecu r o i des
Eupatorium compositifolium
Iva annua
Lespedeza cuneata
Lespedeza hirta
Lespedeza striata
Lobelia puberula
Lonicera japonica
Oxalis sp.
Paspalum bosicianum
Pa sp alum dilatation
Phytolacca americana
Pinus virginiana
Plantago aristata
Polypremum procumbens
Pyrrhopappus carolinianus
Rubus sp.
Setaria geniculata
Solidago sp.
Xanthium strumarium
2332
554555
1 1
1
333
1 1
3 3 1
115227
11 554
111
3 3
228
7 7
661
1 1
1 1
221
557
83 1
1
3
1
1
1 1 2
1 1
1
1
5
6
3
1
4
7
6
2
7
1
5
2
1
3
1
5
6
3
3
1
1
4
7
4
2
8
1
2
2
1
3
1
1
1
2
6
4
3
3
1
1
1
1
6
6
2
1
1
2
aEach number represents the number of sampling stations from which a
species was present out of nine total stations.
Each age category (e.g., 1-year-old ponds) contains three ponds, each of
which contains three sampling stations.
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-21-
pusillus and the macroscopic alga Chara, were also found in a limited
number of ponds that were more than five years old. Eight emergent
species have been recorded, with Typha latifolia, Scirpus cyperinum,
Eleocharis obtusa, and Juneus acuminatus being the most common. Twenty-
five wetland genera or species were found, the most abundant being
Polygonum spp., Panicum spp., Eupatorium spp., Echinochloa crusgalli,
Aster pilosus, Bidens frondosa, Ludwigia alternifolia, Pluchea camphorata,
and Salix nigra. Many of the 33 terrestrial species identified during
this study are common plants that invade disturbed sites. Since they
seldom contribute to the mosquito breeding habitat, they will not be
discussed in detail.
Newly formed ponds (one year old) were sparsely colonized and the
macrophytes present were primarily wetland and terrestrial species common
to disturbed sites. No submersed species and only one emergent species
(Typha latifolia) were noted to colonize these ponds. Wetland species
common to the newly formed ponds include Polygonum pennsylvanicum and
Salix nigra. By the second year, two pondweeds (P. diversifolius and
P. pusillus) had become established. Taxa established by the third year
include two emergent species (Scirpus cyperinus and Eleocharis obtusa)
and several wetland species (Pluchea camphorata, Bidens frondosa, Cyperus
odoratus). S. scirpus, P. diversifolius, and P. pusillus provide a
very favorable habitat for permanent pool mosquito species. While these
species are undesirable from the standpoint of mosquito production, the
two pondweeds (P. diversifolius and P. pusillus) are documented as a food
source for waterfowl. Additional genera found in the older ponds (5 to 7
and 10 to 12 years) are Eleocharis spp., Juncus spp., Panicum spp., and
Eupatorium spp.
Species diversity increased as the ponds became older. Twenty species
were found in the 1-year-old ponds, compared with 45 species in the 12-year-
old ponds. Because no discernible patterns of species replacement have been
observed, the increase in species diversity represents the addition of
species to previous vegetation.
Water pH
The average monthly water surface pH readings for each study pond
group for the 1976, 1977, and 1978 growing seasons are given in Table 5.
In general, the pH of the water in all the ponds is within the tolerance
ranges that can support a large number of species of both plants and
animals. This high pH value of the water in the strip mine ponds is
most likely due to the large content of alkaline materials in the over-
burden. The 11-year-old ponds had a lower seasonal pH range than the
other pond groups. The seasonal pH range of the water in the 1-, 2-,
and 3-year-old ponds does not appear to differ significantly from that
in the six older ponds.
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-22-
TABLE 5. RESULTS OF MONTHLY MONITORING IN THREE CONSECUTIVE YEARS
OF FOUR PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF NINE COAL STRIP MINE PONDS
IN MARION COUNTY, ALABAMA, APRIL - OCTOBER 1976, 1977, AND 1978
Pond age (y) April May June July August Sept. Oct. Seasonal range
Average monthly pH
1 7.3 7.5 7.4 8.1 8.1 7.5 7.4 6.4 - 8.7
2 7.7 8.1 7.4 7.3 7.6 7.4 7.6 6.2 - 8.5
3 6.7 7.2 6.7 6.8 8.3 8.0 7.8 6.0 - 8.6
5 7.2 7.4 7.2 7.4 6.6 7.6 7.6 5.7 - 8.9
6 7.2 7.4 7.9 7.3 7.1 7.1 7.6 5.7 - 8.9
7 6.7 6.3 6.8 6.7 7.4 8.0 8.0 5.8 - 9.0
10 6.8 6.9 6.7 6.7 7.1 6.3 6.6 5.9 - 8.2
11 7.1 6.7 7.0 7.0 6.2 6.2 7.3 5.0 - 8.3
12 6.6 7.0 6.3 7.1 7.2 8.0 7.3 5.3 - 8.6
1 9.9 10.1 9.5 8.8 9.3 9.2 12.0 8.1 - 12.2
2 10.5 9.7 8.7 8.1 8.8 9.3 11.1 7.6 - 12.4
3 10.0 9.7 9.3 8.2 8.9 10.4 11.1 7.6 13.8
5 10.3 9.6 10.1 8.1 10.0 10.2 12.2 6.4 - 14.1
6 10.5 10.1 10.3 8.1 9.6 9.2 10.3 7.4 - 11.8
7 9.6 9.5 9.5 8.6 8.9 10.4 10.1 4.1 12.6
10 9.6 10.5 9.1 8.3 8.3 7.4 11.7 6.0 - 12.6
11 9.7 9.3 8.7 8.5 8.6 8.7 10.8 7.2 - 11.7
12 9.1 9.8 8.9 8.9 9.1 9.3 11.3 7.4 - 12.4
1 23 23 28 30 29 26 12 9 - 31
2 23 27 30 29 32 25 16 13 - 33
3 20 21 23 29 27 26 16 14 - 30
5 19 27 28 33 29 26 14 13 - 42
6 24 27 30 31 32 27 17 17 33
7 21 20 26 26 25 26 15 10 - 30
10 26 23 28 28 29 26 13 8 - 31
11 27 27 31 31 29 28 18 15 - 34
12 18 21 22 28 24 26 15 12 - 29
Average monthly conductivity (mnhos/cm)
2 — -- 496.7 553.9 593.3 487.8 294.5 150 - 1000
3 283.8 275.0 298.0 349.4 367.8 269.0 307.8 27 - 700
6 — -- 641.7 602.2 580.0 487.5 359.5 195 - 1400
7 513.8 350.6 531.7 550.0 546.7 392.2 450.6 27 - 1150
11 — -- 85.2 78.9 76.1 60.0 48.9 20 160
12 54.4 57.5 49.4 67.2 62.2 69.9 56.7 15 - 170
7.3
7.7
6.7
7.2
7.2
6.7
6.8
7.1
6.6
9.9
10.5
10.0
10.3
10.5
9.6
9.6
9.7
9.1
7.5
8.1
7.2
7.4
7.4
6.3
6.9
6.7
7.0
10.1
9.7
9.7
9.6
10.1
9.5
10.5
9.3
9.8
7.4
7.4
6.7
7.2
7.9
6.8
6.7
7.0
6.3
Average
9.5
8.7
9.3
10.1
10.3
9.5
9.1
8.7
8.9
8.1
7.3
6.8
7.4
7.3
6.7
6.7
7.0
7.1
monthly
8.8
8.1
8.2
8.1
8.1
8.6
8.3
8.5
8.9
8.1
7.6
8.3
6.6
7.1
7.4
7.1
6.2
7.2
7.5
7.4
8.0
7.6
7.1
8.0
6.3
6.2
8.0
DO (ppm)
9.3
8.8
8.9
10.0
9.6
8.9
8.3
8.6
9.1
9.2
9.3
10.4
10.2
9.2
10.4
7.4
8.7
9.3
Average monthly temperature (@C]
23
23
20
19
24
21
26
27
18
23
27
21
27
27
20
23
27
21
28
30
23
28
30
26
28
31
22
30
29
29
33
31
26
28
31
28
29
32
27
29
32
25
29
29
24
26
25
26
26
27
26
26
28
26
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-23-
Conductivity and Salinity
The data in Table 5 show that the water conductivity recordings in
the 11- and 12-year-old ponds were significantly lower than those in the
2-, 3-, 6-, and 7-year old ponds. Water in the 6-year-old ponds had the
highest conductivity recordings, with a seasonal range of 195 to 1400
mmhos/cm. The high conductivity reading in the pond water probably
resulted from the buildup of electrolytes dissolved in water as a result
of weathering of the adjacent spoil, which consists mainly of exposed
rock. All the ponds showed an absence of salinity.
Dissolved Oxygen
Table 5 also summarizes the results of the dissolved oxygen deter-
minations in each of the nine study ponds. These determinations indicate
that no ecologically significant differences in the dissolved oxygen con-
tent occurred among the ponds. Some of the elevated dissolved oxygen
readings in ponds five years old or older were likely influenced by
colonies of P. diversifolius, which could have increased the midday dis-
solved oxygen content. However, much of the dissolved oxygen in the
ponds, especially in the 1-, 2-, and 3-year-old ponds, is probably
derived from the atmosphere by surface water agitation caused by wind
and wave action.
Water Temperature
The average water temperature for each study pond is shown in Table 5.
The variable temperature readings in the ponds were attributed to the
inflow of ground water. Some differences occurred between the monthly
temperature readings recorded in the different pond age categories, but
these small variations could have resulted from climatic conditions.
Water Level
Seasonal water level deviations in the ponds for the 1978 season
are graphically illustrated in Figure 2. The water recession in the
study ponds for the 1978 season exhibited about the same pattern as in
1976 and 1977. However, drought conditions in May through July in 1977
caused abrupt water level recession in all the study ponds. This drop
in water level was greatest in the 6-year-old ponds, with a drawdown of
about 2 m. Heavy rainfall in the late summer of 1977 filled the 2-,
6-, and 11-year-old ponds to above the normal level, which inundated
the terrestrial plant zone around the ponds. These extreme water level
fluctuations could have influenced the quantity and quality of aquatic
insect species collected in the sampling program, especially mosquitoes,
because most of the likely vegetated habitats were dewatered early in
the growing season.
-------
-24-
+1
1 1 T
3-YEAR-OLD-PONDS
-1
-2
+1
0
-1
-2
+1
0
-2
POND 1
POND 2
POND 3
l
7-YEAR-OLD-PONDS
I I
12-YEAR-OLD-PONDS
POND 7
POND 8
POND 9
APRIL
MAY
JUNE
JULY
AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER
Figure 2. Water level fluctuations in the nine coal strip mine study ponds
for the 1978 growing season.
-------
-25-
Management of water levels to control mosquito production in ponds
is a very effective naturalistic control measure. Ponds are usually
filled during the wet period from late winter through spring, but water
levels recede at the beginning of the dry season. This seasonal water
level recession (Figure 2) coincides with the active breeding season
for permanent pool mosquitoes, thus effectively controlling these types
of mosquitoes. However, wide amplitudes of water level fluctuations
that periodically expose large areas of shoreline, as occur in the 6-year-
old ponds, can be very conducive to the production of floodwater mos-
quitoes. The floodwater species of mosquitoes generally deposit their
eggs on the damp soil along vegetated shorelines that are intermittently
flooded. A brood of floodwater mosquitoes can be produced if the water
level in the pond first recedes enough to allow deposition of eggs and
then is followed by sufficient rainfall to raise the water level again
and inundate the eggs, causing them to hatch. However, results from
soil samples collected from these dewatered pond margins showed a paucity
of floodwater mosquito ova.
-------
-26-
REFERENCES
Bishop, E. L., and M. D. Hollis. Malaria Control on Impounded Water.
Federal Security Agency, U.S. Public Health Service and Tennessee
Valley Authority, Health and Safety Department, 1947. 422 pp.
Horsfall, W. R. A Method for Making a Survey of Floodwater Mosquitoes,
Mosquito News, 16 (2): 66-71 pp., 1956.
Horsfall, W. R. Biology and Control of Mosquitoes in the Rice Area.
Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Bull. No. 427, 1942.
46 pp.
Horsfall, W. R. Mosquitoes, Their Bionomics and Relation to Disease.
The Ronald Press Co., New York, 1955. 723 pp.
Jones, C. M., and D. W. Anthony. The Tahanidae (Diptera) of Florida.
Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of
Agriculture, Tech. Bull. No. 1295, 1964. 85 pp.
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please nod Inttruetion* on the reverie before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-80-180
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
PRODUCTION OF ARTHROPOD PESTS AND VECTORS IN
COAL STRIP MINE PONDS
5. REPORT DAT!
December 1980
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Eugene Pickard
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Natural Resources
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, TN 37405
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1NE - 831
11 • COIf TflACT/anANT NO.
81 BDT
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research & Development
Office of Environmental Processes & Effects
Washington. D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PCRIOO COVERED
Milestone
Res,
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD/17
IB. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
The objective of this study was to determine what species of medically important
arthropods, particularly mosquitoes, are breeding in coal strip mine ponds, to what
extent, and whether these breeding sites will serve as a focus of annoyance or a
potential outbreak center of arthropod-borne diseases to surrounding communities.
Pond age was compared with physical and chemical characteristics of the water and
associated vegetation communities. Various sampling techniques were used to deter-
mine the composition and density of all life stages of the aquatic insect fauna.
Results showed that mosquito production did occur in coal strip mine ponds, be-
coming evident during the second season after pond formation. The degree of mos-
quito production and the diversity of species composition increased as the ponds
aged. Although mosquito breeding occurred in all but the 1-year-old ponds, pro-
duction was sparse and restricted to narrow vegetated areas along shallow, marginal
shelves. The level of mosquito activity detected during this 3-year survey was
not sufficient to cause severe annoyance to surrounding communities. Mosquito
larvae dipping records in early March showed that strip mine ponds could provide
many favorable sites where overwintering females of An. punctipennis and An. guadri-
maculatus could deposit eggs for the first spring brood.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
tMOENTIFIERSSOPCN •NOtDTtMM
COSATi FtoM/Cnwp
G*ogr«pny
Hydrology. Lu*no)ogy
MxtoMMrr
Urth Hy4ro*pter«
Combuttlon
(Mining
Energy Conversion
Phyildt CtMAtitry
WtaMrMli Kindling
tnor«4nie Ctwaitny
Organic Ctonutry
Ch»mio»l EnglnMrtng
8A 8F
8H 10A 10B
7B 7C 13B
•X DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
IS. StCURITY CLASS fIMIJNp«Wlf
Unclassified
26
Unlimited
a&StCuAtTY CLASS fTM»p«feJ
Unclassified
------- |