United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
oEPA
Office of Research and Development
Research
Summary
Integrated
Pest
Management
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The tremendous increase in the
worldwide use of pesticides over the
past three decades has resulted
in many unforeseen environmental
problems. One of the most serious
and best documented of these is pest
resistance. More than 300 species of
insects, mites, and ticks throughout
the world possess genetic strains
which are resistant to one or more
pesticides. This presents serious
problems, especially to U.S. farmers
and ranchers who rely heavily on
pesticides. In California, for exam-
ple, 75 percent of the state's most
serious crop insect and mite pests
have developed genetic resistance
to one or more insecticides. This
Research Summary describes an
alternative approach towards pest
management—an approach that takes
into account both the necessity and
the danger of pesticides. Integrated
pest management involves the care-
fully managed use of multiple pest
control tactics. It is a highly effective
.alternative that minimizes the use of
chemical controls and maximizes the
Aise of natural processes; thereby
avoiding many of the problems asso-
ciated with pesticides use.
Stephen J. Gage
Assistant Administrator
for Research and Development
This brochure is one of a series providing a brief description
ci Inajor areas of the Environmental Protection Agency's
felearch and development program- Additional copies may be
Obtained by writing to:
Publications
Cariter for Environmental Research Information
Cincinnati, OH 45268
•Cover photo by Chip Clark, Smithsonian Institution
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managomesift
Of
Agricultural crops and forests in the United States
are the target of several thousand pests, including
insects, weeds, and disease-causing micro-
organisms. Prior to the Second World War,
relatively small amounts of chemicals were used for
pest control. Production of pesticides in 1945 was
less than 200 million pounds. The development of
synthetic chemicals during the war resulted in a
dramatic increase in the production and use of
pesticides. During the next 30 years, pest
management became increasingly dependent upon
chemicals, with 1.6 billion pounds of pesticides
being produced in 1975.
The rapid rise in the popularity of pesticides was
due primarily to their increased effectiveness, low
cost, and availability. Because pesticides were
initially so successful, farmers came to rely much
less on traditional pest control measures such as
tillage, crop rotation, and use of the pests' natural
estimated pesticides produced In the U.S.
1945
1950
1955
1960
1965
1975
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pesticide
problems
pest
resistance
secondary
pest damage
environmental
and health
hazards
enemies. Regular application of pesticides became
standard practice.
Unfortunately, such widespread use of pesticides
has been accompanied by unforeseen problems.
The impact of these problems is far reaching and
concerns not only the agricultural community but
the general population as well.
In order to meet the demands of a rapidly
increasing world population, more food, feed and
fiber crops are required each year. As demand
increases, prevention or reduction of crop loss
becomes even more critical. Today, despite the
tremendous amounts of pesticides being used,
approximately one-third of the crops planted in the
U.S. fail to reach harvest due to pest damage.
To a great extent, these losses are due to the
development of pest resistance and to other pest
problems. Ironically, these problems are caused by
the very chemicals formulated to control pests.
Pesticide application seldom results in the total
eradication of a pest population. A few individuals,
due to their genetic makeup, will be resistant to the
pesticide. These survivors mate and produce
offspring, some of which will inherit this resistance.
The next time the pesticide is applied, a larger
percentage of insects will survive and reproduce,
increasing the number of resistant insects.
Eventually, a highly resistant population will be
produced which cannot be controlled by the
pesticide developed for its management.
Pesticides kill not only target pests, but also
insects which help control other pests. The loss of
these beneficial insects following pesticide treatment
may result in an increase in the population of a
previously controlled pest. This "new" pest
population may cause more damage to the crop than
the initial pest. Such damage is referred to as
secondary pest damage.
Perhaps the most significant problem associated
with the widespread use of pesticides is the threat to
human health and the environment. Some pesticides
may be highly persistent; that is, slow to break
down via natural environmental processes. Pesti-
cides can filter into the soil or water where
they are taken in by microorganisms. Since these
microorganisms, in turn, are consumed by
other organisms, pesticides may enter the food
chain and be concentrated. Pesticide residues are
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therefore detected not only in treated crops but also
in fish, waterfowl, livestock, and humans.
DDT is an example of a highly persistent
pesticide. Due to its widespread use in the years
following World War II, tremendous amounts of
DDT were introduced into the environment, entered
the food chain, and accumulated in the fatty tissue
of living organisms. In December 1972, following
the discovery that DDT causes some birds to
produce abnormally thin-shelled eggs and causes
cancer in laboratory mice and rats, EPA placed a
near-total ban on its domestic use. Despite this ban,
DDT persists in the environment. Mussels and fish
collected four years after the ban were still found to
contain residues of DDT.
Of even greater concern are reports which link
specific adverse human health effects with
pesticides. An estimated 40,000 people were treated
for pesticide poisoning in 1978. The actual number
of poisonings may be even larger since many cases
are not reported or are misdiagnosed. This
is because the symptoms of pesticide poisoning
often mimic those of common illnesses. Among
agricultural workers, pesticide poisonings are
particularly difficult to recognize due to the variety
of chemical agents to which they are exposed and to
the circumstances surrounding their use. The
association between pesticides and adverse human
health effects can be more clearly demonstrated
among industrial workers who are exposed to
pesticides during their manufacture and
formulation. In 1977, dibromochloropropane
(DBCP) was found to cause sterility in male workers
exposed to the pesticide during its formula-
tion. Several years earlier, workers at a chemical
processing plant in Hopewell, Virginia, developed
complex neurological disorders as a result of
chemical exposure during the production of the
pesticide kepone.
integrated pest Recognition of the problems associated with
management widespread pesticide application has encouraged
the development and utilization of alternative pest
control techniques. Rather than employing a single
control tactic, attention is being directed to the
coordinated use of multiple tactics, an approach
known as integrated pest management. Integrated
Pest Management (IPM) is an interdisciplinary
approach incorporating the judicious application of
the most efficient methods of maintaining pest
populations at tolerable levels.
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crop-pest
ecosystem
IPM is by no means a new concept; some forms of
integrated pest control have been practiced for
centuries. The significance of today's IPM concept
is that it is based on a scientific approach
employing sophisticated control techniques.
Development and implementation of an IPM system
requires an understanding of the crop-pest
ecosystem and available control tactics.
Understanding an entire crop-pest ecosystem is
not a simple task. It requires not only simple
identification of the crop and the pest to be
managed, but also close examination of complex
crop-pest interrelationships. Detailed study of a
crop's botanical characteristics is essential to allow
the IPM strategist to take full advantage of natural
processes. The IPM approach recognizes that almost
every cropland, as compared to a meadowland,
represents an unusual ecological setting composed
of a single plant type. In such single plant
communities, natural ecological balances are
altered, leaving crops highly susceptible to pests.
Under IPM, the pest targeted for control is also
studied in detail. Attention is given to the pest's life
cycle and to precisely how it adversely affects the
plant. An important consideration is the dynamic
nature of pest populations; most pests reproduce
frequently and produce numerous offspring,
enabling them to adapt quickly to changing
environments. Relationships between the pest and
other organisms are also studied, with particular
attention being given to the pest's natural enemies
National Geographic Soc1^'
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and to its role in controlling other pests.
With an understanding of the characteristics of
both the crop and the pest, the most desirable
control tactic or combination of tactics can be
selected. Pest control tactics can be divided into
three areas: biological, cultural, and chemical.
biological A fundamental form of biological control involves
controls the use of natural enemies. Although control of
pests by predators and parasites does not work as
quickly as chemical control, it reduces pesticide
pollution and is often less expensive. There are
several hundred naturally occurring species of
insects and mites that prey on the pests of major
agricultural crops. Pest populations may be
effectively kept below damaging levels if these
parasites and predators are maintained in crop
areas. Preservation of natural enemies can be
achieved by applying selective pesticides only when
necessary based on careful monitoring of pest
populations and the damage they cause. The
individual pictured below is scouting a crop to
assess pest infestation. Another strategy for ensuring
the continued presence of the natural enemies of
crop pests involves preserving appropriate habitats
for these enemies in crops and surrounding
vegetation. Predators and parasites may also be
introduced from other countries. There are
currently 95 species of imported parasites
established in the U.S. which are being used for
pest control.
One of the best known pest predators is the
ladybug, which controls aphid and scale insect
populations. In one year in California, some 7.5
billion ladybugs fed on a 3.75 trillion aphid
population in alfalfa fields. Another useful predator
Dr. Ray Fnsbie
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Dr. Ray Frisbie
is the green lacewmg, wmcn kills leat- hoppers,
aphids, mealybugs, and other pests. The
Trichogramma wasp is a parasitic insect which may
also be valuable in pest control. This wasp can help
control moths which damage cotton, tobacco, corn,
and tomatoes, by destroying the moths' eggs.
Disease-causing organisms such as viruses,
protozoa, fungi, and bacteria are also effective
biological control agents. These microorganisms
usually affect only one type of pest. For example, a
virus controls the alfalfa caterpillar; a protozoan,
Nosema locustae, controls grasshoppers; and the
bacterium Bacillus thurigiensis controls the gypsy
moth, bollworm, tobacco budworm, cabbage looper,
and several other pests.
Another form of biological control involves
the use of pheromones. Pheromones are chemicals
secreted by an insect to elicit some form of
response from other members of its species. Many
pheromones are secreted to attract mates, and may
be effective over distances of several miles.
They are known to be effective at very low
concentrations. In monitoring studies, pheromones
are used to lure insects into a trap where they are
captured on a sticky material. The traps can then be
examined to determine the insects' stages of
development and to approximate the magnitude of
the local infestation. This information can then be
used to time pesticide applications or other control
tactics. Mass trapping of insects using pheromone
traps is also being investigated. Pheromones can
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cultural
controls
also be used directly to disrupt normal mating
behavior. The spraying of a large area with
synthetic pheromones masks the attractants secreted
by individual females. Male insects cannot locate
the females and consequently are unable to mate.
Reproduction may also be prevented by release c(
insects sterilized by radiation. If the number of
sterilized males exceeds the number of normal
males, the pest population can be sharply reduced.
Release of sterilized males is most successful when
an insect population is isolated, so that untreated
insects cannot mix with the treated population. It is
also useful for controlling small populations which
survive pesticide treatment.
Although most biological controls focus on the
pest, one of the most successful biological tactics is
the use of pest-resistant plants. Resistant varieties
possess genetic defenses such as protective
physiological or physical characteristics which
reduce their susceptibility to pests. In corn, for
example, varieties with thicker husks are better
protected from the corn earworm and varieties with
root system regenerative capabilities withstand corn
rootworm attack. New varieties of pest-resistant
plants are continually being developed in order to
keep pace with constantly changing pests.
Cultural methods of pest control involve agricul-
tural practices such as crop rotation and removal of
crop residues which shelter pests after harvest. For
example, if a corn growing area is infested with
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chemical
controls
corn rootworms, rotating with soybeans or some
other crop which these insects do not damage will
control the pest. The proper timing of crop
planting and harvesting can also reduce pests. Crop
planting can be delayed so that the pest matures
when there is no crop to feed on. If a particular pest
has a relatively long lifecycle, control is achieved
by switching to a crop with a shorter growing
season.
Another cultural control tactic involves the
planting of "trap crops"—expendable crops which
are more attractive to pests than the crop being
protected. In cotton fields, alfalfa planted in strips
between the cotton serves as a lure of pests.
Despite their potential hazards, chemical controls
are an essential component of pest management
programs. Chemicals usually act guickly and are
effective against large pest populations. In certain
crop ecosystems, the application of pesticides may
be the most effective and feasible control tactic.
The primary agricultural pesticides are
herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides. Since
1964, the volume of herbicides used on agricultural
crops has increased fivefold. During the same
period, insecticide and fungicide usage has
remained relatively stable, as the figure below
illustrates.
Most insecticides can be classified chemically
as chlorinated hydrocarbons, organophosphates,
carbamates, inorganics, and more recently synthet'
pyrethroids. Over the past 10 years, there has been
a shift away from the use of the persistent
volume of pesticides used on U.S. forms
300
200
I 8 herbicides
|___j insecticides
j fungicides
1964
1966
1971
1976
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chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides. Since 1970,
EPA has banned most uses of DDT, mirex, kepone,
chlordane, and heptachlor. New pesticide
formulations are being developed to meet the need
for safe and effective chemical controls. Particular
attention is being given to development of bio-
degradable pesticides. Since such chemicals do not
persist in the environment, their use could reduce
the potential hazards to harmless insect populations
and other forms of life, including humans. Research
is also underway to develop alternative formulations
for specific pests. When a series of different
pesticides is applied to control a pest, the
probability that resistant members of the pest
species will become prevalent is reduced. The use
of alternative formulations also reduces the chances
of any one chemical accumulating in the soil and
entering the food chain in dangerous quantities.
The hazards of chemical control are also being
reduced by the development of more selective
application practices. In the past, crops were often
blanketed with pesticides as a preventive measure.
Under the IPM approach, pest population levels are
monitored and pesticides are applied only when
populations approach levels which may result in
economic losses.
Chemical control may also involve disruption of
the pest's normal development or behavior. Juvenile
hormones are growth regulators normally produced
by an insect during the early stages of its
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development. Once an insect reaches a certain
stage of maturity, juvenile hormones are no longer
produced and development continues to the adult
stage. If juvenile hormones are applied to the insect
after this stage, development is disrupted, resulting
in a malformed insect which dies without maturing
and without reproducing. Use of this method of
control is particularly effective against pests which
are most destructive in adult stages. Both natural
and synthetic juvenile hormones, as well as
chemically similar compounds, offer control
potential. These substances are highly specific to
target pests, effective in small doses, and of low
toxicity to higher organisms.
federal Recognition of the serious environmental and
responsibilities health problems caused by the excessive use of
pesticides resulted in the Federal Insecticide,
Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and its
amendments in 1972, 1975, and 1978. This Act
requires EPA to register all pesticides currently on
the market, and to classify them into general or
restricted use categories.
EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs is responsible
for the registration of pesticides. This office is
required to evaluate data submitted by pesticide
manufacturers concerning the risks associated with
the use of their products. Based on the conclusions
of this evaluation, EPA may refuse to register a new
product or may cancel or suspend registration of a
product already on the market.
EPA is also required to conduct research on
Integrated Pest Management. The President's
Second Environmental Message to Congress in
August of 1979 directed federal agencies to support
the work of IPM. In response to this message, an
Interagency IPM Coordinating Committee was
established. This Committee includes representa-
tives from each of the Federal agencies involved in
IPM. The EPA, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA), the National Science Foundation (NSF),
the Council on Environmental Quality (CEQ), and
the Department of the Interior, Housing and Urban
Development, and Defense are the principle agen-
cies represented on the committee.
USDA plays a major role in agricultural IPM
research and education. The Department cooperates
with land-grant universities and state agriculture
experiment stations to develop IPM programs.
The National Science Foundation was the lead
agency in the Huffaker Project, the first extensive
10
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Federally supported project m integrated pest
management. NSF has also developed under-
graduate courses and initiated trial pest
management studies at Michigan State University,
Cornell University, Kansas State University, the
University of California, and Alabama A&M to be
used as models for programs at other institutions.
The Council on Environmental Quality is
responsible for coordinating the Federal IPM
program, and chairs the Interagency IPM
Coordinating Committee. In response to the
President's Environmental Message of 1972, CEQ
issued an Integrated Pest Management Report
promoting the integrated approach as an
environmentally sound method for crop protection.
CEQ recently completed a second IPM report
which reviews integrated pest management in the
United States, and recommends future Federal
actions to advance IPM concepts and techniques.
The Environmental Protection Agency's Integrate
Pest Management research program is the
responsibility of the Office of Research and
Development (ORD). Because an IPM approach
requires knowledge of both the crop system and
insect activity, it is necessary to involve a broad-
based multidisciplinary group of researchers.
ORD's program is being conducted through grants,
contracts, and cooperative agreements with
universities and other institutions. ORD works
closely with the EPA Office of Pesticide Programs in
providing technical expertise for the evaluation
of pesticides for registration and in providing
assistance in the development of regulations under
the FIFRA.
11
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IPM research
EPA is developing pest management strategies
combining non-chemical and chemical controls
which are ecologically and economically
acceptable. A fundamental research goal is to
develop an understanding of individual crop
ecosystems and their unique pest control problems.
Most crops selected for study are of great economic
significance and currently require extensive
pesticide application.
Huffaker The Huffaker Project, a $13 million research
project project initiated in 1972, was the first national study
undertaken to implement the principles and
strategies involved in Integrated Pest Management.
In this intensive 7-year study, cosponsored by NSF,
EPA, and USDA, scientists at 19 universities
investigated pest control for six major crops: cotton,
soybeans, alfalfa, citrus fruits, pome fruits (such as
apples and pears), and stone fruits. As a result of
this research, a great deal of basic scientific
information concerning the six crops and their pests
was acquired. With this background, alternative
control methods not using chemicals were devel-
oped. In some cases, pilot studies were also
undertaken.
During the course of this project, improved
methods for data collection, handling, and
interpretation were developed. This included the
use of computers to analyze the data which allowed
the consideration of multiple factors that affect plant
growth or pest populations. The results of the
analysis were used to derive a mathematical model
to represent relationships among the significant
components of crop-pest ecosystem. These models
were then used to predict the effects of different
control techniques on crop growth.
Significant accomplishments were made in each
of the six crops studied. The most extensive research
was done on cotton and alfalfa. The alfalfa research
expanded the understanding of both the plant and
its insect pests, specifically three types of alfalfa
12
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the consortium
lor integrated pest
management
weevil. Researchers found that alfalfa cutting
practices have a catastrophic effect on natural
predators and parasites of the weevil. Based on this
finding, alternative cutting practices, such as strip
cutting and border harvesting, were suggested as
possible cultural control tactics.
Natural factors regulating some seven to eight
important cotton pests were also examined, and
research on resistant cotton plants and short-lived
cottons was initiated. As a result of this research,
cotton varieties resistant to a wide range of pests
were developed. Significant progress was also made
in sampling technigues and in computer modeling.
Mathematical models of cotton crop production and
cotton pest systems were developed and used
to assess control technigues. Pilot tests of
certain combined management programs were
then conducted.
The Huffaker Project was a major step forward in
the development of IPM strategies. Perhaps the most
significant contribution of the project was the
foundation it established for future IPM research.
In September 1979 EPA awarded a consortium of
15 universities a total of $3 million yearly for five
years to advance the IPM concepts developed in the
Huffaker Project. Beginning with fiscal year 1981,
EPA and USDA will jointly fund this project. The
Texas A&M Research Foundation in College
Station, Texas, is responsible for coordinating the
project.
The involvement of 15 universities allows for a
regional approach to each crop system. The crops
involved—alfalfa, apple, cotton, and soybean—are
among the most important grown in the U.S. and
each presents unigue pest management problems.
13
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alfalfa
alfalfa weevil
Alfalfa is the world's most valuable livestock feed
crop. In the United States, alfalfa is exceeded in
acreage only by corn, wheat, and soybeans. Alfalfa
is a perennial legume which increases nitrogen
levels in the soil. As a perennial, alfalfa comes up
year after year, an uncommon characteristic of field
crops. The longevity of an alfalfa field is usually
three to five years; however, plant pathogens,
worms, insects, and weeds can significantly reduce
both productivity and longevity.
Alfalfa is especially suited to integrated pest
management since it can sustain a limited level of
pest damage without significant loss of yield or
guality. Five universities are currently involved in
the development of IPM strategies for alfalfa: the
University of California, Cornell University,
University of Illinois, University of Kentucky, and
the University of Wisconsin.
Previous research resulted in descriptive models
for some components of the alfalfa ecosystem.
Researchers are modifying and improving these
existing plant models, and are developing new
models for various pest species. The pests under
investigation include insects, such as the alfalfa
weevil, alfalfa leafminer and leafhopper; diseases of
both the leaves and roots; and weeds. Studies are
underway to determine losses attributable to pests,
interactions among these pests, and combined
effects of pests on alfalfa longevity and productivity.
Researchers at each of the five universities are
developing new strategies to maintain pests below
states with significant alfalfa harvests—1974
14
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apples
economic injury levels. Once a management system
is available, mechanisms for its implementation will
be developed.
Apples are grown in almost every state in the
U.S. Apple orchards are highly diversified and
complex ecosystems having more in common with
natural ecosystems than most other crop settings.
They often consist of mixed plant varieties with
a highly varied ground cover surrounded by
numerous types of wild plants. Apples are attacked
by a variety of pests including codling moths,
aphids, scale insects, mites, and leafhoppers. Plant
diseases such as apple scab and powdery mildew
are also enemies. Apples rate sixth nationally
among individual crops in the total volume of
pesticide used. Of the 11,600,000 pounds of
pesticides used on apples in the United States
(excluding California) in 1978, approximately
7 million pounds were fungicides, 3 million pounds
were insecticides, and seven hundred thousand
pounds were herbicides.
Because of the traditionally widespread use of
pesticides on apples, alternative control tactics have
been investigated for 10 to 15 years. Six uni-
versities are involved in apple pest research
under the Consortium for Integrated Pest Manage-
ment (CIPM). Researchers at Cornell University,
North Carolina State University, Washington State
University, Pennsylvania State University, Michigan
State University, and the University of California
states with significant apple harvests—1974
15
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are testing previously developed computer models
and control methods and, where necessary, modifying
them. New management systems are being developed,
including methods for implementing the more
advanced models.
Researchers at each of the institutions involved
are working on a variety of projects. Investiga-
tors are refining an apple tree growth model,
APPLETREE, originally developed by researchers at
Michigan State University and Cornell University.
Researchers are developing a computer model
representing the apple orchard ecosystem, and
investigating different subcomponents which will be
incorporated into the model. Their activities include
both laboratory and field evaluations. One
particular area of attention is determination of
the role that ground cover plays in the orchard
ecosystem. Scientists are also conducting studies to
verify and improve strategies to control apple
diseases.
Economic cost/benefit comparisons between newly
developed IPM tactics and older or established
methods are being conducted. An economic-crop
production model which incorporates features of
pest damage and control, weather, tree production,
and crop pricing conditions will also be developed.
16
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states with significant cotton harvests— 1974
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
sotton
lygus bug
s
Cotton, the world's most important fiber crop, is
grown on more than 74 million acres in some 80
countries. More insecticides are used on cotton in
the U.S. than on any other crop. The Consortium
for IPM includes research institutions in the
four largest cotton producing states: Arkansas,
California, Mississippi, and Texas.
Researchers at the University of Arkansas, the
University of California, Mississippi State
University, and Texas A&M University are
conducting studies ranging from basic research on
pest population and community ecology to testing of
specific control tactics. Much of the research is an
expansion of the accomplishments of the Huffaker
Project. Development of pest-resistant cotton
varieties is being continued, and researchers are
seeking to identify farming practices which
minimize pest damage. Researchers are developing
sampling systems for cotton pests which account for
environmental conditions and cultural situations. In
addition, the population dynamics, physiology, and
behavior of specific pests are being investigated.
Researchers at Mississippi State and Texas A&M
are giving particular attention to the examination of
biological control of the boll weevil and lygus
bug by predators and parasites. This involves a
cooperative agreement with the USDA for the
importation, quarantine, mass rearing, release, and
evaluation of lygus bug parasites.
In the area of computer analysis and modeling,
work is continuing on the development of a cotton
17
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ecosystem population model. Components of this
model will be validated by field studies, and
economic comparisons of alternative control systems
will be performed.
Soybeans rank third behind corn and wheat in
total acreage planted in the U.S. Although soybeans
are plagued by a wide variety of weeds, worms, and
disease-causing microorganisms, extensive use of
chemicals has not been reguired. Since this crop
does not have a history of widespread chemical pest
management, it is of special interest to IPM
•esearchers. As with the three other major crops
eing studied, researchers are involved in gaining a
better understanding of the soybean plant and its
major pests. These studies are being conducted at
Clemson University, Louisiana State University,
North Carolina State University, the University of
Arkansas, the University of Florida, and the
University of Illinois.
Soybean varieties planted from late April to mid
July differ widely in their maturity time, growth
characteristics, susceptibility, and attractiveness to
pests. These variations are being studied in relation
to their effects on pest development and damage.
This information is useful in the development of
pest-resistant varieties of soybeans. Scientists are
also evaluating indigenous and imported natural
pest enemies. The latter research involves studying
predator-prey interactions in selected natural
states with significant soybean harvests—1974
18
U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census
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habitats, labeling of prey, and direct observation of
predation and parasitism.
Researchers are also studying the effects of
pesticides on natural enemies. This work includes a
determination of the effects of pesticides on
population resurgence and secondary pest
development.
@lre;S©gl®s lor
A consortium of six universities is studying soil
pests which affect the corn crop: cutworms, root-
worms, and wireworms. Scientists at the University
of Missouri, the University of Nebraska, Purdue
University, the Illinois Natural History Survey, Iowa
State University, and the Ohio Agricultural
Research and Development Center are conducting
field and laboratory studies.
Data collected from monitoring studies are
providing valuable insight into the behavior of corn
pests. Successful monitoring tests have been
conducted on black cutworms using synthetic
pheromone traps for males and black light traps for
females. Corn rootworm movement is also being
monitored using sticky pheromone traps. The tufted
apple bud moth (TABM) pheromone is being used
to monitor wireworms. Scientists will use the
information gathered from these studies to
determine, for each of the three pests, population
levels which may result in significant economic
losses.
B«ot®s
significant corn fearawsSo-
U.S. Department oi Commerce, Bureau oi the Census
19
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The monitoring of Missouri corn fields revealed
eight wireworm species, making it possible to
develop an identification key with descriptive
illustrations of the larvae of each wireworm species.
This information is also being used to prepare
a field guide on wireworms for use by pest
management personnel.
A computer model of corn root growth is being
developed which includes factors such as air
temperature, daily precipitation, and corn variety.
Additional models are being developed to predict
when soil insect populations might develop. These
models are being validated by pest management
scouts and will improve efficiency of scouting
programs.
onion crop
agroocosfstsm
Onions, like many other food crops, were
traditionally grown on small farms in gardens along
with other vegetables. These gardens were often
surrounded by fields used for cattle grazing. Pests
in these gardens were controlled by a variety of
natural controls, including predation. Onion pests,
for example, were controlled by maggots which
lived in the cow manure in surrounding fields.
As the cultivation of onions was taken over by
large commercial industries, control of onion pests
was accomplished more by chemical pesticides than
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musk and
plumeless
thistle
by natural controls. The reduction of pest
populations by pesticides results in the decline of
natural predators or competing species. It may take
years for these natural controls to be reestablished
following cessation of treatment. Our current
dependence on chemicals to protect onion crops
was demonstrated in a study conducted by
researchers at the University of Michigan. In this
study, one half of an onion field was treated
chemically for onion pests, while the other half
received no pesticides. Onions survived only in the
area treated; 100% of the crop was lost to pests in
the untreated section. The study was continued to
see how long it would take for natural controls to
offer protection. Researchers found that it took five
years for natural controls to be established.
Michigan researchers have also been studying the
onion pest control problem from an energy-related
perspective. The onion tops and culls which remain
in fields after harvest provide a food source and
habitat for insect pests. One means of controlling
these pests is to remove this crop refuse.
Investigators at the University of Michigan have
found that these onion remains can be fermented to
produce 6% alcohol. Although this means of
producing alcohol is currently very expensive,
researchers are exploring ways to reduce costs. For
example, it may be possible to use municipal wastes
and potato production wastes from nearby areas as a
heat source for the distillation of the alcohol.
Researchers at Virginia Polytechnic Institute are
currently evaluating the impact of three biological
control agents used simultaneously for the control of
musk thistle and plumeless thistle in pastures. Both
thistles are serious weed problems in many parts of
North America. Current control procedures depend
mainly on the use of herbicides which are expensive
and provide only a temporary solution. The
biological control agents under study are three
insects, each of which attacks a different part of the
thistle: the thistle-head weevil, the rosette weevil,
and the leaf beetle. To date, researchers have found
the weevils to be useful in controlling the thistles.
The effectiveness of the leaf beetle has been
reduced greatly since it is parasitized by other
insects. Researchers are now determining the
optimal weevil population for controlling thistles
and the most favorable time for release of the
insects. Information gained from this study may
assist in the control of other pastureland weeds.
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mosquito
management
mosquito
The musk thistle is also being investigated by
researchers at the University of Kansas. Specific
attention is being given to the biology of the thistle
and to procedures for monitoring and detecting it
using remote sensing. Remote sensing involves
aerial photography using various types of film,
including film sensitive to infrared radiation. In
aerial photographs of this kind each plant species
appears as a distinct color. Examination of these
photographs reveals the distribution and density
of thistle populations. By comparing photographs
taken over a period of time, scientists can determine
trends in rates of infestation.
The freshwater wetlands created by the irrigation
of rice fields and other crops provide an excellent
breeding habitat for mosquitoes. More than six
million acres of U.S. land are devoted to growing
rice, and this figure is expected to increase in
coming years. As more and more land is used for
rice production, mosquito populations will grow.
Controlling these insects is important because, in
addition to being a nuisance, mosquitoes can carry
diseases to humans and domestic animals.
Cropland mosquitoes are adapted to habitats
controlled by humans and are therefore somewhat
dependent upon them for their existence. Since
changes in farming practices can affect these
mosquito populations, IPM strategists are
particularly interested in investigating methods
for controlling mosquitoes by changing crop
management practices.
ORD is providing funds to support researchers in
six universities who are investigating the use of
chemical and non-chemical techniques to control
mosquitoes in ricelands. The institutions involved
are the University of Arkansas, University
of California—Berkeley, the University of
California—Davis, Louisiana State University,
Mississippi State University and Texas A&M
University. An understanding of mosquito behavior
is essential to the development of control methods.
Researchers at Texas A&M University are studying
the migration patterns of mosquitoes which inhabit
Texas ricefields. To determine the time, direction,
and distances of mosquito migrations, researchers
release populations of dye-marked mosquitoes and
recapture them in traps placed at various distances
from the point of release. Several types of traps
are used to recapture the marked mosquitoes.
Researchers prefer to use traps which are not baited
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because baited traps could alter migration patterns.
Data collected from this study will be used to
develop forecasting models which can be used
by mosguito control personnel to better predict
mosguito movement and enable them to apply
control strategies more effectively.
Successful mosguito control currently relies
heavily upon the use of chemical insecticides. In
order to reduce dependence on chemical controls,
researchers are developing and assessing biological
and cultural control methods. One promising
biological control agent is the mosguitofish, a
freshwater fish which eats mosguito larvae.
Researchers at the University of Arkansas are
studying better methods for culturing, harvesting,
storing, and transporting these fish to target
sites within the U.S. where this approach is
not currently being used. A parasitic worm,
Romanomermis culicivorax, is effective in
controlling some species of riceland mosguitoes.
Large scale field trials will be conducted by
investigators at the University of California—Davis
and Louisiana State University to further assess the
usefulness of this parasite. Other biological agents
such as bacteria, fungi, and flatworms are also
being studied.
Water management is considered the most effec-
tive means of controlling mosguito populations.
Research is being conducted at the University of
California—Berkeley and Louisiana State University
to determine which water management technigues
are most effective against mosguitoes and which are
suitable for use in rice producing areas in the U.S.
Although the emphasis of the EPA program is to
develop alternative control methods, insecticides
are expected to remain an important control weapon
because chemicals work more guickly than other
control agents. Chemicals are currently the best
means for controlling outbreaks of many mosguito-
borne diseases. Researchers at the University of
California—Davis, the University of California—
Berkeley, and Mississippi State University are
therefore studying and developing new insecticides
which will be effective in emergency situations and
which will be compatible with other non-chemical
approaches to mosguito control in our nation's
irrigated croplands.
urban IPM Although most IPM research concerns the
agricultural environment, pest management is also
important in urban areas. Urban pest management
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problems are being investigated by researchers at
the John Muir Institute for Environmental Studies in
Berkeley, California. Shade trees in Modesto,
California, were recently the subject of a study
in which trees were monitored and the key pests
identified. Following identification, the pests' life-
cycles, habitat preferences, population dynamics,
and natural enemies were studied. Using this
information, a new schedule of pesticide application
was determined. Researchers discovered that much
of the prior pesticide application was unnecessary.
Over a three-year period, pesticide treatments were
reduced 99% in a 5,000-tree area.
The information gathered on urban shade tree
pests and their natural enemies was entered into a
computer. Current plans call for expansion and
evaluation of this computer data base, as well as
creation of a similar data base for urban residential
pests. In addition, an indexing system for
identifying urban IPM information and research
needs will be developed.
In a related project funded by EPA's Office of
Pesticide Programs, the John Muir Institute is
developing a pilot technical assistance center for
providing urban IPM information. The Institute is
developing information packages and determining
audiences for potential distribution.
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individual research projects
Selected research projects funded by ORD and
EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs are listed below:
• Development of Comprehensive, Unified,
Economically and Environmentally Sound Systems
of Integrated Pest Management for Major Crops
(Texas A&M Research Foundation)
• Development of Pest Management Strategies for Soil
Insects on Corn
(University of Missouri)
• Design and Management of a Multi-Pest
Agroecosystem
(Michigan State University)
• Biological Control of Musk and Plumeless Thistle
in Pastures
(Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
• Pesticide Use Reduction through Integrated Control
Procedures on Musk Thistle (Carduus nutans)
(University of Kansas—Center for Research, Inc.)
• Development of Strategies Optimizing Non-
Chemical Approaches to Managing Mosquito
Populations in Freshwater Irrigated Cropping
Systems Using the Riceland Agroecosystem
as a Model
(Texas A&M Research Foundation)
• Development of a Model Program for the Large-
Scale Statewide Implementation of Integrated Pest
Management by Farmer Financed Associations
(Texas Pest Management Association)
• Integrated Pest Management on Selected
Greenhouse Vegetable and Floricultural Crops*
(Ohio Agricultural Research and Development
Center)
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• Urban and Suburban Residential Pest Management
Data Systems
(John Muir Institute for Environmental Studies, Inc.)
• Urban IPM: Design of a Model System and Design
and Development of a Technical Assistance Center"
(John Muir Institute for Environmental Studies, Inc.)
'Funded by EPA's Office of Pesticide Programs
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for further information
publications
• EPA Research Outlook. February 1980.
EPA-600/9-80-006. 224 pages.
A concise description of EPA's plans for future
environmental research.
• EPA Research Highlights. January 1980.
EPA-600/9-80-005. 100 pages.
Highlights of the EPA research and development
program of 1979.
• EPA/ORD Program Guide. October 1979.
EPA-600/9-79-038. 85 pages.
A guide to the Office of Research and
Development—its organizational structure,
program managers, and funds available for
contracts, grants, and cooperative agreements.
other research
summaries
• EPA Research Summary: Controlling Sulfur Oxides.
August 1980. EPA-600/8-80-029. 28 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Industrial Wastewater.
June 1980. EPA-600/8-80-026. 32 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Controlling Hazardous
Wastes. June 1980. EPA-600/8-80-017. 24 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Chesapeake Bay.
May 1980. EPA-600/8-80-019. 32 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Controlling Nitrogen
Oxides. February 1980. EPA-600/8-80-004.
24 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Acid Rain. October 1979.
EPA-600/8-79-028. 24 pages.
• EPA Research Summary: Oil Spills. February 1979.
EPA-600/8-79-007. 16 pages.
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technical reports
questions or
comments
Information on the availability of these publications
may be obtained by writing to:
Publications
Center for Environmental Research Information
US EPA
Cincinnati, OH 45268
• Alternatives for Reducing Insecticides on Cotton
and Corn: Economic and Environmental Impact.
August 1979. EPA-600/5-79-007a. 145 pages.
(PB-80-145071).
• Environmental Implications of Trends in Agriculture
and Silviculture. Volume II. Environmental Effects
of Trends. December 1978. EPA-600/3-78-102.
227 pages. (PB-290674).
• Environmental Implications of Trends in Agriculture
and Silviculture. Volume III. Regional Crop
Production Trends. April 1979. EPA-600/3-79-047.
180 pages. (PB-299311)
Technical reports or manuals may be obtained by
writing to:
National Technical Information Service
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, VA 22161
or by calling: (703) 557-4650
The Office of Research and Development invites
you to address any questions or comments
regarding the EPA integrated pest management
research program to:
Darwin Wright
Director, IPM Research Programs
Office of Research
& Development, RD-682
US EPA
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA's IPM research program is administered by Dr.
Allan Hirsch, Deputy Assistant Administrator for
Environmental Processes and Effects Research.
ft U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1980~327-753
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