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PREFACE
The Federal Committee on Pest Control was established in 1964 by joint agreement
among the Secretaries of Defense, the Interior, Agriculture, and Health, Education, and
Welfare to coordinate all Federal efforts to control pests and to study the effects of pes-
ticides. Subcommittees were established to give special attention to research, pesticide
monitoring of the environment, public information, review of Federal pest-control pro-
grams, and safety in pesticide marketing and disposal.
As one of its functions the Research Subcommittee undertook the task of reviewing
all federally financed research in the broad area of interest to determine what aspects
most urgently needed strengthening and to reduce undesirable duplication. The sum-
maries and analyses as here presented have been reviewed and concurred in by the par-
ent Federal Committee on Pest Control. Detailed recommendations will have to await
study of specific problem areas in greater depth by the Research Subcommittee.
Ill
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IV
FEDERAL COMMITTEE ON PEST CONTROL
Col. H. D. Newson
Col. H. B. Webb
MEMBERS ALTERNATES
Department of Defense
Col. J. M. Geary
G. L. Hutton
Department of the Interior
W. W. Dykstra T. C. Carver
D. L. Leedy H. C. Ray
Department of Agriculture
R. J. Anderson, Chairman K. C. Walker
E. M. Bacon J. W. Bongberg
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
Wm. Horwitz F. J. McFarland
R. A. Prindle S. W. Simmons
LIAISON
Department of State
T. H. E. Nesbitt
Department of Housing and Urban Development
L. J. Czarniecki
Department of Transportation
W. M. Byrd
National Science Foundation
W. A. Niering
Council of State Governments
M.Wendell
RESEARCH SUBCOMMITTEE
Department of Defense
Lt. Col. W. P. Murdoch
Department of the Interior
P. A. Butler, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
W. H. Durum, Geological Survey, Chairman
A. F. Forziati, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
L. F. Stickel, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
L. D. Stringer, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries
C. R. Walker, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife
L. W. Weinberger, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration
M. L. Yates, Geological Survey
Department of Agriculture
W. M. Carleton, Agricultural Research Service
C. W. Carlson, Agricultural Research Service
W. B. Ennis, Agricultural Research Service
C. H. Hoffmann, Agricultural Research Service
E. R. McGovran, Cooperative State Research Service
E. J. Warwick, Agricultural Research Service
Department of Health, Education, and Welfare
A. W. Breidenbach, Public Health Service
J. W. Cook, Food and Drug Administration
W. F. Durham, Public Health Service
Tennessee Valley Authority
F. E. Gartrell
G. E. Smith
SECRETARIAT
W. M. Upholt
W. S. Murray
D. M. Welch
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CONTENTS
Page
Preface - III
Committee membership. IV
Introduction.-- - 1
Summaries and evaluations of current research 2
Evaluation of need for pest control 2
Population dynamics 3
Target organism .- 3
Nontarget organism. 4
Control methods and evaluation 4
Discovery and synthesis of chemicals- 5
Field evaluation 6
Methods of application 7
Mode of action... 8
Sterilization 8
Physiological alteration 9
Cultural control 10
Attractants and repellants " 11
Page
Summaries and evaluations of current
research—Continued
Control methods and evaluation—Continued
Integrated control -- 11
Resistant host species. 12
Parasites and predators 13
Toxicology, physiology, and behavior of non-
target organisms .- 15
Pesticide kinetics 16
Absorption, distribution, metabolism,
accumulation and excretion 16
Methods of speeding residue loss 17
Stability in storage 18
Development and standardization of analytical
methods 18
Marketing, utilization, sociology, and law 20
Discussion-.- - 20
TABLES
Page
Table 1. Federally financed research on pests, pesticides, and pest control 1
2. Federal expenditures for research on—
2. Evaluation of need for pest control 2
3. Population dynamics -- 3
4. Population dynamics of target organisms 3
5. Population dynamics of nontarget organisms 4
6. Control methods and evaluation - - 5
7. Discovery and synthesis of chemicals including laboratory screening and evaluation 5
8. Field evaluation - 6
9. Methods of application - - - 7
10. Mode of action including resistance in target organisms 8
11. Sterilization - 8
12. Physiological alteration -.- - --- 10
13. Cultural control, management practices, and physical protection - - 10
14. Chemical attractants, repellants, and other stimulants - - 11
15. Integrated control --- 12
16. Development of resistant host species - - - 12
17. Parasites, predators, and pathogens .- - - 13
18. Toxicology, physiology, and behavior of nontarget organisms 15
19. Pesticide kinetics 16
20. Absorption, distribution, chemical metabolism, accumulation, and excretion 16
21. Methods of speeding residue loss - 17
22. Stability of pesticides in storage - --- 18
23. Development and standardization of analytical methods 19
24. Marketing, utilization, sociology, and law 20
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A Study of Federally Financed Research on Pests,
Pesticides, and Pest Control
INTRODUCTION
In 1965 the Research Subcommittee of the Federal
Committee on Pest Control began a project to review
Federal expenditures on research to solve the many prob-
lems associated with pest control. It was hoped that such
an overview would permit an evaluation of the strengths
and weaknesses of the current effort and thus enable im-
provements.
A systematic arrangement to give the best overview of
such a complex subject was difficult. Organization by pest
or by host organism was discarded because much of the
research^especially on mode of application, search for
safer more effective pesticides, health hazards, and non-
chemical control methods—is independent of pest or
host or is so broad that it covers many different pests or
hosts. It was therefore decided to outline the problem
areas rather than the immediate objectives. The current
outline was agreed to after it had been tried out with ac-
tual research projects and then modified accordingly. The
description of each problem area and subcategory is nec-
essarily brief, but when it is coupled with a summary of
current research classified by subcategory, it should give
reasonably pragmatic definitions of the scope of each.
Each agency provided figures (see tables) for estimates
based on its independent evaluation of each problem area.
Everywhere the figures represent the level of annual effort
or funding as of the close of fiscal year 1967. Manpower
was arbitrarily restricted to research scientists at a GS-11
level or higher, and dollar figures included a pro rata esti-
mate of administrative overhead where such estimates
were available. The figures are not uniform; moreover,
for those projects in which either manpower or dollars
was unknown (as in some extramural efforts), the un-
known element was estimated by the arbitrary ratio of
$40,000 per 1 scientific man-year. Accordingly, the reader
is cautioned against expecting any degree of accuracy in
comparing these figures with similar figures from other
sources. Where the work has been done by contract with a
non-Federal agency, the work is reported under the fund-
ing agency. Where the work has been done by a transfer
of funds between Federal agencies, it is reported by the
agency actually doing the work.
Table 1.-
-Federally financed research on pests, pesticides, and
pest control
Problems
Evaluation of need for control:
Economics
Health
Comfort and aesthetics
Other
Population dynamics:
Population dynamics of target
organisms
Interaction between target and non-
target organisms^
Population dynamics of nontarget
organisms
Control methods:
Discovery and synthesis of chemicals
including laboratory screening and
evaluation
Field evaluation
Methods of application
Mode of action including resistance in
target organisms
Sterilization
Physiological alteration
Cultural control, management practices,
and physical protection
Chemical attractants, repellants and
other stimulants
Integrated control
Development of resistant host species-
Parasites, predators, and pathogens
Toxicology, physiology, and behavior of
nontarget organisms
Pesticides kinetics:
Absorption, distribution, chemical
metabolism, accumulation, and
excretion
Methods of speeding residue loss
Stability of pesticides in storage
Development and standardization of
analytical methods
Marketing, utilization, sociology, and law
Totals___
Scientific
man-years,
GS-11 and
above
200
86.10
882.15
Qft 71
5920
13023
224.97
C4 oc
58.62
64.86
15.09
117.15
74.05
'IA 77
275.45
115.68
144.58
598.76
17.98
4 15
91 09
13.95
3 16243
Funding, in
thousands
of dollars
1 459 70
27 639 52
•5 ylQ-3 "2n
2 082 60
5 483 30
7,438 50
2023 20
2,455 10
57400
4,323 30
2,350 60
9,172.90
4,749.40
641200
10,985 15
678.20
11490
^ ?nn AH
227.40
98 880 22
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FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
Table 1 summarizes all work in each problem area and
subcategory by all reporting agencies combined, as of the
close of fiscal year 1967.
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT
RESEARCH
EVALUATION OF NEED FOR PEST CONTROL
This area covers research programs designed to evaluate
pest, or potential pest, situations from the standpoint of
whether there is a need to undertake control programs.
Such needs might be classified under economics, health,
comfort and aesthetics, or other. Because over 90 percent
of the reported research effort is currently classified under
health needs, it was decided that this category would be
discussed as a unit in this report.
Table 2.—Federal expenditures for research on evaluation of
need for pest control
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Twins'"
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife
Bureau of Reclamation
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Total
Scientificman-years,
GS- 11 and above
1.80
2,25
0.69
12.75
1.80
71.30
2.94
12.75
88.79
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
71.00
63.75
28.00
369.70
71.00
1,014.00
91.75
369.70
1,546.45
SUMMARY
Investigations in progress are primarily concerned with
public health problems and are being conducted by several
Federal agencies which include the Departments of De-
fense, Health, Education, and Welfare, the Interior, and
Agriculture. Principal effort is supported by the Depart-
ment of Defense and is directed toward surveys and
studies in strategic overseas areas to determine the pres-
ence of zoonotic diseases of military and civilian impor-
tance.
Investigative studies focusing on tropical epidemic dis-
eases include both in-house and contract effort and involve
basic biological research in epidemiology, serology, immu-
nology,, microbiology, parasitology, medical entomology,
zoology, virology, rickettsiology, toxicology, and physio-
logy. These studies are designed to develop new and better
methods for protection of U.S. military and civilian per-
sonnel from the many diseases encountered in worldwide
field operations and to study world health conditions in
order to estimate the impact of disease on troops sent to
foreign areas. Specific studies of military significance un-
der investigation include biology and control of certain
Asian helminth disease, ecology and control of the inter-
mediate host of schistosomiasis and other parasitic dis-
eases, arthropod-borne virus diseases, parasitic diseases,
field and laboratory ecology of scrub typhus, immuno-
logical studies of scrub typhus and its control, parasitic
protozoans of medical importance, and vertebrate host in
relation to disease of man and other animals. These studies
are being conducted in Central and South America, South-
east Asia, the Middle East, and central and east Africa.
Nonmilitary-oriented research includes arbovirus (arthro-
pod-6orne virus) and host relation of Wisconsin arthro-
pods, studies of chigger mites in western North America,
studies on toxicity and carcinogenicity associated with
fungal growth on foodstuffs, studies on the toxicity of
mycotoxins in certain foodstuffs, and the role of selected
stored-product insects in spreading certain potentially dan-
gerous microorganisms and their by-products.
Federal research programs on health problems of pest
or pesticide origin seem to be very well coordinated, and
no evidence of overlap is apparent.
EVALUATION
Communicable disease still constitutes the major health
problems of underdeveloped countries in the world today.
Malaria, epidemic typhus, scrub typhus, plague, spotted
fever, relapsing fever, hemorrhagic fever, yellow fever,
dengue, encephalitis, filariasis, Chagas disease, and visceral
and cutaneous leishmaniasis represent some of the major
diseases transmitted by arthropod pests for which effective
methods of control are being studied. Schistosomiasis, par-
agonimiasis, clonorchiasis, and fasciolopsiasis, although not
arthropod-borne, are also major diseases in various geo-
graphical areas of the world where similar control attempts
are being directed toward the intermediate snail host as
well as developing means of immunological protection for
the human host.
Control of vectors of disease is a serious problem be-
cause of pesticide resistance or altered behavioral response.
For example, the resistance of the malaria parasite, Plas-
modium falciparum, to chloroquine has created a very ser-
ious problem in the prevention of falciparum malaria.
These resistance problems are so widespread geographically
that a common solution to the problem has not been pos-
sible.
A major portion of research is being accomplished out-
side the continental United States, and this fact creates a
variety of problems—great distances need to be traveled
by U.S. investigators; capable, trained in-country profes-
sional and technical personnel are not available; more re-
search facilities are needed, transportation is unreliable;
and interest or support by local government is lacking.
Availability of funds to support this kind of research has
been rather modest, but reasonable progress has been
made. However, before any major success can be forth-
coming it will be necessary to put increased effort into the
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SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
present program. The acuteness of the present dollar drain
could have serious effects on the current program. The war
in Vietnam could also influence the direction of research
undertaken. Immediate solution to these disease problems
cannot be expected.
Losses in yields and quality of food, feed, and fiber
crops due to insects, weeds, disease organisms, nematodes,
and rodents—either individually or in association—need
to be determined. Such information will provide the bases
for establishing priorities in research and control programs
with attendant increased efficiency in expenditures for
pest control. Research of this nature is essentially nil cur-
rently and represents a serious gap.
POPULATION DYNAMICS
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF TARGET ORGANISMS
Programs are designed to study the biology, ecology.
life history, physiology, morphology, taxonomy, nutri-
tion, metabolism, habits, and behavior of target organisms.
When these same subjects are studied as part of the con-
trol measures, they are classified under "Control Methods."
Table 3. —Federal expenditures for research on population
dynamics
Subcategory
Target organisms
Interaction between target
and nontarget organisms_
Nontarget organisms
Tntal
Scientific man-years
GS-1 1 and above
882.15
96.71
59.20
1,038.06
Funding in thou-
sands of dollars
27,639.52
3,483.30
2,082.60
33,205.42
Table 4.—Federal expenditures for research on population
dynamics of target organisms^
Department and agency
Defense
Interior
Bureau of Reclamation-
Bureau Sport Fish- i
eries and Wildlife
Agriculture
Forest Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Agricultural Research
Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
National Science Founda-
tion
Atomic Energy Commis-
sion
Tennessee Valley
Authority
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 11 and above
0.22
4.90
94.00
97.84
497.00
TfTuO
140.30
5.12
688.84
75.00
53.60
15.50
0.50
978.86
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
8.90
155.10
3,290.00
2,824.00
18,888.30
2,943.52
665.00
164.00
25,002.30
2,943.52
2,145.00
191.00
12.00
31,122.82
Summary
The broad study of population dynamics of pest organ-
isms includes research on life histories, ecological relation-
ships, and population fluctuations as they pertain to
development and application of pest-control measures. It
includes interactions between target organisms and all fac-
tors of their environments, including nontarget organisms.
Relative to pest control it also includes taxonomy, nutri-
tion, physiology, and behavior.
The objectives of this line of work are, simply stated, to
explain what different kinds of pest species and popula-
tions do and how they do it. Each pest species behaves dif-
ferently and interacts differently with all facets of its en-
vironment. Basic information on these factors is requisite
for devising and implementing any kind of pest-control ap-
proach, from the simplest mechanical device to the most
elaborate scheme of integrated control. Researchers must
understand the pest and how it operates in every instance.
The more sophisticated the approach to control, the more
thoroughly the pest must be understood.
Work is underway on a wide array of subjects. These in-
clude invertebrates directly affecting man and animals,
crops, forests, and stored products and material in use,
such as wood and fabric. Vertebrate pests such as rats and
other rodents are being studied, as are nuisance and de-
structive birds—for example, starlings and blackbirds that
feed on crops and herring gulls that often menace aircraft.
Major efforts are in the study of weeds, nematodes, and
plant diseases. Arthropod vectors of diseases of man,
plants, and animals constitute a large field of study.
Evaluation
An adequate research effort in this subject area is under-
way in only a few limited fields: much more needs to be
done. This is particularly true in ecology of pest organisms
and is increasingly important as pest control problems be-
come more complex. We are still faced with many of the
old pest problems, and many considered solved once are
returning again—for example, resistance of some insects
to certain modern insecticides has become a major obsta-
cle. In this regard there is not even any assurance that
some of the more exotic approaches looked to for the
future, like utilization of hormones to disrupt life proc-
esses, will not also be followed by similar adaptation of
pest populations to the new factor. Furthermore, the ex-
panding human population and increasing concern for the
quality of the environment are additional complicating fac-
tors that bear on the need for a better understanding of
how pests operate.
It seems from agency responses that lines of study con-
sidered most important are receiving at least some atten-
tion at the Federal level. Those considered less important,
other things being equal, are sometimes being neglected.
This is the inevitable result of limited financing and neces-
sitates strict economic and other evaluations in the selec-
tion of problems for study.
'Combined with interaction between target and nontarget orga-
nisms (Table 3).
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FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
A great number of important studies are not being un-
dertaken. Apropos of this, one agency representative indi-
cated that while considerable time and money have been
devoted to the trial-and-error-method of testing pesticides
for use against various arthropods, relatively little effort
has been expended in conducting studies on the arthropod
itself. The reasons for this aspect probably lie in the lack
of appreciation for complexity of the problem by higher
administrative levels and the fact that such work requires
long periods of investigation in which results are slow in
forthcoming so far as their application to the practical
field problem. Furthermore, where funds are limited, the
work that has been done has been directed along the ap-
plied lines to support program needs.
It would seem that a different kind of research climate
needs to be encouraged so that more attention is given to
achieving optimum gains in the long run. It is often diffi-
cult to retain support for long-term studies when there is
excessive pressure for quick answers.
POPULATION DYNAMICS OF NONTARGET ORGANISMS
Studies are being conducted on the effects of pesticides
on field populations, including measurement of immediate
mortality, long-term effects on reproduction and survival,
and effects on species composition density. Studies on
pests, or potential pests, which are not the primary target
are included here, as are epidemiological studies.
Summary
The objectives of this research are to determine what
happens to nontarget organisms that encountered pesti-
cides. These organisms include man himself, other mam-
mals, wild birds, plants, fish, and beneficial insects, in-
cluding parasites and predators as well as honeybees and
other pollinating insects.
Examples of research being carried out include a com-
munity study program that seeks to determine the long-
Table 5.—Federal expenditures for research on population
dynamics of nontarget organisms
Department and agency
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife .
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries .
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
National Science
Foundation
Total
Scientific man-years
GS-1 1 and above
10.75
2.60
5.10
"35785
13.35
5.10
35.85
4.90
59.20
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
278.30
104.60
145.90
1,359.80
382.90
145.90
1,359.80
194.00
2,082.60
term effects of pesticides on humans. Selected populations
are surveyed at intervals in an effort to detect disease that
can be related to pesticide contact.
Studies are being made of the response to insect para-
sites and predators to insecticides in efforts to identify
insecticides providing maximum insect-control benefits
and minimum adverse effects on the ecosystem. Studies on
wildlife concentrate on determining if pesticides in the en-
vironment are exerting deleterious effects as demonstrated
by declines in numbers, reduction in reproductive suc-
cess, or changes in habits or behavior. Both long-term
studies as well as those pertaining to specific pest-control
efforts are being conducted. Some research is conducted to
determine ecological shifts in plant communities following
extensive use of herbicides.
Evaluation
It is generally recognized that pesticides can affect many
elements of an ecosystem in addition to the target pest.
This has been amply demonstrated, yet research on these
effects lags far behind that on population dynamics of the
target organisms themselves. Increased emphasis is needed
in many phases, including (1) evaluating effects of pesti-
cides on beneficial insects, (2) biological and ecological
studies on beneficial insects, particularly parasites and
predators, (3) short- and long-range effects of pesticides on
fish, wildlife, and plant communities, (4) continuing ob-
servation on human populations known to be exposed
most heavily and over a longer period of time, and (5) the
ecological effects of extensive and repeated use of herbi-
cides to kill or defoliate herbaceous and woody plants.
Support for long-term studies in this area is often hard
to get, and the studies themselves are costly and difficult
to carry out. Sometimes operational programs shift em-
phasis and move away from earlier problems; this makes
long-term studies less attractive to undertake. There has
long been a tendency for a minimum direct contact and
attempts at mutual understanding between groups inter-
ested in target and nontarget organisms. Understanding is
improving, but much yet remains to be done. Much of the
research in this area has been done on the chlorinated hy-
drocarbon pesticides, and there is need to continually re-
view the overall research effort to determine if current
work on pesticides is being correlated with changing
pesticide-use patterns.
CONTROL METHODS AND EVALUATION
All research programs on the development and evalua-
tion of pest-control procedures are classified in this prob-
lem area, as are long- and short-term population effects of
control measures on target species as well as other physio-
logical, economic, and ecological studies related to control.
Economic studies that measure the cost of a particular
control operation in relation to its effectiveness, as com-
pared with costs of other methods, are included. Eco-
nomic studies of losses inflicted by pests are under "Evalu-
ation of need for pest control."
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SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
DISCOVERY AND SYNTHESIS OF CHEMICALS INCLUDING
LABORATORY SCREENING AND EVALUATION
Summary
Primary research emphasis within this subject area re-
lates to agricultural-type insects (including mites and
ticks); various pest fish and animal species; forest insect
and disease pests; weeds, fungi and other forms of un-
wanted vegetation; and insects, rodents and certain inver-
tebrate parasites of human health significance, arranged in
decreasing order of emphasis. Research related to nontar-
get organisms includes use of 14C-labeled piperonyl butox-
ide to determine synergist kinetics in the nontarget host;
studies on pathogenesis, epidemiology and control of
filariasis; and the investigation of new drugs and antigens
and chemical factors in host plant selection by insects.
The major effort is in the discovery, identification, syn-
thesis, and screening of new insecticides and repellents, but
with particular emphasis on attractants, sterilants, and stim-
ulants that control insect (mite and tick) populations. Com-
pounds utilized in this effort are derived from U.S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture laboratory and industry synthesis.
Toxicants, repellents, attractants, surfactants, and stupe-
facients for rats, birds, fish, and some other animals; at-
tractants, repellents, and chemosterilants for a small
amount of research on nematode control; and various
poisons, repellents, and chemosterilants for the control of
undesirable fish and parasitic organisms are largely ob-
tained from industry for evaluation against test plant and
animal forms. It should be noted that from whatever the
source, only a small fraction of the numerous compounds
discovered and screened shows biological activity warrant-
ing subsequent laboratory and field development.
The objective of the above described work is the de-
velopment of new chemical compounds that will not only
be effective for the control of pests but will obviate prob-
lems associated with pesticide resistance, residues in food,
and residues deleterious to nontarget organisms in the
environment.
Evaluation
The development of new and safer herbicides, insecti-
cides, nematocides, and fungicides is limited by the lack of
basic research to determine structural activity relation-
ships, mode of action, and specialized techniques for evalu-
ating chemicals. From a broader standpoint, there is need
for a number of small-use (but important) pesticides that
is not being met by industry owing to limited sales poten-
tial. Federal funds for such research are low in view of the
need. Examples include irrigation system weeds, rodent
toxicants and repellents, bird and fish control agents, and
selected animal chemosterilants. Under current regulations,
companies cannot enjoy exclusive benefits from patents on
materials discovered by federally supported research, even
though they would produce the product. There is also the
attitude that since industry profits from development, in-
dustry should be the primary source of new compounds.
Table 6.—Federal expenditures for research on control
methods and evaluation
Subcategory
Discovery and synthesis of
chemicals including labora-
tory screening and evalua-
tion
Field evaluation
Methods of application
Mode of action including
resistance in target orga-
nisms
Sterilisation
Physiological alteration
Cultural control, manage-
ment practices, and phys-
ical protection
Chemical attractants, repel-
lants, and other stimulants-
Integrated control
Development of resistant
host speries
Parasites, predators, and
pathogens .. .
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
130.23
224.97
54.25
58.62
64.86
15.09
117.15
74.05
34.72
275.45
115.68
1,165.07
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
5,483.30
7,438.50
1,946.30
2,023.20
2,455.10
574.00
4,323.30
2350.60
1,993.70
9,172.90
4,749.40
42,510.30
Table 7.—Federal expenditures for research on discovery and
synthesis of chemicals including laboratory screening
and evaluation
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Forest Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare . ... . ...
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries
Bureau of Reclamation
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife
National Science
Foundation
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 1 1 and above
88.70
10.00
2.07
iT."25
1.30
1.96
9.15
100.77
11.25
12.41
5.80
130.23
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
3,916.10
348.00
65.70
~Ti778~b~
52.10
59.90
391.70
4,329.80
417.80
503.70
232.00
5,483.30
Research on new fumigants and space spray compounds,
particularly on compounds for quarantine treatments of
agricultural products moving in commercial carriers inter-
state and from overseas, does not appear commensurate
with actual and potential pest control problems. Research
326-075 O - 68 - 2
-------
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
on nematocides also seems to be at a low level of effort in
view of the increasing recognition of the role of nematodes
in crop-yield reduction.
Identified among high-priority research needs is the de-
velopment of special-use pesticides for certain crops and
weeds, plant disease organisms, vertebrates, insects and
other invertebrates that will not harm nontarget organisms,
lead to harmful residues in food, feed, and fiber, or pollute
components of the environment. It is recommended that
research capabilities be increased to allow evaluation of
new and unusual compounds in greater depth.
FIELD EVALUATION
Summary
Field evaluation research is being conducted in several
Federal agencies, notably in the Departments of Agricul-
ture, the Interior, and Health, Education, and Welfare. In
addition, there are over 160 federally supported projects in
the 53 State Agricultural Experiment Stations. The bulk of
research is in:
(1) Evaluation of insecticides and acaricides for control
of insect and mite pests on crops in nine broad commod-
ity areas and on insect and invertebrate pests or disease
vectors in man and livestock.
(2) Evaluation of herbicides and nematocides for con-
trol of about 100 of 1800 important weeds and 15 of the
100 nematodes most damaging to crops in these commod-
ity areas.
(3) Evaluation of fungicides for control of rusts, smuts,
root-rots, and as seed protectants.
Table 8.—Federal expenditures for research on field
evaluation
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service.. . .
Defense
Health, Education and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife
State — -
Tennessee Valley
Authority
Total
Scientific man-years
GS— 11 and above
126.60
60.14
13.10
0.53
11.00
186.74
3.80
13.10
11.53
9.00
.80
22497
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
4,521.10
1,609.40
320.60
18.30
395.10
6,130.50
77.00
320.60
413.40
478.00
19.00
7,438.50
(4) Evaluation of pesticides, repellents, attractants, anti-
fertility agents, baits, and frightening devices for control of
birds, rodents, and other mammals which damage crops,
livestock, wildlife, and electrical and other installations.
In addition, plant-growth regulators are evaluated for ef-
fectiveness in promoting seed germination, as chemical
pruning agents, and as growth promoters and retardants in
selected crops. Chemicals are being studied for effective-
ness in controlling undesirable aquatic organisms such as
weeds, trash fish, and mollusks. The effects of insecticides
on target insects, rodents, and cohabitating nontarget or-
ganisms are being tested in the Aedes aegypti Eradication
Programs. Field evaluation programs include study of
many factors influencing successful pest control, among
which are the following; (1) overall effectiveness of the
compounds including the influence of formulation, timing,
rate, and method of application and total dosage, (2) spec-
ificity for target organisms; (3) safety and economy of use,
(4) effects of yield and quality of crop commodities and
animal products, (5) persistence in the environment, (6) in-
teraction and compatibility with other practices leading to
integrated systems of control and employing techniques
which combine biological and physical management with
use of chemicals, and (7) ancillary studies of the ecological
effects of pesticide use on target and nontarget organisms.
The relative emphasis on the above factors varies some-
what depending on the pest and control method being
evaluated.
A small extramural research program encompassing sev-
eral major aspects of vector control including bionomics
and ecology of insects endemic to Asia, studies of trema-
todes, and insect vector control compliments intramural
investigations.
Evaluation
There is an urgent need to expand present research to
include evaluation of control methods for weeds, nema-
todes, insects, and disease organisms not now studied and
to improve control techniques for lower value and minor
crops where emphasis has been lacking. The potential util-
ity of growth regulators to increase yield without impair-
ing quality needs to be explored, especially in vegetable,
tobacco, and sugar crops. New developments in control
techniques should be rapidly exploited to offset the de-
velopment of pesticide resistance in insects and the with-
drawal of persistent insecticides from the market. The
number, effectiveness, and safety of pesticides need to be
improved for use on commodities regulated by plant quar-
antine, for use on stored processed foods awaiting con-
sumer use and for use as systemic fungicides. More de-
tailed information is necessary on problem pests them-
selves and on the environments which produce them. In
some situations there can be a significant gap between de-
velopmental evaluation research and final operational use
which should be corrected. Evaluation of new control
techniques, including the use of chemicals, has to be inte-
grated with existing methods of control and with control
devices concurrently employed on other pests to provide
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
a total control system appropriate to a given situation.
Research of this type would include an assessment of the
ecological implications of total control systems and the
long-term effects of pesticide use on target and associated
nontarget biota. Such investigations will require improved
interdisciplinary coordination employing the combined ef-
forts of scientists in entomology, wildlife management,
weed science, nematology, crop husbandry, pathology,
ecology, engineering, chemistry, and plant, animal, and in-
sect breeding. Evaluation research for pest control in the
aquatic environment offers a striking opportunity to em-
ploy interdisciplinary talent in developing safer and more
effective methods of field use.
METHODS OF APPLICATION
Summary
Research covers application of pesticides in general,
such as insecticides, herbicides, nematocides, fungicides,
and acaracides.
Current research efforts are directed to the development
of fundamental information about the physical character-
istics of pesticides, target-placement mechanisms, needed
equipment, and techniques for improving the efficiency of
pesticide application. Research being carried out for a
specific purpose ranges from the most fundamental type
on the physics of forces affecting fine particles to develop-
ment of a better "coyote getter." Some research is general
in nature with wide applicability while other is for a lim-
ited and specific purpose.
The larger part of the research is directed to the prob-
lems of agriculture and food production with most empha-
sis being placed on crops and animals of the largest eco-
nomic significance. Approximately one-fourth of the total
effort is related to the production of major field crops and
about one-fifth to forest production.
Some research is directed toward developing principles
and new methods of application. Pesticides are gaseous,
Table 9.—Federal expenditures for research on methods of
application
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Forest Service
Defense
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
and Wildlife
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 11 and above
32.30
4.00
11.00
4.40
0.75
47.30
1.80
4.40
0.75
54.25
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,211.30
136.20
385.00
165.60
32.20
1,732.50
16.00
165.60
32.20
1,94630
liquids, pastes, foams, granules, and other absorbed formu-
lations; they include foliar, soil surface, subsurface, and
directional treatments which increase effectiveness, im-
prove precision placement, and reduce dosage and pollu-
tion effects. Improvement of techniques for applying her-
bicides to ditchbanks and in aquatic environments such as
canals, reservoirs, and irrigation ditches is being investi-
gated to a limited extent in the South and West. Methods
of applying herbicides by aircraft and ground-level pow-
ered machinery are being studied for control of weeds in
nontilled crops and grazing lands and for the long-range
management of range lands for agricultural use.
Projects on ultra low volume application are of interest
in several departments—all having as their objective equal
or better control with less total pesticide usage and a con-
sequent reduction in pesticide residues and environmental
pollution. To accomplish this objective, research is di-
rected toward a better understanding of particle formation
and particle-movement control as well as the development
of practical equipment and techniques to gain this control.
Evaluation
Much progress has been made in the past few years in
methods' of applying pesticides. Developments have, in
general, been of a more applied nature, and it is the judg-
ment of many researchers that the technology of pesticide
application has now reached a plateau. Future progress
along conventional lines will be slow, and new break-
throughs in efficiency of application will depend upon the
development of a better understanding of fine-particle
physics as it relates to the formation of particles and their
control and placement on the target organism in the de-
sired manner. Also the development of new materials as,
for example, systemic insecticides will require research to
develop specialized methods and equipment for most ef-
fective use.
The pollution of air and water, including that caused by
pesticides, is a matter for concern. The drift of fine parti-
cles is undesirable, and new ways of controlling particle
size and placement are needed.
More effective methods of applying herbicides, fungi-
cides, and nematocides are needed to reduce application
costs, lower dosages, reduce operation costs, and avoid
harmful residues in soil, water, and air. Cooperation of
agricultural engineers with pest-control specialists of other
disciplines is needed to evaluate fully and develop new
equipment to meet requirements for applying pesticides to
rangelands, annual cultivated crops, perennial crops such as
fruit trees and in nurseries, and for control of weeds in
aquatic environments. Multiple-use application techniques
and equipment are required for practical integrated con-
trol of weeds, nematodes, fungi, and insects.
Research in methods of application is paralleling, and
properly so, research in nonchemical biological methods.
In fact, success in some of the biological methods will de-
pend on methods of applying biological materials. Re-
search on application will complement that on biological
controls.
-------
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
A review of present research in this area indicates that a
reasonably well-rounded program is underway. However,
greater efforts will be needed to meet increasing needs.
MODE OF ACTION INCLUDING RESISTANCE IN TARGET
ORGANISMS
Summary
The intensity of biochemical and physiological research
on mechanisms of pesticide intoxication or detoxification
and resistance varies widely according to target organisms
or the use areas: insecticides, miticides, herbicides, fungi-
cides, piscidides, moluscicides, avicides, rodenticides, and
other pesticides. The greatest effort (about 75 percent) is
focused on entomological problems; most of this is on
mechanisms of detoxification and resistance in flies, mos-
quitoes, boll weevils, bollworms, corn earworms, German
cockroach, greenhouse mites, and other arthropods to or-
ganochlorine, organophosphorus, and carbamate pesticides.
Less effort is on mechanisms of degradation, fate or stor-
age of pesticides, and biochemistry of resistance. About
22 percent of effort is devoted to mechanisms of action
and related studies in herbicides and fungicides involving
pesticide degradation; nucleic acid synthesis; enzymes in
metabolism; mutagenicity in a model system; and protec-
tive, synergistic, or modifying effects of multiple expo-
sures. A small portion of the research effort (2.5 percent)
is designed to elucidate biochemical and physiological
mechanisms and differences in metabolism and acid-base
balance of selected tissues and renal function in different
species of fishes, birds, and mammals.
Evaluation
Efforts in this subcategory are hindered by a lack of
public interest and support for the elaborate analytical
Table 10.—Federal expenditures for research on mode of action
including resistance in target organisms
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Defense
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
anrl Wildlife
Atomic Energy Commis-
National Science
Foundation
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
27.80
5.97
15.85
1.70
33.77
3.00
15.85
1.70
4.00
.30
58.62
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,137.00
214.40
555.80
33.00
1,351.40
20.00
555.80
33.00
51.00
12.00
2,023.20
instrumentation required; on the other hand, efforts are
encouraged by general concern for developing highly se-
lective pesticides without effect on nontarget organisms.
Areas of entomological research vary according to species
and circumstances of pesticide usage, for example, applica-
tions to pests in the field as opposed to pests in stored
products. Exploration of differences in physiological and
biochemical mechanisms between target and nontarget or-
ganisms will establish guidelines for the development of
new and more specific pest-control agents with greater
safety and less hazard to nontarget organisms.
Much more research information is needed to guide syn-
thesis and application of more effective agents against
(1) resistant strains of various arthropod vectors of public
health importance, (2) insects, disease organisms, nema-
todes, and weeds involved in plant protection, (3) nuisance
animal populations, and (4) pests without harmful side-
effects on nontarget organisms.
STERILIZATION
Summary
Sterilization of insects by radiation, chemicals, or ad-
verse genetic effects employs the insects to suppress or
eliminate the normal reproduction of the entire popula-
tion. Research on sterility for insect control involves two
different approaches. One method involves the mass rear-
ing, sterilization, and release of insects to compete for
mates with insects in the natural population. The other in-
volves chemosterilants in lieu of insecticides to control
reproduction of insects in the natural population. The
work also involves research on sterility to suppress repro-
duction in vertebrate pests.
Research is under way to determine application rates of
gamma radiation or chemicals that will cause sterility in in-
sects without otherwise affecting their normal activities.
Table 11.—Federal expenditures for research on sterilization
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Forest Service
nefermc
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fish-
prjes anrl Wildlife
Atomic Energy Commis-
sion
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS- 1 1 and above
34.20
8.40
4.00
O36~
2.00
46.60
6.90
.36
2.00
9.00
64.86
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,811.50
21.20
140.00
1^26
70.20
1,972.70
99.00
13.20
70.20
300.00
2,455.10
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
Laboratories in different parts of the country are studying
initial and delayed effects of varying rates of radiation
against such pests as codling moth, subtropical fruit flies,
house flies, mosquitoes, corn earworm, boll weevil, pink
bollworm, tobacco hornworm, tobacco budworm, cabbage
looper, cereal leaf beetle, and plum curculio. Promising re-
sults obtained with gamma radiation of the codling moth
and several fruit fly pests have led to large-scale field evalu-
ations of releasing sterilized insects for control of these
pests. Plans are under way to conduct pilot tests to evalu-
ate the effectiveness of released sterile insects for suppress-
ing populations of the codling moth, pink bollworm, boll
weevil, tobacco budworm, corn earworm, and Drosophila
fruit flies.
In order to find better and safer chemosterilants to steri-
lize insects for release or for use against natural insect pop-
ulations, over a thousand chemicals were screened against
the house fly, 359 against the screw-worm, and 300 against
the boll weevil within a year's time. Laboratory tests are
under way to evaluate tepa as a sterilant against the ori-
ental fruit fly, melon fly, Mediterranean fruit fly, pear
psylla, Mexican fruit fly, European corn borer, fall army-
worm, false wireworm, and Japanese beetle; apholate
against the cereal leaf beetle and several species of mos-
quitoes; and metepa against mosquitoes. Different rates of
application are used, and various ratios of sterilized to un-
treated insects are used to determine the degree of sterility
and side effects to the insects. Investigations are under
way to determine the best ways of administering the
chemosterilants; because these materials are hazardous,
care is taken to determine the time it takes for them to
break down into harmless materials.
Studies are under way on the embryological action of
candidate chemosterilants, especially Sudan Black, on
birds. In the laboratory, oral doses are given to caged com-
mon Cotumix; in the field, Sudan Black is mixed with
bait and placed on selected islands along the New England
coast where herring and great black-backed gulls breed.
Evaluation
The President's Science Advisory Committee and other
factfinding committees have pointed out the need for
methods other than conventional pesticides to control in-
sects and other pests. Great concern has been expressed on
the widespread and heavy use of insecticides and the re-
sultant problems of insects becoming resistant to insecti-
cides and the side effects of residues in connection with
food and feed crops, soil contamination, adverse effects on
fish, wildlife, and beneficial insects, and pollution of the
environment. Great hope has been expressed in the devel-
opment of biological and genetic approaches to pest con-
trol. The successful sterilization of screw-worms and sub-
tropical fruit flies without any or only minimal damage to
these insects has made it possible to make sustained re-
leases of sterile insects over sizeable areas for the control
or eradication of these pests. Unfortunately, some species
of insects cannot be sterilized without physiological dam-
age. This is particularly true for the boll weevil. Much re-
search remains to be done to evaluate the direct effects of
radiation on different insects of economic importance to
agriculture, forestry, wildlife, and man. The use of insects
sterilized by radiation for control of pest species is a
highly selective procedure, and wherever it can be used
there is assurance of no ill effects of residues. The method
has greatest applicability to the treatment of isolated or
rather circumscribed areas of infestation. Needed research
includes techniques for rearing of millions of insects, meth-
ods of radiation, determination of effective ratio of treated
to untreated insects, and methods of releasing sterilized in-
sects. The bridging of the gap between sizeable experi-
mental plots and practical large-scale operations to deter-
mine efficacy of the method against a particular pest is
very costly. Such a program is not of immediate interest to
private industry. Therefore, basic research on sterility
methods, nutritional requirements of insects and applied
research involving mass rearing of insects, and field demon-
strations on a large-scale basis will have to be undertaken
by public-supported agencies.
Research on chemosterilants to find ways to sterilize in-
sects in the natural population needs to be increased.
Safer materials must be found or selective ways to use
them in highly selective baits or other attractants have to
be developed. Promising materials or methods need to be
evaluated against pest insects, birds, and mammals. Ways
must be found to utilize these chemicals to sterilize the
pests and thus reduce their ability to compete with the un-
treated animals. Methods of analyses and bioassays must
be developed for the original compounds and their break-
down products to insure that no harmful effects will result.
The development and release of strains of insects with
cytoplasmic incompatibility is a new genetic approach to
sterility that merits substantial support. Based on practical
results to date, the research effort on the use of released
sterile insects for population suppression should be greatly
expanded. Research on incompatible cytoplasmic insect
strains should be initiated as soon as possible to develop
this genetic approach to sterility. Research on chemoster-
ilants for use to control reproduction in natural pest popu-
lations should be increased considerably.
PHYSIOLOGICAL ALTERATION
Summary
Entomological research on physiological alterations that
might contribute to control of insects is concentrated on
physiology and juvenile hormone activity in relation to in-
sect metamorphosis. Chemosterilants, antimetabolities, an-
ticancer agents, and other chemicals or natural substances
that may alter biochemical processes which involve stress
effects on insect physiology (disease vectors) and genetic
studies on snail vectors of schistosomiasis are also being
studied. Research on fish and wildlife deals primarily with
enzymes, coenzymes, cofactors (vitamins, minerals, and
hormones) and genetic aspects involving the pharmacolog-
ical interaction of pesticides. These biochemical and chem-
ical and physiological measurements provide guidelines for
-------
10
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
Table 12.—Federal expenditures for research on physiological
alteration
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interinr
Bureau of Reclamation—
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Total ___
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
8.40
1.99
3.65
0.30
.75
10.39
3.65
1.05
15.09
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
372.10
26.00
151.80
10.60
13.50
398.10
151.80
24.10
574.00
assessing hazards or benefits of agents useful in con-
trolling fish, bird, or mammal populations. A small effort
is devoted to weed control, particularly to induce or break
dormancy and stimulate germination of seeds or cysts of
plant-feeding nematodes during unfavorable weather or to
reduce time speed for ease in control.
Evaluation
This research is relatively new and highly complex and
involves considerable difficulty in development of suitable
experimental methods. Although progress is necessarily
slow because of the basic and exploratory nature of these
investigations, the recent breakthroughs in identifying and
synthesizing potent hormones from insects and plants has
shown promise. Further physiological studies on endo-
crinology, enzymology, and pharmacology in target or-
ganisms is urgently needed to provide fundamental criteria
for guiding research in isolating, identifying, and synthe-
sizing natural materials for control of insects, weeds, fish,
birds, and mammals. Accordingly, increased support is nec-
essary for this highly technical research to explore new
and highly selective avenues of control other than use of
chemical toxicants.
CULTURAL CONTROL, MANAGEMENT PRACTICES, AND
PHYSICAL PROTECTION
Summary
Current research includes fundamental studies on eco-
logical relationships of insects, plants, birds, and diseases.
Other basic studies are being conducted on the relation-
ship of plant physiology to fungal infection and the fac-
tors affecting biological behavior of mosquito disease vec-
tors to name some example's. Research ranges from
basic—response of target organisms to ecological changes
effected through cultural or management practices—to
more practical—the development of scare devices for pro-
tecting crops from depredating birds. Some of the research
is general in nature with wide applicability while other is
for limited and specific purposes. The development of
cultural practices to control insects is being investigated in
order to overcome problems associated with the extensive
use of insecticides, for example, insect resistance and resi-
due problems. Studies are also underway to determine the
utility of electromagnetic radiation for detection and con-
trol of insect pests.
The larger part of the research is directed to the prob-
lems of agriculture and food-crop production. For exam-
ple, research to develop physical and cultural methods for
control of plant diseases, nematodes, and weeds consti-
tutes about one-third the total effort in this area.
Several projects on ecology management are carried on
in a number of agencies. Insect biology is being intensely
studied so that the use of pesticides can be reduced.
Other areas of research are concerned with protection of
military personnel, with protection of forested areas, and
with the protection and preservation of food products as
they move through the market place.
Evaluation
The breadth of research covered in this area is such that
projects are widely -diversified both as to content and be-
tween departments. This diversity is not objectionable
since it serves the needs of the departments and of the
geographic areas concerned.
Efforts to make more use of cultural and mechanical
control methods need to be increased and coordinated
with pesticide practices to achieve greater efficiency of
crop production. These approaches eventually will lead to
reduced need of pesticides and will provide better control
on crops where pesticides cannot be used because of pro-
hibitive costs, residues, or phytotoxicity.
Table 13.—Federal expenditures for research on cultural control,
management practices, and physical protection
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service.
Fnrest Service
Defense
Health, Education,
and Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Bureau of Reclamation
Tennessee Valley
Authority
Jntal
Scientific man-years,
GS— 1 1 and above
84.40
6.40
8.00
3.00
2.00
.65
98.80
12.00
3.00
2.65
0.70
117.15
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
3,448.60
239.00
280.00
120.80
38.90
26.00
3,967.60
153.00
120.80
64.90
17.00
4,323.30
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
11
Fundamental information useful in nonchemical control
is being gathered, as for example the information on spe-
cific wavelength response of insects to electromagnetic ra-
diation. Greater emphasis should be placed on environ-
mental and biological studies of soil, especially the micro-
environments as they influence cycling of plant and insect
pests.
Research on cultural control, management practices,
and physical protection parallels and is complementary to
methods of application. Success in one will assist the other,
and eventually practical programs of control will utilize
some of each.
CHEMICAL ATTRACTANTS, REPELLANTS AND OTHER
STIMULANTS
Summary
Current research efforts are directed primarily to the
control of insects, nematodes, weeds, and birds, rodents,
and other vertebrates. Efforts are largely toward isolation
and identification of naturally occurring stimulants, de-
velopment of artificial or synthetic stimulants, techniques
for using them in control operations, and mode of action.
Naturally occurring attractants for insects seem to be
highly specific, and much of the research is with important
species of Diptera, Lepidoptera, and to a less extent with
Hymenoptera. Sex pheromones, feeding, and light attract-
ants receive much attention. The identification of the
structure of a juvenile hormone is encouraging efforts to
find practical applications. Research on repellants for ar-
thropod vectors of disease includes the search for materi-
als that are more acceptable (particularly to military
troops), long lasting, and possibly systemic. Insect-control
techniques under investigation include baiting to traps or
to poisons and the use of excitants and masking agents to
confuse insects and thus reduce mating or feeding.
Research on attractants and repellants for the control of
birds, bats, rodents, including repelling deer and rabbits
from crops, and protecting birds from rodent baits is
largely in the nature of empirical search for more effective
chemicals and more practical methods of use.
Evaluation
Failure in the practical development and use of attract-
ants in past years may be attributed to restrictive objec-
tives, small-scale experiments, and undeveloped technol-
ogy. Recent improvements in biological and chemical
technology and new concepts in the use of attractants
open up new paths for use of attractants in pest-popula-
tion suppression. Sex attractants isolated, identified, and
synthesized for a few major insect pests now make it pos-
sible to conduct field trials involving total insect popula-
tions in restricted or isolated areas to determine their ef-
ficacy for control or eradication. A rather similar situation
exists in connection with research and development of re-
pellants, food stimulants, and hormones. Research de-
signed to elucidate the fundamental chemical and physical
Table 14.—Federal expenditures for research on chemical
attractants, repellants, and other stimulants
Department and agency
Agricu1ture__ ._
Agriculture Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Forest Service
Defense
Health, Education, and
Welfare _
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
National Science
Foundation _
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS- 11 and above
35.40
2.82
4.00
-To?
2.40
42.22
24.00
4.03
2.40
1.40
74.05
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,586.80
85.30
140.00
192.70
33.80
1,812.10
257.00
192.70
33.80
55.00
2,350.60
principles and the behavioral factors in mode of action is
complex and often requires elaborate or highly sensitive
equipment and a high degree of initiative and motivation
in .well-trained scientists. Developmental costs are thus
high and the potential profit is low; therefore, industry
cannot be expected to assume much of the cost of such re-
search. Nevertheless, the use of such selective chemicals is
in line with the key objective of making pest-control tech-
niques highly selective with minimal contamination of the
environment.
The availability of a rather substantial amount of Fed-
eral funds earmarked for this area of research is most apt
to stimulate the efforts needed to further develop the fun-
damental principles of attraction and repellancy as a meth-
od of controlling pest populations. A marked increase in
the rather modest funds now being expended in this cate-
gory is probably justified. Especial emphasis should be
given to elucidation of fundamental principles and large-
scale operational testing.
INTEGRATED CONTROL
Summary
Approximately 83 percent of the current research effort
in this category is aimed at developing knowledge for pre-
venting, controlling, or eradicating parasitic diseases of
ruminants, swine, poultry, and other domestic animals
through studies of biological, chemical, and management
methods or combined systems. The objective is to use such
controls as a means of insuring economical production of
meat, milk, eggs, and other animal products. These studies
include the following more prevalent parasitic diseases:
ruminant gastrointestinal nematodiasis (species of Coop-
eria, Bunostomum, Trichostrongylus, Ostertagia, Oesopha-
gostomum, and Haemonchus), liver flukes and bovine
coccidiosis; swine kidneyworm (Stepphanurus dentatus),
-------
12
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
Table 15.—Federal expenditures for research on integrated control
Department and agency
Agriculture . ..
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Reclamation
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 1 1 and above
28.20
4.24
1.10
f.o3~
.15
32.44
1.10
1.18
34 72
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,775.50
136.60
34.00
~4190
4.70
1,912.10
34.00
47.60
1 993 70
swine nodular worm (Oesophagostomum brevicaudum),
swine ascariasis (Ascaris suum), and swine strongyloidiasis
(Strongyloides ransomi); coccidiosis in chickens and black-
head (histomoniasis) in turkeys; equine piroplasmosis; and
other miscellaneous parasitisms. Host-parasite relationship
and immune response of the host to certain parasites are
major areas of investigation.
A relatively small effort is directed toward more than
one method of control of weed and plant diseases, flies and
other insects. Here the approach is to utilize several or all
known effective control methods in one system in order to
reduce or avoid use of persistent insecticides.
It is apparent that considerable research effort in other
sections of control methods and evaluations relate closely
to integrated control. This includes research on combina-
tions of systems involving insecticides and sterile insects,
cultural-control measures and light traps, limited use of in-
secticides along with biological control agents and light
traps with natural or synthetic chemical attractants. Re-
search is being expanded to investigate the use of pesti-
cides in rotation systems where a particular pest can be
controlled in one crop, yet extend protection to other
crops in the rotation system and often avoid residues and
phytotoxicity. For example, herbicides can be applied to
control crabgrass in soybeans and provide adequate con-
trol for corn in the second year. Nematocides can be used
to control nematodes on corn and still protect a succeed-
ing tobacco crop.
Evaluation
Parasite problems are becoming more critical in live-
stock and poultry as the latter are concentrated through
modern farm practices. Increased emphasis is needed to de-
velop biological and nonchemical methods of control of
internal parasites. An expansion of current research effort
will require more adequate facilities, although good prog-
ress is being made.
Integrated control holds good promise for insect con-
trol. However, few larger scale tests and specific studies
have been made because such experiments are costly. Once
techniques and systems are adequately tested and proven
successful, grower organizations may share the costs in the
final testing of procedures. Plant resistance, use of pesti-
cides, and cultural practices are a part of most research
programs on pest control. An effective integrated control
system would provide the basis for controlling pests on
low-value crops where present control measures are too
expensive or cannot be used because of phytotoxicity or
residue problems. Studies specifically designed to provide
integrated control of insects merit greatly expanded effort.
Expanded research on integrated methods for multiple
pest control is also justified.
DEVELOPMENT OF RESISTANT HOST SPECIES
Summary
A major research effort is in progress in the Department
of Agriculture and the State Experiment Stations to de-
velop pest-resistant crop plants. Limited research is per-
formed in the Departments of the Interior and Health,
Education, and Welfare. The research encompasses some
phases of study related to essentially all crop commodities
and to some other pests. New sources of germ plasm are
sought and introduced for all kinds of crops; these are
evaluated annually for resistance to crop pests, disease or-
ganisms, insects, nematodes, and parasitic weeds. Large col-
lections of bean and other species are being evaluated for
resistance to bacterial and other diseases.
Intensive research is being conducted to breed resist-
ance to insects, nematodes, and disease organisms in new
varieties of grain, oilseeds, fruits, vegetables, cotton, nuts,
ornamentals, tobacco, pasture, range, and sugar crops. Con-
siderable success has been achieved through release of
(1) corn varieties resistant to the European corn borer and
the corn earworm; (2) sugar cane resistant to sugar cane
borer, (3) wheat resistant to Hessian fly, and (4) alfalfa
resistant to aphids. Similar success has been achieved in
the development of grain crops resistant to rusts and other
fungal diseases, soybeans resistant to the cyst nematode,
Table 16.—Federal expenditures for research on development of
resistant host species
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Servjefi
Cooperative State
Research Service
Fnrest Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fish-
erips and Wildlife
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
230.70
28.65
15.00
1.00
0.10
274.35
1.00
0.10
275.45
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
7,826.40
777.50
525.00
43.00
0.10
9,128.90
43.00
1.00
9,172.90
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
13
and new potato varieties which are resistant to the golden
nematode. Studies are also in progress to select pine trees
for resistance to bark beetle and rust diseases.
Some attention is given to developing multiple lines of
resistance in crops where several pest problems occur con-
currently. The investigations also include genetic studies
and determination of the mechanical, physiological, and
biochemical bases for resistance of nontarget organisms to
all classes of pests. Considerable Federal funds are devoted
to extramural research to determine the nature of resist-
ance of such crops as barley, corn, wheat, soybeans,
alfalfa, peas, and cotton to nematodes, diseases, and in-
sects, and the mechanism of resistance of the intermedi-
ate host for trypanosomiasis to insecticides. The research
is aimed at producing crops and trees which are superior in
yield, quality, uniformity, and economy of production
through increased resistance to the depredations of serious
pests of all major categories.
Evaluation
The development of resistant crop varieties is the most
effective long-range means of combating many plant dis-
eases, insects, and nematodes. Diseases, nematodes, and in-
sects annually cause serious losses in agricultural produc-
tion; for example, more than 200 kinds of diseases, nema-
todes, and insects cause serious yield and quality losses in
over 50 field and forage crops; approximately 25 fruit and
nut crops suffer losses due to about 150 serious pests each
year; and about 150 pests reduce the annual harvest of
more than 35 vegetable crops and many kinds of orna-
mentals. Thus, breeding for resistance to disease, nema-
todes, and insects warrants continued and increased sup-
port. Meaningful gains in pest control have been attained
in this area of research but have most probably only
scratched the surface in reaching the full potential. The
depth and breadth of exploitation of new sources of germ
plasm needs to be increased to take full advantage of all
sources of resistance to pests. This is particularly urgent in
forage and range crops where the potential for pesticide
control is minimal and in breeding for resistance to insects
and diseases, the races of which become modified with
time. This represents a special aspect of the general prob-
lem and needs imaginative treatment to shorten the time
now required to breed resistant hosts. Breeding for multi-
ple lines of resistance to pests, including insects, is also a
primary research gap in this area. An expanded effort in-
volving interdisciplinary teams of pathologists, entomolo-
gists, nematologists, weed scientists, and plant breeders is
required. While breeding plants for resistance to weeds is
impractical in most cases, the close cooperation of weed
scientists is necessary to the full development of integrated
pest-control systems. Such an interdisciplinary effort
would assist plant breeders, for example, to develop new
principles and approaches to introduce resistant germ
plasm into crop varieties and to give needed attention to
pests and crops now inadequately covered; that is, breeding
for resistance to insects. New breeding lines and varieties
need to be evaluated for resistance to pesticidal chemicals,
including herbicides. The nature of resistance to crop pests
and pesticides needs more intensive investigation in order
to provide more efficient methods of breeding. Careful
evaluation of new crop varieties requires that experiments
be conducted under properly controlled conditions and re-
fined measuring techniques used; otherwise, true differ-
ences in resistance among parental lines and in segregating
populations may be obscured by environmental variability.
A considerable overall increase in scientific effort is needed
to fully exploit this highly desired pest-control technique.
PARASITES, PREDATORS, AND PATHOGENS
Summary
Current research efforts are directed primarily to the
exploration, introduction, colonization, evaluation, distri-
bution, and establishment of parasites, predators, and
pathogens to control injurious insects, mites, nematodes,
and plant diseases; introduction, evaluation, and establish-
ment of insects and pathogens to control weeds; also intro-
duction of fish and snails specifically to control aquatic
weeds; and study of predatory animals to control birds.
The scope of the research varies from fundamental studies
carried out in the laboratory to evaluate the efficacy of
the biological-control agents to large-scale field tests. The
research is conducted at many laboratories in the United
States and in foreign countries.
Insect parasites and predators are collected in different
parts of the world and introduced for establishment in the
United States to control or help control destructive pests,
many of which originated in foreign countries. Biological-
control agents are being introduced, propagated, and re-
leased for control of insects affecting agricultural crops,
livestock, forests, stored products, and man. Currently, re-
search involves insect enemies of such pests as the codling
moth, grasshoppers, cereal leaf beetle, bark beetles, fruit
flies, alfalfa weevil, wheat stem sawfly, citrus insects, al-
falfa insects, grass insects, and cotton insects. Parasites and
predators are also transferred between regions of the
United States. Laboratory investigations are made on life
histories, breaking of diapause, rearing methods, and tech-
niques for shipment and release of the beneficial insects.
Table 17.—Federal expenditures for research on parasites, predators
andpathogens
„ ... Scientific man-years,
Department and agency Gs_n and a£ove
Agrirultiire
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Forest Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Total ......
80.20
15.68
5.00
14.20
0.60
100.88
14.20
0.60
115.68
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
3,708.80
424.50
172.00
~~424l>0
19.50
4,305.30
424.60
19.50
4,749.40
-------
14
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
Many shipments of insect parasites and predators are re-
ceived from Public Law 480 projects conducted in foreign
countries. The insects are screened and tested and some
propagated before transhipment to the United States for
further study, propagation, and release.
Limited work is directed toward the use of phages to
control bacteria and to discovery of nematode-trapping
fungi, predaceous nematodes and other invertebrate ani-
mals that prey upon plant parasitic nematodes. Life cycles
of predaceous nematodes, snails, and fish are determined
as are their nutritional requirements for completion of life
cycles and environmental adaptation. Limited studies are
being conducted on the interaction of larval trematodes in
snail hosts in hopes of eventual control of snail vectors of
schistosomiasis, on Mama snails as possible replacements
of schistosome vectors, and searches for diseases, para-
sites, and predators of snails.
Aerial censuses are being made of nests and number of
gull juveniles present on the maritime islands. The effects
of releasing known numbers of foxes and raccoons in re-
ducing gull-breeding populations are being determined.
Studies on insect pathogens—bacteria, fungi, protozo-
ans, nematodes, and viruses—are under way at many re-
search laboratories in the United States. Tests are being
conducted to determine their value for the control of in-
sect and mite pests of different crops, trees, stored pro-
ducts, and man. Fundamental studies on insect pathogens
are in progress on justification, nutrition, mode of action,
and ways of reproducing the organisms. Bacillus thur-
ingiensis and the DD-136 nematode are being tested
against a variety of insect pests. Some new protozoans are
under test against grasshoppers and mosquitoes. Insect
viruses are being tested to determine their usefulness in
controlling such insects as the fall armyworm, cabbage
looper, grasshopper, and bollworm. Contractual research is
directed toward collecting and testing foreign plant dis-
ease organisms that will attack weed species as Ambrosia,
Setaria, and Solarium. Work is also conducted on a Marisa
snail, silver dollar fish, and other fish to control aquatic
weeds such as elodea, milfoil, potomogeton, and hydrilla,
and fish to control mosquitoes. Life cycles of snails and
fish and environmental adaptation are being investigated.
Surveys are under way in foreign countries to discover in-
sect pests that might be useful in the control of introduced
weeds in rangelands and aquatic environments in the
United States. Insects attacking Dalmatian toadflax, alliga-
tor weed, Eurasian watermilfoil, thistles, water hyacinth,
and Mediterranean sage are under study.
Evaluation
The chemical control of insects, nematodes, plant dis-
eases, weeds, and birds, though effective and economical,
has resulted in problems. Insects and mites have become
resistant to insecticides. Intensive and extensive use of
pesticides has resulted in a number of real or potential
problems of residues in food and feed crops, adverse ef-
fects on fish and wildlife, and harmful effects on beneficial
insects, including parasites, predators, and honey bees.
Reports of the President's Science Advisory Committee
and other national study groups have recommended that
emphasis be given to research on the biological control of
pests in order to avoid residue problems and pollution of
the environment with chemical sprays.
Successful utilization of biological-control agents of in-
sects depends upon the preservation of those that already
occur in natural habitats; the introduction, distribution,
and establishment of additional species of parasites and
predators from other parts of the world to control insect
pests that have become established in the United States;
and a thorough testing of the idea of mass producing the
agents and releasing them on a sustained basis over a large
area. The research problem area is immense if due consid-
eration is given to the vast number of destructive insects in
this country. In order to meet the needs for controlling the
most important insects by this method, additional explora-
tions must be made in foreign areas, both by scientists here
and abroad conducting research possibly under the Public
Law 480 program. Much additional information is re-
quired on the life history of parasites and predators, de-
velopment of superior strains, nutritional needs, synchron-
ization with hosts, development of strains resistant to in-
secticides, techniques for mass rearing and release, and
field evaluations to determine effectiveness when intro-
duced throughout the distributional range of an insect
pest, either alone or in an integrated control program. Ini-
tial studies on biological control will have to be supported
by public agencies until the utility of the method is fully
demonstrated. Industry may subsequently become inter-
ested in some phases if there are opportunities for profit.
The promising results obtained by using known numbers
of foxes and raccoons to control gulls on islands warrants
additional study. Research must be continued to determine
the rate of recovery of gull-breeding populations.
Some 2,000 insect pathogens—bacteria, fungi, proto-
zoans, nematodes, and viruses—have been described. New
ones are being discovered each year. Very little is known
about most of these organisms in relation to the control
of serious pests of agriculture, forests, stored products, and
man. Basic studies on taxonomy, culture techniques, mode
of action, factors that inactivate pathogens, mass produc-
tion, and toxicology are needed. Protocols must be de-
veloped by regulatory agencies to determine the safety of
different kinds of insect pathogens, especially viruses, if
such materials are ever to become generally available as
control materials. Extensive research to field test insect
pathogens against a variety of insect pests is required be-
fore it can be ascertained if they are effective and can
compete with chemical and other control measures.
More attention should be given to biological agents that
are promising for the control of nematodes, particularly
those presently requiring a heavy use of pesticides. The
successful use of an introduced beetle in 1967 to control
alligatorweed in Florida is an example of the great oppor-
tunities for this type of biological control. Much more ef-
fort is needed on exploration in foreign countries and in-
troduction of insect and (or) disease enemies of other
weeds such as Dalmatian toadflax, Eurasian watermilfoil,
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
15
thistles, Halogeton, water hyacinth. Mediterranean sage,
and wild mustards, which are now serious pests in the
United States. Likewise, expanded work should be done to
protect fish and snails that control aquatic weeds from
herbicide-polluted water. Research on the biological con-
trol of insects, nematodes, snails, plant diseases, weeds,
and birds warrants an increase in support.
TOXICOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND BEHAVIOR OF NONTARGET
ORGANISMS
This problem area deals with the quantitative and quali-
tative aspects of toxicology. Included in this section are
biological studies, exclusive of those properly classified as
population dynamics and kinetics. Symptomatology (di-
rectly observable effects) of nontarget organisms, including
man, animals, plants, and soil organisms, and lexicological
and other physiological effects are discussed here as are
research studies on the mode of action, other than that
involved in control and evaluation.
SUMMARY
The most important change in toxicology during recent
years has been the great emphasis on safety evaluation.
Thorough testing is required as a prerequisite to registra-
tion or the granting of tolerances, and much of the work is
paid for by private industry. However, the same emphasis
is reflected in Federal research, especially in connection
with new compounds (such as chemosterilants) or old
compounds that are proposed for such specialized uses
that they do not justify commercial development. Safety
evaluation of new compounds or basically new uses
involves measurement of toxicity and observation of
symptomatology and effects on reproduction and behavior
in laboratory and domestic animals, including birds, fish,
and bees. These tests permit an estimate of the possible
Table 18.—Federal expenditures for research in toxicology,
physiology, and behavior of nontarget organisms
Department and agency
Agriculture-...
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Forest Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare .......
Food and Drug
Administration
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Tennessee Valley
Authority
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
23.60
10.13
4.00
22.30
65.20
5.80
13.05
37.73
87.50
18.85
0.50
144.58
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
1,132.90
331.60
140.00
1,301.00
2,529.60
230.40
734.50
1,604.50
3,830.60
964.90
12.00
6,412.00
hazard of a new compound or new use to man and the
creatures he values. Studies are underway on wild birds
(including waterfowl, upland game birds, birds of prey,
songbirds, and gulls) and wild mammals (including in-
sectivores, herbivores, and carnivores).
Pesticides for use on crops are being studied to deter-
mine the possible harmful effects on the crops or other
nontarget plants. Mechanisms or phytotoxicity are being
investigated.
Laboratory evaluations of the nutrient composition and
consumer-use quality of fumigated wheat and of insecti-
cide-, nematocide-, or fungicide-treated poultry, peanuts,
and selected fruits and vegetables are in progress. Basic
research is being conducted on the effects of insecticides
and fungicides on nutrient metabolism and requirements
of rats fed different diets.
Emphasis on safety is also reflected in epidemiological
studies of the possible effects of pesticides already in ac-
tive use. For man, emphasis is placed on people with
intensive and prolonged occupational exposure as well as
those in the general population. For wildlife, emphasis is
placed on populations that seem to be in special danger,
whatever the -reason. When poisoning does occur, the
cases are observed carefully. Some progress is being made
with antidotes and general therapy for man and domestic
animals.
Increasing attention is being given to the biochemical
and pharmacological effects of pesticides in a wide range
of nontarget organisms. There is also a broadening interest
in different forms of toxicity, and a number of studies are
underway on the possible interaction of different toxi-
cants.
EVALUATION
Toxicologists are agreed that the entire field deserves
more emphasis and support, and all work on toxicology
should take into account certain difficulties as well as
numerous opportunities. The orderly development of pest
control in connection with human vector-borne disease,
agriculture, and wildlife management requires the careful
examination of candidate pesticides and other methods
of control. This examination must include orderly evalua-
tion of safety. However, there is always a danger that this
testing, no matter how detailed, will become a cookbook
procedure rather than a scientific study.
Many opportunities exist to increase the usefulness
of toxicology as well as the basic insight it offers. For
example, toxicology is now a quantitative science. The
effect of single doses have been known quantitatively for a
long time; now methods are being introduced to express
the effects of repeated doses numerically, and attention is
being given to the dosage-response relationships of enzyme
induction and various modalities of toxicity that have
usually been viewed qualitatively rather than quanti-
tatively.
-------
16
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
It should be recognized that quantitative studies of wild
species offer special difficulty because, by necessity, these
studies are confined to species that can be reared rather
easily. There is a possibility that studies of wild forms may
be biased in favor of tough, resilient species. Work needs to
be done to explore more fully the diversity of species
response and the reasons for it.
New developments in biochemistry and other aspects of
molecular biology offer great opportunities in toxicology.
However, these developments often must be related care-
fully to the entire organism and evaluated in terms of their
relevance to the health of the intact nontarget species.
Each development of a nonchemical method of pest
control offers a challenge to develop meaningful tech-
niques for measuring its safety. An expert committee of
the World Health Organization has stated "***any mate-
rial—living or dead—which it is proposed to introduce as
a pest control agent should be subjected to the same
searching examination for potential toxicity to man as is
applied to the synthetic pesticides."
PESTICIDE KINETICS
ABSORPTION DISTRIBUTION, CHEMICAL METABOLISM,
ACCUMULATION AND EXCRETION
Ecosystem studies measure the distribution of pesticides
through the various parts of the flora and fauna and the
transfer and accumulation of pesticides through the food-
chain mechanism. Changes in pesticides by chemical me-
tabolism and losses by air and (or) water transport can be
measured. Studies of individual organisms measure the
process of absorption, distribution, chemical metabolism,
accumulation, and excretion. Both target and nontarget
organisms are included in these studies.
Summary
Investigations of pesticide kinetics are directed toward
an understanding of the impact of pesticides on man and
the ecological system upon which he depends. Research
strategy includes a simultaneous attack on problems of
pesticide kinetics in the ecosystem and in the organisms;
thus, studies of the distribution and changes of pesticides
Table 19.—Federal expenditures in research on pesticide
kinetics
Table 20.—Federal expenditures for research on absorption, dis-
tribution, chemical metabolism, accumulation, and excretion
Subcategory
Absorption, distribution,
chemical metabolism,
accumulation, and
excretion
Methods of speeding
residue loss
Stability of pesticides in
storage
To tal
Scientific man-years,
GS— 11 and above
598.76
17.98
4.15
620.89
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
10,985.15
678.20
114.90
11,778.25
Department and agency
Agriculture.
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Food and Drug
Administration
Public Health Service
Interior..
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration
Geological Survey
Atomic Energy Commis-
sion
Total
Scientific man-years
GS— 11 and above
88.60
57.96
1.00
414.05
7.10
11.55
14.00
2.00
146 56
415.05
34.65
2.50
598.76
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
4,365.70
1,748.70
32.00
3,827.35
282.80
500.00
123.60
44.00
6,114.40
3,859.35
950.40
61.00
0,985.15
in living and nonliving parts of the environment are paral-
leled by studies of absorption, metabolism accumulation,
and excretion of pesticides in man, wild and domestic
animals, and plants. Significance of pesticides to the health
of man and domestic animals or to wild populations can-
not be adequately appraised from observational and de-
scriptive studies under the complex and uncontrolled
conditions existing in the environment. Although studies
of pesticide interrelationships of plants, water, or soil can
be conducted under practical conditions, they too require
much supplemental study in controlled laboratory experi-
ment.
Studies are being conducted of both target and non-
target organisms in relation to the kinetics of all major
classes of pesticidal chemicals. Research thus includes
studies of man, laboratory and domestic birds, mammals,
plants, and wild species of birds, mammals, fish, and the
invertebrates they feed upon.
Residues in crop plants, soils, and water and their inter-
relationships receive the major emphasis, in that order, and
these three areas receive more than half the research
dollars. Residues that result from treatment programs
receive particular attention; studies include research on
metabolic changes of pesticidal chemicals due to soil or-
ganisms and other causes and persistence and effects of
residues in soils, plants, and water and the exchange be-
tween them. Additional studies pertain to residues in meat,
milk, and eggs. These entail studies of the absorption, me-
tabolism, storage, and excretion of pesticides by domesti-
cated mammals and, to a lesser extent, domesticated birds.
Pesticide kinetics in the human food chain thus is the
primary focus of research effort. Kinetic processes in man
-------
SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
17
are studied through experimental research with appropriate
laboratory animals and by some studies with man himself.
Residues in water and their transport and changes are
studies in relation both to crop production and to the
drinking water supply, which includes underground waters.
The primary objective of the few studies underway con-
cerning the air transport of pesticides is the determination
of drift from treatments.
Some ecological studies of pesticides and the parallel ex-
perimental investigations required for interpretation are
being made in relation to wild species of fish, shellfish,
food-chain organisms in the fresh-water and marine envi-
ronments, and birds, mammals and food organisms in the
terrestrial environment.
Evaluation
The large number of new chemicals, the persistence of
old ones, and the use of chemicals in a variety of combina-
tions and solvent systems have overwhelmed the research
effort aimed at understanding their distribution and ef-
fects. Use of pesticides of all classes increases each year,
and there is little knowledge of their interactions and
impact upon the ecological system. Man has added many
toxic chemicals to the environment in addition to those
derived from pesticides, a further complication. Ecological
effects of pesticides must be evaluated in the context of
total environmental pollution.
The significance of residues is poorly understood, and
studies aimed at this understanding are the primary re-
search need. A great effort in experimental and inter-
pretive studies must be made to capitalize upon the first-
step descriptive effort that has predominated in past work
and to permit proper evaluation of ecological problems. It
is therefore essential to learn the rates and routes of trans-
port of chemicals in the air and water and in terrestrial and
aquatic organisms, the extent and the mechanisms of de-
gradation, and the degree of accumulation in terrestrial
and aquatic food chains. Controlled ecological studies in
the field or in microecosystems are seriously needed.
It is equally essential to greatly increase research on the
kinetics of pesticides in organisms, both plants and ani-
mals, in order to encompass more species and to seek re-
lationships between residues and effects on behavior, re-
production, enzyme activity, stresses of various kinds, and
interactions. Long-term low-dosage studies, including stud-
ies of progeny are particularly necessary. The animal
species should include representatives of all major groups
of vertebrates and invertebrates—man, laboratory and
domestic mammals and birds, wild species of birds, fish,
and mammals, and selections from other groups.
Table 21.—Federal expenditures for research on methods of speeding
residue loss
METHODS OF SPEEDING RESIDUE LOSS
Department and agency
Agririiltlire
Agriculture Research
Service
Cooperative State
Rp«-;irrh Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries,
Bureau of Sport Fish-
eries and Wildlife
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 1 1 and above
6.40
3.98
4.10
2.90
.60
10.38
4.10
3.50
17.98
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
254.00
166.20
92.00
115.00
51.00
420.20
92.00
166.00
678.20
Summary
Research is concentrated in several specific areas that in-
clude methods of decontaminating soil, water, and plants
which contain pesticide residues. Decontamination may be
accomplished by several means such as application of
certain microorganisms, chemicals, or adsorbants. The use
of ultraviolet irradiation is also under investigation.
Since pesticide residues existing in used containers or
other sources of unused pesticides may contribute to con-
tamination of the environment, more effective means are
being sought to improve disposal procedures. Research is
underway to develop more effective incineration including
possible pretreatment of pesticides before incineration.
Research on design of more suitable containers is being
sought from the container industry.
The effect of processing of foods on the rate of loss of
pesticide residues is under investigation. Information on
the effects of home and commercial preparations on
residue levels in foods is being obtained. In the area of de-
creasing residue levels of animals used for food, research
into methods of storing and preserving forage is being
conducted to see if the final amount of pesticide residue
in the animal can be lowered before it is processed for
food.
A small effort is in process to study the prevention of
pesticide migration through containers treated to repel or
kill insects. Various formulations and container surfaces
are being investigated. This project is one involving co-
operation with the paper, container, and chemical in-
dustries.
The removal of pesticides from the atmosphere (air) is
necessary where spraying and formulation processes have
been carried out. Pesticide vapors, toxic dusts, and mists
constitute a definite hazard to workers. Research into res-
piratory protective devices is necessary and is being sup-
ported by some government agencies. The new chemicals
being produced each year as pesticides require testing to
insure safety when working with them as sprays or other
applications.
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18
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
Evaluation
Since pesticide residue levels have been shown to exist
throughout various materials in our environment, a greatly
increased research effort should be undertaken in the area
of direct decontamination of soils, water, plants, and plant
and animal food products which are known to contain
significant residue levels. In addition, research into man-
agement techniques which will decrease the residue level
of persistent pesticides in animals (both wildlife and do-
mestic food animals) should continue to be investigated.
Laboratory studies have provided some good results in
application of techniques such as use of microorganisms to
decrease pesticide levels in soil. Research results on these
techniques as applied to field conditions are greatly
needed.
The major stimulus towards increased research on de-
contamination of pesticide containers and removal of un-
used pesticides has come from vastly increased usage of
these materials. Research into incineration techniques,
pretreatment, and ultimate disposal of the final waste
product (hopefully nontoxic) must be greatly increased.
There should be a greater emphasis on cooperation with
private industry in the area of container research. There
have been suggestions that in the future, industry, as part
of the registration of pesticides, should be required to
provide data on ultimate disposal requirements. The regis-
tration data might also provide information on suitable
microbial or chemical detoxification agents so as to ensure
nonpersistent, nontoxic residue.
Continuing effort will be required to remove pesticide
vapors or dusts from the air. This is primarily due to the
introduction of new chemicals each year. Practical meth-
ods also need to be developed to remove herbicides and
other pesticides from water after intentional and uninten-
tional contamination.
Table 22.—Federal expenditures for research on stability of pesticides
in storage
STABILITY OF PESTICIDES IN STORAGE
Summary
Current research efforts are directed toward the de-
velopment of information about the stability of pesticides
in storage under varying climatological conditions and
their degradation and formation of toxic by-products. Re-
search ranges from the most basic—analysis of the chem-
ical and gaseous components of incinerated pesticides—to
the more general—biological testing of effects of long-
range storage on the toxicity of a given pesticide.
Considerable effort is being directed toward the prob-
lem of storage stability of wettable powders and emulsifi-
able concentrates used in worldwide vector control and
eradication programs. Additional effort has been directed
toward the factors involved in the decomposition of
pesticides stored under a variety of conditions of tempera-
ture, moisture, pressure, light, and other considerations.
A limited amount of research, mostly exploratory in
nature, is being conducted in an effort to develop equip-
Department and agency
AgriniltTire
Agricultural Research
Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Interior
Geological Survey
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
1.40
0.75
2.00
1.40
0.75
2.00
4.15
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
54.90
30.00
30.00
54.90
30.00
30.00
1 14.90
ment for the decontamination and disposal of pesticides
and pesticide containers. The stability of pesticides to lye
and other alkalies, mineral acids, and strong oxidizing and
reducing agents are also being investigated.
Basic studies are being conducted to determine the
extent and probability of future contamination of water
resources in selected areas resulting from land disposal of
pesticides and pesticide containers.
Evaluation
Considerable progress has been made in recent years to
develop methods of stabilizing pesticides in storage. How-
ever, due to additional pest species becoming resistant to
pesticides and the resultant need for more toxic and selec-
tive pesticides, the long transit and storage time associated
with worldwide eradication and vector-control programs in
progress, and environmental contamination caused by
pesticides and pesticide containers, new and perplexing
problems have been created which will require investiga-
tion. Public concern over these problems is becoming in-
creasingly and justifiably more evident.
There is a need for continued research on the stability of
pesticides in storage; this effort should be expanded to in-
clude the design of better, more durable, and safer
pesticide containers that would withstand the stress of
transit and could be disposed of with a minimum of hazard
to the environment. These problems seem to be recognized
and rather well defined, but increased effort and coordina-
tion will have to be made by the agencies concerned, both
Federal and non-Federal.
DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDIZATION OF ANALYTICAL
METHODS
SUMMARY
Primary emphasis is being directed toward two basic
areas—methods for determining pesticide residues in food
and food components of both plant and animal origin and
methods for determining pesticide residues in human
organs and tissues. Research is also being supported to a
lesser degree to determine residues in environmental items
such as water, soils, air, insects, and wildlife.
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SUMMARIES AND EVALUATIONS OF CURRENT RESEARCH
19
Table 23.—Federal expenditures for research on development and
standardization of analytical methods
Department and agency
Agriculture
Agricultural Research
Service
Cooperative State
Research Service
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Food and Drug
Administration ,
Public Health Service
Ipterinr
Bureau of Sport Fish-
erics and Wildlife
Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration
Tnfiil
Scientific man-years,
GS-11 and above
13.40
4.49
29.00
28.95
5.25
5.00
5.00
17.89
57.95
15.25
91.09
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
543.80
97.10
752.00
1,461.00
189.00
67.50
90.00
640.90
2,213.00
346.50
3,200.40
Major efforts in new methodology for food and food
components are in organophosphates and to a lesser extent
carbamates. The very labile nature of these pesticides (as
compared with the organochlorides) especially requires a
thorough understanding of the nature of all possible result-
ing residue components. Research is directed toward the
effectiveness of various extraction procedures and the
analytical behavior so that the detection of a greater num-
ber of these pesticides and their alteration products can be
included into one procedure with a high degree of sensi-
tivity. A substantial research effort is also being devoted to
the development of analytical methods for various types of
herbicides and fungicides.
Recently efforts have been intensified for the identifica-
tion of alteration products of the chloro-organics. These
efforts have uncovered many previously unknown residue
components which may need to be incorporated (depend-
ing on their toxicities) into identification procedures.
In the area of pesticide residues in humans, emphasis is
being placed on developing new and improved techniques
to determine pesticides in human liver, brain, kidney tis-
sue, urine, blood, and fat by establishing a central analyt-
ical laboratory which will contain the most up-to-date in-
strumentation and techniques. Studies are being conducted
on the effect of existing preservation methods of tissues
upon recovery of pesticide residue and by continuous
monitoring and storing of samples taken from humans ex-
posed to various amounts of pesticides. A complete tissue
bank is being established to monitor existing conditions
and to develop knowledge on the effect of pesticide resi-
dues on humans.
About half as much effort as is being devoted to re-
search on pesticide residues in food is going into the de-
velopment, standardization, and improvement of methods
for detection and quantification of pesticides (especially
organophosphates) and their alteration products in water
and the biologically active mud-water interface. The major
problem in obtaining a representative sample of the mud-
water interface is that of disturbing the interface when
taking the sample.
The effort being directed to improve methodology for
determination of pesticidal residues in wildlife, insects,
plants and their enviornments is about as much as one-half
the support for pesticides in water. Emphasis is being
placed on determination of pesticides and their metabo-
lites in insects, plants, and fish and bird eggs plus blood,
fat and other tissues.
Considerably less research is being devoted to develop-
ment of methods for macroquantities of pesticides, sur-
factants, and carriers used in vector control and (or) eradi-
cation programs necessary for developing new and improv-
ing existing specifications for application and formulation.
A substantial amount of the effort devoted to standardiza-
tion and validation of anayltical methods for pesticide for-
mulations and residues in foods is conducted under the co-
ordination of the Association of Official Analytical Chem-
ists (AOAC), an organization whose active members
consist of Federal and State scientists who cooperate with
associate members from industry and other institutions.
Methods validated under the auspicies of this organization
are generally accepted as valid in legal actions brought by
the Food and Drug Administration and the Department of
Agriculture. These methods are also used by the Food and
Drug Administration in their monitoring and surveillance
programs.
EVALUATION
The problem of recommending all necessary adjust-
ments in government-supported research for this problem
area is difficult with the information made available to us.
The following recommendations should, therefore, be con-
sidered as examples of needed research and not a definitive
evaluation.
The effort devoted to the problem of pesticide residues
in food and food components needs much intensification
to identify the analytical characteristics of all pesticides
and their alteration products so that residues can be de-
termined with the minimum number of procedures and
the required sensitivity. Research emphasis in analyt-
ical methods must be correlated with changing pesticide-
use patterns. Research is specifically needed in methodol-
ogy for the organophosphates and carbamates and their
alteration products and multiple-detection methodology is
also needed for the diverse types of herbicides and fungi-
cides. Methods sensitive and specific enough to be used for
measuring residues in the total diet are necessary to accu-
rately define the effect of these chemicals on the human,
plant, and animal environment. A moderate increase
should yield sufficient information to significantly define
these effects.
One of the specific programs that should be intensified
is the investigation of simplified, rapid, economical, and
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20
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
precise field measurement techniques, particularly for
water analysis, in order to better obtain correct informa-
tion for evaluation. Emphasis should be increased to de-
velop methods for measuring residues in fish and other
aquatic fauna and in aquatic soils.
The study of the problem of losses of pesticides at vari-
ous stages in the analysis of plant and animal tissues and
eggs making use of 14C-labeled organochlorine insecticides
and the effect of the various preservation methods of tis-
sues upon the recovery of pesticide residues should be
greatly increased. In addition, research should be initiated
for the isolation and positive identification of unknown
chromatographic peaks commonly encountered in the
analysis of wildlife and fish specimens and the develop-
ment of analytical methods for unregistered chemicals
used in fisheries.
MARKETING, UTILIZATION, SOCIOLOGY, AND LAW
SUMMARY
Current research efforts are directed primarily toward
the marketing and utilization of pesticides. The market
acceptance of tobacco, seeds, and food products is being
studied by determining market values of these products
after various pesticides have been used during the growth
and processing stages. The economic impact on farmers of
changes in tolerance levels of pesticide residues in food
products and of required disuse periods of land declared
to be contaminated is under limited study. Numerous
studies deal with formulations for the effective use of
pesticides and improved methods of application but few
are investigating the sources and adequacy of pesticide
information available to bulk dealers of pesticides, the
extent to which dealers understand and are able to convey
pesticide information to consumers, and finally the degree
of consumer compliance with verbal or printed instruc-
tion.
The sociological aspects of pesticide use are being in-
vestigated by studies of (1) consumer awareness of the use
of pesticides and their understanding of the pesticide prob-
lems, (2) impact of consumer attitude toward the use of
pesticides on the food purchase and consumption pattern
of the family, and (3) relationships between awareness of
Table 24.—Federal expenditures for research on marketing, utili-
zation, sociology, and law
Department and agency
Agriculture
Cooperative State
Research .Service
Defense
Health, Education, and
Welfare
Public Health Service
Total
Scientific man-years,
GS— 1 1 and above
6.70
0.25
6.70
7.00
.25
13.95
Funding, in thou-
sands of dollars
156.40
10.00
156.40
61.00
10.00
227.40
the pesticide problem, attitude toward the problem, its
effect on food use and consumer characteristics which are
indicative of their socioeconomic and educational levels.
Some evaluation of the economic impact of alternative
methods of pest control both for representative farms in
selected areas and for agriculture as a whole is in progress.
No studies on the legal aspects of pesticide use were found
which could be identified as research. Legal activities con-
sist of the review and evaluation of applications for regis-
tration and of pesticide petitions only.
EVALUATION
Research in these areas has been very meager because
there has been a general lack of awareness of the dangers
associated with the use of pesticides. Now that the scien-
tific community is acutely aware of the dangers of pesti-
cidal pollution of the environment, strong efforts should
be made to assess the adequacy of pesticide information
available to dealers and their capability to convey this in-
formation to consumers. Of course, such efforts should be
followed by a suitable educational program.
Another area which should receive increased attention
is the economics of alternative methods of pest control.
The results should be of great interest to the pesticide
industry as well as planners of pest-control research pro-
grams. In view of the paucity of information on the cost-
effectiveness of alternative pest-control methods, support
of this work should be greatly increased.
Required research in the legal aspects of pesticide use is
difficult to identify. Therefore, a small level of support for
exploratory studies is recommended. This area may well
attain major importance if aerial dissemination of pesti-
cides becomes widespread, particularly if applied at State
and national boundaries.
The current level of activity in the sociological aspects
of pesticide use is probably adequate, except as it relates
to public acceptance of recommendations for safe and
effective uses.
DISCUSSION
The first step in evaluating the adequacy of federally
financed research on pests and their control is to select a
systematic arrangement for the analysis. The one chosen
was selected because of the committee's belief that it
would give the best overview of the subject. On the other
hand, it is not a convenient arrangement for evaluating the
relative emphasis being given, for instance, to insects ver-
sus weeds or rats versus plant viruses. Therefore, this type
of comparison cannot be derived from this analysis.
Table 1 shows that there is a wide range of effort being
expended in the various subcategories of this classification
system. This does not imply that those with the least sup-
port are necessarily those in most urgent need of strength-
ening, for the classification was not designed to provide all
subcategories of equal importance. Nevertheless, it is
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DISCUSSION
21
immediately apparent that evaluation of need for control
and marketing, utilization, sociology, and legal receive
very little research support at present, and both of these
should justify considerable intensification of effort. In
fact, a detailed evaluation of each subcategory in all prob-
lem areas indicates specific needs for strengthening re-
search support in each.
Also the fact that several agencies may be supporting
research in the same subcategory usually represents re-
search with similar objectives but directed against different
pests. The committee found some areas of apparent du-
plication between agencies, but it learned that this was
generally planned as a desirable check on applicability of
results to different situations. To provide a more balanced
evaluation, the committee decided to indicate areas of
most urgent need without regard for exactly where these
needs fit into the classification system. Hence the follow-
ing recommendations cut across many of the research
categories:
1. Ecological significance of pest control.
The most urgent need appears to be for a more compre-
hensive understanding of the ecological significance of the
control of pests. Currently there is great public interest in
the challenge that massive environmental contamination
offers to man's welfare. Because pesticides are biologically
active they may have ecological significance out of propor-
tion to their concentration as compared with other kinds
of pollutants. Persistent pesticides are especially feared be-
cause harmful effects may not be discovered until too late
to correct the contamination. Research is urgently needed
to more adequately evaluate these possibilities.
a. A thorough evaluation of the problem will require
more information than is now available on the fate of
each pesticide in the environment. A knowledge of the
identity of alteration products and of the concentration of
residues in soil, water, air, and the biota is the first re-
quirement. This is being acquired through national moni-
toring programs coordinated by the Federal Committee on
Pest Control. Detailed information is also needed on how
rapidly and by what mechanisms each pesticide is degraded
chemically or biologically in these various elements of the
environment and how freely it moves from one to another
or is translocated by plants or other organisms.
b. Detailed information is needed on the toxicity of
pesticides to the many different organisms which may be
exposed in soil, water, or air or through their foods. Be-
cause of the complex nature of the biota in any particular
situation it will doubtless require long-term studies of the
biological populations as a whole rather than being limited
to a few indicator species. The interactions between vari-
ous pesticides and of each with other contaminants must
be included because of the fact that one toxicant may in-
crease or decrease susceptibility to others.
c. Much of the present effort along these lines is limited
to persistent pesticides and particularly to chlorinated hy-
drocarbons. It is recognized, however, that some of the
less persistent and more specific pesticides may also cause
severe ecological damage. Thus some of the carbamate in-
secticides which are relatively transient are nevertheless
very toxic to bees, and repeated applications could have
important ecological effects by interfering with pollina-
tion. Likewise, nonchemical control methods such as
burning to control insects and plant disease and clearing
out hedgerows to control weeds or even water level man-
agement to control mosquitoes may have significant eco-
logical effects. Therefore, studies of long-term ecological
effects should include all widely used pesticides and non-
chemical control procedures as well as the chlorinated
hydrocarbons.
2. Additional lexicological research.
Though there has been much lexicological research on
pesticides in recent years, some aspects need more atten-
tion. Emphasis should be on physiological, behavioral, and
other sublethal effects. These should include studies of
both plants and animals.
a. The physiological effects of pesticides on plants are
poorly understood except for the direct toxicity of herbi-
cides. More should be done on less obvious physiological
effects of all pesticides particularly as they may affect
nutrition, taste, and similar characteristics of the plant as
human food. This should include the effects of metabo-
lites in the plants, and interactions between pesticides and
plant growth.
b. The physiological effects of pesticides on insects,
fish, and wild and domestic species of birds and mammals
have received remarkably little study, and such studies are
seriously needed for a proper long-term evaluation.
c. The search for possible subtle effects of long con-
tinued exposure to pesticides by humans should be con-
tinued on a permanent basis among the population most
heavily exposed. In the long run this is the best safeguard
that we have against unexpected effects following long-
term exposures of the general public—a fear that occurs
widely and can not be reassured adequately by any other
method.
3. Protection of environment from contamination by
pesticides.
It is generally assumed that contamination of the en-
vironment by pesticides is undesirable. Therefore re-
search on methods of reducing or preventing contamina-
tion and of removing unavoidable residues is urgently
needed.
a. Probably the single most important source of need-
less contamination is inefficient application of pesticides.
Improved equipment and application techniques are highly
desirable. Developments in this field have been generally
the result of applied research; any significant further im-
provements will depend upon more fundamental knowl-
edge coupled with a high degree of initiative and ingenuity
in devising new and radically different methods of applica-
tion.
b. Contamination from wastes such as surplus mixes,
residues in "empty" containers, gross spillage, and so forth
is probably less in total quantity than that from inefficient
application; it may be of even greater significance because
of the much higher concentrations involved. Almost noth-
ing is known at present about economically feasible and
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22
FEDERALLY FINANCED RESEARCH ON PESTS, PESTICIDES, AND PEST CONTROL
practical methods of destroying waste pesticides. Incenera-
tion, deep-well disposal, and controlled surface burial are
all probably technologically feasible in locations where
quantities justify sophisticated techniques, but additional
developmental research is needed to make them practi-
cable. Much more initiative and ingenuity is needed on ac-
ceptable methods of disposal for use in local areas with rel-
atively small volumes of waste. Concurrent development
of packaging methods that would reduce or eliminate such
wastes is also urgently needed. A third alternative is a prac-
tical method of decontaminating containers and spillage.
c. Additional research on methods for removing residues
from soil, water, and air could have a major effect on pro-
tecting the environment. Most current research along these
lines deals with protection of food crops from residues in
soil, of milk from residues in cattle, or of humans from res-
idues in air or water. Information on how residues could be
detoxified or removed from soil on a massive scale could
be important in the future.
4. Reduction in overall use of chemical pesticides. •
Historically, use of biological and cultural methods of
pest control commanded as much or more research effort
than chemical methods. The development of important
new chemicals during and immediately after World War II
resulted in an overwhelming reliance upon chemical pesti-
cides. Within only the past few years, development of pests
resistant to chemicals and an increasing awareness of other
undesirable side effects has resulted in renewed interests in
nonchemical techniques and concurrently in greatly in-
creased regulatory restrictions on chemical pesticides. In
fact the economic consequences of the restrictions and the
public pressure to reduce contamination have sharply re-
duced the development of new chemical pesticides. This,
coupled with the desire to reduce contamination of the en-
vironment, means that even greater efforts must be
devoted to research on nonchemical methods of control of
pests.
a. A number of new techniques of control need further
development. Perhaps the best publicized of these is the
sterilization of insects using either radiation or chemicals.
This, like various biological control methods, involves mass
rearing techniques and release over a wide area; therefore
they are not practical for individual users. Full exploita-
tion of these techniques will require expensive develop-
ment of large-scale production methods and a system of
application to large geographical areas as a unit.
b. Integration of a variety of control techniques into
pest population management is probably the most signifi-
cant pest-control challenge today to collaboration between
all elements of the research community concerned. Cur-
rently control of pests is directed chiefly at reducing pop-
ulations as low as is economically feasible. There is grow-
ing evidence that many pest populations can be more
efficiently managed with less ecological disturbance by
selecting a somewhat higher population level but one at
which the pest damage is acceptable. The determination of
this level will vary with each situation. It must be develop-
ed through the collaboration of social scientists as well as
biologists. Similarly the proper balance between the var-
ious methods of control can be determined only by col-
laborative efforts of a variety of specialists.
The development of such integrated control systems in-
volving all pests in a given area as well as all useful control
methods probably offers the best solution to reduction of
cost and hazard to man and the environment from damage
caused by the pests.
5. Need for control.
An essential part of an integrated program of scientific
pest-population management is a determination of the
population level at which pest damage is acceptable, or
conversely at what level further control is necessary. It is
perhaps significant that over 90 percent of the Federal
effort reported for research on evaluation of need for
control deals with health aspects. Much more research of a
planned and objective nature is needed, not only to guide
integrated population management efforts but to justify
the specific pests against which all types of control re-
search is directed.
6. Public understanding of pest-control policies.
It is not sufficient that scientists know that the use of a
pesticide in the control of a particular pest is in the best
public interest. An informed public is needed to accept the
cost of such efforts and the hazards to the environment
that may be justified. Moreover, a significant part of the
protection of the environment as well as individuals de-
pends upon the safe and proper use of pesticides and dis-
posal of wastes by the individual user. Few legal controls
on actual use are either practical or desirable; rather major
emphasis is properly placed on educational efforts. Yet
practically no Federal research effort has been devoted to
learning how the user gets his information and how he can
be influenced to accept good practices. Urgently needed is
sociological research to provide a guide not only to educa-
tional efforts but to effective methods of regulating, mar-
keting, and utilization of pesticides.
U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1968 O - 326-075
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