Research
and Monitoring
Cornerstone for
Environmental
ction
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I
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Y\7hat are the major pollutants that affect
the elements on which life itself depends?
Where do they come from?
What do they do to our health and well-
being? To the food chain? To plants, crops
and trees? To domestic animals and wildlife?
To fish and shellfish? To man-made materials?
What are the human, social and economic
costs of pollution?
How do we identify, measure and detect
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changes in pollutants in our environment?
How do we best control pollution?
What are the costs of poDution control?
What, in total, do we need to know if we
are to protect and enhance oar environment
and quality of fife? j;
These are some of the questions dealt with
each day by approximately 2,000 men and
women—the scientific sleuths—who staff the
Office of Research and Monitoring of the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA). From agronomists to zoologists, they
represent some 60 different scientific and pro-
fessional disciplines and specialties. Through
their own work and through grants and con-
tracts to universities, industry and nonprofit
organizations, they seek answers to the com-
plex problems of air and water pollution, solid
wastes, pesticides, radiation and noise.
Research and monitoring are not substitutes
for action, of course. EPA is first and fore-
most a regulatory agency, with responsibilities
for establishing and enforcing environmental
standards. But standards cannot be set and en-
forced without an effective scientific research
and monitoring program. If pollution cannot
be detected, identified and measured, it can-
not be controlled.
Effective action for environmental quality,
therefore, requires hard data on what goes
into the environment, its impact on human and
ecological health and pollution control tech-
niques. Research and monitoring thus con-
stitute die essential scientific foundation for
action to improve environmental quality.
Through its coordinated research and raoni-
scientific knowledge to meet human and en-
vironmental needs. To tfris end, EPA spends
about $165 million each year—»
* to expand and improve environmental
monitoring and surveillance so dial we can
better understand the condition of die environ-
ment today and be aware of changes, for better
or worse, tomorrow;
* to team die short and long-range effects
of pollution on humans and other life loons;
* to unravel the complicated interactions of
combined chemical, biological and physical
stresses and their effects on life;
• to speed die research, development and
use of new pollution control methods and
equipment;
• to stimulate research, development and
use of new techniques to recover valuable
resources from so-called "wastes" and pot diem
back into the production cycle;
* to speed research, development and use
of new nonpoHuting industrial methods;
• to evaluate technical and social changes
and their potential effects on environmental
quality; ***
* to improve our knowledge of what hap-
pens to pollutants in die environment—of how
tiiey move and might change in their journey
through die air, water and on die land;
* to gather die scientific evidence needed
to set new and strengthened environmental
quality standards.
EPA's diversified research programs axe
carried out dnxnigh four major faculties—the
National Environmental Research Centers
(NERCs) at Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina; Cincinnati, Ohio; Corvalfis, Oregon,
and Las Vegas, Nevada.
These four faculties bring together research
on a broad range of environmental problems.
They coordinate die work of EPA's 36 lab-
oratories in IS states, ranging from Alaska
to Florida and from Nevada to New Hamp-
shire. Supplementing these facilities are over
139 related resources including watercraft, air-
craft, field stations and monitoring sites.
EPA also works with other Federal agencies
which cany on environmental research and
monitoring activities. In some instances, joint
projects are undertaken. EPA also seeks to
consolidate and evaluate information devel-
oped throughout die scientific community,
pubUc and private, to obtain the best possible
scientific base for action to improve the en-
vironment. In addition, EPA cooperates and
exchanges findings with scientists is other na-
tions and in international organizations on
common and worldwide environmental re-
search and monitoring problems.
Has booklet describes some of EPA's re-
search and monitoring programs and some of
die pollution problems. We have already
teamed much about the complexities of pol-
lution, however, much more knowledge is
needed if we are to protect our environment
and at die same time meet our needs and
And while this booklet is necessarily brief
and only ondmes the scope of EPA's research
and monitoring projects, EPA welcomes in-
f HtOIC
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processes and effects
EPA researchers seek to identify pollutants
—including chemicals, biological materials,
radiation, noise and heat—that require investi-
gation. They investigate pollution sources. They
trace the movement of pollutants through the
environment. They study the effects of pol-
lutants on people, on other living organisms
and on materials. They establish scientific
foundations for environmental quality stand-
ards and regulations.
HEALTH EFFECTS
One of the prime study areas is the effects
of pollutants on health. Air pollution, for ex-
ample, is considered the greatest single en-
vironmental threat to the nation's health.
Consequently, a nationwide study of the effects
of air pollution on humans is underway—the
Community Health and Environmental Sur-
veillance Studies (CHESS). The first of its
kind, this study is comparing the health of
those who breathe polluted air with the health
of those who do not.
Thirty communities across the nation are
involved in the CHESS program. Some have
high sulfur and nitrogen oxides, paniculate
and photochemical pollution levels; others have
low levels. With the cooperation of 38,000
volunteers, and schools, hospitals and govern-
j ment officials, EPA researchers are seeking
b to determine how each pollutant affects an
g individual's health. Eventually, about 200,000
| volunteers will be involved.
Answers are being sought to such questions
as: what effect does long exposure to polluted
air have on school absenteeism? To what ex-
tent do high levels of air pollution increase
the frequency of acute and chronic respiratory
diseases? Do pollutants concentrate in specific
organs and cause them to malfunction? Does
the death rate rise and fall with pollution levels?
When implemented, EPA's national air qual-
ity standards will bring lower pollution levels
and very likely improved health. Data from
the CHESS program will permit measurement
of these improvements and will enable the
standards to be strengthened if necessary.
EPA researchers are also investigating pos-
HELP WANTED
What can the public do to help EPA
carry out its research and monitoring ac-
tivities? While opportunities vary from pro-
gram to program, as well as from time to
time, here are a few examples:
Volunteers are sometimes used to take
samples in monitoring programs. Volun-
teers willing to have their health checked
regularly are needed for research studies on
the affects of pollutants on human health.
Suggestions can be made for research
projects. Reports of spills of oil or other haz-
ardous materials are helpful. (And on a
negative note, please do not tamper with
automatic monitoring equipment should
you see it in your neighborhood.)
For further information, contact the
research and monitoring staff specialists at
the EPA regional office in your area or the
nearest EPA laboratory.
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sible environmental explanations for differences
in death rates in different geographic areas.
Data on drinking water quality and from the
CHESS program are being correlated with ill-
ness and death rates. More specific studies will
follow as leads develop.
Also under study are the effects of pesticides
on the general population and on
people exposed to those chemicals under
actual field conditions. Potentially hazardous
compounds are screened through toxicity tests
in animals.
Many approaches are used in research on
the effects of pollutants on health—laboratory
studies of animals and cell systems, clinical
studies of human and animal subjects and
epidemiological studies of population groups.
Health research includes measurements of pul-
monary, cardiovascular, behavioral, biochem-
ical and pathological effects of pollutants.
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
The ecological effects of pollution are also
being studied. What, for example, are the
factors in the complicated process of eutrophi-
cation or premature aging of whole lakes? Us-
ing mathematical models, EPA researchers sim-
ulate the pollution in a living body of water.
They vary the factors, seeking to identify cause-
and-effect relationships. Knowing that every
lake, stream and river has a different pollution
tolerance, depending on its physical, chemical
and- biological characteristics, researchers at-
tempt to determine which pollutant or pollu-
tants will tip the balance and bring on eutrophi-
Auto emissions
synthetically produced
in this photochemical tube
reactor are measured
by an infrared
spectra photometer
to determine specific
air pollutant
concentrations.
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cation in various kinds of water bodies.
With this information, planners will be able
to select the right site, the right size and the
right kind of waste water treatment plant to
take key pollutants out of the water.
In a related program, researchers use an
ecosystem simulator to examine the effects on
waterways of fertilizers, pesticides and runoff
from rural lands, from industrial, poultry and
animal processing plants and phosphate min-
ing. The simulator is an actual watershed in
which all variables—aeration, mineral content,
sunlight, temperature, turbidity, etc.—are con-
trolled, along with pollutant loads. The factors
are varied and the effects on the waterway,
including its fish and plant life, are determined.
The effects of thermal pollution on the en-
vironment are also being studied. This is a
problem of growing concern. As more and more
power plants come on the line, greater and
greater quantities of waste heat are being dis-
charged into waterways. To determine what
temperature standards should be set, EPA re-
searchers are investigating the impact of waste
heat on water bodies, on fish and other com-
ponents of the food chain and on atmospheric
conditions.
Ecological studies are also underway on the
effects of heavy metals, petrochemical wastes,
PCB's (Polychlorinated Biphenyls, a toxic and
persistent chemical produced in the making of
plastics, paints, caulking and heat transfer and
hydraulic fuels) and chlorination of municipal
and industrial waste water discharges.
Studies in atmospheric chemistry and physics,
as well as meteorological models, are being
pursued to predict the movement of pollutants
in the air.
MEANWHILE BACK AT THE RANCH
To get better understanding of the be-
havior of radioactive material in the en-
vironment and its effects on living things,
EPA maintains a herd of Hereford beef
cattle and an experimental dairy farm on
the Atomic Energy Commission's nuclear
test site in Nevada.
Five steers are surgically fitted to serve
as biological samplers of the forage grazed
by the herd as it ranges over the desert
test site. Big Sam is one of them. He has
a hole (fistula) in his stomach (rumen)
with a tube (cannula) in his left side. Once
a month a food sample in his stomach is
removed through the tube and tested for
radioactivity and botanical species. Changes
in composition are studied in relation to
seasonal changes and nuclear tests. Twice
a year, animals from the herd are slaught-
ered and tissue and organ samples taken,
analyzed for radionuclide content and sub-
jected to complete microscopic examination.
The dairy farm is used to study the
movement of radionuclides through the
environment to man. Cows and crops are
exposed to radiation. Then radionuclide
concentrations are measured in the forage,
in the milk and in the animal's organs. The
information is used to develop models to
predict exposure to man and to evaluate
the effectiveness of protective actions to
reduce the amount of radionuclides getting
into food materials under various contam-
inating conditions.
EPA's Dauphin Island Laboratory
RESEARCH FACILITIES
EPA's research programs are carried out
through four national research facilities—
the National Environmental Research Cen-
ters (NERCS). While each is engaged in a
variety of work on pollution, each has its
own theme. The NERC in Cincinnati,
Ohio, places special emphasis on research
and development of pollution control tech-
nology. At Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina, emphasis is on health effects of
environmental pollution. At Corvallis, Ore-
gon, the major effort is on ecological effects.
The Las Vegas, Nevada, facility serves as
the national environmental monitoring cen-
ter.
The four main facilities direct and co-
ordinate research at satellite laboratories
across the country, including labs at: Dau-
phin Island and Montgomery, Alabama;
College, Alaska; Gulf Breeze and Perrine,
Florida; Athens and Chamblee, Georgia;
Rockville, Maryland; Ann Arbor and Grosse
He, Michigan; Duluth, Minnesota; Edison,
New Jersey; Ada, Oklahoma; Narragansett
and West Kingston, Rhode Island; Bears
Bluff, South Carolina, and Gig Harbor,
Washington.
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technology
Determining the types
and concentrations of effluents
such as these which pollute waterways
are a top research priority.
In this division, the staff seeks to develop
and demonstrate techniques and methods of
preventing, controlling and abating pollution
from all sources. It strives to advance air and
water pollution control technology, to reduce
and manage solid wastes and to abate pesti-
cide, radiation and noise pollution.
WATER POLLUTION
A chief concern is the development of new
technology to handle municipal sewage. The
dimensions of the problem are huge. There are
approximately 13,000 sewer systems in the
nation. But they serve only about 63 percent
of our population. And while many commu-
nities have been installing and improving their
waste treatment systems, some 1,000 commu-
nities outgrow their sewage facilities each year.
As a result, the kitchen and bathroom wastes
generated by millions of Americans still flow
into our waters as raw or poorly-treated sew-
age. Moreover, it's predicted that municipal
sewage loads will increase nearly four-fold
over the next 50 years.
Research to cope with this problem includes
evaluation of biological, physical and chemical
techniques for treatment and disposal of liquid
wastes and sludges. Many of the techniques
studied have immediate application for pollu-
tion abatement and will eventually lead to wide-
spread reuse of water in areas where water
supplies are limited.
Methods are being developed to upgrade
existing treatment plants, to remove phosphorus
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from treatment plant discharges, to contain
and treat combined storm water—sewage over-
flows and discharges—and to regenerate rivers
and lakes.
Work is also being done to cope with water
pollution from industrial sources (estimated
to equal the pollution caused by 400 million
people), from agriculture (animal feedlot run-
offs, nutrients, pesticides and salts) and from
mining (an estimated four million tons of acids
drain from mines into 4,000 miles of streams
each year).
ABOUT THOSE PHOSPHATES
Phosphorus is identified as one of the
key factors in the disruption of the ecolog-
ical balance of streams, rivers and lakes.
Excess phosphorus stimulates the growth of
algae and other aquatic life forms and
causes them to grow in great profusion.
This, in turn, degrades water quality, pro-
duces objectionable odors and can limit
or kill off fish populations.
Research has produced new phosphorus
removal technology that can be applied at
existing waste water treatment plants. The
relatively simple process involves adding
chemicals which combine with the phos-
phorus and solids, causing them to settle
out of the waste water before it is dis-
charged into a body of water.
Result: cleaner water.
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AIR POLLUTION
With automobiles contributing nearly half of
all air pollution in the United States, EPA
research programs seek to stimulate develop-
ment of a virtually pollution-free power system
for automobiles. The objective is to clean up
the conventional internal combustion engine or
to develop alternative power systems. Research
CLEAN CAR R&D
The Clean Air Act requires sharp reduc-
tions in emissions of carbon monoxide, hy-
drocarbons and nitrogen oxides from 1975
and 1976 automobiles. To help stimulate
and speed development of a virtually pol-
lution-free automobile power system that
can meet those goals, EPA is conducting a
two-part advanced automotive power sys-
tems research and development program.
1. Work is being done on three systems
which offer the potential of early demonstra-
tion—a gas turbine system, a Rankine cycle
system, and a stratified charge system—un-
der research and development contracts.
2. Some 10 new and unique approaches
are being pursued through the clean car
incentive program. If a pilot car passes
stringent emission and performance tests,
EPA may lease the prototype for further
testing and then purchase copies of the
prototype for demonstration and fleet testing.
and development is also underway on new
technology to control air pollution from sta-
tionary sources, with major emphasis on re-
moving sulfur from power plant gases. Other
research projects seek to find ways of remov-
ing sulfur from coal before combustion.
Still other research projects focus on con-
trolling air pollution from coke ovens, sinter
plants, kraft pulping plants, iron foundries
and secondary aluminum furnaces.
SOLID WASTE
Technology researchers are working to de-
velop new and improved methods of solid
waste collection, transportation storage, pro-
cessing and disposal. They conduct experiments
to encourage recycling and resource recovery
from solid wastes. One approach being tested
involves mixing ordinary municipal solid waste
with coal to fuel an electric power generating
plant. Other projects include experiments to
improve sanitary landfill techniques, with em-
phasis on preventing ground and surface water
pollution and controlling gases created from
decomposing wastes.
OTHER PROJECTS
Research is being done on new concepts and
hardware for thermal pollution control, for
preventing and cleaning up spills of oil and
other hazardous materials, for controlling pol-
lution from small watercraft, for removing and
disposing of sludge from waste water treatment
plants and for removing heavy metals and
other toxic materials from waste water.
In Mississippi, a turnabout—automobiles are
used in highway construction. Above: Some
300 cars are shredded daily. The steel, remelted,
is fabricated into reinforcing rods and used
in highway construction.
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implementation
This division staff does research on how en-
vironmental protection measures can be imple-
mented. It studies alternative approaches to
environmental protection. It develops tech-
niques for selecting environmental standards
and for assessing both the benefits and costs
of achieving those standards. It weighs ecolog-
ical, environmental and human factors, as well
as technical and economic considerations.
Economic and systems analyses are used to
evaluate the costs of pollution-generating ac-
tivities and the benefits of different pollution
control methods. Fiscal solutions, more effec-
tive laws and economic incentives are studied.
This division also explores the direct impact
of human activities which degrade the environ-
ment in terms of social, physical and economic
costs. It explores the interactions of population
growth, economic growth and technological
change, seeking ways to avoid pollution from
these interactions.
The division plans a case study of the im-
pact of economic development. Using a spe-
cific region and working with governmental
and private groups, researchers will assess the
processes of economic growth and their impact
on the total environment over a period of time.
The case study will provide general guidelines.
Researchers also help review and comment
on the environmental impact statements which
Federal agencies are required to prepare under
the National Environmental Policy Act on any
proposed action which might significantly af-
fect the environment.
environmental studies
This division investigates the broad area of
man's impact on the total environment. It
looks at the total effects of environmental
policies. It seeks to project the future condi-
tion of the environment in our cities, metro-
politan areas and other regions under
alternative courses of action. The objective is
to enable EPA to move from a position of
reacting to environmental crises to anticipating
environmental problems and influencing neces-
sary actions.
These studies will assess the full impact of
pollution control efforts on both man and the
environment. They will seek to provide ad-
vance warning of new environmental problems
and to delineate areas of the country which
might become susceptible to either new or
existing forms of pollution.
To achieve these goals, the division plans
to create a network of study centers to focus
expertise from many sources on environmental
issues. The network will include a national
study center as well as several regional and
university centers.
This division will also use comprehensive
environmental models to evaluate the long-
range impact of pollution abatement strategies.
It will examine the forces that create growth
and change in the nation—transportation poli-
cies, tax policies, advertising, government
services, technology, environmental regulations.
It will determine the impact of various
possible changes in policy and technology on
institutions and it will investigate the social
and political implications of these changes.
It will seek to identify options, devices and
techniques available to policymakers to solve
environmental problems, as well as to develop
methods of measuring environmental, social and
economic quality.
In sum, the role of the Environmental Stud-
ies division is to provide advanced knowledge
of the full implications—ecological, social, eco-
nomic, political, etc.—of environmental im-
provement programs, or to put it another way,
it will determine the total impact of environ-
mental protection on people, on institutions
and on the environment.
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technology transfer
New breakthroughs in pollution control tech-
nology are of little value if they are not used.
Too often a gap persists between new tech-
nology development for pollution abatement
and its application. Closing this gap is the
mission of the Technology Transfer program.
The program grew out of the realization that
the great amount of technical information gen-
erated by EPA's own research, development
and demonstration projects, plus that developed
under EPA grants and contracts, was not reach-
ing local governments and industries as fast
as it should. Reports on new processes were
printed and made available. But no concerted
efforts were made to get the information out
to those who could put it to use.
The problem surfaced when a study of re-
quests for grants to help communities build
sewage treatment plants indicated that avail-
able, new technology was not being widely
used. To overcome this, the Technology Trans-
fer program was launched. First, potential users
of new sewage treatment technology were identi-
fied. Then regional educational seminars were
held in cooperation with professional organiza-
tions such as the Water Pollution Control
Federation, the American Society of Civil Engi-
neers and the Consulting Engineers Council,
stressing new, proven and available technology.
The Technology Transfer program brings
up-to-date information on the details and costs
of new waste treatment methods to these po-
tential users—engineers, city managers, local
government administrators and mayors, public
works directors, city councilmen, county com-
missioners—and to industry.
The program includes publication of basic
design manuals, practical compilations of the
latest technology for specific problems. Manuals
already have been issued on upgrading existing
waste water treatment plants, on phosphorus
removal, on suspended solids removal and on
activated carbon adsorption. Other manuals
are being prepared. A variety of other infor-
mational techniques, including films, brochures
and videotapes also are used. And specialists
in technology transfer serve on the staffs of
EPA's regional offices.
The program provides it's users information
they need to incorporate the best available
technology into their pollution control systems.
It helps them avoid putting money into sys-
tems which might soon become obsolete. And
it helps EPA, local communities and taxpayers
get maximum benefits from funds invested in
sewage treatment systems.
The Technology Transfer program has been
extended to help industries obtain the latest
available technical information on industrial
water pollution control. Similar communications
programs are planned to bridge the gap be-
tween developing and applying new technology
in other areas of pollution control.
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Restoring the cleanliness and
the beauty of the nation's
waterways demands broad
application of the best
technology available—a major
objective of the Technology
Transfer program.
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WHATS NEW
What is new in pollution control tech-
nology and techniques? What are the costs?
Which firms can plan, design, manufacture
and install the equipment?
Specialists in technology transfer in EPA's
Office of Research and Monitoring can help
State and local governments, industries and
the general public get the answers.
For information on specific problems,
contact the Technology Transfer Committee
Chairman at the EPA regional office in your
area, or write Technology Transfer, EPA
Office of Research and Monitoring, Wash-
ington, D.C. 20460.
TECHNICAL INFORMATION AVAILABLE
Literally hundreds of technical reports
are generated by EPA-sponsored research
and monitoring programs. These reports are
published and made available to the public,
generally through the U.S. Government
Printing Office.
To help get this information out to the
interested public, EPA issues bibliographies
of new technical reports from time to time.
Some examples:
A bibliography of research reports on
water pollution control is available, along
with other technical information, from
EPA's Office of Research and Monitoring.
A bibliography of research reports on air
pollution control is available from EPA's
Air Pollution Technical Information Center,
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
27711.
And projects in the solid waste field are
summarized in a publication available from
the Government Printing Office, Washing-
ton, D.C. 20402—it's titled Solid Waste
Management Demonstration Grant Projects,
1971 ($2.).
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_L/nvironmental monitoring is the difficult task
of measuring the status of environmental qual-
ity and the changes and trends in the environ-
ment. Monitoring is the key to effective
environmental protection programs. It requires
continual measurements of environmental char-
acteristics and timely interpretation of those
measurements. Accurate and reliable monitor-
ing data are essential in every step of pollution
control:
• to establish initial baselines from which
to measure changes;
• to identify pollution problems;
• to provide data needed to define and
establish standards;
• to provide data needed to evaluate pollu-
tion abatement programs results;
• to provide scientifically valid evidence
that will stand up in court should legal en-
forcement action be required,
• and to provide an early warning system
for unforeseen problems so they can be dealt
with before they reach a crisis stage.
Monitoring the nation's environmental quality
is the cooperative responsibility of Federal,
State and local agencies. Its main objectives
are to assess existing environmental conditions,
to identify trends, to evaluate compliance with
standards and to determine the interchange of
air, water and soil pollutants and humans and
other living organisms. Monitoring seeks to
determine our total exposure to pollutants.
To meet air and water quality standards,
pollution control equipment is being installed
and various environmental control plans are
being put into effect. But in the final analysis,
the effectiveness of our efforts to control pol-
lution can be determined only by measuring
actual improvements in environmental quality.
And this can be done only by monitoring the
environment.
EPA's monitoring programs are two-fold—
a national network of permanent monitoring
stations in urban and rural areas and special
studies. The national network, as yet only
partially in place, is intended to identify overall
environmental quality, regional and national
trends and problem areas. Where the network
does not provide information needed in spe-
cific situations, special studies are performed.
The national network and special studies will
give EPA the environmental quality informa-
tion it needs to carry out its responsibilities.
Monitoring pollution discharges at their
source is essential, of course. This is basically
the responsibility of State and local pollution
control agencies and of polluters themselves—
manufacturers, power plants, sewage treatment
plants, incinerators, etc.
A variety of monitoring activities was carried
out independently by the various environmental
protection programs which were brought to-
gether in EPA in late 1970. They are now
being integrated into a unified program for
total environmental assessment. When com-
pleted, expanded and improved, EPA's en-
vironmental monitoring systems will provide,
for the first time, a comprehensive assessment
of environmental quality.
Meanwhile, here are the major components
of the nation's environmental monitoring sys-
tems at the present time.
12
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AIR POLLUTION
There are some 3,300 air quality measuring
stations in the United States. State and local
agencies operate about 3,000 of them, EPA
the remainder. A few EPA stations are equipped
with automatic instruments which continuously
monitor up to 10 pollutants. Some stations
continuously telemeter data to a central loca-
tion, but most use simple devices for periodic
sampling.
Most sampling is done on an intermittent
basis—usually over a 24-hour period at two-
week intervals. Two air pollutants—sulfur di-
oxide and particulates—are monitored on an
extended geographical basis.
Under the Continuous Air Monitoring Pro-
gram (CAMP), six stations with highly so-
phisticated equipment continuously monitor for
particulates, total oxidants, total hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen di-
oxide and nitric oxide.
In addition, air pollutants dissolved in rain-
water are monitored at 16 sites. Airborne
mercury is monitored at 53 sites. Monitoring
for airborne radioactive particles and radioac-
tive contamination of rainwater is done at 73
sites, with continuous daily sampling. And air-
borne pesticides are monitored at 12 sites.
EPA expects to expand this program to 40-60
sites as analysis methods are more fully de-
veloped.
In all, approximately 40 air pollutants—
particles, gases and liquids—are measured rou-
tinely. As States and cities expand their moni-
toring of the more common air pollutants,
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EPA's role will be redirected to coordinate
these efforts and to monitor for new and non-
routine air pollutants.
A major problem is developing techniques
for monitoring new pollutants. For example,
techniques do not yet exist to accurately meas-
ure asbestos in the air. Another major need is
to develop methods of monitoring air pollutants
in the upper atmosphere. Little data is cur-
rently available on this potential problem.
In the special studies category, EPA has
helped States obtain information they need to
plan air pollution control programs. EPA has
done this by monitoring for carbon monoxide
and photochemical oxidants hi some 40 major
cities, by measuring air quality on and near
major highways, within buildings adjacent to
expressways and at airports.
Data collecting is only the first step in moni-
toring. Information has to be stored and an-
alyzed to be of use to EPA and State and local
agencies. To meet this need, EPA recently
established the National Aerometric Data In-
formation System (NADIS). Air quality data
previously collected have been put into the
computerized system, new data are routinely
added so that information can be drawn upon
as needed for pollution control.
WATCHING FOR EMERGENCIES
One of EPA's monitoring functions is to
guard aaginst air pollution "episodes"—
periods when adverse weather conditions,
usually low winds and a temperature inver-
sion, produce stagnant air and permit ab-
normally high concentrations of pollutants
to build up in the air, creating a threat to
public health.
EPA's Emergency Operations Control
Center at Durham, North Carolina, main-
tains a continuous nationwide watch of
meteorological and air quality conditions.
Air quality reports flow into the control
center each day from a national network
of Federal, State and local air pollution
monitoring stations. Weather reports are
reported to the center from the National
Weather Service's (NWS) nationwide sur-
veillance system.
If an "air stagnation advisory" is issued
by the NWS, or if air quality reports show
an increase in pollution levels, the control
center puts EPA's episode procedures into
effect. EPA analyzes actions taken by State
and local control authorities during the po-
tential and actual air pollution episodes,
steps up pollution monitoring, provides ad-
vice and assistance—and, if necessary, in-
stitutes direct Federal action, including
seeking court injunctions against polluters,
to prevent emergency pollution levels from
developing.
An airborne smog research laboratory,
this aircraft is equipped with
sensitive monitoring equipment.
Leaving an EPA laboratory,
staff members will take water and
bottom mud samplings of Mobile Bay.
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WATER POLLUTION
The nation's water quality monitoring sys-
tem includes about 900 Federally-funded stream
and open water stations. Sixty are equipped
with automatic monitors. From 10 to 30 pol-
lutants are routinely measured at each station.
These include undissolved solids, temperature,
odor, sediment, oil, heavy metals, acids, bases,
nutrients and pesticides. The sampling fre-
quency varies from once a year to continuous.
Short-term water quality monitoring is also
performed. Over 5,000 locations are sampled
for periods ranging from several days to several
months each year. Data obtained are used to
support enforcement actions, to develop mathe-
matical models for water quality research, to
support research on the fate of pollutants and
to assess the effectiveness of pollution control
practices.
In addition, there are some 1,000 long-term
and 5,000 short-term water monitoring sta-
tions operated by the states. Data collected
are put, with EPA's own data, into EPA's
computerized water data storage and retrieval
system (STORET).
EPA considers the present water quality
monitoring system inadequate. By 1976, it in-
tends to increase the number of stream-miles
covered from 44,000 to 100,000; the miles
of Great Lakes shoreline covered from 5,000
to 60,000, and the miles of coastlines and
estuaries covered from 4,000 to 12,000.
EPA also plans to develop a more extensive
network of mobile laboratories to perform de-
tailed chemical analyses of all major water
bodies at least once every year or two.
Better monitoring of public drinking water
supplies is also needed. While public water
supplies are generally treated to kill harmful
bacteria and routinely tested for bacteria, there
is growing concern about viruses in drinking
water. Many types of viruses are believed to
cause inflammation of the stomach or intestines,
hepatitis, diabetes or heart trouble. A major
problem is the difficulty of isolating viruses in
low concentrations. This potentially serious
public health hazard requires greater atten-
tion, for growing population and water short-
ages are leading to increasing reuse of water.
Also needed is greater monitoring of radio-
active wastes in water and of water tempera-
ture changes at power plants, which generate
large amounts of waste heat along with elec-
tricity. And EPA is also seeking better methods
of detecting low levels of mercury in water
causing unacceptable concentrations in fish.
PESTICIDES
In addition to monitoring air and water for
pesticides, EPA samples soils—crop lands and
non-crop lands—for pesticide levels. Some
3,000 soil samples are tested annually. Fish and
shellfish samples are collected at over 300 lo-
cations and analyzed for pesticides. And pesti-
cide monitoring also includes routine collection
and analyses of human tissue and food.
RADIATION
The radiation monitoring program includes
collection of air, water, rain, milk, human bone
and food samples for analyses for radioactive
nuclides—plutonium, strontium, cesium, triti-
um, etc. The radiation monitoring stations are
15
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PEOPLE AT WORK
A wide range of talents is represented
among the 2,000 men and women who
carry out EPA's research and monitoring
programs. They include:
From the biological and health sciences
—agronomists, aquatic biologists, biochem-
ists, biologists, biophysicists, botanists,
cardiologists, cytogeneticists, ecologists,
epidemiologists, fishery biologists, foresters,
geneticists, histopathologists, horticulturists,
limnologists, marine biologists, microbiolo-
gists, molecular geneticists, oceanographers,
pathologists, pharmacists, pharmacologists,
physicians, plant pathologists, radiologists,
radiation biologists, soil scientists, veteri-
narians, virologists, zoologists.
From the physical, engineering, mathe-
matical and computer sciences—chemists,
computer scientists, computer programmers,
computer systems analysts, data processors,
engineers (agricultural, chemical, civil,
electronic, electrical, environmental, indus-
trial, marine, materials, mechanical, min-
ing, sanitary), geologists, hydrologists,
mathematicians, meteorologists, operations
researchers, physicists, statisticians, systems
analysts.
From the social and behavioral sciences
—anthropologists, economists, market an-
alysists, psychologists, sociologists, urban
planners.
Others—accountants, editors, electricians,
glassblowers, machinists, management spe-
cialists, technicians, woodworkers, writers.
nationwide in scope and serve as an alert
system to trigger in-depth studies. EPA also
monitors underground nuclear tests, using both
land stations and aircraft to take samples.
In total, radiation monitoring is done at 180
air sampling stations, 200 water sampling sta-
tions and nearly 100 milk sampling stations.
This system is being expanded as more nuclear
power plants go into operation, and EPA is
seeking to improve monitoring in order to
better compute the total radiation dosage to
which people are exposed. EPA is also in-
vestigating the need for monitoring radiation
from radar, television and radio equipment, and
aircraft gear (non-ionizing radiation, as distinct
from the ionizing radiation from plutonium,
strontium, etc.).
NOISE
A national monitoring program for assess-
ing noise levels and trends does not yet exist.
Long-term monitoring stations are needed in
representative urban and rural areas to estab-
lish baseline information on the range of noise
levels normally encountered across the nation
and to show trends. Special studies are under-
way to identify and characterize specific noise
sources and to develop low cost, reliable de-
vices for measuring and recording noise from
various sources.
SOLID WASTES
Better management of the nation's mounting
piles of solid waste requires "monitoring" of
a different sort. This includes iden-
tifying the locations of open dumps.
Standard methods of determining the amount
and make-up of solid wastes—how much paper,
glass, aluminum, tin, steel, plastics, etc.—have
to be developed. Existing methods of collect-
ing, transporting, processing and disposing of
solid wastes have to be analyzed and new
methods must be developed. EPA is gathering
this and other information as part of a na-
tional data network to improve solid waste
management.
Whatever the pollutant being monitored,
monitoring data must be reliable and legally
defensible. This requires standardized meas-
urement and calibration procedures, an inter-
laboratory quality control program, a laboratory
performance certification program and a stand-
ardized laboratory record-keeping procedure.
Standardization and quality controls programs
were in different stages of development in vari-
ous environmental monitoring programs at the
time EPA was established. These programs
have been continued, and new emphasis has
been placed on integrating them into a total
EPA monitoring system.
EPA is also seeking to develop and adapt
advanced monitoring techniques, such as aerial
surveillance and remote sensing. Long used to
monitor radiation, aerial surveillance is now
being extended to watch for spills of oil and
other hazardous substances. Aerial photography
is used to study coastal areas, to determine
the chlorophyll content of lakes, to locate
phosphates and nitrates in water bodies and to
study oil shale tracts.
EPA's monitoring program in brief is de-
signed to provide, in-time, comprehensive in-
formation on the condition of the environment.
16
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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
Regional Offices
Boston, Mass. 02203
New York, N.Y. 10007
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106
Atlanta, Ga. 30309
Chicago, III. 60606
Dallas, Texas 75202
Kansas City, Mo. 64106
Denver, Colo. 80203
San Francisco, Calif.
94102
Seattle, Wash. 98101
States covered
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts.
New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico,
Virgin Islands
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania,
Virginia, West Virginia, D.C.
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, North Carolina, South
Carolina, Tennessee
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota,
Ohio, Wisconsin
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota,
South Dakota, Utah, Wyoming
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada,
American Samoa, Guam, Trust Terri-
tories of Pacific Islands, Wake Island
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
Aerial monitoring
with infrared photography helps detect
changes in the Colorado River.
October 1972
•{I U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:1972 O—470-874
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printin
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 50 cents
Stock Number 5500-0073
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