United States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
EPA
Protecting Our
Environment
March 1977
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introduction
When the United States Environmental
Protection Agency was created in 1970, it
was directed to clean up and to prevent the
pollution which threatens human health
and disfigures our land.
In the early 1970's, several important laws
were enacted by the United States Congress
and entrusted to EPA for administration.
Public opinion polls repeatedly showed that
a sizable majority of Americans strongly
favored this commitment toward cleaning
up the air, water, and land. The public had
very real cause for concern, for by the late
1960's, lakes and waterways of our country
had become choked with sewage, waste, and
other forms of pollution. The air in
urban centers was continually fouled with
suspended dirt and poisons. The rate of lung
ailments increased noticeably. Quantities
of the residue of DDT and other pesticides
were being discovered in tissue samples from
wildlife and even human beings.
Empty cans, the carcasses of automobiles,
and other forms of trash littered the land-
scape. Concern was being expressed about
potential problems associated with the use
of radioactive materials. The levels of noise
from highways and airports were, quite liter-
ally, deafening.
There was some skepticism about how the
formation of one agency—and a small one
by Wash:ngton standards—could make a
dent in countering the ecological problems
of an entire Nation.
Certainly EPA could not have begun to do
the job on its own. But the Agency was not
alone. State and local governments, citizens'
organizations, and countless private
individuals—many of whom have been
working on pollution control for years—
are working with the Agency. EPA has
always emphasized the point that positive
environmental action demands public
support and participation. And time has
showed that these mutual efforts have paid
off.
Between 1970 and 1975, EPA committed
almost SI 1 billion in grants to States and
communities for construction of waste
water treatment plants. During the same
period the Agency took well over 6,000
enforcement actions against violators of
air, water, and pesticide laws.
As a result of rigorous enforcement of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, current
standards for two major auto-produced
pollutants—carbon monoxide and hydro-
carbons—require a reduction of nearly
85 percent from pre-1968 car emissions.
Regulatory actions which led to the
diminished use of persistent pesticides, such
as DDT, have resulted in a significantly
lower level of these pesticides being detected
in human tissues.
By 1980, approximately 25 major American
cities will be involved in some form of
resource recovery from municipal trash.
Federal standards and guidelines are being
established to protect citizens from un-
necessary exposure to radiation.
EPA has set noise standards for new me-
dium and heavy duty trucks and portable air
compressors, and is developing regulations
for new buses, loaders and dozers, motor-
cycles, garbage compactors, and truck
refrigeration units.
Through the municipal construction grant
program for waste water treatment, and
the water discharge permit program, as
well as industrial water pollution control
measures, many of our rivers and lakes are
becoming cleaner, including one of the most
threatened waterways, Lake Erie.
The growing problems of ocean spills and
dumping have become matters of special
concern. The Marine Protection, Research,
and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 authorized
EPA to regulate ocean waste disposal and
accordingly the Agency has carried out a
permit program to limit the kinds and
amounts of wastes that can be dumped. The
need for improved international cooperation
to protect the oceans from oil and other
pollution hazards is recognized, as demon-
strated by the Ocean Dumping Convention
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adopted at London in 1972, and the 1973
London Convention for the Prevention of
Pollution from Ships, among other such
efforts.
The first steps toward protecting human
health by achieving a cleaner environment
have been fruitful. Americans are learning
how to use modern technology for the serv-
ice of civilization. A deeper respect is being
developed for the nature of the biosphere—
the Earth's thin layer of land, water, and air
on which life depends. The belief that indus-
try cannot endure the restrictions of environ-
mental controls has been successfully
dispelled. The clean-up of the past half-
century's excesses is underway. But much
work remains to be done.
The air quality of metropolitan areas is still
unsatisfactory. Many waterways must be
made cleaner and protected. And the Nation
must constantly be on the lookout for
dangerous new materials entering the
environment.
The challenges of the future like those of the
past, cannot be met without the help of
Americans willing to defend the environ-
ment—for themselves, for their children,
and for the health and welfare of future
generations.
This booklet describes how EPA is orga-
nized to protect and enhance the environ-
ment, and outlines both the progress made
to date by the Agency and the challenges
still ahead.
Contents
Structure and Purpose 1
Air 7
Water 11
Solid Waste 15
Toxic Substances 19
Pesticides - 20
Radiation 23
Noise 24
The Costs of Pollution Control 26
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United States
Environmental
Protection
Agency
Structure
and Purpose
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
was established December 2, 1970, as the
result of a Presidential Order. The action re-
flected a public commitment to the control
and abatement of pollution. For the first
time, 15 environmental control programs,
formerly scattered through the Federal gov-
ernment, were unified in a single, independ-
ent agency.
EPA is charged with the basic mission of
mounting an integrated, coordinated attack
on the environmental problems of air and
water pollution, solid waste management,
pesticides, radiation, and noise.
Above all else, EPA is a regulatory agency
with responsibilities for the establishment
and enforcement of environmental standards
as specified in statutes enacted by Congress.
To ensure that the Agency is responsive to
environmental problems throughout the
country, Regional Offices are located in ten
major cities. Each Regional Office is staffed
by pollution-control specialists and headed
by a Regional Administrator with broad
authority to act for EPA in matters within
that Region's jurisdiction.
On New Year's Day, 1970, nearly a year
before the creation of EPA, the will of the
American people regarding the need for
ecological controls was formally expressed
when the National Environmental Policy
Act was signed by the President, thereby
establishing a national priority to "maintain
conditions under which man and nature can
exist in productive harmony."
Since then, new environmental laws have
been passed at every level of American gov-
ernment, demonstrating a pervasive concern
for protection of human health and life-
sustaining ecosystems.
EPA is responsible for administering Fed-
eral laws on environmental control. It helps
to protect the environment in a number of
ways:
Standard Setting
and Enforcement
The key to sensible environmental control
lies in the determination of what changes
in our environment are tolerable or useful
and what changes must be limited because
they are harmful. Such decisions must be
based on sound technical information, as
well as a keen regard for the interests of our
people.
Recognizing this, Congress has passed
several laws requiring EPA to define the
levels which certain environmental pollutants
must not exceed. EPA has developed three
separate but inter-related processes in
connection with this mandate. These include
determining specific environmental levels
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for several pollutants, enforcement activities,
and diversified monitoring programs main-
tained by State and local governments.
Standard Setting EPA is charged with the
responsibility of ensuring that those
standards it does set will be sufficient to
protect the public health and welfare,
whether they involve restricting pesticide
use or setting emission levels for automo-
biles. State and local governments may
develop additional controls or programs for
various reasons, but EPA's direct responsi-
bilities are restricted to protecting health
and welfare.
Enforcement Programs EPA's philosophy
has been to encourage voluntary compliance
by private industry and communities or to
encourage State and local governments to
perform whatever enforcement activities
are needed to meet EPA standards. If these
agencies fail to produce effective plans for
pollution abatement or if they don't enforce
the programs they do develop, EPA must
do so under enforcement provisions con-
tained in most of the major environmental
laws passed by Congress.
Monitoring Programs Several kinds of
monitoring processes and activities exist
within EPA. Some are broadly based
monitoring programs that determine
whether pollution levels and emissions are
increasing or declining. Others determine if
the various abatement programs developed
by EPA and State and local governments
are as effective as they should be.
Research
and Development
Effective environmental action as directed
by Federal legislation requires precise> tech-
nical data on possible threats to health and
the environment posed by the various sub-
stances which are introduced into the bio-
sphere. The research and development arm
of EPA supports the Agency's primary func-
tions of developing and enforcing appropri-
ate regulations and standards by providing
such data.
EPA's research program is authorized under
various major Congressional acts. This
legislation allots more than one-fifth of the
Agency's operating budget for scientific
study. These funds support the activities of
a technical and support staff who work at
EPA's Washington headquarters, in 15
major laboratories and in a number of
smaller field stations, and those in research
programs carried on outside of EPA through
grants and contracts with academic, re-
search, and industrial communities, and
through cooperative agreements with other
Federal, State, and local agencies.
The research and development program
centers on four principal areas. The Office
of Monitoring and Technical Support is
responsible for: (a) developing reference or
standard environmental measurement and
monitoring equipment, techniques, and
systems; (b) developing Agency-wide quality
assurance programs; (c) disseminating
scientific and technical knowledge; and (d)
providing technical support, including
monitoring and analytical support, to the
Agency. The Office of Health and Ecological
Effects studies the implications of varying
types and levels of pollution on human
health and the environment. The Office of
Energy, Minerals, and Industry is respon-
sible for assessing, developing, and demon-
strating pollution control technology to
mining and industrial activities. This Office
also plans and administers a comprehensive
Federal energy and environmental research,
development, and demonstration program.
The Office of Air, Land, and Water Use is
responsible for planning a comprehensive
research program on water supply and on
municipal wastes, including wastewater, and
solid and hazardous waste management.
This office also is responsible for research
on: the transportation and disposition of
pollutants in the environment; areawide
environmental management; and pollution
from non-point sources such as urban run-
off and agricultural and forestry activities.
Here are some examples of projects being
conducted by EPA's Office of Research and
Development:
• Investigation of the relationship between
human health effects and exposure to combi-
nations of pollutants reaching man primarily
in air. Findings from such work will be
directly related to evaluating existing
standards and the need for new ones.
• An assessment of the incidence of illness
in bathers at relatively clean and relatively
polluted beaches is being conducted to
determine how illness can be correlated to
the water quality. The information gained
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from the research will be used to help
develop health criteria for recreational
water quality.
• EPA's Advanced Waste Treatment
Program in Cincinnati is investigating new
methods of purifying waste water. This
research eventually may lead to the reuse of
water, not only for industrial purposes but
also for domestic use. Methods of sewage
sludge disposal and use also are being
investigated.
• The Regional Air Pollution Study
(RAPS) in St. Louis is the largest, most
complex air pollution study ever made. EPA
laboratories are attempting to develop more
precise predictive models of pollutant
formation and transport so that air pollutant
effects can be linked with sources and thus
better pollution controls can be devised.
• EPA has been developing and demon-
strating flue gas desulfurization technology,
including the device commonly known as
the stack gas "scrubber." Scrubbers can
be used to control sulfur dioxide and particu-
late matter from coal-fired electric power
plants.
• Technical and scientific findings are
published and distributed to help advance
the total body of scientific knowledge on
pollution effects, pollution control technolo-
gies, and monitoring methods.
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EPA's "Technology Transfer" program has
the objective of helping to avoid a large
national investment in obsolete pollution
control technologies. The program is de-
signed to bridge the gap between research
and development and the general use of new
or improved technologies.
Financial and
Technical Assistance
By providing financial and technical assist-
ance to State, regional, and local juris-
dictions, EPA serves as a catalyst for
environmental protection efforts at all
levels of government. EPA grants Federal
funds for the construction and operation of
various types of facilities to reduce pollution.
It also demonstrates new pollution control
technology.
EPA's ten Regional Offices provide
assistance to State and local authorities,
industries, and citizens to help them solve
environmental problems.
Manpower
and General Education
EPA provides training both in its own
facilities and in universities and other educa-
tional institutions to help develop the highly
skilled manpower needed to combat
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environmental problems. Fellowships are
available to qualified students.
EPA also distributes to the public environ-
mental information bearing on subjects
ranging from drinking water quality to
environmental projects for youth.
The Sharing of
Domestic Responsibilities
EPA is by no means the sole governmental
body involved in environmental protection.
First of all, it shares many of its enforcement
authorities with the States, in accordance
with the principles and procedures estab-
lished by the Congress in the legislation
governing EPA's activities.
Moreover, other agencies of the Federal
government conduct activities that directly
affect environmental quality in areas outside
of EPA's purview. The Council on Environ-
mental Quality, for example, coordinates
environmental matters at the Federal level
and serves as the President's principal
advisor in such matters. The National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
researches long-range global trends affecting
the oceans and the atmosphere. The Depart-
ment of Transportation is concerned with
highways, railroads, and air transport. The
Department of the Interior administers
public lands and natural resources. The
Federal Energy Administration and the
Energy Research and Development Admin-
istration are responsible for coordinating
and managing a national energy policy. The
Departments of Housing and Urban Devel-
opment, Defense, Agriculture, and Health,
Education and Welfare all carry out activi-
ties which affect the environment.
Under the National Environmental Policy
Act, all departments of the Federal govern-
ment are required to take into account and
evaluate the environmental impact of their
activities. These evaluations, called
Environmental Impact Statements, are
subjected to careful scrutiny before any
planned programs are implemented.
The Sharing of
International Responsibilities
Since the environmental problem is world-
wide, EPA is involved in a number of inter-
national enterprises. Representatives of
EPA and other Federal agencies have
participated in major international con-
ferences on pollution control, ecological
research, and food supply. Work is under-
way with the Soviet Union on some 40
projects regarding air and water contamina-
tion, disposal of agricultural wastes, urban
design, housing, wildlife preserves, and
parks. The Japanese government and EPA
exchange information on wastewater treat-
ment, air pollutants, solid waste manage-
ment, and other topics. EPA exchanges a
broad range of scientific data with West
Germany, Canada, Mexico, and 50 other
countries.
Multilaterally, EPA analyzes air and water
pollution with the NATO Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society; ocean con-
tamination facts with the Intergovernmental
Maritime Consultative Organization; and
standard-setting information with the
Organization for Economic Cooperation
and Development. The Agency works with
such United Nations offices as the World
Health Organization and the UN Environ-
mental Program to speed up technology
exchanges on a global scale.
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Air
The average person breathes 35 pounds of
air each day—six times as much as the food
and drink normally consumed in the same
period of time.
However, by 1970 over 200 million tons of
waste products were being released into the
air annually. Slightly over half of the pollu-
tion came from the internal-combustion
engines of cars and other motor vehicles.
Roughly 22 percent came from fuel burned
at stationary sources such as power generat-
ing plants, and another 15 percent was
emitted from industrial processes.
Air pollution is associated with the increas-
ing number of cases of emphysema, bronchi-
tis, asthma, lung cancer and numerous other
respiratory disorders, with diseases of the
heart, and with certain incidences of im-
paired mental performance. Illness caused
or aggravated by air pollution costs the
American people an estimated $4.6 billion
yearly in medical treatment, lost wages, and
reduced productivity.
Air pollution also corrodes buildings, da-
mages personal property, and harms forests
and crops, causing an additional $12.3 bil-
lion in destruction and decay each year.
The Federal air pollution control effort be-
gan modestly in 1955 when the U.S. Public
Health Service implemented an air pollution
research program and offered technical
assistance to State and local governments
concerned about the problem. Congress
stepped up the tempo in 1963 with the Clean
Air Act, providing for Federal-State action
to cut down on industrial smokestack gases.
In 1965, the first set of amendments to the
Clean Air Act gave the Federal government
authority to reduce motor vehicle emissions.
The Air Quality Act of 1967 called for a new
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air quality management approach to the
problem. The Federal government desig-
nated air quality regions with problems and
published information on the effects of air
pollutants on health and welfare, and on
control techniques for air pollutants. The
States were then obliged to develop air
quality standards and plans for implement-
ing those standards in the designated re-
gions. Perhaps more significantly, the 1967
legislation paved the way for enactment of
the historic Clean Air Act Amendments of
1970.
Under these Amendments, EPA has estab-
lished national air quality standards which
specify maximum allowable levels for the
major pollutants. These pollutants include
sulfur oxides, paniculate matter (such as
dust, smoke, and fly ash), carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides. Another
major pollutant, formed when nitrogen
oxides combine with hydrocarbons in the
presence of sunlight, is called smog—the
eye-stinging haze which hangs over most
major American cities. The technical name
for smog is photochemical oxidants.
The Amendments further required that the
States, in order to meet the national stan-
dards set by EPA, develop detailed plans to
control air pollution coming from such
sources as automobile traffic, manufactur-
ing plants, and power plants. The Amend-
ments directed that hearings be held, allow-
ing citizens to participate in the formulation
of such control plans.
The standards which EPA set for new cars
beginning with 1975 models required auto
emission reductions of 83 percent from
models produced before 1968, insofar as un-
burned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide
are concerned but only about 11 percent
with respect to oxides of nitrogen emissions.
A reduction of 43 percent in nitrogen oxide
emissions was planned for 1977.
EPA also establishes performance standards
limiting pollution emissions from new or
substantially modified plants in certain in-
dustries and requires these plants to use the
best pollution control equipment and pro-
cedures available. Standards have been set
for fossil-fuel powered electric generators,
cement plants, oil refineries, steel mills, and
a number of other industrial operations.
EPA also regulates such extremely hazard-
ous air pollutants as asbestos, beryllium,
mercury, and vinyl chloride.
Before the States and EPA develop specific
programs to achieve clean air standards,
they conduct extensive technical research
and monitoring to determine the levels of air
pollution that exist in each area. While the
standards for all areas of the country are
uniformly established by Congress to pro-
tect health and welfare, specific strategies
for individual States and localities must de-
pend on existing and projected levels of air
pollution. The more severe the levels of
pollution are, the more stringent the pollu-
tion abatement programs will be to achieve
the standards. Hundreds of monitoring sta-
tions around the country continually sample
the air and analyze its quality as a basis for
establishing these specific pollution reduc-
tion programs.
Air quality in the United States is now show-
ing definite signs of improvement. Nation-
ally, sulfur dioxide concentrations have been
reduced by roughly 30 percent since 1970.
The national average for particulate matter,
such as dust and soot, has dropped about 17
percent in that same time, and this down-
ward trend is continuing. Carbon monoxide
levels have decreased by roughly 10 percent
and modest reductions in hydrocarbons have
also been recorded.
Although pollution levels are being reduced,
it will take the combined efforts of industry,
government at all levels, and individual
citizens to restore the quality of the air we
breathe.
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Highlights of the Clean Air Amendments of 1970
• EPA is required to protect the public
health and general welfare by establishing
national air quality standards for all impor-
tant air pollutants. Standards have already
been set for six principal pollutants: particu-
late matter, sulfur oxides, hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, photochemical oxidants
and nitrogen oxides. In addition, EPA is
required to set limits on the level of air pol-
lutants emitted from such stationary sources
as new power plants, municipal inciner-
ators, factories, and chemical plants. EPA
is also required to establish emission stan-
dards for new motor vehicles, as well as for
hazardous air pollutants such as beryllium,
mercury, and asbestos. Vinyl chloride was
recently added to the list of hazardous air
pollutants.
• The States are charged with the responsi-
bility for developing and implementing
specific programs for achieving the clean air
standards set by EPA. Detailed State imple-
mentation plans must be submitted to EPA
demonstrating how the standards will be
achieved and maintained. Should any State
fail to adopt and implement such a plan,
EPA is authorized to do so on its behalf.
• EPA is required to conduct extensive re-
search into all aspects of air pollution, in-
cluding health effects.
• Citizens are specifically authorized to
take necessary legal actions against private
or governmental officials failing to meet the
provisions of this law.
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Highlights of the Federal Water Pollu
Control Act Amendments of 1972
• No discharge of any pollutant into navigable
waters is allowed without a permit. EPA, or States
with an existing program, when delegated author-
ity, may issue such permits.
• The dumping of any radioactive waste into the
Nation's waters is prohibited.
• EPA is authorized to issue construction grants
to aid municipalities in building waste water treat-
ment plants; issue grants to assist States in area-
wide waste treatment management planning; and
make loans to small businesses to help them
achieve water pollution control requirements.
• EPA is required to conduct extensive research
on all aspects of water pollution.
• Public participation in the development and
enforcement of water pollution control regulations
is encouraged. Furthermore, any citizen has the
right to take legal action against a water polluter.
. .. and the Safe Drinking Water Act
of 1974
• EPA is responsible for setting minimum na-
tional drinking water regulations to ensure that
drinking water is safe.
• Each State can assume primary enforcement
authority over the regulations. If a State does not
have primary enforcement authority, EPA will
have that authority.
• EPA also is authorized to conduct research on
the health aspects of drinking water and to assist
the States in improving the quality of drinking
water.
• A 15-member advisory council, composed of
representatives from State, local, and private orga-
nizations, will advise EPA on matters of drinking
water administration.
* Any citizen may bring civil action against any
public water system or Federal agency (including
EPA) in violation of the regulations.
• When water suppliers are in violation of the
regulations, they must notify their users and the
media.
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Water
MP
r or centuries, natural processes have helped
to keep many lakes and rivers clean. Eutro-
phication—the natural aging of lakes—
causes some deterioration of water over geo-
logic periods of time, but this cannot com-
pare with man-made pollution, which has
placed more of a strain on many of our
waterways than nature can accommodate.
By the early 1970's, pollution had made
many of our rivers, estuaries, and lakes unfit
for recreation, and adjacent wetlands were
being choked with silt or ruined by chemical
effluents. Analyses of drinking water re-
vealed signs of potentially dangerous con-
tamination in many parts of the country.
Even the vast oceans are jeopardized, by the
wastes that eventually reached them through
the rivers, by oil spills, and the dumping of
wastes and hazardous materials. Three bil-
lion tons of oil are transported annually on
the high seas, and accidental spills have in-
creased. Bilge pumping by ships also releases
quantities of oil into the seas.
Prior to 1948, the main thrust of the Federal
water pollution control program was to
ensure unhampered navigation and prevent
the spread of communicable disease. In
1948, clean water efforts were first launched
on a trial basis as Congress authorized funds
for research. State and local planning, and
manpower training. A permanent program
was initiated under the Water Pollution
Control Act of 1956.
In 1965 the water pollution control program
was strengthened by legislation which called
for establishment of water quality standards
and implementation plans for cleanup of all
interstate and coastal waters. The Clean
II
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Water Restoration Act of 1966 provided
more Federal money for building treatment
facilities. The Water Quality Improvement
Act of 1970 prohibits the discharge of harm-
ful quantities of oil or hazardous materials
into navigable U.S. waters from any source,
including vessels, onshore refineries, and off-
shore drilling platforms. Operators are liable
for cleanup costs and are subject to heavy
fines. EPA cooperates with the U.S. Coast
Guard in enforcement and assists in the
cleanup of oil spills.
In addition, the Marine Protection, Re-
search, and Sanctuaries Act of 1972 author-
izes EPA to regulate the dumping of indus-
trial and municipal wastes at sea.
The far-reaching Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 include
strict deadlines for cleaning up the Nation's
waterways. Rigorous effluent standards are
set by EPA and are enforced by the States
and municipalities in cooperation with EPA.
Industries discharging into navigable waters
must install needed pollution control equip-
ment and must obtain permits which limit
the kinds and quantities of pollutants that
can be discharged. More than 41,000 indus-
trial, agricultural, and Federal facility
sources of pollution and 20,000 municipal
sewage plants are to be regulated under the
permit program.
The 1972 law also authorizes Federal grants
of up to 75 percent of the cost of planning,
designing, and building municipal sewage
treatment facilities. This effort is one of the
largest public works programs in America,
and EPA has committed up to $18 billion in
construction grants that generate jobs for
thousands of workers and demands for raw
materials and manufacturing.
The Federal Water Pollution Control
Amendments of 1972 also provide for public
participation in developing and enforcing
water pollution control programs. EPA and
the States have published regulations specify-
ing minimum guidelines for public participa-
tion in this process. Therefore, no Federal
water pollution control program can go
forward without the opportunity being pro-
vided for active participation by the inter-
ested public.
One area with ample room for public partic-
ipation is the planning of water quality
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management. Section 208 of the Act author-
izes EPA to make financial assistance avail-
able to State governments for areawide
waste treatment management planning. To
initiate areawide planning, local officials
advise the Governor which areas require
planning due to high levels of pollution. Each
Governor designates planning areas within
his own State. In addition, he must make
sure that public meetings are held to discuss
the issues that are involved. The money
made available by EPA helps planning agen-
cies offset their planning costs, thereby
encouraging comprehensive, areawide plans
involving citizen participation.
But the cleaning up of our waterways is not
our only concern. The quality of the water
which comes out of our taps strikes even
closer to home. Most of us assume that the
water we drink is safe, and it usually is. But
approximately 4,000 cases of waterborne ill-
nesses are known to occur each year in this
country, and the actual total may be far
greater.
Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, EPA is
responsible for establishing national regula-
tions to protect public health. The Act also
authorizes EPA to provide technical assist-
ance to the States and grants for demonstra-
tion projects involving improved treatment
technology or methods for providing a de-
pendable, safe supply of water.
Under the Act, water suppliers are obligated
to notify the public when the quality of their
product fails to meet Federal regulations.
A second major thrust of the Safe Drinking
Water Act concerns the protection of water
that comes to us from underground sources.
In many parts of the country, certain indus-
tries dispose of their waste materials by in-
jecting them into wells that penetrate deep
into the ground. These and other waste dis-
posal practices may contaminate our
groundwater with a variety of toxic materi-
als. EPA, working with the States, will
regulate such practices to ensure the quality
and safety of this essential source of drink-
ing water.
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Highlights of the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976
(superseding and augmenting the Solid Waste Disposal Act of 1965 and the Resource Recovery Act of 1970)
• An extensive program of Federal grants,
starting in Fiscal 1978, is authorized to help
States and regional governmental agencies
plan and carry out solid waste management
programs. Grant assistance and technical
aid are available for waste collection and
disposal systems as well as for waste reduc-
tion, conservation, and resource recovery
methods.
• For the first time EPA is required to set
standards for the handling of hazardous
solid wastes, with power to regulate and en-
force. Hazardous waste is defined as any
waste that "because of its quantity, concen-
tration, or physical, chemical, or infectious
characteristics" may cause death or disease
or threaten public health or the environment.
Under EPA guidelines, States must estab-
lish rules for the handling of hazardous
wastes and issue permits for treatment,
storage, or disposal. If States fail to do so,
EPA regulations apply. Civil and criminal
penalties may be as high as $25,000 per day
of violation, a year in prison, or both.
• Open dumps throughout the Nation are
to be phased out over a five-year period and
banned entirely by 1983. EPA must make a
national inventory of such dumps and set
standards for upgrading them to sanitary
landfills no later than October 1977. Special
assistance is authorized for rural communi-
ties, and demonstration grants are provided
for small communities that must cope with
large amounts of waste from outside their
boundaries.
• Extensive research, development, and
demonstration projects in solid waste tech-
nology are provided. These include special
studies in the handling of glass, plastics,
rubber tires, sewage sludge, and mining
wastes. EPA is required to disseminate the
information gained, to educate the public,
and to maintain a central reference library
on solid waste management.
14
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Solid
Waste
U nder this legislation, EPA seeks to reduce
the amounts of solid waste produced, to re-
cover materials and energy from wastes
wherever possible, and to ultimately dispose
of wastes in ways that will not endanger
public health or the environment.
National statistics show that we Americans
generate a staggering amount of solid waste
—an estimated 4.5 billion tons a year from
household, commercial, agricultural, ani-
mal, industrial, and mining activities. Fur-
thermore, the volume of waste increases,
year by year.
This country has been blessed with what was
considered to be an abundance of natural re-
sources. We have reached unprecedented
heights of production and consumption.
While accounting for only six percent of the
Earth's population, Americans consume at
least one-third of its industrial raw materi-
als. But we are now faced with the prospect
of paying the price for our past activities.
Many of our resources appear to be reaching
their limits, and accumulating solid waste
poses significant hazards to health and to the
environment. The management of the waste
we produce is already an extremely difficult
task, and the situation threatens to worsen.
Our annual "throw-away" includes 48 bil-
lion cans, 26 billion bottles and jars. 4 mil-
lion tons of plastic, 7.6 million television
sets, 7 million cars and trucks, and 30 mil-
lion tons of paper. It is estimated that by
1980 waste collection may amount to over
340 million tons per year, or nearly twice the
15
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present amount picked up by collection
agencies and hauled away for disposal. The
current cost of waste disposal is $4.5 billion
per year.
In this vast country, the most convenient
waste disposal system has long seemed to be
open dumping. However, burning at most
dumps contributes to air pollution, and ap-
proximately half of all dumps are so situated
that their drainage aggravates the pollution
of ground water, rivers, and streams. Dumps
also attract rodents, flies, and other pests.
To remedy this situation, many communities
have progressed over the past decade from
open dumps to sanitary land fills. In this
system, a layer of dirt applied daily over the
trash keeps pests away, cuts off water pollut-
ants from surface runoff, does away with
the need to burn the wastes, and prevents
wind-scattering of litter. When filled, the
site can be reclaimed for use as a park or
playground.
However, very few of the approximately
15,000 to 20,000 municipal disposal sites
completed or in current use were designed to
prevent waste materials from seeping through
the soil and contaminating surface or ground-
water. The belated discovery that dumps
and landfills may seriously threaten drink-
ing water supplies—even years after the sites
have been closed—suggests that all levels of
government must select, design, and operate
their sanitary landfills with great care.
Chemical, radioactive, biological, explosive,
and flammable substances (referred to as
hazardous wastes) require special disposal
techniques. The Nation generates more than
10 million tons of such materials each year.
In the past, much of the waste was inciner-
ated or dumped into lakes and streams. As
air and water pollution controls are imple-
mented, more and more of these wastes—
which are growing at a five to ten percent
annual rate—are being diverted to the land
16
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where, again, they threaten human health.
The technology for safe management is
often available, but it is not being extensively
used.
Historically the Solid Waste Disposal Act
of 1965 marked the first significant interest
of the Federal government in the manage-
ment of solid waste. The Department of
Health, Education, and Welfare was ordered
to conduct research into improved technol-
ogy for collection and disposal of solid
waste. HEW's responsibilities were later
assigned to EPA when the Agency was
created.
Then, the Resource Recovery Act of 1970
amended the legislation to provide a new
focus on recycling and recovery of valuable
waste materials.
In an EPA solid waste technology demon-
stration at Franklin, Ohio, 13 percent of the
waste processed by the plant is being re-
covered as paper pulp through water grind-
ing techniques, tn Baltimore, in another
demonstration, gas will be derived from
solid waste through a process called pyroly-
sis. Liquid fuel will be extracted, again by
pyrolysis, from organic materials in San
Diego County. EPA is also studying "source
separation" in households in two Massa-
chusetts communities where recoverable
items like bottles, cans, and newspapers are
set aside from other trash so they can be
picked up readily and eventually recycled
and marketed.
The most efficient solution to the waste prob-
lem would be to develop more products that
can be reused, that require less material and
energy to manufacture, that can be recycled
easily, and that last longer.
Solid waste need not be an overwhelming
environmental problem. An opportunity
exists both to cut back on the waste we pro-
duce, and to use that which we currently dis-
card as a major new resource.
17
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Toxic
Substances
The Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976
gives EPA authority to regulate the produc-
tion and use of all chemicals harmful to pub-
lic health or to the environment.
The Act requires the Agency to list all such
chemicals (perhaps as many as 20,000) now
on the market, to limit the use of those
found to be harmful, and, if necessary, to
ban their production.
As new chemical substances are produced.
the law requires that tliey be tested for tox-
icity and environmental effects before they
are marketed. It is estimated that several
hundred and perhaps as many as 1,000 new
chemicals are introduced into commerce
each year. These now have to be tested for
their possible effects on human health and
on plant and animal life.
The Act does not apply to drugs, food addi-
tives, pesticides, radioactive materials, and
other chemicals regulated by other Federal
laws.
It does apply to chemicals that may escape
into the environment and poison the air and
water. It thus augments EPA's protective
authority under air and water pollution con-
trol laws. It is particularly concerned with
chemicals that may cause cancer, birth
defects, and genetic mutations (hereditary
changes in human cells).
The suspect chemicals include such widely
used substances as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCB's), which accumulate and persist in the
environment; raw material for plastics (vinyl
chloride), once thought to be harmless; and
certain propellant gases for spray cans,
which may do long-term damage in the up-
per air.
Before a new chemical can be marketed, the
manufacturer must notify EPA at least 90
days in advance, giving the amount of the
chemical to be produced, the number of
persons who would be exposed to it, and all
available test data on its toxicity and envi-
ronmental effects.
EPA must then evaluate the risk involved. If
there is not enough information to make
that judgment, the Agency may seek a court
injunction to prohibit manufacture pending
further testing.
If EPA believes the new chemical presents
an unreasonable risk, it may make rules
limiting the chemical's distribution and use,
or requiring certain labeling and disposal
methods, or both. A permanent ban on
manufacture requires action by a Federal
court.
In any rule-making on toxic substances EPA
must consider and publish its findings on the
substances' expected benefits, the availabil-
ity of substitutes, and the probable effects on
the chemical industry and the national
economy.
Civil penalties for violating the Act can be as
high as $25,000 per violation, with each
day of noncompliance constituting a new
violation. Criminal penalties can be as high
as a $25,000 fine, a year in prison, or both.
The law protects confidential business in-
formation, including trade secrets. Any
Federal officer or employee who discloses
such information to unauthorized persons
commits a misdemeanor punishable by a
$5,000 fine or a year in prison, or both.
A special section of the law bans the manu-
facture of PCB's as of 1979. These chemicals
are now used mainly as insulating fluids in
electrical equipment but were formerly used
in paints, inks, plastics, and many other
products. They are poisonous to humans,
accumulate in the fatty tissues offish, and
resist natural decay in the environment.
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Pesticides
Over the years, several hundred basic chem- Bioaccumulation was especially evident with
icals have been produced and marketed to DDT. By the early 1970's the average Amer-
help control insects, weeds, and other pests, ican was carrying a potentially dangerous 8
The benefits derived from these pesticides are parts per million of DDT in fatty tissues.
undeniable. They have allowed us to maxi-
mize our food production capabilities, and
they have significantly reduced diseases
spread by certain insects.
However, pesticides can pose health prob-
lems. Improper use and careless storage can
cause severe illness or death. But that is not
the only problem; some pesticides leave resi-
dues in the environment that persist for
Other animal species also were affected by
this phenomenon; evidence showed that the
survival of several species of wildlife was
threatened by the presence of DDT. In addi-
tion, because of the widespread use of pesti-
cides throughout the world—millions of
pounds of pesticides are used annually—
long-lived byproducts have become a signifi-
cant threat to man's health and the environ-
ment. High concentrations of DDT have
many years and, in many instances, are
present in disturbingly high levels in the food been found in the tissues of Antarctic pen-
guins.
Recognizing the dangers posed by certain
pesticides. Congress passed the Federal In-
secticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act
(FIFRA) of 1947 to replace the outdated
we consume.
As early as 1944, for example, research had
revealed that pesticides of the chlorinated
hydrocarbon group (which includes DDT)
were having adverse effects on fish. It be-
came apparent that these chemical com-
pounds were extremely persistent and af-
fected many species of animals.
These extremely persistent pesticide com-
pounds can be passed through the food
chain, and may result in a concentrating ef-
fect called bioaccumulation as one species
feeds on another.
Insecticide Act of 1910. FIFRA was admin-
istered by the Department of Agriculture
until the establishment of EPA in 1970.
FIFRA was amended and widely expanded
under the Federal Environmental Pesticide
Control Act of 1972. The new Act granted
EPA authority to regulate all pesticides in
both interstate and intrastate commerce,
and provided civil and criminal penalties for
misuse.
EPA amasses the best available scientific
data on the health effects and effectiveness
of registered pesticides. Should a significant
question about the safety or effectiveness of
a registered chemical arise, cancellation
action can be taken against products con-
taining the suspect chemical. If a cancella-
tion notice is issued, the manufacturer may
appeal this action, and the product may con-
tinue to be produced and sold during the
administrative review process. However, if
there is enough scientific evidence to warrant
the conclusion that a pesticide product does
pose an "imminent hazard to the public wel-
fare," EPA may immediately suspend the
registration, thereby halting production and
marketing during the cancellation process.
In this case, the manufacturer may request
an expedited hearing.
The results of extensive health research per-
formed by EPA on pesticide safety have
prompted the Agency to take legal action to
cancel, suspend, or restrict the uses of such
pesticides as DDT; mirex; 2,4,5-T; aldrin/
dieldrin; heptachlor/chlordane; and
mercury.
When EPA restricts or cancels a pesticide, it
often publishes a list of registered alterna-
tives. Also, as an aid to farmers after DDT
was canceled in 1972, EPA and USDA
sponsored a special program to train farmers
on how to use the alternatives to DDT.
The EPA Administrator also has the author-
ity to allow emergency use of an unregistered
pesticide, including those that previously
were canceled.
The cancellation of DDT was EPA's first
major step to restrict the use of environ-
mentally hazardous pesticides. Since that
decision, the levels of DDT found in humans
have decreased significantly, and a number
of endangered species have shown signs of
recovery. In the future, a balanced pest
management program based on a mature
understanding of the environment and man's
place in it will help provide a beneficial
and productive agriculture.
20
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-ilights of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act of
(As Amended in 1972 and 1975)
• Manufacturers of pesticides must
register with the EPA Administrator any
insecticide, herbicide, fungicide, or any
other substance intended for sale, either
in interstate or intrastate commerce, to
control or otherwise affect pests in the
United States.
• Pesticide manufacturers are required
to provide scientific evidence that their
products are effective for the purposes in-
tended and will not injure humans, live-
stock, crops, or wildlife when used us
directed.
• EPA is authorized to classify pesti-
cides for either general use or restricted
use. Genera! use pesticides are those
that ordinarily will not cause unreason-
able adverse effects on the user when ap-
plied according to label instructions.
General use pesticides may be used by
anyone. Restricted use pesticides are
those which may pose an unreasoi
risk to the user or the environment unless
employed with great care. Restricted use
pesticides may be used for the most part
by or under the direction of certified ap-
plicators. Thus, the more potentially
hazardous products will not be available
to the general public.
• EPA is required to set forth standards
tor certification of applicators of re-
stricted use pesticides. The individual
States will certify applicators through
their own programs based on the Federal
standards.
• The Administrator may cancel, and if
necessary to prevent an imminent hazard,
suspend the registration of a product on
the basis of actual or potential unreason-
able risk to man, animals, or the environ-
ment. In such a case, the manufacturer
may appeal the decision through estab-
lished administrative and judicial review
irocedures.
• Major regulatory actions are reviewed
for their impact on agriculture and on
health and the environment by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture and a Sci-
entific Advisory Panel.
• The EPA Administrator is authorized
to issue a "stop sale, use, and removal"
order when a pesticide already in circula-
tion is found to be in violation of the law.
• Pesticide-producing establishments
must be registered with EPA.
• Containers of all registered pesticides
must be labeled according to EPA
specifications.
• The EPA Administrator is required to
develop procedures and regulations for
storage or disposal of pesticide
containers.
• EPA is authorized to issue experi-
mental use permits, conduct research on
pesticides and health, and monitor pesti-
cide levels in the environment.
21
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Authority for EPA's Radiation
Program
The primary authority for EPA's radiation
program is provided in Reorgani/ation
Order #3 of 1970. which created EPA, and in
the National Environmental Policy Act of
1969. In addition, the Agency is responsibl
for managing radiation protection provi-
sions of these other important Federal
measures:
• The Atomic Energy Act of 1954, as
Amended—Together with Reorganization
Order #3, this Act gives EPA its "Federal
guidance function," requiring the Adminis-
trator to provide overall guidance to other
Federal agencies on all radiation protection
matters which could have effects on public
health, and to set "generally applicable en-
vironmental standards" outside the bound-
ary of nuclear facilities.
• Public Health Service Act Requires
EPA to provide assistance to the States a
to monitor the environment for rad<>
effects.
• The Ocean Dumping Act of 1972 Re-
quires EPA to regulate the disposal of radio-
active waste in the ocean.
• The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
Requires EPA to establish radiation criteria
for the purpose of protecting drinking water.
• The Federal Water Pollution Control Act
of 1972, as amended—Requires EPA lo
assess the best practical available technolo]
for protecting water quality and to establish
effluent and water quality limits for radia
tion discharges.
• The Clean Air Amendments of 1970
Require EPA to assess the best practical
available technology for protecting air qual-
ity and to establish ambient and emissions
standards for radiation discharges.
22
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Radiation
H uman exposure to radiation is as old as
life itself. We are continuously exposed to
cosmic and terrestrial sources of radiation.
This "background" radiation reaches us at
an average yearly rate of about 120 milli-
rems. (A rem is a standard unit of measure
of biological damage from radiation.)
However, since the discovery of the x-ray in
1895, the development of man's growing
technology in radiation-exposure-creating
enterprises has resulted in an additional
average annual exposure of about 75 milli-
rems. Of this additional exposure, an aver-
age of two millirems is contributed by
residues from past testing of atomic weapons
and another 50 millirems come from x-rays.*
Exposures of individuals will vary depending
on amounts of radiation received from cer-
tain consumer products, from industrial and
medical sources, and from living in high
natural background localities.
Scientists have learned that exposure to
large doses of radiation can create serious
adverse health effects. Although less is
known about the long-term effects of low-
level exposure to radiation, it too is sus-
pected of causing harmful health effects.
Two types of man-made radiation contribute
to this problem. Ionizing radiation, produced
by x-rays, nuclear power plants, etc., is
associated primarily with the induction of
cancer and genetic effects. Nonionizing radi-
ation, which is produced by radio and tele-
vision transmitters, microwave devices,
ultraviolet light, lasers, and high voltage
transmission lines, is associated primarily
with cataracts, skin burns, skin cancers, and
*The diagnostic and therapeutic use of x-rays
usually involves specific benefits that exceed
the risk of a given exposure.
some neurological and behavioral changes.
Recognizing the need to address these prob-
lems from an overall perspective. Congress
established the Federal Radiation Council
(FRC) in the fall of 1959. The FRC was
made responsible for preparing Federal
guidelines for radiation protection. Reorga-
nization Order #3 of 1970 abolished the
FRC and transferred that authority to EPA.
EPA's present approach to overall radiation
protection in issuing standards and guid-
ance for sources of man-made radiation is
to weigh the benefits for society of each radi-
ation-producing technology against the
health risks involved.
For example, there is now a serious and
growing need in America for more electrical
energy. Nuclear power has been advocated
as an alternative to other sources of electri-
cal energy. The proponents of nuclear energy
claim that it is an energy source that can
generate electricity in almost unlimited sup-
ply without using up scarce supplies of fossil
fuels and without polluting the air. However,
it is conceded that nuclear power plants heat
up bodies of water used in cooling reactors
to a greater extent than do fossil fuel fired
plants, thus causing "thermal pollution."
Critics of nuclear power claim that any rise
in radiation, even a minute one, must be
regarded as a health risk. They further point
out that the possibility of accidental releases
of large amounts of radioactive material, no
matter how remote, cannot be dismissed,
and that the disposal of radioactive wastes
from nuclear power generators and fuel
reprocessing is a grave problem.
In response, EPA has weighed these two
positions carefully. The Agency has pro-
posed new types of radiation standards
which will reduce public exposure to planned
releases of radioactive materials from the
nuclear power industry to one-twentieth of
previous guidelines. The same standards also
limit the release of certain long-lived radio-
active substances produced by these plants.
EPA is also involved in a coordinated Fed-
eral program for developing a long-range
plan for safely managing and disposing of
radioactive wastes under its responsibility
for setting criteria for environmentally
acceptable radioactive waste disposal
methods.
Elsewhere, EPA is proposing standards for
radiation levels under the Safe Drinking
Water Act of 1974 to ensure high quality
potable water. Under other authorities, EPA
is also proposing new Federal radiation
guidance for medical and dental x-ray prac-
tices in Federal health care facilities.
To aid in the development of standards and
to provide protection of the public from ex-
posure to unwarranted levels of radiation,
EPA operates approximately 980 monitor-
ing stations throughout the country. At these
stations, samples of air, air particulates,
drinking water, rainfall, surface water, milk,
and human and animal tissues are monitored
for radioactivity levels. Radiation assess-
ments performed by EPA through its en-
vironmental evaluation program are distrib-
uted to Federal, State, and municipal
agencies, universities, libraries, industrial
firms, and interested groups and individuals.
Under provisions of the National Environ-
mental Policy Act of 1969, EPA is respon-
sible for the review of Environmental Impact
Statements that must be filed on any Federal
action that could significantly affect the en-
vironment. This includes the potential radia-
tion impact of nuclear facilities proposed for
construction by the Energy Research and
Development Administration (ERDA) and
those commercial facilities licensed by the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
Therefore, a nuclear power plant or any
other Federally-related facility cannot be
approved until it has received a comprehen-
sive environmental impact review.
Such measures as these are designed to
control the health risks associated with
radioactive materials, without disrupting the
essential needs of society for technologies
that use radiation beneficially.
23
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Noise
11 has been known for some time that work-
ers in certain occupations suffer from noise-
induced hearing loss. But recent studies have
disclosed that unexpectedly large numbers
of Americans may be suffering hearing
damage due to daily non-occupational expo-
sure to environmental noise from jet plane
takeoffs, trucks, buses, railroad trains,
power lawnmowers, motorcycles, snowmo-
biles, construction equipment, kitchen appli-
ances, and from many more sources.
Today, millions of Americans are adversely
affected by non-occupational noise. The in-
creasing number of sources producing high
levels of noise as well as the growing popula-
tion density of urban areas have raised noise
pollution to the level where it is a threat to
our health and welfare.
While long exposure to high levels of noise is
recognized as a principal cause of hearing
damage, there is evidence that excessive
noise can physiologically alter endocrine,
cardiovascular, and neurological functions.
Even exposures to moderate, short duration,
intermittent noise have been found to pro-
duce general anxiety and stress. It has been
demonstrated that noise may interfere with
sleep and relaxation, mental and physical
activity. Most physiological and psycholog-
ical reactions are temporary, although if
noise persists, the effects could become
permanent.
The technology now exists to reduce noise
from construction equipment, railroad
equipment, cars, trucks, and buses. Much
can also be done to reduce noise associated
with aviation.
The first Federal noise legislation was ap-
proved in 1968 when Congress directed the
Federal Aviation Administration to estab-
lish rules and regulations to control aviation
noise.
The Clean Air Amendments of 1970 called
for the establishment of an Office of Noise
Abatement and Control in EPA. The legisla-
tion also ordered public hearings on environ-
mental noise and a special report to Congress
based on information from the hearings and
from other special studies. This EPA data
and extensive Congressional hearings
formed the basis for the Noise Control Act
of 1972.
Under the Act, EPA has published criteria
on the effects of noise, and has identified
levels of noise which fully protect public
health and welfare. EPA is identifying major
noise sources, suggesting control techniques.
and setting standards for each type of noise
source. EPA also works with the Federal
Aviation Administration in an advisory
capacity to help develop aviation noise
standards.
24
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EPA has issued interstate carrier regulations
limiting the maximum noise emissions of
new heavy duty trucks and for railroad
equipment now in service. In addition, EPA
has issued standards for new trucks, new
railroad equipment, and new air
compressors.
The Agency is using its overall authority to
achieve a significant reduction in the adverse
health and welfare effects of the environ-
mental noise. Near term reductions will
occur in some areas. In others, relief must
await the normal replacement of old equip-
ment by the new quieter products required
by EPA's regulations.
ighlightsof the Noise Control Act of 1972
• The EPA Administrator is required to
protect public health and welfare by set-
ting acceptable levels for products that
are sources of noise in the categories of
construction equipment, transportation
equipment (except aircraft), all motors
and engines, and electronic equipment.
• To set noise standards. EPA is direct-
arch and publish information
oise limits required to protect human
health and weli'are. to identify product-;
ces of noise, and t
provide information on techniques for
controlling noise.
• Acting in an advisory capacity, EPA
must submit recommendations and pro-
pose regulations to the Federal Aviation
Administration ( F\A) to control a<
tion noise. The I-'AA, however, remains
direcllv responsible for regulating avia-
tion n>
• EPA is mandated tu require labeling
;o their noise-generating
ducing characteristics.
25
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The Costs
of Pollutioi
Control
The President's Council on Environmental
Quality (CEQ) has estimated that to reduce
air and water pollution, improve disposal of
solid waste, control radiation hazards, pre-
vent abuse of pesticides, and reclaim strip-
mined land will cost the country $325 billion
over the period 1973-1982. Some $194.8
billion of this investment will be authorized
by Federal environmental legislation. The
. overall cost of pollution control may absorb
as much as one percent of our Gross Na-
tional Product during any given year. The
cost was projected to reach a peak of $80 per
citizen in 1976, and then gradually decline.
There are some people who justifiably won-
der if it is wise to make such enormous out-
lays for environmental upgrading and
protection. Others feel that antipollution
spending is inherently inflationary and non-
productive. These points deserve-answers.
A joint EPA-CEQ study estimates that, at
most, pollution control will raise prices only
about 0.3 percent per year on the average
until 1978, and a negligible amount after
that. Moreover, industry's capital require-
ments for environmental protection will be
small relative to overall capital needs. Over
the next decade, pollution-related invest-
ment by industry is projected to equal only
2-3 percent of gross private domestic invest-
ment, and only about 6 percent of private
investment in plant and equipment. These
percentages will be higher for certain indus-
tries, lower for others.
As long as environmental outlays yield bene-
fits at least equal to their costs, they are no
more inflationary or nonproductive, for ex-
ample, than expenditures for law enforce-
ment, research or education.
Antipollution measures do not cause sub-
stantial unemployment. Between January
1971 and December 1975 EPA learned of 69
plant closings allegedly caused by the threat
of pollution control expenditures. Some
were unprofitable facilities that would have
closed anyway. These closings affected
12,000 jobs. At the same time, however,
EPA has created thousands of jobs via its
construction grant program for waste water
treatment facilities.
The environmental movement offers many
opportunities to save. It has been estimated
that "about 25 percent of the total energy
used in this country could be saved. Serious
conservation efforts could conceivably close
the entire foreign fuel gap by 1985. A joint
Department of Transportation-EPA report
shows that by 1980 feasible technical im-
provements in auto engines could save $5
billion a year in overall petroleum demand.
In fact, if the average efficiency of gasoline
consumption in our automobiles during 1972
had been 20 miles per gallon—instead of
13.5 miles per gallon—we could have saved
more than 23 billion gallons of gas costing
$14 billion. And if the aggregate efficiency of
electric power production had been 40 per-
cent instead of 29.5 percent, we could have
saved the equivalent of $3.3 billion worth of
oil. That would have helped greatly to con-
trol inflation.
The fact that the economics of ecology do
not prevent sound and effective environ-
mental protection is encouraging. But
another fact remains: It will take a high level
of commitment on the part of individuals as
well as Federal, State, and local govern-
ments to achieve the goal of a clean, livable
environment.
26
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United States Environmental Protection Agency Regional Offices and States Covered
Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, Vermont
New Jersey, New York, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, D.C.
Boston, Massachusetts 02203
617-223-7210
New York, New York 10007
212-264-2525
3 Philadelphia, Pa. 19106
215-597-9814
4 Atlanta, Georgia 30308
404-881-4727
5 Chicago, Illinois 60604
312-353-2000
6 Dallas, Texas 75270
214-749-1962
7 Kansas City, Missouri 64108
816-374-5493
8 Denver, Colorado 80203
303-837-3895
9 San Francisco, Calif. 94111
415-556-2320
10 Seattle, Washington 98 101
206-442-1220
Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina.
Tennessee
Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio, Wisconsin
Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska
Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota. Utah, Wyoming
Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada. American Samoa, Guam, Trust Territories of
Pacific Islands, Wake Island
Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, Washington
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