United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Research and Development
Washington DC 20460
February 1984
EPA-6QO/9/84-004
v>EPA
Research
Outlook
1984
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Contents
Introduction 3
Cross-Cutting Issues IS
Toxic Substances and Pesticides 29
Hazardous Wastes 45
Air and Radiation 65
Energy 95
Acid Rain 113
Drinking Water 125
Water Quality 137
Appendices
Appendix A: Resource Options 155
Appendix B: Technical Reviewers 159
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1
Introduction
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Introduction
Major Research Needs
Changes in Outlook
Long Term Trends
Quality Assurance
Risk Assessment
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1
Introduction
Introduction
Research Outlook 1984 is the ninth in this series of reports
to Congress as required by Section 5 of Public Law 94-475,
90 Stat. 2071. It describes the major research issues, trends
and strategies of EPA's research and development program
for the next five years.
Strategic research planning is a two-way communication
process which should help both researcher and regulatory
official to appreciate better the long-term currents within
which they plot their daily course. Effective strategic plan-
ning requires an integration of detailed scientific know-
ledge and long-range perspective. Detailed scientific know-
ledge keeps the strategic planning process realistic. A long-
range perspective helps to lift strategic planning out of the
beaten path and make it relevant to the future.
Prior to publication, the chapters of this report were re-
viewed by more than 100 scientists, research managers and
environmental regulatory officials within EPA, other federal
agencies, academia, private industry and public interest
groups. The names and affiliations of these reviewers are
presented in Appendix B of this report.
To a great extent, this year's Research Outlook builds up-
on, and is mirrored in, last year's report; it is the nature of
the strategic planning process that one's five-year strategy
not be re-invented, de novo, each year. Hence, one of the
criteria for an effective long-range strategy is that it evolve
gradually and logically over time and not be re-created with
each year's annual plans.
Major
Research
Needs
The major research needs which were identified as para-
mount in last year's Research Outlook continue to be our
highest priority research needs. These are:
Ground-water pollution. To control the pollution of ground
water, it is necessary to be able to monitor underground
pollutant plumes, to analyze the effects of the underground
environment, and to predict the behavior of pollutants
within that environment. This is one of our highest re-
search priorities.
Toxicity measurement for complex mixtures. Determining
the toxicity of a complex mixture of wastewaters as a whole
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INTRODUCTION
would be a far less expensive process than identifying each
of the components of the wastewater and then attempting
to determine their combined effect. We are developing
bioassay and other techniques that should improve our
ability to determine the human health implications of such
complex mixtures.
Water quality determination. The use ascribed to a body of
water determines the quality at which that water must be
maintained. A water-quality based regulatory approach re-
quires that we develop accurate and inexpensive methods
for determining water quality.
Toxicity prediction for chemicals. Testing chemicals for
toxicity is an expensive and time-consuming process. We
are at work developing test methods to expand existing
chemical screening techniques.
Determining environmental exposure. In order to de-
termine the effects of alternative pollution control strat-
egies, we need to know exactly how much pollution people
inhale, ingest and absorb during their daily lives. Using
personal monitors, advanced detection techniques and
models, we are developing accurate exposure data.
Acid rain source-receptor relationships. To assess the
efficacy of, and need for, alternative mitigation strategies.
we need better information on the relationships between
the sources of acid rain precursors and their eventual
effects on the receptors of that deposition. This is an issue
of enormous resource implications for the industrial and
commercial sectors.
Predictive modeling. In order to provide the necessary tools
to state and local decision makers responsible for con-
trolling air pollution, we will refine air pollution models to
better predict the behavior of air pollutants under certain
meteorologic and topographic conditions.
Biological pesticides and genetically engineered products.
We expect a rapid growth in the development of biological
pesticides and genetically engineered products. We are in-
vestigating better ways of evaluating the possible human
health and environmental (non-target) risks of such agents.
Changes in
Outlook
While an effective five-year strategy should display
recognizable consistency from year to year, it should also
adjust to, and change with, a changing environment. This
report differs from last year's in three areas:
First, it treats the "cross-cutting issues" identified in last
year's report in much greater depth. This is appropriate
considering their importance to EPA's research program.
The cross-cutting issues are relevant to most of the chapters
(air, drinking water, hazardous wastes, etc.) of this report.
These issuesbiological screening, ecosystem health,
groundwater protection and environmental modelingare
of such overriding import that they justify, and are given,
their own chapter.
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INTRODUCTION
Second, some of the scientific and technical issues ad-
dressed have changed, some have been merged and a few
have been eliminated. Such changes were necessary both to
improve upon the logic of the presentation and to reflect
changes in overall research priorities.
Third, we have added two topics quality assurance
and risk assessment covered in some depth in this report.
These two topics are high-priority issues with regard to the
management of the research process (quality assurance) and
the use of the product of the research program (risk assess-
ment).
Major initiatives have been underway with regard to both
of these issues within the EPA for some time, and it is
appropriate that they be covered in any discussion of our
research strategy. Because of their uniqueness, these topics
will be covered later in this introduction.
Most of the material presented herein came from the peo-
ple directly involved in the research at one or more of our
14 laboratories located throughout the country and in re-
search planning and management at headquarters. This in-
formation was reviewed in detail by representatives from
EPA's regulatory program offices, by a special sub-
committee of the EPA Science Advisory Board, and by a
distinguished group of 45 external peer reviewers from aca-
demia, industry, other federal agencies and public interest
groups. The comments and recommendations of each of
these individuals were reviewed, and responded to, by the
original authors. These individuals modified the earlier
drafts as appropriate.
Long Term
Trends
An effective strategy begins with a vision of the long-term
trends within which the strategy is to be realized. While
there are any number of trends which could be cited as in-
fluencing the gradual evolution of our research planning,
we will end by listing a few of those which were an ex-
plicit part of the early stages in this year's exercise:
The aging of America. As our rate of population growth
continues to be low, life expectancy continues to increase,
and the World War II baby boomers grow up, our entire
population is undergoing a truly monumental transition.
Older people make up an increasing proportion of our pop-
ulation. From an environmental research perspective, this
holds many meanings. First, environmentally caused health
dysfunctions having a long latency period will now have
more time to be expressed. Second, stresses early in life
may be expressed through unexpected systemic dysfunc-
tions much later. Third, older people are less resilient to
environmental stresses and have slower recovery processes.
Chronic, low-dose exposures. Researchers are finding that
there are few, if any, places on the earth which do not con-
tain traces of anthropogenic substances, some of which are
toxic. It is only within the last generation that people have
grown to maturity in contact with these substances. Will
this confound our efforts to set a baseline for environmental
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INTRODUCTION
quality? How does one determine the relationship between
70 years of human exposure in the environment and six
months for a rat exposed in the laboratory?
Multiple exposures to multiple chemicals. We have just
scratched the surface with regard to testing the potential
toxicities of a few of the chemicals on the market today. We
know little about their synergistic effects. Are they additive?
multiplicative? Are many small exposures worse than one
large one? In real life people are exposed simultaneously
to a number of pollutants in the air. water, foods and so on.
Protecting water supplies. The underground environment
where much of our water comes from is being con-
taminated in several areas. That environment is. to a great
extent, still a mystery to our science. We certainly need to
know more about the physical, chemical and biological
processes which control the quality of our underground
water supplies.
The complexity of human systems. Science is gradually de-
ciphering the complex systems which determine individual
health and behavior. The long-term effects of substances on
the neuro-behavioral system, the reproductive system, the
immune system, etc. help to make us what we are. How
pollutants effect these systems is largely unknown.
While these are but a few of the long-term trends which
influence our research program, they do give some idea of
the context within which we work to satisfy the agency's
short-term needs for better scientific information. Next
year's Research Outlook will delve more deeply into these
and highlight more specifically our research response.
In the past year, we have looked carefully at our research
activities and find that there are two which are of over-
riding importance. These not only apply to all of the chap-
ters in this report, but they are relevant, in some way, to
nearly every one of our nearly individual research projects.
These two overriding issues are:
Quality assurance What is the EPA doing to assure the
accuracy and utility of the enormous volumes of data it is
collecting?
Risk assessment How can scientific knowledge be effec-
tively packaged to describe the relative hazards of alterna-
tive policy choices?
In a large sense, therefore, these are the EPA's two
highest priority research topics. They do not, however, fit
comfortably into the output and research-oriented discus-
sion which characterizes the rest of this report. They de-
scribe processes and. ar. such, rule over the context within
which the state of science is determined. Hence, these are
the first two topics discussed in Research Outlook 1984.
In the following discussion, we take these issues in turn.
In addition, some mention of each of these topics is pep-
pered throughout the rest of this document. We like to
think that this is proof of both their importance and rele-
vance.
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INTRODUCTION
Quality
Assurance
All of the research discussed in this report would be of
questionable value were it not for a rigorous and assiduous-
ly applied quality assurance program. Beyond that, the EPA
relies upon its quality assurance program to assure that its
regulatory and enforcement actions are based upon known
and defensible quality and are valid for the laws and reg-
ulations that are to be enforced. EPA's quality assurance
program addresses both monitoring and research activities.
Since 1979, EPA's quality assurance (QA) program has been
the responsibility of its research office.
First, the current status of EPA's QA program. The form of
the program (policies, procedures, management, etc.) is in
place. However, the substance of the program (QA im-
plementation and production of data of known and
documented quality) has not been fully established. The
EPA's goal is to have a complete and operational QA pro-
gram in place by October. 1985 that will assure that all data
reported from the agency's environmental monitoring and
measurement activities are of known and documented qual-
ity. Current QA policies and procedures generally describe
what is required for adequate quality assurance. Additional
specific guidance will be produced to describe how to
achieve the requirements.
Efforts to date in the monitoring and measurement com-
munity have emphasized QA and quality control (QC) for
laboratory analysis. However, QA/QC is necessary in all
data gathering activities including engineering, biological
monitoring and testing, sampling and data reporting and
interpretation. EPA's research will concentrate on how to
assure data quality in those applications.
Use of reference materials and QC samples is a key step
in evaluating analytical laboratory performance or the qual-
ity of analytical data. Reference materials are natural en-
vironmental samples that have been characterized for their
composition. They are used to characterize the analysis of
samples having a similar matrix and composition. Samples
of such materials are generally submitted along with the
routine samples as "unknowns" to the analyst. The accura-
cy of the results for the reference material are used to indi-
cate the accuracy of the analysis of the routine samples.
Reference materials and QC samples may be used to
characterize laboratory or analyst performance (i.e., sent as
"unknowns" to the laboratory and the results used to judge
the laboratory's ability to perform the analysis). They may
also be used as known test samples to evaluate the quality
of a new analytical method.
The agency's monitoring and measurement activities re-
quire analysis of a wide variety of matrices that are in-
volved in questions related to the environment. A wide
variety of QC samples are available for water analysis.
However, in general, an adequate variety and supply (both
composition and matrices) of reference materials and QC
samples are not available to support the agency's needs in
other areas.
The agency's environmental programs have constructed
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8 INTRODUCTION
numerous data bases concerning different media. However,
in some cases documentation of the quality of the data is
not included in the data base. Therefore, the data cannot be
used with confidence to support future decision making
(e.g., to determine long-term trends).
Finally, guidelines are not commonly available to judge
the acceptability of data produced in agency monitoring
and measurement efforts. The acceptability of the data can
be judged from three perspectives:
acceptability of the performance of the analyst.
use to which the data will be put, and
the inherent limits of the specific method used when ap-
plied to the problem at hand.
Each of the problems and shortcomings mentioned above
are being addressed in the agency's determination to assure
a known level of confidence in the quality of its data. An
Agency Task Force on Monitoring is working to strengthen
our quality assurance efforts. EPA is also working with
other agencies and professional organizations such as the
National Bureau of Standards and the American Chemical
Society to share its knowledge, adopt the latest and best
techniques, and develop compatible quality assurance pro-
grams.
Strategy Because of the complexity of the issue and the scope of its
impact, the EPA's quality assurance (QA) staff is con-
ducting a number of parallel efforts. First, it is auditing ex-
isting EPA programs. Emphasis is on assuring that EPA
monitoring and measurement activities are adequately
planned and on collecting appropriate QA information.
EPA reports will include adequate statements on QA and
the precision, accuracy validity and confidence limits in
the data.
Second, efforts will be undertaken to develop scientific
QA guidelines to be applied across all the programs on en-
gineering, biological monitoring and testing, sampling and
data reporting and interpretation activities. Where neces-
sary, research tasks will be initiated to develop the organ-
ized technology transfer from different disciplines neces-
sary to support these guidelines.
Third, the multitude of existing EPA reference materials,
QC samples and QA activities will be reviewed, and recom-
mendations developed to assure that such materials are
available for use across all agency activities. The National
Bureau of Standards and other potential sources of such
materials will be explored. The objective here is to assure
that a program is in place to provide reference materials
and QC samples for all agency monitoring and measure-
ment activities.
Fourth, our QA office will coordinate the standardization
and publication of agency monitoring and measurement
methodology. The methods will be published in a standard-
ized format after all supporting data is reviewed, to classify
the methods and assure that appropriate quality control
guidance is included. This compendium of methods will be
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INTRODUCTION
the official source of methods for use in agency programs.
Fifth, we will develop guidelines for assessing and
reporting data quality for environmental measurements.
These guidelines will identify data quality indicators to be
used in agency data bases and to provide uniform assess-
ment of, and standardized reporting requirements for, data
quality.
Finally, we have begun to establish guidelines for achiev-
able environmental measurement data quality goals. These
guidelines are based on information available from con-
trolled studies to identify method capability under op-
timum conditions, thus the data quality identified repre-
sents what can be achieved, not what might be routinely
achieved across many laboratories.
The EPA's QA strategy is to assure that its QA policy for
environmental monitoring and measurement is im-
plemented throughout the agency's programs. Emphasis
will gradually shift from establishing policy to assuring that
the policy is implemented and providing technical guid-
ance and materials to support implementation.
Experience has shown that a lack of adequate quality
assurance ultimately leads to problems with data being too
poor for defensible regulatory/enforcement decisions. In the
last few years, the EPA has moved aggressively to see that
its data is of known and consistently high quality.
Major planned research products include:
Revised QA management plan, 1984
Agency requirements for reference materials and quality
control samples, 1984
Guidelines for standard operating procedures for agency
monitoring and measurement activities, 1984
Guidelines for the development, evaluation and valida-
tion of measurement methods, 1984
Guidelines for evaluating data acceptability, 1984
Guidelines for air toxics quality assurance, 1984
QA guidelines for biological testing, 1985
Review of major agency data bases, 1985
QA guidelines for engineering studies, 1986
QA guidelines for field sampling activities, 1986
Manual of EPA analytical methods, 1986
Rjclr A risk assessment involves the review and analysis of rele-
. vant scientific information to provide risk managers (in this
ASS6SSnfient case EPA's regulatory decision-makers) with the latest best
knowledge about a substance's hazard and exposure. Risk
assessments are structured to enable regulatory decision-
making (risk management) based upon valid and adequate
scientific data.
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10 INTRODUCTION
Within EPA, risk assessments are produced for:
the hazardous air pollutant program health assess-
ments are being prepared for more than 40 chemicals.
the drinking water program health risk estimates
characterize risk control technology for pilot and field stud-
ies.
the water program comparison of risks and costs for
sewage sludge management.
the pesticides program methods to estimate health and
environmental risk from available data are being developed
as well as health risk assessment methodologies for chem-
icals under review.
the superfund program human health effects assess-
ment are being provided for single chemicals, complex mix-
tures, and site-specific situations.
toxic substances program human health and ecological
risks are evaluated for both new and existing chemicals.
Acceptable exposure/risk levels are decided by policy
makers who balance, to the extent permitted by law, es-
timates of risks with social and economic benefits from the
uses of the chemical. Presently, quantitative risk assess-
ments are being performed for carcinogenicity. Efforts are
underway to develop quantitative assessment methods for
mutagenic risks and reproductive effects risks and
exposure-effects in environmental modeling.
State-of-the-Art: The first step is qualitative. Biomedical
data is evaluated to answer the question, "How likely is the
agent to be a cause of the effect under consideration."
These kinds of assessments can be done for various kinds
of effects such as mutagenicity, teratogenicity. and
carcinogenicity. The likelihood of effect is expressed in
terms of the preponderance of the biomedical evidence.
The next step is quantification. On the assumption the
agent can cause the effect, what is the magnitude of health
impacts for current and projected human exposures? The
EPA routinely performs quantitative risk assessments for
carcinogenicity only. The agency is currently developing
the methods for performing quantitative risk assessments
for mutagenicity, and will soon work on reproductive
effects.
To provide quantitative estimates of carcinogenicity risk
at the low levels of exposure generally found in the en-
vironment, we often must extrapolate from high doses in
the observed range, usually involving animal bioassay stud-
ies, to much lower exposures involving human populations.
Although a variety of mathematical models are available for
such risk extrapolation, the ones most commonly used by
regulatory agencies have been linear, non-threshold models.
Whenever adequate human data are available, it is used
in preference to animal data for quantitative risk extrapola-
tion. For human data, the best fit to the dose-response data
is employed to extrapolate from high doses to low doses.
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INTRODUCTION
11
Negative epidemiology data are used to place upper bounds
on risks.
The science of risk assessment is relatively new and has its
own uncertainties and limitations. Many of the problems
the agency faces in quantitative risk assessment involve ex-
trapolation, i.e., making prediction on the extent of an
effect upon human populations at low exposure levels from
the degree of an effect upon laboratory animals at high dose
exposure levels. For carcinogenesis there are a number of
areas involving extrapolation that are being developed and
refined through research:
Mechanisms of carcinogenesis: At the present time, the
dominant view of the carcinogenic process involves the
concept that most of the agents that cause cancer also cause
irreversible damage to DNA. This position is supported by
the fact that a very large proportion of agents that cause
cancer are also mutagenic. Scientists suspect that the quan-
tum type biological response characteristic of mutagenesis
(the genetic material either is, or is not, mutated) is associ-
ated with a linear non-threshold dose-response rela-
tionship. That is, the greater the dose, the greater the prob-
ability of a response. This view is consistent with the rela-
tively few epidemiological studies of cancer responses to
specific agents that contained enough information to make
the evaluation possible. Also, there is some evidence from
animal experiments that is consistent with the linear non-
threshold hypothesis.
Choice of mathematical model: We must depend on our
current understanding of the mechanisms of carcinogenesis
for guidance as to which risk assessment model to use.
There is no solid scientific basis for a mathematical ex-
trapolation model relating carcinogen exposure to cancer
risks at extremely low levels of concentration. The
plausibility of the upperbound estimates derived from the
linear non-threshold model is based on: the correlation be-
tween carcinogenicity and mutagenicity, the non-threshold
dose-response curve for mutagenicity in most cases, the
quantum ("go" or "no go") nature of DNA interactions, and
the linear nature of the dose-response curves suggested by
some epidemiological data. Also, there is some evidence
from animal experiments that is consistent with the linear
non-threshold hypothesis.
Extrapolation from animals to humans: We rely upon the
results of experimentation in laboratory animals to evaluate
human hazard resulting from chemical exposure. There are
enormous numbers of similarities and differences between
humans vs. animals and even animal vs. animal. Many
attempts have been made in risk assessment procedures to
deal with these differences so that the test results from an-
imals are as applicable to humans as possible.
EPA's research program on risk assessment is in an early
stage. Historically, the agency used data developed mostly
by universities, private industry, or other governmental
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12 INTRODUCTION
agencies to perform risk assessments. As the need for risk
assessments has grown, so has the need to improve our
own techniques and methods.
The agency has conducted risk assessment research in
different media and has recently developed a specific re-
search program on risk assessment in the intermedia arena.
Within the agency, related kinds of research, as in
mutagenicity, have improved our ability to do risk assess-
ment. The agency has been supporting research at in-
stitutions such as the National Center for Toxicological Re-
search which also provides data and information used in
risk assessment.
EPA is constantly using data to improve its risk assess-
ment capabilities. For example, with regard to animal-to-
man extrapolation, improving on the understanding of
metabolism is playing a key role in closing knowledge gaps.
Risk assessment has a wide variety of uses in the EPA
regulatory offices. Research on risk assessment is found in
various parts of research programs throughout EPA's Office
of Research and Development. For example, much of the re-
search described in the chapter on toxic substances and
pesticides is directly applicable to use in risk assessments.
Major planned research products include:
Refined risk assessment guidelines for cancer, 1984
Refined risk assessment guidelines for mutagenicity,
1984
Refined exposure assessment guidelines. 1984
Development of risk assessment guidelines for reproduc-
tive effects, 1985
Ranking of chemicals assessed for carcinogenicity under
Superfund, 1985
Development of complex mixture methodology for solid
waste/superfund, 1985
Completion of the correlation project for animal-man car-
cinogens, 1985
Completion of approximately 40 hazardous air pollutant
health assessment documents, 1987
Evaluating the validity of extrapolation models for tumor
promotors and initiators, 1988
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Cross-Cutting Issues
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Cross-Cutting Issues
Introduction
Major Issues
Biological screening
Ecosystem health
Groundwater protection
Environmental modeling
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15
Cross-Cutting Issues
Introduction
Biological
Screening
Introduction
As we mentioned in last year's Research Outlook, EPA's re-
search addresses several issues which, by their very nature,
cut across media lines. These topics do not fit comfortably
within any particular program (air, water, etc.), and to dis-
cuss them within such a context would both unnaturally
circumscribe the discussion and imply an inappropriate
level of priority.
There are four major issues which are discussed in this
chapter. These issues are too broad in their implications to
be neatly shoehorned into any one chapter. These issues
are:
Biological screening What new techniques will open the
door to accurate, low-cost ways to quickly estimate a sub-
stance's potential hazard?
Ecosystem health What information do we need to col-
lect to determine if an ecosystem is healthy or has been
seriously disrupted?
Groundwater protection, analysis and control How can
we determine what happens to a pollutant and what mis-
chief it can cause when it goes underground?
Environmental modeling What is limiting our ability to
effectively use environmental models, and what are the
limits to their utility?
In the following discussion, we take these issues in turn.
In addition, some mention of each of these topics is pep-
pered throughout the rest of this document. We like to
think that this is proof of both their importance and their
relevance.
The hazard which a substance or type of effluent poses to
aquatic life is a key part of effluent control decision-
making. Without the ability to assess such hazard via an in-
expensive and straightforward test, environmental regula-
tory agencies will be hard-pressed to establish a scientific
basis for determining which discharges must be further
controlled to protect aquatic life.
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16 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
Current discharge limits are. for the most part, based on
waste treatment technology. In some water bodies, such
limits are insufficient to protect aquatic life. A toxicity test
that can be conducted on a large number of discharges is
needed. Acute toxicity tests exist which are both in-
expensive and easy to conduct. However, the results often
cannot be used to predict biological stream response. The
responses observed in the biological community usually re-
sult from chronic, rather than acute, exposure.
Historically, short-term acute toxicity tests have been
used to limit effluent toxic. However, recent findings indi-
cate that most effluents are not acutely toxicity at discharge
concentrations. Hence, a great deal of biological community
impact may result from longer term chronic toxicity. This
problem required the development of d rapid toxicity test
and a means to provide an estimate of community im-
pairment. In response. F.PA researchers investigated the
seven-day fathead and cerio- daphriia toxicity tests. Hoth of
these organisms have wide distribution in the freshwater
community. The combination of these two organisms, plus
another such as a bacteria or algae, will comprise ,i suf-
ficiently broad range of sensitivity to provide protection to
the sensitive segment of the aquatic community.
The use of toxicity tests to evaluate treatment processes
has been completed for the leather ami tanning industry.
The techniques need to be more generic. Additional studies
are planned to strengthen the relationship between the
chronic testing of receiving stream water and biological
community response.
CDA'S The EPA has a major role in the research and application of
Research Role short-term chronic toxicity testing. Industry, KI'A regions.
consultants and states are testing the usefulness of chronic
tests developed bv KPA researchers for inclusion in the
waste-load allocation and permitting process.
Continued KPA research will improve the data base on
the utility of Onodtiphniii and fathead minnow as sur-
rogate predictors of the aquatic community irnpat (s. We
will test effluents and receiving streams with simultaneous
measurements of biologic.al community response. The
testing will span different biological communities and
water bodies.
Extensive field studies will be undertaken to measure
chronic toxicity of the receiving stream and effluents.
Biological studies will be conducted at the same time to
compare to the measured toxicity. Small fixer systems have
been studied to date. Future studies \\ill be undertaken on
large rivers, lakes and estuaries.
A sufficient number of field studies need to be conducted
where laboratory toxicity test results are compared with
field data in order to insure that community impairment is
accurately indicated through the toxicity tests employed.
Effluent toxicity will be compared to ambient toxicity and
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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
17
Ecosystem
Health
Introduction
ambient toxicity to impairment. Factors such as effluent no-
effect levels, effluent discharge rate and stream flow will be
considered in this evaluation.
Laboratory studies to increase the chemical data base for
the seven-day Ceriodaphnia and fathead minnow tests will
be undertaken in the initial part of the study. The most dif-
ficult issue is that of measuring and subsequently pre-
dicting persistence. Mass balance studies of toxic sub-
stances in flowing rivers will be used to gain an under-
standing as to how to estimate persistence. Laboratory tests
will be developed to measure persistence of toxicity of
effluents. These measurement techniques will then be re-
lated back to toxicity reductions in the stream. For selected
industries, toxicity reduction studies through bench scale
treatment process studies will be undertaken in conjunction
with the field studies.
Major planned research products include:
Develop data base for seven-day Ceriodaphnia and fat-
head minnow tests. Data will be obtained on test reliability,
cost, difficulty and interlaboratory comparisons. This will
provide comparison data to existing data bases and know-
ledge on relative sensitivity, 1985
Develop short-term saltwater chronic tests, 1985
Develop effluent tests to estimate toxicity persistence
which can be related to receiving stream toxicity, 1986
Demonstrate that toxicity tests can be used in the evalua-
tion of treatment processes. This will provide permit wri-
ters with suggested methodologies for toxicity reduction,
1986
Integrate single pollutant, combined pollutants, and com-
plex effluent toxicity limits, 1987
How do we know when an ecosystem is healthy? When it
has been severely disrupted? What terms best define the
health of an ecosystem?
To protect the environment, we need to know what we
want to protect. At the global level certain ecosystem func-
tions, i.e., oxygen production, must be protected for the
planet to maintain its life support characteristics. At the
national and local level, decisions regarding protection are
frequently made based on the desired use of the ecosystem.
Once such a use has been resolved, how can we protect
or promote the health of a system such that its use is not
impaired and how do we measure it? How does a potential
stress (e.g., effluent discharge, acid deposition) affect an
ecosystem and how do we recognize it when it happens? In
order to prescribe corrective and/or preventive measures,
we must be able to measure and determine the desired na-
ture of the ecosystem.
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18 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
Background All ecosystems have the basic qualitative characteristics of
energy fixation, material cycling, and ecosystem structure
interacting in a complex manner. However, each ecosystem
will have quantitatively different levels of these characteris-
tics and degrees of interactions between components. These
characteristics are in a constant state of flux over time and
space both with and without the influence of man. This
complexity in characteristics makes the determination of
the health of an ecosystem an equally complex problem.
Given these complex systems, what do we measure'.' Are
there critical and sensitive components which we can use
to define and monitor the system? In spite of the complex-
ity of interactions and the interdependence ot organisms, it
has been demonstrated that, in certain communities, a par-
ticular species may be a key species in maintaining com-
munity structure and organixation. In addition, some spe-
cies such as Douglas fir in the Northwest or lake trout in
the Great Lakes, may be so< ially or economically desirable.
Therefore, there are instances when particular species arc
important to protect: their loss may cause major shifts in
communities or economic loss.
The question, therefore, becomes one of trying to find
underlying principles which may be used to define both
the current state and the normal (desired) slate ot an ecosy-
stem. There are a few key sleps to answering (bis question.
Major information needs are:
Identification of critical and sensitive components: U'ithin
the context of any one ecosystem or community there may
be particular components: i.e., processes, spet ies. that are
critic.al to (lie system and sensitive to stress, '('he species
critical for economic reasons are relatively easy to identify.
The difficulty arises when trying to identify ecologicallv
critical species.
Generalizations between ecosystems and types of stress:
The ability to recommend specific measurements for ecosy-
stem evaluations depends in part on the degree to which
critical and sensitive components are system and stress de-
pendent. The sensitivity of systems is known to be in-
fluenced by environmental conditions such as temperature.
water quantity and quality, salinity, etc. Can ecosystems be
categorized such that certain critical and sensitive com-
ponents can be recommended for each category7 Kach type
of stress? Although many comparisons of toxic.ants have
been made on single species in the laboratory, little data
are available for ecosystems.
Determinations of "acceptable" levels of stress: The activity
of man will inevitably result in changes in ecosystems.
What are the attributes of ecosystems that contribute to
recovery?
Monitoring of normal ecosystem fluctuations: Therefore.
there is a need for continued studv of unstressed svstems
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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES 19
and the normal fluctuations in system behavior. This in-
formation will also help to distinguish stress from natural
conditions.
The subject of ecological health is one which encom-
passes the research of many organizations. The EPA plays a
major role in developing information on the effects of stress
on ecosystems. In general, these research efforts are applied
toward specific problems. The development of early
warning systems and the applicability of laboratory test re-
sults is an area of particular emphasis at this time.
In addition to the EPA's laboratories the EPA-funded
Centers at Cornell University and the University of Rhode
Island are expected to play an important role in integrating
ecological theory and marine sciences with the evaluation
of toxic stresses. Additional federal agencies active in
ecosystem studies include the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administra-
tion, the U.S. Ceological Survey, and the U.S. Forest Ser-
Our current studies in ecosystem health research include
the applicability of water quality criteria in outdoor ex-
perimental streams, and other field sites, an evaluation of
the EPA's pesticide hazard evaluation protocol in natural
temperate ponds, laboratory microcosm research evaluating
potential toxics testing protocols, complex effluents toxicity
in natural streams, research on toxics in the Great Lakes
and its tributaries, and an experimental lake acidification
project.
EPA studies with microcosms and freshwater streams and
effluents are designed such that a variety of different tox-
icants will be tested. In this manner the degree of generality
about the toxicant dependency of stress responses can be
evaluated. By comparing results with similar studies in
other types of systems, the ability to generalize between
systems could be investigated. For example, the results of
current EPA studies on the effects of pentachlorophenol
(PCP) in freshwater streams could be compared with the re-
sults of the studies on the effects of PCP in freshwater
ponds at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service laboratory at
Columbia. Missouri.
Other EPA freshwater stream and microcosm studies in-
clude testing a series of exposure concentrations so that
dose-response curves can be prepared. The effluent field
evaluations rely on down-stream dilutions to provide a
stress gradient. These studies will help evaluate the con-
cept of thresholds in ecosystem resistence to stress.
EPA research undertaken as part of pesticide pond, Great
Lakes, and lake acidification studies use natural systems.
Data will be obtained on the normal characteristics and
fluctuations of ecosystems thus providing information
aiding our ability to distinguish stress effects from normal
variations.
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20
CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
As a cross cutting issue, the EPA research projects which
contribute to the information needs described above are
part of other research programs. There is an increasing em-
phasis on field studies and ecosystem evaluations which is
expected to increase in importance over the next few years.
As these studies are developed and completed, overall
trends can be evaluated and hypotheses or principles
formed to guide further studies. Answers will not be
straightforward or quick to obtain. The complexity and
variety of ecosystems and their responses to stress, assure
that difficulties will arise. Therefore, objectives directed
toward these issues should be considered to be long-term in
nature.
Groundwater
Protection
Introduction
Groundwater supplies are extremely important. They
account for nearly half of our drinking water and a large
portion of the water used for irrigation. They are also vul-
nerable to contamination and difficult to clean up once
contaminated. And, compared with other aspects of en-
vironmental protection, we know very little about what
happens when pollution goes underground.
To adequately protect ground-water quality, EPA and the
states must be able to: identify the sources of ground-water
pollution, estimate the change in concentration of pollu-
tants from their entry into the subsurface to point of expo-
sure to humans, determine the health effects of such expo-
sure, and develop technological and financial data relating
to protecting clean ground-water and cleaning up already
polluted groundwater.
Much of the research on the health effects of, and control
of, drinking water contaminants is directed towards chem-
icals found in ground-water. Research to develop and eval-
uate technology for control of sources (such as surface im-
poundments) also supports effective ground-water protec-
tion decisions.
Background
The scientific capacity to assess and predict the impacts of
groundwater pollution is meager but improving. In the past
few years important gains have been made by EPA research
in technology for accessing the subsurface and taking sam-
ples that are uncontaminated by the sampling process. Fur-
ther, we have determined how a few organic chemicals be-
have in a few geological materials. However, current
groundwater monitoring techniques are cumbersome, ex-
pensive, and insufficiently precise, and our capability for
predicting the behavior of organic and microbiological con-
taminants is severely limited. To address these issues our
research is focused upon two areas: monitoring and predic-
tion.
In the monitoring area, significant progress is being
made. For example, three particularly promising ways to
expedite and improve subsurface investigations are geoph-
ysical techniques, sampling for organic chemicals in the
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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES 21
unsaturated (vadose) zone, and improved approaches to
groundwater sampling.
Geophysical sensing techniques, originally developed for
mineral resource exploration, may prove invaluable as sub-
surface monitoring methods. Such techniques include use
of metal detectors and magnetometers, ground-penetrating
radar, electromagnetic induction, resistivity and seismic
techniques. Sampling techniques for measuring gaseous
emissions in the soil column include isolation flux cham-
bers for capturing emissions at the surface or at varying de-
pths, subsurface probes containing Draeger tubes, and port-
able gas chromatographs. These techniques remain largely
in the experimental stage.
The major research in this area is shared by the EPA and
the U.S. Geological Survey, with some contribution from
the Department of Energy. The petroleum industry is a con-
tinuing source of technology, especially in geophysical
techniques.
To predict the impact of groundwater contamination on
underground sources of drinking water, a sufficient under-
standing of the behavior of contaminants in the subsurface
is required. A number of things are known:
Most heavy metals are relatively immobile in ground-
water when present as cations. Those which may exist as
anions (Cr, etc.) are likely to be highly mobile and cause
serious pollution problems.
Nitrate is usually quite mobile and fairly persistent in
ground-water.
Low molecular weight halogenated aliphatic hydrocar-
bons (methanes, ethanes, ethenes, propanes) are very mo-
bile and persistent in ground-water.
Many other synthetic organic compounds, including
aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, and ethers, have shown
sufficient mobility and persistence to have been detected as
ground-water pollutants in field studies.
These are only qualitative observations. To adequately
protect groundwater supplies, we must be able to make
quantitative estimates of contaminant concentrations at
points of withdrawal or discharge. This requires adequate
predictive tools which depend on an understanding of the
physical/chemical, hydrological, and biological processes
controlling transport and fate.
The major scientific and technical information gaps
which restrict our ability to make accurate predictions of
the impact of contamination include:
Inability to estimate the non-uniformity of formations,
resulting in inaccuracies in groundwater movement predic-
tion.
Inability to predict sorption of non-polar hydrophobic
compounds (e.g., chlorinated ethenes, trihalomethanes,
chlorinated ethanes, chlorinated aromatics, benzene) in
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22 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
geological materials of low organic carbon content (less
than 0.1%), which are particularly prevalent in the deeper
subsurface.
Lack of knowledge about the contribution of chemical/
physical processes other than sorption (e.g., surface-
catalyzed reactions) to changes in the concentration of sub-
surface pollutant.
Inability to predict biotransformation, the key process
affecting pollutant attenuation in the subsurface.
The major research on processes affecting organic chem-
icals in ground-water is shared by EPA and the U.S. Geolo-
gical Survey. Research in other countries is accelerating, es-
pecially in Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands. Israel.
and England. Research on virus transport and survival in
the subsurface is supported solely by EPA.
Research To improve our monitoring capability, our research will
Strategy evaluate geophysical and geochemical methods for detec-
tion and mapping of subsurface leachates and groundwater
contaminant plumes. A variety of methods will be evalu-
ated at hazardous waste sites selected in coordination with
EPA's regional offices. Sites selected will test the tech-
niques against different types of targets (e.g., plumes of con-
ductive contaminants or volatile organics, hydrocarbon
lenses) in different hydrogeologic regimes (e.g.. arid Great
Basin hydrogeology, Northeast aquifers with substantial
surface recharge).
With regard to downho/e sensing, research strategy is to
survey, develop, test, and evaluate sensors and methods
which can be used for hazardous waste site monitoring and
for preconstruction hydrogeologic investigations. Focus is
on small diameter, shallow-depth boreholes. Laboratory
studies will assess electrical properties of porous media for
application to geophysical measurements. A survey is being
made of the full array of existing downhole sensors. The
data obtained will be evaluated to determine to what extent
the equipment can be used, with or without modifications,
for hazardous waste site monitoring. Useful sensors will be
field tested.
With regard to vadose zone monitoring, planned research
will examine available methods and prepare guidance for
installation and operation of devices and interpretation of
their data. Monitoring in the unsaturated zone is designed
to detect leaching and percolation of pollutants from
hazardous wastes before the pollutants reach the water
table. Planned research will examine existing equipment,
determine installation and operational procedures, establish
equipment limitations, and describe methods for data inter-
pretation. Research will be principally concerned with
monitoring the movement, especially of fast moving organic
compounds, in the shallow subsurface at hazardous waste
land treatment areas through core-water and pore-water
sampling.
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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES 23
To date, the suction cup lysimeter has been the most
commonly used technique for obtaining water samples from
the unsaturated pores of the soil and shallow (less than 2
meters) zone. Research will determine the variables that
affect the performance of suction samplers. Planned re-
search will also examine the potential application of vadose
zone monitoring equipment to landfills and surface im-
poundments. Suction cup lysimeters are also subject to
plugging and other operational problems. Our research will
examine the limitations of this technology and evaluate
possible remedies.
Indicator parameters for ground-water monitoring can be
used to detect the presence of hazardous constituents in
groundwater. Indicator parameters are constituents chosen
because they are easy to measure and because their pres-
ence indicates the presence of other substances of concern.
A data base will be developed using data from existing re-
cords of Consent Decree, Superfund, and RCRA site
monitoring files. EPA researchers will test the rate of migra-
tion of selected indicator parameters with other hazardous
constituents of concern.
Indicator parameters will be selected according to waste
type, hydrogeologic considerations, and detectability above
background values. Questions to be investigated are: What
are the seasonal fluctuations in groundwater parameters
such as pH, temperature, specific conductance, and TOG?
What are the actual correlations between the indicator
parameters and the hazardous constituents of interest?
What classes of hazardous constituents are missed by the
current monitoring requirements which employ indicator
parameters? What indicator parameters or other technique
can pick up these "missed classes" of hazardous con-
stituents? For given types of wastes, what are appropriate
sets of indicator parameters, and under what conditions are
they reliable?
EPA's research over the next several years will emphasize
techniques for identifying and mapping hydrocarbon
plumes of contamination and implanted sensors for de-
tecting and quantifying specific organic chemicals.
Our groundwater prediction research seeks to be able to
predict the environmental impact of chemicals and
pathogens which escape into the environment and into the
subsurface. The research approach is to identify both char-
acteristics of chemicals that have similar transport behavior
and characteristics of geological materials which have sim-
ilar effects on pollutant behavior in the subsurface. The ul-
timate goal is to be able to identify a few characteristics of a
chemical (or pathogen) and a few characteristics of a geolo-
gical material and be able to predict the kind of environ-
mental impact which would result.
The prediction research strategy addresses the major
processes affecting contaminants in the subsurface: biolo-
gical, physical/chemical, and hydrological. Each process is
studied both from the view point of chemical parameters
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24
CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
and subsurface parameters. Field and laboratory studies of
each process will contribute to the mathematical models as
well as the data base on pollutants. Likewise, information
gained in other research on individual pollutants con-
tributes to the data base on pollutant parameters, while the
mathematical models of water movement and solute trans-
port are modified to include process descriptions. In turn,
the mathematical models are used to help design laboratory
and field studies. Such models may range from the very
simple to the very complex and multidimensional.
The EPA program concentrates on biological and
physical/chemical processes affecting organic pollutants
and viruses in the subsurface. Hydrologic processes are
well described and modeled due to extensive efforts by the
U.S. Geological Survey.
The increased understanding of sorption and
biotransformation gained by laboratory and limited field
studies through 1985 should allow this research to move
toward more field-oriented research in the 1986-1989 time
frame. The field studies will evaluate the increased under-
standing of the processes gained by laboratory studies as
well as evaluate the accuracy of the new models. At the
same time these field evaluations will demonstrate the inte-
gration of mathematical modeling with monitoring design
(both advanced and conventional techniques) to show the
most cost-effective procedures for groundwater in-
vestigations.
Major planned research products include:
Use of geophysical methods to map injection well fluid
movement. 1985
Guidelines for monitoring the vadose (unsaturated) /.one.
1985
Design specifications for an organic chloride fiber optics
detector, 1985
Effect of naturally-occurring organic subsurface material
on abiotic and biotic processes, 1985
Effects of initial contaminant concentration on biological
processes, 1986
Definition of important parameters which determine be-
havior of low molecular weight, volatile organic chemicals,
1987
Definition of important characteristics of geological mate-
rials which will allow grouping by influence on con-
taminants, 1988
Environmental
Modeling
Mathematical models are scientific, technical, and decision
making tools whose development, application, and utility
cut across all program areas, environmenta media and
scientific disciplines. In simple terms, models are quantita-
tive mathematical expressions of hypotheses, ideas, con-
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CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES 25
cepts, or observations that permit pertinent information and
data to be assembled, processed, and evaluated. In this con-
text, the development and application of models in the
broad environmental field provides: guides for data collec-
tion, frameworks for assessing available information and
data, techniques for evaluating complex interactions in-
cluding control strategies, and tools for predicting environ-
mental effects over a wide range of situation and con-
ditions.
Our ability to develop and use environmentally related
models is limited by our inability to accurately perceive,
measure, and mathematically describe real environmental
systems, organisms, or events. The inability to describe,
quantify, and interpret model uncertainty for any real
application is itself a major research and development sub-
ject. This need is closely related to another problemthat
of adequately conducted and documented field evaluation
studies.
Although research and development activities related to
specific modeling needs are discussed within the other
chapters, major generic issues remain. To date most en-
vironmental models {air as well as water) have been de-
signed to deal with so called "far field" situations where
the pollutant loads are assumed to be relatively well mixed
into the transporting media and the time frames run from
days to years. With increasing emphasis on multimedia ex-
posure and risk analyses, however, "near field" conditions
become extremely important. Modeling "near field" con-
ditions (e.g., zones in and around discharge plumes and
zones along highways and in building canyons, etc.) re-
quires improved characterization physical, and biological
factors of the environment that must be modeled. "Near
field" modeling may also have much shorter time sequ-
ences (minutes to hours) and highly variable con-
centrations. As a result, simplified computational pro-
cedures are required to analyze the greatly increased
volumes of data in order to reduce computational costs.
More sophisticated statistical and probability distribution
techniques are required for estimating average and minium/
maximum concentrations and conditions.
As environmental modeling techniques are improved and
as decision-makers require greater accuracy, there is an in-
creased necessity to provide better estimates of multimedia
source emissions in terms of time-varying source com-
positions and strengths. This is particularly important for
"near field" problems and for model evaluation studies.
Another major generic problem is that of linking environ-
mental exposure models with human and environmental
health submodels. Most previous air, water and terrestrial
model development efforts resulted in estimates of the con-
centration of chemical contaminants in various ambient
media (i.e., estimated environmental concentrations^ Con-
currently, effects models have most often dealt with dose
responses once the chemical contaminant is inside the
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26 CROSS-CUTTING ISSUES
organism. Thus, a linkage problem exists. How much of the
pollution outside of an organism gets inside? This problem
includes characterizing the population exposed in terms of
its spatial and temporal behavior and in understanding the
movement of the chemical into the organism.
Improvements also are needed in the model-user inter-
face. Many environmental models are so large, complex.
and dissimilar in operation that users have difficulty in de-
veloping input instructions to obtain the information they
need. Thus, the development of standard, simplified soft-
ware for use with a variety of models would help the aver-
age user apply them to his problems. Such software inter-
faces and overlay techniques could be designed for the low-
cost micro-computers that are now in widespread use.
Finally, limited user support continues to restrict the effi-
cient use of models for environmental decision making.
After models have been developed and are in use. there are
often no programs to obtain user feedback to improve and
maintain the model codes or to distribute updated pro-
grams, magnetic tapes, user's manuals or to provide on-line
assistance. The development of central sources for environ-
mental model user information, such as EPA's Center for
Water Quality Modeling, is intended to promote the wider
use and greater utility of environmetal models.
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Toxic Substances And
Pesticides
-------
Toxic Substances And
Pesticides
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Major Research Topics
Estimating Exposure: What methods are needed to estimate
exposure of humans or other organisms to pesticides or tox-
ic chemicals?
Predicting Response: What tests are needed to predict en-
vironmental and human responses to pesticides and toxic
substances?
Structure Activity: How does a chemical's structure relate
to its environmental and biological activities, and to what
extent can this relationship be used to screen chemicals for
potential health or ecological effects and to set priorities for
chemical testing?
Biotechnology: What health and environmental research is
needed to support assessment and regulation of biological
control agents or genetically engineered organisms?
Release and Exposure of Chemicals: What engineering re-
search is needed to develop predictive capabilities in
assessing release and exposure of chemicals into the en-
vironment and to determine best control measures to miti-
gate these releases and exposures?
Long Term Trends
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29
Toxic Substances And
Pesticides
Toxic substances, and their consequences for public health
an(j ^e environment, have become matters of intense
scientific, public and regulatory concern. The problems and
the comprehension of toxic substances in the environment
is rapidly evolving. New chemicals are entering the market,
the use of pesticides is ubiquitous, and science is dis-
covering previously unknown relationships between chem-
ical substances and biological processes. More than a cen-
tury of industrial development and agricultural moderniza-
tion have left behind a legacy of products and by-products
of toxic substances. Some of these chemicals are hazardous
to humans, plants or animals. If used with careful controls,
these synthetic substances can be extremely beneficial. If
used inappropriately, they can be detrimental to humans
and to the stability of the environment.
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) and the Feder-
al Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) pro-
vide the legislative mandate for our research in this area.
EPA reviews all new chemicals and pesticides to ensure
that they do not pose unreasonable risks to health or the
environment. To do so, EPA must know of the characteris-
tics of chemicals and of the most advanced scientific know-
ledge about their effects.
EPA's toxic substances research program is evolving in
several ways including closer merging of exposure and re-
sponse studies, shifting of ecological studies from a single-
species focus to emphasis on complex system dynamics,
and further development of information on the rela-
tionships between chemical structures and their biological
activities (SAR).
Long range trends that influence our research priorities
include changes in the mix, products, and location of in-
dustry, especially the chemical industries; dependence on
untreated groundwater for potable supplies, expansion and
relocation of agricultural activities, also biotechnology and
changes in the age structure and health of the population
which may affect sensitivity to chemicals. Other de-
velopments within the scientific community influence our
research focus. These include the rapid advances in our
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30
TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
understanding of immunology, virology, neurobehavioral
effects, reproductive dysfunction, genetic disease or herit-
able mutation or mutation, cardiovascular disease,
biotechnology and the origins of cancer.
Decisions about the control of toxic chemicals and pesti-
cides require accurate information about the benefits and
risks of each substance. EPA's toxic substances and pesti-
cides research programs are dedicated to maintaining and
improving the quality of this information.
The toxic substances and pesticides research programs re-
spond to specific research objectives in support of EPA's
enforcement and regulatory functions. Although each of the
two research programs has a separate budget and legislative
mandate, much of the research being done and many of the
scientific questions being addressed are relevant to both
programs. As a result, the integration of the information on
pesticide and toxic chemical research that began in the
1983 Research OufJook is hereby carried further, with uni-
fied discussions of exposure studies and research on biolo-
gical responses.
In addition to supporting research projects. EPA's pro-
gram investigates the scientific literature and follows rele-
vant projects of other federal agencies such as the National
Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the N'ational
Cancer Institute, the Food and Drug Administration, the
National Center for Toxicological Research, and the Nation-
al Institute of Occupational Safety and Health.
This chapter explains the major research themes of EPA's
Office of Pesticides and Toxic Substances, describes our
major research objectives within each theme, and indicates
the EPA research activities under way and planned to meet
those objectives.
The toxic substances and pesticides research effort for fis-
cal year 1984 is allocated $30.8 million. This total is di-
vided among the two programs as follows: toxic substances
research, $24.5 million million, and pesticides research.
$6.3 million. The total resources for the toxic substances
and pesticides research program are distributed among the
major research areas as follows: environmental processes
and effects 33%. health effects 43%. monitoring sys-
tems and quality assurance 17%. stratospheric modifica-
tion 2%, and scientific assessment 2%.
Our research program seeks to answer the major unre-
solved scientific and technical questions which detract
from effective environmental protection. For the toxic sub-
stances and pesticides research programs, the six highest
priority research themes are as follows:
Major
Research
Topics
Estimating Exposure: What methods are needed to estimate
exposure of humans or other organisms to pesticides or tox-
ic chemicals?
Predicting Response: What tests are needed to predict en-
vironmental and human responses to pesticides and toxic
substances?
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
31
Structure Activity: How does a chemical's structure relate
to its environmental and biological activities, and to what
extent can this relationship be used to screen chemicals for
potential health or ecological effects and to set priorities for
chemical testing?
Biotechnology: What health and environmental research is
needed to support assessment and regulation of (1) biolo-
gical control agents or (2) genetically engineered organisms?
Release and Exposure of Chemicals: What engineering re-
search is needed to develop predictive capabilities for
assessing human exposure and environmental release to
chemicals in the environment and to determine best control
measures to mitigate these releases and exposures?
Legislative Mandate
For Toxic Substances
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) establishes EPA's
authority to regulate, if necessary, all commercial chemicals
except those uses specifically exempted in the act.
Section 4 of TSCA gives EPA the authority to require
manufacturers and/or processors to test their chemicals for
health or environmental effects. This authority is selective,
applying only to those chemicals for which EPA makes cer-
tain findings as to the need for testing. Testing require-
ments under Section 4 are imposed by rule, each rule
specifying not only the chemical to be tested, but also the
nature of the required tests. EPA's Office of Toxic Sub-
stances uses both negotiated test rules and mandated test
rules to implement Section 4.
Section 5 of TSCA establishes a premanufacture notifica-
tion process for all new chemicals or significant new uses
of existing chemicals. The manufacturers of these chemicals
are required to submit information to EPA for review prior
to production. Unless EPA finds that the chemical poses an
unreasonable risk or demonstrates the need for additional
testing, the chemical is placed on the EPA inventory of ex-
isting chemicals.
Sections 6 and 7 of TSCA provide control authority for
existing chemicals. Section 6 is general regulatory authority
and Section 7 gives EPA special powers to address im-
minent hazards. Section 8 provides EPA with information-
gathering authority. Using these three sections, EPA can
limit or ban the production, distribution, disposal or use of
chemicals to prevent unreasonable risks to health or the en-
vironment.
Legislative Mandate
For Pesticides
EPA's legislative authority to regulate pesticide use comes
from the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide
Act (FIFRA) and Sections 180, 193 and 561 of the Federal
Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA). FIFRA gives the
EPA responsibility for determining the standards for regis-
tration of pesticides for legal use in this country. Section 3
of FIFRA provides EPA with the authority to regulate the
use of pesticides in a manner which will not result in un-
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32 TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
reasonable adverse effects to the public health and the en-
vironment. Sections 180, 193 and 561 of the FFDCA pro-
vide EPA with the authority to set tolerances and ex-
emptions for pesticides in food crops and in animal feed
and food additives.
To obtain registration for a pesticide, a manufacturer
must first test specific health and safety aspects of the sub-
stance using testing guidelines suggested by EPA. Results of
these tests are then submitted to EPA, which decides either
to register the pesticide for general or restricted use, to
request more information from the manufacturer, or to deny
or revoke registration. When a pesticide is registered. EPA
specifications for it include allowable use, means of pro-
duction, disposal requirements, crop residue limits, and
tolerances in animal feeds and food additives.
The Registration Standards Program involves an intensive
review of the data base supporting already registered chem-
icals. The Special Review Program includes risk/benefit re-
views of registered pesticides when there are effects ex-
ceeding established criteria for "reasonableness". Special
reviews may be launched if such criteria are met or ex-
ceeded during development of a Registration Standard, or
because such information is made known to EPA.
The function of EPA's research within the legislated con-
text is to develop tests for accurately assessing health and
environmental hazards and exposure and for assessing risk
in support of the registration process, the special review
process and enforcement, and to provide quality assurance
and technical evaluations.
Estimating Exposure: What methods are needed to estimate
exposure of humans or other organisms to pesticides or tox-
ic chemicals?
In making regulatory decisions, EPA is concerned with
the risks to humans and to the environment. Risk is a factor
of exposure to the agent as well as of its toxicity. Models
are useful tools for estimating exposure and risk. However.
models cannot answer all or even most of our concerns of
exposure or effects. It is necessary to recognize both the
utility and limitations of such models in risk assessment. In
addition, many existing models are insufficiently validated.
Mathematical models are highly complex, and improving
their reliability is an exacting task. The models are made
up of components that represent actual conditions in the
field. The exposure component is partially described in
terms of chemical concentrations in air. water, soil and
food and then coupled with data on human intake, absorp-
tion, and metabolism. The hazard component identifies and
measures potential adverse effects to organisms, and is de-
rived from biological analyses and stated in biological
terms. Although mathematical models are available for de-
fining hazards, they are still in the beginning stages of de-
velopment. These components must be integrated in order
for the model to be useful in assessing environmental risks.
At present, the models for transport and fate are being i
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES 33
modified to improve the accuracy of their predictions of en-
vironmental concentrations of pesticides and toxic sub-
stances. After the modifications are made, the models will
be validated in microcosms and in the field. Improvements
are being made along several lines, including integration of
single-medium models into multi-media models and de-
velopment of models to predict concentrations when the
source input varies with time.
Researchers also will incorporate data from specific re-
search projects, such as one which will take a census of
terrestrial non-target organisms at a pesticide spray site.
Planned field studies include model validation through
replication of actual pesticide use conditions. A cooperative
study between EPA and the U.S. Geological Survey in
Dougherty Plain, Georgia will gather field data on the
migration of pesticides through soil to groundwater. The re-
sults will be used in evaluating several predictive leaching
models. Also, there will be an assessment of groundwater
contamination by Temik in Florida and the resulting poten-
tial for health effects.
Studies will also be designed for pesticides used against
specific pests. A field study using actual mosquito control
pesticides with an organophosphate or carbamate base ap-
plied to ponds will measure population changes in the
pond's non-targeted organisms, as well as brain acetylcho-
linesterase and pesticide residues in fish, aquatic ver-
tebrates and food. Development of a mosquito pesticide
model will be coordinated with a regional mosquito control
program in a Midwest area.
Much of the effort on estimation of pesticide exposure in-
volves review and screening of data available through the
pesticide registration process. To assist in handling the
large volumes of data generated under TSCA, a growing re-
search effort is directed at pattern recognition and other
data reduction techniques and at improving computer pro-
grams for presenting and relating diverse data sets.
One approach taken in the exposure research is to use ex-
isting data and case studies for the validation. One such
case which will be pursued involves validation of an es-
tuarine exposure model using field data collected from the
Kepone contamination of the James River and estuary.
The health risk assessments mandated by TSCA require
exposure assessments which are based primarily on data
collected for other purposes. With exposure an increasingly
important factor in EPA regulations, research in this area is
focused on improved methods for collecting exposure data.
In particular, portable monitors and biological tests to
document exposure in individuals will be developed for
specific chemicals of concern. Methods will be developed,
using questionnaires and statistics, to relate individual
measurements to larger populations. In addition, field
sampling techniques will be developed to monitor exposure
pathways, both to provide data and to validate predictive
models.
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34 TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
Finally, our ability to estimate risk to humans is limited
primarily by a lack of understanding of the fundamental
biological factors which govern dose-response and the ul-
timate manifestation of human disease. Human data is often
difficult to obtain; controlled studies of chronic exposures
are virtually impossible and retrospective epidemiology is
plagued by the difficulties of exposure estimation and con-
founding variables. In the absence of controlled human ex-
periments or reliable quantitative epidemiology, risk es-
timates must be based upon a wide range of bioassays and
animal experiments. The two key factors here are extrapola-
tion from high to low dose and from experimental animals
to man (see the discussion of risk assessment in the "Cross-
cutting Issues" chapter). To reduce the uncertainties associ-
ated with existing risk methodology, research will focus on
improving methods for extrapolating from animal data to
human risk, and from high dose to low dose, of mutagene-
sis, carcinogenesis, and other potential adverse health
effects. In addition, we are investigating the potential use of
selected epidemiological studies to improve the data base.
Our approach will be to evaluate test methods to select.
for relevant toxic chemicals, the animal species or other
test system which most closely approximates responses
observed in humans. For example, short-term bioassays will
be evaluated using asbestos (a known human carcinogen)
and other fibers to determine the correlation of certain
short-term tests with tumorigenesis in whole animals.
Major planned research products include:
Results of a field study using non-toxic tracers to define
atmospheric release of gases and fine particulates, 1984
Field testing of mathematical descriptors for biodegrada-
tion in estuarine sediments, 1985
Models to estimate human exposures to organic chem-
icals, 1985
Subsurface transport and transformation models, 1986
Predictive model for dose effects of asbestiform minerals,
1986
Extrapolation models for estimation of neurotoxic risk to
humans, 1988
Predicting Response: What tests are needed to predict en-
vironmental and human responses to pesticides and toxic
substances?
Pesticides and toxic substances can cause a variety of
biological responses. The responses may be inconsequential
or serious, transitory or irreversible. However, there is
much less known about the detection, measurement and
importance of subtle effects on growth, genetic material,
and specific organ systems.
EPA's research on pesticides and toxic chemicals in-
cludes continued efforts to identify, measure and evaluate
biological responses (endpoints) of medical significance.
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES 35
This entails the development of new testing systems using
different organisms, rationales and/or analytic techniques.
In the health area, the selection of animal test systems most
appropriate for prediction of adverse effects on humans
continues to receive high priority. Studies are planned on
dermal absorption and other up-take routes, the different
responses of organ systems, and the relative sensitivity of
an individual in stages of development from conception to
adulthood. Chemical toxicity to genetic material, because of
its key role in carcinogenesis and heritable mutations, con-
tinues to receive special attention.
Compared to tests for human health responses, methods
to estimate environmental effects on populations, com-
munities and ecosystems are in an early stage of de-
velopment. The lack, of such methods can be problematic. It
is important, for example, that EPA be able to predict, from
test results, the possibility of reproductive failure in an en-
tire population. Likewise, there is a need for estimation of
the community consequences of changes in relative densi-
ties of key species and the ecosystem implications of
changes in nutrient cycling. Some of the effects, crop loss
or reduction in fish of commercial value, are of obvious
economic importance. Others, such as reduced assimilative
capacity in a wetlands ecosystem, are more difficult to
quantify.
EPA's research on environmental toxicology is shifting
from single-species bioassays to tests with complex sys-
tems. This is accompanied by increasing efforts to de-
termine the applicability of laboratory results in the predic-
tion of ecological effects under field conditions. Extrapola-
tion from laboratory to the field is necessary because field
measurement of population, community, and ecosystem
changes is complex and expensive.
The goal of this research is to develop laboratory
methods which correlate closely with field measures of sig-
nificant health or ecological effects. The health-related re-
search, combined with complementary studies at the
National Cancer Institute, National Center for Toxicological
Research and the Food and Drug Administration, will help
to bridge the gap between laboratory data and human
epidemiology. The ecological research, combined with
studies sponsored by the Fish and Wildlife Service, De-
partment of Interior, will help in the extrapolation of lab-
oratory results to field effects.
Major planned research products include:
Test methods for use in measuring adverse health effects:
cardiovascular disease (1984), immune system impairment
(1985), mutagenesis (1985), reproduction (1985), cancer
(1986) and liver/ kidney impairment and disease (1986).
Criteria for judging the usefulness and validity of test re-
sults in freshwater, system-level assessments, 1984
Tests for predicting effects of toxic chemicals in marine
systems, 1985
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36 TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
Field validation of laboratory-derived, microcosm, bioas-
say and effects test methods, 1985
Assessment methodology for human heritable effects of
chemical exposure, 1985
Development of short-term, inexpensive methodology for
identifying the teratogenic potential for chemicals. 1985
Short-term testing methods for specific neurophysical.
neurochemical and neurobehavioral changes to screen for
the effects of toxicants, 1986
Methodology for the prediction of potential reproductive
toxicity which may be used in determining the need for
two-generation animal studies, 1986
Catalog of terrestrial and environmental responses to pes-
ticides and toxic chemicals, 1988
Structure Activity: How does a chemical's structure relate
to its environmental and biological activities, and to what
extent can this relationship be used to screen chemicals for
potential health or ecological effects and to set priorities for
chemical testing?
Careful studies of molecular structure and specific activi-
ties indicate that compounds which are similar in chemical
structure, physiochemical properties or other factors may
have similar biological activity or effects. These correlations
are called "structure-activity relationships" or SAR.
Structure-activity relationship analysis is one of EPA's
approaches to the evaluation of new chemicals under the
premanufacture notification (PMN) program. Most PMNs
are accompanied by few test data on health or environmen-
tal effects. Where appropriate, EPA employs SAR analysis
to set priorities among PMNs in terms of potential hazard
and to build the case for requiring testing under Section
5(e) of TSCA. Similarly, SAR may be useful in evaluating
requests for PMN exemption or to guide in the selection of
the most appropriate tests for existing chemicals under Sec-
tion 4 of TSCA.
Within limits, and in the absence of data to be used in-
stead of SAR, the SAR approach is useful in screening
chemicals for further evaluation and setting priorities for
testing. In some cases, existing knowledge may support use
of SAR in estimating environmental fate and biological
effects. Were a verified SAR methodology available, data
collected and validated on one chemical of similar struc-
ture or characteristics could be applied to another chemical
of similar structure.
EPA's research program on SAR began with a review of
research done by the FDA, chemical companies, and pri-
vate laboratories. Data on a wide variety of compounds are
being collected from these sources and from EPA's research
to identify useful correlations and define the applicability
and limitations of recognized correlations. Other organiza-
tions involved in SAR research include the Food and Drug
Administration (with emphasis on human health effects)
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES 37
and a number of industrial, private organizations and aca-
demic institutions.
EPA's research into SAR has both environmental and
health effects components. The environmental research on
SAR has two objectives: to expand the data base of correla-
tions, and to determine the cause-effect relationships be-
tween a chemical's molecular structure and its behavior in
organisms or the environment. The research program care-
fully considered the impact of metabolites and degradation
products on SAR prediction.
Certain chemical structures may be correlated with
solubility in water or fatty tissues and these correlations,
taken together with other data may permit regulatory es-
timation of exposure to aquatic organisms. The chemical
compounds emphasized in the environmental research
effort may be selected based upon their predicted hazard
and extent of manufacture. Research will proceed by com-
paring SAR model predictions with defined sets of field
data to estimate the SAR models' accuracy.
EPA's health effects research on SAR has two main objec-
tives. First, to investigate the application of pattern recogni-
tion, statistical and thermodynamic techniques in combina-
tion to predict genetic, carcinogenic, and other toxic activi-
ties. Second, to construct chemical data bases and relate
chemical structures to potential effects including genetic,
carcinogenic, and eventually neurotoxic and reproductive
effects.
Major planned research products include:
Develop models to predict thermodynamic properties of
chemicals to be used in estimating reactivity in the atmos-
phere, 1985
Develop preliminary model for predicting toxicity to
terrestrial plants and animals, 1985
Evaluate SAR methods to estimate acute and chronic
toxicity to aquatic organisms, 1985
Evaluation of molecular electrostatic interactions to eval-
uate chemical toxicity, 1986
Evaluate SAR pattern recognition techniques for pre-
dicting genotoxic effects with yeast and bacteria, 1986
Report on molecular electrostratic interaction/structure-
activity relationship methods for one class of chemicals to
predict carcinogenic and mutagenic effects, 1986
Report on SAR method development to estimate
reproductive/teratogenic activities, 1988
Biotechnology: What health and environmental research is
needed to support assessment and regulation of (1) biolo-
gical control agents or (2) genetically engineered organisms?
In its broadest meaning, biotechnology is the application
of biological sciences for the production of chemicals or life
forms which have potential commercial uses._ Basic re-
search has provided researchers with the ability to manipu-
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38 TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
late genetic material (i.e., produce recombinant DNA-DNA
in vitro) resulting in the rapid and relatively simple pro-
duction of organisms with heritable characteristics selected
by the researcher.
Under FIFRA the Agency has regulated biological materi-
al used for pesticide purposes for over a decade. These
guidelines have recently been revised (Section 158 subpart).
OPTS was recently advised it had the jurisdiction to regu-
late genetically engineered substances under TSCA. OPTS
has recently received two inquiries regarding whether prod-
ucts of biological processes are subject to Premanufacture
Notification (PMN) application. Futhermore, it is expected
that such activities will be increasing.
To be able to make regulatory decisions required under
TSCA, OPTS must be able to weight potential hazards with
potential benefits of biotechnological processes. Research is
needed in DNA and genetic engineering risk assessments.
monitoring methodology, methods to define and
characterize products, and development of criteria for reg-
ulatory use.
There are a number of other agencies, universities and
private laboratories conducting research on genetic engi-
neering and other forms of biotechnology. The National In-
stitutes of Health have focussed specifically on problems
associated with RDNA and on methods to design vector
plasmids and organisms to reduce potential hazards. Their
efforts, and others by the FDA in drug related research and
the USDA on Agriculture applications, will be used by EPA
in developing regulatory approaches. However, problems
and challenges remain. To address these, the agency is con-
templating a major research program. In order to protect the
public health and environment from adverse effects of man-
made exotic organisms and their by-products, the EPA will
conduct research designed to understand the implications
of, and to regulate as necessary, the expected increase in
biological wastes from increased use of biotechnological
processes. The agency's research will also explore
biotechnology to reduce wastes and degrade existing prob-
lem compounds and improve EPA's ability to monitor
biotechnology for health and environmental risks. Such re-
search will also support state and local regulatory actions.
Initial EPA research efforts in biotechnology will de-
termine the current limits of performing risk/benefit anal-
yses to evaluate genetically engineered microorganisms
prior to their introduction into commerce. Other EPA stud-
ies will develop methods to identify and assess the effects
of biotechnology microorganisms in non-target organisms
such as desireable aquatic and terrestrial species. Such re-
search will include location and emission rates of the
organisms, persistence, dispersion of organisms in the en-
vironment and resultant exposure and risk of infecting hu-
mans or the environment. We will begin to develop
biotechnology - oncogenesis transformations models, and
models for assessing biotechnology health impacts. We will
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES 39
also conduct technology and engineering assessments of
physical, chemical and biological techniques and devices to
contain and destroy those unwanted biological control
agents or genetically engineered organisms. Other EPA re-
search efforts will investigate the survival, transport and
fate of recombinant organisms, and will develop test
methods using RDNA or monoclonal antibody techniques
for assessing health and environmental hazards to fish and
avian species. Simultaneous with launching this research,
EPA will sponsor a series of workshops where experts can
assess the state of knowledge and research needs associated
with recombinant DNA public health risks, environmental
risks, and the application of biotechnology to environmen-
tal problems.
Since 1975, EPA has been conducting research into the
immunological effects of biological pesticides on mamma-
lian cells. This research is intended to determine if biolo-
gical pesticide agents can provoke immune responses and
replicate in the mammalian systems. Efforts to date have fo-
cused primarily on baculoviruses.
Significant deficiencies currently exist in our ability to
adequately deal with biological agents in a regulatory set-
ting. For example, we lack the ability to precisely identify
and quantify biological pesticide samples. Many problems
stem from the fact that microbes are living organisms which
undergo morphological and biochemical changes while in
host species. Standardized methods for the isolation of
these organisms from animal tissues are generally not avail-
able. Our future research will address the problem of
isolating and identifying baculoviruses, bacteria, fungi, and
protozoa from animal cells.
In order to determine how biological pesticides behave in
the environment, our researchers will use methods de-
veloped for detecting, testing and/or measuring exposure
under field conditions. As in other parts of the toxic sub-
stances and pesticides research program, the correlation of
laboratory results with field data will provide the essential
validation of screening systems. If appropriate, exposure-
dose-response data and other mathematical relationships
will be used to facilitate comparison and correlation.
Major planned research products include:
Develop and test selected tier one protocols (screening)
for estimating hazards to non-target terrestrial species. Em-
phasize dosing regimes, non-target endpoints, and survival
and persistence of biological control agents (BCAs) in the
environment, 1984
Report on viral effects on mammalian immune responses
in cells, 1984
Report on use of monoclonal antibodies for identification
of biological control agents, 1984
Report on the mechanisms of persistence of baculovirus
in tissue, 1984
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40
TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
Report on the development of DNA nucleic acid probes
specific for biological pesticide agents, 1985
Conduct in situ testing of Bacillus fhuringiensis with
non-target freshwater organisms under field conditions,
1985
Conduct technology and engineering assessment of the
potential for environmental contamination, and physical,
chemical and biological techniques and devices to contain
and destroy those unwanted biological control agents or
genetically engineered organisms, 1985
Release and Exposure of Chemicals: What engineering re-
search is needed to develop predictive capabilities in
assessing release and exposure of chemicals into the en-
vironment, and determine best control measures to mitigate
these releases and exposures?
Predictive capabilities in assessing release and exposure
of chemicals into the environment are needed by EPA in
the review of premanufacturing notices for new chemicals
as required by TSCA. EPA plans to develop predictive
models which will address different chemical unit op-
erations, unit processes, and physical-chemical properties
of chemicals and predict potential exposure and release
levels as well as best control measures to mitigate release
and exposure of new chemicals.
In 1984, EPA scientists will search for existing literature
and develop an engineering research work plan for 1985
and after. During 1984. a pilot-scale test for the treatability
of classes of potentially toxic chemicals will be conducted
to build up a data base which will be utilized to validate
these predictive models for waste streams.
Major planned research products include:
Report on the release and exposure from unit operations.
unit processes, and sampling activities 1985
Evaluation of the techniques and devices to contain and
destroy genetically engineered organisms. 1985
Report on predicting the effectiveness of chemical pro-
tective clothing, 1985
Determination of the fate of and other substances in
wastewater treatment svstems, 1985
Long Term
Trends
The major long-term (to the year 2,000) trends in environ-
mental research will be shaped by six rapidly developing
areas of scientific knowledge: quantification of risk (in-
cluding engineering predictive capabilities), structure-
activity relationships, measurement technology biorationals
and genetic engineering, human biological systems, and
sensitive populations. While other areas are important, and
scientific breakthroughs can skew trends unexpectedly.
these are the most important forces currently identifiable.
The quanti/ication of risk is the key to providing scien-
tifically valid input into the risk management process. As
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TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES 41
more sensitive measurement capabilities highlight the long-
term, low-dose exposure of more people to more sub-
stances, the process of environmental regulation will be-
come ever more explicitly one of balancing conflicting
goals and risks. This, combined with the dramatic increases
in data- and model- handling capabilities of the next
generation of computers will help to focus research on such
data gaps as the effects of exposure to multiple pollutants,
pollutant impacts on natural health recovery systems.
neurobehavioral effects, ecosystem "robustness," etc.
Engineering predictive capabilities in assessing the re-
lease and exposure of new chemicals are urgently needed
for the on-going PMN review activities. The number of new
chemicals produced is rapidly increasing, which multiplies
the complexity of the ways these chemicals release and ex-
pose to the environment. Models to predict the movement
of these new chemicals will have to be improved and mod-
ified in order to meet the challenges posed by these new
species of chemicals continuously propagated. The control
measures to mitigate the release and exposure of new
chemicals will be determined based on engineering feasibil-
ity, cost effectiveness, and energy efficacy. Those control
measures will need constant verification and refinement to
meet the ever changing needs.
Structure-activity relationships (SAR) (how a substance's
chemical structure determines its environmental/biological
activity) can be used as an indicator or guide to the neces-
sity of further laboratory tests. A major advance in SAR re-
search will result from the application of sophisticated
computer science and the incorporation of biophysical data
and research on the mechanisms of toxicity. Information
now being developed on cellular and organismal processes
such as absorption, distribution, metabolism, toxification,
and excretion after exposure of the chemical to the test
organism and the eventual biological effect will greatly en-
hance the predictive ability of SAR techniques. For ex-
ample, one area where research could vastly improve SAR
utility is in determining the behavioral and neurophysiolo-
gical consequences of chemical and structural damage to
the nervous system. Other influences include less data-
intensive mathematical models and increased information
on the relationship of chemical structure to the basic mech-
anisms involved in teratology and reproduction.
Measurement technology is just beginning to give us the
capacity to measure: actual human exposures to a number
of man-made chemicals, low concentrations of toxic sub-
stances and small amounts of individual chemicals within
complex matrices (e.g., soil). Practical technologies to
measure many non-volatile substances can be expected
soon. Such developments may well outstrip our scientific
capacity to determine the human health or environmental
implications of exposure to such substances. This, in turn,
could influence the focus of our research over the next 15
years.
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42 TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND PESTICIDES
Biorationais and genetic engineering will have many im-
pacts which are very difficult to foresee at present. Two
which can be seen are the development of ever more pest-
specific chemical control agents and the production of
living substances "designed" to fill a useful, man-made eco-
logical niche (e.g., digesting and metabolizing dioxins). The
former (precisely targeted control chemicals) will pose an
unusual challenge in that they are so specific that tests on
like organisms maynot be relevant, and the environmental
and metabolic "daughters" of such substances may be dif-
ficult to predict. The latter (genetically engineered "organ-
isms") may be equally difficult to test for "safety", in some
cases, because of the complexity and unpredictability of
living systems. On the other hand, the environmental ap-
plications of both biorationals and genetic engineering hold
enormous potential for obviating the need for broadcasting
toxins and for solving existing environmental problems by
detoxifying wastes.
Our understanding of human bio/ogk;a/ systems is
yielding major insights which will dramatically alter future
research focus. For example, neuroscience is rapidly de-
veloping. We are making progress towards understanding
the cellular and biochemical events which control behavior
of the whole organism. Advances in our understanding of
the intracellular events and neurophysiological processes
may fundamentally alter our evaluation of the neurotoxicity
of substances. In other areas, new tests for biological effects
are being perfected, advances are being made in our ability
to study human tissue in the laboratory, oncogene research
has isolated human DNA fragments which cause malignan-
cies in mouse cells, and so on. Each new discovery at this
level of detail provides another piece of the mosaic, and a
picture of how humans function and respond to their en-
vironment is gradually emerging. The nature of this picture
will determine future environmental regulatory strategies.
A growing awareness of how sensitive popu/ations (cate-
gories of individuals, such as the aged and those with lung
diseases, which show exceptional responses to exposure to
environmental agents) differ from the norm will shape
efforts to protect these individuals. Standards and tests de-
signed with young, healthy individuals in mind may not be
appropriate for the adequate protection of those who need
protection most. The entire topic comprises a significant
gap in current knowledge, and the research and regulatory
implications of filling that gap are largely unknown.
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Hazardous Wastes
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Hazardous Wastes
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Background
Major Research Topics
Securing landfills and surface impoundments: What de-
signs and operations would make landfills and surface im-
poundments more secure?
Land treatment: What information is needed to make op-
timum use of land treatment for hazardous waste disposal?
Volatile organics: How can air pollution from volatile orga-
nics be controlled?
Incineration: What information is needed to optimize in-
cineration of hazardous wastes?
Detoxification of intransigent toxins. How can difficult to
destroy and/or highly toxic wastes be safely detoxified at a
reasonable cost?
Selective removal: Can innovative treatment techniques be
used to selectively remove the toxic constituents of both
liquid and gaseous waste streams?
Sampling analysis and field monitoring: How can sampling
and analysis methods be improved?
Screening complex wastes: How can complex wastes be
screened to determine their hazard?
Non-volatile compounds: How can non-volatile compound,1.
be measured?
Data quality: How can the quality of sample data be
assured?
Long Term Trends
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45
Hazardous Wastes
Introduction
Hazardous wastes and their impact on human health and
the environment remain a major public issue. Hazardous
wastes from industrial production have been common for
decades. The legislation and research to address the prob-
lems they create have been launched. Because mitigation of
the toxicity, resistance to treatment, and other characteris-
tics of hazardous wastes are more complex than they are
with conventional wastes, new information and improved
technology are required to ensure that these wastes are safe-
ly handled and disposed.
Hazardous wastes include many man-made compounds
which do not occur naturally. Little is known with regard
to their potential toxicity or carcinogenicity. Many com-
pounds are either slow to biodegrade or do not biodegrade
at all. Moreover, the existence and extent of the health and
environmental problems caused by hazardous wastes re-
main undefined. Such questions as concentrations at which
chemical wastes cause adverse effects, routes of hazardous
waste exposure and the effects of chronic exposure on peo-
ple and the environment are only beginning to be explored.
In response to these issues and Congress' mandate, EPA
has established a hazardous waste research program. The
goal of this program is to reduce risks to public health and
the environment by ensuring sound management of
hazardous wastes.
The EPA research program for hazardous waste in fiscal
year 1984 is allocated $32.5 million. These resources are
distributed among the research disciplines as follows: engi-
neering and technology, 50%; monitoring systems and qual-
ity assurance, 25%; environmental processes and effects,
16%; scientific assessment, 6%; and health effects, 3%.
Legislative
Mandate
EPA's mandate for hazardous waste research comes from
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of
1976, as amended; the Federal Water Pollution Control Act
(FWPCA), as amended; and the Comprehensive Environ-
mental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERC-
LA) of 1980. RCRA is the vehicle for defining, at the
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46 HAZARDOUS WASTES
national level, the minimal guidelines and requirements
necessary to protect human health and the environment
from hazards posed by the treatment, storage or disposal of
hazardous wastes.
RCRA also gives the EPA authority to establish national
standards to ensure proper management, transportation,
treatment, storage, and disposal of hazardous wastes. RCRA
requires EPA to develop lists and criteria for determining
what constitutes a hazardous waste, standards that have to
be met by handlers of hazardous wastes, technical stan-
dards for issuing permits to hazardous waste filities and re-
quirements for the authorization of state hazardous waste
programs.
The Federal Water Pollution Control Act, which sets
federal policy regarding the discharge of oil or hazardous
substances into U.S. navigable waters, directs EPA to devel-
op, promulgate and revise regulations pertaining to such
discharges. FWPCA authorizes EPA to initiate civil action
for violations and to undertake actions to mitigate damage
to public health or welfare caused by discharges. Although
regulations implementing FWPCA already exist, they re-
quire periodic updating based on new information and im-
provements in control technology.
The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensa-
tion, and Liability Act provides authority for a federal re-
sponse to the release or threatened release of hazardous
substances. CERCLA also includes the Post-Closure Liabil-
ity Trust Fund. As a means to achieve its goals. CERCLA
established the Hazardous Substance Response Trust Fund.
also known as Superfund. While a significant amount of
scientific activity is underway relating to Superfund activi-
ties, this activity is of a technical support nature and there-
fore is not appropriate for inclusion in the Research OuJ-
look. Many of the results from the research described be-
low, however, will be of use at some point in the Super-
fund effort.
Wastes at industry sources or already in disposal sites need
to be identified, characterized and classified as to their
composition, quantities, and potential health effects. Ex-
isting and emerging treatment technologies should be ev-
aluated and developed to provide alternate ways to detoxif\
these wastes. Sites to be used for disposal, and disposal
technology to be employed at the sites, need to be evalu-
ated to assure that they are effective. Discarded wastes need
to be adequately monitored to ensure that hazardous sub-
stances do not escape into natural environments. Permits
for operating sites and for disposing of wastes need to pro-
vide permittees with the appropriate requirements to be fol-
lowed. Instrumentation to monitor sites and to assure com-
pliance or to detect and measure problems needs to be
effective for various types of wastes.
All of these activities and requirements demand a solid
scientific base of technically sound, field-tested and proven
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|\/]3JQr
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 47
procedures that supply accurate and timely information for
solving a specific hazardous waste problem. Moreover, the
data and information on which decision-making is based
must be of high quality to assure consistent management or
control approaches, since much of the regulatory authority
for dealing with hazardous wastes will be transferred to
state agencies. States will need monitoring methods for
obtaining verifiable data. A Hazardous Waste Land Treat-
ment Research Plan has been formulated by a peer panel of
experts representing academia, industry, state, and con-
sultants. This plan identifies seven major areas in which re-
search and development efforts are needed. These areas are;
(1) assimilative capacity, (2) monitoring/analytical methods,
(3) closure/postclosure methodology, (4) verification of pre-
dictive design, (5) pretreatment options, (6) economics, and
(7) technology transfer and technical assistance. EPA's re-
search efforts will focus on these seven major areas of need.
A major problem facing EPA is the relatively recent
recognition of the dangers from waste and the dearth of
scientific data on the subject. For example, scientific an-
alytical methods have been developed for many volatile
and semi-volatile compounds, but less progress has been
made in developing methods for non-volatile compounds.
EPA's research program is designed to fill major informa-
tion gaps, both to provide near-term solutions and to es-
tablish a scientific base for the longer-term. Consideration
is given to a range of treatment options and their costs to
enable cost-effective assessments of available alternatives.
Securing landfills and surface impoundments: What de-
signs and operations would make landfills and surface im-
poundments more secure?
Landfills and surface impoundments have been used for
years as an inexpensive means of disposing of hazardous
wastes. The design of many of these sites followed hapha-
zard, conflicting and sometimes erroneous information.
Some of the problems of today, particularly ground-water
contamination, are testimony to the inadequacy of the ear-
lier approach. With that legacy in mind, one of the objec-
tives of EPA's proposed research program is to develop the
information needed to assure that landfills and surface im-
poundments are designed to be secure. The research focus
is on the life span and efficacy of flexible, synthetic mem-
branes and/or impervious soils used as liners for landfills
and surface impoundments.
Flexible membrane liners (FML's) and impervious soils
can be placed on the bottom of a waste site before the
hazardous waste disposal begins; they can also be used to
cap sites once they are filled. The liners, if installed and
maintained correctly, contain wastes and isolate them from
surface or ground water. The key design criterion for using
FML's and impervious soils is whether they are compatible
with the wastes they are to control: some wastes may pass
through certain materials used in liners, other wastes may
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48 HAZARDOUS WASTES
chemically degrade liners. EPA research projects are de-
veloping and evaluating compatibility test procedures for
both synthetic liners and clay soil liners so that the waste
management facilities can evaluate their wastes against
alternative liners. Research projects are also investigating
techniques to monitor the integrity of liners.
EPA has the leading role in federally sponsored FML re-
search, although there are a few other organizations con-
ducting their own programs. A small program conducted by
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is looking at liner com-
patibility with military wastes (e.g.. explosives). Private
companies are developing new liners, but their product de-
signs are hampered by the lack of precise descriptions of
the specific waste mixtures which would require liners.
EPA's research approach is to develop tests to determine
the compatibility of liners with various classes of organic
and inorganic compounds at concentrations likely to be
seen in waste mixtures. The tests will be for effects on
porosity, permeability, and the response of the liners to
chemical and mechanical stress, installation of liners for
waste management facilities present special types of prob-
lems. EPA has a research program to develop acceptable
criteria for use in evaluating seaming FML's in the factory
and in the field. The program will also develop criteria to
ensure that the "as built" matches the "as designed" speci-
fications for both synthetic liners and clay soil liners.
A method will be devised to predict likely leachate com-
positions based on various concentrations of waste com-
pounds and chemical reactions among them. The liners
will then be installed in test beds and evaluated under
actual field operating conditions. Monitoring and
measuring equipment will be developed to determine the
durability of the liners and their ability to contain and con-
trol specific waste mixtures. The output of the research will
be a set of recommendations for using liners at waste sites.
Research regarding surface impoundment liners will also
focus on detecting leaks in liners. New methods and in-
strumentation are needed to detect leaks. The current
method is to take periodic samples from monitoring wells
around an impoundment. Research is evaluating acoustic
emissions monitoring, time domain reflectometry and elec-
trical resistivity methods for detecting leaks in liners. The
objective is to detect leaks at the liner before the pollu-
tants reach the ground water. Research tests at a pilot scale
pond lined with an FML having known leaks will be fol-
lowed by limited field evaluations. Once a leak has been
detected, however, methods are needed to plug it. Tech-
niques are being evaluated for determining the repairability
of leaking liners under a variety of conditions.
A manual with landfill and surface impoundment design
recommendations was made available in 1983. It will be
updated periodically as more is learned about waste charac-
teristics and liner compatibility. The leak-sealing methods
will be investigated in 1984. In future years, emphasis will
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 49
be put on evaluating technologies to increase service life
and to improve the integrity of the installed liner systems.
Other means to control the flow of waste-site leachate
will be studied to match the type of control methods with
the nature of the leachate problem and the characteristics of
the waste site. This work is important because groundwater
and surface water will become contaminated as they come
into contact with the leachate plume. This, in turn, will
affect drinking water aquifers and could, depending on the
seriousness of the contamination, lead to the closure of
drinking water sources.
An interim protocol has been developed to provide a
guide to the efficiency of applying various wastes in a land
treatment system. The laboratory phase includes soil and
waste characterization, microbial activity, principle
hazardous organics reduction, toxicity reduction, leachabil-
ity, adsorption, respirometry, phytotoxicity, and microtoxic-
ity evaluation. This phased approach defines significant
soil parameters, identifies and quantifies hazardous con-
stituents contained in the waste, as well as categorizing the
treatability potential of a specific waste when applied to a
specific site. If the laboratory phase indicates the waste is a
potential candidate for land treatment, then the pilot scale
evaluation is initiated to provide information relevant to
actual climatic conditions. EPA's Office of Research and
Development currently has a 100 acre pilot plant available
for land treatment evaluation of various industrial
hazardous wastes.
At the pilot scale land treatment system, individual plots
will be established and characterized for biological, physi-
cal, and chemical parameters. Various loading rates, which
are based on laboratory evaluations, will be established in
triplicate on the plots. The established plots will be op-
timally managed using current state-of-the-art technology
relating to application, incorporation, carbon:nitrogen:
phosphorus ratio, pH, oxygen, and moisture content. Sam-
ples from the zone of incorporation will determine biologic-
al degradation, immobilization, and chemical transforma-
tion; core and soil pore samples will be obtained from the
unsaturated zone to determine any pollutant migration; sur-
face runoff samples will be analyzed to identify any pollu-
tants which might be present during rainfall; air samples
will be obtained to identify any organic components which
might volatilize due to temperature/moisture conditions,
and groundwater monitoring will be established for back-
ground and monitoring information.
Major planned research products include:
Procedures for determining leachate composition, 1984
Standardized test procedures for determining waste/liner
chemical compatibility, 1985
Procedures for locating and repairing liner leaks, 1986
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50 HAZARDOUS WASTES
Land treatment: What information is needed to make op-
timum use of land treatment for hazardous waste disposal?
The concept of land treatment for hazardous wastes is
not new. Petroleum companies have used the technique for
more than 20 years with good success in treating sub-
stances such as tank bottom residues. EPA's research will
build upon the information garnered from these earlier suc-
cesses and will extend the land treatment option for a
broader range of hazardous wastes for which conventional
disposal is economically and environmentally undesirable.
Research will focus on understanding the subsurface physi-
cal, chemical and biological processes that affect the move-
ment and degradation of wastes.
The key to optimal use of land treatment systems for
hazardous waste disposal is a sufficient understanding of
the behavior of pollutants in the subsurface environment.
Only through elucidation of the importance and magnitude
of the various physical, chemical and biological mechan-
isms functioning in the subsurface will we be able to inte-
grate the influence of these processes and understand pol-
lutant behavior in this media. Consideration of this in-
formation in site selection, plant layout, loading rates, in-
corporation methods, etc. will allow for appropriate en-
vironmental safeguards during all phases of land treatment
operations. Proper management includes laboratory evalua-
tion of the applied waste and receiving soil plus applica-
tion, monitoring and data evaluation. The major benefits of
using this natural assimilative capacity of soil are two-fold:
first, it can be a very cost-effective approach, and second.
through land treatment such processes as biological de-
gradation, chemical transformation and immobilization can
convert some wastes into innocuous compounds rather
than having them stored in a hazardous form in landfills
and surface impoundments.
Land treatment studies begin in the laboratory, then
move to a greenhouse environment and. finally, to actual
test sites if good treatability potential is indicated. EPA cur
rently has a test area of more than 100 acres available for
land treatment studies. Laboratory tests will be made of
actual waste mixtures supplied by cooperating industries.
The mixtures will be characterized to determine the
amounts and types of waste compounds they contain. The
land at the test sites will be characterized to determine its
physical and chemical parameters and likely biological re-
sponses to the waste. The mixture will then be spread on
the soil and tilled.
Measuring and monitoring instruments and sample taking-
will reveal the degree of biological activity taking place.
Soil column testing in the laboratory will determine the
migration and degradation of pollutants and allow for the
calculation of loading rates. Variables will be evaluated to
determine the optimum land treatment process. The effect
of such variables as loading rate of waste initially applied
to the land, different application and incorporation
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 51
methods, amount of soil moisture, pH, and soil fertility on
subsurface process kenetics will be determined so that the
degradation potential of various wastes under various soil
and climatic conditions can be more accurately predicted.
Volatile organics: How can air pollution from volatile orga-
nics be controlled?
Waste materials which are disposed of in a landfill or
surface impoundment; treated to change their chemical or
physical composition; or stored in tanks, piles, or un-
covered may produce air pollution when either the mate-
rials themselves, or the products of chemical reactions
among them, volatilize (evaporate). Such volatile organic
compound (VOC) emissions found in the air around treat-
ment, storage and disposal facilities may produce health
and environmental effects as well as unpleasant odors.
EPA's research program is developing techniques for
measuring and predicting the amounts and rates of VOC '
emissions from surface impoundments, land treatment faci-
lities, landfills, and storage facilities. Methods are being de-
veloped to estimate VOC movement through different
media and to predict emissions from different surfaces. Var-
ious methods for sampling of gases emitted from surface
soil will be examined, and selected methods will be ap-
plied in field evaluations. These sampling techniques for
measuring gaseous emissions in the soil column and at the
surface will be developed and evaluated to estimate vapors
emitted to the ambient air. In 1984. EPA will field test an
automated cryogenic trapping and analysis system for
sampling and analyzing toxic air pollutants. This sytem
will provide monitoring data approximating a real-time re-
sponse.
Research projects will develop and refine air-emission re-
lease rate models and verify these models via field
monitoring. Field monitoring will also develop a data base
on the amounts and rates of VOC emissions from actual
hazardous waste facilities. Information comparing field
sampling results and estimated emissions from models will
be available in 1984. Statistical comparisons of the emis-
sions rates will be made.
VOC emission control technologies which can be applied
to treatment, storage and disposal facilities will be in-
vestigated. Laboratory and pilot scale studies on emission
from surface impoundments will be a primary area of study
along with examining pretreatment techniques to remove
volatile compounds from wastes prior to disposal or im-
poundment. Results will be available in 1986.
Selected VOC emission controls for other treatment and
disposal processes will be evaluated in the field to docu-
ment their cost-effectiveness. These will include the use of
covers and associated VOC destruction/capture technologies
for tanks and lagoons capping of landfills, and maintenance
programs to cut fugitive emissions. The verified prediction
and measurement methods will be used to evaluate the
magnitude of the VOC problem so that site designers and
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52 HAZARDOUS WASTES
permit reviewers can compare performance estimates with
actual emissions. This evaluation and comparison will pro-
vide the technical basis for potential regulatory action and
for identifying future research needs.
Major planned research products include:
VOC emission measurements from hazardous waste treat-
ment, storage, and disposal facilities, 1984
Predictive modelling and measurement techniques for
VOC emissions from surface impoundments and land dis-
posal facilities, 1984
Assessment of air emissions from land treatment of refin-
ery oily sludges, 1984
Soil-gas sampling techniques of chemicals for exposure
assessment, 1986
Assessment of alternative control technologies for VOC
emissions, 1986
Incineration: What information is needed to optimize the
incineration of hazardous wastes?
Incineration is an effective method for destroying
hazardous wastes. Its use in the past was limited by its rel-
atively high cost when compared to landfill and surface im-
poundment alternatives. However, these alternatives are
now becoming more expensive and less available for cer-
tain wastes and geographical regions. There are currently
more than 300 hazardous waste incineration facilities in the
United States.
Extensive incinerator performance data have been de-
veloped in support of RCRA regulations, regulatory impact
analyses, and regional and state-level permit programs. An
understanding of the overall destruction efficiency capabili-
ty of these systems is emerging from analysis of these data.
However, such information is insufficient to enable predic-
tion, real-time measurement, and optimization of in-
cinerator operation. EPA research will develop the scientif-
ic and operating data needed to assure compliance and safe
operation of thermal destruction systems.
Ongoing efforts will assess the performance capabilities
of existing hazardous waste thermal destruction devices (in-
cinerators, industrial kilns, boilers, etc.). Resultant data will
provide the technical foundation for agency policies and
regulations with respect to thermal destruction as a
hazardous waste disposal option. This research involves,
for example, the testing in the field of present full-scale de-
vices to assess the degree to which they can meet initial
RCRA requirements of 99.99 percent destruction effective-
ness for incinerators. Such tests not only provide the re-
quired data base on current capabilities to attain the EPA's
initial regulatory goals, but also provide the baseline in-
formation on cost vs. performance essential for formulating
objectives and associated priorities in the whole hazardous
waste area (e.g., for what compounds are health effects or
transport/fate studies needed, what kinds of monitoring sys-
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 53
-terns and ambient measurement methods are required, how
much emphasis is needed on alternative treatment tech-
nologies).
Research underway at the EPA Combustion Research
Facility in Arkansas and at the EPA Center Hill research
facility in Cincinnati is developing an understanding of
thermal destruction chemistry and of the engineering of
thermal processes. This data is a first step in characterizing
and assessing the performance of full-scale thermal destruc-
tion devices from a minimum set of evaluative tests and in
extrapolating performance information from one waste type
to another or from one scale or type of equipment to an-
other so that small-scale test burns can reliably be used in
permitting decisions.
This research involves the use of a combined theoretical/
experimental approach to relate the products and kinetics
of the various physical and chemical steps and reactions of
the incineration process (atomization. volatilization, pyroly-
sis, oxidation, dehalogenation) to such parameters as waste
composition and form, feed nozzle design, temperature and
oxygen profiles, integrated dwell times, mixing and com-
bustion chamber geometry. Theoretical models of combus-
tion processes will be employed to design and interpret the
results of parametric experiments. This research also in-
volves establishing a sound basis for predicting the relative
"incinerability" of various hazardous waste constituents
and will identify the waste components and associated
thermal environments which should be avoided to prevent
the formation of toxic by-products.
Laboratory and limited field evaluation of stack-gas
sampling trains for volatile organics will be undertaken,
and sample preparation and methodologies updated. The
revised method will be field tested at a hazardous waste in-
cinerator in 1985. In addition, a stack sampling train for
semi-volatile organics will be evaluated and the revised
method validated in 1985. The validated methods are
needed for measuring the volatile organic compounds
(VOC) content of the waste incineration stock gas in order
to determine the destruction and removal efficiency of sub-
stances being incinerated. The issuance of operating per-
mits are based on such measurements. Products will in-
clude evaluation and standardization of the Volatile Organ-
ic Sampling Train (VOST) and semi-VOST methods for
VOC measurement in 1985.
A further goal of EPA's research is to define easily moni-
tored incinerator facility operating parameters (e.g., rates of
carbon monoxide to total unburned hydrocarbons, CO/CO2
ratio, etc.) which correlate with system performance so as
to allow rapid, reliable, and economical determination by
enforcement officials of compliance with permit conditions.
This will enable determination of preventive or corrective
actions necesary to avoid uncontrolled excursions from per-
mit conditions. This research will involve, for example, the
examination of transient conditions which can occur during
startup, shutdown, occurence of waste composition an-
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54 HAZARDOUS WASTES
omalies and mechanical failures. Such conditions can cause
the incinerator to fail with respect to the attainment of re-
quired performance or can result in the formation of toxic
by-products.
In addition to these studies of conventional incineration
processes, a research program will also investigate the per-
formance capabilities of innovative thermal destruction
processes. This research will involve, for example, the de-
velopment and evaluation of process improvements or in-
novative thermal technologies (both destruction/
detoxification and, perhaps, resource recovery techniques),
which are capable of handling hazardous wastes not suit-
able for current systems, which are more cost-effective than
current systems, or which are capable of attaining higher or
more reliable performance than existing processes. Major
planned outputs include reports of performance evaluations
of molten salt reactors, high-temperature electromagnetic
furnaces, plasma torch reactor and catalytic wet air oxida-
tion.
Detoxification of intransigent toxins: How can difficult to
destroy and/or highly toxic wastes be safely detoxified at a
reasonable cost?
Detoxification of wastes can be a very costly process if
the wastes are dilute, resistant to chemical or physical de-
gradation, located a great distance from the treatment or
disposal site, or have little recoverable value. Some wastes
can be safely detoxified via high temperature processes
such as industrial boilers or cement kilns. In such cases the
fuel value of the waste can also be recovered, lowering the
cost of disposal.
Contaminated soils, however, present a much more dif-
ficult problem. Excavating and transporting large amounts
of soil is expensive, and recovery of any value from the
contaminants is unlikely. Thus, in-situ detoxification, if
practicable, would be an alternate to off-site disposal.
In-situ detoxification requires a considerable amount of
time to allow chemical or biological species to saturate the
contaminated area, contact the pollutants, and transform
the material to harmless substances. During this time, the
further migration of toxic chemicals must be controlled and
the area appropriately quarantined. The lateral movement
of contaminants in soils can be controlled through the use
of hydraulic "walls" or trenches and wells which inject or
withdraw water at key points of the subsurface flow pat-
tern. Vertical migration of pollutants is. generally a slower
process and may be less critical in the absence of a shallow-
aquifer or in the presence of an impervious layer of clay or
rock.
EPA's planned research includes the determination of
effective solvent-reagent formulations for chemical treat-
ment of toxic wastes and the modification of organisms and
methods to promote biological degradation of contaminants.
Such procedures may some day eliminate the need for ex-
pensive excavation and hauling of bulk hazardous waste
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 55
contaminated material. Projects planned include evaluation
of polyethylene glycol-based reagents and the development
of new strains of yeast cells for the treatment of dioxin con-
taminated soils.
Selective removal: Can innovative treatment techniques be
used to selectively remove the toxic constituents of both
liquid and gaseous waste streams?
The identification of specific toxic components within a
waste stream generally reveals small amounts of toxic sub-
stances diluted by much larger amounts of usually inno-
cuous material. Processes such as incineration, biodegrada-
tion and landfilling have capital and operating costs related
to the total amount of material requiring treatment or dis-
posal, not the amount of pollutant in the material itself.
Separation or concentration of the toxic constituents of a
waste stream can influence the feasibility and economy of
applying a particular disposal method to that waste stream.
Historically, wastes have been subjected to gravity set-
tling, filtration, chemical precipitation, adsorption, biologic-
al oxidation, etc. As waste treatment techniques become
more sophisticated to meet the increasingly stringent man-
date for control of pollutants, innovative extraction technol-
ogy is being evaluated, e.g., supercritical CC«2, to allow the
selective removal of particular chemicals from waste
streams. Once removed from the waste stream, the sub-
stances may be recovered or destroyed by appropriate
methods.
The manipulation of living organisms to remove or de-
stroy toxic components of wastes could greatly expand the
options available for the ultimate disposal of the vast bulk
of biological treatment process effluents and sludges. Genet-
ic engineering is being utilized in an effort (long-term) to
transfer the ability to degrade toxic substances to hardy,
common strains of organisms which predominate in the
complex populations found in waste treatment processes.
In order to be fully effective, the organisms should pre-
ferentially absorb and/or assimilate the toxic components of
wastes while ignoring the abundant non-toxic constituents.
EPA's research is investigating naturally occurring and arti-
fically transformed organisms, including pseudomonas and
yeasts, to determine their potential utility. Techniques
being utilized include recombinant DNA and plasma-
assisted molecular breeding.
Sampling analysis and field monitoring: How can sampling
and analysis methods be improved?
Some of the current state-of-the-art methods for analyzing
hazardous wastes and waste site samples have not under-
gone the rigorous evaluation necessary to define standard
confidence limits for the data they produce. Such limits,
stated as the "plus-or-minus" confidence limit of each data
point, are especially important when the measured concen-
tration is near the regulatory decision limit used to de-
termine whether a waste is hazardous or a site sample in-
dicates a health or environmental problem.
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56 HAZARDOUS WASTES
Current programs use analytical methods based on tech-
nology developed for EPA's water monitoring programs.
Confidence limits of these methods can now be applied to
the-analysis of aqueous samples. However, only limited in-
formation is available for their application to hazardous
waste samples and samples from waste sites (e.g., soils,
sediments and solids). An extensive program to validate
these methods, where appropriate, is being undertaken.
This will take a number of years since there are over a hun-
dred methods to be evaluated and others are being added.
Once validated, the methods will appear in the Federal
Register.
Because of this limitation, EPA has placed a high priority
on developing quality assurance information on various
methods. A data base will be developed consisting of stan-
dard reference materials containing priority pollutants. This
will serve as a single, traceable source of known purity
standards for RCRA monitoring activities.
EPA researchers are also evaluating new technology and
developing improved quality control and assurance pro-
cedures to reduce the cost of analyses while simultaneoush
narrowing the confidence limits of the resulting data. Guid-
ance documents will be produced that define the confi-
dence limits of the current methodology and describe im-
proved protocols and technology. Finally, standardized
methods will help to support specific RCRA regulatory re-
quirements such as methods for characterizing waste as
hazardous due to toxicity, corrosiveness. ignitabilily, etc.
One EPA study will improve the current extraction pro-
cedure for the RCRA toxicity characteristics which is good.
primarily, for inorganics. The procedure now in use can
only be applied to a small list of toxic materials and does
not yield an extract that is amenable to bioassay. The im-
proved procedure, should yield an extract suitable for
bioassay and appropriate for organic materials also. The
procedure is being evaluated to determine its reproducibil-
ity and how well it reflects actual waste disposal situations
A report on the results of this procedure is expected in
1984. Other research includes developing standard pro-
tocols for other RCRA characteristics such as ignitability
(flash point), corrosiveness, and reactivity due to toxic gas
generation. These protocols will undergo testing to es-
tablish their precision and accuracy during 1984 and 1985.
Another research effort is evaluating the use of bioassays
for determining the toxicity of hazardous wastes. The Ami'-
Test is in collaborative testing and a report will be availabl>
in 1984. The Daphnia magna bioassay will undergo col- ;
laborative testing in 1984. Other bioassays will be identi-
fied by the Office of Solid Waste and undergo similar pro- j
tocol development and evaluation during 1984-1985. j
The evaluation of methods to analyze hazardous wastes ij
will continue. Collaborative testing of an analytical protoco \
for measuring medium concentrations (from one part per j
million to 100 parts per thousand toxics concentration) will]
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 57
be completed in 1984, and evaluation of methods to extract
organic and inorganic samples (soxhlet vs. liquid-liquid ex-
traction for organics; digestion procedures for inorganics)
will be reported on in 1984. A specific analytical method
for identifying and quantify dioxin in hazardous waste is
being evaluated. Methods are required that detect dioxin at
very low concentrations (100 parts per trillion), even in the
presence of higher concentrations of other substances. An
initial dioxin protocol will be provided during 1984. Efforts
will then be initiated to provide similar protocols for di-
benzofuran and another highly toxic compound by 1985. A
low resolution RCRA method, not isomer specific, to
measure total TCDD by GC/MS is being developed. The
high resolution method to support the National Dioxin
Strategy will measure parts per trillion in soil, sediment,
and fish as well as 30 parts per quadrillion in water. The
protocol will be developed in FY 1984.
Screening methods will be developed to reduce the bur-
den of sample preparation and to yield qualitative informa-
tion. The x-ray fluorescence method requires the least sam-
ple preparation, but yields only qualitative data. The triple
quadrupole mass spectrometer (TQMS) can be used to
rapidly analyze such pollutants as PCB's and to produce
semi-quantitative data. The inductively coupled plasma
spectrophotometer requires additional sample preparation
but yields more information on the element content of the
sample than atomic absorption spectrometry. Development
of rapid screening methods of hazardous organic com-
pounds in air near hazardous waste sites are being evalu-
ated. One such method is the Tunable Atomic-Line Molecu-
lar Spectrometer (TALMS) and cryogenic Trapping with GC
analysis to measure benzene.
Projects to improve the quality of hazardous waste data
and reduce the cost of analysis are under way. One analysis
method, known as pulsed positive ion negative ion chem-
ical ionization mass spectroscopy, has the potential for im-
proving the sensitivity of mass spectroscopic analysis of
very toxic materials. The method is being evaluated and a
protocol was produced in 1983. Tandem mass spectroscopy
for the quick screening of hazardous wastes will be re-
ported on in 1984. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
is also being investigated for use in the analysis of high
concentrations of hazardous waste. Fibre optics are being
investigated to be used in geochemical measurements in
bore hole investigations. Optrodes have been found to
fluoresce when in contact with pollutants.
Major planned research products include:
Portable TALMS for Benzene, 1984
TQMS for analysis of Dyes and Orgonometallics Com-
pounds, 1984
Daphnia Magna Protocols, 1985
Screening complex wastes: How can complex wastes be
screened to determine their hazard?
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58 HAZARDOUS WASTES
Section 3001 of RCRA requires EPA to promulgate
criteria for identifying the characteristics of hazardous
wastes and to provide a listing of hazardous wastes. Be-
cause of the large number of wastes to be screened, it may
prove useful for the EPA to develop a battery of rapid, in-
expensive bioassay prescreening tests that prioritize
hazards from complex chemical mixtures by determining
which wastes are most important for toxicological
characterization. If the prescreening shows a waste to be
potentially hazardous, then a second battery of confirma-
tion screening tests may be used to determine affected
health endpoints and the level of exposure at which effects
can be observed. Results from this second screen will be
used in the process of analyzing a waste for listing or de-
listing as a hazardous waste. Currently existing methods
have not been validated for complex mixtures and not all
endpoints have rapid, inexpensive test methods to quantify
potential effects. Research will be conducted to develop
such methods.
The determination of which testing procedures can be
used to estimate relative degree of hazard is a major issue
for determining health hazards from chemicals. The goal is
to develop a group of tests that will allow estimates of rela-
tive hazard to be made at reasonable costs. EPA's approach
to solving this problem is to validate shorter-term toxicolo-
gical testing procedures for ranking hazards to human
health. Currently that ranking is obtained by more con-
ventional, but more expensive test procedures.
To predict the ranking of hazards to human health, it is
necessary to identify two different types of toxicity: re-
sponses which result from genotoxic effects, on the one
hand, and toxicity to target organs, on the other. In some
cases substantial evidence indicates qualitative correlations
between short-term and more conventional testing pro-
cedures. However, use of data from the short-term tests for
quantitative estimates of health risk is not yet practical.
EPA research projects will establish the cause-and-effect re-
lationship between the short-term indicator of adverse
health effects and overt diseases, and will determine the
quantitative relationship between dose-response, the in-
dicators, and the diseases. The first three years of the re-
search will emphasize establishing empirical relationships
between indicators and the production of diseases. Key
goals of this work are the determination of which testing
methods are clearly irrelevant to human health effects and
the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between
indicator and disease for the final validation of health
effects models.
By 1985, researchers will complete an evaluation of an
inexpensive, qualitative prescreening protocol integrating
existing methods for predicting biological activity (chronic
toxicity, mutagenicity. neurotoxicity, etc.). The report will
assess the efficiency of the protocol for application to
RCRA materials such as complex mixtures of man-
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 59
ufacturing residues. The protocol is being developed to pro-
vide the data to support setting of first-level priorities using
an integrated battery of tests. Also by 1985, initial field
testing will be completed for an integrated protocol of a
second-level, confirmatory battery of existing screening
tests. The protocol will quantify levels of dose-response
using a single set of test animals for the specific toxic
hazards of carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, system toxicity,
neurobehavior and teratogenicity. When proven, this pro-
tocol, by quantifying risks, could be used as a basis for de-
termining if a waste is hazardous.
Major planned research products include:
Determination of how well the confirmation screen corre-
lates with the prescreen, 1985
Final evaluation of a prescreen protocol, 1986
Evaluation of the confirmation protocol for an integrated
toxicological screen, 1986
Non-volatile compounds: How can non-volatile compounds
be measured?
Current EPA monitoring methods are, to a large degree,
applicable only to the volatile and semi-volatile compounds
that can easily be analyzed by gas chromatography and GC/
MS. Many potentially toxic compounds (e.g., larger molecu-
lar weight compounds) are not easily analyzed by the cur-
rent protocols since they depend on compounds that
volatilize, and thus are not amenable to gas chromatograph
or GC/MS. While monitoring methods exist for some of the
less volatile compounds for example, liquid chromatog-
rahpy (LC) can be used for some pesticides current
routine monitoring procedures cannot adequately analyze
intractable compounds (those not easily removed from
water or similar matrices) or non-volatile compounds. This
is significant because there is a considerable proportion of
non-volatiles in samples from some hazardous waste sites.
EPA research will attempt to identify or develop analytical
methods to measure these compounds.
A report on the detection limit of an LC/MS method for
nine RCRA carboxylic acid herbicides in groundwater and
EP extracts will be provided in 1985.
Two methods being studied are high pressure liquid
chromatography and triple stage quadrupole mass spectros-
copy. The mass spectroscopy method will be initially ev-
aluated in 1983 for its application to non-volatile toxic
chemicals. Pending the success of that evaluation, the
method will be fully developed in 1985.
Data quality: How can the quality of sample data be
assured?
Analyses of hazardous wastes are being conducted under
the auspices of the EPA throughout the United States.
Rigorously defined analytical protocols are required to
assure that the laboratories conducting the analyses pro-
duce data of known quality. Quality assurance is needed to:
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60 HAZARDOUS WASTES
develop/evaluate analytical standards for instrument
calibration,
develop/evaluate reference solutions for evaluations of
laboratory performance,
develop/evaluate reference materials (soils, sludges, etc.)
of known composition for intercomparison studies,
validate sampling, analytical and biological methods, and
determine equivalency of new sampling, analytical and
biological methods.
EPA is developing and applying analytical protocols that
support both RCRA and CERCLA monitoring responsibili-
ties.
A large number of EPA's published test methods have not
been validated for matrices encountered in the hazardous
waste scenario. These methods are needed to assure legally
defensible test results. During validation, test methods will
be evaluated by round robin laboratory testing. The gener-
ated data will be used to define the capability for these
methods when they are used for routine monitoring. Four
to six methods will be selected and tested by a single lab-
oratory on a large number of waste samples. After refine-
ment and revision of the protocols, those methods will be
tested by seven to nine laboratories on a variety of waste
samples. The data will be evaluated and precision and
accuracy ranges established for each method tested.
Quality assurance is a key part of this work. EPA will
also maintain a repository of calibration standards. This re-
pository will support RCRA requirements, as will reference
materials and solutions developed by EPA to evaluate lab-
oratory performance and to ensure comparability of an-
alytical data. We are obtaining and purifying ail materials
on the Appendix VIII list for eventual development of the
calibration standards.
'° lne Cont>nuin8 focus of concern and resources on
hazardous waste issues, this is one area where the know-
ledge base will grow rapidly over the next decade. In this
section we discuss the scientific and research trends in
three areas monitoring, health effects, and control tech-
nology.
Trends in environmental monitoring will include major
advances in methods for measuring intractable compounds
persona] exposure monitoring, less expensive ground-water
monitoring, in-line process monitoring, and predicting the
degradation and transport of hazardous substances. For ex-
ample, most polar compounds are extremely difficult to
measure at low levels (low ppm to ppb range). Several of
these compounds are either toxic or potential carcinogens.
Over the next decade, we can expect analysis methods to
be available which do not require such compounds to be in
the gaseous phase.
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HAZARDOUS WASTES 61
Methods for determining actual human exposures will
develop rapidly. Simple, reliable methodologies can be ex-
pected for personal monitoring for a wide variety of organic
and inorganic species that are present in the environment.
The availability of such techniques will dramatically impr-
ove our ability to perform better exposure and risk assess-
ments.
Current methods of monitoring groundwater for
hazardous wastes require excavation or well drilling and
are very expensive. Development of remote sensing devices
or probes that continuously monitor underground water
would be extremely useful.
The number of samples from hazardous waste sites that
need to be analyzed, and the complexity of the analyses,
are growing geometrically if not logarithmically. Automa-
tion and the use of robotics in sample preparation and anal-
ysis will be an area of explosive growth. The handling of
these samples is tedious, repetitious and potentially danger-
ous an ideal application for robotics. Such applications
will increase accuracy, reduce errors and cut the cost of an-
alyzing specific samples by a large factor.
Methods for monitoring processes, especially those used
to treat or destroy hazardous materials will receive more
attention. Monitoring of low levels of organic compounds
in incinerator stack gases by using in-line process monitors
should produce a major advance in this area. More im-
portantly monitoring of VOC's from area sources will be de-
veloped.
Lastly, many chemicals may be biologically or chemically
transformed into compounds that are more toxic or mobile
than the parent compounds. As a result, methods to moni-
tor and predict the transformations and transport of chem-
icals in the environment will gain in importance.
Throughout the next decade, concern over human health
effects will continue as new products and new chemical
processes produce conditions of unknown toxicity and
complex chemical mixtures raise untested toxicological
risks. In response, research into molecular biology will
yield ever more sensitive biological markers for the pres-
ence and onset of human toxicological diseases. Im-
munotoxicological sciences will take major strides in un-
covering the mechanisms of host defense systems. Research
can be expected to more sensitively define the specificity of
toxic insult to target organ. And, both research and routine
testing will develop a body of toxicological data which will
vastly improve our confidence that the quantity of risk
measured and the methods employed validly represent the
human processes and the concomitant human risks pre-
dicted.
These developments will be applied, in the area of
hazardous wastes health research, to improve testing pro-
tocols in toxicological screening batteries. The less sensitive
tests will be replaced with tests using improved biological
markers and more specific indications of the selectivity of
toxicant to harm particular target organs. All of these de-
velopments will eventually lead to development of a bat-
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62 HAZARDOUS WASTES
tery of technologies and methods which can be rapidly ap-
plied under field conditions to determine the human health
risks of specific environments or events.
There are three basic control approaches for hazardous
wastes: waste reduction techniques which limit the genera-
tion and amount of hazardous wastes, destruction/
detoxification technology which convert waste to harmless
substances, and storage methods which keep them separate
from the environment. It is becoming clear that the burial
of untreated wastes is environmentally unacceptable.
Hazardous waste management in the next decade will
undergo a sharp transition from reliance on land disposal
to dependence on alternative treatment and disposal tech-
nologies. In the future, regulated wastes which are disposed
of via land disposal may decrease significantly. By 1990,
treatment and disposal processes that can detoxify or vir-
tually destroy hazardous wastes are likely to be the rule. In-
novative, chemical, biological, and thermal waste treatment
approaches will greatly improve waste management tech-
nology by providing alternatives which are capable of han-
dling wastes not suitable for existing systems and which
are capable of achieving a higher degree of performance (%
removal, reliability) more cost effectively. Processes such as
high temperature slagging incinerators, chemical de-
chlorination processes, microbial degradation, and fixation
and encapsulation processes, are among such innovative
treatments.
In summary, by 1990, increasing regulatory and tech-
nological constraints will be applied to the use of con-
ventional land disposal techniques for many types of
hazardous waste. Research and development must be con-
ducted to assure that technically feasible and economic
alternative technologies are available for safely managing
these wastes.
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Air and Radiation
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Air and Radiation
Introduction
Gases and Particles
Oxidants
Hazardous Air pollutants
Non-ionizing Radiation
Mobile Sources
Legislative Mandate
Background
Major Research Topics
Extrapolation modeling:. How can EPA's risk assessment
capabilities for air pollutants be improved through the use
of extrapolation modeling?
Lung disease: What is the contribution of air pollution to
the development of chronic lung disease?
Sensitive groups: What are the effects of acute exposures to
air pollutants on sensitive population groups?
Cancer: What is the contribution of air pollution to lung
cancer and other types of cancer?
Nonionizing radiation: What are the health effects associ-
ated with environmental exposures to nonionizing radiation
at frequencies from 60 Hz. to 3x10"
Indoor air: To what extent do indoor sources and ex-
posures to air pollutants contribute to health risk?
Human exposure: What monitoring capabilities will allow
accurate determination of actual human exposure to air pol-
lutants?
Hazardous pollutants: What technologies and data are
necessary to identify and quantify hazardous air pollutants?
Models: What models best describe the regional, mesoscale,
and urban scale transport and transformation of pollutants?
Complex terrain: How can air quality models reflect com-
plex terrain conditions?
Pollutant fingerprints: Can sources of pollution be identi-
fied by the unique properties ("fingerprints") of their pollu-
tants?
Crop and forest damage: What are the costs of damage to
crops and forests from air pollution?
VOC, NO, control: What are the most effective emissions
reduction technologies for volatile organic compounds and
nitrogen oxides?
Coal combustion pollution control: What air pollution con-
trol technologies promise improved cost-effectiveness for
controlling pollutants from coal combustion?
Long Term Trends
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65
Air and Radiation
Environmental Protection Agency's air pollution re-
search is conducted through four major disciplines en-
vironmental engineering studies to improve measurement
and control of emissions from stationary and mobile
sources environmental processes and effects research to
determine the fate, transport and transformation of atmo-
spheric contaminants monitoring and quality assurance
studies to provide for the identification and measurement
of contaminant levels and health effects research to de-
termine the human health impacts of air pollution.
This research program is oriented toward the agency's
pollutant-specific regulatory requirements and is focused
on five major types of pollutants and pollutant sources.
The gases and particles program is concerned with the
health and environmental impact of sulfur oxides, particles,
and lead.
The oxidants program studies nitrogen oxides, ozone, and
ozone precursors, which are either directly emitted or
formed as a result of atmospheric chemical reactions. Vola-
tile organic compounds (VOC) are an important subset of
these precursor chemicals.
The hazardous air pollutants program studies both pollu-
tants which are listed by EPA as hazardous and others
which may prove to be hazardous. This program also in-
vestigates hazardous and non-hazardous indoor air pollu-
tants.
The mobile sources program produces scientific informa-
tion needed for assessing the impacts of vehicular emis-
sions. Major pollutants of interest are carbon monoxide
(CO), diesel particles and unregulated organic emissions.
The non-ionizing radiation research program provides the
scientific data, methodologies, and assessments required to
determine the regulations necessary to ensure that exposure
to non-ionizing radiation materials in the environment is
within a safe range for the public.
The air research program for fiscal year 1984 is allocated
$64.6 million. This total is divided among the research dis-
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66
AIR AND RADIATION
Legislative
Mandate
Background
ciplines: environmental engineering 13%, environmental
processes and effects 26%, monitoring and quality assur-
ance 20%, health effects 32%, and scientific assessment 9%.
The cross-discipline category allocation is: gases and par-
ticulates 45%, oxidants 23%, hazardous air pollutants 20%,
non-ionizing radiation 3%. and mobile sources 9%.
The Clean Air Act (CAA), as amended in 1977. gives EPA
the authority to set minimum standards for air quality.
State and local governments are responsible for preventing
and controlling pollution sufficiently to attain those stan-
dards. EPA's research role under CAA is to conduct re-
search and development programs to acquire the informa-
tion needed both to determine the need for. and to support,
defensible air pollution standards and the associated reg-
ulations.
To meet CAA requirements, EPA's air pollution research
programs address two major tasks gathering data on the
currently regulated air pollutants in order to revise stan-
dards and implementation programs, as needed, on a per-
iodic basis, and compiling data on unregulated pollutants
to determine whether potential health and environmental
risks may warrant future standards. In the first case, the re-
search refines and extends existing findings. In the second,
the research establishes and tests hypotheses. Data derived
from both efforts will support the National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS), the New Source Performance
Standards (NSPS), the National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAPs), the Prevention of
Significant Deterioration (PSD), visibility protection and
mobile source standards.
The results of research on certain air pollutants are com-
piled in "criteria documents" which are required by Sec-
tion 108 of the CAA and which provide the scientific
criteria upon which many regulatory decisions are based.
Currently, criteria documents have been published for the
pollutants regulated by NAAQS under Section 109 of the
CAA. These pollutants are ozone, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur
oxides, carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and lead
the "criteria pollutants."
Further research on criteria pollutants is performed to re-
fine the knowledge base underlying the standards. For ex-
ample, questions may include: Should the standards be
higher or lower? Should different indicators for pollutants
be devised (e.g., particles smaller than 10 microns)?
Research into potentially hazardous air pollutants (those
regulated under Section 112 of the CAA) asks such fun-
damental questions as: What pollutants are of concern?
How dangerous are they? In what concentrations? What are
actual human exposures to these pollutants? Results from
this research are published in health assessment docu-
ments.
Major themes cut across the air pollution research pro-
grams and the issues associated with them. For example.
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AIR AND RADIATION 67
ambient air concentrations of a pollutant at a fixed point
may not realistically represent the actual exposure that will
determine adverse health effects. For some pollutants, it is
now possible to measure directly an individual's total expo-
sure at work and at home. Such measurements, applied in
conjunction with models which account for time spent at
home, in recreation, commuting, etc., will improve EPA's
knowledge of actual 24-hour exposure, the spatial represen-
tativeness and temporal variability of ambient con-
centrations and, consequently, estimates of actual health
risks.
Research is needed, however, to develop methods for
more realistically determining exposure to other pollutants.
For example, little information is available about hazardous
air pollutants, their concentrations and distribution. Re-
search is now attempting to resolve the arguments about es-
timating cancer risks, evaluating mutagenic hazards, de-
termining effects to reproductive systems and estimating
the potency of toxic pollutants. Since people cannot in-
tentionally be exposed to hazardous pollutants, this work is
further confounded by the uncertainties associated with ex-
trapolating from data on animals to prediction of effects on'
humans.
Currently, hazard assessment documents are being pre-
pared on potentially hazardous air pollutants. In addition,
determining the potential interactions of these pollutants to
form products of greater or lesser toxicity remains a major
research challenge. However, one of the problems with
field measurements is that, in many cases, measurement
technology is inadequate to detect and measure such pollu-
tants in ambient air. Technologies for making measure-
ments in the ambient environment are now being modified
or developed, especially for measuring organic compounds
and particulates found in urban atmospheres.
Air pollution may pose greater risks to the health of cer-
tain more susceptible groups of people than to the remain-
der of the population. Research is looking increasingly at
populations at presumed greater risk. Similarly, health
studies of ambient air pollutants such as ozone and nit-
rogen oxides using test animals now concentrate on
chronic, long-term, low-dose exposures. The lower doses
often portray more accurately the pollutant levels seen in
the environment. Such long-term, low-dose health research
may help to determine if linear or non-linear dose-response
curves more accurately estimate the probability of human
health impairment from exposure to low doses of air pollu-
tants.
Other air pollution research will improve the scientific
basis of models, validate models in the field, and improve
laboratory methods to refine the models. The models range
from atmospheric transport, transformation, diffusion and
deposition models, to biological tests that can be used to
determine the presence of certain compounds and to screen
compounds for potential toxicity. Once these models are
developed, they will be tested for accuracy.
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68
AIR AND RADIATION
Major
Research
Topics
Of the 14 major topics which are part of our air-related en-
vironmental research program, five address health issues,
three monitoring and quality assurance, four environmental
processes and effects, and two engineering. These topics are
grouped accordingly in the following discussions.
Extrapolation modeling: How can EPA's risk assessment
capabilities for air pollutants be improved through the use
of extrapolation modeling? Such modeling techniques allow
for better extrapolation of health or exposure data from
high dose to low dose and from animal data to humans.
One of the greatest sources of uncertainty behind EPA's
public health regulatory function is the absence of solid,
quantifiable data on human health effects. This gap is not
easily filled by direct research one cannot intentionally
expose human subjects to potentially hazardous substances.
Hence, EPA must sometimes make its regulatory or enforce-
ment decisions regarding public health protection without
any human exposure data.
Even where human health data exists, it is often based
upon short-term, high-level exposures which may not be di-
rectly relevant to the types of low-level, long-term chronic
exposures which are more typical of environmental con-
ditions. Existing epidemiologic studies of substances are
seldom sufficiently quantitative to support risk assess-
ments, and new studies in response to toxic pollutant epi-
sodes encounter severe logistical difficulties.
In the face of this paucity of direct human exposure data.
EPA is developing techniques to yield improved risk
assessments. When fully developed, these techniques will
allow extrapolation from animal to human effects, from
high-dose to low-dose effects, or from short-term to long-
term health effects.
EPA's research is developing and validating theoretical
models of several major biological processes relevant to use
in extrapolation models. These include: modeling respira-
tory tract deposition and uptake of oxidant gases, sulfur ox-
ides, and particles (alone and in combinations); improving
available regional deposition data in animals and using
lung casts to examine this deposition: improving physical
and chemical data such as protective layer thickness: and
determining interspecies sensitivities to oxidants at pre-
dicted equivalent concentrations. EPA is also developing
neurotoxic response indicators which will be used to com-
pare interspecies effects of hazardous air pollutants.
Major planned research products include:
Regional dosimetry and species sensitivity to ozone. 1984
Respiratory tract deposition of particles, 1985
Comparative mathematical dosimetry models for oxidant
gases, 1987
Comparative lung morphometry between species. 1987
Development of neurotoxic response indicators, 1988
Lung disease: What is the contribution of air pollution to
the development of chronic lung disease?
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AIR AND RADIATION 69
Existing data indicate that healthy persons exposed to
low levels of air pollutants experience alterations in pul-
monary functions. Observed changes in lung function in-
clude increased airway resistance and altered lung alveolar
macrophage activity. These results raise the possibility that
either repeated acute physiologic responses or chronic low-
level physiologic responses to air pollution exposure could
contribute significantly to the development of chronic ob-
structive lung disease. Such a contribution could be either
direct, or indirect through increased susceptibility to pul-
monary infection or injury.
To investigate this question, EPA is sponsoring research
into both short-term exposures of humans to air pollutants
and long-term exposures of animals to the same pollutants.
Through such research, we hope to relate acute responses
in humans to acute responses in animals, acute responses
in animals to chronic responses in animals, and chronic re-
sponses in animals to observed pathological changes in hu-
mans with diagnosed pulmonary disease. Fuller under-
standing of these relationships will allow predictions to be
made regarding the relationship of observed acute re-
sponses in humans to the development of chronic changes
in humans. The key scientific information gaps are: What
are the effects of these pollutants and at what levels of ex-
posure? What are the mechanisms of effects observed?
What are the roles of adaptive mechanisms? What pop-
ulations are more sensitive to the development of chronic
effects? How do these developments offer early indications
of chronic effects?
This research topic is closely related to topics of im-
proved extrapolation modeling and sensitive populations.
Additional research being performed by EPA which will be
used to address this topic is described at greater length
under those two related issues. In summary, the human
volunteer and animal exposure studies on oxidants, carbon
monoxide, sulfur oxides, and airborne particles will pro-
vide data, and extrapolation modeling techniques will be
used in defining or predicting the relationships described
above.
Major planned research products include:
Effects of oxidants on the susceptibility of young rats to
infection, 1985
Response of patients with chronic obstructive lung dis-
ease to ozone and sulfuric acid exposures, 1986
Effects of chronic exposure to oxidants on normal rats
and rats with lung disease, 1987
Sub-chronic effects of sulfates and sulfur dioxide on lung
morphology and physiology in rodents, 1987
Sensitive groups: What are the effects of acute exposures to
air pollutants on sensitive population groups?
Some groups of people are more susceptible to harm from
exposure to air pollutants than other groups. To assure that
the people who are most sensitive to air pollution have an
adequate level of health protection, as required by the
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70 AIR AND RADIATION
Clean Air Act, accurate data is needed to determine the
precise nature of their health responses. Among the groups
identified as most sensitive to air pollution harm are preg-
nant women and their fetuses, children, the elderly,
asthmatics, those with chronic obstructive lung disease,
and people with coronary artery disease.
EPA's air pollution research provides major contributions
to the scientific knowledge data regarding air pollutant
health effects. The existing data base for effects in healthy
people demonstrates that some persons exposed to air pol-
lutants exhibit responses such as increased sensitivity to
bronchoconstrictors (substances which cause the lung's air
passages to narrow down, thus restricting air flow) and in-
creased airway resistance. Such responses have been seen
either from constant or intermittent exposure to low levels
of pollutants over a period of time, or from low levels of
exposure with repeated higher peaks.
The oxidant pollutants, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides,
airborne particles, lead, and hazardous air pollutants each
may affect different susceptible population groups. Key
questions which science needs to address are: What are the
effects of these pollutants, upon which population groups,
and at what exposure levels? What other factors influence
dose-response relationships? What are the mechanisms of
action involved, and how do adaptive mechanisms come
into play? What are the effects of exposure to combinations
of pollutants?
EPA's research to address these questions includes both
clinical and animal studies. The clinical studies use volun-
teer human subjects exposed to pollutants in EPA's clinical
exposure facility. These persons are exposed, both at rest
and while exercising, to pollutants at concentrations
bracketing actual ambient levels. All exposures are acute
(short-term) exposures. Subjects are tested before, during.
and after exposure to determine pulmonary function per-
formance, effects on biochemical parameters, and effects on
peripheral lymphocytes (an index of immune function).
Normal, healthy individuals, in addition to other groups
which may be more susceptible, are being exposed to low
levels of ozone, NO2, SO2 and fine particle aerosols alone
and in combination. These tests will characterize, to the ex-
tent possible, thresholds of effects. Asthmatics will be stud-
ied using ozone and nitrogen dioxide as well as sulfur di-
oxide, both alone and in combination with aerosols de-
signed to model ambient conditions. Persons with pre-
existing conditions such as alpha-1-antitrypsin globulin de-
ficiency, which may predispose them to increased pulmon-
ary responses, such as increased airway constriction or
changes in pulmonary capacities or in the function of pul-
monary lymphocytes, will be studied using the same pollu-
tants. In addition, non-invasive methods using a gamma
camera to measure the heart's ventricular wall motion will
be used to study effects of carbon monoxide on people with
existing coronary artery disease such as angina. There is
great interest in this study as it, together with the results of
other research being conducted outside of EPA, is expected
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AIR AND RADIATION 71
to significantly improve upon the earlier data used by EPA
to set an ambient air quality standard for carbon monoxide.
EPA's animal studies will employ the same pollutants as
those mentioned above for the human exposure studies;
however, in animal studies the focus will be on effects of
long-term (chronic) exposures. These animal studies are in-
vestigating both the increased susceptibility to respiratory
infections and the development of arteriosclerosis to de-
termine whether they are influenced by exposures to air
pollutants. Additional studies will apply long-term
(chronic) exposure regimens to both healthy rodents and
those treated to simulate conditions such as asthma or
emphysema. Differences in sensitivity among various spe-
cies of small mammals will be investigated.
While no epidemiology studies are currently being per-
formed by EPA in this area, we are sponsoring a feasibility
study to determine whether epidemiologic studies can be
performed at low levels of ambient pollutants which will
produce results that are directly useful to EPA's regulatory
functions. This feasibility study will be completed in 1985.
The effects of air pollutants upon sensitive population
groups is a key concern to be addressed by this study.
Recent research has indicated neurological effects from
lead at lower levels than expected. Those effects of particu-
lar concern are reduced numbers of synapses in newborn
animals whose mothers had high lead levels and slowed
peripheral nerve conduction velocities in children exposed
to lead. EPA is planning studies to follow up these in-
dications and to further characterize lead exposure/
absorption/retention relationships in sensitive groups.
Major planned research products include:
Asthmatic responses to sulfur dioxide exposure, 1984
Pulmonary effects of oxidants in asthmatics, 1985
Neurobehavioral effects in children to exposure to lead.
1985
Epidemiology feasibility study results, 1985
Left ventricular function and angina in coronary artery
disease patients exposed to carbon monoxide, 1987
Cancer: What is the contribution of air pollution to lung,
and other types of cancer?
EPA is developing a long-range research program that ad-
dresses the major scientific uncertainties regarding the rela-
tionship between air pollution and human cancer. This re-
search will investigate the methods and data base needed to
identify the major sources of airborne carcinogenic chem-
icals. Such chemicals may either be emitted directly into or
may arise from atmospheric transformation of precursor
chemicals. Through such research, EPA seeks to develop
the tools necessary to produce quantitative, comparative, or
relative risk evaluations to estimate human cancer risk from
both complex source emissions and individual chemicals.
The major questions to be addressed, and EPA's planned
research approach, are discussed below.
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72 AIR AND RADIATION
In 1977, and again in 1982, international meetings were
held in Stockholm, Sweden, to address the relationship be-
tween air pollution and cancer risk. Data presented at these
meetings indicates that air pollution from fossil fuel com-
bustion, perhaps in combination with cigarette smoke, is re-
sponsible for ten percent of the incidence of lung cancers
in large urban areas. Other researchers (Karch and
Schneiderman, 1981) argue that past analyses of this prob-
lem have overestimated the contribution of smoking and
underestimated the multicausal nature of cancer. They es-
timate that between 11% and 21% of lung cancer is related
to air pollution.
This is an important issue for EPA. The answer to the
question "To what extent is air pollution related to lung
and other types of cancer?" could have a major impact on
EPA's research and regulatory priorities.
EPA plans call for a series of workshops bringing together
expertise in cancer epidemiology, carcinogenesis.
mutagenesis, and risk assessment to address such major
issues as: To what extent can we now quantify the rela-
tionship between air pollution and lung cancer, and how
can such estimates be improved? Can we estimate the rela-
tive importance of gaseous organics versus particulate-
bound organics? Should only lung cancer be considered in
relation to air pollution? Is there now sufficient evidence
that air pollutants can induce cancers in organs other than
the lung (e.g., bladder cancer associated with coke oven
and diesel truck emissions, or liver cancer from exposure tt>
chlorinated hydrocarbons)? And. finally, can the method
developed in the EPA diesel research program to estimate
cancer risk based upon the comparative carcinogenic poten-
cies of the materials tested be used to estimate human can-
cer risk from different combustion sources (e.g.. wood
stoves)?
Major scientific information gaps keep us from being ablr
to adequately evaluate and quantify the contribution of var-
ious air pollution emissions to cancer risk. EPA is de-
veloping a research program which will address some of
these gaps. As part of this research, EPA will use
mutagenicity assays to evaluate gaseous and particulate
emissions from various combustion sources. These samples
will also be chemically fractionated and bioassayed in
order to determine the relative contribution of each chem-
ical class fraction to the total mutagenic activity of the
emission sample.
Bioassay techniques have been developed to the point
that they can be used to monitor both indoor and outdoor
exposures. EPA researchers intend to couple bioassay
monitoring techniques with personal and micro-
environment chemical monitors to better define individual
human exposure to mutagens and potential carcinogens.
Source apportionment and emission source data will be
used together to estimate the relative contribution of each
source. Emission sources to be evaluated include residen-
tial wood, coal, oil, and kerosene combustors, coke ovens
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AIR AND RADIATION 73
and mobile sources including jet aircraft and gasoline en-
gines.
EPA's research has developed computerized structure-
activity methods which will be used to compare
mutagenicity/carcinogenicity data bases with listings of
compounds identified in mutagenic fractions. Such efforts
should enable us to more rapidly identify potentially car-
cinogenic air pollutants. Emphasis will also be given to
evaluating the sources of compounds found in ambient air
and their relationship to emissions. Related EPA studies are
examining the influence of ozone, NOX, SOX, and other
atmospheric conditions on the formation and persistence of
mutagens and carcinogens in the atmosphere.
Major planned research products include:
Bioassay monitoring techniques. 1984
Mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of source emissions,
1986
Identification of potential mutagens and carcinogens
from ambient air, 1986
Non-ionizing radiation: What are the health effects associ-
ated with environmental exposures to non-ionizing radia-
tion (NIR) at frequencies from 60 Hz to 3 x 1011 Hz?
EPA will soon issue guidance which sets limits for public
exposure to radiofrequency (RF) radiation. This guidance
will be based, in large part, upon EPA's comprehensive re-
view of the available literature on the biological effects of
RF radiation. This document covers the frequency range of
0.5 MHz to 100 GHz. The reported consequences of the
interaction between RF radiation and biological systems are
critically evaluated and include examination induced core
temperature increases, whole-body-averaged specific
absorption rates associated with biological effects, the ex-
ogenous energy burden as a percentage of resting metabolic
rate, and epidemiological studies.
One product of EPA's literature review has been the
identification of the major scientific uncertainties and un-
knowns in our current state of knowledge. EPA's health re-
search program is addressing some of these data gaps for
the purpose of determining whether exposure guidance
should be modified in the future or extended to cover fre-
quencies beyond those covered in the current review docu-
ment, for example below 0.5 MHz and beyond 100 GHz.
Our research strategy is to investigate the interaction of
NIR with biological systems in animal models and cellular
test-systems. Our focus is on site-specific effects from low-
level chronic exposure interactions which are presum-
ably not related to increases in temperature. We are de-
veloping combined electromagnetic-heat transfer models to
predict the thermal responses of animals and man to the
absorption of electromagnetic energy. In addition, we are
investigating the biophysical and biochemical changes that
occur as a result of exposure to NIR, including extra-low
frequencies (ELF) such as 60 Hz. Research on 60 Hz radia-
tion will be closely coordinated with the Department of En-
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74 AIR AND RADIATION
ergy. EPA is also studying the immunologic, neurotoxic,
metabolic, and reproductive and fetotoxic effects of NIR
and.the long-term human health effects of RF exposure.
Major planned research products include:
Review document on RF health effects, 1984
Interactions of NIR with central nervous system tissues.
1984
Mortality and morbidity in a radar-exposed population.
1985
Biophysical and biochemical effects from exposure to
ELF radiation, 1987
RF effects on lifespan of rats. 1988
Development of thermophysiologic predictive models.
1989
NIR interactions with membrane and biopolymer test sys-
tems, 1989
NIR effects on immunologic, reproductive, metabolic.
and neurologic systems, 1989
NIR interactive frequencies with biological systems, 1989
Indoor air: To what extent do indoor sources of and expo-
sure to air pollutants contribute to health risk?
Since people spend 80-90% of their time indoors, a major
part of their exposure occurs there. In response, EPA is in-
creasing its research to identify the major sources of indoor
air pollution to determine human exposure to these pollu-
tants, and to assess associated health risk. Recent EPA re-
search efforts include monitoring studies of four large
buildings (a school, a home for the elderly, an office
building, and a hospital) for levels of volatile organics. for-
maldehyde, pesticides, and respirable particulates. In addi-
tion, a field study is being completed to develop simple, in-
expensive and well-characterized indoor measurement
methods for radon.
In 1984, our research will expand to include larger field
studies, increased efforts on determining source emission
rates such as emissions from building materials, combus-
tion devices, and maintenance materials, and studies to
characterize the factors influencing emission rates and
human exposure. A methods development and evaluation
program will also be continued, concentrating initially on
evaluating instruments for measuring inhalable particulato
and developing a practical instrument for measuring indoor
NC>2 concentrations. Close coordination with the other
Federal agencies conducting research in this area - in-
cluding the Department of Energy, Consumer Product
Safety Commission, and the Department of Health and
Human Services will be a feature of this research effort.
Major planned research products include:
Source emissions studies, 1985
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AIR AND RADIATION 75
Design for pilot national field monitoring, exposure, and
health effects study, 1985
Validate and/or improve measurement devices for key in-
door air pollutants, 1985
Human exposure: What monitoring capabilities will allow
accurate determination of actual human exposure to air pol-
lutants?
Effective modeling, control, and regulation of air pollu-
tion depend on rapid and precise methods to measure air
pollutant concentrations not only in the ambient atmos-
phere and from specific pollutant sources but also in the
human breathing zone. This means that an underlying
theme of EPA's monitoring research is the development of
new measurement methods and of quality assurance pro-
grams to ensure that methods currently in use are reliable
for all three areasambient, source and personal
monitoring.
In addition to working to improve site monitors, EPA re-
search will develop non-invasive monitors to gather
physiologic data while collecting exposure data. These
monitors will be miniaturized for use in field studies to
gather accurate data under actual ambient conditions.
Similar to the proposed change in the particle standard,
there may be a change in the way of calculating personal
exposures to hazardous air pollutants. Currently, exposures
are estimated using data on the emissions and measured or
calculated concentrations of pollutants in the ambient
atmosphere. However, total exposures based on actual 24-
hour personal exposures may differ from those estimated
from the ambient concentrations. For example, recent tests
indicate that actual total personal exposures to a number of
airborne carcinogens and mutagens may be two to four
times greater than outdoor measurements would indicate.
For measuring personal exposures, EPA is developing
new methods to work in concert with the new or modified
technology for measuring ambient exposures. The results,
which may be definitive within the next half decade, will
help to determine the appropriateness of the current regula-
tions for the EPA's seven listed and four regulated
hazardous air pollutants as well as the potential need for
regulations for other pollutants. The research program for
developing and employing instrumentation to measure
hazardous air pollutants is expected to gain increasing em-
phasis during the next few years.
EPA, together with the Motor Vehicle Manufacturers
Association, is funding a Health Effects Institute (HEI). The
HEI is an independent, non-profit organization developed
to design and conduct research concerning the health
effects of emissions from mobile sources. Complementary
EPA research on mobile sources seeks to determine the ex-
tent of human exposures to mobile-source pollutants such
as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen dioxide (NOz), diesel
particles and unregulated organic emissions. Continuous,
real-time personal monitors are presently being used to
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76 AIR AND RADIATION
measure CO concentrations. NO2 badges sensitive enough
to provide data on exposures at ambient concentrations
have been developed. Portable devices capable of collecting
airborne particles for laboratory analysis have also been de-
veloped. Measurement and analytical procedures for un-
regulated pollutants, however, need to be refined or de-
veloped.
Refinement and application of analytical procedures that
apply to a variety of unregulated mobile source pollutants
such as methanol and formaldehyde is needed. Research
work is attempting to develop bioassay tests and analytical
procedures applicable to emissions from various fuels and
fuel additives. Initial work has been completed evaluating
some diesel fuels derived from coal and oil shale, and work
continues on the bioavailability of particle-bound organics.
A part of the mobile sources research program will be an
analysis of the results obtained from a major study of
human exposures to CO in Washington. D.C., and Denver,
Colorado. As the first statistically representative data base
on human exposures for a criteria air pollutant, it will serve
as the research benchmark for data bases to be developed
for the other mobile-source air pollutants. Even though
nationwide CO emissions have been decreasing, the rela-
tionship between vehicle emission rates and actual CO ex-
posures needs to be more precisely determined. By de-
veloping a reliable predictive method for determining pop-
ulation exposure profiles in urban areas. CO exposures can
be determined and exposures to other mobile source-
generated pollutants can be inferred using the CO data as a
surrogate. The most critical portion of this work is de-
velopment of a model to predict exposure to mobile source
emissions as a function of vehicle emission rates.
The research approach in the Washington/Denver study
was to develop a data base of information collected by
volunteers who carried miniature carbon monoxide moni-
tors developed by EPA. These monitors were used to
measure both ambient CO and alveolar CO from the volun-
teer's breath samples. Alveolar CO is an indicator of the to-
tal body burden of carboxy-hemoglobin in the blood. By
choosing a cross-section of the population, correlations
made between exposures and urban-scale activities can be
used as scientific estimates of realistic exposures to pollu-
tants from mobile sources.
The results from the Washington/Denver study are also
expected to indicate whether existing, fixed monitoring
sites for measuring air pollutant ambient concentrations are
sufficiently representative of actual CO exposure con-
centrations.
The exposure data can be used to: assess better the health
risk of CO to the population, provide a basis for improving
the siting of existing monitoring stations, and validate ex-
isting exposure models. Validation is particularly impor-
tant. Field data are needed to further validate estimates
used in establishing the National Ambient Air Quality Stan-
dard for CO. Those estimates were statistical approxima-
tions of the percent of the population exposed to various
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AIR AND RADIATION 77
CO concentrations. Actual exposure data are essential for
determining whether future emission standards or air quali-
ty standards should be relaxed or made more stringent. Ex-
posure models field-validated for CO will be important for
other mobile source pollutants as well.
Data from the personal monitors will also be used to val-
idate and improve existing computerized human exposure
models such as the SHAPE (Simulation of Human Air
Pollution Exposure) model. Such models are used to assess
the impacts, in terms of exposure, of changes in emissions
and activities. The product of this research will be an op-
erational model which can be used to predict exposure to a
substance directly from vehicle emissions data.
To assess the proper level of control of particles from di-
esels, information is needed on projected exposures of pop-
ulations to diesel particles and the long-term health effects
from the exposures. Health effects studies are being com-
pleted. Estimates of the carcinogenic potency of various
substances, such as diesel particulates and unleaded gaso-
line, will be updated as needed based upon EPA and other
research. There is a continuing effort to determine emission
rates for many of these pollutants. Such source studies of
emissions may provide important input into determining
the type and cost effectiveness of alternative emissions
reduction strategies.
For gasoline-fueled cars and light-duty trucks, emissions
controls are relatively mature. For these sources, research
focuses on developing more precise emissions inventories
for volatile organic compounds under different driving con-
ditions. Such information is important for maintaining air
quality standards. For other vehicles especially heavy-
duty trucks and buses research will aim at determining
the impacts on air quality and human health of alternative
emissions reduction scenarios.
The oxidants program will develop measuring methods to
help determine the reactivity of air pollutants and the
photochemical formation of smog. Emphasis of the program
will be on refining existing monitoring technology and
quality assurance.
Hazardous pollutants: What technologies and data are
necessary to identify and quantify hazardous air pollutants?
For hazardous air pollutants, monitoring technologies
and measurement methods are needed to determine pre-
cisely trace pollutant concentrations and to help to identify
those air pollution components that represent a significant
health risk. Protocols for the new air quality measurement
technology must be developed, field-tested, and verified.
Most existing methods of monitoring organic vapors em-
ploy polymer collection capsules in conjunction with a gas
chromatograph (GC) and mass spectrometer (MS). However,
some compounds known to be biologically active cannot be
collected with the current polymer capsules. An EPA spon-
sored technology to supplement the GC/MS measurement
process and the tunable atomic-line molecular spectrum
(TALMS) device uses magnetic field excitation to identify
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78 AIR AND RADIATION
compounds. EPA research is currently developing a library
of spectra for use in identifying compounds.
EPA's research approach is to take measurements with
state-of-the-art equipment while simultaneously developing,
testing, refining and verifying new technology. EPA is es-
tablishing a regional monitoring center that can perform the
sophisticated analyses necessary to detect hazardous air
pollutants. The center will also act as a testing and evalua-
tion laboratory for new stationary or mobile source
measurement technology.
As the new monitoring and measuring technologies are
developed, they will be used for identifying, screening and
characterizing hazardous atmospheric pollutants. Emphasis
of this research will be on quantifying the atmospheric
transport and transformation processes (i.e., chemical reac-
tions and dispersion) that govern the ambient concentration
distributions of primary and secondary (derivative)
hazardous air pollutants. Emphasis will also be on de-
termining the effects environmental processes have on the
frequency of occurrence, ambient concentration ranges, and
patterns of variability observed for hazardous air pollutants.
We classify the hundreds of potentially hazardous atmo-
spheric contaminants into the following broad categories:
volatile organic chemicals, semivolatile organics, organics
associated with particulates, and trace metals. Each group
requires different sampling and analysis techniques, and for
each group, we apply a specific research strategy.
Volatile organic chemical substances include human carci-
nogens (benzene, vinyl chloride), suspected human carci-
nogens {chloroform, carbon tetrachloride). co-carcinogens or
promoters (n-decane, n-dodecane). and bacterial mutagens
(styrene, dichlorobenzenes). Until recently, volatile organic
chemicals could not be sampled at normal atmospheric
levels (approximately 1 ppb). With the introduction of
Tenax-GC, a synthetic polymer with great affinity for these
compounds, it has become possible to sample and measure
them at typical atmospheric levels. Since these compounds
make up a large portion of the potentially toxic air pollu-
tants being evaluated by EPA's Office of Air. Noise and
Radiation, it is important to obtain detailed information on
their environmental concentrations. We intend to establish
three trend monitoring sites in urban areas in 1984. to be
expanded to 15 sites in 1985. We also plan, for one urban
area, to conduct a concurrent effort to obtain detailed in-
formation on the spatial and temporal variation of both
ambient levels and human exposures.
Some volatile organics, such as vinyl chloride, methylem
chloride, and formaldehyde, cannot be measured by Tenax-
GC methods, and must be sampled and analyzed by other
methods, such as direct cryogenic trapping or use of a
molecular sieve (for formaldehyde). Our research will seek
to improve both the accuracy and cost-effectiveness of such
alternative methods.
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AIR AND RADIATION 79
Semivolatile organics, especially chlorinated pesticides
such as DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, lindane, and chlordane,
together with PCB's, can be sampled using polyurethane
foam (PUF) as a collecting agent. These compounds are still
found in air, even though controlled or banned by EPA.
They continue to be emitted from soil treated with ter-
miticides and from hazardous waste sites. The PUF tech-
nology has made it possible to determine low ambient
levels of these biocides.
Organics associated with participates, such as dioxin-
contaminated soils, are often very difficult to measure. A
major effort has been made to develop ways of measuring
such agents in water, ambient air, stack emissions, and soil.
New sensitive methods have been developed and evaluated,
with field tests scheduled for the near future.
Other particulate-bound organics are associated with
combustion processes, particularly of coal and wood.
Benzo-a-pyrene and other polyaromatic hydrocarbons
(PAH's) cannot now be measured without sampling huge
volumes of air. New methods such as synchronous fluoresc-
ence and room-temperature phosphorescence give promise
of providing accurate measurements using small samples of
air. Such methods would allow indoor and personal
sampling. These methods will be further developed and
tested in our field studies.
Trace metals are easier to measure than the other three
groups of substances. A nationwide monitoring network has
collected data on ambient levels for 15 years. However, ex-
posures in homes or automobiles are important for some
elements (lead, arsenic) and, therefore, smaller samplers
capable of collecting particles inside homes, automobiles,
and other microenvironments are desirable. A small lunch-
box size monitor developed by the National Bureau of Stan-
dards for EPA will be tested to determine its suitability for
measuring exposure to trace metals over a 24-hour period.
The priorities of EPA's research into hazardous air pollu-
tants will be guided by two forces the EPA's (Office of
Air Quality Planning and Standards) program of screening
potential airborne toxics and the need to detect actual
mutagens and carcinogens measured in the urban air. It is a
relatively recent finding that genotoxins in urban air are
ubiquitous and apparently related to a variety of
combustion/fuel type sources.
After screening approximately 600 high production
volume chemicals, EPA's Office of Air Quality Planning
and Standards has identified approximately 40 compounds
as being of high priority for further investigation. Research
during the next two years will assess the health risks and
determine the sources of these chemicals, assess other
potential hazardous chemicals, and evaluate technologies
for reducing or eliminating HAP emissions. A variety of
conventional residential heaters will be investigated to de-
termine the types and magnitude of hazardous pollutants
emitted directly or formed via secondary reactions in the
atmosphere.
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80 AIR AND RADIATION
Technology assessment work will focus on potential
HAPs which are being evaluated by OAQPS for possible
regulation under Section 112 of the Clean Air Act. Ex-
amples of potential HAPs which may require technology
evaluations for controlling their releases include ethylene
oxide, chloroform, chlorobenzene, cresols, phenols, 1,3-
butadiene, and nitrosamines (and their precursors). The
potential HAP compounds will be classified into various
groups (e.g., gaseous, particulate, fugitive, point source,
condensible, water soluble, etc.) for the purpose of de-
termining their controllability by various generic air pollu-
tion control systems. This initial evaluation will enable
conclusions regarding the effectiveness of existing control
technologies in controlling HAPs.
Measurement activities will concentrate on developing
sampling and analytical procedures required to perform
source assessments and to evaluate control technology effi-
ciencies for the chemicals selected by OAQPS, and on mod-
ifications to previously developed screening procedures for
identifying additional compounds which may also contrib-
ute to hazardous pollutant emissions.
This research will also provide data on the influence of
NOX on the formation of hazardous compounds (e.g., ni-
trated PAH), the role of secondary reactions, and the health
effects of pollutions emitted.
Major planned research products include:
Establish three trend monitoring sites, 1984
Complete 15-station trend monitoring network, 1985
Complete wood and coal stove emission exposure testing,
1985
Initial assessment of selected HAP source, 1985
Technology assessment for selected HAPs and industrial
categories, 1988
Models: What models best describe the regional, mesoscale,
and urban scale transport and transformation of pollutants?
When pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere, they
often undergo chemical and photochemical reactions that
change the initial pollutants into a range of different com-
pounds. To predict this phenomenon requires that chemical
process equations (e.g., for reaction rates) and physical
process algorithms (e.g., for dispersion) be integrated into
one model. Regional, mesoscale and urban scale transport
and transformation models are being developed for sulfur
dioxide, sulfates, particles, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and ni-
trates including natural emissions of hydrocarbons. The
models will provide information necessary to develop effec-
tive pollution control plans for a variety of air pollutants.
Lagrangian models are being developed which describe
the motion of air parcels by specifying a conceptual "parcel
or volume of air" and tracing its motion over time. These
methods generally assume that the rate of change in the
concentration of a given pollutant is constant. Such
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AIR AND RADIATION 81
methods do not work well when the reaction rate for the
pollutant of interest is affected by other factors (e.g., other
pollutants). Such models are less costly to operate and re-
quire less data than fixed coordinate (Eulerian) models. De-
pending upon the specific application, one or the other
type of model may be more appropriate and more useful.
Eulerian (fixed coordinate) models are useful in support
of air quality managers. Such models describe the motion
of air parcels on a grid of points in space at a particular
time. The Eulerian methods can require extensive computer
time and can include the non-linear chemical calculations
needed to predict the downstream reactions that form
ozone, sulfates and nitrates. The methods also are applic-
able to long-range, or regional, transport. EPA's research
program is applying this approach in developing the agen-
cy's regional photochemical transport model.
The regional scale model development and verification
program will depend upon data collected during the North-
east Regional Oxidant Study (NEROSJ/Persistent Elevated
Pollution Episodes (PEPE) program. The regional scale
model will be tested and refined using this field data. A
few European countries have expressed interest in using
the models and adapting them with their data base.
The regional photochemical model will be a reactive
model. That is, it will be capable of handling a number of
complex chemical reaction mechanisms for ozone and par-
ticulate matter. The model's 1984 version will address only
ozone chemistry. A chemical mechanism for ozone, in-
cluding both anthropogenic and biogenic organics, will be
ready for use in regional models in 1984. Following that,
the model will be developed further to include particle che-
mistry such as the reactions of SO2 to sulfate, including
aqueus-phase reactions. At a later date, nitrate chemistry
will be added to the model. A field-evaluated model is
scheduled to be available in 1986. After the model is evalu-
ated, studies will be conducted to define the level of un-
certainty in the model's predictions.
Urban-scale air quality models will also be developed for
oxidants and particulate matter. One urban photochemical
model is based on the empirical kinetic modeling approach
(EKMA), much of which is derived from smog-chamber
studies. By specifying the ratio of hydrocarbons to NOX in
the urban atmosphere, the EKMA will estimate the level of
air pollution controls needed to achieve the ozone air quali-
ty standards.
Other types of air quality models for urban scale photo-
chemicals and particles are mechanistic or physical models
that simulate atmospheric transformation and dispersion
processes. These models use more advanced chemistry and
meteorology than does the mechanistic EKMA model. Most
of the research to date has focused on developing and val-
idating first-generation air quality simulation models. The
models were tested against a comprehensive air quality and
emissions data base obtained through a five-year regional
air pollution study conducted in the St. Louis area during
the mid 1970's.
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82 AIR AND RADIATION
Recent studies have shown that predicted pollutant con-
centrations derived from the use of different chemistry sub-
models show large discrepancies when the models are run
with low HC/NOX ratios. Such discrepancies could in-
troduce errors when used in air quality simulation models.
To resolve this problem, EPA will conduct indoor and out-
door used to develop improved chemical submodels of
photochemical smog formation. Indoor smog chambers will
be used to investigate the photochemical reactions of
aromatic hydrocarbons and their oxidant products. Outdoor
chamber studies of exposure to mobile-source pollutants
such as carbon monoxide (CO), will investigate the effects
of hydrocarbon composition changes on the formation of O3
and other oxidants. Multi-day irradiations of complex VOC/
NOX mixtures will assess the oxidant-forming potential of
"spent" air masses and provide the necessary data for use
in a regional oxidant model.
This research will produce chemical kinetic data for use
in either EKMA or air quality simulation models and a val-
idated O3 and NO2 chemical module in EKMA. An updated
EKMA model using improved O3 chemistry will be avail-
able in 1984. Another significant research output will pro-
vide the EPA regulatory office with regional photochemical
modeling results based on target emission reduction strat-
egies provided by the Office of Air Quality Planning and
Standards. These results will be available in 1986.
Research will also be conducted to develop and verify
urban-scale models which predict one-hour, 24-hour, and
yearly average values for urban particulates and can be ex-
panded to include the contribution to these values of
plumes from large sources at mesoscale distances (50-300
km). Improved urban and mesoscale particulate models will
be produced for state and local governments and industry
for use in SIP revision based upon the proposed new par-
ticulate standards.
Major planned research products include:
Evaluation of a chemical kinetics mechanism for EKMA,
1984
Report on urban particulate model evaluation based on
Philadelphia air quality data base, 1985
User's guide for linear Lagrangian regional particulate
model, 1985
Near-source fugitive dust field study results and compari-
son with models, 1985
User guide on improved urban and mesoscale models de-
livered to user's network for applied modeling of air pollu-
tants, 1985
Regional ozone modeling results based on target emission
reduction strategies, 1986
Improved ozone chemical mechanism for use in urban
and regional scale modeling, 1986
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AIR AND RADIATION 83
Final recommendation on boundary photochemical
reactivity/volatility levels to assess the impact of VOC emis-
sions on ozone air quality, 1987
Complex terrain: How can air quality models reflect com-
plex terrain conditions?
The Clean Air Act Amendments of 1977 require EPA to
specify the use of dispersion models pertinent to preven-
tion of significant deterioration and to attainment of
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS). How-
ever, no model has yet been developed which adequately
describes dispersion in complex terrains.
EPA research will develop such modeling capabilities.
Initial model development will use field measurement data
and results from the EPA Fluid Modeling Facility (FMF) to
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of models currently
used in the regulatory process. Concurrently, atmospheric
dispersion models will be developed for stack-plume im-
paction (contact of the plume on an elevated terrain under
stable atmospheric conditions). Field research will include
tracer studies over moderately-sized terrain obstacles and a
full-scale plume study at an existing power plant in com-
plex terrain. These studies will provide data for evaluating
the performance of dispersion models under conditions that
cannot be adequately simulated in the FMF.
Subsequent research will evaluate the feasibility of
transferring the models to settings of increased topographic-
al complexity, applying the models during neutral or unst-
able conditions, and projecting the calculated one-hour
concentration to three-and/or 24-hour average con-
centrations. Coordination and data exchange will be main-
tained with similar studies being performed by the De-
partment of Energy and the Electric Power Research In-
stitute. The initial goal of this effort is to produce an evalu-
ated complex terrain model for stable plume impingement,
including a user's guide. A longer term goal is the de-
velopment of a more comprehensive model which will
handle a variety of situations in addition to plume impac- *
tion.
Major planned research products include:
Demonstration study of good engineering practices to es-
tablish effective stack heights with respect to emissions
sources located in complex terrain, 1984
Analysis of small hill impaction study, 1985
User's guide for evaluated complex terrain model for
stable plume impaction, 1986
Extension of complex terrain dispersion model to in-
crease topographical and meteorological sophistication,
1987
Pollutant fingerprints: Can sources of pollution be identi-
fied by the unique properties ("fingerprints") of their pollu-
tants?
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84 AIR AND RADIATION
Air pollution samplers in current use can detect, identify
and measure the amounts of several different airborne com-
pounds. Current sample analysis techniques, however, do
not provide information on the sources of the pollutants.
Now, technology and procedures are being developed to
identify the sources of pollutants through the identification
of unique chemical signatures of the collected compounds.
The concept is called source apportionment.
Source apportionment works by analyzing collected parti-
cles with X-ray diffraction, ion chromatography, neutron
activation, scanning electron microscopy and other ad-
vanced chemical analysis techniques. If the particles in
question have the same unique features characteristic of
particles identified from certain sources, then the sources of
the particles in question can be ascertained. At present, the
applicability of source apportionment methods is limited
by a lack of the type of emissions data necessary to de-
termine industrial source signatures. Both collecting the
requisite emissions data and verifying the chemical anal-
yses and signature matching methods are important parts of
this EPA research effort. Also important is the need for a
consistent collection procedure and a data base on particu-
lates from specific sources.
Source apportionment cannot, by itself, be used to pre-
dict air pollution concentrations. By integrating the appor-
tionment data with urban particulate dispersion models,
however, a hybrid model may be able to identify sources
or, as the case may be, to predict pollutant types and con-
centrations at given urban areas under differing conditions.
EPA will use data collected in Philadelphia to develop
such a hybrid model. The immediate goal of the research is
to develop and test a comprehensive receptor model for
apportioning particulate mass to components from emis-
sions sources.
Major planned research products include:
Receptor model application to Denver aerosol. 1985
Receptor modeling results for comparison with disper-
sion modeling results for Philadelphia, 1985
Complete receptor model analysis of aerosol in four
cities, 1986
Improvement of particle resolving ability by means of
attenuation corrections, 1986
Validation of receptor model procedure based on optical
microscopy and X-ray diffractions, 1987
Crop and forest damage: What are the costs of damage to
crops and forests from air pollution?
Agricultural crops and forests can be adversely affected
by air pollution. EPA has initiated a research program to
measure the impact of air pollution on agricultural crops.
The research, conducted in cooperation with several state
and local governments, and federal agencies, will assess the
impacts of ozone pollution on crop productivity. Data for
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AIR AND RADIATION 85
the research will come from EPA's National Crop Loss
Assessment Network (NCLAN).
Since ozone is believed to cause the greatest damage to
vegetation, in 1984 and 1985 the program will continue to
evaluate the impacts of ozone pollution through research
conducted at sites located throughout the country. Crops
typical of a region are grown using standard agricultural
practices. They are exposed to ozone concentrations that
span the range of air quality conditions. Open-top chambers
are used in this research, because they are the most thor-
oughly tested field exposure systems and permit the best
control of pollutant concentrations under field conditions.
Results from field investigations will be used to develop
dose-response functions relating crop yields to different
concentrations of ozone. Various mathematical rela-
tionships are being formulated, including one which
assumes a threshold concentration. Dose-response informa-
tion will be integrated with crop yield data and ozone air
quality estimates gathered from counties across the United
States. In 1984, this information will be used to provide a
preliminary national assessment of the economic impacts of
ozone on the productivity of major crops. Field research
will include typical hay and forage crops which, when
added to prior research account for the majority of U.S.
agricultural production.
Research is also planned to quantify the role" of soil mois-
ture as an influencing factor in the response of crops to
ozone and to evaluate the effects of high level espisodes
and of low-level chronic conditions. Results of this research
and data from the evaluation of ozone impacts on hay and
forage crops are scheduled to be used in an updated (1986)
national assessment of ozone impacts on agriculture.
Related research has shown that interactions with sulfur
and nitrogen oxides influence the response of crops and
trees to ozone. Both additive and synergistic effects have
been observed, varying with pollutant type, concentration,
and plant species. Research will evaluate the occurrence ol
such pollutant combinations to guide exposure regimes for
dose-response studies.
Over the longer term, research may be initiated to de-
termine the nature and extent of the impacts of gaseous air
pollutants on forest ecosystems. This program would corre-
late the growth of major forest species with air quality to
provide an indication of the magnitude of the problem.
Field and laboratory studies would identify the cause and
effect relationships between air pollution dose and forest
productivity. The output from these studies would form the
basis for analyzing the economic and ecological impacts of
air pollution on forests, and for determining the effects of
changing air quality on the nation's forests.
Major planned research products include:
Preliminary national economic assessment of the impacts
of ozone on crops grown on 75% of the U.S. crop acreage,
1984
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86 AIR AND RADIATION
Evaluation of the occurrence of pollutant combinations
in ambient air and the development of exposure regimes for
dose-response studies, 1985
Determination of the response of selected crops to
changing air quality conditions which include constant low
level and episodic ozone concentrations, 1985
Characterization of the effects of ambient soil moisture
changes on estimates of crop loss due to ozone, 1985
Update to national crop loss assessment for ozone con-
sidering soil moisture availability, crop cultivar responses,
and the hay and forage crops, 1986
Initial results from the field correlation of the growth of
major tree species with ozone air quality, 1988
Dose-response studies of the growth responses of several
tree species, 1989
Initial integration of forestry data from growth correla-
tions and dose-response studies with ozone air quality es-
timates to provide a preliminary assessment of impacts,
1991
VOC, NOX control: What are the most effective emissions
reduction technologies for volatile organic compounds and
nitrogen oxides?
The most important barrier to reducing emissions of vola-
tile organic compounds (VOC's) and nitrogen oxides (NOX)
is the variety of industrial sources. To develop and apply
practicable control technologies requires close cooperation
between industry and EPA.
Control technologies either remove air pollutants or re-
duce their formation by modifying production processes. At
present, engineering knowledge is available to provide the
necessary control technologies, but associated capital costs
for air pollution control are major burdens to many in-
dustries.
For the oxidants. research will be initiated to determine
the least-cost control alternatives for volatile organic com-
pounds (VOCs) and nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2), which
are the major precursors of oxidants such as ozone. Priori-
ties for this research are shifting. Large-scale demonstra-
tions of emissions reduction technologies are being phased
out in favor of less costly fundamental studies, pilot and
prototype testing and evaluation, and technology transfer.
In widespread areas of the country, VOCs are a major
cause of the non-attainment of the NAAQS for ozone. In re-
sponse, EPA research is providing scientifically valid data
bases, methodologies, models and control technology data
on VOC's to regulatory decision-makers, government en-
forcement officials, and the regulated community. Control
technology such as capture systems, carbon adsorption,
catalytic oxidation, and thermal oxidation will be assessed
to establish performance standards for new and existing
sources of VOCs. New source performance standards now
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AIR AND RADIATION 87
in existence will be reviewed and updated by EPA based
on the best engineering information available. The main
emphasis of this research program will be on providing
EPA, state and local agencies with data on cost-effective
and energy-efficient control alternatives for developing
emission standards.
With regard to nitrogen oxides, research will be con-
ducted to improve combustion modification (CM) methods
for reducing NOX emissions while improving industrial fur-
nace performance. Prior work on utility boilers has proven
that CM methods can be used to control NOX. Future re-
search efforts will tailor CM methods to the special charac-
teristics of different furnaces (e.g., stoker boilers, oil field
steam boilers, package boilers, cyclone, wall-fired burners
and heavy oil burners).
Research will also develop a technical basis for es-
timating the lowest achievable nitrogen oxides emissions
from current and future combustion equipment and fuels.
This research will support technology development and en-
forcement activities. Emission reduction methods from sta-
tionary internal combustion (1C) engines using fuel mod-
ification and oil or exhaust gas treatment will also be as-
sessed.
Major planned research products include:
Evaluation of the use of stoker gas recirculation for NOX
and particulate control in stoker boilers, 1984
Results of initial hardware modification studies for NOX
control of diesel and natural gas engines, 1984
Use of lances for staging combustion air on refinery proc-
ess heaters, 1984
Identification of emission characteristics of industrial
relief/safety systems as a function of waste gas quantity and
quality, 1984
Initial evaluation of industrial applications of catalytic
oxidation, 1984
Evaluation of primary air vitiation for NOX control for ce-
ment kilns, 1984
For VOCs, evaluation of full-scale carbon adsorption and
thermal oxidation systems for emissions reduction in the
industrial surface (roller) coating industry, 1984
Carbon adsorption pilot plant unit will be available for
fundamental studies to aid in the development of control
standards for sources of VOC emissions, 1984
Evaluation of feasibility and reliability of various
methods for determing capture efficiency, 1985
Evaluation of use of in-furnace NOX reduction for fired
heaters, 1985
Performance optimization and evaluation of industrial
boiler low NOX heavy oil burners, 1985
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88
AIR AND RADIATION
Results of additional development work and field tests of
capture efficiency methods, 1986
Additional field tests of industrial catalytic oxidation ap-
plications for VOC control are planned, including evalua-
tions of relationships between operating parameters, design
specifications and performance (destruction efficiency). The
result will be data on improved operation and maintenance
procedures for reliable, cost-effective control technology
use, 1986
Evaluation of selective catalytic reduction for NOX in
both spark ignition (natural gas) and compression ignition
(diesel) stationary engines, 1987
Evaluation of use of in-furnace NOX reduction for in-
dustrial boilers, 1988
Test application of in-furnace NOX reduction to utility
boilers, 1989
Coal combustion pollution control: What air pollution con-
trol technologies promise improved cost-effectiveness for
controlling pollutants from coal combustion?
The use of abundant domestic coal for utility and in-
dustrial power generation is expected to continue to in-
crease into the next century. The economic incentive to
shift to coal is, however, tempered by the costs of con-
trolling coal-related air pollutants.
Commercially available technologies can be used to con-
trol most of the air pollutants emitted from coal combustion
processes. However, these technologies are expensive to in-
stall and to operate. As a result, one of EPA's priority re-
search goals is to stimulate development of lower-cost
pollution control technologies and to identify more cost-
effective implementation strategies. The problem is not
whether we can control pollutants from coal combustion;
the problem is how can we reduce the costs of controlling
these pollutants?
EPA's research approach involves both detailed engineer-
ing research and development and multi-pollutant systems
optimization studies. The latter to provide EPA regulators
with accurate engineering information on the cost and per-
formance of new control technologies for use in such reg-
ulatory programs as improved compliance for existing
sources, and bubble and emission trading policies.
EPA's engineering research and development is refining
such flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technologies such as
wet lime/limestone scrubbing, lime spray drying, and dry
sorbent injection. The potential payoff is dramatic. For ex-
ample, lime spray dryers promise sizeable reductions in
both capital and operating costs relative to conventional
wet scrubbing processes.
To control particles, EPA is investigating such advanced
particulate control technologies as electrostatically en-
hanced fabric filtration, precharging for electrostatic pre-
cipitators, and simultaneous particle and SO2 collection in
particle control devices. Again, the potential for cost sav-
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AIR AND RADIATION 89
ings is great. For example, a recent discovery that large di-
ameter electrodes can dramatically improve electrostatic
precipitators (ESP) performance for high resistivity fly ash,
has the potential to greatly reduce the cost of ESP's, es-
pecially for low-sulfur coal applications. Fabric filters and
ESP's are currently the most effective technologies for con-
trolling emissions of aerosols and inhalable particulates
from combustion processes. Research will investigate the
conditions under emissions of condensible materials which
can cause high emission opacity.
With regard to nitrogen oxide control, EPA research on
low-NOx burners for pulverized coal is leading to a genera-
tion of low-NOx burners that can be retrofitted to existing
installations burning high sulfur fuels. In addition to
reducing NOX emissions, this technology yields significant
SOX control. EPA's fundamental combustion research has
identified new combustion approaches such as an adiabatic
precombustor that has the potential to reduce NOX (through
fuel-rich precombustion), SOX in subsequent staged
afterburning, and particulates by slagging capture of ash in
the high temperature precombustor. If successfully de-
veloped, precombustor technology could be a candidate for
retrofit to cyclone boilers and for conversion of gas- and
oil-fired boilers to coal. Also reburning technology (the in-
jection and combustion of secondary fuel downstream from
the primary combustion zone) has been shown to reduce
NOX emissions substantially. This technology should be
applicable to a wide range of coal-fired boilers and in-
dustrial processes. Both reburning and precombustor tech-
nology have the potential for SC>2 control through injection
of sorbent materials under appropriate combustion con-
ditions.
Simultaneous investigation of these advanced control
concepts can result in innovative configurations of inte-
grated control systems that minimize cost while main-
taining or improving emissions and energy performance.
Engineering research which leads to reduce the capital
investment and operating cost of pollution control tech-
nologies used on coal-fired boilers, and operations research
to define integrated environmental control systems at the
plant and multi-plant level are both areas of research that
have high potential to offer very substantial reductions in
the cost of converting coal to useable energy in an environ-
mentally acceptable manner.
Major planned research products include:
Pre-commercialization engineering results for a prechar-
ger ESP collector system for particulates from low-sulfur
coal, 1984
Cooperative industry-EPA evaluation of large diameter
and other electrode configuration for low-cost particle con-
trol in ESPs, 1985
Pre-commercialization engineering research results on
electrostatic enhancement of fabric filtration, 1985
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90
AIR AND RADIATION
Effects of physical coal cleaning on SOX control options,
such as limestone injection through multistage low-NOx
burners (LIMB), 1985
Design and performance data on advanced spray-drying
FGD systems, including mathematical design model, 1986
Results from small-scale evaluations of new concepts of
integrated SOx/particulate control technology, 1986
Engineering evaluation of lowest cost retrofit options for
various levels of particulate control, 1986
Analysis of lowest cost application of conventional tech-
nologies for control of SO2, NOX, and particles to reduce
acid precipitation, 1986
Evaluation of lowest cost application of integrated con-
ventional and/ or advanced technologies for control of SO2,
NOX, and particles to reduce acid precipitation, 1987
Definition of the causes of near-stack opacity problems
and an evaluation of feasible control options, 1987
Research information on low-cost control options to sup-
port inhalable particulate (IP) standards. 1988
Long Term
Trends
In several areas of air-pollution and radiation-related re-
search our investments of the past decade are beginning to
yield important advances in our knowledge of air pollution
sources, effects and controls. In the health area, for ex-
ample, over the next five to ten years our research will pro-
duce a great deal more data on the respiratory effects of
acute and chronic exposures to criteria air pollutants. With-
in that time period, we plan to have completed an assess-
ment of the contribution of air pollution to the de-
velopment of lung cancer, and research to determine the
health effects of exposures to non-ionizing radiation should
be nearing completion. Emerging as higher research priori-
ties will be development of methods to indicate the pres-
ence of harmful agents in biological systems, development
of early indicators of harmful effects, and improvement in
our ability to predict disease risks from harmful agents.
Also evolving over time will be increased research em-
phasis on improving methods to extrapolate from toxicolo-
gical data to risk based on regional and interspecies
dosimetry modeling, on developing biological markers to
detect the presence of harmful chemical agents and to indi-
cate their effects (especially neurological or immunological
effects), and characterizing additive or synergistic effects
from mixtures of chemical agents.
Perhaps the greatest potential for future research break-
throughs lies in the further detection and characterization
of interactions between chemical agents and human genes
which control the development of cancer (oncogenes). This
and similar methods for linking mechanisms of action to
prediction of risks will be a key part of future risk assess-
ments.
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AIR AND RADIATION 91
Also relating to human health, we see increased empha-
sis upon efforts to monitor actual human exposures to
potentially hazardous air pollutants. We will continue to
emphasize total personal exposures to toxic pollutants
where current studies indicate that indoor exposures can
far exceed concurrent outdoor exposures. Important
scientific discoveries that can be expected in the
monitoring area over the next decade include methods to
detect the compounds responsible for the major portion of
the mutagenicity of complex ambient air mixtures. Such
compounds may be the PAH's, nitro-PAH'S, N-nitroso or
other compounds. In addition, methods and equipment can
be expected which will allow us to collect the compounds
of interest from the breathing zone of individuals and em-
ploy microanalysis methods to quantify exposures during
normal daily activities.
With regards to environmental research the next five to
ten years can be expected to reflect a decrease in emphasis
on air pollution modeling on the urban scale. For example,
most of the development work associated with urban ozone
and particulate models will be completed. On the other
hand, problems dealing with the long-range or regional
transport of air pollutants, especially ozone and particles,
will remain to challenge investigators over the next decade.
Associated with long-range particle transport is regional
scale visibility degradation problems.
Environmental processes and effects research, is expected
to focus on field experiments to evaluate, verify, and impr-
ove regional scale air quality simulating models to predict
pollutant long-range transport and transformation. We will
need to extend source apportionment methodology to the
regional scale. Also, with advances in computer efficien-
cies, air quality models with more complex chemistry and
meteorology, will be developed and made available to the
user community.
In addition to improved models, research can be ex-
pected to focus on such secondary effects as regional-scale *
visibility degradation, materials damage effects (e.g., soiling
due to particulate matter) and the effects of air pollutants
on forest ecosystems.
EPA's research into air pollution control technology will
reflect the long-range trends of gaseous (SOX) and particu-
late pollution levels and types. A gradual buildup of aero-
sols (inhalable, and fine particles) in the ambient air can be
expected if current trends persist. Reduced visibility and
increasing concentrations of inhalable particles may result.
Point (stack) emissions will decline in importance com-
pared to more difficult to control and defused sources of
emissions. Transformation of SOX emissions and particu-
lates are expected to account for the majority of ambient
aerosol buildup, especially in urban areas and in areas of
high human activity.
New methods to prevent, reduce, or capture fugitive and
condensible emissions will need to be investigated to sup-
port permitting activities. For example, we can expect the
broad application of electrostatic particle charging tech-
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92
AIR AND RADIATION
niques to induce particles to agglomerate and to be re-
moved. In addition, high efficiency methods of SOX remov-
al from flue gases, or sulfur removal from fuels and wastes
are expected to be a high research priority in the next dec-
ade.
Finally, as future air quality standards become more so-
phisticated, they are likely to become far more complex.
For example, current standards are based upon simple mass
concentrations and concentrations per-unit of output. To re-
flect advancing scientific knowledge and to more precisely
control pollutants of concern, future standards may need to
be differently based.
For instance, a fine particulate air quality standard may
specify the particle size range to be regulated, as well as the
mass concentration limit to be applied to that size range.
Moreover, the relationships among the individual standards
must be considered in order to achieve the optimum bene-
fit. For example, visibility regulations in effect put con-
straints on a fine particulate ambient air quality standard,
which may.be targeted specifically for human health
effects. A fine particulate standard, in turn, also has a
bearing on acid deposition loadings, and so on.
To achieve such sophisticated and sensitive future stan-
dards, an array of new research tools will come into play.
These include more powerful regional models which can
attribute air quality or deposition standards back to specific
states or emission regions. The contributions of far-away
sources to the ambient levels in a given receptor area need
to be known to permit an equitable allocation of the burden
of controls in order to meet the specified ambient standard.
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Energy
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Energy
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Background
LIMB/LOW-NO,
Synthetic Fuels
Major Research Topics
Pollution and cost reducing technology: What con-
figurations employing LIMB burners show promise of
reducing emissions control costs?
Identifying synthetic fuel pollutants: How can we most
effectively identify the major air and water pollutants from
synthetic fuel facilities?
Synthetic fuel pollutants risks: What are the health and en-
vironmental risks of synthetic fuel-related pollutants?
Synthetic fuel pollution reduction: What control techniques
are most promising for reducing pollution from synthetic
fuels?
Combustion generated pollutants: How do boiler conditions
influence key pollutant-related reactions?
Long Term Trends
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6
95
Energy
Within the last few years, adequate energy supplies and a
decrease in the growth of overall energy demand have
effectively reduced the short-term crisis orientation of
America's energy policies. These developments are re-
flected in EPA's energy research program. The program has
been reduced in scale, its efforts have been more clearly fo-
cused and the timeline for results has been extended. These
changes have provided an opportunity to help resolve
energy-related environmental problems at a more consid-
ered pace.
A number of major projects are planned or under way as
part of the program's primary objective to provide EPA
offices, federal, state and local governments, and industry
with the scientific information necessary for producing and
using energy resources in an environmentally acceptable
manner.
EPA's energy-related research addresses two major sub-
jects: alternate fuels (including synthetic fuels from oil
shale, tar sands, coal gasification direct and indirect
liquefaction and limestone injection multistage burner
(LIMB) emissions reduction technologies.
The alternate fuels program studies the pollutants gener- *'
ated in various processes, evaluates the transport, fate and
effects of pollutants associated with the production and use
of synthetic fuels, and investigates alternative emissions-
reduction techniques. EPA-initiated research related to the
synthetic fuels industry builds upon EPA's experience in
analyzing waste streams, pollutant loadings, health and en-
vironmental effects, emissions reduction strategies, cost/
benefit relationships and regulatory requirements of various
energy technologies. Such research efforts will help the
emerging synfuels industry by identifying potential health
and environmental risks, and by providing information on
the cost and effectiveness of pollution control strategies be-
fore plants are designed and built. To achieve these bene-
fits, EPA has initiated an intensive program in cooperation
with the U.S. Synthetic Fuels Corporation to characterize
discharge and to assess emissions reduction technologies in
pilot and commercial synthetic fuel plants when they begin
operation. Such research will help to expedite the process
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96
ENERGY
of reviewing permits to build and operate synfuel facilities.
The research will identify for industry technologies which
can minimize pollutant emissions so that these can be in-
corporated at an early stage, rather than expensively retro-
fitted, if so required, after the plant is built.
EPA's LIMB and combustion research provides engineer-
ing and design information for promising emission reduc-
tion technologies for new and existing industrial and utility
boilers. This information will be useful to states involved
with the acidic deposition issue and for electric generating
plants which may be required to further reduce their air
pollution emissions.
The energy related research program for fiscal year 1984
has a budget of $15.1 million. This total is divided among
the major research disciplines as follows: environmental
engineering and technology, 83%, health effects, 15%, en-
vironmental processes and effects, 2%.
Legislative
Mandate
Air and water pollutants and solid wastes from the produc-
tion and use of fuels are subject to environmental regula-
tions and enforcement specified in the Clean Air Act, Clean
Water Act, Safe Drinking Water Act, Resource Conservation
and Recovery Act, Toxic Substances Control Act, and the
National Environmental Policy Act. EPA research to sup-
port regulatory policy and enforcement responsibilities is
mandated, directly or indirectly, by these six federal acts.
In the synthetic fuels program, EPA is authorized to pro-
vide scientific information for the permitting process, for
preparation of environmental impact statements, for con-
sultation with the Synthetic Fuels Corporation in reviewing
proposed new synthetic fuel facilities, for characterization
of, and review of, alternative methodologies which reduce
emissions and discharges, for evaluation of the need for
pollution standards, and to assist federal, state, and local
governments and industrial organizations. In addition. Sec-
tion 131{e) and 143(b) of the Energy Security Act of 1980
directs EPA to provide scientific consultation on environ-
mental monitoring technology and procedures to synthetic
fuel projects supported by the U.S. Synthetic Fuels
Corporation.
Background
LIMB
Programs
EPA's research involving LIMB (Limestone Injection Multi-
stage Burners) is producing fundamental, bench-scale, and
prototype information in cooperation with boiler and bur-
ner manufacturers. In cooperation with the Federal Republ-
ic of Germany, the EPA program is seeking to develop in-
formation relating prototype engineering data with full-
scale field applications.
Large coal-fired steam generators are major sources of
NO. and SOX emissions. The EPA has developed and
demonstrated advanced low-NOx burner technology applic-
able to this class of sources. Many manufacturers are
offering advanced burner technology for new and/or retrofit
applications. There is also the proven wet flue-gas de-
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ENERGY 97
sulfurization (FGD) technology for more than 90% SOX con-
trol; however, for retrofit, wet FGD may be difficult and
costly to apply.
As an outgrowth of the low-NOx burner development, the
EPA is developing a potential alternative approach to
achieve reductions of SOX and NOX of 50 to 60 percent for
retrofit applications at significantly reduced costs (3 to 5
times less than wet FGD). This approach, which involves
SO2-sorbent injected through the low-NOx burners or at
other points in the boiler, is the LIMB technology men-
tioned earlier.
The technology has shown great promise in small-scale
experiments. However, additional research and de-
velopment is required to establish its applicability to ex-
isting boilers and to achieve its potential for higher SO2 re-
movals (70-90 percent) in new boilers. EPA's research
toward these ends also includes investigation of different
configurations of boilers and firing systems (e.g., wall- or
tangentially fired). Bringing the technology to com-
mercialization will entail demonstration on utility boilers
of representative design.
Furnace injection of sorbents was attempted in the late
1960's and subsequently abandoned for two reasons. First,
the SO2 reductions were not competitive with those achiev-
able with wet FGD, second, there were extensive technical
problems with achieving sulfur capture and maintaining
system operability. The LIMB system is being reconsidered
for two reasons. First, control of acid-rain precursors may
require a method which offers more modest control levels
(50-60% of NOX and SOX) at a substantially lower cost than
wet FGD, and, second, low-NOx combustion systems may
solve many of the current technical problems.
The research and development conducted to date has
provided new insight on the ability to capture SOX with a
sorbent in a combustion environment. Fundamental and
bench-scale experiments have shown that very active sor-
bents can be generated and high rates of sulfur capture can
be achieved. They have also shown that thermal deactiva- *
tion (called deadburning a phenomenon whereby the
sulfur capturing sorbent is made chemically inactive by ex-
posure to the combustion process) alone does not prevent
substantial sulfur capture. On the other hand, EPA's re-
search has shown that interaction between the sorbent and
mineral matter in the coal ash can lead to a substantial de-
activation of the sorbent. Coal-type, sorbent type and sor-
bent injection location all mitigate this adverse effect on
sorbent activity. In addition to the small-scale experiments,
prototype tests have been run on full-scale burners in an
experimental facility. The results show that SO2 capture in
the range of 50-60% can be achieved under realistic con-
ditions. Overall the experimental work shows that sub-
stantial SO2 capture is economically and technologically
achievable through this approach. In 1984 emphasis will be
placed on expanded R&D and preparation for full scale
demonstration of the technology.
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98
ENERGY
Synthetic
Fuels
Program
Research and development planning related to synthetic
fuels has begun for the task of collecting data on a number
of large synthetic fuel plants such as, Great Plains Coal
Gasification Associates in North Dakota; Coal Water Coal
Gasification in California; Parachute Creek (Union Oil Co.)
in Colorado; and Geokinetics Seepridge Shale Oil Co. in
Utah, which are expected to start up by the end of 1984.
Very little environmental data is currently available on
commercial-scale synfuels plants. In late 1983 several syn-
thetic fuel plants became operational including Tennessee
Eastman, Inc. Until then there were no full-scale synfuel
facilities in the U.S., with the exception of small industrial
low-BTU gasifiers and commercial-size retorts operated
intermittently by Geokinetics and Occidental Oil Shale.
Most pollution reduction technologies have been applied
only at bench- or pilot-scales. Some emissions reduction
technology has been applied at full scale, but little data is
available and major problems are known to exist. Given
these limitations, initial research has evaluated foreign faci-
lities, and has incorporated laboratory or pilot-scale re-
search results into models to provide data on expected op-
erations.
EPA has been collecting data from its own research ac-
tivities and those of other federal organizations, private in-
dustry and foreign researchers.
To date, environmental data on synthetic fuel facilities
has been derived from source testing of foreign commercial
gasification plants in Yugoslavia (Lurgi type), Greece
(Koppers-Totzek), and South Africa (Koppers-Totzek).
Additional evaluations were performed on pilot plants of
Texaco, Bigs, and Westinghouse systems. Control technique
performance data were developed. Data has also been
obtained from experiments such as performance tests of
various solvents for removal of "acid gases" (primarily CO2.
H2S, and other reduced sulfur compounds) run at the EPA-
funded coal gasifier facility at North Carolina State Univer-
sity. Performance tests of pilot Stretford technology for con-
trol of H2S in oil shale air emissions were conducted at
Occidental Oil Shale's Logan Wash and Geokinetics'
commercial-scale experiments.
A relatively new area of research is combustion testing.
The Department of Defense, the Department of Energy, and
the Electric Power Research Institute have tested various
coal-and shale-derived liquid fuels for combustability and
general performance in various mobile and stationary com-
bustors. In 1982, EPA began to test emissions from combus-
tion of synthetic and petroleum fuels in a full-scale in-
dustrial boiler and stationary diesel at EPA's Research Cen-
ter in the Research Triangle Park.
EPA has worked closely with the Department of Energy
(DOE) in many areas of synthetic fuels research and de-
velopment. DOE provides detailed analysis of the product
materials. EPA has developed and continues to improve up-
on screening methodology applicable as an indicator of
appropriate emissions reduction technology. EPA has also
co-sponsored with DOE the evaluation of a pilot Stretford
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ENERGY
99
(H2S removal) unit as well as emissions testing at the De-
partment of Interior's installation at Fort Snelling, Minneso-
ta.
In health and environmental research, EPA provides re-
sources to DOE for cooperative research which addresses
the carcinogenic and reproductive effects of synthetic fuel
pollutants, the toxicity effects within aquatic and terrestrial
systems, and the integration of fate and effects data to
assess the health and environmental risks of synfuel in-
dustries. Output from research conducted by the National
Institute for Occupational Safety and Health involving the
occupational health effects of synthetic fuel pollutants is
being used in risk analyses.
Through work with the Department of Interior, which
administers the federal oil shale leasing program, EPA has
gained access to the federal oil shale lease tracts in Col-
orado and Utah.
Major
Research
Topics
There are five major scientific topics addressed by the syn-
thetic fuels and LIMB research programs. These topics are
described in the following section. Please note that these
decisions are meant to highlight our highest priority re-
search areas and do not, therefore, include the full array of
EPA's research in this area.
Pollutant and cost reducing technology: What con-
figurations employing LIMB burners show promise of
reducing emissions control costs?
In order to determine the commercial feasibility of LIMB
further understanding of the observed phenomena is es-
sential. The major areas where additional scientific in-
formation is needed are sorbent-ash interaction, coal prop-
erties, high-activity sorbents, particulate characteristics, and
scale-up of the technology. Each of these information gaps
is discussed below.
Sorbent-ash interaction: Prevention of sorbent deactivation*
by coal-ash constituents may be the key to the success of
the technology. Whereas the interaction is a documented
phenomenon, the mechanism of contacting and deactiva-
tion has not been established. An understanding of that
mechanism may serve as the basis for solving the problem.
Possible solutions include changes in sorbent composition,
sorbent-injection location, and/or fuel-properties (e.g., coal
preparation).
Coal properties: The level of sulfur capture achievable is
dependent upon the individual properties of the coal being
burned. However, sulfur capture is not directly related to
either ash composition or sulfur content. If the technology
is to be widely applicable, there must, therefore, be a
method for predicting and/or measuring the impact of a
specific coal's properties on sulfur capture and system op-
erability. With regard to low-NOx coal burners a complex
correlation of NOX emissions with fuel nitrogen has been
derived. This correlation can be obtained using simple lab-
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100 ENERGY
oratory analysis methods. A similar approach is needed for
the other coal impurities mineral matter and sulfur.
High-activity sorbents: Laboratory studies have shown that
sorbents can be generated which have significantly greater
activity than those currently generated in combustion sys-
tems. If combustion system design changes can result in
super-active materials being generated either externally or
in situ, significantly improved sulfur capture may be possi-
ble.
Particulate characteristics: Sorbent mixed with coal ash
can modify particulate characteristics in ways that affect
boiler operability. In the boiler, the presence of calcium
compounds (most sorbents are calcium based) can affect
slagging and fouling characteristics, either adversely or fa-
vorably. This intrusion can, in turn, affect boiler heat trans-
fer and steam-generation performance. Furthermore, the in-
creased solids loading and changed fly-ash properties
associated with sorbent injection can affect particulate re-
moval efficiency. Further research to quantify and general-
ize the effects for different coals is needed to ensure that
boiler performance is not adversely affected.
Technology scaleup: In scaling a technology up to com-
mercial size, many problems may arise which cannot be
foreseen at the smaller bench or pilot scales. In addition.
the existing boiler population has a number of different
types of firing systems and of boiler configurations. As a re-
sult, research is needed to develop reliable scale-up criteria.
This research will provide the basis for prototype testing.
To be broadly applicable, the research should address wall-
and tangentially-fired systems, and should cover most
typical existing boiler designs. In addition, criteria for
application to new boilers are needed for situations where
higher-SO2 removals are required (e.g.. 70% for low-sulfur
coals). Demonstration on full-scale boilers will represent
final proof of the concept.
The LIMB technology is being developed under EPA
sponsorship and the agency has the major research and de-
velopment (R&D) program in the area. The Electric Power
Research Institute has funded some work on boiler op-
erability questions and is considering an expanded R&D
role. Several private organizations are also performing re-
search. Demonstration of the technology will require close
coordination with boiler manufacturers and utility com-
panies. Outside of the U.S.. related work is being performed
in Germany and Austria. EPA's researchers maintain close
communication with these efforts.
EPA's research strategy is straightforward: provide the in-
formation necessary to determine the potential of. and
achieve commercial acceptance for, the LIMB technology.
The key to meeting the scientific information needs dis-
cussed above is a thorough understanding of the phe-
nomena that affect system performance. To this end, EPA's
research strategy has six key elements; basic research.
bench-scale research, pilot and prototype testing, process
analysis and technology demonstration.
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ENERGY 101
EPA's basic research aims at providing a fundamental
understanding of the chemistry and physics of the phe-
nomena which control this technology.
Our bench-scale research with experimental systems en-
ables the agency to evaluate the design and operating var-
iables under controlled conditions in a combustion en-
vironment.
Pilot-scale development provides a test system which re-
sembles actual combustion system hardware. This is the
first step toward applying the process to practical con-
figurations.
Prototype testing provides the final experimental scale-up
of the technology. Full-scale burners are tested in ex-
perimental equipment to optimize performance and es-
tablish scale-up criteria.
Process analysis establishes the system constraints and in-
corporates the R&D results into design guideline docu-
ments.
Finally, demonstration of the technology on a full-scale
field-operating boiler is essential to establish credibility
with industry. Based on the design guidance, specific hard-
ware is designed and installed on one or more boilers.
Long-term performance evaluations establish the emission
reduction achievable and any effects on boiler-system op-
erability.
EPA's R&D effort is concentrated on wall-fired boilers
with emphasis on prototype testing. The wall-fired boiler
demonstration, funded in fiscal year 1985, is planned to
commence in 1986. Over the longer term, the R&D empha-
sis will shift to tangentially-fired systems.
Major planned research products include:
Document sulfur capture of prototype commercial low
NOX burners. 1984
Quantify the mechanisms for sorbent-ash interaction,
1985
Effects of coal type will be correlated to fuel properties,
1986
Generalized scale-up criteria for wall-fired systems, 1986
Use of superactive sorbents and the impact of particulate
characteristics, 1987
Demonstration of wall-fired technology completed, 1987
Identifying Synthetic Fuel Pollutants: How can we most
effectively identify the major air and water pollutants from
synthetic fuel facilities?
Pollutants will be produced at various points in the syn-
thetic fuel production and use cycle. The types of pollu-
tants and their concentrations will vary, depending on the
processes employed, plant design, and the ultimate use of
the fuel. To develop adequate pollutant reduction tech-
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102 ENERGY
nologies and monitoring plans, synfuel waste streams con-
taining potentially hazardous pollutants need to be identi-
fied and their pollutant loadings determined.
EPA researchers will continue to study pilot-scale and
full-scale synthetic fuel plants to identify and characterize
plant emissions. Emissions of concern include leachates
from oil shale solid wastes, wastevvaters which are pro-
posed for disposal with spent shales, carcinogenic polycycl-
ic organic compounds, reduced sulfur species (some of
which may be toxic), and hazardous fugitive volatile organ-
ic compounds (VOCs). Data collected in field characteriza-
tion studies will be used as input for risk assessment stud-
ies.
This research, plus monitoring data collected on the ini-
tial domestic plant start-ups in 1983-84, will be used to
assist permit writers in cases where similar feedstocks and/
or conversion technologies are proposed. This will help to
ensure the adequacy of environmental permits, impact
statements, and monitoring plans produced for plants sup-
ported by the Synthetic Fuels Corporation. Research on
synthetic fuels from coal, peat, oil shale, tar sands and
heavy oil will target those fuel production processes which
are most likely to reach commercial use at an early date.
In 1984, pollutants from an oil shale synthetic fuel facil-
ity will be studied at the Geokinetics Seepridge facility in
Utah and other sites such as the Union B Parachute Creek
site in Colorado. Research activities will include
characterizing air emissions and the constituents of
wastewater used to moisten spent shale piles, identifying
and measuring leachate runoff, evaluating the physical
stability of spent shale piles and evaluating the potential
for local vegetation to take up toxic elements released by
shale processing. For the next several years research em-
phasis will be on environmental monitoring and pollution
control technology evaluations.
Large amounts of monitoring data are going to be gener-
ated by these plants. To ensure the viability and availability
of these data. EPA has been working with the Synthetic
Fuels Corporation (SFC) to develop environmental
monitoring plans for SFC-sponsored projects including un-
iformity of data reporting and data management systems.
This data will be the primary input to EPA's assessment of
risks of synthetic fuel plants during the mid-1980's. Among
the specific control technology evaluations which will be
continued are: wastewater cooling tower emissions of
hazardous organic materials from recycled process waters,
toxicity of effluent from biological treatment systems, sulfur
control and removal, and techniques for long-term disposal
of solid wastes which may contain substantial amounts of
complex organic residuals.
Major planned research products include:
Characterization of leachate from raw mined oil shale,
1984
Characterization of spent oil shale leachates, 1984
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ENERGY 103
Interpretive report on monitoring data for regulated and
unregulated substances from operational synthetic fuel
plants, 1985
Results of comparative testing by EPA of combustion
emissions from synthetic and petroleum fuels, 1985
Emissions of organic vapors from cooling towers at
plants that use process water for cooling, 1985
Status of sulfur control systems for synfuels plants, in-
cluding their performance and costs, 1985
Report on performance of pollution controls at com-
mercial synthetic fuel plants, 1986
Synthetic fuel pollutants risk: What are the health and en-
vironmental risks of synthetic fuel-related pollutants?
An accurate analysis of risks to health and the environ-
ment is needed in regulatory and enforcement decisions.
EPA integrates exposure and effects assessments of synthe-
tic fuel pollutant emissions into risk analyses which can be
used to evaluate the potential health and environmental im-
pacts of synfuel pollutants. The assessments consider
meteorological, hydrological, demographic, and environ-
mental characteristics specific to the location of synthetic
fuel facilities.
EPA's research will produce technology-oriented risk
analyses for coal gasification, direct and indirect coal
liquefaction technologies, oil shale and other synthetic fuel
technologies. These analyses can be used to examine the
relative hazards of alternate sites, the cost/benefit con-
siderations for locating the plant at different sites, the
appropriate levels of pollution control, the hazards associ-
ated with not having additional control, and the reduction
of hazard associated with additional controls.
In these evaluations of risk, a risk analysis unit {RAU)
approach is used. In this approach, chemicals are grouped
into classes based upon their occurrence in waste streams
and their biological, physical, and chemical characteristics.
Each RAU is then analyzed to determine the health and en-
vironmental risks of the entire group. The research program
will determine which RAUs are insignificant and need
minimal attention, and which RAUs constitute a potential
hazard and, therefore, must be more intensively considered
in the risk analysis process.
Major research areas include:
Continued development of models for predicting the
transport, transformation, and concentration of synthetic
fuel pollutants.
Evaluation of the impact of synthetic fuel pollutants and
their by-products on terrestrial and aquatic food chains.
Evaluation of exposure and human effects to develop
dose-response functions for carcinogenic and reproductive
risk analysis.
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104 ENERGY
Documentation of environmental/human health impacts
for synthetic fuel pollutants as determined from occupa-
tional or ambient exposures. Major planned research prod-
ucts include:
Transport and effects of synthetic fuel pollutants in aqua-
tic systems, 1984
Atmospheric transformation rates and products of major
synthetic fuel pollutants, 1985
Generic assessment providing updated health and en-
vironmental risk analyses for coal gasification, coal
liquefaction, and oil shale technologies, 1985
Uptake and transfer of synthetic fuel pollutants in plant'
animal food chains. 1986
User's guide for health and environmental risk analysis
methodologies involving complex mixtures. 1986
Health assessment of production-scale synthetic fuel
plant in Yugoslavia, 1987
Environmental and health assessments of various oil
shale, 1987, coal gasification. 1988, and coal liquefaction
technologies, 1989
Synthetic fuel pollution reduction: What control techniques
are most promising for reducing pollution from synthetic
fuels?
Each synthetic fuel production process has its own pollu-
tion output, which may be discharged to air, water or land.
Different pollutants require both different degrees and types
of control and there are numerous control options from
which to choose. Before deciding on a set of emissions
reduction technologies at a plant, a comparison of control
alternatives will help to meet emissions limits at the least
cost.
EPA's research program stresses the evaluation of existing
synthetic fuel pollutant control technologies for perform-
ance, reliability and cost trade-offs. A minor effort will in-
vestigate a novel technique for difficult, high-cost clean-up
problems. Data will continue to be collected from pilot-
scale plants. Data from operational commercial-scale plants
will serve to validate the earlier data.
With regards to oil shale, EPA's research will emphasize
on-stream testing and evaluation of air and water treatment
technologies to establish performance and cost information.
Stretford and ammonia or caustic scrubbing will be evalu-
ated for control of sulfur emissions while conventional
physical/chemical processes will be tested on actual retort
wastewater streams. Research will be initiated to evaluate
the concepts of controlling sulfur through adsorption onto
spent shale. Research will also be initiated to evaluate the
environmental implications of co-disposal of wastewater
with spent oil shale.
With regard to coal, EPA-sponsored research will test
new methods for removal'recovery of sulfur species (COS.
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ENERGY 105
H2S, CS2) from synthetic fuel gas streams. Wastewater
treatability studies are focused on post-biological treatment.
The data is also being used to provide environmental engi-
neering support to the regions and states on environmental
impact statements, permit reviews, and environmental
monitoring plans.
Major planned research products include:
Coal-related sulfur clean-up technology and wastewater
treatability report, 1984
Control of sulfur emissions from oil shale retorting, 1986
Assessment of oil shale wastewater pollution control
technology, 1986
Design manual for oil shale solid waste disposal sites,
1986
Performance evaluation of pollution controls at several
commercial plants, 1988
Interpretation reports on monitoring data for regulated
and unregulated synfuels plants, 1988
Combustion generated pollutants: How do boiler conditions
influence key pollutant-related reactions?
Complex and subtle physical and chemical reactions take
place in the combustion and heat release zones of boilers.
Boiler manufacturers and operators have studied these reac-
tions extensively in the past with an eye toward improving
the energy efficiency of the boilers. Conventional combus-
tion systems are fired chiefly with the fossil fuels: coal, fuel
oils, and natural gas. The fuels, due to their differences in
physical (solid, liquid, or gaseous) state and composition,
behave quite differently during the reactions in which they
combine with the oxygen in combustion air to release their
energy as heat. These reactions are now being studied to
optimize the control of combustion-generated pollutants,
such as NOX and SOX, while at the same time attaining high
energy efficiency.
A fuller understanding of the reactions which occur
during combustion, especially those involved in the forma-
tion or destruction of pollutants (e.g., NOX), will enable sci-
entists to understand the cause-and-effect relationships.
This knowledge can then be used to identify effective pol-
lutant control approaches and to develop engineering data
and designs for low-pollutant systems.
EPA scientists and engineers have been addressing a
number of questions about the fundamentals of combustion.
Much valuable scientific information has been generated,
especially with regard to the control of nitrogen oxides. The
recent identification of several combustion process changes
offering the potential for significant advances in NOX con-
trol has been an outgrowth of the earlier fundamental com-
bustion research. This has led to an increased emphasis on
NOX control approaches based on (1) precombustor technol-
ogy and on (2) in-furnance NOX reduction (through the use
of a secondary combustion zone). Most combustion proc-
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106 ENERGY
esses emit about 95 parts of nitric oxide (NO) for each 5
parts of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). these being the principal
NOX species of concern at present. During combustion, NOX
is formed by two mechanisms. First, reactions between nit-
rogen and oxygen in the combustion air can lead to forma-
tion of NOX. This is referred to as "thermal NOX" since its
formation is strongly dependent on peak flame temperature.
EPA research has shown that combustion modifications
which lower the peak flame temperature can effectively re-
duce thermal NOX emissions.
When the fuel itself contains nitrogen, a second NOX
formation mechanism producing "fuel NOX" is possible. For
coal, which contains significant levels of nitrogen (0.5. to
2.0 percent by weight), and for some residual fuel oils (0.2
to 0.9 percent nitrogen by weight), fuel NOX is the domi-
nant pathway to NOX emissions.
As the fuel-bound nitrogen is released from a burning
coal particle or an oil droplet, it has two potential ultimate
fates; it may be oxidized to form polluting NO or it may be
further reduced to form harmless nitrogen (N2). EPA-
sponsored research has shown that formation of N2 is fa-
vored by limiting the amount of free oxygen available
during the early stages of the combustion process. Combus-
tion modifications to accomplish that goal am broadly re-
ferred to as "staged combustion." The major goal of EPA's
NOX reduction research is development of the technology
for new low-NOx burners which may either be retrofitted to
existing boilers or incorporated into new designs. These
burners reduce NOX by delaying the rate of mixing between
fuel and air, thereby limiting the availability of free oxygen
in the initial burning process. First generation burner tech-
nology employing this principle has already been in-
corporated into commercial practice.
EPA research strategy is to continue to obtain the in-
formation needed to optimize control technologies for the
combustion of both coal and heavy fuel oils. For coal, the
mechanisms and rates associated with the volatilization of
sulfur species from the fuel particle matrix will be de-
termined. For fuel oils, the role of droplet size and
volatilization of the fuel droplets during mixing with the
combustion air will be determined. For both fuels, the role
of in-furnace NOX reduction by the introduction of a secon-
dary fuel beyond the primary combustion zone will be in-
vestigated.
In addition, new studies will be initiated to investigate
thoroughly the use of precombustor technology as a means
of drastically reducing NOX emissions while simultaneously
controlling particulate and SO2 emissions. The research em-
phasis initially will concentrate on optimizing the applica-
tions of low-NOx burners for coal and for oil. Later, the em-
phasis will be shifted to investigate and maximize the
effectiveness of infurnace NOX reduction and precombustor
technologies for utility and industrial boiler applications.
Major planned research products include:
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ENERGY
107
Long Term
Trends
Determination of the rates and mechanisms associated
with volatization of sulfur species from coal, 1985
Performance optimization and evaluation of industrial
boiler low-NOx heavy oil burners, 1985
Demonstration of the performance optimization of low-
coal burners for utility boilers, 1987
Evaluation of the use of in-furnance NOX reduction for
industrial boilers, 1988
While this report is focused upon EPA's research strategy
for the next five years, it would be incomplete without
some reference to the long-term trends which shape the
context within which our research strategy evolves. In the
following, we identify a few of the major environmental
issues likely to affect the implementation of energy tech-
nologies between now and the year 2000. In identifying
these issues, we include the following elements.
First, the issues we choose span most energy tech-
nologies, but focus on coal combustion and the synthetic
fuel (coal and oil shale) technologies. It is our belief that it
is in these areas where most of the energy-related environ-
mental impacts could occur.
Second, the issues cover a range of goals such as long-
term protection of climate, water availability and quality,
human health and pristine environments.
Third, most of our issues represent a departure from the
classical issues which have received the attention of public
and regulatory bodies in the past. For instance, we focus on
overall solid waste disposal rather than limiting attention to
air or water. We also anticipate greater attention to carci-
nogens and toxics in all media. Further, our long-term
issues often differ from classic environmental analyses in
that they are truly multimedia in nature (e.g., trace ele-
ments released to land, air, and water).
Fourth, the solutions to many of the issues will tend to
be in conflict with the solutions of others. For example, the
health effects of deep mining can be reduced by turning to
surface mining (which, in turn, exacerbates the problems of
water availability, ground water quality, land use, trace ele-
ments, and pristine environments in the West).
Fifth and finally, unlike the classic issues where the pub-
lic could see a polluted stream and demand it be cleaned
up, the level of controversy and resolution of controversy
are directly related to the state of knowledge and research.
Keeping the above perspective in mind, the following are
important energy-related environmental issues which we
expect will shape EPA's research program for the next two
decades. These issues may significantly impact the im-
plementation of an energy policy and/or technology.
Solid waste from conventional coal use: The use of coal
creates large quantities of solid wastes consisting of ash,
tars, chars, slag, scrubber sludge, spent catalysts, fluidized
bed media, and biological treatment sludge. Solid wastes-
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108 ENERGY
can be disposed of in a number of ways, with the major en-
vironmental concern being the penetration of leachates into
aquifers or surface waters. Because of the toxic nature of
some of the components (trace metals, etc.), the disposal of
this material may pose a problem for siting and operation
of facilities.
Siting of coal conversion facilities: A host of regulations.
physical factors, and public attitudes can combine to
severely limit the siting of coal conversion facilities. For ex-
ample, current federal regulations to prevent significant de-
terioration of air quality in certain areas may effectively
limit energy development activities in those areas.
Carbon dioxide buildup: Fossil fuel combustion produces
carbon dioxide (CO2). The ambient CO2 concentration has
been increasing throughout the troposphere. This increase
may cause climatic changes and increase the surface tem-
perature of the earth.
Offshore oil: There are four major environmental concerns
with regard to outer continental shelf (OCS) oil de-
velopment: water/oil contamination, air pollution (NOX.
SOX and hydrocarbons), aesthetics, and the impacts of an-
cillary onshore facilities.
Trace elements: Trace elements are emitted by most energy
technologies and are found in the products as well as the
solid, liquid, and gaseous waste streams. The increasing use
of coal will magnify this problem. Long-term, low-level
trace element exposure will have uncertain human health
and environmental effects.
Groundwater: Groundwater contamination through de-
epwell injection, solid waste leaching, and in situ coal and
shale processing will be of increasing concern in regard to
toxic organic and inorganic chemicals. The commercializa-
tion of in situ coal gasification and in situ and surface oil
shale retorting demands a fuller understanding of these
technologies and their effects on groundwater and water
supplies.
Fugitive emissions: Gaseous emissions or leaks may occur
from coal gasification and liquefaction plants because of
improper equipment design and/or maintenance. Such
emissions may include numerous sulfur and nitrogen com-
pounds, trace elements, and aliphatic and aromatic hydro-
carbons. The main concerns are potential carcinogens, syn-
ergisms and undetermined effects of the various com-
pounds emitted.
Fine particles: The total atmospheric loading of fine par-
ticulates results from emissions of primary fine particulates
from natural and other sources (especially fossil-fuel tech-
nologies) and from the secondary fine particulates formed
from chemical reactions in the atmosphere. Fossil energy
development may increase, or change the nature of, air-
borne fine particulates, thus causing both human health
and environmental impacts.
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ENERGY 109
Radioactivity from coal: Radioactivity in coal stems pri-
marily from the natural decay series of radionuclides U238
and Th232. Concentrations of these radionuclides vary
widely from the national average of 1.8 ppm uranium and
4.7 ppm thorium. Increased exposure to ionizing radioactiv-
ity induces carcinogenic and mutagenic responses.
Nitrogen oxides: Fossil fuel combustion is the major source
of anthropogenic nitrogen oxide emission. NOX plays an
important role in visibility reduction, human health
hazards, damages to vegetation and material, and acid
deposition.
Land disturbance from surface mining: The principal en-
vironmental concerns associated with large-scale surface
mining are: maintaining original topography and high qual-
ity of water supply; preserving local ecology; and agricul-
tural productivity.
Biomass energy exploitation: Conversion of biomass is a so-
lar technology which may have significant environmental
impact. The major sources of biomass are terrestrial and
marine plant life. Conversion processes which use biomass
(from both plant and animal sources) are potentially signifi-
cant environmental concerns.
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7
Acid Rain
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Acid Rain
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Background
Major Research Topics
Sources/receptors: What are the quantitative relationships
between emissions sources and deposition receptors?
Loadings/effects: What are the quantitative relationships be-
tween acidic deposition loadings and their effects?
Trends: Has acidic deposition been increasing?
Liming: Is liming of acidified lakes environmentally sound
and economically feasible as a mitigation measure.
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7
113
Acid Rain
term ac'^ ram means the atmospheric deposition of
acidic or acid-forming compounds in either their dry or wet
form. These compounds exist in the atmosphere as gases or
aerosol particles. The gases of concern are sulfur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen oxides (NOX) and hydrogen chloride (HCL).
The aerosol particles are sulfuric acid, nitric acid (a gas in
the troposphere) and certain sulfate and nitrate compounds.
While scientists generally agree that these compounds are
responsible for deposition of varying degrees of acidity,
there remain major uncertainties regarding the causes, ex-
tent, consequences and cures for the problem.
The major scientific issues are:
What source/receptor relationships should be used to de-
termine emission control strategies? To compare deposition
from local sources with deposition transported from distant
sources? To determine the importance of acid aerosols from
natural sources?
What are the quantitative relationships between acidic
deposition loadings and their effects?
Has acidic deposition been increasing?
Is liming of acidified lakes cost-effective?
To answer these questions and to provide the scientific and
technical data that regulators and legislators i.eed for
formulating policy, EPA and other federal agencies are con-
ducting a major research program.
EPA's program is investigating: the relationships between
man-made emissions, precursors, and acidic deposition; the
processes influenced by the formation and transport of
acidic and acidifying substances; the deposition of acidic
substances on terrestrial and aquatic systems; and effects of
acidic deposition on aquatic environments, drinking water,
agriculture, natural terrestrial ecosystems, and materials.
The program will provide assessments to support policy
analyses that determine the cost effectiveness of potential
control strategies.
The acidic deposition research program for fiscal year
1984 is allocated $15.4 million, which is part of the $27.6
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114
ACID RAIN
million budget of the Interagency Task Force on Acid Depo-
sition. EPA's resources are divided among the programma-
tic categories of the interagency task force as follows: man-
made sources, $1.3 million; atmospheric processes, $5.3
million; deposition monitoring, $1.9 million; aquatic im-
pacts, $3.0 million; terrestrial impacts, $1.5 million; effects
on materials, $0.6 million; and assessments and policy
analysis, $1.8 million.
Legislative
Mandate
EPA's program is a component of, and operates in coopera-
tion with, the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Pro-
gram (NAPAP), established by Congress in 1980 under the
Energy Security Act. Management of the NAPAP research is
being handled by the Interagency Task Force on Acid Pre-
cipitation, which is jointly chaired by EPA, the Department
of Agriculture and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, and includes research representatives from
those agencies and from the Departments of Interior, Health
and Human Services, Energy, Commerce, State, the Council
on Environmental Quality, the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration, the National Science Foundation
and the Tennessee Valley Authority. The federal research
program has a ten-year legal mandate. It oversees all feder-
ally funded acidic deposition research projects. EPA has a
coordination role in the task groups for aquatics, control
technology, and assessments and policy analysis. EPA also
has a major research program to study man-made acidic
deposition sources, atmospheric processes, deposition
monitoring and terrestrial and materials damage.
Background
Acidic deposition has most likely occurred in cities for
several centuries. It was first described by Robert Angus
Smith in Manchester, England, in 1853. In the United
States, acidic precipitation below a pH of 5.0 (snow, sleet,
rain, hail) has been measured over a large portion of the
eastern states for the past 25 years.
The formation of acidic deposition begins when atmo-
spheric SO2 or NOX, as either gases or liquid droplets, are
oxidized by other airborne chemicals to become sulfate and
nitrate aerosols or gaseous nitric acid. While these atmo-
spheric transformations are thought to account for the
majority of the acidic compounds, some acidic aerosol
particles are emitted into the air directly from power
plants, automobiles and other man-made sources.
Once formed, acidic gases and aerosol particles can be re-
moved from the atmosphere by either rain, snow or fog,
resulting in acidic precipitation. Such atmospheric removal
processes are referred to collectively as "wet deposition." If
there is insufficient moisture for precipitation to occur, the
acidic compounds including SO2 and i\rOx not oxidized to
aerosol particles, can settle or diffuse to the earth and be
deposited in a dry form, eventually oxidizing or combining
with water (and also oxidizing) to produce sulfuric or nitric
acid. This phenomenon is called "dry deposition.''
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ACID RAIN 115
Atmospheric SO2 and NOX come from man-made emis-
sions as well as from natural sources. The chemicals which
serve as efficient oxidizing agents in the atmosphere pri-
marily are believed to come from photochemical reactions
involving volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and NOX,
and, possibly, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Estimates of man-made SO2 emissions show that 65% of
U.S. emissions come from electric utilities and the remain-
der from various industrial and transportation sources. Es-
timates of man-made NOX emissions in the U.S. indicate
that more than 40% come from transportation sources, 30%
from electric utilities and the remainder from other types of
combustion. The primary man-made sources of volatile
organic compounds are automobiles, processes that use sol-
vents, and facilities for fuel production and distribution.
The natural sources of atmospheric sulfur compounds in-
clude marine bioactivity, swamps, and volcanos. Estimates
of the sulfur compound emissions from these sources are
comparable to those for man-made sources on a global
basis, although man-made processes are responsible for the
dominant portion of SO2 emissions in industrialized areas
such as eastern North America.
Estimates of global NOX emissions from natural sources
(microbial activity in soils, burning of forests and agricul-
tural residues, and lightning) are much less certain than are
the SO2 estimates. Current global estimates indicate natural
NOX emissions to be of the same magnitude as emissions
from industrial sources. For the United States, however, in-
dustrial NOX emissions are roughly estimated to be ten
times greater than natural emissions.
The amount of volatile organic compounds emitted from
natural sources is also uncertain. The role of natural emis-
sions in the regional formation of oxidizing agents may or
may not be significant.
Whether natural or man-made, all acid-forming com-
pounds and aerosols can be atmospherically transported for
distances of a few to many hundreds of kilometers from
their point of release to where they return to earth as wet or
dry deposition. If deposited in the sea, the acidic aerosols
and acid-forming compounds are neutralized, and the load-
ings are small compared to the normal ionic concentrations
of seawater. If deposited on land, the compounds may or
may not cause an adverse effect, depending upon the na-
ture and sensitivity of the receptor site.
The effects of acidification on aquatic life have been
demonstrated in the field. However, the extent to which
these effects are caused by acidic deposition has not yet
been rigorously determined. Quantification of these and
other effects on susceptible lakes and streams is currently
under investigation.
Aquatic effects can manifest themselves as changes in the
life forms found in the water. Fishless lakes, for example,
can occur when a lake's pH falls below 5 (note: the lower
the pH, the greater the acidity; a pH of 7 is neutral). Several
scientific studies conclude that a number of lakes in North
America may have been affected by acidic deposition.
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116 ACID RAIN
Acidic deposition may also affect forests, crops, soi] sys-
tems, drinking water, man-made materials and, indirectly,
human health. Scientists are now seeking to determine
quantitatively whether and to what extent such effects
occur. Because of the complexity of the natural systems in-
volved, however, decisive answers are difficult to come by.
For example, after more than a decade of investigations,
Scandinavian researchers still find it difficult to demonstra-
te conclusive cause-and-effect relationships between acidic
deposition and forest productivity.
Studies of acidic deposition effects on natural terrestrial
ecosystems have shown limited evidence of damage. While
acidic deposition may subtly influence the functioning of
terrestrial ecosystems, potentially harmful effects may be
obscured in the short term by nutrient enhancement from
sulfates and nitrates. Recently, however, declines in the
productivity of some forest systems have been noted,
although the cause for the declines remains unclear. There-
fore, a primary concern for research study is the long-term
implications of acidic loadings to natural systems.
Some studies have demonstrated that acidic deposition
either increases or decreases crop yield. Nutrient enhance-
ment, again, tends to cloud the issue. Because plant re-
sponses to acidic deposition (in either natural or managed
systems) depend on many variables such as soil condition,
species sensitivity, life stage, other air pollutants, and
drought, no major damage to plant productivity has been
specifically attributed to acidic deposition. Some research-
ers theorize that responses to acidic deposition may be
occurring but that the responses are being masked by the
complexity of the affected ecosystems.
The direct risk to humans from acidic deposition is be-
lieved to be very low. The pH of acidic deposition is gener-
ally well within the range normally tolerated by human
skin and gastrointestinal tracts. Indirect risks to humans
which might come from drinking water and food con-
taminated by acidic deposition are also quite low. except
where untreated cistern or well water is used. For example,
while acidification of plumbing pipes can cause lead and
copper to leach into cisterns, untreated well water, and
drinking water, most urban and municipal water systems
control pH levels to reduce such corrosion. Surveys will
indicate whether pH is a problem in smaller systems.
Acidification can also release heavy metals such as mer-
cury and cadmium from lake and stream sediments making
them available for uptake by fish. These heavy metals, it is
theorized, may accumulate in fish tissues which may, in
turn, be consumed by humans. Although such effects could
occur, current evidence does not indicate that acidic depo-
sition is a human health problem.
Among the many research projects that are part of the
federal acidic deposition research program are several that
address the entire range of acidic deposition issues. Two
such projects are part of EPA's program. The first involves
production of a major report summarizing the state of
scientific knowledge with regard to all aspects of acidic
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ACID RAIN
117
deposition. These critical assessment review papers were
published in 1983. The second project involves completion
of an integrated cost-benefit assessment framework for
linking emissions models, atmospheric models, and effects
relationships. This framework, intended for use in policy-
related studies, will be available in 1986.
Major
Research
Topics
Source/receptor: What are the quantitative relationships be-
tween emissions sources and deposition receptors?
The atmospheric chemistry processes that form acidic
deposition are being studied in order to develop source/
receptor relationships. Through mathematical modeling and
other means, quantification of atmospheric processes will
help scientists to understand several key factors. For in-
stance, scientists know that the presence or absence of cer-
tain oxidants, other chemicals, moisture, and particulates
influence the conversion of SO2 and NOX to atmospheric
acids, but the complex interactions of all these elements
have yet to be unravelled. Likewise, ozone and hydrogen
peroxide are known to play a significant role in the forma-
tion of oxidants, but their exact effect on the rate of conver-
sion has yet to be determined.
Another major requirement for defining source/receptor
relationships is the identification and measurement of fac-
tors that control atmospheric transport of acid-forming com-
pounds and aerosols. The intricacies of meteorological
mechanisms, which are just beginning to be understood,
make it difficult to specify the atmospheric paths along
which compounds may be transported.
As part of EPA's research effort, large-scale meteorologic-
al models are being refined. One current shortcoming is
that the models assume that the rate of conversion of sulfur
and nitrogen compounds to acidic compounds is pro-
portional to their respective atmospheric concentrations
in other words, the more SO2 present in the atmosphere,
the more acid sulfate produced. Theory and experimental
evidence show that this assumption may be too simplistic
to describe actual photochemical conversion rates. Because
of this, models are now being improved to include the in-
fluences of the mix of oxidants, chemical competition for
oxidants, and the presence of aerosols and particulates to
act as reaction sites. The refined models will also reflect
more accurately the vertical transport of compounds be-
tween various layers of the atmosphere. Horizontal trans-
port rates, and hence the extent of dispersion, depend in
large measure upon vertical exchange rates.
Another problem with using existing models to dif-
ferentiate between deposition from local and long-range
sources is that calculations for sulfur compound deposition
are far more developed than are those for nitrates. In some
areas, locally produced nitrogen oxides may make an im-
portant contribution to acidic deposition.
Finally, long-range transport models only indicate the
aggregate contribution of emissions from geographic areas;
they do not indicate those from individual sources or types
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118 ACID RAIN
of sources. Thus, the models cannot differentiate among
emissions from utilities, industries, homes, or automobiles.
Until refined to do so, their usefulness, especially in
formulating and testing control strategies, is limited.
In 1983 EPA, NOAA, DOE and TVA began field studies
and the development of better atmospheric models to pro-
vide more information about long- and short-range acidic
deposition transport, and the relative importance of wet
and dry deposition. An inventory of acid deposition pre-
cursor emissions data will be developed to support the
modeling research. Model data will also help to determine
oxidation reaction pathways and atmospheric oxidant con-
centrations.
Building upon the results of this research, numerical
transport models are expected to demonstrate improved
source/receptor associations. The research will include
models for examining long-range transport and regional
aspects of acidic deposition, and a comprehensive field
study of source/ receptor relationships using atmospheric
tracers. These results will be available in 1986 and 1988.
Among the other major planned research products in-
clude:
Electric utility simulation model for emissions
forecasting. 1985
Comprehensive emission inventory system, 1985
Industrial simulation model for emissions forecasting,
1985
Define the relative importance of deposition from local
sources, 1986
Loadings/effects: What are the quantitative relationships be-
tween acidic deposition loadings and their effects?
By studying the physical, chemical, and biological char-
acteristics of lakes, streams and watersheds, and the rela-
tionships between amounts of acidic deposition in a water-
shed and the pH levels in an aquatic ecosystem. EPA re-
search seeks to quantify the relationship between acidic;
deposition loadings and ecosystem effects. One of the main
problems facing this effort results from extreme local var-
iations in the buffering capacity of watersheds.
The buffering capacity of a lake and its watershed de-
termines the lake's ability to neutralize acidity. Sensitive
aquatic systems have watersheds with little or no
neutralizing capability in the soils and bedrock. As a result,
such systems have insufficient means to neutralize in-
coming acids. Such sensitive areas are generally
mountainous, with shallow soils underlain by granitic bed-
rock. Such areas include portions of New York, the New-
England states, the Appalachians, the Ozarks, the Rockies.
Sierras, Cascades, the provinces of Ontario. Quebec and
Nova Scotia, and mountainous areas in western Canada.
Buffering capacity varies with the nature of the underly-
ing rocks, surrounding soils, and vegetation in the water-
shed. Lakes in watersheds with low buffering capacity may
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ACID RAIN 119
become acidified, while lakes in the same region with
watersheds having a higher buffering capacity, may not.
The Adirondacks, southern Ontario and Nova Scotia are the
main regions where some lakes show the greatest effects
from acidity. In addition, areas of the Southeast and Upper
Midwest are also sensitive to acidic inputs due to the poor
buffering capacity of the soils in these regions.
Many lake features influence susceptibility to acidic
deposition. A lake's size and depth, its rate of "flushing"
(water flow-through) and whether it is fed by surface water
or ground water all help to determine how it responds to
acidic deposition. Lakes that are poorly buffered are partic-
ularly susceptible to surface water inflows with low pH's.
Surface water with a low pH can be caused by acidic depo-
sition, land use practices, natural "humic" processes, or a
combination of all three. A dramatic decrease in a lake's pH
can occur in the spring when acids accumulated in the
melting snow flow into a lake. This episodic phenomenon,
known as "spring shock," can deplete fish populations.
Weather patterns also play a role. Local air turbulence and
eddys of rain and snow over hills and mountains contribute
to the local variability of acidic deposition impacts.
The manner in which land is used in watersheds is an
important factor contributing to potential lake acidification.
Logging causes a dramatic shift in an ecosystem's nutrient
cycling. Around populated lakes, effluents from residences
may neutralize some lake acidity.
To determine the extent and magnitude of lake and
stream acidification and the associated loss of commercially
important fish, the EPA, the Departments of Interior, Agri-
culture, and Energy, the Tennessee Valley Authority, in-
dustry, and several states are cooperating in a major re-
search program. One goal of the program is to develop a
national inventory of the impacts of acidic deposition on
the quality of surface waters, including drinking water. In
1983 this program produced regional and national tabula-
tions and maps showing the distribution of acidified, and
acid-sensitive waters. By comparing historical water quality
data with watershed studies, the research will assess the
rates of change in water chemistries and thus provide in-
formation for evaluating future water conditions. To au-
gment this data, the EPA's National Lake Survey program is
being expanded. This program provides an accurate record
of actual conditions in a large number of lakes over a wide
geographic area. As part of the National Lake Survey pro-
gram, field surveys will be added in 1984 to inventory the
biological impact of acidification on fish.
Correlations among research results will help to reveal
the causes, as well as the extent, of altered aquatic systems.
A major assessment of atmospheric deposition loading
limits for aquatic ecosystems effects will be published in
1985. Reports to assess damages to aquatic ecosystems in
physical and economic terms will be published in 1986 and
1988. Another assessment, this one of terrestrial effects in
economic terms, is scheduled for 1985 with updates in
1987 and 1989.
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120 ACID RAIN
Trends: Has acidic deposition been increasing?
Regardlesss of where acidic deposition has been observed
and measured, there is insufficient evidence to accurately
define long-term trends. Historical data on rain acidity are
simply too meager. Historical records about U.S. air quality
are also inadequate for establishing scientifically rigorous
trends regarding atmospheric acidity or the concentrations
of precursor chemicals. In this case, there is a need to
understand natural cycles, or geocycles, to avoid mis-
interpreting "apparent" short-term trends.
In Scandinavia, where acidic deposition data records are
more complete than in North America, analyses suggest fur-
ther complication. Strong correlations found between the
concentrations of sulfates and nitrates in precipitation and
precipitation acidity are not reproducible when sulfur emis-
sions data are collected from arrays of monitoring stations
over extended time intervals. The differences in correlation
between concentrations and emissions may reflect year-to-
year variations in atmospheric transport patterns or the
complexity of atmospheric mechanisms.
EPA and other federal agencies are currently gathering
data to determine acidification trends. Effects studies in-
clude the examination of tree rings, lake sediment cores.
acidification damage to tombstones, and an analysis of his-
torical acidity measurements. To gather precipitation data.
EPA participates in the National Trends Network (NTN)
which will soon have 150 precipitation chemistry
monitoring sites in the U.S. Presently, EPA also contributes
to the National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP), a
federal, state, and private program that operates 110
monitoring sites, many of which will become part of the
NTN. EPA is also cooperating with other agencies in in-
itiating a research program to quantify dry deposition load-
ings in the U.S.
An assessment of forest effects from acidic precipitation
using tree ring analysis is due in 1984.
Major planned research products include:
Updated evaluation of dry deposition measurement tech-
niques, along with recommendations for monitoring net-
work designs, 1985
Trends related to acidic deposition, 1985
Liming: Is liming of acidified lakes environmentally sound
and economically feasible as a mitigation measure.
One suggested method for protecting and restoring suscep!
ible lakes is to add lime to neutralize the acids. Studies of
Swedish lakes and streams demonstrate that adding lime to
the water restores fish habitats, enables restocked fish to
survive and reproduce, and causes undesirable plant spe-
cies common to acidic water to disappear. However, the
protection of lakes continuing to receive acidic inputs
would require periodic reliming.
The Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) of the Department
of Interior in conjunction with EPA, will conduct field re-
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ACID RAIN 121
search on lake liming in the Adirondacks and Maine.
Liming strategies to protect against "spring shock" and to
trap metals in the watershed before they enter streams, are
being tested. Additional liming research is being conducted
by the private sector and by Canada. The FWS is also
working closely with the Electric Power Research Institute
in intensive studies of liming.
These research activities will identify where liming is
practical and will quantify both beneficial and adverse
effects. A report on the economic and biological feasibility
of liming as a mitigation measure will be produced in 1984.
Final recommendations on the use of liming will be made
in 1986. Among the major research products associated
with this issue is the publication of a cost-benefit assess-
ment of acidic deposition mitigation strategies. This assess-
ment will be published in 1987 and updated in 1989. will
be made in 1986. Among the major research products
associated with this issue is the publication of a cost-
benefit assessment of acidic deposition mitigation strat-
egies. This assessment will be published in 1987 and up-
dated in 1989.
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8
Drinking Water
-------
Drinking Water
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Background
Major Research Topics
Distribution system: How do drinking water distribution
systems contribute to health risks, costs and compliance?
Disinfection by-products: What methods are needed to iso-
late, identify and determine the health hazard of the by-
products of drinking water disinfection?
Infectious disease: What data and methods are needed to
assess the role of drinking water in infectious disease
transmission?
Health risk assessment: How can risk assessments of
human exposure to chemicals present in drinking water be
improved?
Long Term Trends
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8
125
Drinking Water
Introduction
Legislative
Mandate
State and local governments have the main responsibility
for drinking water quality. Demands on the water supply
are increasing while, at the same time, chemical contamina-
tion of water sources is a major problem in some locations.
Water management decisions are becoming both more com-
plicated and more difficult.
State governments need help in addressing major prob-
lems related to drinking water quality. State government
decision-makers are especially concerned about revisions of
the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations
(NIPDWR) due in 1984-1985, when new regulations for a
variety of synthetic and volatile organic chemicals will also
be considered. Additional scientific data are also needed to
support development of other new regulations and Health
Advisories. For example, disinfectants and disinfectant by-
products, as well as safe alternative disinfectants, must be
evaluated.
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA), P.L. 93-523, as
amended, requires EPA to establish drinking water regula-
tions to protect human health and welfare. The NIPDWR
fulfill the requirement to protect human health by specify-
ing maximum chemical and biological contaminant levels
(MCL) allowable in drinking water.
The Safe Drinking Water Act also grants EPA the respon-
sibility and authority to conduct drinking water research.
Section 1442 of the SDWA specifically authorizes EPA to
engage in research concerning: the occurrence and health
effects of chemical and biological contaminants in drinking
water, the analytical procedures for monitoring con-
taminants, the applicability of treatment technologies, the
protection of underground drinking water sources and the
exploration of scientific questions of emerging problems.
Background
The primary goal of this EPA research program is to devel-
op the scientific and technical data needed to assure safe
public drinking water systems and to protect groundwater
resources. Much of the drinking water research program
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126
DRINKING WATER
provides information used by state and local water au-
thorities or by EPA itself to develop changes to drinking
water regulations.
In this context, EPA's health effects research is especially
important to both the development of federal drinking
water maximum contaminant levels and to develop in-
formation that can be used to develop Drinking Water
Health Advisories that assist states in dealing with con-
tamination incidents. Since groundwater may be affected by
hazardous waste disposal practices and the use of pesti-
cides, this topic is discussed elsewhere as a "cross-cutting"
issue.
The drinking water research program for fiscal year 1984
is allocated $23.8 million. These resources are distributed
among the research disciplines as follows: health effects,
39%; engineering and technology, 29%; environmental
processes and effects, 20%; monitoring systems and quality
assurance, 10%; and scientific assessment, 2%.
Major
Research
Topics
EPA's drinking water research program will continue to
provide support to the EPA Office of Drinking Water in de-
veloping revised and new Maximum Contaminant Levels
(MCLs) and Health Advisories, and to states in their im-
plementation of safe drinking water programs. Quality
assurance and monitoring methods development will con-
tinue to be a high priority as well. For this year's Outlook.
we consolidated the research topics discussed to focus
attention on only the most important topics in drinking
water research. As a result, the issues discussed below do
not, by any means, cover the entire research program. For
example, work will be continuing to examine treatment
alternatives; however, the contribution of distribution sys-
tems to health risks, costs and compliance is an area where
increased effort will be required. Therefore, we have nar-
rowed the issue to focus on distribution, and have chosen
not to discuss other technology evaluation work which is
ongoing and is relatively better understood. Likewise, in
the health area, we have chosen to focus on the broadest
and most critical issues of health risk extrapolation and in-
fectious disease transmission and not to discuss work on
specific chemicals or metals. And, finally, most of the dis-
cussion of groundwater monitoring and assessment has
been shifted to the "Cross cutting issues" chapter.
Distribution system: How do drinking water distribution
systems contribute to health risks, costs and compliance?
Water delivery systems can have a definitive effect on the
quality of water received at the tap. For example, 20 per-
cent of the waterborne disease outbreaks in the United
States are caused by failures in the distribution systems.
Legionella, the causative agent of Legionaire's Disease may
survive in some water distribution systems, and excessive
amounts of lead from distribution system pipes has been
found in some tap water samples.
These problems exist in both large and small and old and
relatively new water systems. Coupled with these water
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DRINKING WATER 127
quality considerations is the fact that delivery systems
account for 80 percent of the cost of water supply.
Older urban systems contain thousands of miles of pipe-
lines. Pipeline failures and resulting loss in system pressure
are a growing hazard to streets and property, to human
health, and to commercial and industrial water users.
Little systematic information is available concerning the
water quality deterioration that can take place in drinking
water delivery systems. Less is known concerning the fac-
tors that affect the repair and replacement requirements for
the pipe network itself. Preliminary studies indicate that
significant water quality problems do exist in distribution
systems and that there are quantifiable interactions between
quality and operational problems. For example, tubercule
build-up in distribution system lines not only reduces
water quality but can also restrict hydraulic capacity thus
increasing operating costs and interfering with service.
There are four major areas where gaps in our scientific
knowledge are interfering with effective management of
drinking water distribution systems. These are:
identification and analysis of organic, inorganic and
microbiological contaminants;
inadequate data on the relationship between treatment
strategies and consequent deterioration of water quality in
the distribution system;
insufficient data on the factors causing deterioration of
water quality within the distribution system itself; and
problems with bringing small systems into compliance.
Deterioration of water quality during distribution can
occur because of inadequate treatment and disinfection
techniques that result in the formation of disinfection by-
products, internal corrosion, leaching of contaminants from
storage and distribution components, and bacterial re-
growth within the system. Information needs include the
following; factors affecting deterioration of water quality in
distribution systems and risks to human health, factors
affecting failure rate in distribution systems, models to per-
mit timely anticipation and detection of failures and to link
the quality and cost and operational variables in distribu-
tion systems, and techniques for managing and tracking the
quality and costs associated with delivery systems.
EPA's research role is primarily in terms of its responsi-
bility for developing scientific data on the phenomena
associated with water quality deterioration in distribution
systems. EPA researchers work directly with institutions
such as the American Water Works Association to provide
information on compliance strategies for drinking water uti-
lities.
With regard to the four major information gaps men-
tioned above, our research strategies are:
Organic,inorganic and microbiological contaminants:
EPA research is attempting to identify the specific charac-
teristics, extent and health significance of reaction by-
products from drinking water disinfectants. Laboratory
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128 DRINKING WATER
work will define the extent and character of reactions with
aquatic humic materials and the nature of organic halogens
and oxidation by-products that are formed. The physical
and chemical factors that influence the reactions will be
identified.
Laboratory work to characterize the reaction by-products
is now underway. Preliminary treatment data focusing on
the amounts of organic halogens produced are being col-
lected from bench and pilot studies. Treatment method
effectiveness data will be developed later. Should the
health effects research indicate a health problem, evalua-
tions will be made at full-scale treatment plants.
Treatment strategies/deterioration relationship: By 1985,
EPA investigators will have evaluated all major disinfection
processes in laboratory and field tests. Other research will
provide data on improving treatment technologies, in-
cluding disinfection, microbe filtration, ion exchange, aera-
tion, adsorption, and/or reverse osmosis for the control of
organic, inorganic and radionuclide chemicals, chlorinated
organics, and/or particulates. Bench, pilot and field studies
will be conducted to define the interaction between treat-
ment strategies and water quality deterioration in distribu-
tion systems.
Overall system integrity: The persistence and potential
regrowth of organisms in distribution systems is influenced
by a variety of conditions that include physical and chem-
ical characteristics of the water, system age, variety of pipe
materials and the availability of suitable sites for bacteria
colonization. Laboratory and field studies will be con-
ducted to evaluate the impact of changes in treatment and
disinfection practices brought about by existing and new
regulations. Investigations will also be carried out on other
key factors that influence microbial regrowth, including
nutrients, temperature, and protective habitats such as sedi-
ment accumulations.
In addition, theoretical, laboratory, and field studies will
be conducted to define the factors associated with distribu-
tion system repair and replacement criteria. The costs
associated with optimal renovation strategies will be identi-
fied.
Small system compliance problems: Research is
evaluating the cost and engineering feasibility of specific
treatment techniques to remove or control problem inorgan-
ic contaminants (such as arsenic, radium, and uranium),
organic contaminants (including pesticides and chlorinated
organic solvents), trihalomethanes, microorganisms and
particles. Several evaluations will be at pilot-or full-scale.
Bench-scale studies are being done to define variables that
govern the effectiveness and efficiency of treatment proc-
esses prior to large-scale evaluations. Reports of these find-
ings will be released beginning in 1984 and continuing into
1987.
Major planned research products include:
Evaluation of effects of water quality on corrosion of pipe
materials, 1985
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DRINKING WATER 129
Techniques for measuring repair, renovation, and re-
placement needs in distribution systems, 1985
Characterization of treatment techniques for newly recog-
nized waterborne pathogens, 1986
Methodology for control and monitoring of disinfection
by-products, 1987
Evaluation of chemical, microbiological and economic
factors affecting the operation of water distribution systems
in small communities, 1987
Evaluations of THM control using alternative dis-
infectants and treatment modifications, 1988
Cost and performance data on alternative control strat-
egies, 1988
Infrastructure needs for drinking water systems, 1989
Disinfection by-products: What methods are needed to iso-
late, identify and determine the health hazard of the by-
products of drinking water disinfection?
Trihalomethanes were the first recognized by-products of
chlorination of drinking water. It is now clear that a variety
of other potentially carcinogenic and mutagenic chemicals,
such as the haloacetonitriles, halogenated aldehydes,
ketones, and a number of as yet unidentified by-products
are produced by chlorination. By-products of alternate dis-
infectants to chlorine are even less well understood. Fur-
thermore, while we do have some data derived from animal
tests,'the human health implications of these substances in
normal1 measured drinking water concentrations are poorly
understood.
In addition to the by-products formed in drinking water,
a variety of other substances are produced in the bodies of
those who drink the water. Preliminary data indicates that
chlorine and chloramine produce low doses of by-products
which can increase spermhead abnormalities in mice. New-
er data indicates that, under certain conditions, chlorinated
drinking water can increase serum cholesterol levels in rab-
bits and pigeons, suggesting a concomitant increase in the
risk of atherosclerosis. Research by EPA seeks to identify
disinfection by-products, determine which of these chem-
icals possess toxicological properties of concern, establish
the dose-response relationships for these effects and, ul-
timately, establish the risk involved with alternative dis-
infectants.
Major planned research products include:
Carcinogenic properties of identified products of chlorine
and other disinfectants, 1985
Toxicological studies of identified products of disinfec-
tion reactions in water, 1986
Infectious disease: What data and methods are needed to
assess the role of drinking water in infectious disease
transmission?
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130 DRINKING WATER
Everyone in this country expects that their tap water will
be free from microorganisms that would cause infections in
humans. However, each year numerous waterborne disease
outbreaks indicate that this is not always the case.
Even though no etiological agent is identified in about
half of the outbreaks, the protozoan, Giardia, and Norwalk-
like viruses are now recognized as major waterborne
pathogens. Bacterial agents such as Legionella and
CampyJobacter have recently been associated with water-
borne disease and, like Giardia, may contaminate water
from other than human fecal sources. In addition to these
known pathogens, common water-or soil-based bacteria
may become opportunistic pathogens under certain con-
ditions.
Data are extremely limited regarding the problems with
microbial contaminants discussed above. In order to gain
an understanding of the importance of these health ques-
tions, research will be carried out to develop methods to
isolate and identify pathogenic microorganisms in water
and host specimens, to determine the infectious dose of
known and suspected waterborne agents and, to determine
responsible agents. Data obtained from field and laboratory
studies will identify situations that pose real and potential
problems and provide water authorities and regulatory
agencies with methods and data for developing appropriate
regulatory strategies.
Major planned research products include:
Human infective dose of enteric viral pathogens, 1984
Giardia occurrence in watershed animals, 1985
Occurrence and significance of infectious agents in
drinking water, 1988
Health risk assessment: How can risk assessments of
human exposure to chemicals present in drinking water be
improved?
Most current regulatory and advisory levels for recog-
nized carcinogens or systemic toxicants in drinking water
are based on data from animal studies. This involves ex-
trapolation from high-dose to low-dose and from animals to
man, using in many cases such "crude" models as the lovv-
dose-linear nonthreshold extrapolation model for carcin-
ogenic risk. This can lead to underestimations or over-
estimations of risks.
Risk assessments are further complicated by the fact that
drinking water contaminants are usually present in com-
binations, along with by-products of various disinfection
processes for which few lexicological data are available.
Furthermore, these contaminants are available to these hu-
mans via inhalation and through skin absorption as well as
ingestion. Consequently, risk assessment procedures and
supporting research studies must be developed which wili
account for multiple routes of exposure, pharmacogenetic
mechanism of action, additive effects (synergistic), and al-
low for extrapolation from high-dose laboratory data to risk
estimates of ambient levels.
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DRINKING WATER 131
Many of these information gaps will be addressed by
blending current theories with available toxicity and
carcinogenicity data. EPA researchers will begin by de-
veloping species conversion models from detailed data on
well-studied chemicals. Simplifications will then be ap-
plied to produce conversion models based on readily avail-
able data (e.g., chemical structure, basal metabolism). The
models will be validated by empirical comparisons of toxic-
ity data, across species, for a large number of chemicals.
The influence of known partial lifetime exposure on
toxicity or cancer risk will be similarly addressed using
models and available data. Known and postulated cellular
mechanisms of carcinogenesis will be investigated for con-
cordance with, or further modification of, the current low-
dose extrapolation models. Guidelines currently being de-
veloped will be applied to the assessment of potential risk
from exposure to mixtures of drinking water contaminants.
Mixture toxicity will be treated by applying additivity mod-
els, comparing the predicted risks to those observed for the
few well-studied industrial mixtures, and evaluating the
model in terms of low-dose pharmacokinetics. The likeli-
hood of known synergistic chemicals occurring in the same
drinking water supply will be estimated by evaluating pre-
vious exposure assessments.
Low-dose extrapolation of data on target organ toxicities
have been based upon the concept of a threshold. Based
upon assumptions about the range of sensitivities in a pop-
ulation and the degree of certainty about the across-species
extrapolation of the data, a number of arbitrary safety fac-
tors ranging from 10 to 1000 or more are in common use.
The validity and range of factors appropriate to across-
species extrapolation can only proceed by comparison of
animal data to carefully obtained epidemiological data in
targets of opportunity where quantitative estimates of expo-
sure can be made.
Low-dose extrapolation models, on the other hand, re-
quire a clearer understanding of the processes involved in
chemically-induced target organ damage. Secondly, the var-
iation in the sensitivity of these processes within and
across species must be established in order to determine
the biological limits on the variability of such systems
within and across species. Such knowledge is also needed
to predict the degree and nature of interactions when
drinking water is simultaneously contaminated by more
than one chemical that affects the same organ system.
EPA shares interest and information in the risk assess-
ment issue with other federal regulatory agencies pri-
marily the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Occu-
pational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) and the
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC). FDA has a
substantial research program involving oral exposures.
OSHA's interest is primarily in the inhalation route. Other
federal basic research facilities are studying the mechan-
isms of chemical carcinogenesis, but their objectives gener-
ally do not emphasize the problem of risk assessment,
which is of major concern to EPA and the other regulatory
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132
DRINKING WATER
agencies. The problem of assessing health risks of disinfec-
tion by-products is specific to EPA.
Major planned research products include:
Potential exposure to drinking water contaminants via
other routes of exposure, 1984
Evaluation of health risk from mixtures of common
drinking water contaminants and mixtures of by-products
of alternative disinfection processes, 1984
Method to distinguish initiation from promotion activity
of liver carcinogens, 1985
Evaluation of validity of extrapolation models for tumor
promoters and initiators, 1986
Relationship of tissue necrosis at high-dose to biochemic-
al effects at low-dose in kidney and liver, 1988
Long Term
Trends
Over the next decade, identification of both chemical and
microbiological agents in drinking water should have pro-
gressed to the point that data gaps are few and well-
characterized. Increasing in importance will be refinement
of detection methods for these agents, as well as im-
provement in the ability to predict risk of disease from
these agents. The search for better indicators of human ex-
posure and responses to environmental contaminants will
become an important issue, as well as increased under-
standing of toxicity of mixtures of chemicals in con-
taminated water supplies.
Another major issue over the next ten years will be de-
fining the extent and character of the reactions of dis-
infectants with aquatic humic materials, and the nature of
organic halogen and oxidation by-products that are formed
during and after treatment. The physical and chemical fac-
tors that influence the reactions must be identified and
treatment practices developed in response to estimated
health risks from this source.
In the health effects area, there will be increased empha-
sis on improving methods to extrapolate from toxicologica)
data to risk based on relevant end points, developing biolo-
gical markers to detect the presence of harmful chemical or
microbiological agents, characterizing additive or synergis-
tic effects from mixtures of chemical agents, and improving
risk estimation methods through study of cancer initiators
and promoters or chemical structure-activity relationships.
Lack of toxicity data (e.g., subchronic studies of animals are
lacking for most chemicals) and lack of evaluation of
human exposure and associated responses are major in-
formation gaps. Human data will be needed for verification
of various gaps. Human data will be needed for verification
of various risk evaluation procedures. EPA is currently ex-
ploring the use of epidemiological studies to resolve some
of these gaps in data.
Health risk assessment procedures developed today will
be strengthened, refined, and validated as time and re-
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DRINKING WATER 133
search continues. Their ultimate utility will depend upon
the basic research in cell biology, toxicology, epidemiology,
and pharmacokinetics, and the development of short-term
screening and assessment methods in toxicity, reproductive
toxicity, and carcinogenicity. Emerging scientific opportuni-
ties will include biological monitoring of human tissues
and fluids, subclinical evidence of various toxic endpoints,
and screening assays for potentially carcinogenic com-
pounds. One of the potentials lies in the further detection
and characterization of interactions between chemical or
biological agents and human genes which control the de-
velopment of cancer (oncogenes).
The current knowledge base for predicting the impacts of
groundwater contamination is limited to a few organic
chemicals in a few well-characterized hydrogeologies. The
need to develop a data base for the many more chemicals of
interest and the less-characterized hydrogeologies will cer-
tainly continue over the next five to ten years, or longer.
The realization in the last five years that the deeper sub-
surface has significant quantities of microorganisms as well
as the emergence of new genetic manipulation techniques
provides the opportunity for many methods of groundwater
cleanup. Such methods may some day provide a dramatic,
cost-effective way for dealing with groundwater contamina-
tion.
Within the next decade, monitoring systems for the
measurement of existing Maximum Contaminant Level
(MCL) contaminants should be almost routine at the state/
local level. Concurrently, the quality assurance techniques
and materials required for certification of laboratories under
the Safe Drinking Water Act should be fully operational for
the existing regulated contaminants.
The need to measure for a wide variety of toxic organic
compounds at extremely low concentration levels is
emerging as an issue of enormous importance. Cost effec-
tive methods that are comparatively easy to use by state
and local personnel are needed for a large number of organ-
ic chemicals, including intractable and highly refractory
compounds which are difficult to recover from water.
Closely related to this analytical need is the accompanying
requirement for quality control and performance evaluation
samples, especially for groundwater supplies contaminated
by refractory organic compounds.
A new issue coming to the forefront is the need to devel-
op and adopt additional microbiological indicators that can
serve as viable measures of the safety of drinking water
supplies for human consumption. This will be especially
important if disinfection techniques other than chlorination
become commonly practiced. Ideally, surrogate test pro-
cedures could be developed that could at least be used as
screening techniques to determine the quality and safety of
a drinking water source.
Multi-media monitoring for toxic organic substances at
extremely low concentration levels (parts per trillion and
parts per quadrillion) produce data of high quality for use
bv decision-makers on health-related issues should be a
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134 DRINKING WATER
major agency goal for the immediate future. These
monitoring techniques will also accommodate the newly
regulated contaminants that will be added to existing lists.
Use of simpler, less-complicated and costly analytical in-
strumental techniques, the development of additional
microbiological indicators, and the application of surrogate/
screening procedures, will make environmental monitoring
for state/local personnel a more attainable goal for pro-
viding a high quality and safe drinking water.
The combination of reduced costs and rapid advances
being made in instrumental techniques, such as high reso-
lution (capillary column) gas chromatography, gas
chromatography/mass spectrometry, and high performance
(micro column) liquid chromatography, and the rapidly
growing use of computer systems and their almost routine
application in every day life, represents the opportunity to
provide major breakthroughs in the quantitative measure-
ment of toxic organic substances by state/local personnel.
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9
Water Quality
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Water Quality
Introduction
Legislative Mandate
Background
Major Research Topics
Water quality-based standards: What information and tools
are needed to support implementation of state water quality
standards?
Ocean disposal: What data is needed to assess and control
environmental degradation that may result from ocean dis-
posal of waste?
Short-term biological toxicity tests: What short-term biolo-
gical tests can be used to assess the biological and human
health implications of wastewater and sludge?
Sludge disposal: What technical and scientific information
is needed to reduce the cost of sludge disposal and to es-
tablish use criteria for sludges from municipal waste treat-
ment?
Treatment systems: What data and technologies are needed
to assure cost-effective design and operation of wastewater
treatment systems?
Long Term Trends
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9
137
Water Quality
Introduction
EPA's water research program develops the scientific bases
for the agency's water pollution control programs. This in-
cludes support to the Office of Water Programs and assis-
tance to state and local government. Research provides the
information and methodology required to establish effective
regulatory programs to protect fresh water and marine en-
vironments and to assure use of the most cost-effective
wastewater treatment technologies.
EPA's water-related research is directed at both ambient
water quality and drinking water. Drinking water is ad-
dressed in a separate chapter of this report. Five high-
priority water quality topics are addressed: water quality
standards implementation, ocean disposal, short-term toxic-
ity testing, sludge disposal and wastewater treatment tech-
nology. For drinking water, the key topics are: distribution
system contamination, disinfection by-products and ways
of improving estimation of health risk.
The topics discussed in this report represent thematic
areas of highest priority and of growing concern, but do not
include all ongoing research related to EPA's water protec-
tion mission. A number of issues which were discussed
separately in last year's Outlook have been consolidated in-
to one topic on implementation of state water quality stan-
dards. This will make clear the rationale behind, and inter-
connections of, the separate sub-issues.
The water quality research program for fiscal year 1984 is
allocated a total of $24.2 million. This total is divided
among three subgroups: water quality research, $15.7 mil-
lion; municipal wastewater research, $7.9 million; and in-
dustrial wastewater research, $1.6 million. The total re-
sources for the water quality program are distributed among
the major research areas as follows: engineering and tech-
nology, 23%; environmental processes and effects, 48%;
monitoring systems and quality assurance, 16%; health
effects, 11%; and scientific assessment, 2%.
Legislative
Mandate
The Clean Water Act and the Marine Protection, Research
and Sanctuaries Act both address protection of the Nation's
water quality. The objective of the Clean Water Act is to re-
store and maintain the chemical, physical and biological in-
tegrity of United States' waters. The objective of the Marine
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1 38 WATER QUALITY
Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act is to regulate the
types and amounts of materials which, if dumped into
ocean waters, would adversely affect human health, welfare
and amenities or the marine environment, ecological sys-
tems and economic potential.
Although much progress has been made in establishing a
scientifically sound information base for making water
quality management decisions, major information needs re-
main. EPA research will focus on the following areas:
First, national water quality criteria developed by EPA
provide only limited guidance for certain water bodies. Be-
cause the relationships between instream criteria and water
uses are imprecise, it can be difficult to define the benefits
of achieving water quality standards for particular water
bodies.
Second, there are a number of gaps in our understanding
of the transport and fate of contaminants in the oceans, of
the impact of these contaminants on aquatic life, and of
waste treatment options as these relate to ocean dumping.
Third, less expensive, short-term biological tests are
needed to facilitate implementation of water quality stan-
dards and the NPDES Program, Such tests are needed by
EPA and the states to assess water quality and by dis-
chargers to control the toxicity of effluents. Such tests
would offer an alternative to the expensive and time-
consuming process of dealing with complex waste mixtures
on a chemical-by-chemical basis.
Fourth, states and municipalities need better methods for
reviewing sludge disposal options, including the possible
human health impacts of each option.
Finally, to help the agency, and state and local gov-
ernments use wastewater treatment technology more effec-
tively, additional scientific information on more efficient
design of new plants and less costly ways of upgrading ex-
isting plants to achieve compliance with permit limits are
needed.
Water quality-based standards: What information and tools
are needed to support implementation of state water quality
standards?
The Clean Water Act (CWA) delineates two types of reg-
ulatory requirements to restore and maintain the quality of
the Nation's waters. Technology-based guidelines set uni-
form national requirements for discharges by industries and
sewage treatment facilities, and are applied without regard
to the type of water body or to quality of the water
receiving the discharge. Water quality-based standards,
which have been adopted by all 57 states and territories,
define the uses to be made of water (such as public water
supply, propagation of fish and wildlife, recreation, agricul-
tural and industrial purposes, and navigation) and the
criteria to protect the uses. Criteria are acceptable quali-
tative or quantitative estimates of water constituents which
should ensure that the use is attained. Ambient water quali-
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WATER QUALITY 139
ty criteria for the protection of human health compliment
aquatic life criteria in providing a scientific basis for the
formulation of water quality standards. Guidance to the
states for modifying human health criteria on a site-specific
basis is needed to provide the flexibility essential for stan-
dards implementation.
The priority given in the last ten years to developing
technology-based controls meant that EPA placed less em-
phasis on developing the information base and tools
needed to support a water quality-based approach.
Although minimum technology requirements have im-
proved the overall quality Of the Nation's rivers and
streams, many water bodies will require additional controls
if water quality standards ate to be met. One major water
quality research priority is solving the technical and
scientific problems associated with translating water quality
standards into permit conditions.
The remaining water pollution problems will likely be
among the most difficult to address, especially if they are
caused by toxic substances, non-point sources, or other fac-
tors such as low flow which limits the available capacity of
the water body to assimilate pollutants.
Although some states have made significant progress in
developing water quality-based controls, scientific informa-
tion is still needed to facilitate pollution control decisions.
There are three major aquatic life elements and two human
health concerns related to implementation of water quality
standards which EPA research is addressing:
Use attainability: In order to ensure that water quality goals
are ecologically attainable, an orderly process is used to
classify possible uses and levels of use, determine
attainability, set ecological requirements for the use, ensure
that these requirements are met and, finally, monitor for re-
sults. The basic elements for a "use-based" approach are
well understood, but each step in a "use attainability anal-
ysis" requires specific scientific knowledge and techniques.
Site-specific criteria and complex effluent toxicity testing:
To implement water quality-based controls, state permitting
agencies need better information and field validated pro-
tocols to establish: single pollutant criteria that account for
local water quality characteristics and varying sensitivities
of local aquatic species; criteria for single pollutants which
account for interactions between chemicals in known pol-
lutant mixture; and criteria for mixtures unknown pollu-
tants and toxicity control for complex effluents.
Wastewater allocation: The wasteload allocation (WLA)
process is the basis for permit limitations for individual
dischargers, in which margins of safety, distribution of
treatment burdens and non-point source controls are con-
sidered. Many water quality models are available, but most
have not been adequately field tested and are limited in the
range of application. Dynamic WLA models are needed that
can be used to accurately assess complex multiple dis-
charge situations.
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140 WATER QUALITY
Human health controls: An association has been shown be-
tween infectious disease incidence in swimmers and water
quality as determined by bacterial indicators. However, the
identification and origins of the disease agent(s) have not
been determined. Recent findings suggest that the tradi-
tionally recognized pathogens may not be responsible for
the observed disease. The occurrence of particulate matter,
probably derived from wastewater, also influences the ex-
posure patterns of swimmers by allowing infectious-dose
levels of organisms to be ingested at one time. Methodology
and field studies need to be conducted to identify the
agents involved and to evaluate control options.
Human health criteria: Criteria for the protection of human
health are important where the designated use for a water
body includes public water supply, the taking of fish for
human consumption, or recreational use. Depending on the
nature of a pollutant, human health criteria may be less
stringent or more stringent than criteria which protect aqua-
tic life. Because use designations vary, human health
criteria also need to be modified on a site-specific basis.
In addressing these information needs, EPA's research is
fulfilling its responsibility to provide current technical in-
formation to EPA regulatory offices, and regions and states
concerning aquatic life and human health protection. In
addition to providing new information, EPA evaluates, in-
tegrates and synthesizes the research result, of other organi-
zations. EPA has the lead role in the development and
evaluation of bioassay methods for the protection of aquatic
life. The agency also has a shared responsibility in the
evaluation and assessment of threats to human health from
toxic chemicals. Other agencies supporting research in this
area include the Food and Drug Administration and the
National Institutes of Health.
EPA must now provide the means to approach the dif-
ficult remaining ambient water quality problems. These
often involve mixtures of toxic chemicals from many
sources and highly variable seasonal flow conditions. Solu-
tions to such problems will require the definition of site-
specific goals and the application of science and technology
as well as effective resource management. The following is
EPA's research strategy:
Use attainability: To determine those uses presently
attained in an aquatic ecosystem, there are three com-
plementary tasks: The first is to characterize uses in
measurable biological and ecological terms. The research
approach will be to select key measurable factors that de-
scribe important characteristics to determine which of them
are linked to particular uses. Preliminary numerical limits
associated with uses will be tested for applicability and
variability under field conditions. The second step is to de-
termine what uses are attained. The research approach will
be to evaluate available means of assessing the health of an
aquatic community, based on structural and functional
attributes of biological organisms, and by determining the
utility of various indices of ecological health. Data analyses
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WATER QUALITY 141
and interpretation of results will be emphasized. In cases
where designated uses are not attained, a third step is to
determine the environmental factors (e.g., water quality,
minimal flow, habitat destruction) that commonly limit
uses. This involves evaluating the relationships among
physical habitat, water quality and biological variables
under field conditions, and developing laboratory and field
bioassay techniques for assessing environmental impacts.
In degraded water bodies, knowledge about potentially
attainable conditions is required to set appropriate man-
agement goals. Current and new knowledge about the con-
straints and potentials of different water bodies will be
combined into an integrated assessment methodology. The
research approach involves investigating related factors that
control water uses. Research on biological/ecological poten-
tial will: develop and test methods to regionally classify
water bodies so that states can use the information to gen-
eralize potentials of systems and thus lessen the need to
survey each site in detail; develop and test methods to
assess physical habitat requirements, including sediments,
that are necessary to support aquatic life uses; develop new
methods and adapt existing methods to assess the water
quality requirements necessary to support aquatic life uses.
Site-specific criteria and complex effluent toxicity testing:
An intensive research effort will develop and field test a
tiered approach to setting criteria that will integrate the
following methods: Individual pollutants - Field validation
of site-specific methods for accounting for local chemical
and biological conditions will be completed in 1985. Be-
cause present criteria have been developed under steady-
state laboratory toxicity test conditions, methods will be de-
veloped to extrapolate to fluctuating exposures. Combined
pollutants - Protocols will be developed and field evaluated
for deriving water-quality criteria for single pollutants
which account for synergistic and antagenistic effects with
other pollutants by determining the sublethal effects of tox-
ic chemical mixtures on aquatic life. Complex ejfluent
toxicity - A significant amount of acute data has been
generated on the toxicity of effluents. EPA will develop a
consistent approach for structuring this testing, verifying re-
sults, and using it to support permitting decisions. Toxicity
testing and validation will be field oriented. Toxicity reduc-
tion approaches, using standardized bioassays and the con-
cept of toxicity units, will encourage the management of in-
dustrial pollutants at the source. In-stream toxicity - To im-
plement the water quality-based approach in water bodies
with complex effluent discharges, and discharges that are
grouped so closely together that biological recovery does
not occur between them, permit writers must quantitatively
understand the link between a specific effluent and its
biological/ecological impact. Field research will develop
toxicity tests that can be related to stream impact and used
to aid in identification of toxicant effluents as well as pro-
viding overall toxicity limits.
Often a permit writer needs to use various combinations
of criteria and toxicity testing together with in-stream toxic-
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142 WATER QUALITY
ity impact assessment. Research will focus on developing a
tiered approach, that integrates pollutant specific tech-
niques, combined pollutant approaches and whole effluent
toxicity testing procedures. Each has limitations and must
be evaluated in conjunction with the others. Emphasis will
be on field testing of methods and improving data inter-
pretation techniques for a range of parameters including
toxicity, pesistence, hydrology and bioaccumulation.
Wasteload allocation: Wasteload allocation research will
focus on developing and field testing dynamic models that
predict transport and fate, as well as environmental expo-
sure, for toxic pollutants. Models will accommodate pro-
babilistic inputs and thus better reflect the effects of in-
herent variability in treatment as well as receiving streams.
Continued development of environmental process rates and
related data bases that are needed for WLA models is
planned. In gross terms, non- point sources are the largest
cause of biological oxygen demand, nutrients, and sedi-
ments, and may contribute significant loadings of heavy
metals and other toxic substances in the Nation's water
bodies. Research will continue to develop techniques for
establishing "innovative" permits for seasonal and multiple
discharges. The difficult task of developing WLA strategies
for complex, multiple discharge sites and relating complex
effluent parameters to impacts on water uses will require a
longer term effort. Emphasis on chemical species in
effluents, derived from field sampling, will be used as pre-
liminary assessments of potential hazards. The proposed
evaluation studies will involve cooperative efforts between
EPA and local agencies.
Human health controls: Specimens from swimmers ex-
periencing infectious disease will be collected and evalu-
ated for etiological agents. Methods to identify emerging
viral agents of waterborne gastroenteritis will be developed.
In addition, the significance of water-borne particulates on
recreational disease occurrence will be determined in re-
gard to particulate origin, composition and pathogen
adsorption, and protection. Investigators would like to use
existing short-term health tests to determine whether or not
a site receiving a large number of chemical contaminants is
a public health risk. Research will provide field tested and
validated methods in a manual that discusses protocols and
interprets strengths and weaknesses of health effects
biomonitoring techniques. The manual will help in-
vestigators select and interpret the appropriate tests in
order to develop water quality-based controls.
Human health criteria: A study will be made to determine
the local availability of information which would be
needed to carry out site-specific criteria modification, and
to determine the degree of specificity which can be
achieved. The protocol will be revised accordingly, then
tested using site-specific data from a wide range of water
bodies to ensure that the resulting criteria are realistic and
protective. Guidelines for assessing the health effects of
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WATER QUALITY 143
chemical mixtures, currently under development, will be
completed and used as a basis for expanding the current
site-specific Criteria modification protocol. This scientific
information will also serve to guide research on technology
for mitigating discharge problems related to public health.
Major expected results from planned research include:
Use attainability
Pilot test in two stages prototype regional or geographic
approaches for determining the biological potential in
stream ecosystems, 1985
Provide time-varying Dissolved Oxygen level (DO)
quirements for aquatic life, 1985
Define alternative water uses, such as fisheries potential,
in terms of biological characteristics and physical habitat
requirements, 1986
Develop, field test and publish attainability analysis
methods for lakes, estuaries, coastal waters, 1989
Site-specific criteria
Evaluate relationships between chronic toxicity of
effluent in receiving water and in the laboratory, and devel-
op and field test an in-stream toxicity protocol, 1984.
Incorporate fluctuating exposure conditions into the
National guidelines, 1985
Develop a biological approach to monitor lethal and sub-
lethal effects of chemical mixtures (combined pollutant
toxicity), and a protocol for using complex effluent toxicity
measured for wasteload allocation, 1986
Publish a tiered approach to measuring and controlling
effluent toxicity that integrates single pollutants, combined
pollutants, generic pollutants, and in-stream methods into a
protocol that is usable for a range of field situations, 1988
Wasteload allocation
Produce a field-tested generic toxicity protocol, using
effluent bioassays, for toxicity wasteload allocation, 1986
Develop wasteload allocation strategies for complex, mul-
tiple discharge situations, 1986
Produce a field-tested dynamic WLA model for con-
ventional and toxic pollutants that incorporate time-variant
exposure including non-point source contributions and
loading variability, 1988
Human health controls
Produce health effects bioassay methods manual for de-
termining whether receiving streams meet waste allocation,
1985
Assessment of data on water particulates in swimmer-
disease occurrence, 1985
Identification of emerging waterborne pathogens, 1986
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144 WATER QUALITY
Human health criteria
Provide guidelines to states for assessing human health
risk of chemical mixtures, 1985
Protocol for site-specific modification of human health
criteria for single pollutants and mixtures, 1987
Ocean disposal: What data is needed to assess and control
environmental degradation that may result from ocean dis-
posal of waste?
For the next decade, the role of EPA research in the
ocean disposal program will be highly varied and complex
to meet the requirements of Sections 301 (h) 403(e) of the
Clean Water Act, and the Marine Protection, Research and
Sanctuaries Act. Understanding the ecological con-
sequences of ocean outfalls and ocean dumping will be
needed to guide future public policy, satisfy international
marine treaties and to protect and enhance, where possible,
coastal fisheries resources. A major need is to gather facts
on the relationship between disposal costs and protection
of marine life. EPA's research is carried out in collaboration
with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Available information on the transport and fate of ocean
disposed materials is limited, and long-term data on sub-
lethal effects of these materials are practically non-existent.
The EPA research program will continue to provide an in-
formation base and assessment methods for the de-
velopment of a sound regulatory program. EPA's ocean dis-
posal research will: develop models of the transport and
fate of specific classes of pollutants, determine the
bioavailability of sediment-associated pollutants to benthic
and pelagic organisms, determine the effects of sediment-
associated and water-borne pollutants on marine organisms,
measure rates and factors regulating pollutant degradation,
and provide monitoring protocols to assist EPA enforce-
ment operations and other federal agencies with state-of-
the-art anticipatory monitoring technologies.
There are two major issues with regard to ocean dumping
the dumping of sludges and other materials from barges
and the direct discharge, through pipes, of effluents into
the ocean at "outfalls." To support EPA's ocean dumping
permit program, our research will develop and verify lab-
oratory and field procedures to better assess impacts associ-
ated with disposal of municipal sewage sludge, dredged
material and industrial wastes on ocean ecosystems.
Our ocean outfall research program will support the
agency in deciding the extent to which it can allow munic-
ipal wastewater discharges through ocean outfalls without
secondary treatment. Monitoring and technical support to
EPA's regions will be emphasized.
The ocean dumping research approach will develop pro-
cedures and methods together with field verification stud-
ies. Research on dumpsite characterization will identify key
information needed to characterize both sites and wastes,
and develop and field test a protocol for collection, synthe-
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WATER QUALITY 145
sis, and integration of this information. Assessment
methods will be developed for two purposes. First, for
waste evaluation, protocols will be developed for chemical,
physical and biological characterization of wastes. Second,
for hazard assessment, protocols will be developed for
effects and exposure assessment.
Protocols for dumpsite monitoring will be developed for
permit/ compliance monitoring of water, sediments and
biota, and for natural population, community and system
responses to best management practices. Field validation of
hazard assessment protocols will be integrated with trend
assessment monitoring. Conceptual models will be de-
veloped to assist in understanding processes of biological
degradation, recovery and enhancement, to assess pollutant
interactions in complex waste mixtures as determinants of
stress, and to evaluate the integration of biological effects
across different ecosystem components.
Engineering aspects of the treatment prior to disposal,
transportation, and method of placement of materials at
dumpsites will be evaluated in the field. A major case
study at a deep-water dumpsite will be used to verify
assumptions and assessment procedures developed by EPA
research. This field study will complement a similar
ongoing EPA project at a shallow-water, nearshore dump-
site receiving dredged material.
EPA's ocean outfalls research will apply models of assi-
milative capacity to reveal the environmental factors that
control degradation to marine ecosystems. EPA research
will evaluate and field test existing models and develop
new ones, if necessary, to determine the impacts of waste
materials on fish and other marine life. Also, researchers
will seek to discriminate among the effects of different
materials in discharges, including organic chemical con-
taminants and nutrients.
Interactions among waste substances may determine the
gross toxicity of waste discharges. Research will identify
those contaminants whose interactions pose the greatest
ecological threats, and subsequently determine which treat-
ment options are most effective in terms of controlling par-
ticular disposal impacts. The need to field validate effluent
toxicity estimates is a key task in EPA's ocean outfall re-
search that will receive increased attention. One validation
method will be to compare bioassay results of sediment
samples (collected at increasing distances from an outfall
pipe) to the structure of the benthic community. The
effectiveness of sewage treatment processes to modify the
levels and forms of nutrients, BOD, pH, suspended solids,
priority pollutants, and coliform content will be evaluated
in relation to their impacts on marine environments.
The research will determine the toxicological properties
of municipal wastes that have received a variety of primary,
secondary and unconventional wastewater treatment. The
toxicity of particulates to benthic organisms from the dif-
ferent treatment processes will be added to unpolluted
reference sediments and the pelagic biota ecosystem
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146 WATER QUALITY
through simulators will be examined for adverse impacts
from the dumped materials.
Major planned research products include:
Final site designation technical guidance document, 1985
Dumpsite biomonitoring methods manual, 1985
Protocols for characterizing the transport and fate of pol-
lutants common to ocean outfalls, 1985
Techniques for characterizing benthic conditions and
ecological impacts near ocean outfalls for use in setting per-
mit conditions, 1986
Report correlating the type and level of effluent treatment
and environmental impact of the receiving environment,
1986.
Manual for evaluation of a waste proposed for ocean
dumping, 1986
Chronic/partial chronic bioassays for sewage sludge, 1987
Development and field validation of hazard assessment
methods, 1988
Develop, field test, and publish monitoring techniques
for use in mandatory monitoring programs, 1988
Engineering aspects of sludge treatment, transport and
disposal, 1989
Short-term biological toxicity tests: What short-term biolo-
gical tests can be used to assess the biological and human
health implications of wastewater and sludge?
EPA currently regulates the introduction of municipal
and industrial pollutants into wastewater and sludges on a
parameter-by-parameter basis. Specific chemical methods
are used in this effort. However, in the environment, there
may be additive effects of multiple toxicants, and the tox-
icologically significant concentrations of toxicants often lie
below chemical detection limits. In addition, specific
chemical-by-chemical analysis is difficult, time consuming
and expensive. There is good evidence that short-term
biological tests, both in vitro and in vivo, used singly and
in tiered batteries of bioassays, can be developed and
adapted to a variety of complex chemical mixture toxicity
assays in the environment.
A number of bioassay procedures have been published in
the scientific literature. Among these are the use of mussels
in marine waters as collector/concentrator monitoring de-
vices, embryo-larval fish toxicity tests which mimic results
of life-cycle exposures in a matter of days, the use of
shrimp and other invertebrates as toxicity monitors, and the
use of micro-organisms. Cellular and subcellular biochemic-
al assays have been identified and correlated to both en-
vironmental contamination levels and pathological changes
in the whole organism.
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WATER QUALITY 147
EPA will continue to evaluate, improve and standardize
existing methods, and incorporate them into monitoring
protocols complete with quality assurance procedures.
Such tests are especially useful with complex mixtures of
contaminants. Toxicological testing methods for human
health hazards, when applied directly to sludges, industrial
and municipal effluents, and to receiving waters, could
indicate appropriate routes of use or disposal for sludges
and whether certain effluents could preclude specific uses
of a receiving body of water. This approach will be useful
in a variety of applications including: to assess the impacts
of sludges and industrial and municipal wastewaters, to de-
termine the need for pretreatment of industrial wastes be-
fore entering the municipal wastewater system, and to de-
termine the allocation of waste loading for particular stream
segments among multiple dischargers.
The knowledge base in using bioassays for environmental
monitoring is insufficient to support its widespread
application. The exact pharmacodynamics, (i.e., contami-
nant uptake rates and subsequent compartmentalization
within the organism and depuration) remain largely un-
quantified. The normal growth and maintenance of in-
dividual species, age groupings, etc., need to be scientifical-
ly characterized and standardized. The environmental re-
quirements and pollution tolerance of species must be more
accurately defined.
The experience and testing for toxicity effects that has
been generated over the past 30 years is enormous. A sig-
nificant effort to evaluate toxicity results of species other
than those traditionally used could ultimately be cost effec-
tive and provide valuable results.
EPA has a lead role in standardization of bioassay tech-
niques. It shares with other organizations responsibility for
the development of bioassay procedures in environmental
monitoring. The use of mussels as collectors has been an
EPA development. The embryolarval fish toxicity tests in-
itiated by academia are now being evaluated by EPA. The
use of a subcellular metal detoxification mechanism, metal-
lothionine, was also developed in academia. Its potential
application was demonstrated for marine pollution
monitoring. EPA intends to adapt the technique to fresh
water and to define the kinetics of uptake and purge.
EPA is presently active in the research and application of
short-term chronic toxicity testing. The agency will have a
major role in the further development of chronic toxicity
testing because of its responsibilities in developing ways to
establish water quality criteria and water quality based
effluent limitations. Toxicity limits, an extension of water
quality criteria, are expected to be incorporated into the
wasteload allocation and permitting processes.
A major focus of the EPA research effort is bioassay mod-
ification and adaptation, as well as the evaluation and
standardization of the more promising techniques. While
substantial data from human health bioassays indicate qual-
itative correlations between results from short-term tests
and more conventional tests, very little data exists for quan-
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148 WATER QUALITY
titative estimates of risk. Over the next few years, EPA will
establish the relationships between an adverse health effect
indicator and the production of disease when employed in
relation to short-term human health bioassays. Genotoxic
effects and target organ toxicities will be used as initial val-
idation of the biological testing approach. The subsequent
incorporation of bioassay research material into test pro-
tocols and the furnishing of appropriate quality assurance
support will continue to be an agency responsibility.
Major planned research products include:
Provide bioassay testing methods to assess the effective-
ness of alternative wastewater control technologies, 1985
Develop data base for seven-day Ceriodaphnia and fat-
head minnow tests. This will provide comparison data to
existing data bases and knowledge on relative sensitivity,
1985
Define the cause-and-effect relationship between the
short-term indicator of adverse health effects and the overt
disease, 1986
Taxonomic identification manual to support biological
water quality assessment, 1986
Evaluate/standardize assay techniques for metal-
lothionine and rapid chronic tests such as Ceriodaphnia,
1986
Sludge disposal: What technical and scientific information
is needed to reduce the cost of sludge disposal and to es-
tablish use criteria for sludges from municipal waste treat-
ment?
About eight million tons (dry weight) of sludge per year
are produced from municipal wastewater treatment plants
in the United States. The processing and disposal of this
sludge accounts for about half of the total operating costs of
a typical sewage treatment plant. As a result of the large
volume of sludge and the presence of potentially harmful
constituents in sludge, municipalities are facing increased
economic and public problems with its disposal.
Approaches to disposal are needed that will significantly
reduce the volume of sludge that must be discharged to the
land or ocean and which will result in an acceptable prod-
uct at lower than the current costs of treatment and dis-
posal. To support agency regulations, research efforts will
focus on sludge use criteria, procedures and requirements
applicable to the permit process.
The methodology to assess sludge disposal options will
be refined, with research developing methods to determine
ecosystem resiliency or stresses resulting from disposal of
sludges, and to predict the human health effects from ex-
posures to sludge. The latter may include bioassays or other
toxicity tests for both health and ecosystems (see preceding
topic). Other research will develop information on
mitigating risks through sludge treatment or disposal. Such
research will include analysis of the cost vs. performance of
engineering designs for various treatment and disposal op-
tions.
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WATER QUALITY 149
Other sludge-related research will improve our under-
standing of the sources of heavy metals, toxic organic com-
pounds, and other objectionable constituents in municipal
wastewaters. Further research will determine their effects,
as well as develop data on processes to inactivate organ-
isms such as parasites, fungi, bacteria and viruses in
sludges, and to improve risk assessment methodology for
decisions on alternative means of sludge management.
In developing fundamental data about new processes for
improved sludge stabilization, volume reduction, energy
recovery and use, EPA's research will assess disposal op-
tions which reduce volume and mass. A pilot study of an
innovative combination of activated sludge, anaerobic di-
gestion and wet oxidation will determine the mass and
volume reducing capabilities of this approach. A follow-up
large scale evaluation will be run for a sufficient amount of
time to determine operating efficiency, performance and
cost.
Epidemiological studies have been initiated to evaluate
health hazards. Results from these studies will provide data
for use in determining the effects on disease occurrence of
various treatment processes and application techniques.
Major planned research products include:
Guidelines for conducting health risk assessments of
sludge disposal options, 1985
Etiological data on infectious diseases from identified
sludge pathogens, 1986
Design guidelines on sludge treatment technologies in-
cluding innovative anaerobic sludge digestion processes,
energy recovery, pathogen reduction, and more efficient
thermal conversion processes, 1987
Sludge quality and volume relationships, 1987
Standardization of extractive processes for organic con-
stituents by priority classes, 1987
Standardization of sludge sampling techniques, 1988
Treatment systems: What data and technologies are needed
to assure cost-effective design and operation of wastewater
treatment systems?
The costs of construction and operation of both con-
ventional secondary and advanced wastewater treatment
processes represent major public sector expenditures. To
assure effective and least-cost solutions for control of mu-
nicipal discharges, research must resolve a number of tech-
nological issues associated with defining the effectiveness
and costs of treatment and management practices in rela-
tion to the attainment of water quality standards.
To assure the availability of lowest-cost options for point-
source discharges, EPA's research serves as a catalyst for in-
dustry. EPA will provide technical evaluations of the costs,
performances, and effluent variabilities of various new in-
novative and alternative technologies at a scale that is suf-
ficient to reduce risks to the design engineer and the local-
ity installing the system. For existing plants, emphasis will
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150
WATER QUALITY
be on plant upgrading methods as a cost-effective alterna-
tive to new construction. Examples of such alternatives in-
clude converting to fine bubble aeration, increasing aeration
surface areas and use of high biomass reactors. This re-
search will clearly characterize control options and provide
reliable information on these options to those responsible
for water quality standards achievement through facility
planning, system design, and permit issuance.
EPA's research program will develop data on the costs
and performance for a range of innovative and alternative
technologies. The research will focus as its highest priority
on the identification of low-cost methods to improve ex-
isting facilities for smaller communities. Also, research will
focus, beginning in 1984, on the evaluation of new design
concepts to achieve state discharge permit compliance. The
research information will help states to consider variable
discharge limits related to stream flow or season of the
year.
With regard to the water quality impacts of toxic pollu-
tants, cost/ performance information will be obtained on en-
gineering options for methods of treating the limiting toxic
pollutants. This will include evaluations of the role of the
municipal treatment plant, including its ability to remove
toxic pollutants, as an alternative to industrial pre-
treatment.
Major planned research products include:
Characterization treatability of toxic substances in treat-
ment plants, 1985
Post construction evaluations of life cycle cost savings
and energy reduction for innovative and alternative treat-
ment project, 1985-1988
Evaluation of innovative approaches to upgrading non-
complying facilities and to avoid compliance problems in
new treatment facilities, 1987
Characterization of pollutant removal efficiencies and
variabilities and cost of representative municipal and in-
dustrial treatment systems, 1988
Applications of systems analysis approach with select
states to optimize costs, reliability and resililency of small
community oil large area made wastewater management
systems, 1988
Long Term
Trends
Most of the water quality issues discussed in the Outlook
are expected to require continuing research over a long-
term (five to ten years). The two most near-term issues are
development of information for permitting based on state
water quality standards, and research on wastewater treat-
ment technology. While EPA research in these areas can be
applied soon, there will remain many related questions for
the future. For example, water quality research in estuaries
and research on non-point pollution control practices are
not currently high research priorities, but will clearly be re-
quired in the longer term.
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WATER QUALITY 151
In the wastewater treatment area, we do not foresee major
fundamental changes. The most likely and desirable course
lies in application by the states of a systems analysis
approach to wastewater treatment. Implementing a systems
analysis approach will result in more equitable wasteload
allocations, ensure reasonable margins of safety in stream
loadings, eliminate over-design of treatment plants, increase
treatment reliability and technology, developing and im-
plementing water quality standards, and produce lower life-
cycle costs. A major breakthrough in treatment, if there is
one, may well come from the use of biological engineering.
One area which is clearly going to require long-term re-
search involves improvement of risk assessment techniques
and improved extrapolation of animal health data to human
populations. Both the complexity and importance of these
subjects will require a long-term effort, and of course, they
will be linked to future research being conducted in sup-
port of other programs.
While some short-term biological toxicity tests may be
developed for use by the agency and industry in the near-
term, there are many questions which will require future
research. One area of concern will be the interpretation and
extrapolation of sublethal effects on test organisms. In cases
where tests are designed to detect genetic damage, the
interpretation and extrapolation issues will resemble those
in the human health area discussed above, with a need to
factor in complex ecosystem interactions as well. This work
is linked to the broader scientific themes of dealing with
discharges containing complex mixtures of chemicals and
multiple discharge situations. If water quality can be meas-
ured in terms of total toxicity, and controls implemented
on a toxicity reduction basis, it may be possible to clean up
these types of water contamination in a less costly manner
than would be the case using a chemical-by-chemical
approach.
Technology information transfer is an important element
of a successful research program. The need for effective
transfer of results is a major theme which is not, strictly
speaking, a scientific issue but which the agency believes is
an important one. It is clear that more responsibilities and
burdens for water clean-up and, increasingly, protection of
clean waters, will be transferred to the states. Therefore,
there will be continuing focus on state needs and efforts to
insure that research addresses those needs and that results
are available to states in an understandable fashion.
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Appendix A
-------
Appendix A
The law requiring the submission of this
research strategy document to Congress is
Section 5 of Public Law 94-475. The same
law also requires that a five-year projection
be provided indicating the potential research
response to different resource levels.
The following section on resource options
includes, as required by the law.
descriptions of conditions for high, moderate
and no growth. The growth rates associated
with these options are zero for no growth.
three percent for moderate growth and six
percent for high growth. No additional
resources are required or expected as a
result of this submission. Rather, these
growth scenarios are intended, as required
by the law. to indicate potential program
increases in EPA's research and
development.
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Resource Options
155
Toxic Substances and Pesticides
1984 Current Estimate $30.7 Million
Growth Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
35.1
35.1
35.1
35.1
36.2
37.2
35.1
37.3
39.4
35.1
38.4
41.8
Air
Growth
1984 Current Estimate $64.1 Million
Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
67.3
67.3
67.3
67.3
69.3
71.4
67.3
71.4
75.7
67.3
73.5
80.3
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Investigations into the
relationship between a chemical's structure
and its chemical, physical and biological
properties will be accelerated.
High Growth: Additional efforts will be
made to link health and ecological effects
with various models that describe the steps
in the life cycle of a substance from its
production and release to its ultimate
destination. Such efforts are in addition to
those mentioned under moderate growth
above.
Hazardous Waste
Growth
1984 Current Estimate $32.3 Million
Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
34.8
34.8
34.8
34.8
35.8
36.9
34.8
36.9
39.1
34.8
38.0
41.4
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Additional efforts will
seek to discover the key factors leading to
the failure of soil, clay or synthetic liners for
hazardous waste land disposal sites and to
investigate alternative disposal/destruction
technologies.
High Growth: Techniques to detect and
monitor subsurface movement of hazardous
waste leachate will be further investigated.
Emphasis will be on identifying key early
indicators of leachate migration problems.
Additional effort will be invested in the
development of advanced alternative
disposal/destruction technologies.
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Additional work will
improve the technology and techniques
available for measuring and monitoring
hazardous air pollutants.
High Growth: An increased effort will
identify more clearly the causes and
mechanisms of human responses to air
pollutant exposures. This effort will be in
addition to that cited under moderate
growth above. .
Energy
Growth
None
Moderate
High
1984 Current Estimate $15.1 Million
Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
14.1 14.1
14.1 14.5
14.1 15.0
14.1
14.9
15.9
14.1
15.4
16.9
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Efforts to characterize
reaction conditions in limestone-injected
multistage burner configurations will be
accelerated. The information produced will
serve to guide the development of more
refined (more effective) emissions reduction
configurations.
High Growth: The efforts described under
moderate growth above will be augmented
and accelerated.
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156
Acid Rain
Growth
1984 Current Estimate $15.4 Million
Projections
198S 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
34.4
34.4
34.4
34.4
35.4
36.5
34.4
36.5
38.7
34.4
37.6
41.0
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: In the source-receptor
relationship area, additional efforts will be
made to improve methods for identifying the
source of a particle by its "fingerprints."
Work with tracers will be accelerated.
High Growth: Efforts to delineate between
actual acidic deposition trends and other
cyclic meteorologic influences will be
advanced and the efforts described under
moderate growth above will be accelerated.
Drinking Water
1984 Current Estimate $23.8 Million
Growth Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.1
23.8
24.5
23.1
24.5
26.0
23.1
25.2
27.6
Water Quality
1984 Current Estimate $24.8 Million
Growth Projections
1985 1986 1987 1988
None
Moderate
High
26.8
26.8
26.8
26.8
27.6
28.4
26.8
28.4
30.1
26.8
29.3
31.9
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Efforts to develop flexible
protocols for determining site-specific water
quality will be accelerated as will efforts to
transfer such capabilities to state and local
environmental officials.
High Growth: Efforts will be accelerated to
develop regimens for characterizing the
ecosystems of potential ocean outfalls and
dumping sites. Investigations of early
indicators of potentially negative ecosystem
responses will also be accelerated. These
activities are in addition to those listed
above under moderate growth.
No Growth: The program will proceed as
described in this Research Outlook.
Moderate Growth: Additional efforts will be
initiated to determine with greater precision
the potential health effects of those
substances that are found in drinking water
treated via various disinfection processes.
Focus will be on those contaminants that are
non-volatile and, therefore, have yet to be
investigated in any great detail.
High Growth: The additional efforts cited
under the moderate growth option above
will be augmented and accelerated.
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Appendix B
-------
Appendix B
The entire Research Outlook 1984 was
reviewed by the following Science Advisory
(SAB) Members:
-------
Technical Reviewers
159
SAB Subcommitte on the Research Outlook:
Dr. John Neuhold, SAB Subcommittee
Chairman, Utah State University
Dr. Edward F. Ferrand, New York City
Department of Environmental Protection
Dr. N. Robert Frank. Georgetown University
Dr. Leonard Greenfield. Private Consultant
Dr. Morton Lippmann. New York University
Dr. Francis C. McMichael. Carnegie-Mellon
University
Dr. Daniel Menzel. Duke University
Dr. James Porter, Energy and Environmental
Engineering Incorporated
Dr. Anne M. Wolven, A.M. Wolven.
Incorporated
SAB Executive Committee:
Dr. Sheldon K. Friedlander, Acting
Chairman, University of California
Dr. Herman E. Collier, Jr.. Moravian College
Dr. John Deutch. Massachusett Institute of
Technology
Dr. Earnest F. Gloyna, University of Texas
Dr. Herschel Griffin. San Diego State
University
Dr. Rolf Hartung, University of Michigan
Dr. Morton Lippmann. New York University
Dr. William W. Lowrance, The Rockefeller
University
Dr. Roger O. McClellan, Lovelace Biomedica!
and Environmental Research Institute
Dr. Francis C. McMichael, Carnegie-Mellon
University
Dr. Robert Menzer, University of Maryland
Dr. Robert Neal, CUT
Dr. John Neuhold, Utah State University
Dr. Ellen K. Silbergeld, Environmental
Defense Fund
Dr. Charles Susskind, University of
California
EPA Editorial/Production:
Richard M. Laska. Office of Research and
Development
{Catherine S. Weldon, Technical Information
Office
Individual Chapter Reviewers:
Cross-Cutting:
Dr. Herbert Allen, Drexell University
Dr. Bernard B. Berger, University of
Massachusett
Dr. Bruce Hicks, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
Dr. James Kramer. McMaster University
Dr. Steven Stryker, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Toxic Substances and Pesticides:
Dr. Kenneth Duke, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Dr. Wendell Kilgore, University of California
at Davis
Dr. Jorge Manring, National Wildlife
Federation
Dr. Robert G. Tardiff, Life Systems
Dr. Dewayne Torgeson, Cornell University
Dr. William Tweedy, Ciba-Geigy
Hazardous Wastes:
Dr. Martin Alexander, Cornell University
Dr. Gaynor Dawson, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Dr. William T. Gulledge, Chemical
Manufacturers Association
Dr. Ernest C. Ladd, FMC, Incorporated
Dr. Dave Rosenblatt, USA Medical
Bioengineering Research and Development
Laboratory
Air:
Dr. Edward J. Burger. Georgetown University
Medical Center
Dr. Stan Greenfield, Systems Applications
Incorporated
Dr. Lester Machta, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration
Dr. Gordon Newell, Electric Power Research
Institute
Dr. Rodger Woodruff, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Energy:
Dr. Marvin Drabkin, U.S. Synthetic Fuels
Corporation
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160
Dr. L. Barry Goss, Battelle Memorial Institute
Dr. Laszlo Pasztor, Dravo Corporation
Drinking Water:
Dr. Jon DeBoer, American Waterworks
Association
Dr. Jay Lehr, National Water Well
Association
Dr. John Litchfield, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Dr. Nina I. McClelland, National Sanitation
Foundation
Water Quality:
Dr. Robert Brockson, University of Wyoming
Dr. Bruce Corkel, Peter F. Loftus Corporation
Dr. C. Fred Gurnham, Retired
Dr. Ernest Ladd, FMC, Incorporation
Dr. Albert H. Lasday, Texaco. Incorporated
Dr. Marvin Miller, Battelle Memorial
Institute
Dr. Fred G. Pohland, Georgia Institute
Chapter Principals,
EPA Office of Research and Development:
Cross-Cutting:
Quality Assurance: Gene Meier
Risk Assessment: Donna Kuroda
BioJogicaJ Screening: Norb Jaworski
Ecosystem Health: Norb Jaworski
Groundwater Monitoring: Steve Cordle
Environmental Modeling: Bill Donaldson
Toxic Substances and Pesticides:
Frode Ulvedal
Hazardous Wastes: Matt Bills
Air: Chuck Brunot
Energy: Al Galli
Acid Rain: Gary Foley
Drinking Water: Curtis Harlin
Water Quality: Don Ehreth
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