EPA-600/2-76-046C
August 1976
Environmental Protection Technology Series
PRELIMINARY EMISSIONS ASSESSMENT OF
CONVENTIONAL STATIONARY COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Volume m. Update (12/75-6/76)
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent
environmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This
work provides the new or improved technology required for the control and
treatment of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield. Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-76-046C
August 1976
PRELIMINARY EMISSIONS ASSESSMENT
OF CONVENTIONAL
STATIONARY COMBUSTION SYSTEMS
Volume m. Update (12/75-6/76)
by
Norman Surprenant
GCA/Technology Division
GCA Corporation
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
Contract No. 68-02-1^16,.Task 16
ROAP No. AAU-002
Program Element No. EHB525
EPA Project Officer: Ronald A. Venezia
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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CONTENTS
Sections Page
I Introduction 1
Program Objective 2
Data Sources 3
II Combustion 6
III Emissions - General 10
IV Flue Gas Emissions - General 14
V Flue Gas Emissions - NO 19
x
VI Water Pollution Sources, Solid Waste, and Miscellaneous
Pollution Sources 25
VII Fuels 29
VIII Control of Flue Gas Emissions 33
IX Solid Waste Combustion 38
X References 44
iii
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TABLES
Nos. Page
1 Projects in IERL/GFC Waste and Water Programs 28
2 Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems in the U.S., January 1976 34
3 Flue Gas Desulfurization Processes in the U.S. 35
4 MSW Light-Fraction Solid Waste 40
5 Comparison of Coal and MSW Light-Fraction Fuel 40
6 Status of Resource Recovery Plan 42
IV
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION
The study of conventional stationary combustion sources and their emis-
sions is an area of continued and growing interest to the Environmental
Protection Agency. Four principal categories of conventional stationary
combustion systems have been considered in this program:
• Utilities - electric generation
• Industrial - steam generation, space heating, and
stationary engines (direct heating and
chemical conversion were excluded)
• Commercial/Institutional - space heating and stationary engines
• Residential - space heating
As noted in the Final Report issued under EPA Contract No. 68-02-1316,
Task Order No. 11, entitled, "Preliminary Emissions Assessment of Con-
ventional Stationary Combustion Systems," these combustions sources account
for an estimated 20 percent of particulate, 71 percent of SO-,.44 percent
of NO 1 percent of CO, and 0.7 percent of HC emissions from man made
1
sources in the United States. The importance of combustion systems as
a major source of particulate, S02 and NOX emissions is apparent. Further
interest stems from the fact that the emissions of trace elements and
particularly trace hazardous compounds such as polycyclic organic matter
(POM) have not been well characterized. Many of these potentially hazard-
ous pollutants tend to concentrate on the surface of respirable, fine
particulate matter and their impact on the enviornment and human health
may be significant.
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PROGRAM OBJECTIVE
The objective of this program is to update the preliminary emissions
assessment report issued under EPA Contract No. 68-02-1316, Task Order
No. 11. Literature sources, EPA reports and governmental and industrial
contacts were used to identify new activities or information
related to emissions from stationary combustion sources. No attempt has
been made to utilize new emissions data to arrive at new estimates of
emissions. Instead, this report discusses in detail some representative
recently completed and ongoing projects which are pertinent to an
emission assessment of conventional stationary combustion sources.
A listing of recently awarded and proposed contracts is also provided.
The presentation is similar to that presented in Section VII of the Final
Report of. the previous emissions assessment program and discussions are
provided for the following areas of activity:
• Combustion
• Emissions - general
• Flue gas emissions
• Flue gas emissions - NO
0 x
• Water emissions and solid waste
• Fuels
• Control measures
• Solid waste utilization
Many of the new activities discussed are concerned with several of the
areas listed. These programs are listed in the general category or in
the area of most significant interest.
The most pertinent emissions assessment activity planned by EPA is one
that will be issued under RFP DU-76-A106. Contractor(s) chosen for
this program are now scheduled to commence work in the fall of 1976 on the
assessment of emissions from 54 of the 56 combustion source categories
examined under the previous contract. This 3 year field measurements
and analysis program will utilize phased sampling and analytical techniques
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to characterize combustion source categories and their air, water and solid
waste emission streams. Monsanto Research Corporation, under EPA Contract,
is already conducting similar assessments of the remaining two combustion •
source categories, pulverized dry bottom utility and industrial combustion
sources. This work will be completed in 1977.
DATA SOURCES
Many governmental and institutional agencies are important sources of
information concerning conventional stationary combustion sources and
their emissions. These information sources were identified and utilized
in the previous preliminary emissions assessment document. Since the
publication of the above document, however, there have been some changes
and additions to the available data information base which are of poten-
tial significance.
The Federal Power Commission (FPC) is the principal source of public in-
formation for the Electric Power Industry. FPC Form 67 contains informa-
tion, provided by the electric power industry for all major power generators,
with regard to plant size, fuel comsumption, certain emissions and control
measures. A change in the Form 67 reporting requirements is planned to
take effect in 1976 which would require electric utilities to provide
additional information on their emission control plans and costs for cur-
2
rent and future fossil-fuel burning, steam-powered generating plants.
The new Part IV of FPC Form 67 is being reviewed by the general accounting
office (GAO) and decision on the new reporting forms is expected in late
spring of 1976. When cleared by GAO, Part IV of Form 67 would have to be
submitted for 1976 and every year thereafter.
The new FPC reporting form is divided into six schedules to require de-
tailed information on plans and costs for meeting air-pollution standards.
The form also would require utilities with fossil-fuel boilers to provide
data on design fuel consumption, the primary fuel to be fired, and the
type of firing.
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It would also require a plant to tell how stack-gas equipment will re-
move particulate matter and sulfur oxides. The percentage of design col-
lection and efficiency and the total collecting surface area would have
to be reported to show the amount of particulate matter the equipment can
remove. Sulfur dioxide control measures would be identified and design
and actual desulfurization efficiency detailed.
Another principal source of information regarding emissions to water
utilized in the previous preliminary emission assessment program was the
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES). Unfortunately
this data is fragmented and only partially computerized and, therefore, diffi-
cult to use effectively in estimating emissions. A new data system, the
Permit Compliance System (PCS) began operation in 1975 and is now used
by 5 of the 10 EPA regional offices. This sytem and its future modifica-
tion and enhancements and future computer systems planned for reporting
data in the NPDES will prove useful in future activities concerned with
wastewater discharges.
The four basic reports available from the system are:
• Forecast of Compliance Schedule Reports due,
• Forecast of Discharge Monitoring Reports due,
• "Quick Look" report with one line of information displayed
for each facility on the file, and
• Facility report which lists all the information contained
on the data file about the specific facilities selected
in the retrieval.
Data are extracted from NPDES permits for entry into the system files.
Generally, information is transcribed onto code sheets rather than punched
directly from the permit documents. Users generate reports at their
discretion. DMR and Compliance Schedule Forecast Reports are generated
at least once each month, but can cover any period. Quick Look and
Facility Reports are produced on request.
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Regions are responsible for extracting data from applications and permits,
and for coding, keypunching, data submission, review of pre-edit error
listings, data corrections, review of update edit listings, and overall
maintenance of the data base for their Region. EPA Headquarters has
responsibility to develop and maintain all edit, update, and retrieval
programs and procedures. Many of these responsibilities are handled by a
private contractor. The system is maintained by EPA Headquarters Office
of Enforcement under the Direction of the Deputy Assistant Administrator
for Water Enforcement.
There is a continual and increasing need for the collection, validation,
storage and retrieval of environmental data. Much of the data that has
been collected is in scattered federal, state and industrial files. In
theory some of this data goes into systems such as: EPA's National Emis-
sions Data System (NEDS) and Source Test Data System (SOTDAT) for Air
Emissions; EPA's (STORET) for water quality data; the National Water Data
Exchange (NAWDEX) implemented through the U.S. Geological Survey's Office
of Water Data Coordination; the Environmental Catalog of Industrial Pro-
cesses (ECIP) which compiles process data, waste stream data, and in-
dustry information; the Strategic Environmental Assessment System (SEAS)
dealing with waste stream rates and pollutants and industry information;
and the Matrix of Environmental Residuals for Energy Systems (MERES) main-
tained by the Brookhaven National Laboratory for air, water, and solid
waste pollution, health effects and system process data. Unfortunately
most of the data that has been collected does not reach these systems and
there is a critical need to assemble, validate and summarize these data
to avoid costly and unnecessary duplication of effort. An organized ef-
fort should be made to do so and, if necessary, to develop a new data
storage and retrieval system adequate for the development of a total en-
vironmental assessment of pollutants and industries. This program, which
is concerned with the identification of recent, ongoing and planned pro-
grams , will be useful in subsequently achieving this overall data manage-
ment objective.
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SECTION II
COMBUSTION
This section covers the activities now underway or recently com-
pleted concerned with Fundamental Combustion Research (FCR) and process
modification to reduce or modify combustion generated pollutants. The
Combustion Research Branch (CRB) of EPA's Industrial Environmental Re-
search Laboratory, Research Triangle Park (IERL/RTP) has been most active
in these areas. However, other government agencies, such as NSF-RANN, the
Energy Research and Development Agency (ERDA) , the National Bureau
of Standards (NBS), and the Air Force's Aero Propulsion Laboratory and
Office of Scientific Research are also active. Fundamental combustion and
process research activities are similarly carried out by equipment manu-
facturers and by industrial groups such as the Electric Power Research
Institute, the American Gas Association, and the American Petroleum
Institute.
3
A new publication, NO Control Reviews, issued first in March 1976 by the
a
IERL/RTP, although specifically concerned with NO emissions, is a good
X
source of information concerning combustion research and process modifica-
tion. The first issue provided an overview of past development programs
of the EPA and the private sector and summarized current control develop-
ments. Subsequent issues, to be published approximately bimonthly, will
be devoted solely to current developments.
Another recent source of information is the published proceedings of the
CRB-sponsored symposium on stationary source combustion held in Atlanta
on September 24-26, 1975 to disseminate results of EPA in-house and contract
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programs for development of controls for combustion generated air pollu-
tion. Sessions were held in the key program areas of the CRB: fundamental
research, fuels R&D, process R&D and field testing and surveys.
The remainder of this section will discuss some representative EPA pro-
grams aimed at the modification of boilers to reduce emissions. While
these programs are primarily concerned with NO control, emissions of other
it
pollutants including S0_, CO, unburned hydrocarbons, trace organics par-
ticulates and trace elements are also of concern.
Fundamental Combustion Research Applied to Pollution Control
(EPA RFP DU-76-A157)
This recent RFP (Proposal due date June 7, 1976) was issued
by the IERL/RFP Combustion Research Branch. It is concerned
with the development and synthesis of an overall plan for
the conduct of a fundamental combustion research (FCR) program.
The plan will be based on current FCR activities, projected
results from ongoing studies, and the fundamental data gaps
identified in CRB's fuels R&D and process R&D programs. The
program is concerned with control of all combustion generated
pollutants, but primarily with those pollutants which may be
controllable through combustion modification. Emphasis will
be placed on NOX, CO, SOX and UHC with lesser emphasis on
POM, sulfates, nitrates, etc. This is a large program
(i.e., 70,000 technical labor hours) which is concerned
with the full spectrum of conventional stationary combustion
sources (and advanced combustion systems). The contractor
selected for this program will be required to survey the
existing data base and on going EPA and other governmental
agency programs concerned with combustion research and should
be able to provide a broad overview of existing activity in
the fundamental combustion research area.
Advance Combustion Systems for Stationary Gas Turbine Systems
(United Technologies Corporation, West Palm Beach, Florida,
EPA Contract No. 68-02-1316, Project Officer, W.S. Lanier,
IERL/RTP)
This program, to develop advanced, low emission, gas turbine
combustor designs will place primary emphasis on NOX control
by dry techniques while maintaining or reducing CO and HC
levels. Design goals are 50 ppm NOX at 15 percent Q£ for
gas and light distillate oil fuels and 100 ppm NOX for oils
containing up to 0.5 percent chemically bound nitrogen. The
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study will be performed in four phases (1) survey of poten-
tial design approaches; (2) bench scale testing of 12 can-
didate N0x control techniques; (3) full scale design of two
combustors selected from phase 2; and (4) verification test-
ing of the full scale combustors.
Pilot Scale Evaluation of Advanced Combustion Con-
trol Techniques for Fossil and Waste Fuels (Aerotherm
Division of Acurex Corp., EPA Contract No. 68-02-1885,
Project Officer, David G. LaChapell, IERL/RTP)
This 28-month pilot-scale test program uses a 3 x 10 Btu/hr
capacity furnace that can be operated in either wall-fired
or tangentially, corner-fired modes. Emphasis will be on
two-stage combustion using coal, oil, gas, mixed fuels,
waste fuels and several alternative fuels such as shale
oil, low Btu gas and coal/oil slurries. Other control
measures such as burner modifications, flue gas recircula-
tion, and the modification of firebox and heat transfer
surfaces will be studied. The time/temperature trajectory
of the combustion gases in the test furnace is representa-
tive of industrial and utility boilers allowing transla-
tion to full scale equipment.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts, as noted in the
Commerce Business Daily, (CBD), appear to apply to a study of conventional
stationary source combustion.
• Design Optimization, Construction and Field Verification
of Integrated Residential Furnace (EPA RFP DU-76-A173,
CBD 5/17/76)
EPA contemplates negotiating with Rocketdyne Division,
Rockwell International Corporation of Canoga Park, Ca.
This procurement is a direct follow-on of EPA Contract
No. 68-02-1819. R&D under EPA Contract No. 68-02-1819
has resulted in an experimental prototype integrated
residential furnace fired with distillate oil. The
next step is to optimize the prototype and heat ex-
changer design modification. This procurement will
lead to such optimization followed by construction of
a minimum of six integrated units which will be veri-
fied in field application.
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• Evaluation of Liquid Cooled Gas Turbines (NASA RFP
3-741375Q, CBD 5/25/76)
A feasibility study will be performed to evaluate and
compare various cooling concepts for several gas tur-
bine applications including: electric power generation,
autos, buses, trucks and marine.
• Study of the Performance of a Thermal Aerosol Oil
Burner (EPA RFP DU76-A214, CBD 6/7/76)
Negotiations are planned with Honeywell, Inc.
Bloomington, Minn., to study air pollution reduction
and efficiency for combustion of distillate oil.
• Air Pollution Emissions Control Development for Sta-
tionary Internal Combustion Engines (EPA RFP DU-76-
A180, CBD 4/15/76)
EPA is seeking a contractor to conduct a program to develop
advanced designs for large stationary reciprocating internal
combustion engines. This program is designed so that it
may be implemented by organizations under the direction and
management of one contractor. The research effort will em-
phasize low NOX emissions, improvement or maintenance of
current low carbonaceous pollutant emissions from these en-
gines and high thermal efficiency in the development of a
new generation of piston engines. The Contractor will de-
velop the design, construction and testing of new engines
based on low emission concepts. The study will also invest-
igate retrofit technology to existing engines.
• Technical Support and Assistance for the Development of
Standards for Stationary 1C Engines (Aerotherm Division
of Acurex Corp. EPA RFP DU-76-C297, CBD 6/2/76)
• Investigation of NOX, Nitrate and Sulfate Production in
Laboratory Flues. (EPA RFP DU-76-A121, CBD 3/9/76)
Study of Nitrate, Sulfate and Precursors in Flue Zone.
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SECTION III
EMISSIONS - GENERAL
Over the past few years there has been a strong interest in a more com-
prehensive determination of pollutants emitted from combustion sources
and their waste streams (air, water and solid). This interest
has been spurred by the potential health hazard and detrimental environ-
mental impact of not only the criteria pollutants but of certain trace
elements and hazardous compounds such as polycyclic organic matter (POM).
The thrust of many ongoing programs is to identify and semiquantify any
substances that may be of concern or serve as the precursors of such sub-
stances. Those pollutants identified which are deemed environmentally
harmful can then be subjected to more detailed examination using sampling
and analytical techniques of high precision and accuracy.
The Process Measurements Branch (PMB) of the Industrial Environmental Re-
search Laboratory (IERL) of EPA at Research Triangle Park, N.C., has
developed a cost-effective approach for sampling and analysis of all
waste streams (air, water and solid). Two detailed documents have been
4 5
written which clearly spell out sampling and analysis protocols which
maximize emissions information. These documents should serve as basic
references for design of future IERL field test programs.
The approach taken is a so-called multilevel phased approach. The first
step, Level 1, involves sampling of all process effluent streams for
gaseous, liquid and solid components. For ducted air streams, particu-
lates are collected in three size fractions by a series of cyclones.
Liquid material is either condensed or captured in impingers. Gaseous
organic species are adsorbed in a porous polymer trap containing Tenax
resin. Fugitive emissions are sampled with hi-vol filters and portable
gas chromatographs.
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Level 1 sampling provides a single set of samples to represent the
"average" composition of each stream. The analytical techniques for
Level 1 have been kept as simple as possible to minimize cost, consistent
with the goal of identifying all waste stream constituents having the
potential for contributing to environmental deterioration. Physical and
biological assay tests are incorporated into Level 1 analysis. Inorganic
analysis at Level 1 utilizes spark-source mass spectrometry (SSMS) for
qualitative and semiquantitative analysis of all solids collected whether
as solids, particulates or residues from evaporated liquid samples. Some
80 elements can be analyzed with a precision and accuracy within a factor
of 2 and a detection limit of 1 ppm at nominal cost (~$300 per sample).
An additional analytical goal of Level 1 is the identification of all
organic functional groups present in amounts greater than 0.1 to 1 pg«
This analysis is accomplished by extraction of each sample in a suitable
solvent(s), separation of the extract into eight fractions by liquid
chromatography and identification of functional groups present in each
fraction by infrared spectroscopy.
Once Level 1 procedures are completed the information is evaluated to
determine which waste streams must be subjected to more extensive sampling
and analysis (Level 2) to identify specific compounds. Although Level 2
sampling is not significantly different from Level 1 technique, the
analytical techniques employed for specific compound identification are
considerably more sophisticated and thus more expensive. Techniques used
include atomic absorption, X-ray fluorescence and neutron activation
analysis for trace elements and nuclear magnetic resonance, gas chromato-
graphy mass spectrometry, high performance liquid chromatography and high
resolution mass spectrometry for organics.
The philosophy behind this phased approach is that Level 1, which is
relatively inexpensive, is a screening step which serves two major pur-
poses. Based upon total emission mass loadings or absence of significant
concentrations of elements of organic functional groups certain waste
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streams may be judged acceptable and therefore eliminated from futher
study. The alternative guidance to be gained from Level 1 results is an
indication of which specific pollutant compounds should be sought by the
Level 2 procedure, thus avoiding the time and expense of analyzing for
every conceivable element or compound.
The principal argument for adopting this IEKL approach to a test program
is that the precise uniformity of the sampling and analysis procedures
makes the results derived from different processes directly comparable
in terms of mass loadings and emissions rates of pollutants.
A number of proposed or ongoing programs are using the phased approach
in studies of effluents from combustion sources. While most of these
are specific to air emissions the previously mentioned proposed EPA
program (RFP DU-76-A106) will involve phased sampling and analysis of
all waste streams from 54 of the 56 combustion systems studied in the
preliminary emissions assessment program. Monsanto Research Corporation
is already conducting a phased study of the remaining two combustion
systems. A few representative programs are listed below.
Organic and Sulfate Sampling Analysis at Colbert Steam
Plant (GCA/Technology Division, EPA Contract No.
68-02-1316, Task Order No. 21, EPA Project Officer
Dr. Ronald A. Venezia, IERL/RTP)
The above contract is part of a comprehensive sampling and
analysis program at the Colbert Steam Plant of the TVA.
This joint effort will include feedstock, water, solid
waste and flue gas sampling by TVA personnel, particle
size distribution measurements by Midwest Research In-
stitute and determination of sulfates, polynuclear organic
matter, polychlorinated biphenyls and particulate and
vapor phase organics by GCA under EPA sponsorship. TVA
will conduct extensive chemical analysis, especially for
metals, in all coal, water and fly ash samples including
the size fractions collected by MRI. The IERL Level 1
sampling train will be used in this study. The final
report is due August 30, 1976.
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• Engineering and Technical Services Contract
(RFP CI 76-0238, IERL/Cincinnati, CBD 5/13/76)
About 15 contracts will be awarded under this general
contract. The contracts will be to perform quick-
response requirements in various areas including pollu-
tion control, energy systems, fuel technology, water
pollution, solid waste management, toxic substances,
emissions surveys, etc. As of the date of this report
no RFP has been issued. While emission measurement
will not be a major portion of the total program
activity, some combustion system emission measurements,
particularly of water emissions and solid waste, will
be conducted.
• Nonpersonal, Quick-Reaction Engineering and Technical
Services (EPA RFP DU-76-A107 Proposal Due Date 4/26/76)
This quick-response service contract will involve ac-
tivities in the pollution control, energy and emissions
assessment areas which will be applicable to conventional
stationary combustion sources.
• Integrated Technical Assessment of Electric Utility Energy
Systems (EPA, Washington Contemplates Negotiations With
Teknekron Inc., Berkley, California, CBD 5/12/76)
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SECTION IV
FLUE GAS EMISSIONS - GENERAL
The growing emphasis on the need to characterize waste streams in such a
way as to identify all potentially harmful pollutants was noted in
Section III. Many recent and proposed EPA programs to sample and analyze
flue gas emissions also call for this comprehensive approach, often based
on the multilevel phased approach. In addition to the screening of many
trace elements and anions, emphasis is being placed on organic compounds
such as POM, PCB and Nitrosamines.
Nitrosamines, a class of known carcinogens will be studied in several
new IERL-RTP in-house and contract activities. Programs include instru-
mentation development, air and water sampling, and health effects studies.
The interest in nitrosamine has been prompted by recent measurements of
alarming concentration in both air and water on the East Coast. Nitro-
samines, for which N0« is a precursor, may be responsible for the observed
correlation between NO- levels in urban areas and the high incidence of
6 Z
cancer.
The identification of anions such as sulfates, nitrates, chlorides,
fluorides, etc., has been a major activity of many EPA programs. Although
no programs have been concerned to any extent with sulfite ion, per se, a
recent study conducted for the Electric Power Research Institute by
Anthony V. Colucci of Greenfield, Attaway and Tyler Inc. and D.E. Eatough,
Director of Brigham Young University's Center for Thermochemical Studies
hypothesizes that sulfites, rather than S02 or sulfates, could be of most
significance to human health. The study indicates that sulfites form
14
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stable compounds with trace metals in the fine particulate fraction of flue
gases. The study findings, which EPRI terms as only suggestive, would
have implications for flue gas desulfurization since scrubber technology
is not effective for fine particulate collection, and would be of limited
value in collection of trace metal sulfite compounds.
Fine particulates remain an area of major concern because of their
respirable nature and the tendency or potentially hazardous components
8 9
(such as sulfites) to concentrate on their surfaces. » Concern over
fine particulate emissions and the poor performance of electrostatic
precipitators on emissions from low-sulfur fuels has sparked interest
in fabric filter collectors within EPA and industrial manufacturers of
pollution control equipment. Almost all control equipment manufacturers
are predicting a surge of sales for fabric filters for utility and in-
dustrial boilers.
Some of the following programs, in addition to those described in previous
sections, have been identified as programs whose emphasis is on a com-
prehensive analysis of flue gas emissions. Programs which are concerned
with NO control through combustion modification are disucssed in Section
Ji
II and in the following Section V. The programs cited undoubtedly repre-
sent only a small fraction of current and planned program activity.
• Study to Evaluate the Emissions From Stoker Coal-Fired
Boilers and to Investigate Potential Methods of Environ-
mental Improvement for Their Effluents (EPA RFP No.
DU-76-A175, Proposal Due Date 6/21/76)
This proposed program of 27 months duration will charac-
terize the spectrum of emissions from industrial coal-
fired stoker boilers and will investigate methods to re-
duce these emissions. Initial efforts will be directed
at evaluation of emissions from a small-scale stoker
firing untreated, reconstituted, and processed coals.
The potential for emission control will be studied. Fol-
lowing tests on the small-scale unit, testing will be
continued on a full-scale industrial stoker boiler to
evaluate the effects of fuel and combustion modifications.
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The program calls for Level 1 comprehensive sampling and
analysis (CSA) followed by Level 2 CSA as appropriate to
identify all potentially important pollutants.
• Determine the Concentration, Size Distribution, and Physical
and Chemical Characteristics of Particles Between the Boiler
Exit and the Stack as Well as in the Plume, and Investigate
the Relationship of These Particles to Possible Occurrences
of Fallout (Southern California Edison, RFP U046048,
Proposal Due Date 6/16/76)
This proposed program of 16 months duration is scheduled
for completion by November 1977. The work will consist
of a comprehensive analysis of particulate and particulate
related emissions from oil-fired steam electric generating
stations. Parameters to be studied include particle con-
centration, particle size distribution, particle physical
and chemical properties and possibly related phenomena such
as metallic catalysis, sulfate and aerosol formation, par-
ticle agglomeration and acid smut fallout. The determination
of the reasons for and the identification of corrective
measures for acid smut fallout are the principal program
objectives.
• Field Testing: Application of Combustion Modification to
Control Pollutant Emissions From Power Generation Combustion
Systems (Exxon Corporation, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1415,
Project Officer, Robert E. Hall, IERL/RTP)
The ongoing Exxon field test program of utility power genera-
tion equipment has been extended to include trace emission
measurements and the testing of an additional six units.
Under this extension analyses will be made of sulfates,
nitrates, HCN, HC1, POM and PCB and trace metals. In addi-
tion to reporting the total POM, the contractor shall report
total POM as percent of particulate. This augments the
original measurements of NO, N02, S02, 803, CO, HC, particle
loading and size distribution. The additional units may
include cyclone and wet bottom wall-fired boilers, gas tur-
bines with water injection, internal combustion engines with
precombustion chambers, and utility boilers firing waste
fuel or using fuel additives. Corrosion tests are planned
for one utility boiler to test the effects of NOX controls
over a 6-month period.
• Field Testing of Industrial Process Equipment, Gas Turbines,
and Internal Combustion Engines (KVB Engineering, EPA Con-
tract No. 68-02-2144, Project Officer, Robert E. Hall IERL/RTP)
This 1 year field test program is intended to provide de-
tailed emission characterization of a representative group
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of combustion equipment firing coal, oil, gas, waste fuels
and mixed fuels. Measurement will be made of NO, S02, 863,
CO, HC, particulate size fractions, opacity and, where
relevant, trace metallics and organics (POM, PCB). Modifica-
tion of operating parameters such as load, excess air and
combustion air preheat will be studied. Water injection,
as a means of controlling NOX from gas turbines, may be as-
sessed. A total of 25 units will be tested.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts, as noted in the
Commerce Business Daily, also appear to apply to the study of flue gas
emissions from conventional stationary combustion sources.
• Sampling and Analysis Methods for POM and Other Organic
Pollutants (EPA Contract No. 68-02-2150 (DU-75-A220) for
$899,272 - to Arthur D. Little, Acorn Park, Cambridge,
Mass. 02140, CBD 4/2/76)
• Investigation and Feasibility Study of Methods for the
Identification and Measurement of Inorganic Compounds
Emitted as particulates from sources using or processing
fossil fuels (EPA Contract No. 68-02-2296 (DU-75-B180), for
$240,195 - to Battelle Memorial Institute, 505 King
Avenue, Columbus, Ohio 43201, CBD 4/2/76)
• Trace Element Emission as Function of Particle Size
From Coal-Fired Steam Plant (EPA Contract No. 68-01-3702
(WA 75-R367) - $108,310 - Radian Corp., P.O. Box 9948,
Austin, Texas 78766, CBD 4/26/76)
• Field Testing of Advanced Industrial Boiler Designs.
(Letter Amendment 3, Contract No. 68-02-2144 (CU-76-A138)
$87,500 - KVB, Inc., 17332 Irvine Boulevard, Tustin, Ca.
92680, CBD 4/26/76)
• Measurement of POM Emissions (EPA RFP DU-76-B164,
CBD 6/9/76)
EPA expect to award a contract to Battelle, Columbus
to evaluate POM sampling and analytical procedures at
selected sources.
• Study of Stationary Source Sulfate Emissions
FPC Intragency Study)
This is a proposed 2-year, $1.5 million study of sulfate
emissions from stationary combustion sources. The study
17
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reportedly to involve funding from four other federal
agencies in addition to FPC, would be designed by a
committee selected by the National Academy of Sciences.
If the study receives the anticipated funding from the
federal agencies, contracts would be awarded, under the
FPC proposal, in January 1977, field studies and laboratory
testing would be completed a year later, and field work,
inventories, and modeling would be completed by January
1979.
The study would identify "major operating parameters and
variables" of a combustor affecting sulfur trioxide emis-
sion concentrations. It would indicate a "standard procedure
for determining emission inventories of combustor SOo
emissions," according to the FPC proposal.
Combustion devices with "similar emission factors" would be
categorized under the proposed program, and the researchers
would indicate variations in SOo emission concentrations
for various combustion systems using low-sulfur fuels. The
researchers also would "re-evaluate the contribution or
urban stationary fossil fuel sources to the past and present
ambient sulfate burdens."
18
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SECTION V
FLUE GAS EMISSIONS - NO
x
This section covers activities and programs which are principally
concerned with the control of NO from stationary combustion sources.
Several programs concerned with NO control have already been cited in
previous sections, particularly Sections III and IV.
Current methods of NO control emphasize combustion modification (e.g., low
excess air, overfire air, fuel gas recirculation, biased firing to achieve
Federal New Source Performance Standards of 0.7 Ib N02/10 Btu (0.301 mg
N00/J) for coal. According to Power Magazine's annual plant design
10
report nearly half of the 52 new utility boilers surveyed will use over
fire air ports to achieve compliance. Several of the new plants are ex-
pecting to meet the standard using only low excess air firing. This
capability is strongly dependent upon the combustion characteristics and
the nitrogen content of the coal fuel. A number of the new units will
reportedly use flue gas recirculation for NO control. This practice will
X
bear scrutiny since flue gas recirculation has been ineffective in many
3
small scale and full scale tests.
In addition to NO control measures based on combustion unit modification,
x '
other techniques now being studied by IEKL/RTP, EPRI and others include
flue gas treatment (FGT) and injection of additives. The major concepts for
N0x FGT studied to date are: catalytic decomposition, selective or
o
nonselective catalytic reduction, absorption by scrubbers, and adsorption.
Catalytic decomposition is thermodynamically favored but is hopelessly
slow for known catalysts. Catalytic reduction of NO appears attractive
19
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for supplementing combustion process modifications in the 1980's. Areas
under study include selective reduction by ammonia and nonselective re-
duction by CO or H2. Catalyst lifetime when exposed to effluents from
coal combustion is of major concern. Absorption by agents such as KMnO,,
Na2S03 and NaCI02 has been extensively studied, particularly in Japan
where stringent N0x controls are in effect. These processes typically
oxidize the NO to the more readily absorbed NO-. The major concerns here
are the high cost and the environmental impact from the liquid and solid
wastes. Adsorption of NO by molecular sieves is widely practiced in
nitric acid plants. This concept requires dry effluents and is inappro-
priate to combustion sources.
Exxon has patented a concept for NO reduction of selective reaction with
X ,
ammonia which shows promise for supplementing combustion modification tech-
niques. The patent cities test data obtained from a bench scale flow
reactor in which NO reduction in excess of 90 percent were obtained in
some cases. Adequate NO reduction is based on the depletion of flue gas
x 3
oxygen usually through the addition of hydrogen or hydrocarbons. To date,
no demonstration tests on field equipment have been reported. Of particular
interest would be the effectiveness and total environmental impact of
ammonia injection in the effluent from a coal-fired unit. The inventor
is Richard K. Lyon, Exxon R&E, Linden, N.J. Reference: U.S. Patent
3,900,554, August 19, 1975.
The reduction of NO from internal combustion engines has involved both
dry and wet (water injection) techniques. While wet techniques have been
successful in achieving present regulatory levels, dry techniques are re-
ceiving greater emphasis.
A novel approach to NO control in combined gas turbine/steam boiler sys-
A* O
terns has been developed by KVB Engineering under contract to EPRI. The
boiler downsteam of the gas turbine is fired fuel-rich using approximately
80 percent of the NO bearing gas turbine exhaust as the combustion air.
20
-------
The remaining gas turbine exhaust provides the boiler second stage air
which is injected through over fire ports above the fuel rich primary
stage. This use of overfire air effectively reduces the NO formed in
X
the boiler by up to 50 percent. The novel aspect of the KVB tests is that
up to 55 percent of the NO in the simulated gas turbine products was chem-
X
ically reduced in the fuel rich primary stage of the boiler. The total
NO emissions from the combined cycle may, in certain conditions, actually
X
be less than that from the gas turbine alone. The practical significance
of the KVB results are: (1) combined cycles in which the boiler is supple-
mentary fired may be operated at acceptable NO levels without water
2i
injection into the gas turbine, and (2) existing steam plants can be up-
dated in capacity by repowering with a gas turbine without substantially
increasing NO emissions.
Following are descriptions of a few significant NO control program which
Ai
have been recently completed and form the basis for much of the present
activity in this area..
• Field Testing: Application of Combustion Modifications to
Control Emissions From Industrial Boilers - Phase I and II.
(KVB Engineering, Tustin, California, EPA Contract No.
68-02-1074, Project Officer - Robert E. Hall, IEKL/RTP)
KVB Engineering has completed a 1-year EPA emission
characterization field test of packaged and field erected
industrial boilers in the size range 4,500 to 225,000 kg
(10,000 to 500,000 Ib) steam/hr. Forty-seven boilers
encompassing 75 combinations of boilers/burners/fuels were
tested to yield a representative sample of the industrial
boiler field population. All major fuels - gas, distillate
and residual oil, and pulverized or stoker coal - were
tested. Limited study was made of the degree of control
achievable from fine tuning of excess air level, unit
load, burner adjustment, and, where possible, biased
burner firing, burner swirl, and overfire air. In comparison
to utility boilers, industrial boilers were found to have
limited flexibility for N0x control through minor modifica-
tion of operating conditions.
The range of uncontrolled base load NO emissions for the
47 test boilers was 224 to 800 ppm, 100 to 619 ppm, and
50 to 375 ppm for coal, oil and gas firing, respectively.
21
-------
In the NOx control tests, low excess air firing was shown
most effective for coal-fired stokers and oil-fired water-
tube boilers. The firetube boilers and gas-fired water-
tube units generally showed less response to low excess air
(LEA) firing. For multiburner units, off-stoichiometric com-
bustion was achieved by biasing burner stoichiometry or by
taking burners out of service. This yielded NOX reductions
up to 40 percent. For stokers, off-stoichiometric
combustion was achieved by modification of existing over-
fire air ports. This resulted in NOX reductions up to
25 percent.
Results from a second phase of the KVB survey are now pub-
lished. The Phase II effort applied more extensive con-
trol techniques to a smaller number of units.^
• Field Testing: Application of Combustion Modification to
Control Pollutant Emissions From Power Generation Com-
bustion Systems (Exxon Corporation, EPA Contract No.
68-02-1415, Project Officer Robert E. Hall, IERL/RTP)
In previous work on this contract, sponsored jointly with
EPRI, Exxon tested six coal-fired utility boilers and a
gas turbine. Tests with the new Babcock and Wilcox dual
register controlled diffusion flame coal burners showed a
35 percent NOX reduction relative to conventional burners.
Use of overfire air ports and low excess air on a coal-
fired tangential unit gave over 50 percent NOX reduction
compared to normal operation. Mixed fuel tests showed that
addition of a small amount of gas to a coal-fired unit
gas a disproportionately large decrease in NOj^ emissions.
Emissions with mixed coal and nitrogen bearing oils were
roughly proportional to the mixture of the fuels. Short
term corrosion probe tests were made on a tangentially-
fired and a wall-fired unit equipped with NOX controls.
No significant difference in corrosion rate was observed
with low NOX operation. The long term tests cited ..
in Section II of this report will be studied further.3
• Biased Firing Tests - TVA Interagency study with EPA,
(Project Officer, David G. Lachapelle, IERL/RTP)
In this interagency study, biased burner firing was
tested on a 125 MW single-wall coal-fired B&W utility
boiler. The unit was tested with variable load, variable
excess air level, and several biasing patterns for the
square 16-burner array. Measurements were made under
baseline and controlled operation for gaseous and par-
ticulate emissions, boiler tube wastage, and boiler effi-
ciency. As expected, biasing was most effective for
NOX control when the top of burners was operated on air
22
-------
only. NOX reductions of 30 to 50 percent were found over
the range of loads and excess air studied. A small de-
crease (1 percent) .in boiler efficiency with biasing was
attributed to increased carbon loss in the stack under
controlled operation. Potential tube corrosion due to
the reducing atmosphere in the lower furnace with biasing
was assessed by comparison of tube wastage rates under
normal and controlled operation. Preliminary results show
an increased corrosion potential on the side walls. Long
term tests are needed to quantify the effect and, if ne-
cessary, to identify corrective measures.
Effect of Overfire Air Retrofit on NOX Emissions From
Tangential Coal-Fired Utility Boilers (Combustion
Engineering, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1307)
Retrofit overfire air ports were installed and tested by
Combustion Engineering, under contract to EPA, on an
Alabama Power Company 125 MW tangential coal-fired utility
boiler. The ports were installed in each corner approx-
imately 2.5 m (8 feet) above the top fuel nozzle. The
unit was tested at the normal baseline condition, with
biased firing and with overfire air (OFA). Variables included
percent air to the fuel firing zone, load, total excess
air, level of slag buildup on the boiler tubes, and the
tilt of the overfire air ports and fuel nozzles. Baseline
tests at 20 to 25 percent excess air showed compliance with
the NOX standard of performance for new stationary sources
of 301 ng N02/J (0.7 lb/106 Btu). Operation below 20 per-
cent excess air (EA) was precluded by increasing CO emissions.
The baseline tests showed a negligible effect on NOX emissions
of unit load or slag buildup on the tubes. This may mean
that the NOX emissions are due predominately to conversion
of fuel nitrogen which is known to be relatively insensitive
to firebox temperatures. Biased firing with the upper fuel
nozzle operated on air gave approximately 50 percent NO
reduction relative to the normal condition. Operation with
the fuel firing zone air at 95 percent of stoichiometric
was achieved with no increase in CO. Biased firing with the
lower fuel nozzles on air showed negligible NOX reduction.
Tests with the retrofitted overfire air system gave up to
40 percent NOX reduction with the firing zone at 95 percent
of stoichiometric. Operation below 95 percent gave no addi-
tional NOX reduction. The distance between the OFA ports
and the firing zone was varied by taking either the upper
or lower fuel nozzle out of service. OFA was most effective
at the maximum separation from the firing zone. The effect
of OFA tilt with respect to the fuel nozzle tilt was studied
by varying the total differential tilt angle through + 50
degrees from the horizontal. NO., emissions decreased as the
A
23
-------
OFA was tilted away from the fuel. A 25 percent reduction
relative to horizontal was shown at + 50 degrees differential
tilt. Further tilt was precluded by flame instabilities and
increasing carbon monoxide.3
24
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SECTION VI
WATER POLLUTION SOURCES, SOLID WASTE, AND
MISCELLANEOUS POLLUTION SOURCES
Very little information has been obtained regarding water pollution from
stationary combustion sources. Lack of available data is attributable
to the site specific nature of water emission streams in contrast to air
emissions where emission factors can be applied with reasonable accuracy
given certain information regarding fuel type and consumption rate, boiler
type and control equipment.
Solid waste programs have emphasized solid waste generated by flue gas
desulfurization systems rather than ash as collected by particulate con-
trol devices. The basic problems are similar though amplified by flue gas
desulfurization (FGD) systems due to the greater volume potential, higher
solubility of trace elements and reactant liquor components such as sodium,
and the generally poorer physical properties of the nonregenerable sludges.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts are concerned with
waste disposal and certain aspects of water pollution, treatment or
usage within combustion systems.
• Study of Utilization of FGD Gypsum in Portland Cement
(Negotiations are contemplated only with the South
Carolina Public Service Authority, Moneks Corner, SC,
on the basis of their unsolicited proposal - Negotia-
tion No. DU-76-A199, CBD 5/24/76)
• Evaluation of Alternatives for the Disposal of Flue
Gas Desulfurization Sludges (EPA RFP DU-76-A133 -
EPA contemplates negotiations with Arthur D. Little,
Inc., Cambridge, Mass, for changes to the present
effort being performed under existing Contract No.
68-03-2334, CBD4/9/76)
25
-------
• Study of Disposal of By-Products for Nonregenerable
Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems (The Aerospace Corp.
Los Angeles, California. EPA Contract No. 68-02-1010,
Mod. No. 4 $500,000)
• Assessment of Technology of Disposal and Utilization
of Flue Gas Cleaning By-Products (EPA RFP DU-76-A127)
This proposed (proposal due date 7/19/76) 36-month pro-
gram involves a review of previous EPA contract efforts.
Contracts to be reviewed are outlined in the RFP and
presented in Table 1.
• Comparative Toxicologic Assessment of Fly Ash From
Western U.S. Eastern Coals (EPA Contract No.
68-02-7390 (RFP CI 75-0201). CBD 6/16/76). A
$318,000 contract awarded to Huntingdon Research
Center, Brooklandville, Md.
• Study of the Mineral Matter Distribution in Pulverized
Fuel Coals with respect to slag formation in boiler
furnaces. (EPA Contract £(49-18)2316 for $192,431 to
Pennsylvania State University, Philadelphia, Pa.
U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration,
Washington, D.C. 20545, CBD 4/76)
• Chemical and Physical Factors Affecting the Retention
of Radionuclides in Soil and Rock Materials - A
Critical Review (EPA RFP CI 76-0182, CBD 5/76)
The proposed study necessitates careful review and syn-
thesis of the available soil physics, soil chemistry,
and mineralogy literature base documenting the interaction
of radionuclides and soil/rock materials. At present,
the contents and significance of hundreds of key studies
generally are unavailable to management in industry
and government, and to leading environmental groups.
Information gained from the study will assist the
Agency in reviewing the environmental impacts of
activities.
• Treatment of Flue Gas Waste Streams with Vapor Compression
Cycle Evaporation (EPA RFP DU-76-A196, CBD 6/8/76)
EPA plans to issue a contract to Resources Conservation Co.
Renton, Washington to assess the treatment of waste stream
blowdown from a Chiyoda FGD system.
• Evaluate the environmental acceptability and economics-
of leachate collection and treatment systems (EPA RFP WA
76-B115, CBD 6/8/76)
26
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• Effects of Pathogenic and Toxic Materials Transported Via
Cooling Tower Device Drift (EPA RFP DU-76-A185, CBD 5/19/76)
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is seeking a con-
tractor to perform research on the above subject. A level
of effort of 2,500 technical labor hours is planned. In-
creasing use of cooling devices (i.e., towers, sprays) in
industrial recycle programs has resulted in the reuse of
relatively poor quality water. Cooling, device drift (e.g.,
droplets of cooling water transported beyond the confines
of the cooling device) may therefore contain toxic materials
and/or pathogenic organisms.
A study is required to assess the potential effects of the
possible toxic material and pathogenic organisms in cooling
device drift on plants and animals, including humans. This
work will require the identification of the types of organ-
isms and toxic substances potentially present in drift, their
fate during the atmospheric transport of the drift particle,
and their potential effects upon contact with the plants or
animals. The possibility of transporting disease to humans
via affected plants and animals will be considered. State-
ments regarding the probability of the potential effects will
be given. All study results and conclusions will be pre-
sented in the final report.
• Evaluation of Clay Liner Materials Exposed to Landfill
Leachate (EPA RFP WA-76-B125, CBD 6/2/76)
Negotiations with Emcon Assoc., San Jose, California.
• Environmental Effects and Control of Various Flue Gas
Cleaning Sludge Disposal Operations (EPA RFP CI-76-0258,
CBD 6/2/76)
Firms are being sought to evaluate available technology
and economics and establish an understanding of impacts
associated with sludge disposal.
• Mechanism of Fly Ash Formation in Coal-Fired Boilers,
(ERDA E(49-18)-2205, $224,000, CBD 3/26/76)
27
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Table 1. PROJECTS IN IERL/FGCa WASTE AND WATER PROGRAMS1*
Project title
Disposal/Utilization of Flue
Gas Cleaning By-Products:
Technology Assessment and
Transfer
Disposal of By-Products From
NonRegenerable Flue Gas Ue-
sulfurization Systems
68-02-1010
Shawnee FGD Waste Disposal
Field Evaluation
Louisville Gas and Electric
Evaluation of FGD Waste
Disposal Options
Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing
Waste Characterization
Lab and Field Evaluation of
1st and 2nd Generation FCC
Waste Treatment Processes
Characterization of Effluents
From Coal- Fired Power Plants
Ash Characterization and
Disposal
Studies of Attenuation of
FGC Waste Leachate by Soils
FGD Waste Leachate-Liner
Compatibility Studies
Establishment of Data Base
for FCC Waste Disposal
Standards Development
Conceptual Design/Cost
Study of Alternative Methods
for Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Waste Disposal
Evaluation of Alternative
FGD Waste Disposal Sites
68-03-2334
Gypsum By-Product Marketing
Studies
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Waste Conversion Pilot
Studies
Fertilizer Production Using
Lime/Limestone Scrubbing
Wastes
Assess/Demonstrate Power Radian
Corporation Plant Water Reuse/
Recycle
Dewaterlng Principles and
EqulpnenC Design Studies
Use of PGD Gypsum in
Portland Cement Manufacture
FGD Waste/Fly Ash Bencf Iciation
Studies
Contract or /Agency
Contractor Selection Pending
The Aerospace Corporation
Tennessee Valley Authority
Louisville Gas and Electric
Company
(Subcontractor: Combustion
Engineering)
Tennesses Valley Authority
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
Tennessee Valley Authority
Tennessee Valley Authority
U.S. Army Material Command
Dugway Proving Ground
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Waterways Experiment Station
SCS Engineers, Inc.
Tennessee Valley Authority
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Tennessee Valley Authority
M.W. Kellogg Company
Tennessee Valley Authority
Radian Corporation
Contractor Selection Pending
Ongoing
X
X
X
X
Project status
CY 75
Start
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
In nego-
tiations
X
'
X
>J unned
X
X
X
X
Flue gas cleaning.
DU-76-A127, Assessment of Technology of Disposal and Utilization of Flue Gas Cleaning
By- Products .
28
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SECTION VII
FUELS
Total energy use in the United States was down in 1975 for the second year
in a row according to recently released Bureau of Mines preliminary
figures. The biggest factor in the net decline was a 6 percent down-
turn in the industrial sector and 2 percent reductions in the commercial
and residential sector. Electric utility fuel use was up 0.6 percent.
Consumption of bituminous coal and lignite increased 1.7 percent while
anthracite and natural gas fell 7.8 and 7.2 percent respectively. Petro-
leum was down 1.9 percent while nuclear power jumped 37.5 percent in 1975.
Despite the slowdown in fossil fuel combustion the Federal Energy Adminis-
tration (FEA), in an updated version of its Project Independence blueprint,
forecast an annual growth rate of 5 percent in coal consumption reaching
1,040 million tons in 1985.
than FEA's 1974 projection.
12
1,040 million tons in 1985. This projection is 100 million tons less
FEA's report calls for 5.7 percent annual growth in electric utility coal
use between now and 1985 with utility use climbing to 759 million tons.
In 1974, utility use was 388 million tons. Industrial use will be 124
million tons in 1985 as compared with 64 million tons in 1974. Coke and
gas use will rise to 100 million tons from 90 million tons in 1974. Coal
use in synthetic fuels will grow from zero to 16 million tons. Exports
will rise to 80 million tons from 60 million in 1974.
Bulk of the increased production the FEA report predicts will come from
the West. It says over half of the production will come from one region •
29
-------
the western Northern Great Plains and an additional 25 percent from one
other region - Central Appalachia.
The forecast sees the ratio of surface production to total production in-
creasing from about 54 percent to 63 percent "because nearly all western
production which is forecast to grow rapidly, is surface-mined."
Specifications for new sales in utility and industrial boilers, pollu-
tion control equipment and support equipment were recently provided.
Eighty percent of new utility boilers scheduled for application in 1976 to
1980 will use coal as the primary fuel. This compares to 42 percent coal-
fired in a comparable 1971 survey. Gas as a primary fuel is down to
7 percent as compared to 32 percent in the 1971 survey. Design furnace heat
release rates are down from prior years due primarily to increased use
of low heating value, low sulfur western fuels. From a SO emission
X
standpoint the lower sulfur content of western coals is offset by the lower
heating value. In general however, conversion to western coal yields a
substantial reduction in SO emissions and affords compliance with NSPS
6 X
or 1.2 Ib S02/10 Btu (0.516 mg/02/j) without further control. Conversion
to western coals could, in some cases, give higher NOY emissions, due to
13
the higher nitrogen content of western coals.
x
Of U.S. coal reserves, 46 percent are in the west. Over 80 percent of the
western coal has less than 1 percent sulfur content. Western coal produc-
tion was 53 million metric tons in 1973 and is expected to increase by over
13
a factor of eight by 1985.
The prime drawback of conversion to western coal in boilers is the unit
derating which results from the lower heating value. This is primarily
due to limitations in the coal feed system. User experience has also shown
a higher carbon loss with western coals. Electrostatic precipitator col-
lection efficiency is typically decreased with western coals due to the
low sulfur content and resulting high resistivity of the fly ash.
Stoker-fired industrial boilers, particularly traveling grate spreader
30
-------
stokers, appear to be an attractive relatively trouble-free application
13
for conversion to western coal.
The anticipated growth in coal combustion has spurred interest in flue
gas desulfurization and other means of sulfur removal and trace metal and
fine particulate control measures. A program to determine precisely
the composition of coal and identify toxic elements released into the
environment from coal development has been expanded by the U.S. Geological
Survey. Included will be the accurate determination in percentage or
parts per million of the 50 to 70 elements detectable in coal in major,
minor, or trace amounts - for example, sulfur, arsenic, mercury, beryllium,
fluorine, cadmium, selenium, and zinc. About 2500 coal samples already
have been collected and analyzed, and data are being entered into USGS's
National Coal Resources Data System. The agency expects to be able to
perform more than 1500 analyses per year.
While the debate over flue gas desulfurization (FGD) continues between
government and industry work is progressing on other methods of removing
sulfur from coal prior to combustion. A final report of a Department of
Commerce study panel to identify the most economical means of achieving
continuous SO control on coal-fired electric utility plants in the
Northeast concluded that coal benefication or washing alone can achieve
certain regulatory levels. In more stringently controlled areas bene-
fication followed by some measure of FGD can improve the economics over
the use of FGD alone. The coal benefication techniques considered by
the panel are those now available, not the advanced technologies being
investigated by Battelle and others.
Because of the petroleum and natural gas shortages many utilities will be
forced to convert to coal. For those plants which have already undergone
a conversion from coal, reconversion may be relatively simple if the
auxiliary equipment is available or can be reinstalled. However, in many
instances conversion to coal may be costly or even impossible. The
Energy Research and Development Administration is soliciting contracts to
31
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demonstrate coal/oil slurry combustion in existing steam generator and
3
industrial process equipment. Coal/oil slurries can be fired in a boiler
equipped for oil firing with only minor modification. It is thus seen as
an attractive means of coping with the dwindling supply of oil while avoid-
ing the costly conversion to coal firing. In small units, where a coal
feed system would be prohibitively expensive, coal/oil slurries afford a
low-cost method of coal utilization. Equipment categories considered by
ERDA for the 2-year demonstration program are blast furnaces, utility and
industrial steam generators originally designed for gas or oil, utility
and industrial steam generators originally designed for coal but subse-
quently converted to gas or oil, and industrial process/direct fired pro-
cess heaters. ERDA will also consider bids for a mixing and distribution
facility to supply coal/oil slurries to multiple users from a central
location.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts, as noted in the
Commerce Business Daily, appear to apply fuel technology as related to
emissions from conventional stationary combustion sources.
• Preparation of a Second Supplement to the Text
Chemistry of Coal Utilization, (ERDA E(49-18)2282
National Academy of Sciences, CBD 4/76, $285,000)
This program involves a critical review of the cur-
rent state-of-the-art of coal chemistry and tech-
nology (1960 to present) and to prepare and publish
a comprehensive self-contained text which would be
supplemental to two previous books (1945 and 1963).
• Select, Modify and Develop Coal Grinding Equipment
and Procedures for the Coal Conversion Industry.
(ERDA is now conducting negotiations with Kennedy
Van Saun Corp. Danville, Pa. CBD 6/17/76)
• Research to Determine the Catalytic Activity of
Naturally Occurring Mineral Matches in Coal in
Recovery Sulfur and Nitrogen ($108,000 to University
of Kentucky Research Foundation, ERDA E(49-18)-2229,
CBD 3/25/76)
32
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SECTION VIII
CONTROL OF FLUE GAS EMISSIONS
Flue gas control devices are often used to control emissions of particu-
lates and SO- from large combustion sources, and particularly coal-burning
sources. The impending growth in the combustion of low-sulfur fuels,
partly to avoid the need for flue gas desulfurization systems, has re-
sulted in a decrease in the efficiency of electrostatic precipitators,
the conventional particulate control device used by utilities and industry.
Although efficiencies can be upgraded by redesign or hot-side usage (or
the use of conditioners) the cost of this upgrading is appreciable. Be-
cause of the unfavorable economics associated with high efficiency ESP
design and the need for even higher efficiency collection of fine particu-
lates, there has been a surge of interest in the use of fabric filters as
particulate control devices for combustion sources. Almost every manufac-
turer of control equipment is cognizant of this potential shift in par-
ticulate control from the ESP to the fabric filter, and in-house programs
are ongoing to prepare for this eventuality.
Flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems continue to receive major attention
and remain the focus of controversy among EPA, utilities and other poten-
tial FGD users. Papers presented at an EPA-sponsored FGD symposium held
March 8-11 in New Orleans pointed to improved reliability and availability
of scrubbers and the emergence of double alkali technology as an alternate
to lime/limes tone scrubbing processes. According to PEDCo - Environmental
Specialists some 109 FGD systems having a total equivalent rating of over
42,000 megawatts are operational, under construction or planned. PEDCo's
analysis of FGD systems in the United States is shown in Tables 2 and 3.
33
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Table 2. FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION SYSTEMS IN THE U.S., JANUARY 1976
Status
Operational
Under construction
Planned
Contract awarded
Letter of intent
Requesting or evaluating bids
Considering FGD systems
Total
Number
of
units
21
20
10
10
7
40
109
MW
3,796
7,026
3,761
3,911
3,837
19,797
42,128
34
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Table 3. FLUE GAS DESULFURIZATION PROCESSES IN THE U.S.
Limestone
Lime
Sodium carbonate
Magnesium oxide
Wellman-Lord
Cat-Ox
Lime/limestone
Dilute acid
Activated carbon
Dual alkali
Total
MWa
1976
4,077
3,442
375
365
115
110
30
23
20
20
8,577
MW
1980
11,221
7,716
375
1,091
1,830
110
1,740
23
20
20
24,416
FGD megawattage for which a pro-
cess has-not been selected is not
included.
Note: In 1976, about 65 percent of
FGD megawattage will be retrofit,
and about 35 percent will be on new
plants. By 1980, 30 percent and
70 percent will be retrofit and new
installations, respectively.
Source: PEDCo
35
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Despite the continued controversy regarding FGD systems there is agree-
ment that conventional systems are ineffective collectors of fine particu-
lates. Present EPA efforts are directed towards more efficient utiliza-
tion of the energy applied to a scrubber system and the augmentation
of particulate collection by condensation and other physical phenomena.
As noted in Section VI EPA is also concerned about control of waste and
water pollution from FGD.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts, as noted in the
Commerce Business Daily, are representative of programs dealing with the
control of emissions from conventional stationary combustion sources.
Waste utilization activities have been described in Section VI.
• Test Program on the Magnesium Oxide FGD Process at Philadel-
phia Electric's Eddystone Station. (EPA RFP No. DU-76-A128,
CBD 5/4/76)
EPA contemplates negotiating with Philadelphia Electric
Co., of Pennsylvania. Included: (1) relocation of
Philadelphia Electric's equipment from Olin Chemical's
Paulsboro Acid Plant, which is being shut down, to an
acid plant for which negotiations are presently taking
place (2) development and implementation of a 6 to 12-
month test program to characterize the operation of the
magnesium oxide slurry process, and (3) system operation
during the test period.
• Full-Scale Scrubber Testing and waste disposal program
at Louisville Gas and Electric. (EPA Contract No. 68-02-2143
(DU-75-A202) for $1,800,000 to Louisville Gas and Electric
Co., P.O. Box 354, Louisville, Kentucky 40201, CBD 4/7/76)
• Fine Particle High-Resistivity Electrostatic Precipita-
tor Study (EPA RFP DU-76-A182, CBD 5/21/76)
The Environmental Protection Agency proposes to negotiate
with the Southern Research Institute, Birmingham, Alabama.
The primary purpose of this procurement is to develope
evaluate, and prove the feasibility of specially designed
particle charging system at small pilot scale. A second
purpose is to develop relationships between particle pro-
perties and allowable electrical conditions in full-scale
electrostatic precipitators.
36
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• Effects of Conditioning Agents on Emissions From Coal-Fired
Boilers (RFP DU-76-A204, CBD 5/20/76)
EPA plans to issue an RFP to field test three (3) sites
using conditioning agents to determine the effectiveness
of the agent in improving electrostatic precipitator
performance and to determine the chemical composition of
the gaseous and particulate emissions with and without
conditioning. Limited biological testing of the emitted
particulate will be conducted. Such data are necessary
to assess the usefulness of conditioning agents.
• Engineering and Analytical Support for the Louisville
Gas and Electric Scrubber Program (EPA RFP DU-76-A152,
CBD 5/26/76)
EPA contemplates negotiations with the Radian Corp of
Austin, Texas.
• Assist EPA in Solving Problems Associated with Improving
Air Quality Affected by Power Plant Operations in the
Most Cost Effective Manner (Energy Resources Co., Inc.
Modification to EPA Contract, CBD 5/6/76)
• Environmental Control Technology in Fuel Treatment, Pro-
cessing and Conversion Convector Streams, (EPA RFP DU-75-A167,
CBD 5/6/76)
This proposed contract originally scheduled for 1975 has
been resolicited and is concerned with the evaluation of
control technology for existing and developing technologies.
• Analysis of Thermal Decomposition Products of Flue Gas
Conditioning Agents, (EPA RFP DU-76-A220, CBD 6/18/76)
A bench-scale study of combustion products of condition-
ing agents used to improve the collectibility of fly ash
from low-sulfur coals.
• Stack Gas Reheat Assessment Study (EPA RFP DU-76-A216,
CBD 6.10/76)
Assessment of stack gas technology through a survey of
vendors, utilities and others with FGD expertise.
Economic and reliability comparisons will be made.
• Demonstration of a High Efficiency, High Throughput Bag-
house on an Industrial Stoker-Fired Boiler (EPA Contract
No. 68-02-2148, $800,000, CBD 3/26/76, Fabrics America
Corp., Atlanta, Georgia)
37
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SECTION IX
SOLID WASTE COMBUSTION
The disposal of municipal solid waste (MSW) has become both expensive
and environmentally less acceptable. Since there are increasing de-
mands on the conservation of resources and since a large portion of
municipal solid waste is combustible, the recovery of energy from mu-
nicipal solid waste has received considerable attention. There are
currently six approaches to recovering energy from MSW.
The number of processes in each of the six MSW-fuel utilization approaches
is given below. For each process, the number of prime contractors in-
volved in the design and construction of a process is a measure of the
state of development of the process - the greater the development, the
greater the number of contractors. Only processes 1 and 6 are of direct
interest to this program.
Process
1. Preparation of MSW as a solid fuel
2. Pyrolysis of MSW to a fuel gas
3. Pyrolysis of MSW to a fuel oil
4. Anaerobic digestion of MSW to a fuel gas
5. Fluid-bed combustion/gas turboelectric
generation
6. Incineration of MSW with heat recovery
No. of contractors
23
10
1
2
1
30
38
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Most processes have proposed light-fraction fuel rather than such other
forms as pellets and briquettes. The composition of a typical MSW
light-fraction fuel is given in Table 4. The heating value of this fuel
is typically 5000 to 6000 Btu/lb. A comparison of coal and a typical
MSW light-fraction fuel is given in Table 5.
The process of recovering energy by burning MSW light fraction as a
supplementary fuel in power plant boilers has been under investigation
by the City of St. Louis and the Union-Electric Company. The results
of a demonstration at Union Electricfs Meramec Plant have been fairly
encouraging. The prepared solid waste was burned in suspension with
coal in two 125 Mw tangentially-fired boilers. At rated load, the quantity
of solid waste for each boiler (equivalent in heating value to 10 percent
of the coal) is about 300 tpd. Experience at the Meramec Plant has indi-
cated corrosion is not a major problem with supplemental firing. The
existing boiler combustion controls easily accommodate the variations of
solid waste quantity and quality by varying the amount of coal fired in
the boiler.
Electrostatic precipitator performance was tested at Meramec with and
without refuse firing. Early results showed a drop in precipitator
performance when refuse was added. However, additional tests have been
performed to resolve uncertainties in the data, but the results have not
yet been made available.
Although the Meramec unit has been reasonably successful, some potential
drawbacks to the use of MSW as a supplementary utility fuel have been
noted. They include the following:
• The cost of separation necessary to obtain a fuel of
marginal Btu content
• The cost of transportation and handling
• The possibility of increased corrosion due to increased
chloride content on the flue gases
• Slagging
39
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Table 4. MSW LIGHT-FRACTION SOLID FUEL
Component
Paper
Food wastes
Yard wastes
Glass, ceramics
Plastics
Textiles
Wood
Leather and rubber
Miscellaneous
55.0
16.0
13.7
2.7
1.8
2.5
2.6
1.8
3.9
Table 5. COMPARISON OF COAL AND MSW LIGHT-FRACTION FUEL
Content (%)
Moisture
Ash
Chlorine
Sulfur
As fired, Btu/lb
Coal-fired
at Meramac
10.0
9.0
0.05
3.4
11,315
Typical sub-
bituminous
coal
21.0
6.0
0.04
0.5
9,570
MSW light-
fraction fuel
18.0
14.0
0.07
0.1
5,784
40
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The possible reduction of ESP efficiency
The increase in the quantity of bottom ash generated
by a factor of 4 to 7^'
An increase in water pollution levels for many of the
pollutants evaluators so that controls for BOD, dissolved
oxygen and suspended solids will probably be required.
Potential biological problems associated with dust
emissions from the processing operation. °
Despite the above drawbacks, the combustion of MSW does have the poten-
tial to supply up to 2 percent of the nation's power requirements. The
potential, plus the fact that landfill requirements are greatly reduced
by waste recovery, has spurred interest in solid waste combustion. A
recent listing of existing or planned solid waste recovery units is
given in Table 6. The units involved in steam generation would, if
1 2
implemented at full capacity, account for about 75 x 10 Btu/hr, still
12
less than 1 percent of the 1974 fuel consumption of about 40,000 x 10
Btu/yr.
The following planned or recently awarded contracts, as noted in the
Commerce Business Daily, deal with solid waste combustion sources:
• Air Pollution Control Technology Development for Wastes-
as-Fuels Processes (EPA RFP CI 76-0173, CBD 4/9/76)
This contract shall produce an assessment of techniques and
devices to be utilized in controlling air pollution resulting
from the utilization of wastes-as-fuel in the generation of
energy. The assessment shall include an analysis of all
available data on pollutants produced by wastes-as-fuel pro-
cesses. Equipment designs shall be prepared for each of
several pilot-plant-scale air pollution control devices
selected for detailed field investigations (investigations
which shall be subsequent to this procurement). Several of
these designs shall be adopted, and the devices fabricated,
and actually installed at existing demonstration plant sites
to be selected. The one-year operation of the devices thus
installed shall be the subject of a follow-on procurement.
Prospective contractors should be experienced in conducting
systems studies and preliminary designs, be experienced in
41
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Table 6. STATUS OF RESOURCE RECOVERY PLAN
Location
Ames, Iowa
Baltimore, Md.
Berlin, Conn.
Beverly, Mass.
Bridgeport, Conn.
Chicago, 111.
Cleveland, Ohio
Cuyahoga Valley, Ohio
State of Delaware
East Bridgewater, Mass.
Franklin, Ohio
Knoxville, Tenn.-TVA
Milwaukee, Wise.
Nashville, Tenn.
New Orleans, La.
Pompano Beach, Fla.
Rochester, N.Y.
St. Louis, Mo
San Diego, Calif.
Saugus, Mass.
Scranton, Pa.
South Charleston, W. Va.
Processes
employed
00
e
•o
•0
OJ
b
«
X
X
X
X
X
a
o
•H
U
Ot
U
CO
0)
a
H
U
hi
•H
X
X
X
X
X X
a
o
•H
ij
a
h
§.
OJ
Ul
u
OJ
e
eo
&
X
X
X
X
X
X
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-------
waste disposal and air pollution technology, be capable of
conducting pilot-scale R&D at (possibly) remote locations,
and be versed in cost engineering and environmental analyses.
Development of a "Guide for Local Government Decision
Makers for Interpreting Cost Data of Solid Waste Energy Re-
covery Systems that Produce Processed Waste for Use as a
Supplemental Fuel in Existing Coal-Fired, Steam-Electric
Boilers." (EPA RFP WA-76-B135, CBD 5/20/76)
Pilot Scale Investigations to Utilize Organic Residues
to Produce Usable Fuels and to Improve Sludge Dewatering Char-
acteristics; Determination of the Effects of Gas and Mechan-
ical Mixing (EPA RFP CI-76-0234, Negotiations will be con-
ducted with: System Technology Corp., 245 N. Valley Rd.,
Xenia, Ohio, CBD 5/11/76)
Utilization of Wastes as Fossil Fuel Energy Substitutes,
(EPA RFP CI 76-0223, CBD 5/3/76, Modification to Contract
No. 68-02-2101. Negotiations will be conducted with the
Ralph M. Parsons Co., 100 West Walnut St. Pasadena, Calif.
91124)
Conducting of a Four-phase Program to Assess and Analyze
Current European State-of-the-art and Status of R&D and
Demonstration in the Conversion of Waste Material to Energy
Sources (EPA ERDA RFP-2103)
St. Louis Union Electric Refuse Energy Demonstration.
Additional effort under Contract No. 68-02-1871 to Midwest
Research Institute (EPA RFP DU-76-4131, CBD 3/11/76), for
the determination of hazardous emissions.
43
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SECTION X
REFERENCES
1. Preliminary Emissions Assessment of Conventional Stationary Combustion
Systems. GCA/Technology Division. EPA 600/2-76-046b. March 1976.
2. Environmental Reporter, May 13, 1976.
3. NC- Control Review, IERL/RTP Volume 1, Number 1, March 1976.
A
4. Technical Manual for Process Sampling Strategies for Organic Materials.
Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton, Ohio. U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Contract No.
68-02-1411, Task Order No. 11, January 1976.
5. Technical Manual for Analysis of Organic Materials in Process
Streams. Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, Ohio.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
N.C. EPA 600/2-76-072, March 1976.
6. Science, January 26, 1976.
7. Business Week, June 21, 1976.
8. Linton, R.W., A. Loh, D.F.S. Natusch, C.A. Evans and P. Williams.
University of Illinois, Surface Predominance of Trace Elements in
Airborne Particles. Science, 191:27, February 1976.
9. NOAA Week, U.S. Department of Commerce, April 16, 1976.
10. Annual Design Report Power Magazine, 1975.
11. Total U.S. Energy Use Drops Again in 1975. J Air Pollut Contr
Assoc. p. 608, June 1976.
12. Coal Age, April 1976.
13. Evaluation of Low-Sulfur Western Coal Characteristics, Utilization
and Combustion Experience, Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton,
Ohio, EPA 650/2-75-046, May 1975.
44
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14. Chemical and Engineering News, April 19, 1976
15. Scrubbers Aren't the Only Way to Burn Coal Cleanly, Industry Week,
January 26, 1976.
16. EPRI Journal, April 1976.
17. Wilson, E. Milton and H.M. Freeman. Processing Energy From Wastes,
Environmental Science and Technology, May 1976.
18. Power From Trash, a Solution With Problems, Business Week,
February 16, 1976.
45
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing).
1. REPORT NO. ,
EPA-600/2-76-046c
2.
4. TITLE ANDsuBTiTLEPRELIMINARY EMISSIONS ASSESS-
MENT OF CONVENTIONAL STATIONARY COMBUS-
TION SYSTEMS; Volume HI. Update (12/75-6/76)
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
5. REPORT DATE
August 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Norman Surprenant
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
GCA-TR-76-21-G
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
GCA/Technology Division
GCA Corporation
Bedford, Massachusetts 01730
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHB525: ROAP AAU-002
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-1316, Task 16
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PE
Update; 12/75-6/76
RIOD COVERED
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES p^j^ officer for this report is R.A. Venezia, 919/549-8411
Ext 2547, Mail Drop 62.
16. ABSTRACT
The report updates Volume H of this series (EPA-600/2-76-046b). It
identifies and discusses major recent ongoing and proposed programs in the area of
pollutant emissions from combustion sources. The information presented covers
the period from December 1975 to June 1976 and was obtained through a review of
the literature and contact with governmental and industrial representatives.
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COS AT I Field/Group
Pollution
Combustion
Utilities
Industries
Industrial Wastes
Residential Buildings
Steam Electric
Power Generation
Space Heating
Stationary Engines
Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Emissions Assessment
13B
21B
05C
10A
13A
21G
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
51
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
47
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