EPA-600/2-76-087
April 1976
Environmental Protection Technology Series
VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION OF
MINERAL WASTE HEAPS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
TECHNOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent
environmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This
work provides the new or improved technology required for the control and
treatment of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
EPA REVIEW NOTICE
This report has been reviewed by the U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, and approved for publication. Approval
does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policy of the Agency, nor does mention of trade
names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-76-087
April 1976
VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION
OF
MINERAL WASTE HEAPS
by
R. P. Donovan, R. M. Felder, andH.H. Rogers
Research Triangle Institute
P.O. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Contract No. 68-02-1325. Task 31
ROAPNo. 21AVA-008
Program Element No. 1AB012
EPA Task Officer: D.K. Oestreich
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Prepared for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, DC 20460
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ABSTRACT
This report reviews the establishment of vegetative cover as a
candidate method for reclaiming mineral ore waste heaps. The report
begins by describing the location and properties of spoils and tailings
from mining and ore beneficiation, and briefly reviews present methods
for controlling dust emissions from them. In the bulk of the report,
fundamentals for the establishment of vegetative cover are developed and
a detailed review of case histories of both successful and unsuccessful
revegetation are given. The report also contains a catalog of individual
plant species. From this mass of information some general guidelines
for establishing vegetative cover emerge.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Task No. 31 of EPA
Contract No. 68-02-1325 by the Research Triangle Institute under the
sponsorship of the Environmental Protection Agency. Work was completed
as of September 1975.
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VEGETATIVE STABILIZATION OF MINERAL WASTE HEAPS
(A SURVEY)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ii
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii
Acknowledgments ix
Sections
1.0 Conclusions 1
1.1 State-of-the-Art 1
1.2 Regional Considerations 2
2.0 Recommendations 3
2.1 Mineral Waste Heaps as Sources of Hazardous Air
Pollutants and Fugitive Dust Emissions 3
2.2 Using Solid Wastes as Waste Heap Amendments 3
2.3 Quantitative Assessment of the Effectiveness of Vege-
tative Cover in Suppressing the Emission of Suspended
Particulates 4
3.0 Introduction 5
4.0 U.S. Sources of Mineral Ore Wastes 10
4.1 Properties of Spoils/Soils 11
4.1.1 Chemical Composition 11
4.1.2 Physical Properties 15
4.1.3 Biological Properties 15
4.2 U.S. Mining Operations of Concern 19
4.2.1 U.S. Mining Operations in General 19
4.2.2 Coal Mining 21
4.2.2.1 Refuse and Culm (Deep Mining) 21
4.2.2.2 Surface Mining Spoils 27
4.2.3 Asbestos Wastes 27
4.2.4 Copper Tailings 29
4.2.5 Iron Ore Wastes 32
4.2.6 Lead, Zinc Tailings 32
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Table of Contents (cont'd)
Page
4.2.7 Uranium Ore Tailings 35
4.2.8 Phosphate Mining 36
4.3 Industrial Sources of Mineral Waste Heaps in the U.S. . 36
4.3.1 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA) 38
4.3.2 Spent Shale 39
4.4 Summary 39
4.5 Recommendations 41
5.0 Control Methods for Fugitive Dust Emissions from Mineral
Ore Waste Heaps 42
5.1 Wind Erosion 42
5.2 Control Methods 46
5.2.1 Physical Control Methods 46
5.2.2 Chemical Binding Materials .... 48
5.2.2.1 Types of Chemical Binding Layers ... 49
5.2.3 Vegetative Cover 51
5.2.4 Shelterbelts 57
6.0 Fundamentals of Mineral Waste Heap Stabilization by Vegeta-
tive Cover 59
6.1 Vegetative Factors 61
6.1.1 Species Selection 61
6.1.2 Propagation 66
6.1.2.1 Background 66
6.1.2.2 Planting Technique 69
6.1.2.3 Maintenance 72
6.1.3 Succession . 73
6.1.3.1 Natural Succession on Sources of
Natural Origin 74
6.1.3.2 Natural Succession of Man-made Mineral
Waste Heaps 75
6.2 Environmental Factors . 81
6.2.1 Geographic 82
6.2.2 Geologic 82
6.2.2.1 Pedologic 83
6.2.2.2 Edaphic 85
6.2.2.2.1 Physical 86
6.2.2.2.2 Chemical 89
6.2.2.2.3 Biological 94
6.2.3 Climatic 96
6.2.3.1 Light 96
6.2.3.2 Precipitation 97
6.2.3.3 Temperature 98
6.2.3.4 Wind 99
6.2.4 Atmospheric 99
6.2.4 Biotic 100
IV
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Table of Contents (cont'd)
7.0 Case Histories and Recommended Methods for Terrain
Stabilization by Vegetative Cover ... 101
7.1 Coal Mine Refuse and Spoils ..-...' 101
7.1.2 Elements of a Mine-spoil Reclamation Program . . 104
7.1.2.1 Grading . . 106
7.1.2.2 Soil Cover 106
7.1.2.3 Species Selection 108
7.1.2.3.1 Planting on acid spoils . . 108
7.1.2.3.2 Planting on slopes Ill
7.1.2.3.3 Choosing grasses and legumes 112
7.1.2.3.4 Choosing trees and shrubs . 113
7.1.2.3.5 Planting trees on spoils
with existing herbaceous
covers 113
7.1.2.3.6 Conifers vs. hardwoods ... 113
7.1.2.3.7 Mixed tree plants; nurse
species 114
7.1.2.4 Soil Neutralization 115
7.1.2.5 Fertilization 116
7.1.2.6 Planting 117
7.1.2.7 Mulching 118
7.1.3 Refuse Bank and Slurry Pond Reclamation .... 120
7.1.3.1 Vegetation of Bare Refuse 120
7.1.3.2' Vegetation of Covered Refuse Piles . . 121
7.1.3.2.1 Grading and covering the
refuse pile 122
7.1.3.2.2 Species selection 122
7.1.3.2.3 Liming and fertilizing ... 123
7.1.3.2.4 Planting and mulching ... 123
7.1.3.3 Treatment of Refuse with municipal
Sewage Effluent and Fly Ash 123
7.1.4 Surface Mine-Spoil Reclamation 125
7.1.4.1 Eastern States(Pennsylvania, Ohio,
West Virginia, Virginia, Kentucky,
Tennessee, Alabama) 125
7.1.4.2 Central States (Iowa, Illinois, Indiana,
Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma) 127
7.1.4.3 Western States (Montana, North and
South Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado, Utah,
Arizona, New Mexico) 129
7.1,5 Summary 132
7.2 Mineral Tailings 147
7.2.1 Copper Tailings 148
7.2.1.1 Midwestern/Canadian Copper Tailings . . 148
7.2.1.2 Western U.S. Copper Tailings 149
7.2.2 Uranium Tailings 150
7.2.3 Iron Tailings 151
7.2.3.1 Pennsylvania Iron Ore Tailings .... 151
7.2.3.2 Minnesota Taconite Tailings 152
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Table of Contents (cont'd)
7.2.4 Other Metallic Ores 153
7.2.5 Phosphate Slimes 155
7.2.6 Chemical-Vegetative Covers 155
7.3 Spent Oil Shale 162
7.3.1 Site Preparation and Maintenance 162
7.3.2 Species Selection 165
7.3.3 Present Status 166
7.4 Sand and Gravel Pits 166
7.4.1 Planning and Site Preparation 166
7.4.2 Species Selection 168
8.0 References 170
9.0 Glossary 204
10.0 Appendices 208
vi
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
1 World-Wide Wind Erosion . 10
2 The Solubility of Silica and Alumina as a Function
of pH 14
3 USDA Classification of Soil Textures 16
4 Particle Sizing Systems 17
5 Hypothetical Soil Profile 18
6 Coal Fields of the U.S 20
7 Particle Size Distribution Curves for Coal Refuse Samples 25
8 Aging Effects Upon the pH of Copper Tailings 30
9 Modes of Soil Movement 43
10 Particle Trajectory During Saltation 44
11 Dominant Mode of Windblown Soil Transport as a Function
of Particle Size 44
12 The Availability of Plant Nutrients as Influenced by
Acidity 53
13 Dependence of Pine Growth Upon Lime Treatment 55
14 Kudzu: It Won't Give Up 65
15 The Water Hyacinth 156
16 Thornthwaite's Precipitation-Evaporation Index (P-E) . . 210
17 Climatic factor used in wind erosion equation 211
VI1
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1 Classification of Solid Mineral Wastes 6
2 Elements Essential for Plant Growth 11
3 Approximate Chemical Composition of Igneous Rock .... 13
4 Inventory of Mineral Waste Resources 22
5 Inventory of Industrial Waste Resources 24
6 Properties of Anthracite Refuse 26
7 Chemical Analyses of Chrysotile Asbestos Tailings ... 29
8 Analysis of Copper Tailings From Various Sources .... 31
9 Chemical Analysis, Microscopic Examination and Screen
Analysis of Sand and Slime Portions of Copper Tailings
from Magna, Utah 31
10 Properties of Taconite Tailings 33
11 Properties of Lead-Zinc Ore Tailings 34
12 Analysis of Uranium Tailings from Various Sources ... 35
13 Properties of Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA) 37
14 Properties of Six Spent Shale Samples 40
15 Chemical Binding Surface Treatments in Descending Order
of Rank by the USBM, Salt Lake City 50
16 Average Nutrient Content of Tissue from the Pine Trees
Described in Figure 13 56
17 Species Used for Mine-Spoil Revegetation 136
18 Acid-Tolerant Species: Grasses and Legumes 142
19 Acid-Tolerant Species: Shrubs and Vines 144
20 Acid-Tolerant Species: Trees 145
21 Species Recommended for Mineral Tailings Reclamation . . 158
22 Plants Grown in Parachute Creek Processed Shale Revege-
tation Plots 163
vm
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ACKNOWLDEGMENTS
This report was prepared by the Research Triangle Institute under
EPA Contract No. 68-02-1325. The study began in March 1975 and ended in
September 1975.
The report was written by Dr. R. M. Felder (Section 7 and Appendix
B), Dr. H. H. Rogers (Section 6), and Mr. R. P. Donovan (Sections 1-5)
and Appendix A). Drs. W. W. Woodhouse, W. B. Gilbert, H. S. Brown,
S. H. Dobson and T. E. Maki, all of North Carolina State University and
Mr. G. E. Weant of RTI provided guidance and critique throughout the
planning and preparation of the report.
Mr. D. K. Oestreich, EPA, who initially recognized the need for such
a study and nurtured it into existence, was the EPA Project Officer. His
influence and direction are reflected throughout the report.
Many members of the agricultural/agronomical community throughout
the United States were consulted during the course of the report prepara-
tion. They provided suggestions and ideas, reprints and data, and perhaps
most important, keen interest and encouragement. Hopefully the report
captures at least a fraction of their enthusiasm for getting the job
done and partially justifies the time and contributions they so generously
gave in response to our requests.
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1.0 CONCLUSIONS
1.1 STATE-OF-THE-ART
This report assesses the state-of-the-art in vegetative stabilization
of mineral waste heaps. It is shown that a systematic approach to
problem solving is lacking. Horticultural techniques are described
which are generally applicable, but horticulture is as much an art as it
is a science when directed at a specific reclamation problem. The
report does discuss some of the recent innovations of horticulture
including the use of surface binding materials which provide temporary
terrain stability while vegetation is being established. The discussion
of case histories in this report is analogous to an art appreciation
course. An understanding of successful past approaches to specific
problems provides some insiaht into choosing approaches for solving
future problems.
The importance of plant succession is pointed out. The initial
mission with regard to any waste pile is to get something to grow. As
time goes on, the pioneer species will improve conditions so that other
species will invade and become established.
The importance of planning is strongly emphasized. Proper stockpiling
of topsoil and overburden in any mining operation will allow the eventual
reclamation to be done at minimal cost and effort.
In spite of the lengthy and intensive investigations of vegetative
stabilization of mineral waste heaps that have been and are being
carried out by United States Government, university and industrial
researchers, the problem is still too complex to permit the formulation
of guaranteed revegetation procedures. In practice each new candidate
site for vegetative cover must be treated as a unique problem; trial and
error experimentation on test plots must precede any large scale revegetation
effort, using previous experiences as general guidelines to formulate
the test program.
Given enough time and resources, any mineral waste heap in the
United States could be covered with vegetation; the problem is to
establish a cover at a cost compatible with the value of the land before
and after the reclamation. It might appear to be folly to dig up a land
area for a net gain of $500/acre, if the cost of returning the land to
1
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its previous state is $5000/acre. If the $5000/acre investment can
enhance the value of the land—make it worth more after mining and
reclamation than before—then the high post-mining costs of the land
transformation may be justified. In short, the optimum strategy to
pursue in any given vegetative stabilization task, including whether to
even consider or attempt a vegetative solution, depends strongly upon
economic factors, thus further complicating attempts to express the
problem and its solutions in complete closed form.
1.2 REGIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
A long-term interest in solving the revegetation problems of coal
mining wastes in the northeastern United States has resulted in a research
program which has been active and productive for many years. The major
problems are with old, inactive waste heaps, which are aesthetic blights
and pose serious acid drainage and filtration problems. However, air
quality problems caused by waste piles in the East are minimal except in
isolated cases. Consequently, EPA should assign a relatively low priority
to initiating revegetations studies in the East unless a major air
pollution hazard becomes evident and local ordinances and practices are
not solving the problem.
Industrial mineral wastes such as fly ash may also cause serious
local air pollution problems in the East.
The regions of the United States most susceptible to wind erosion,
are the Great Plains and Rocky Mountains. These regions are growing in
importance as sources of energy-producing minerals including coal,
uranium and oil shale, and metal ores such as copper. The prevailing
dry, windy climate in these areas promotes wind erosion, and dust storms
are a common occurrence throughout the region (Hagen and Woodruff,
1975). Unfortunately this climate makes vegetative growth extremely
difficult to establish.
Methods and procedures for revegetating mineral wastes in the West
are being studied intensively by both the Bureau of Mines and the Depart-
ment of Agriculture. Progress has been made, but the research is still
in its infancy and the problems are severe. The trend toward increased
dependence on the West for energy minerals makes development of methods
for minimizing environmental insult in the West mandatory. .-
2
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2.0 RECOMMENDATIONS
2.1 MINERAL WASTE HEAPS AS SOURCES OF HAZARDOUS AIR POLLUTANTS AND
FUGITIVE DUST EMISSIONS
An inventory of mineral waste heaps potentially capable of emitting
hazardous quantities and/or types of air pollutants should be prepared
from existing records and updated periodically. Field emissions measurements
of those sources identified as potentially significant should then be
undertaken. The mass and composition of ambient air samples, collected
in the vicinity of known or suspected hazardous mineral waste heaps such
as asbestos tailings, uranium tailings, spent shale, Western coal and
others, should be measured and analyzed.
The information acquired in these studies would provide answers to
several important questions:
1) Is the magnitude of fugitive dust emissions from mineral
waste heaps a problem for EPA to concern itself with?
2) During dust storms many sites in the West are in violation
of ambient air standards for total suspended particulates.
Do mineral waste heaps such as tailings or spoils make it
any worse? If the tailings and spoils were stabilized,
how much better would the ambient air quality be?
3) Which mineral waste heap types cause problems because of
the chemical composition and size distribution of the
emitted dust?
2.2 USING SOLID WASTES AS WASTE HEAP AMENDMENTS
Mineral wastes are a varied lot; often the deficiencies of one
waste heap are the excesses of another. Research into applications in
which fly ash, municipal sewage and other solid wastes have been used to
remedy the deficiencies of acidic spoils, should be systematically
undertaken.
The problem is really one of logistics—getting the right waste to
the right waste heap at a net cost which is less than that which would
be required to treat the two problems separately. If one can dispose of
municipal solid waste or power plant fly ash and at the same time correct
a compositional deficiency in a spoil, the chances for economically
attractive operation are greatly enhanced.
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This approach requires:
a) the preparation of a geographical inventory of solid wastes
suitable for waste heap amendment;
b) research on the use of these solid wastes for revegetating
mineral waste heaps or other barren areas, including the
determination of the practical limitations set by
transportation and handling costs.
2.3 QUANTITATIVE ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF VEGETATIVE
COVER IN SUPPRESSING THE EMISSION OF SUSPENDED PARTICULATES
No measurements of the effectiveness of vegetation in reducing the
emission of suspended particulates now exist. All evaluations of vegetative
cover are expressed in either qualitative agricultural terms—"good
cover, grows well"--or in semiquantitative terms--"50 percent survival,
20 percent coverage." What is really needed is a direct measure of the
suppression of emissions of suspended particulates. Some species may be
btter than others in controlling emissions.
This activity should begin as a wind tunnel study in which soil or
spoil surfaces are covered with different plant species and the wind
borne particulate concentration is measured as a function of various
important parameters.
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3.0 INTRODUCTION
This report reviews the use of vegetation as a control method for
fugitive dust emissions from man-made mineral waste heaps. Such sources
are common in mining operations but can also arise in the course of
carrying out other industrial activities.
Fugitive dust is a broad term used to describe any solid particles
originating from any source other than an industrial smokestack, re-
sidential flue or other duct specifically constructed to control or
transport emissions. The implication of the term is that these emissions
have escaped from the planned process flow and, hence, constitute
"fugitive" action not within the defined process or otherwise accounted
for. As such, fugitive emissions accompany virtually every activity of
society—from children at play in the schoolyard to grandma dusting the
furniture; from the gasoline pumps at the service station to the aerosol
sprays of the beauty salon. Fortunately, only a limited number of these
sources are important in magnitude or composition. This report considers
just one of these sources—the mineral ore waste heap, as described in
Table 1.
Mineral waste heaps come into being because of mining and milling
operations and, in particular, strip mine operations. What any mining
operation produces is a mixture of useful ore and unwanted gangue
minerals. A preliminary separation of ore from gangue is made in the
vicinity of the mine mouth, the useful ore going to the mill or to
market and the waste being discarded in any convenient nearby area.
Once at the mill the ore is ground and further separated into useful ore
and mineral waste called tailings. These finely ground tailings are
often transported from the mill to storage ponds by water and have
traditionally been abandoned and ignored but are currently attracting
more attention because of their unsightliness and their emissions of
fugitive dust.
Overburden is that material which covers a mineral deposit and
which must be removed in the strip mining (surface mining) of the mineral
beneath. Efficient earth moving equipment now exists that is capable of
removing and shoving aside the overburden in huge volumes. The displaced
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Table 1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLID MINERAL WASTES [Miller and Collins, 1974]
1. Overburden
Croup and Type
2. Gangue or waste rock
3. Mine and mill tailings
4. Metallurgical, chemical,&
pulp and paper residues
Description
Soil, sand, clay, shale,
gravel, boulders, etc.
Rock which must be broken
and removed to obtain ore;
many types, e.g., limestone,
granitic and volcanic rocks.
Rock minerals, usually sand
to slime but sometimes
larger; may include
sulphides.
Slags, fly ash, cinders,
dust, slimes, sludges, etc.
Characteristics
Heterogeneous and
unconsolidated.
Broken rock, usually homo-
geneous, but varying widely
in* size.
Usually homogeneous and
uniform in character and
size.
Usually homogeneous and
uniform in character and
size; sometimes toxic.
Examples
Cover removed from open pit
coal, gypsum, and some iron
mines.
Broken rock, usually from
open pits, but also frbm
underground sources.
Tailings from many diverse
operations, e.g., base,
ferrous and precious metal
mines, and non-metallic
mineral operations.
Slags from iron and steel
plants, fly ash from power
plants, salt from potash
recovery operations.
Nature of Problem
Materials handling and storage; little intrinsic value
but may be useful as fill, ballast, and in landscaping.
Materials handling and storage; may compete for valuable
land space; unsightly and possible source of air and water
pollutants; potential sources of additional metals and
minerals.
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and disturbed overburden, called spoils, makes up the second major
source of wind blown fugitive emissions from waste heaps of mineral
ores. The fragment size of overburden tends to be much larger than that
of tailings from beneficiation and milling and hence somewhat less
subject to wind erosion.
Tailings and overburden spoils are the two primary types of mineral
waste heaps to be discussed in this report. Other significant sources
can exist such as storage piles for raw feedstock or ores themselves in
transit on open railway cars. Because of their temporary status such
sources generally are not suitable for control via vegetative cover. One
exception is the long term, open storage of low grade flotation concen-
trates (e.g., zinc) which is practical when prices are depressed.
Control methods that work on these temporary sources can sometimes be
used to provide temporary protection for the waste heaps of interest--
perhaps as an interim control method while vegetation is getting started.
Consequently, even these temporary sources will not be totally ignored.
As the preceding discussion implies, the emphasis will be on
controlling fugitive emissions from man-made mineral waste heaps.
Certain natural terrains, however, merit attention also, not necessarily
because of their contributions to air emissions but because of their
similarity in composition and properties to man-made mineral wastes.
Understanding the vegetative cycles and ecology of certain of these
natural soils, such as salt water beaches or lava fields, can provide
insights that might lead to better methods of vegetative cover in
general.
The mineral waste heap problem is national in scope; heaps exist in
every state. While air emissions attributable to mineral waste heaps as
a whole do not dominate the fugitive emissions class, being not nearly
so large as those from many other sources of fugitive emissions (for
example, dirt roads, agricultural activities or construction), they
often dominate the air quality in their immediate vicinity—especially
under certain weather conditions. In addition, the toxic substances
characteristic of some mineral wastes makes adequate control much more
important than would be justified on a mass emission basis alone. As a
result, methods for controlling mineral waste pile emissions are be-
coming important. This report reviews control methods for fugitive
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emissions from mineral waste heaps, emphasizing the vegetative cover
method as the longest term, most appealing solution, although not always
the least expensive on an initial cost basis.
This report covers five separate topics, all of which can be read
independently in that each section is self-contained. The section
arrangement, however, does reflect a logical sequence, proceeding from
the problem definition (Section 4, Sources) and existing solutions
(Section 5) on through a discussion of the important factors to consider
in growing vegetative cover on mineral waste heaps (Section 6) and a
detailed review of previous and ongoing attempts to put vegetative cover
principles into practice (Section 7, Case Studies). The Conclusions
(Section 1) and Recommendations (Section 2) summarize the status of the
vegetative cover approach to controlling fugitive dust emissions from
mineral ore waste heaps and make both general and specific recommendations
for studies that would enhance EPA's ability to capitalize on the vast
research already underway.
The International System of Units (SI) (Mechthy, 1969) units are
used throughout with the more familiar units generally being added in
parenthesis. For some plots or equations, the SI units are inserted
parenthetically in order to preserve the constants or scales originally
used.
BASIC SI UNITS
Quantity Name Symbol
Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
8
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DERIVED SI UNITS
Quantity
Area
Volume
Density
Force
Pressure
Work, energy
Power
Factor By Which Unit
Is Multiplied
1012
109
106
103
102
10
_1
10 '
10"2
10"3
10~6
10"9
..--12
10
ID'15
ID'18
Name
square meter
cubic meter
0
kilogram/ meter
newton
newton per square
meter
joule
watt
PREFIXES
Prefix
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deka
deci
centi
mi 1 1 i
micro
nano
pi co
femto
atto
Symbol
m2
m3
kg/m3
N (kg-m/s2)
N/m2
J
W (J/s)
Symbol
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
u
n
P
f
a
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4.0 U.S. SOURCES OF MINERAL ORE WASTES
Mineral wastes in the U.S. amount to about 1.5 Tkg (1.7 billion
tons) annually with the total accumulated mineral solid wastes now
approaching 22.7 Tkg (25 billion tons), covering 8.1 Gm (2 million
acres) of land (Dean and Havens, 1973). Mineral wastes are second only
to agricultural wastes in magnitude and represent nearly 40 percent of
the annual solid wastes produced in the U.S.
The most serious impact upon air quality comes from those waste
piles occurring in arid or semi-arid regions such as the Plains of the
U.S. (see Figure 1). The dry climate in combination with the presence
of high surface winds unobstructed by trees or other barriers combine to
make such regions "dust bowls" with serious consequences. Mining in
these regions is of increasing importance so that the number and size of
mineral waste piles in this vulnerable, wind-erosion prone region of the
U.S. seems certain to increase. The trend is to open pit or strip
mining because of the higher costs of underground mining. Surface
mining inherently offers more potential for fugitive emissions.
areas particularly susceptible to
wind erosion.
Ficiure 1. World-wide wind erosion [Hudson, 1971],
10
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This section identifies a number of these mineral waste piles of
concern and presents some of their properties.
4.1 PROPERTIES OF SPOILS/SOILS
Properties of spoils/soils that are both useful in planning re-
vegetation strategy and relatively easy to measure with adequate accuracy
and precision are discussed in this section. The discussion includes
both chemical and physical properties and a brief description of how the
property is measured.
4.1.1 Chemical Composition
Chemical composition is one of the most important properties of a
spoil. Composition, as determined by wet chemical analysis, helps to
determine whether the spoil will support vegetative growth as is or
requires additional nutrients; and whether or not the concentration of
certain elements is sufficiently high to be toxic. Organic matter and
microorganisms are important for vegetation; their absence is a major
difference between a spoil and a spoil. Agricultural soil cannot be
adequately described in terms of its inorganic composition and cannot
adequately be synthesized in the laboratory because not all significant
properties are yet known.
What is generally agreed upon is that 16 chemical elements are
essential for plant growth (Table 2).
Table 2. ELEMENTS ESSENTIAL FOR PLANT GROWTH
[Schellie and Rogier, 1963]
Boron Manganese
Calcium Molybdenum
Carbon Nitrogen
Chlorine Oxygen
Copper Phosphorus
Hydrogen Potassium
Iron Sulfur
Magnesium Zinc
11
-------
Of these essential sixteen, three—carbon, hydrogen and oxygen—are
supplied directly by the surrounding air and water. The other thirteen
must come from the soil.
Elements used by plants in relatively large amounts are the macro-
nutrients--nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and calcium in addition to
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The remaining essential elements are the
micronutrients—those required in only trace quantities. Both macro-and
micronutrients are essential.
In most soils and spoils, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
occasionally calcium and magnesium are inadequate or depleted by use.
Replacing these elements is the primary function of fertilizer.
The trace elements are not usually deficient. Indeed a more common
problem is their excess. What really is required is not just the
presence of a particular element but its presence in the right con-
centration range. Too little constitutes a mineral deficiency but too
much can be equally undesirable and cause a soil toxicity. Further
complicating a specification, however, is that the elements interact
with each other so that the optimum concentration range for one element
depends upon the concentration of another essential element or even of a
non-essential element—phosphorus at 40 ppm is beneficial when calcium
is high (64 ppm) but toxic when calcium is low (8 ppm); trace strontium
is beneficial only when calcium is low etc. (Treshown, 1970).
Having elements present in the soil in a certain concentration
range is still not the same as having them available to the plant life.
Solubility of the chemical compounds present plays a major role in
determining available plant nutrients or, conversely, the presence of
phytotoxicants. Soil pH is thus a primary, although indirect, measure
of nutrient availability and soil toxicity. Figure 2 illustrates the
relationship for alumina and silica, the two most abundant oxides in the
earth's crust (Table 3). Similar dependencies hold for other compounds,
some of which (chiefly heavy metal salts) are very soluble in low pH
soils. The solubility of heavy metals is what makes soils of low pH
toxic rather than any reaction between the H ion and the plant itself.
12
-------
fable 3. APPROXIMATE. CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF IGNEOUS ROCK
By elements
Element
0
Si
Al
Fe
Ca
Mg
Na
K
H
T1
C
P
Percent composition
47.29
28.02
7.96
4.56
3.47
2.29
2.50
2.47
0.16
0.46
0.13
0.13
By oxides
Oxide
SiO,
L.
A12°3
Fe20-
C. J
FeO
CaO
MgO
Na20
K20
H?0
^
Percent composition
59.8 (acid)
17.0 (amphoteric)
2.6 (amphoteric)
3.5 (base)
4.8 (base)
3.8 (base)
3.4 (base)
3.0 (base)
1.9 (neutral)
i
By minerals
Mineral
Feldspar
(silicate)
Quartz
(oxide)
Ferro-mag.
(silicate)
Mica
(silicate)
Misc.
•
Percent composition
59.2
20.4
9.3
7.7
3.3
-------
10 11
Figure 2. The solubility of silica and alumina as a
function of pH. [Mason, 1966].
A third property of interest is the availability of water soluble
salts in the soil such as those of sodium or calcium. The concentration
of soluble salts is measured in a conductivity cell. Values of con-
ductivity below 10 mmho/cm are preferred for vegetative growth. Above
16 mmho/cm only a very few salt-tolerant plants survive; below 2
mmho/cm, even the most salt sensitive plants thrive. Any value in
excess of 4 mmho/cm limits the choice of vegetative species which will
grow.
The detrimental property of excess salt in the soil results from
the reduced availability of water to the plants. The saline soil holds
the water so tightly (increases the osmotic pressure) that the plant
cannot absorb it. (In heavily saline soils, the osmotic gradient can
actually be reversed so that the soil absorbs water from the plant, a
condition incompatible with plant health).
A saline soil can also be alkaline if the dissolved salt is largely
a sodium salt. The percentage of the cation exchange capacity (CEC)
attributable to sodium is a measure of its alkalinity. When sodium
accounts for more than 15 percent of the total cation exchange capacity,
the soil is alkaline.
14
-------
Soils can be alkaline, saline or both. The soil is alkaline when
the sodium present is excessive; it is saline when the total salts, as
measured by conductivity, are excessive. The conventional measurements
of importance in describing the chemical status of the soil are pH,
conductivity and CEC in addition to compositional analysis by element or
compound.
4.1.2 Physical Properties
Physical properties include color, size and weight, but the most
important physical property is texture. The U.S.D.A. classifies soil
particles according to size as shown in Figures 3 and 4. Consequently,
any given soil may be described in terms of its component particle
sizes. A soil sample is dried and weighed and then sorted according to
size through appropriate sieves.* Knowing the total weight in each
particle size range enables one to calculate the fractional percentage
of each size range and hence classify the soil in the triangle of Figure
3.
The preferred texture for agricultural soils is in the interior of
the classification triangle—the loams and near loams as indicated by
the shaded region of the U.S.D.A triangle. Spoils frequently contain
large cobbles or boulders which only after lengthy physical and/or
chemical weathering become cracked and broken into useful agricultural
sized particles. Any sorting during overburden removal that permits the
large cobbles and boulders to be buried will be beneficial to subsequent
vegetation efforts.
4.1.3 Biological Properties
The previous paragraphs discussing physical and chemical properties
state, explicitly or implicitly, some of the differences between a spoil
and a soil; chemically, the spoil is likely to contain more constituents
that are soluble such as the alkali salts; physically, the texture of
spoil is likely to be coarser than that of soil. These differences do
not loom large or formidable. It is only when comparing the biological
properties that the differences become gross. Soils have large, active
microbial communities; spoils initially have none.
*Agricultural laboratories of most states and various U.S.D.A. facilities
will perform this service. (See Appendix C).
15
-------
100,
Preferred
texture for
vegetative
cover.
PtBCCMT SAND (004 1O 2O UM)
Figure 3. USDA Classification of Soil Textures [Needleman and
Molineaux, 1969].
The reason for this difference is not hard to understand. Figure
5 shows a hypothetical soil profile illustrating the different geological
soil horizons or strata. The A-j horizon contains organic matter being
decomposed by bacterial and other biological (such as earthworms) action
These processes, while not fully understood, are known to be necessary for
16
-------
USDA CLASSIFICATION
ClAY
SIIT
VHT
f INC
SAND
SIEVE SIZES f 2702'
i
UNt
SANO
1 1
MID"*""
1AND IANO VIIY
ICOAIS
. I'*"0
»
140 60 40 20 10
i iii i
FINE
GRAVEL
COARSE
GRAVEL
COBBLES
4 1/2" 3/4" 3"
iii i
i i i i i i i ii i
O.001 0.002Q004 0.01 O.02 O.04 O.I 0.2 0.4 ' 1.0 2.0 4.0 10 20 40 80
PARTICLES SIZE, nrn
Sieve
Designation
Standard
125 mm
106 mm
100 mm
90 mm
75 mm
63 mm
53 mm
50 mm
45 mm
37.5 mm
31.5 mm
26.5 mm
25.0 mm
22.4 mm
19.0 mm
16.0 mm
13.2 mm
12.5 mm
11.2 mm
9.5 mm
8.0 mm
6.7 mm
6.3 mm
5.6 mm
4.75 mm
4.00 mm
3.35 mm
Alternate
5 in.
4.24 in.
4 in.
3'A in.
3 in.
2M in.
2.12 in.
2 in.
l*A in.
1H in.
\Vi in.
1.06 in.
1 in.
K in.
Y* in.
Ji in.
.530 in.
H in.
!li in.
Hi".
'4s in.
.265 in.
tf in.
No. 3H
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
Sieve
Opening
mm
125
106
100
90
75
63
53
50
45
37.5
31.5
26.5
25.0
22.4
19.0
16.0
13.2
12.5
in
(approx.
equivalents)
5
4.24
4.00
3.50
3.00
2.50
2.12
2.00
1.75
1.50
1.25
1.06
1.00
0.875
0.750
0.625
0.530
0.500
11.2 1 0.438
9.5 0.375
8.0 0.312
6.7 0.265
6.3 0.250
5.6
4.75
4.00
3.35
2.80 mm No. 7 2.80
2.36 mm No. 8 2.36
2.00 mm No. 10 2.00
1.70 mm No. 12 1.70
1.40 mm
1.18 mm
1.00 mm
850 Mm
710 ion
600 ion
500 Mm
425 Mm
355 Mm
300 Mm
250 Mm
212 Mm
180 Mm
150 Mm
125 Mm
106 Mm
90 Mm
75 Mm
63 fim
53 MHI
45 Mm
38 Mm
No. 14
No. 16
No. 18
No. 20
No. 25
No. 30
No. 35
No. 40
No, 45
No. 50
No. 60
No. 70
1.40
1.18
1.00
0.850
0.710
0.600
0.500
0.425
0.355
0.300
0.250
0.212
0.223
0.187
0.157
0.132
0.111
0.0937
0.0787
0.0661
0.0555
0.0469
0.0394
0.0331
0.0278
0.0234
0.0197
0.0165
0.0139
0.0117
0.0098
0.0083
No. 80 ; 0.180 i 0.0070
No. 100 0.150 0.0059
No. 120 0.125 0.0049
No. 140 j 0.106 0.0041
No. 170
No. 200
No. 230
No. 270
No. 325
No. 400 i
0.090
0.075
0.063
0.053
0.045
0.038
0.0035
0.0029
0.0025
0.0021
0.0017
0.0015
| Sieve sizes are given in the numerical system of the Standard Screen
Scale from 270 to 4 and in terms of the sieve opening above 0.25 in.
Figure 4. Particle Sizing Systems [Tyler Specification Tables, 1973].
17
-------
GROUND LINE
00
Organic debris lodged on the soil; usually
absent on soils developed by grasses.
The Solum-
This portion
of the pro-
file includes
the true soil
developed by
the soil
building
processes
A-Horizon-Zone of eluvia-
tion percolating waters
tend to leach out salts
and fine soil particles
from this horizon.
B-Horizon-Zone illuvia-
tion and fine particles
leached from the A hori-
zon are deposited in the JL
B horizon.
C-Horizon-The unweathered parent soil
material.
IIC or R-Horizon-Any stratum occurring
underneath the soil, such as hard
rock, or contrasting materials that is
not related to the parent material but
which may have significance to the
overlying soil.
r
"F*
P
o
i
LO
i r\
1 "
r—
-
H
I
0
A2
A3
Bi
B,
B3
C
IIC
OR
R
i n , | , n T. L ii_ -*
Litter, leaf mold and humus
A dark-colored horizon, relatively higher in organic
matter, but mixed with mineral material; very thin in
spodosols, thick in mollisols.
A light-colored horizon, representing the region of maximum
leaching (or reduction). Absent in mollisols and aridisols
and some other soils.
Transitional to B but more like A than B. Sometimes absent
Transitional to B but more like B than A. Sometimes absent.
A deeper-colored horizon representing the region of maxi-
mum illuviation. The orstein has a definite structural
behavior.
Transitional to C.
Substratum
Underlying stratum
NOTE: Main horizons may be conveniently subdivided by using extra numberals,
subhorizons within A^-
Thus A- and
represent
Figure 5. Hypothetical soil profile [Hudson, 1971].
-------
vegetative growth. They are confined to the A horizon which represents
the topsoil of the profile. When the surface mining operation overturns
the profile, burying the A horizon and bringing B or C strata to the
surface, the microorganisms are buried. Fortunately microorganisms will
reappear without human action, but the rate at which this occurs may
penalize initial revegetative efforts.
One obvious solution is to carry out the surface mining operation
so that the original topsoil becomes the surface soil of the spoil.
Should the logistics of such a plan prove formidably uneconomic, then
some plan to rapidly build up the microbial populations within the spoil
(such as innoculating the seed and plantings) should be adapted.
In characterizing any spoil/soil, organic content is an essential
measure.
4.2 U.S. MINING OPERATIONS OF CONCERN
Tailings and overburden spoils associated with surface mining are
the two chief sources of mineral waste heaps in the U.S. In this
section the major mining operations producing such waste heaps will be
identified and the general properties of the waste heaps will be described.
Considerable differences exist within a given industry with regard to
properties of both tailings and spoils. The problem is not only that
mineral composition changes from location to location, but also that
waste heap structure depends on the construction technique. Given the
same soil profile of overburden, different operators will most likely
produce waste heaps that will differ substantially in their suitability
for revegetation.
4.2.1 U.S. Mining Operations In General
As measured by production quantities the largest mining operations
in the U.S. are 1) stone, 2) sand and gravel, and 3) coal. The first
two of these mining operations take place in all states; the third, in
many states as mapped in Figure 6. Other lower volume mining activities
such as asbestos may still warrant special attention because of the
recognized health hazard associated with their emissions.
For metals production, iron, copper, zinc and bauxite dominate on a
mass basis. Production figures alone do not identify the sources of
19
-------
r—.
L1SNITE
iiiiii SU33ITUMINOUS COAL : :
LOW-VOLATILE 31'TUMINOUS COAL
ANTHRACITE AND SEMI ANTHRACITE
r ,
MEDIUM AND HIGH VOLATILE BITUMINOUS COAL
Figure 6. Coal fields of the U.S.
-------
mineral waste. Sand and gravel operations, for example, produce little
in the way of mineral waste heaps. The U.S. Bureau of Mines estimates
that anthracite and bituminous coal refuse and the wastes produced by
processing the ores of copper, iron, lead-zinc, aluminum and phosphate
rock account for about 80 percent of the solid waste accumulations in
the U.S. (MacCartney and White, 1969).
This section gives detailed discussion of those operations, thought
to make up the major sources of mineral ore waste heaps. Tables 4 and
5 summarize major sources of mineral wastes from mining and industrial
activities respectively.
4.2.2 Coal Mining
Two types of coal mining make up present practice: 1) deep
mining and 2) surface strip mining. Surface mining, being more economical
and safer, is growing and replacing the deep mining which is far more
labor intensive.
Both types of mining produce waste heaps. Deep mining operations
result in the extraction of coal and other materials which are then
separated into useful product (the coal) and the waste. Historically
the waste consists of fine coal and particles which are slurried into
storage ponds and embankments called culms. The larger waste material
is piled in heaps called refuse. The refuse and culm piles are analogous
to the tailings of a mineral beneficiation process.
In strip mining similar sources of mineral waste exist as with deep
mining. In addition, however, the need to remove a sizable overburden
layer means that another significant source of waste exists—the spoil
pile. Spoils most generally exist in the vicinity of the mining operation
itself. The refuse and culm piles may be more remote to the actual
mining area, depending on the relative location of the milling or
beneficiation plant. The overburden spoil is often simply removed from
the coal bed and heaped to one side.
4.2.2.1 Refuse and Culm (Deep Mining) -- Refuse banks in the anthracite
region of Northeast Pennsylvania have a long history. Some have been
accumulating for over 100 years. Methods for separating coal from the
intermixed rock, slate or "bone" have improved over the years so that
contemporary refuse will have little useable coal (less than 5 percent
of commercially saleable coal) unlike refuse from the 1800's which could
21
-------
ro
Table 4. INVENTORY OF MINERAL WASTE RESOURCES [Miller and Collins, 1974].
ANNUAL ACCUMULATED
QUANTITY QUANTITY CURRENT
WASTE
Anthracite Coal Refuse
Bituminous Coal
Refuse
1
Chrysotile or
Asbestos tailings
Copper Tailings
Dredge Spoil
Feldspar Tailings
Gold Mining Waste
1
SOURCE
Anthracite
mines
Bituminous
coal mines
Asbestos
mines
Copper
mines
Dredging
operations
Feldspar
mines
Gold mines
LOG A TION
Northeastern
Pennsylvania
Appalachia,
Midwestern
States
California,
Vermont
Arizona
Southwestern
States,
Michigan
Navigable
waterways
Northwestern
North
Carolina
California,
South Da-
kota, Utah,
Nevada,
Arizona
PHYSICAL
STATE
Coarse and
fine particles
Coarse and
fine particles
Coarse fibers
Slurry. or dust
Slurry
Coarse and
fine particles
Wet sand or
gravel
million
tons (Ta)
10 (9)
100 (90)
i (0.9)
200 (180)
300-400
(270-360)
0.25-0.50
(0.23-0.46)
5-10
(4.5-9)
million
tons (Tq)
1,000 (900)
*
2,000 (1800)
i
10 (9)
8,ooo(7300)
N.A.
5 (4.5)
100 (90)
OR POTENTIAL
USES
Anti-skid material,
highway aggregate
Highway aggregate
Additive to highway
mixtures
Fill material
Disposal, fill
material
Highway aggregate
Sand- lime brick
Iron Ore Tailings
Lead Tailings
Nickel Tailings
Iron mines
Lead mines
Nickel mines
Alabama, Slurry, fine
New York, particles
Pennsylvania
Missouri, Slurry, fine
Idaho, Utah, particles
Colorado
Southwestern Fine
Oregon particles
20-25 (18-23) 800(730) None
10-20 (9-18)
200 (180) Railroad ballast,
road stone
N.A.
N.A.
None
-------
Table 4 (cont'd)
WASTE
Phosphate Slag
Slate Mining Waste
Taconite
Tailings
Zinc Tailings and
Smelter Waste
ANNUAL ACCUMULATED
SOURCE
Phosphate
smelters
Slate mines
Taconite
mines
Zinc mines
and smelters
LOCATION
Idaho, Montana
Wyoming,
Utah
New England,
Eastern U.S.
Minnesota,
Michigan
«
Tennessee,
Oklahoma
PHYSICAL
STATE
Fine stone
chips
Coarse
particles
Slurry, fine
particles
Slurry, fine
particles
QUANTITY
•.million (Tg)
tons
4 (3.6)
N.A.
150-200
(140-180)
10-20 (9-18)
QUANTITY
million (Tg)
tons
N.A.
N.A.
4,ooo (3600
200 (180)
CURRENT
OR POTENTIAL
USES
Lightweight aggregate,
highway aggregate
Highway aggregate
highway aggregate
ro
CO
-------
Table 5. INVENTORY OF INDUSTRIAL WASTE RESOURCES [Miller and Collins, 1974],
ro
WASTE MATERIAL
Alumina Red and
Brown Muds
Phosphate Slimes
Sulfate Sludges
Fly Ash
Bottom Ash
Boiler Slag
Blast Furnace Slag
Steel Slag
Foundry Wastes
SOURCE
Alumina
processing
plants
Phosphate
processing
plants
Chemical and
power plants
Coal burning
power plants
Coal burning
power plants
Coal burning
power plants
Iron and steel
production
plants
Iron and steel
production
plants
Iron
Foundries
PHYSICAL
LOCATION STATE
Alabama, Slurry and
Arkansas, dried fines
Louisiana,
Texas
Florida, Slurry
Tennessee
Distributed Slurry
Nationally
Appalachia Dust
Great Lakes
Appalachia Fine sand
Great Lakes
Appalachia Black gravel
Great Lakes size particles
Pennsyl- Coarse
vania, Ohio, particles
Illinois and
Michigan
Same States Coarse
as Blast particles
Furnace
Slag
Same States Fine Dust
as Steel
Slag
ANNUAL ACCUMULATED
QUANTITY QUANTITY
million million
tons (Tg) tons (Tg)
CURRENT
OR POTENTIAL
USES
5-6(4.5-5.4) 50 (45) Insulation, pigment soil
conditioner, concrete
additive.
zo (18)
400 (360) Lightweight aggregate
brick, pipe
5-10(4.5-9) N.A.
32 (29) 200-300
(180-270)
10 (9)
5 (4.5)
30 (27)
50-100
(45-90)
25-50
(23-45)
N.A.
10-15 (9-14) N.A.
20 (18)
N.A.
Road base composition
mixtures
Fill, lightweight aggre-
gate, road base compo-
sitions, cement
replacement
Fill, lightweight aggre-
gate, road base
compositions
Fill, highway aggregate,
anti-skid material,
roofing granules
Construction aggregate,
railroad ballast, fill
material
Construction aggregate,
railroad ballast,
fill material
Pigments, colorants,
highway aggregate
-------
consist of as much as 75 percent saleable coal(MacCartney and White,
1969). Many old refuse banks have been reprocessed now in order to
reclaim this product.
Anthracite refuse banks dotting the landscape in Pennsylvania
o
exceed 800 in number, occupy over 40 Mm (10,000 acres) and consist of
nearly 1 Gm3 (1 billion yd3) of foreboding, black, coal-like material.
They vary in age and composition; many are located within city limits
and some are burning. Those that are on fire often burn for decades;
some contemporary piles have been burning for over 50 years.
Anthracite refuse piles consist of dark to black highly pyritic,
carbonaceous shales, slates, siltstones and coal fragments. The pH is
highly acidic, varying between 2.7 and 4.0 The refuse has low nutrient
levels, negligible organic matter and consists of about 25 percent soil-
sized particles (particles less than 2 mm in diameter) (Czapowskyj,
Mikulecky and Sowa, 1969). Typical properties of anthracite refuse are
summarized in Table 6.
Bituminous refuse from underground mine operations displays similar
properties. Texturewise, most refuse piles have in excess of 20 percent
soil-sized particles, generally considered to be the minimum required
for plant life (Figure 7). Chemically, however, the refuse pile is
generally unfavorable for vegetation, being acidic and deficient in
essential plant nutrients (Davidson, 1974).
100
90
tkO
$ 70
£ 60
(•» rj»
S 50
*• 40
£ 30
u
£ 2fl
10
0
i
V.
H
T —
_U_J — 1
00 l(
S. Standard Sieve Opening or Number
\l 2lJi 4t 5* 4 10 20 40 100 200
XN\\
\\ \
\\
\\
^
flLUA f ...-' ••*
10 II
\,
\
\ \
\^\
V \
\\
j H ^ i f i i i
)
Grain SJ
Legend
\\ Data limits for WVU
\\refuses
\\ Data limits for
\\British refuses
^^X^
\ ^x
jj^i i 1 1*^1— J^a_
0
ze (mm)
|E^ Ml ' ^^i"> 1 1 i i i
1 0.01 0.00
Figure 7. Particle size distribution curves for coal refuse samples [Moul
et.al., 1974].
25
ton
-------
Table 6. PROPERTIES OF ANTHRACITE REFUSE [Splcer and Luckie, 1970].
By Oxides
Si02
A12°3
Fe203
Ti02
CaO
MgO
K20 + Na20
so3
% Range
50-57
30-37
3-10
1-2
1-2
1-2
1-3
0-1
By Minerals
Kaolinite
Illite
Gypsum
Quartz
Calcite
Pyri te
Rutile
% Range
70
1-10
1-10
1-20
1-10
1-10
1-10
By Size
10" x 2"
2" x 1"
1" x 1/2"
1/2" x 1/4"
1/4" x 8M
8M x 20M
20M x 0
%
28.63
26.16
13.73
8.68
8.36
8.48
5.96
2"xl" means that
fraction which
passes a 2" sieve
but is retained on
a 1" sieve.
M = Sieve Designation (see Figure 4)
26
-------
Although gradually diminishing in growth, these refuse banks from
underground mining are among the most inhospitable waste heaps for
revegetation (or use of any kind). Anthracite refuse is confined to the
northeastern area of Pennsylvania and hence is primarily a problem of
that locale.
4-2.2.2 Surface Mining Spoils -- The major mode of coal mining today is
strip mining which takes place over a much broader area than the deep
mining operations of Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Surface mining of
coal takes place chiefly in Ohio, Illinois, Kentucky and, more recently
the Great Plains of the West (Figure 6). Not surprisingly, the varied
locations and geology of the surface coal mining regions implies a
variation in spoil properties.
Eastern surface mine spoils are typically highly acidic, regardless
of type of coal being surface mined. Western spoils tend to be alkaline.
Common problems are : 1) low content of organic matter and nitrogen; 2)
low phosphorus levels; 3) poor moisture retention; 4) toxic concen-
trations of elements; 5) non-optimum texture and 6) excess soluble
salts.
Chemical analysis of spoil banks show that the Wyoming and Montana
spoils have high pH; most of the Pennsylvania and West Virginia spoils
are strongly acidic. Soluble salts are variable but generally do
present a problem. (Any value in excess of 4 mmho/cm limits the choice
of vegetative species). Texture of the spoils is generally not a
limitation and the color is more buff or soil-like than the black refuse
from deep mining or coal beneficiation process.
4.2.3 Asbestos Wastes
Fugitive asbestos emissions can originate with:
1) Ore storage piles
2) Mill tailings
3) Product manufacturing waste dumps
The first two sources are of less importance than the third
because asbestos mining is a minor industry in the U.S. when measured in
terms of production quantities.
27
-------
Of the nine U.S. mines operational in 1972, all but three were
planning to close by the end of 1975 because of environmental restrictions.*
These three remaining mines are remotely located in California, Arizona
and Vermont and hence constitute low priority sources. The U.S. has always
been a large importer of asbestos, chiefly from Canada; current trends
are certain to reinforce this dependence.
*A refreshing twist to this unhappy story occurred in Vermont where
the employees themselves organized to revive the mining operation after
management had given up:
(from the Wall Street Journal, Monday, August 25, 1975)
In-DepthCapitalism
Miners Buy the Mine
To Save Their Jobs;
I Then Business Booms
Asbestos Workers Scrounge
To Obey Pollution Order;
State Helps Save the Day
Next, a Big Conglomerate?
By DAVID GUMPERT
Staff Reporter of THE WALI, STREET JOURNAL
EDEN, Vt—A year ago Kenneth Huntley
looked like another victim of hard times.
The nearby asbestos mine where the 49-
year-old laborer had worked for 27 years
was going to shut down. The mine's owner,
GAF Corp., had decided to close it rather
than spend $1.3 million on pollution-control
equipment. "Where is anyone my age going
to get a job?" Mr. Huntley asked himself.
His wife, Marilyn, recalls: "We said a lot of
prayers."
The Huntleys' prayers have been an-
swered, and then some. GAF pulled out last
March as planned. But the employes bought
the mine. Mr. Huntley still has his job. Not
only that, he owns 20 shares in the mine,
which he bought at $50 a share and which he
figures have probably doubled in value.
What's more, he is suddenly in the ranks of
top management. He is one of the 15 direc-
tors of the mine, which now is known as
Vermont Asbestos Group Inc.
Despair and Triumph
For the 174 employes who work at the
I open-pit asbestos mine in the mountains out-
'side this tiny village, the past 18 months
have been a time of despair capped by ulti-
mate triumph. In the face of skepticism
I from outsiders and within their own ranks,
the employes raised $2.3 million to buy the
'jniine and the antipollution equipment. The
I equipment should be completely installed by
! the end of the year.
Danger in Fibers
It was in January 1974 that GAF (for-
merly General Aniline & Film, Corp.), a di-
versified maker of chemicals, photographic
Equipment and building materials, an-
j nounced that it would close the mine rather
[than comply with pollution regulations of
the federal Environmental Protection
Agency. The EPA had set a deadline of
i March 15, 1975; either the equipment would
be installed by then or the mine would have
to close.
Orders like that one result from the
well-publicized dangers of the tiny asbestos
fibers, both to those who work with them
and to others who inhale them from the at-
mosphere. The irritating, indestructible fi-
bers have been shown to cause lung cancers
and other diseases. Apparently no records
have been kept on the incidence of lung can-
cer among the miners here, but certainly
the mine hasn't been spared health prob-
lems: Between 1951 and 1973, the Vermont
j Health Department says, at least 16 of the
! local miners were found to have contracted
asbestosis, a progressive, nonmalignant but
sometimes fatal lung disease that stiffens
the lungs and makes breathing difficult.
1 • The miners generally play down the dan-
gers of breathing asbestos dust. "I've
known fellows who worked at the mine 50
years and never had any trouble," says
Earl Jones, 51, a maintenance man who has *
spent 29 years at the mine—so far, he says,
I with no ill effects. "I worry more about
! atomic radiation from power plants than all
the dust that will ever come from this
mine," says Maurice Eldred Jr., 48 a truck
driver. '
28
-------
Asbestos product manufacturing, the U.S., however, is much more
widespread, is often located in urban areas and generally creates waste
dumps that are dry and susceptible to wind erosion.
Chrysotile asbestos waste is rich in magnesia as the data in Table 7
show. In texture, asbestos wastes tend to be porous to water. The pH
of asbestos tailings is highly alkaline (pH~9) (Ceilings et al_., 1974).
Both the texture and the pH could be improved for vegetation by mixing
asbestos tailings with acidic coal mine spoils or acidic waste from
metallic sulfide ore mining.
Table 7. CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF CHRYSOTILE ASBESTOS TAILINGS
[Collings et al., 1974]
Sample
Tailings No.l
Tailings No. 2
Tailings No. 3
Weight %
MgO
41.37
38.85
40.07
Si02
37.50
38.65
37.84
Fe203
6.76
8.32
7.65
¥
0.54
0.54
0.38
A1203
0.30
0.83
0.31
CaO
0.40
0.56
0.20
1
Na20
0.05
O.C6
0.07
K20
0.05
0.08
0.05
LOI
13.29
12.59
13.41
Total
100.26
100.49
99.98
LOI = Loss on ignition.
4. .4 Copper Tailings
Copper mining takes place in the arid and lightly populated Western
U.S. but some of the tailings may be deposited in the vicinity of population
centers (e.g., Butte, Montana).
The tailings are fine sized particles transported from the ore flotation
mill to slurry ponds by water. As long as the pond is wet, wind erosion is
no problem. Once the pond becomes inactive or dries up, wind erosion may
be severe. Low rainfall and blowing dust or sand compound the difficulty of
establishing a vegetative cover.
29
-------
Copper tailings, like most tailings, consist largely of sand, silt,
and clay sized fractions so that virtually all of the tailings are soil-
sized particles. Some physical and chemical properties of copper
tailings are presented in Tables 8 and 9. The cation analysis of Table
8 is based on ammonium acetate extract at pH 7.0. The analyses of Table
8 reflects considerable variation in properties, particularly the
soluble salts content as determined by conductivity. Here, as is true
for most tailings, each tailing pile must be considered individually.
Few general statements can be made that will apply to all copper tailings.
Part of the problem is age. The Hurley, New Mexico tailings ex-
hibit an unusually low pH (2.1) (Table 8). The freshly deposited
tailings at this site, however, have a basic pH like most of the others.
Aging and weathering processes produce a sharp decline in pH as illustrated
in Figure 8. The cause of this acidic drift is most likely the biochemical
oxidation of pyrite (FeSp) with the subsequent formation of sulfuric
acid. Sulfur compounds in any tailings or spoils generally result in
acidic soil.
9
8
7
Q.
10
20
Years
30
Figure 8.
Aging effects upon the pH of copper tailings (Hurley, N.M.)
[Nielson and Peterson, 1972],
The concentration of soluble salts also varies with time. Rain-
water dissolves the salts and produces a decrease in soluble salt con-
centration; if the tailings pile is adequately permeable, natural
weathering processes will eliminate the objectionable concentrations of
salts existing in most copper tailings (Table 8). This leaching action
will most likely be slow.
30
-------
Table 8. ANALYSIS OF COPPER TAILINGS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES [Nielson and Peterson, 1972].
Sourer
Anaconda, Montana
Butte. Montana
Hurley, N. Mex.
Magna, Utah
McGill. Nev.
Miami, Arizona
San Muel, Arizona
pH
8.4
5.7
2.1
7.9
7.6
7.8
7.9
Kf
2.1
3.2
10.2
18.0
3.4
3.6
3.8
P
ppm
-,
3
3
11
__
4
1
A
ppm
29
29
23
7
_
94
187
CM
ppm
150
600
no
104
94
90
43
Fc
ppm
4
1
41
0
0
1
Mn
ppm
36
45
•>
17
8
9
Zn
ppm
31
88
T
4
1
pH saturation paste
1£CC mmhos/cm. saturation extract
p bicarbonate soluble
Cations--N1I4OAc extract pH 7.0
Table 9. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS, MICROSCOPIC EXAMINATION AND SCREEN ANALYSIS OF SAND
AND SLIME PORTIONS OF COPPER TAILINGS FROM MAGNA, UTAH [Nielson and Peterson, 1972].
Chemical analysis, percent
Sample SiO2 A12O3 Na2O K2O MgO CaO Cu Fe Ni S CO2 TiO2
Sand 74.4 9.6 1.0 5.3 3.0 1.5 .14 2.9 .004 1.6 .15 .35
Slime 65.6 14.0 1.1 5.5 4.9 1.6 .11 2.8 .007 .8 .22 3.7
Mineral composition, percent
Sand Clay
(coarse and Mica (Hlite and
Sample fine-grained) (mainly Biotite) Montmorillonite)
Sand 65-70 20-25 5-10
Slime 40-45 35-40 15-20
Screen analysis
Size Sand fraction Slime fraction
+35 mesh
-35+65 mesh
-65+ 150 mesh
-150+200 mesh
-200 mesh + 20 microns
-20+ 10 microns
-10+5 microns
-5 microns
9.6
36.6
30.9
9.3
12.0
1.6
--
~
0.6
4.0
5.2
2.4
18.0
18.4
21.4
30.0
100.0 100.0
31
-------
The water holding capacity of copper tailings exceeds that of the
surrounding desert in Arizona (Ludeke, 1973). However, tailings do not
retain water for very long, because of its small clay content and lack
of organic matter.
4.2.5 Iron Ore Wastes
Mineral waste associated with iron mining is of three types
(Gere, 1970):
1) Tailings — At present two tons of tailings are
produced for every three tons of taconite mined.
2) Overburden
3) Unmerchantable ore — Stockpiled ore that present market
conditions render uneconomical to process.
The major U.S. iron mining region is the Mesabi Range in Minnesota
including the Upper Peninsula of Michigan. The intensity and size of
the mining operations dominate the area for hundreds of miles. Over-
burden spoil piles are a familiar part of the countryside.
The ore mined in this area today is no longer the rich red ore
deposits of previous years but rather a low grade (iron content less
than half that of the top grade ores) dark gray rock called taconite.
Settling ponds for taconite tailings are receiving in excess of 50
million tons of fresh waste per year.
Table 10 lists some reported properties of taconite tailings.
Texturewise they are composed of nearly 100 percent soil sized particles,
although consisting mostly of sand and silt with little clay. Chemically
they are rich in iron but low in alkali. Nonetheless the pH of these
particular tailings is 8.42 (Nakamura, ejb al_., 1970) and iron ore
tailings in general are basic (Shetron and Duffek, 1970).
Iron ore tailings typically are dark grey to red. Water enters the
tailings readily but the surface dries rapidly. They require fertilizer
to supplement their low levels of plant nutrients.
4.2.6 Lead, Zinc Tailings
Most lead and zinc ores are found in carbonate host rocks such as
limestone or dolomitic limestone (Nakamura, ejt al_., 1970). Missouri is
the leading U.S. state in lead mining; Tennessee is the leading producer
of zinc. The quantity of tailings produced nearly matches the quantity
of ore produced so that production information translates easily into
the estimates of waste tailings.
32
-------
Table 10. PROPERTIES OF TACONITE TAILINGS (Wt.%) [Nakamura et al., 1970].
a) Chemical Composition
Si02 59
Fe 15
A12°3 2/7
MgO 3.7
CaO 2.7
Na20
LOI 7.4
Minor Constituents:
Ni
Ti
Cu
Mn 0.73
Zn
S 0.012
P 0.047
b) Texture
Mesh
- 20 +
- 30 +
- 40 +
- 50 +
- 70 +
- 100 +
- 140 +
- 200 +
Size
30
40
50
70
100
140
200
325
Retained
0.10
0.72
2.86
7.48
15.07
13.38
13.89
15.71
Cumulative
0.10
0.82
3.68
11.16
26.23
39.61
53.50
100.0
-20 + 30 means that portion of the sample which passes through a No.20
sieve but is retained on a No.30 (see Figure 4).
33
-------
Table 11. PROPERTIES OF LEAD-ZINC ORE TAILINGS (Wt.%) [Nakamura et al . . 1970].
a) Chemical Composition
__„ .._ _w_ _.. .._ ...... — — _^.— — — — — — — «»•» — — «,«,.• — «.-.— — — — — — •. — — — — » — — — — — — — — — — — ____ ^_«. __ — __
Si02 9-8
Fe <0.8
A1203 0.3
MgO 17.8
CaO 29.4
Na20
LOI 42
Minor Constituents:
Ni
Ti
Cu
Mn
Zn
S
P
0.037
0.18
0.24
b) Texture
Mesh
- 20 +
- 30 +
- 40 +
- 50 +
- 70 +
- 100 +
- 140 +
- 200 +
- 325
Size
30
40
50
70
100
140
200
325
Retained
0
0
0
2
2
2
2
4
86
.02
.16
.83
.00
.20
.10
.50
.58
.00
Cumul
0.
0.
1.
3.
5.
7.
9.
14.
100.
ative
02
18
01
00
15
35
75
30
00
34
-------
Because of their high calcium concentration these tailings make
valuable agricultural lime and soil conditioners (Table 11). The pH of
the tailings is about 7.8. Their fine structure makes them vulnerable
to wind erosion.
4.2.7 Uranium Ore Tailings
While uranium tailings are not yet of great magnitude, they are
of special interest since they possess radioactivity — about 70 percent
that of the original ore (Beverly, 1970). Some radium, uranium oxides,
and radioactive decay products become incorporated into the tailings.
Wind erosion from this source is therefore of additional concern because
of this added hazard and exposures above the radiation protection guide
of 0.5 rem/year can be absorbed downwind of uranium tailings (Havens and
Dean, 1969).
Uranium mining is a Western States' activity in the U.S., chiefly
Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, Texas, and Wyoming. Chemical analyses of
tailings from various locations—Table 12—show wide variation in
composition among different locations and in some instances even at the
same location. While a relatively recent, post World War 2 mining
activity, the low uranium concentrations of ores means that large
quantities must be mined.
Table 12. ANALYSIS OF URANIUM TAILINGS FROM VARIOUS SOURCES
[Nielson and Peterson, 1972].
Source
Durango, Colorado
Mexican Hat, Utah
Mexican Hat, Utah
Naturita, Colorado
Nalurila, Colorado
Uravan, Colorado
Urvana, Colorado
pa
7.3
3.1
1.9
8.0
8.2
3.5
3.5
EC,
7.4
9.0
26
2.7
4.9
63
15
P
ppm
49
6
8
6
108
12
!7
K
ppm
84
18
68
35
82
33
27
CM
ppm
12
118
65
9
18
5
5
Fe
ppm
1
4
475
1
1
3
2
Hit
i^"m
f £••--
11
86
525
2
9
1
3
Zn
ppm
12
16
20
5
25
4
4
Note: oil saturation paste
t'Cc mmhos/cm, saturation extract
p bicarbonate soluble
Cations--NII4OAc extract pH 7.0
Open pit methods now dominate uranium mining so that mineral waste
comes from both overburden and tailings. Accumulated tailings alone now
exceed 100 million tons (90 Tg) (Beverly, 1974).
35
-------
4.2.8 Phosphate Mining
Mineral wastes associated with phosphate mining are of three
types:
1) Tailings
2) Overburden
3) Slime pits
The first two types of mineral waste are characteristic of all
surface mining operations. Overburden in Tennessee is relatively
shallow (several feet) (Morgan and Parks, 1967) so its volume is small
and its properties very similar to the surrounding unmined land.
In Florida the overburden is often better farmland than the adjoining
unmined land (Moorman, 1975). The tailings and the slime pits both
result from washer and beneficiating processes which separate the sand
from the phosphate ore. The sandy tailings settle out relatively
rapidly but the phosphatic clay particles, on the order of 2 ym in size,
form a fine colloidal suspension which is exceedingly difficult to
separate. This slime, consisting of 2-6 percent solids (Florida Phosphate
Slimes Problem, 1975), is pumped to settling ponds in the mined out
areas and its vicinity. In Florida, producing 75 percent of the total
U.S. phosphate rock production (25 percent of the world production), the
growth of these slime ponds now poses a problem. They represent lost
water, lost phosphate mineral and lost land. They are not a dust problem,
however.
4.3 INDUSTRIAL SOURCES OF MINERAL WASTE HEAPS IN THE U.S.
Mineral wastes accompany many industrial processes and their
disposal creates a potential air pollution problem (like the wastes
associated with mining and ore beneficiation) when the practice is to
dump these industrial wastes in large heaps in the open air. As with
mining, a major source of industrial mineral waste originates with coal.
Coal produces mineral waste during mining, during beneficiation and
during or after use—when combusted. The fly and bottom ash and boiler
slag of coal burning power plants constitues still another source of
mineral waste attributable to coal. Fly ash in particular is sus-
ceptible to air erosion.
36
-------
Table 13. PROPERTIES OF PULVERIZED FUEL ASH (PFA) [Townsend and Hodgson, 1973].
a) Typical Composition
% RANGE
SiO2
A1203
Fe203
CaO
MgO
S03
Na2O + K2O
48
26
10
4
2
1
4.5
40 to 60
20 to 40
6 to 16
2 to 10
1 to 4
0.5 to 2
2 to 6
b) Available Macronutrient Content of
(Percent)
PFA and a Fertile Soil
Nutrient -
N
P205
K2O
Ca
ME
Fe
S
Total
0.035
0.114
2.68
4.69
0.71
6.09
0.48
PFA
Available
0.033 (0.01 3 to 0.054)
0.042 (0.008 to 0.1 15)
0.990(0.28 to 1.87)
0.150(0.008 to 0.516)
0.057 (0.001 to 0.229)
0.390(0.07 to 0.55)
Soil
Available
0.180*
0.022
0.027
0.080
0.024
0.013
0.060
' Total; not available.
c) Available Micronutrient Content of
(ppm)
PFA and a Fertile Soil
Nutrient
PFA
Total
Available
Soil
Available
Mn
B
Zn
Cu
Mo
848
236
283
248
42
99 (12 to 347)
43 (3 to 150)
2.1 (0 to 4.0)
25 (10 to 50)
5.4 (0.7 to 12.8)
4.8
2.5
2.5
2.5
0.2
37
-------
Table 13 (cont'd)
d) Content of Available Trace Elements in PFA and Soil (ppm)
Element
Ag
Al
Co
Cr
Ni
PFA
1
144
8.5
22
60
Soil
1
58
1.6
1.7
2.7
Element
Pb
Se
Sn
Ti
V
PFA
10
— *
10
15
6
Soil
10
2
10
10
1.3
1 Not detected
e) Particle-size Analysis of PFA (% by wt)
Coarse sand
Sample 2.0-0.2 mm
A 3
B 1
C 1
D <1
Fine sand
0.2-0.02 mm
51
31
40
26
Silt
0.02-0.002 mm
45
64
58
70
Clay
<0.002 mm
1
4
1
4
4.3.1 Pulverized Fuel Ash (PFA)
PFA is the ash remaining from the combustion of pulverized coal, a
typical power plant fuel. Its properties are summarized in Table 13. A
comparison of the nutrients and trace elements in PFA with those in
fertile mineral soils is also included in Table 13. Total lack of
nitrogen in PFA is one outstanding difference. Potential phytotoxicities
may exist in PFA because of the excess boron.
PFA is highly alkaline (pH~8-12). It also possesses pozzolanic
properties (forms a cement with lime and water). Soluble salts produce
a conductivity that is typically in the 8-13 mmho/cm range (Townsend and
Hodgson, 1973).
38
-------
4.3.2 Spent Shale
Spent shale is the left over waste following oil extraction from
oil shale. This source of mineral waste will become significant if oil
shale proves to be an economical alternative source of fuel in the U.S.
p
Oil shale resources cover more than 11 million acres (45 6m ) of
Colorado, Utah and Wyoming (Schmehl and McCaskin, 1973) and since 80 to
90 percent by weight of the oil shale rock ends up as spent shale,
reclamation success will play a major role in determining the economic
viability of the process—hence, the interest in what is still only a
potential mineral waste problem.
Properties of the spent shale resulting from two candidate pro-
cesses appear in Table 14. The pH is highly basic and the concentration
of soluble salts is high. Particle size and moisture holding properties
are adequate. The TOSCO process shale consists of finer grained particles
than the gas combustion process but both lack adequate phosphorus and
nitrogen.
Other candidate processes for recovering oil from shale have been
proposed including an underground retort method (Cook, 1974). All
methods involve heating the shale for oil recovery and, although some
spent shale properties depend on the process, all produce a highly
alkaline, highly saline residue material similar to that described in
Table 14.
4.4 SUMMARY
Mineral waste heaps constitute a mixed lot. Their properties
depend on their origin but also on many other variables. Under past
production methods, little attention has been given to waste heap
properties and they have accumulated and been piled up more or less at
random. With some preplanning and control, waste piles could be made
more uniform and predictable which would greatly simplify revegetation
procedures.
At present only the most general statements can be made about
mineral waste heaps. The detailed description of each existing pile is
likley to differ significantly and each pile requires an individual
analysis.
39
-------
Table 14. PROPERTIES OF SIX SPENT SHALE SAMPLES [Schmehl and McCashin, 1973].
a) Fertility and Salinity
Spent Shale
Designation
A
B
C
D
E
F
Lab.
No.
3766
7972
4216
240
241
243
Retort
Process
Tosco II
Tosco II
Tosco II
Gas
Combustion
Gas
Combustion
Gas
Combustion
Conduc-
tivity'
mmhos/cm
25 C
16.0
11.3
26.0
9.0
22.0
12.0
pH
r
Saturation
Paste
9.7
9.1
8.9
8.6
8.7
8.7
pH
r *
1:5
Shale : Water
9.9
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.0
9.0
CaCO3
Equiv.
%
40.0
11.0
31.2
31.4
31.2
30.8
Available Nutrients
P
ppm
8.5
3.7
6.7
5.6
3.6
3.6
K
ppm
27
40
135
360
>400
>400
Zn
ppm
_
>10.0
8.4
4.7
5.8
2.9
Fe
ppm
>40
>40
>40
>40
>40
' Conductivity of the solution removed from spent shale saturated with distilled water (Richards, 1954).
Ion
b) Water Soluble Ions in a Saturation Extract.
Spent shale designation
A B C D E F
Equivalents per million
Cat+
Mg++
Na+
K+
COJ
HCOJ
ci-
so;
SAR'
26.4
1.6
124.0
1.4
5.9
1.9
3.0
137.5
33.1
21.2
18.4
113.1
0.7
0.2
3.0
1.0
139.3
25.5
18.5
78.5
195.8
2.6
1.2
1.6
4.5
266.3
28.4
31.5
12.0
37.0
7.0
0.0
0.6
0.8
99.3
8.0
20.0
34.5
156.6
16.6
0.8
1.8
2.5
191.8
30.2
19.5
77.5
30.5
9.0
0.4
0.8
2.5
123.5
4.5
1 SAR (Sodium Adsorption Ratio)
Na
/ ca + MB yi
; Na, Ca, and Mg expressed
in equivalents per million in saturation extract (Richards, 1954).
40
-------
Table 14 (cont'd)
c) Particle Size, Field Moisture Capacity and Cation Exchange Capacity.
Sample
Designation
A
B
C
D
E
F
Particle Size— °0 of Total
>8 mm
0
0
0
29
43
31
8-2 mm
20
11
11
23
33
25
<2mm
80
89
89
48
24
43
Field
Moisture
Capacity*
%
18.5
22.2
20.4
22.1
20.5
16.8
Cation Exchange
Capacity,
2-mm Fraction
meq/lOOg
7.6
5.6
6.0
7.8
8.0
8.6
' Total material for samples A, B, C; 2-mm fraction for samples D, E, and F.
4.5 RECOMMENDATIONS
If miners can be convinced that they can make money on reclaimed
land, the problem is solved. At present, laws compel mines and other
sources of mineral waste to carry out a certain minimum of land re-
storation. They comply-grudgingly perhaps—because they must. What is
needed is wholehearted, enthusiastic efforts -- not just the legal
minimum. The surefire way to achieve such support is to make it pro-
fitable. The motto and guiding principle must be that land can be made
more valuable after surface mining than before, that the mining operation
is a beneficiating, soil rejuvenating operation capable of extending and
broadening the land use options of a given site.
41
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5.0 CONTROL METHODS FOR FUGITIVE DUST EMISSIONS
FROM MINERAL ORE WASTE HEAPS
The piles of mineral wastes listed in Section 4 are objectionable
for a number of reasons; they are unsightly, they sometimes release
toxic liquids into local water, they often prove unstable with catas-
trophic consequences—i.e., the landslides in Wales. The property of
most interest in this report is none of these, however; it is rather
their potential as sources of fugitive air emissions. Barren, un-
protected piles of mineral wastes create ideal feedstock for wind
erosion and fugitive dust clouds. This section reviews methods of
minimizing the fugitive dust emissions from mineral waste piles. Before
discussing these methods, however, a brief review of wind erosion and
mass transport via the air will be presented to better define the
variables that must be controlled.
5.1 WIND EROSION
Wind erosion moves soil by three modes of transport (Figure 9):
1) Saltation
2) Surface Creep
3) Suspension
Saltation is the skipping or leapfrogging of windblown particles
over a surface. The particles become airborne by gusts or by impact
from other particles but are too heavy to remain airborne for long. A
typical trajectory of a particle moving in saltation is sketched in
Figure 10. The maximum height, h, of the trajectory seldom exceeds 1
meter; most saltation occurs within a few cm of the ground (The Coherex
Manual... ,1970).
Surface creep is particle motion along a surface without becoming
airborne. These particles are impacted and blown on as in saltation but
are too heavy to become airborne at all.
Suspension is the process whereby particles become airborne and do
not settle rapidly but rather are blown long distances. This mode of
transportation applies to small particles only as indicated in Figure
11, and is the most significant mode from an air pollution point of
view.
42
-------
3 -Saltation
D — Surface Creep
mc&fcsn^
C — Suspension
Figure 9- Modes of soil movement. [The Coherex Manual, 1970)
43
-------
L (about 1OX h)
Figure 10. Particle trajectory during saltation [Hudson, 1971],
O-O5 O-1 O-15
\
O-5 1-O 2-Omm diameter
\ L
1
_^ Suspension
V
Sail
'at/on ^
Creep
""•— • .—-''"
\*=->\—Most vulnerable
size range
Figure 11. Dominant mode of windblown soil transport as
a function of particle size [Hudson, 1971].
44
-------
Although much more soil mass is transported by the saltation
process, the long range impact on ambient suspended particulate con-
centration by soil moving in saltation is negligible except for the
indirect interaction whereby saltation increases the concentration of
airborne suspended particles by impact. This added component con-
tributes to the measured densities of suspended particulates.
Conventional wind erosion equations attempt to account for all mass
transport from a surface. Saltation and creep are far more important by
this measure.
Wind erosion depends upon eleven primary variables (Woodruff and
Siddoway, 1965).
1) Soil Erodibility Index^ -- The soil erodibility index is the
rate of mass loss, experienced by an unsheltered, flat,
smooth, noncrusted surface of a soil when exposed to the
climatic conditions that were characteristic of Garden
City, Kansas during 1954-1956. It measures texture or
average effective particle size in the soil.
2) Knoll Erodibility -- Knoll erodibility is a correction factor
to account for the enhanced erosion on the windward side of
slopes in the terrain.
3) Surface Crust Stability -- Surface crust stability is a
correction factor to account for the mechanical stability
imparted to the surface by the presence of a protective skin.
4) Soil Ridge Roughness -- Soil ridge roughness is a measure of
the effect of undulations or periodic departures from flatness
in the eroding surface.
5) Wind Velocity.
6) Soil Surface Moisture.
7) Field Dimension along the Direction of the Wjnd.
8) Sheltered Distance -- Sheltered distance is the distance in
the wind direction that is sheltered by an adjoining barrier.
9) Quantity of Vegetative Cover — The quantity of vegetative
cover is a measure of the vegetative mass per unit area.
10) Kind of Vegetative Cover -- The kind of vegetative cover is a
weighting factor according to the total cross-sectional area
of the vegetative species.
45
-------
11) Orientation of Vegetative Cover — The orientation of
vegetative cover includes the effects of row direction
and spacing upon the wind interaction and any directional
dependence of the effective cross section presented to
the prevailing wind.
Reduction of these eleven variables to five, more or less, independent
variables is discussed in Appendix A.
5.2 CONTROL METHODS
Four general categories of control methods for fugitive emissions
from mineral waste heaps exist: 1) physical control, 2) chemical binding
layers, 3) vegetative cover, and 4) shelterbelts. This section reviews
the four major methods and the principles upon which they depend.
The most difficult method to apply is that of vegetative cover
which is also generally the preferred method. Ofttimes the vegetative
cover method follows a physical or chemical method used to achieve
temporary control. The net result is a combination control method which
achieves results superior to any one method alone.
5.2.1 Physical Control Methods
Physical control methods involve the placing of a separate cover or
barrier over the waste pile in order to reduce the wind speed relative
to the fine particulates of the pile, consolidate the surface by binding
particles, impede moisture loss from the surface and generally protect
and isolate the underlying waste from the environment. Physical methods
effect control by putting a lid over the waste, or isolating it within
an enclosure. The freedom and ease of interaction of the surface with
the environment is reduced.
A common physical control is to cover the waste pile with a layer
of soil, rock or gravel from the surrounding area, more or less burying
it. This technique is primarily one of reducing the soil credibility
index (variable number 1 of the 11 primary variables cited in Section
5.1). If the covering soil also facilitates the re-emergence of vegetative
characteristic of the area, so much the better.
Paving a dirt road with concrete or asphalt is a highly successful
physical control method for reducing fugitive emissions from roads. It
is also so highly expensive that no serious consideration to letting
road paving contracts for mineral waste piles has been made, although
46
-------
variations of the technique have been investigated. Typically, such
coverings will be water based elastomeric films, resins, rubber, asphalt,
starch, latex or oil emulsions, lignin sulfonate, wax, tar, or pitch.
(Mittelstadt and Davis, 1973). Any of a variety of materials can be
sprayed or poured over the pile to subsequently produce a protective
cover. This technique is analogous to painting the pile whereby the
pile surface is protected from the environment by the application of a
thin foreign layer, physically adhering to the surface. Such preparations
are classified as chemical coatings or binding layers and are discussed
in Section 5.3.
Water spraying is the time honored physical control method; it
works well for some mineral wastes. Simply by continually wetting down
a pile, the magnitude of the fugitive dust emissions drops significantly.
As reflected in equations 1 and 2 (Appendix A), the wind erosion rate
varies as the inverse square of soil surface moisture. Wetting is a
straight-forward method of reducing wind erosion by maintaining high
surface moisture. Sprinkling systems for periodically spraying a pile
are now in use (Automated Stockpile...,1971). Typically, a multi
nozzle array of small sprayers produces better coverage than a single
high volume nozzle. Directional capability in response to prevailing
wind direction and magnitude improves the accuracy and effectiveness of
the spraying. A complete system, therefore, should include wind measuring
equipment and appropriate controls to adjust the nozzles to optimize
coverage.
A chief drawback of the watering method is that it is only a
temporary control. The sprinkling system must be in place ready to
spray more or less continuously, depending on climatic conditions. Such
a system, while relatively inexpensive to operate and even to install,
requires vigilance in monitoring in order to maintain effectiveness.
Climatic variables such as lack of readily available water and/or
freezing plumbing, influence the operating costs and effectiveness of
the system.
Improved fugitive dust control of a pile by spraying can be achieved
by adding a surface active agent to the water in order to reduce the
surface tension of the water and, thereby, increase its dust wetting
properties (Dust Suppression..., 1972). Typically, dilution of a 1 part
47
-------
wetting agent to 1,000 parts water lowers the surface tension from 0.075
N/m (75 dynes/cm) to about 0.025 N/m (25 dynes/cm) (Chem-Jet Dust...).
Enhanced wetting means that less water solution is required to create
similar agglomerating and stabilizing characteristics into the surface
layer of the pile—water to the extent of 1/2-1 percent of the pile
weight is necessary with a wetting agent versus 5-8 percent moisture (by
weight) when using untreated water (Dust Suppression..., 1972; Chem-Jet
Dust...). Even when using a wetting agent, however, the need still
exists for periodic spraying in order to maintain a moist protective
surface layer.
Wetting agents are generally organic chemicals composed of a long
chain hydrocarbon and a hydrophylic group such as sulfate, sulfonate,
hydroxide, ethylene oxide, etc. When added to water, these molecules
migrate to the surface with the hydrophylic group in the water and the
hydrophobic hydrocarbon group in the air. This configuration reduces
surface bonding forces and results in lower surface tension than for
untreated water. The lower surface tension makes it possible for many
particulates to penetrate into the bulk of the water rather than be
confined to the surface.
Other physical covers include bark, straw, wood chips, crushed or
granulated smelter slag. All of these, except slag most likely, would
be used as mulches in conjunction with the establishment of a permanent
vegetative cover. As such, their effectiveness needs to be but temporary.
5.2.2 Chemical Binding Materials
Chemical binding materials are those surface coatings consisting
of a specially prepared material which is poured or sprayed over the
waste pile and, which, upon drying or curing, forms an adherent, conformal
protective coating. The term chemical implies that the layer consists
of a manufactured preparation with composition and properties tailored
specifically for pile protection. The binding action refers to the
physical interaction between the chemical layer and the particulates in
the surface of the protected pile which are glued together by the
chemical layer to form an erosion resistant crust. The action of a
chemical binding layer is comparable to covering the pile with a viscous
liquid sealant which solidifies into a hard protective shell.
48
-------
In spite of the title of the classification, no chemical reaction
generally takes place between the pile and the coating even though
adhesive bonding occurs. Over a wide spectrum of dry mineral wastes
(water content can affect adhesion) the adherence and effectiveness of
the chemical coating are independent of the chemical composition of the
pile. The pile, in turn, is unchanged in chemical composition once the
binding layer is physically or chemically removed.
Consequently, the only difference between the chemical binders
discussed in this section and the physical methods described in Section
5.2.1 is that the chemical surface layers are specially formulated
chemical solutions which are applied as liquids or viscous solids. The
mechanisms for reducing or minimizing fugitive emissions are similar--
chemical surface layers, like the physical covers, isolate the pile from
the environment. Since chemical layers create a thin skin of protection
rather than a heavy covering (like most physical layers), they offtimes
are not as rugged or long lasting (Frost and Piper, 1968). For certain
waste piles, however—particularly those requiring only temporary
protect!on—they may offer the most cost-effective solution. These
materials are particularly useful for temporary protection while a
vegetative stand is being established. Consequently, chemical binding
layers are of special importance in this report for their potential use
in combination chemical-vegetative control methods.
5.2.2.1 Types of Chemical Binding Layers — Of the many chemical com-
positions tested for mineral waste pile protection, the Bureau of Mines
at Salt Lake City rank the coatings as listed in Table 15.
These chemicals are typically sprayed over the pile to be protected
and provide anywhere from short-term to multiple-year protection against
wind erosion. Work at Salt Lake has been aimed mainly at use of a
chemical binding surface layer in conjunction with vegetation.
In a typical application seed, wood fiber, chemical adhesive,
fertilizer and water are slurried together in a mixing tank (-2000 gal)
mounted on truck. The solution can be pumped through a nozzle at high
pressure and sprayed over the pile to be stabilized. Such an operation
4 2
is a two-man job and can plant/coat 2 to 4 x 10 m /day (5 to 10 acres/day)
(Carter et al_., 1974).
49
-------
Tabel 15. CHEMICAL BINDING SURFACE TREATMENTS IN DESCENDING ORDER OF RANK BY
THE USBM, SALT LAKE CITY [Dean, et al_., 1974].
Name
Coherex
tignosulfonates
SP-400 Soil Card
OCA- 70
Cement 6 milk of
Lime
Paracol TC 1842
Pamak WTP
Petroset SB-1
•—•(•mW^«^HI>>^v^^^i^^ta^^^^MtflMMV«MrtHi^^BW^I^»^W*«BVHM^MMi^B^H^H
Potassium silicate,
having an Si02 to
K20 ratio of 2.5
PB-4601
Reosol Cationic Neoprene
Dresinol, TC 1843
Sodium Silicates having
ratios of 2.4 to 2.9
Si02 to 1 Ha20
Description
Resinous Adhesive
Calcium )
Sodium > Lignosul-
Aitjnonium ) fonates
Elastomeric Polymers
Resin Emulsion
Wax, tar & pitch
product
Elastomeric Polymers
*m^***rm****i**^i^^^***mi*i*m'mm*imi**mm*i—'—^ii~*i—**iii*i^^—*^***p*^
Polymeric Stabilizing
Plant
Elastomeric Polymer
Emulsion
Ammonium Casein
Dose
0.224 i/m2
(240 gal /acre)
0.269 kg/m2
(2400 Ib/acre)
0.051 4/m2
(55 gal/acre)
0.084 i/m2
(90 gal /acre)
0.047 i/m2
(50 gal/acre)
riW^^V^^^^— ^MWH^H^BM*«H>**WVt«Ball»i^B^B.MM^B^Vv
Cost
1 .6(t/m2
($65/acre)
16<£/m2
($650/acre)
3.2t/mZ-4t/m2
($130-$170/acre)
3.2*/m2
($130/acre)
4.7(f/m2
($190/acre)
6.24/m2
($250/acre)
6.2*/rr2
($250/acre)
6.2it/m2
($250/acre)
^•••fc*»i^-^»i^»j^ •••^•.^•^^^•••^••••^^^^••^•^•^•••••••^•i^—
ll.l-23.5it/m2
($450-$920/acre)
12.4
-------
One striking success is the stabilization of copper tailings from a
mine in McGill, Nevada (Dean, et §1., 1969). The surface is physically
heterogeneous, varying from sand to slime; high salt, low salt, etc.,
and many combinations thereof. At the McGill site, five days after
R
planting, Coherex solution, diluted with 4 parts volume by water was
2
sprayed at a dose of 0.815 £/m (0.18 gal/square yd). The treatment
successfully protected the emerging vegetation from wind blown sand
damage and exhibited stabilizing properties until the vegetation was
established. Total costs, including those of seeding, fertilizing and
o
all labor, amounted to 3.35<£/m ($134.50/acre) (Dean, ejt al_., 1969).
Chemical binders have also been used where conditions prevented any use
of vegetation cover. At the uranium mine tailings pile near Yuba City,
Arizona (Havens and Dean, 1969), DCA-70 was used on the dike areas of
the tailings ponds and calcium lingonosulphonate, on the beach areas.
Both water-soluble chemicals were applied with an automated sprinkling
system. These coatings failed only at points where physical damage was
initiated by human activity or animals or at certain points where
complete coverage was not achieved because of discontinuities in the
terrain.
Total cost was 8.28<£/m2 ($335/acre) (Dean and Havens, 1971).
5.2.3 Vegetative Cover
A vegetative cover for mineral tailings is the preferred control
method. It is aesthetically pleasing and represents, at least on the
surface, restoration of the landscape; when self-sufficient, it con-
stitutes a truly permanent solution to wind erosion; in addition, the
potential for harvesting product offers an economic bonus not available
with other methods.
Establishing vegetation is not generally easy. What is required at
a minimum is adequate:
1) light
2) temperature
3) air
4) water
5) nutrients
Registered tradename of Witco Chemical Corp.
51
-------
6) freedom from phytotoxicants
7) protection for physical damage by abrasion
Under most climates the first three requirements present no problem.
Water may not always be adequate and sometimes successful vegetative cover
requires irrigation.
On the last three counts waste piles are often deficient. Until
shown otherwise, waste piles should be considered (Dean, ert aJL, 1971):
1) deficient in plant nutrients,
2) to be composed of excessive salts and heavy metal
phytotoxicants,
3) subject to damage from windblown sand,
4) lacking in normal microbial populations,
5) vulnerable to animal grazing damage.
Each of these potential shortcomings or vulnerabilities must be remedied
or guarded against for successful vegetative covering.
Composition is the most important property of the waste pile in
assessing suitability and strategy for vegetation. By chemical analysis
of the wastes, the nutrient level and the phytotoxicant level become
known. Nutrients required for plant growth include nitrogen, calcium,
potassium, phosphorus and trace quantities of various metals. Nitrogen
is invariably deficient and must be added. With the proper choice of
nitrogen fixing vegetative species and organic matter, the nitrogen
balance can be restored without continued supplement.
The concentration of alkalies and heavy metal salts may be de-
ficient or may be too great. If the former, they constitute a deficiency
to be made up; if the latter, a phytotoxicant to be compensated or
reduced. For example, copper in concentrations of 1000 ppm is not
generally phytotoxic while nickel above 100 ppm and zinc above 10 ppm
are.
A key measure of spoil composition and suitability for vegetation
is its pH. pH is a relative measure of soil acidity/alkalinity and
correlates well with the availability of plant nutrients (see Figure
12). It is this dependence rather than a direct interaction between the
hydrogen ion and the plant that makes crop performance so highly pH
dependent.
Figure 12 shows the availability of various plant nutrients as a
function of pH, the width of any given bar being proportional to the
52
-------
4.0pH 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0 9.5 pH
I Alkalinity
DH-Ion Concentration
H-Ioji Concentratio
Figure 12. The availability of plant nutrients as
influenced by acidity [Carter et_ a]_., 1974].
53
-------
availability of the labelled chemical. The solid lines plot the hydrogen
(or hydroxide) ion concentration as a function of pH.
The most favorable value of pH is about 6.5 where all the nutrients
shown exist in ample supply. Generally, however, the pH range from 4 to
8 is considered feasible for vegetation, although selection of species
becomes important at the acid extreme.
For vegetating highly acidic spoils, lime pretreatment raises pH
and improves growth as reflected by the data in Figure 13. The growth
of these pine trees varies with spoil pH which in turn depends upon lime
dose as given in the treatment key. The trace metal content of the tree
tissue also depends upon lime strength as listed in Table 16 for the
same experimental trees.
An additional complication of assessing the chemical composition of
tailings is their time dependence. In spoils rich with pyrite (FeS2),
for example, the soil pH decreases with time as the pyrite slowly
reacts, forming sulfuric acid, due to bacterial action of Thiobacillus
thiooxidens which is an aerobic bacteria. Under anerobic conditions D.
desulfuricans can reduce sulfates to sulfides. Failure to anticipate
this chemistry can lead to crop failures. On the other hand, rainwater
and natural washing can leach many salts from a spoil pile that would
otherwise render it unsuitable for vegetation. Regardless of what
action occurs the point to be emphasized is that a major difference
between mineral tailings or overburden from strip mining on the one hand
and agricultural surface soil on the other hand is the state of equili-
bration with the atmosphere and surface environment. Agricultural soil
(or any surface soil) has already weathered the natural processes to
achieve a relatively stable chemical composition and physical state;
previously buried spoils or overburden have not. Consequently, in
general, the initial analysis of freshly formed waste will not necessarily
be the same as the composition of that same waste pile after long-term
exposure to the surface weathering processes. Immediate spoil analysis,
however, is urgent in order to plan those steps necessary to hasten the
desirable changes and halt the undesirable changes.
Other properties of a waste pile that are important in planning
vegetative cover include spoil texture, homogeneity and grade. Almost
universally, vegetation grows better in soils or spoils that are uniform,
level, and composed of fine particles of assorted sizes (the various
54
-------
Check
2 tons
5 tons
10 tons
TONS
PER
ACRE
0
2
5
10
0
2
5
10
0
2
5
10
0
2
5
10
0
2
5
10
Treatment pH
(No lime added) 3.5
o
lime/acre (0.45 kg/m ) 3.9
lime/acre (1.12 kg/m2) 6.6
lime/acre (2.24 kg/m2) 7.6
i i
SHORTLEAF PINE
1
1
1
VIRGINIA PINE
1
1
1
LOBLOLLY PINE
1
1
PITCH PINE
1
|
1
HYBRID PINE
1
i,
1
5 10 15 20
TOP LENGTH. INCHES
25
Figure 13. Dependence of pine growth upon lime treatment [PIass, 1969],
55
-------
Table 16. AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF TISSUE FROM THE PINE TREES DESCRIBED IN FIGURE 13.
[Plass, 1969].
CJ1
en
Lime added, tons/
acre (kg/m2)
PH
NUTRIENT
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
Calcium
Magnesium
Iron
Manganese
Aluminum
Copper
Zinc
Boron
Molybdenum
1. Insufficient
2. Statistically
3. Statistically
0
3.5
Pet.
1.56
0.15
0.53
1.28
0.33
ppm
1,998
750
3,129
43
76
38
5.06
data.
significant
significant
2 (0.45)
3.9
Pet.
1.22
0-15
0.60
0.90
0.26
ppm
1,150
789
2,996
29
62
44
4.22
at the 5 percent
at the 1 percent
5 (1.12)
6.6
Pet.
1.36
0.12
0.59
2.10
0.18
ppm
818
421
2,868
20
36
38
2.82
level .
level .
10 (2.24)
7.6
Pet.
1.43
0.09
0-73
2.78
0.13
ppm
871
218
2,728
24
37
21
3.22
Differences between
treatments were:
Not determined
Significant2
Not significant
Highly significant3
Highly significant
Highly significant
Highly significant
Not significant
Highly significant
Highly significant
Highly significant
Significant
-------
loam categories of Figure 3), but with few massive stones—at least on
the surface. Too much clay results in poorly drained and aerated spoil;
too much sand results in erosion, low moisture and low fertility.
Waste piles do not generally possess ideal properties for the
growth of vegetation. They often are highly variable in pH, exhibiting
spots of high acidity interspersed throughout the pile or else consist
of regions of both basic and acidic soil in the same pile. Selecting
the optimum vegetation and preparation strategy for such an inhomo-
geneous soil is a broad compromise at best.
Spoil banks are not as predictable as they should or easily could
be. Soil profiles typically consist of layers of varying compositions
and properties, some of which are better suited for vegetative growth
than others. The usual practice, however, has been to strip off the
layers with a drag line or power shovel and pile the overburden in the
nearest convenient spot without regard as to what layer ends up where.
This practice greatly complicates the subsequent reclamation efforts and
makes it impossible to predict what the key soil parameters will be or
to prescribe a vegetative strategy without detailed multi point sampling.
Even then, inhomogeneity of the pile may totally invalidate the re-
commendation that was based on nearby sampling points.
Happily the need for preplanning and foresight in overburden removal
is being recognized here in the U.S. (European practice is ahead of the
U.S. in this respect) and present and future reclamation projects will
not encounter this needless handicap. For old spoil banks, however,
inhomogeneity--the random mixture of many soil horizons or layers--
remains, guaranteeing poorer results at higher costs.
Without suitable preparation the physical structure of most waste
piles is not at the optimum for vegetative cover. With proper planning
the waste pile can be distributed, graded and contoured to aid vegetative
growth. Location and orientation can sometimes be adjusted at little or
no cost so as to have major impact on ease of establishing vegetative
cover.
5.2.4 Shelterbelts
A shelterbelt is a growth of trees and/or shrubs maintained for
the purpose of sheltering an area from the wind, primarily, but possibly
also the sun. Mineral waste heaps that would otherwise by buffeted by
57
-------
prevailing high winds can, thereby, be protected from wind erosion using
shelterbelts.
An added benefit is improved aesthetics in that an unattractive
waste pile can be hidden from public view.
Adjacent existing vegetation is capable of serving as a shelterbelt
during the vulnerable period in which vegetation is being established on
the waste pile. The shelterbelt reduces sandblasting of emerging
vegetation and can also provide shade to limit surface temperatures.
Shelterbelts are an established tool in agronomy and can be used alone
or in combination with other methods in controlling wind erosion of
mineral waste heaps.
58
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6.0 FUNDAMENTALS OF MINERAL WASTE HEAP STABILIZATION
BY VEGETATIVE COVER
The objective of this section is to discuss the general ecological
aspects of vegetating the surfaces of mineral waste heaps. As discussed
in Section 4 these surfaces are quite varied in nature and may be either
anthropogenic or natural in origin. The former category includes land
devastated by strip mining, tailing heaps from mineral processing,
aggregate piles for construction, and fuel ash from the combustion of
pulverized coal. Naturally barren areas include deserts, land where
severe erosion is occurring, beach environments, and recently created
volcanic areas. Burned areas could be placed in either category depending
on the cause.
Adverse effects include loss of valuable topsoil, sedimentation of
lakes and streams, upset of wildlife habitats, and destruction of man-
made structures (e.g., highways, buildings, and fences). In addition,
secondary problems such as airborne dusts interfering with highway
safety by reducing visibility, or soiling of homes and clothing may
occur.
Vegetative cover can ameliorate and often eliminate these problems
by stabilzing barren mineral surfaces. The benefits which stem from the
use of plant covers are tremendous when compared to the alternative
methods techniques (i.e., chemical surface coating, gravel covers,
paving, fibrous mats, and continual wetting (see Section 5)). Many of
these alternative techniques require replacement or renewal at finite
intervals while vegetation generally represents a permanent solution
without the need for long-term maintenance.
The efficiency of vegetation in controlling erosion-related problems
is excellent. Aesthetically, there is no comparison between the beauty
of plants and other available modes of control. Plants improve soil
conditions by increasing ground litter, decreasing erosion, and moderating
soil pH. In turn, the area is made more tenable for other plants and
will eventually increase the production of woody plants (Holland, 1973).
Vegetation will also provide important habitats for wildlife.
59
-------
On an economic basis, plants generally represent the lowest cost
solution over long time periods. Land which is covered by vegetation is
generally more valuable than barren land. Recreational benefits are an
important aspect of this value. Forest and agricultural (both crops and
livestock) commodities may be produced on reclaimed areas (Grandt,
1965). By stopping sedimentation of the reservoirs, by reducing silt
loads in runoff water, plants help to provide clean water supplies.
Plants strongly influence the environment, especially their immediate
surroundings. They improve the soil by increasing its capacity to
retain water and nutrients and adding to its fertility. Their evapo-
transpiration is important in the water cycle. Plants are significant
in their contribution to maintaining balances of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere. For example, each acre of a young high-yield
forest, besides supplying 4 tons of wood each year, can produce 4 tons
of oxygen -- enough for 18 persons for that year (Latimer, 1971).
Vegetative ground covers contribute to the improvement of the whole
environment by the reclamation of wastelands. Plant communities are
very important ecosystems. They protect the land and preserve its
physiographic features. Besides maintenance, they also play a vital
role in terrain formation. In cases where topsoil is being blown or
washed away, plant covers conserve an irreplaceable resource. Researchers
in the field of land reclamation have unequivocably stated that plants
are the most desirable agent known for stabilizing mineral surfaces
(Berry, 1975; May, 1975; Plummer, 1975). However, landscape planning
must be ecologically sound. An assessment of the biological and physical
characteristics of an area must be made; the assessment should include
facts relating to before and after the mining disturbance. If there are
limits to the land use after mining, these should be considered. (Olschowy,
1973).
How do plants control the emission of fugitive dust into the
atmosphere? Basically, there are three ways in which plants may suppress
this emission or contribute to the removal of airborne dust. First is
direct stabilization of the soil surface (i.e., the roots bind the soil
and the plant stems and leaves serve as a protective cover), thus preventing
the particles from becoming airborne. Second, rows of plants, usually
trees planted normal to the prevailing wind direction, may serve as
60
-------
windbreaks (shelter-belts) to reduce wind velocities which would other-
wise cause particles to become airborne. Such windbreaks have been used
to excellent advantage on the Great Plains of the United States and
elsewhere; a wealth of experimental evidence and experience concerning
them exists (Bates, 1945; Van Eimern, 1964, Rao, 1970). Last is the
removal of suspended dust particles from the air by plants. In this
phenomenon, the vegetation serves as a kind of natural filter which
collects the dust by impaction. (Langer, 1965; Neuberger, ejt ajL_, 1967;
Podogrow, 1967).
Direct stabilization of the ground medium is the most important way
in which vegetative ground covers function and is the only role considered
in this report.
6.1 VEGETATIVE FACTORS
6.1.1 Species Selection
Information for the selection of plant species for use in controlling
fugitive dust can be derived from the ecology of specific habitats,
agronomic experience, and previous field tests. There are two complementary
sets of characteristics which will be employed in the selection of plant
species for ground surface stabilization. These are the capacities of
the plant and the characteristics of the surrounding habitat where the
species is to be used. The problem then is matching the plant to the
habitat. Preliminary information gathered about the site which includes
descriptions of climate (e.g., rainfall, wind speed, and temperature)
and soil (e.g., texture, fertility, and pH) will be used in arriving at
the species to be planted.
The most important consideration in choosing plants is that the
plants serve their intended purpose whether it be control of erosion,
aesthetics, or economic production (Vande Linde, 1971). Erosion control
and economic production are the pivotal criteria as many species can
satisfy the aesthetic requirement. Plants must be selected on the basis
of these two criteria.
The best sources of information to utilize in selecting plants are
experiences which others have had under similar conditions and data from
research designed to study revegetation on similar sites. Since site
characteristics are likely to be highly variable, subtle differences
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which may be significant must be considered. A discussion of current
research experience is given in Section 5. In using results obtained
by others to select plants, emphasis should be on long-term rather than
early survival and growth.
Resistance to disease and insect damage is an important consideration
in selection of plants. Clearly, mixed stands of plants which act as
alternate hosts for diseases should not be planted together. The
desirability of the products produced on the land should be a factor in
selection as well as the desired objectives of the recovery effort. For
example, amur honeysuckle (Lanicera maackii) is a shrub useful for
wildlife food since it retains its fruit during the winter. This plant
might be a good choice for use in the northeastern U.S. when the objective
is to encourage wildlife to invade the area. (Ruffner and Steiner,
1973). The plants should be suited both to planting site and local
climate (Limstrom, 1964).
In selecting plants, thought should be given to the availability of
seeds or seedlings. Locally produced plant materials are best as they
will have undergone the selective pressures of the area. Not only
quantity but quality of plant materials have to be considered. Quality
will be discussed in the next section, Propagation.
The observation of surrounding plant communities in the area of
fugitive dust sources can doubtless afford valuable information to be
used in selecting one or more species for planting. Native vegetation
offers an excellent starting point for species selection because all
indigenous vegetation is, in fact, a bio-indicator, predicting the type
of conditions that will probably eventually prevail at the fugitive dust
source. Attention should be given to those species which "volunteer" on
the site to be planted.
If site conditions will allow, the site may be put into immediate
agricultural or forest production. Often this may require extensive
amelioration activities (e.g., grading to lessen slope, liming to increase
pH, and amendments of fertilizer and organic material). In such a case,
crops or forest tree species similar to those used in the locality will
probably be best.
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Some plants have certain anatomic features which make them more
valuable for the stabilization of land than others. Dense needles or
leaves help create a barrier to air movement through a stand of plants.
Dense branching or multiple stems near the ground will slow wind movement
close to the ground where soil could be picked up. Soil can be held
effectively in place by dense growths of fibrous roots near the surface
of the ground. Some plants which grow on steep slopes exhibit a root
phenomenon called "edaphoecotropism". Stated simply, the roots curve so
as to grow straight into a bank or cliff. These plants are of great
importance in the anchoring of soil on slopes (Vanicek, 1973).
Plants should be selected to meet the specific needs of an area.
For example, plants with tough leaves, large root systems, and low water
requirements will do best in arid areas.
At times plants may be chosen which can improve iste conditions.
For instance, legumes such as black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) may
increase soil nitrogen levels by nitrogen fixation through microbial
associations. Other plants may simply increase the organic matter in
the soil through primary production. Certain plants may be selected as
nurse crops or companion crops. These crops contribute to the growth of
other species, and it is best to use less competitive species as companion
crops since any combination of species will be in competition for essential
materials. For example, although black locust is a recommended legume
for some plantings, it was found to be too competitive with black walnut
(Juglans nigra) in reclamation of strip mined land in Kansas (Seidel and
Brinkman, 1962).
The rapidity with which a given site is covered is important.
Usually this means that grasses or grass-legume combinations should be
employed initially due to their quick establishment and spreading. Once
the surface is stabilized, slower growing trees may be planted. Trees
and shrubs are especially desirable, not only from economic and aesthetic
standpoints, but because they are deeply rooted and will not be as
easily uprooted by water erosion as herbaceous species. This need for
trees has been recognized in reclamation work at Copperhill, Tennessee
(Marx, 1975).
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May (1971) has listed the following factors as affecting planting,
survival, and growth of plants used to revegetate strip mined areas:
soil texture, soil reaction, length and steepness of slope, credibility,
soil moisture, soil temperature, mineralogy of the spoil material, and
nutrient availability. Each of these is crucial in the choice of a
plant material. He points out that the traditional approach to species
selection has been "trial and error" and that this has resulted in many
failures. He further states that preliminary screening of species and
testing of soil amendments to be used in revegetation projects has
proven useful (May 1975). These tests provide "ball park" type data for
use in the field.
It has been found that using more than one variety or clone of a
species in revegetating efforts for each site enhances the chances of
success. This is true for hybrid poplar (Populus spp.) where 25 or more
clones are used on a given site (Kendig, 1968). This provides for
better and more complete site adaptation.
Plant species which are suspected of having the potential of
becoming forest or agricultural pests should be avoided. Too often
plant species become widespread before their ecological significance is
realized. Two excellent examples of this are kudzu (Pueraria thunbegiana)
and honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), both of which were introduced from
other continents and have been used in erosion control. Each became
pests in the Southeast within a few years. Figure 14 summarizes the
popular image of Kudzu at present.
Selection may be based on some special plant characteristics. The
plant may have a high tolerance for low pH, drought, high metal levels,
or other environmental factors.
However, the discovery of an "ideal" plant for harsh conditions is
most improbable (Berry, 1975). Any plant will survive until some maximum
limit of its tolerances is exceeded. This maximum limit can be exceeded
only once. But it is not enough that the plant simply survive; it must
grow and reproduce. If a suitable environment can be continuously
provided, the number of species which can be used successfully will
increase.
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Kudzu: It Won't Give Up
Imported From Japan, Kudzu Thrives In North Carolina
Seasonal Sign
Somewhere behind this healthy crop
of kudzu, a troublesome vine that
grows with amazing speed, there's
a highway sign that tells you the
rural paved road in Caswell County
curves to the right. Kudzu, a cussing
word for many Tar Heels, grows
especially fast in hot weather and
swallows up telephone poles and
trees. Story on 5B.
(Photo By Pat Bailey)
By JACK ADAMS
Herald State Editor
RALEIGH — A dairy farmer in Rutherford County is so
enthusiastic about North Carolina's fastest-growing weed that he
has KUDZU on his personalized automobile tag.
But the farmer, who grows kudzu as forage for his cattle, Is
the exception.
Most Tar Heels pronounce the weed as if they're trying to spit
dirt out of their mouths.
The rampaging legeume has spawned an incalculable number
of yarns — even stories of whole forests being swallowed up in a
tangle of vines.
Mostly exaggerations, said Hall Campbell of Raleigh of the
Soil Conservation Service, which used to raise kudzu in a nursery
at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
"It's been overly kicked around," said Campbell, who
contends that kudzu has not killed nearly so many trees as
people claim.
Kudzu is an Asiatic weed that was first brought to America in
the late 1800s and used as a porch vine.
Later, someone got the idea to use it for erosion control,
particularly along highways, and North Carolina began buying
kudzu seed by the bushels from the Japanese.
The seed was sown along road banks and in areas of high
erosion from the coast to the mountains. Importing more seed
became impossible during World War II, but the damage had
been done. Kudzu has continued to spread without inhibition.
Dr. Doug Worsham, a weed specialist at North Carolina State
University, said many complaints are referred to him from
people who want to get rid of the weed.
About the best method of control is to use a chemical brush
killer that, unfortunately, also kills everything else, including
trees. Worsham says it usually takes four or five applications at
a cost of $10 to $15 an acre to put an end to the weed.
Kudzu is hearty and grows in good and bad soil alike. The
speed at which it grows is amazing.
Worsham pointed out that a plant could be at the base of a
telephone pole at the beginning of a 60-day growing season and
cover the pole at the end of the season.
Maybe tales of tree killing are exaggerated, but Worsham
says it does in fact kill many.
Worsham said the amount of kudzu acreage is unknown. In
1946, an estimated 400,000 acres in the Southeast were covered
with kudzu, and, in spite of efforts to kill the weed, Worsham
suspects that it is holding its own.
Harold Singletary, plant pest chief for the state Department
of Agriculture, said many farmers are waging an uphill battle
against kudzu.
"I've seen entire fields that are uncultivatable because of
kudzu," he said. "In locations where it gets out of hand, it can get
into a forest and kill the trees."
The Highway Division of the state Department of
Transportation has a policy of removing kudzu from highway
rights of way, but only if adjoining property owners agree to pay
to have it removed from their land.
If adjacent property owners don't go along with chemical
control programs, the highway division just mows the weed and
chops it back to keep it from creating safety hazards.
But many times the weed outraces the mowers, and highway
signs get swallowed up in a tangle of broad-leafed vines.
Figure 14.
Kudzu: It
August 25,
Won't Give
1975).
Up (from the Durham Morning Herald,
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If resources permit, a genetic screening program may be carried out
to select desirable species or varieties. For instance, spoil samples
may be seeded at heavy rates either in place or in the greenhouse and
surviving plants used as seed sources for revegetation. Time and expense
are the major drawbacks but where a large area is to be planted, testing
may be well worth the expenditure.
In the process of selecting species, seeking the advice of personnel
with state agricultural extension services, the Soil Conservation Service,
or the Forestry Service is always in order (Appendix C). These scientists
are carrying out work which may relate to the problem at hand and part
of the mission of many of these agencies is to assist the public with
problems related to their respective area of expertise.
6.1.2 Propagation
The success or failure of plantings for the control of fugitive
dust emissions depends largely on the method selected for propagation
and/or maintenance of seedlings after planting. Propagation includes
the type of plant reproductive system used (e.g., seeds, seedlings, or
unrooted cuttings) as well as planting techniques. In agricultural
practice, the inherent reproductive capacities of plants are exploited.
For example, plants which form seeds prolifically and whose seeds have
high rates of germination will generally be planted in the field as seed
rather than seedlings.
6.1.2.1 Background -- Plants may be divided on the basis of three
distinct life cycles—annual, biennial, and perennial. The annual
plant's entire life processes, from germination to production and dissemi-
nation of seeds, take place in a single growing season. The plant then
dies. Summer annuals require warm climates; they germinate at the onset
of spring; and flowering and seed formation occurs during long summer
days with high temperatures. Winter annuals grow where winters are mild
and moist. Germination takes place in fall or winter with flowers and
seed being set in late winter or spring. They die in summer.
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Biennial species have a life cycle that spans two years. They also
have a chilling requirement (Hartmann and Kester, 1975). Plants come up
from seed in summer or fall and remain in a vegetative state the first
growing season. A lower ring of leaves, a rosette, is formed during the
first season by many biennial plants. Dormancy occurs in winter. The
winter chilling stimulates transition to the reproductive stage. During
the second growing season the plant flowers and seeds form, followed by
death of the plant.
Perennials live from year to year and generally display an annual
reproductive cycle. They may be either herbaceous or woody. Above
ground portions of herbaceous species die in winter within temperate
zones. They persist during dormant periods by specialized underground
roots or stems. Woody perennials continue to increase in size each year
by growing at shoot and root tips and by lateral growth. Cambial regions
(areas where cell division is occurring) exist in these areas.
Artificial plant propagation is based on the natural reproductive
capabilities of plants. There are two developmental cycles of plant
reproduction; these are sexual (by seed formation) and asexual or vegeta-
tive multiplication (by runners, rhizomes, or horizontal roots).
Fertilization is the essential feature of the sexual cycle which
utlimately produces seeds. Male and female sex cells contained in the
flowers form the zygote which becomes the embryo in the mature seed.
This embryo gives rise to the adult plant when the seed germinates.
Flowers are composed of distinct organs with specialized functions. The
stamens form pollen grains which contain the male sex cells. Female sex
cells are contained in the enlarged lower portion of the pistil. Fertili-
zation occurs when pollen grains are deposited on the pistil after which
seed formation begins. Sexual reproduction can result in variation
among plants and is the basis of plant breeding and genetic selection to
obtain desired qualities in plants. This variation may also become a
problem since the genetic make-up of subsequent generations may vary.
This often leads to the use of vegetative propagation to maintain pure
lines.
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Natural asexual reproduction is generally limited to perennials.
Structures which enable this type of reproduction to occur include
prostrate aerial stems (stolons), underground stems (rhizomes), and
horizontal roots. Virtually every organ of the plant is capable of
vegetative reproduction. Many techniques for this type of propagation
have been devised. Probably the most widely used method is that of
cuttings. Stem cuttings are generally employed although some plants do
not root well. Hormones may be used to induce rooting. The most common
methods of vegetative propagation are plugging, sodding, sprigging, and
stolonizing.
Unrooted stem cuttings called "sticks" have been used in establishing
hybrid poplar on strip mined areas (Kendig, 1968). About 50 percent of
those planted survive the first year and around 95 percent of these
survive through the second year.
Vegetative plugging of giant burmudagrass has been employed to
stabilize copper mine tailings (Day and Ludeke, 1973). In this procedure,
small pieces of sod are planted.
Vegetative propagation has an important function in maintaining
natural land forms. Hence it is very significant in considering the use
of plants to control fugitive dust originating from mineral surfaces.
Vegetative reproduction accounts for the ability of plants to spread
over vast areas as dense growths. This rapid spreading makes these '
plants useful in soil stabilization and enables them to invade shifting
soil (e.g., sand dunes). This capacity also enables certain plants such
as grasses to become dominant in meadows and prairies.
The two main advantages of using vegetative propagation are speed
in producing new plants and the production of plants genetically like
the parent stock.
Offspring of a single plant are known as a clone. The perennial
legume, kudzu, is propagated as clones (Wilson and Loomis, 1962). It
was widely used for erosion control in the southern states, but has
rapidly become a noxious weed (Figure 14). Ground cover is provided by
dense foliage in summer and in winter bare vines and fallen leaves
provide protection against erosion. Runners grow over the soil surface,
rooting at the nodes. Buds form above the roots which enlarge to form
crowns. Over winter vines which connect the crowns die and next season
each crown forms a new plant. Crowns which are two years old are used
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to plant new areas. The plant produces few seed and germination is poor
so that propagation must be by asexual rather than sexual reproduction.
6.1.2.2 Planting Technique -- Whether to use seeds or young plants is
an important decision. Site characteristics will often dictate selection.
Where the site is inaccessible to planting crews, direct seeding from
aircraft may have to be used. If the site is very dry, seedlings may be
best. The expense of the operation is important but must be evaluated
in terms of the expected long-term success of the revegetation effort.
Direct seeding has been discussed by Chan (1974). He reports that
the success of seeding is related directly to plant species, environmental
conditions, and the skill of the planting crew in using proper techniques.
Native seeds are considered best and attention should be given to seed
size, dormancy, and any necessary seed treatment. Seed should be collected
and stored properly, then planted at the proper time. Other factors to
be considered are planting depth, fertilizer addition, weed control,
animal browsing, and diseases such as damping off (fungal diseases of
germinating seeds). Advantages of direct seeding are quicker and greater
availability of plant material, ease in logistics and planting, and
reduced maintenance because plants are naturally conditioned.
Brown (1971) has reported on both the direct seeding of black
locust and on the use of seedlings on vast areas in West Virginia. The
following data were given:
Direct Seeded^ Nursery Grown Seedlings^
Success 20% 75%
Intermediate 50% 19%
Failure 30% 6%
The low rate of success with seeding was due largely to lack of
adequate moisture. The radicle (young root) emerging from the seed must
penetrate the surface rapidly enough to keep pace with soil drying. The
poor texture of many spoils coupled with compaction which impedes penetration
slows this vital process. High surface temperatures due often to dark
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spoil colors may desiccate freshly germinated seedlings. Competion with
other plants that may be present is also a problem. Success may be
enhanced by seed treatments, seedbed preparation, covering seed, and
using mulch. The cost of seeding properly may exceed the cost of using
seedlings. Establishing ground cover by seeding will require 1 to 2
years under excellent condition but usually will take 5 or more years.
Use of seedlings circumvents some of the problems of direct seeding.
Use of containerized stock is superior to bare-rooted seedlings, especially
under harsh conditions (Berry, 1975).
In fairly hospitable environments where severe erosion is not an
immediate threat, seeds may be the most feasible and economical method
of producing ground cover. However, under more harsh conditions seedlings
may be necessary because at least some erosion protection will be avail-
able immediately upon planting. Techniques used for culture (i.e.,
fertilizers, irrigation, mulches, organic amendments, etc.) will be
especially important. Economics will have to be balanced with providing-
an adequate environment for plant growth.
The choice among seed, bare-rooted seedling, or containerized plant
will have to be based on the environmental characteristics of a given
site. Availability and cost of plant material will also need to be
considered. Propagation requirements may include certain subtle factors--
periodicity of light, cold period, etc.
Viable high quality seeds should be used in a quantity sufficient
to ensure an adequate ground cover. Various methods are available for
testing seed viability but tested seed are commercially available.
These are labelled in several ways to indicate pure live seed (PLS).
Certified seed indicates that the number of extraneous weed seeds per
unit of seed has been held to a minimum. The amount of seed planted
will vary with several factors, including size of the seed and method of
planting. When small seeds are used, fewer pounds per acre will be
required than when larger seeds are used. Broadcasting requires approximately
twice as many seed as is needed when the seeds are planted by drilling.
Recent reclamation experiments in Kentucky and Virginia indicate the
feasibility of planting mountainous terrain by use of airplanes, (Coal
Age, 1968). South and west facing slopes require about twice the number
of seeds as north and east facing slopes and poor sites require proportionately
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more seed (Cook et a/L , 1974). In the Appalachian region, almost any
time except between November 1 and March 1 is suitable (Vogel, 1974).
The special needs of particular seeds that ensure germination are
imporatant. Some seeds with thick coats require scarification or scratching
of the seed coats to ensure germination at the desired time. Some machines
are available for doing this. Other seeds require a cold treatment
prior to germination. These types, if chosen, can be planted before
winter to ensure spring germination or can be purchased already cold
treated if spring planting is desirable (Hartman and Kester, 1959).
Soil tests will reveal the pecularities of the site and make the
addition of soil modifiers more meaningful. Lime and fertilizers are
the two main types of soil additives that need to be considered. Appli-
cation of nitrogen before planting often increases weed growth and
results in acute competition with the desired species for moisture and
nutrients (Cook, et_ aj_., 1974). Some authors recommend applying nitrogen
after the first growing season. Legumes and nitrogen-fixing plants may
be planted along with other species to ensure a constant supply of
nitrogen to the site so that commercial fertilizer need not be applied
so frequently (Magnuson, 1969).
Spreading mulch on recently disturbed sites is a common practice
when a grass cover is desired. However, mulch is expensive and is not
always necessary to establish vegetation. Mulches have their greatest
utility in harsh sites that are to be seeded. They serve to minimize
erosion and reduce water loss from the soil. In arid areas, this water
conservation results in a larger number of surviving seedlings.
There are several types of mulch: wood fiber, straw-asphalt, and
soil-anchored mulch. Wood fiber is the most effective of the three and
should be applied at the rate of 0.1 to 0.3 kg/m (1000 to 3000 pounds
per acre) depending on individual sites (Kay, 1974).
Hydroseeding is a method of establishing seedlings on slopes which
are too steep to be planted by any other method (Currier, 1971). Water,
seed, mulch, and fertilizer are agitated in a tank and sprayed through a
nozzle over the area to be planted. It is effective up to 24.4 m (80
feet) from the sprayer.
A two-step system for revegetation of surface mine spoils has been
used successfully (Jones, e_t a]^, 1975). First a fast growing ground cover
(e.g., rye (Secale cereale, L.)) is established to minimize erosion.
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This is then chemically killed and a more persistent crop is planted.
For this, clovers with interseeded grasses were excellent. This method
furnishes the benefits of mulch but greatly reduces its costs.
Some genetic selection might well prove useful. Seeds or seedlings
from a particular site could be harvested for use on another part of the
same site or a similar site in the same general locality. Selection
might also be performed artificially by using plants grown in nurseries
with conditions similar to those of the site to be covered. For example,
seedbeds using soil material similar to that at the site could be
established, preferably near the site. Healthy seedlings selected from
these would be used for planting.
In many instances, it is desirable not only for the species planted
to reproduce within an area, but also for the area to be invaded by
*i
various volunteer vegetation.
Patterns of planting also become important for fugitive dust control.
In some flat delta areas, it has been found that planting circular rows
of crops is far superior to conventional straight rows in preventing
damage by wind-blow dust abrasion. Straight rows provide long channels
where wind velocity may build up, resulting in severe crop damage by
"sand blasting". In light of this, the design of plantings for fugitive
dust control should be planned so as to derive maximum wind control from
them. Perhaps random spacing would be better than rows although initial
planting and culture would be more difficult. Mixed species and different
plant sizes could be quite useful. Compatible reproduction by mixed
plantings should also be taken into account. Here interspecific com-
petition becomes of utmost concern.
A complete discussion of the principles and practices of plant
propagation has recently been given by Hartmann and Kester (1975).
6.1.2.3 Maintenance -- Methods of culture during propagation are important
factors in ensuring survival. For instance, regularity of irrigation
will be most important. When irrigated, plants should generally be deep
watered to encourage deep root formation. Irrigation should be infrequent
if drought is anticipated so as to condition and harden plants.
According to Vande Linde (1971), one of the principal causes of
failures in efforts to stabilize areas that have been strip mined has
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been a reliance on techniques used in forestry. Obviously, planting
trees on 6-feet by 7-feet (1.8 x 2.1 m) centers, as is used in forestry,
cannot readily control erosion. The same is true of planting procedures
ordinary used for agricultural row crops. Therefore, special techniques
must be devised in planting barren areas for stabilization.
6.1.3 Succession
The principles of ecological succession are important to the
establishment of plant covers over areas which are sources of fugitive
dust. This succession involves the development of ecosystems. The
ecosystem is a unit of biological organization which consists of the
organisms of a particular area (i.e., community): 1) only those species
can be present which exist in that particular part of the world, and
which are able to reach the particular spot; 2) only those can be present
which are able to exist under the given conditions of life and in com-
petition with the other species present; and 3) in many communities
certain species can survive only in the presence of others and the
environment they create (Willis, 1973).
Ecological succession is an orderly process by which ecosystems
evolve, replacing one another in time. Where plant groups invade a
barren area (primary succession), replacement by other plant groups
(secondary succession) generally follows.
Many natural succession events are well studied. Such information
may prove useful in approaching problems associated with vegetation
piles of material from which airborne dusts may originate. For vegetative
covers to be feasible in particulate air pollution control, they must be
established within a short time frame. What we are considering is a
kind of man-induced flashback to an unweathered primeval landscape with
no plants. The idea then becomes one of compressing the time for
vegetation to invade naturally, perhaps several decades, into a much
shorter period. This speeding up of events is done by modifying surface
soils to render them more suitable for plantings.
Simply to grow plants is not enough if a permanent ground cover is
to be provided. Creating a self-sustaining plant community is the
ultimate objective (James, 1966). It is encouraging to note that
artificial plants of native species have succeeded in forming communities
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indistinguishable from natural woodland (Willis, 1973). Toward accom-
plishing this objective, studies of naturally barren environments (e.g.,
volcanic areas and beach sites) may provide insights that are applicable
to the problem of establishing vegetative covers on fugitive dust sources.
Ecological investigations of plant succession on the sources themselves
may also be of benefit.
6J.3.1 Natural Succession on Sources of Natural Origin -- Einarsson
(1973) has reported on the invasion of terrestrial plants on the newly
formed (1963) volcanic island, Surtsey, near Iceland. Plant material
was observed less than a year after eruption of the volcano began.
Plant parts of 30 species were identified. In general they were plants
which commonly grew on the coasts and cliffs of islands. Of the 6
species observed growing, most of them grew along the high-water mark of
the coasts, but some were as far as 30 meters inland. Nine species of
mosses were found on the volcanic island. This fact is not surprising
because mosses constitute a major vegetative cover on nearby Iceland.
Certain species of the mosses are also found on brown-coal dust, and
one, Funaria hygrometrica, is the first colonizer of pulverized fuel
ash.
The beach environment somewhat resembles certain tailings piles
(which may be fugitive dust sources) in its instability, infertility,
light intensity, texture, and water relations. However, there is one
major difference. According to Costing and Billings (1942), the major
force affecting plant growth and form on a seacoast is intensity of salt
spray. The chloride ion in the spray is the toxic agent which may
inhibit growth.
Many beach species display adaptions such as thick cuticles, extensive
root systems, and folding leaves which enable them to survive under the
harsh extremes of the coastal environment. Some other plants have life
cycles which enable them to survive. They exist as seeds during stormy
seasons seasons when amounts of salt spray are high. A peculiar form of
adoption in seaoats (Uniola paniculata, L.) is that of rapid stem elongation;
this keeps it above the sands that tend to pile up on the crest of
dunes.
Succession on dunes is slow because of the nature of sand which in
general holds little moisture and is low in nutrients. Studies of such
succession on Lake Michigan dunes are available (Odum, 1963). Succession
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has followed as the lake has receded over the years. Pioneer communities
consist of a few grasses, and willow, cherry, and cottonwood trees which
are followed by forest communities. The forest stages are: Oack pine
forest, black oak dry forest, and oak and oak-hickory moist forest. The
climax (final) stage is beech-maple forest on deep humus soil which had
its beginning as infertile sand. Early successional stages may be
stopped if sands are rapidly shifted by wind.
Two distinct types of pioneer communities have been described in
sand dune succession in England (Eyre, 1968). The first is dominated by
sea couchgrass (Agropyron junecum) which invades the base of dunes and
occurs below the highest tide level. Succulents including sea sandwort
(Arenaria peploides), sea rocket (Cakile maritima). prickly saltwort
(Salsola kali) and orache (Atriplex spp.) are common in this community.
They entrap sand and contribute to dune formation. The second community
type occurs above the highest tide level and is dominated by marram
grass (Ammophilia arenaria). Rhizomes of this plant enable it to grow
vertically or laterally to keep up with dune development. It has strong
stabilizing effect on the dune. Once the dune is stable, groups of
rosette plants such as ragwort (Senecio jacobaea), hawkweed (Hieracium
umbel laturn) and thistles (Circium spp.) can invade. Survival of these,
however, is dependent on the marram grass which prevents massive shifts
of the dune sands. Generally dune communities remain open and this -
allows some surface mobility of the sand. In the third or fourth stages
of succession, sand fescue (Festuca rubra var. arenaria) can form a turf
over the surface which eventually eliminates tufts of marram grass.
6.1.3.2 Natural Succession on Man-made Mineral Waste Heaps — It is
customary for botanists to work on natural vegetation and to ignore that
which occurs in man-made hibitats (Bradshaw, 1970). However, some
studies of natural plant succession of barren surfaces created by man do
exist and these may provide valuable insights into what species and
practices should be used in revegetation programs. The important feature
of plant populations that do occur on mine spoils is that they grow
vigorously while members of the same species from ordinary populations
may not survive at all. They have been naturally selected for the harsh
environment.
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Factors which influence plant colonization of silver, lead, and
zinc mine waste in Utah have been studied (Alvarez, et a].., 1974). Soil
temperature and texture and levels of phosphorus and calcium differed
significantly among sites stratified according to plant cover and
floristic diversity- Preferences for soil temperature and levels of
phosphorus and calcium were seen. Soil phosphorus correlated strongly
with the density of vegetative cover. Phosphorus differences were
related to soil parent material. The authors note that, even though
mine dumps have a superficial similarity, they vary tremendously in
available nutrients, color, texture, and other factors and, hence,
cannot be treated as one environmental type. In this study, mine wastes
in three adjacent canyons were quite different in their ability to
support plant life. It was clear from the variability of a given site
that a mixture of species would very likely be superior to a single
species in artificial revegetation of such areas. Knowledge about
factors which govern natural colonization of mine dumps will lead to
more effective methods for revegetating these harsh sites.
Plant populations which invade mining and smelting waste have been
investigated by Bradshaw (1970) in England. From his work, the use of
tolerant species appears to be the most promising approach for use on
lead, zinc, and copper smelter wastes where lack of nutrients and metal
toxicity are a limitation. Plant nutrients may be conveniently applied
at low costs. However, nothing short of covering these tailings with
soil ameliorate the toxicity problem since no method of removal is
known. Leaching would require tens of thousands of years and some
wastes actually become more toxic as breakdown occurs, releasing more
metallic compounds. Calcium addition has a slight ameliorative effect,
and phosphate can lock up metals but the quantity needed is impractical.
The evolution of metal tolerant species on metal tailings has been
observed. Among them are Plantago laceolata, Agrotis stolonifera, and
Festuca rubra (Bradshaw, ejt al_., 1965). Tolerant populations of various
species especially Agrostis and Festuca have been used successfully on
smelter tailings in the Swansea Valley of England (Smith and Bradshaw,
1970). Amendments of slow release fertilizer enhanced growth signifi-
cantly.
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Antonovics (1975) has pointed out that on sites where metal has
been mined in North Carolina, vegetation encroaches from the site's
edge. He suggests that this encroachment is due not so much to nearness
of seed sources or to suitable microclimates set up by neighboring
vegetation, but rather to a kind of "chelation" (i.e., tying up) of
toxic metals by organics from litter produced by peripheral vegetation.
Once levels are below lethal concentrations, plants begin to invade.
The idea of metal chelation is supported by Carroll (1970). She
states that metallic cations are absorbed by organic ring compounds in
the soil. In certain cases, it may decrease amounts of metals to non-
toxic levels. This may be one of the important roles played by soil
humus.
Plant colonization on wastes from anthracite mines in Pennsylvania
has been investigated by Schramm (1966). He reports that refuse (shales
separated from coal) is colonized extremely sparingly by woody plants
and that herbaceous types are almost completely absent. Woody species
that do establish grow reasonably well. Sludge (material washed from
coal and purged to settling basins) is not colonized at all. Slope,
soil temperature extremes, and distance from natural vegetation were
significant in determining rates of colonization. Growth and development
found to play a minor role in the sterility of anthracite wastes.
Addition of nitrogen without other major nutrients was found to con-
tribute to improved plant growth. Overall, nitrogen-fixing plants and
*
certain ectomycorrhizal species were the only successful pioneer invaders
of the nitrogen-deficient wastes. Therefore, these two types would be
useful in revegetation efforts.
Sturm (1973) identified naturally invading plant species on strip
mine spoils in West Virginia. His study showed that invasion was corre-
lated with spoil pH; there was a distinct line between vegetated and
Ectomycorrhizal species are plants whose roots form mycorrhizal associa-
tions in which fungal hyphae form compact mantles on root surfaces.
Mycelial strands extend inward between root cells and outward into the
soil.
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barren areas. No plants grew below pH 3.7 and no barren sites existed
above pH 3.7. Sites without plants were significantly lower in nutrient
levels. Red maple (Acer rubrum) was the most tolerant of low pH and low
nutrient levels. Poverty grass (Danthonia spicata) was the most tolerant
grass species. Other species included false redtop (Triodia flava),
broom edge (Andropogon virginicus), deertongue (Panicum clandestinum)
and black birch (Betula nigra). Results indicated that proper liming
and fertilization could bring these mining spoils into productive states.
In a study of coal mine spoils, Kohnke (1950) found that more
favorable soil conditions for plant growth exists in "troughs" of strip
mined land. Here abundant water has leached free acid and lime fragments
have been deposited thus raising the pH.
Byrnes and Miller (1973) have reported on the natural revegetation
of surface-mined coal lands in southern Indiana. Their study revealed
that plant invasion begins the first year after mining in more favorable
spots, especially in "troughs" as Kohnke reported. Some toxic patches
of overburden remained devoid of plants up to 45 years. Soil pH lower
than 3.5 and specific conductance (an indication of the amount of soluble
salts) above 2 mmhos/cm appeared to adversely affect vegetation and
limited its encroachment. In this study, it was noted that the disturbed
sites invaded by natural vegetation did not resemble surrounding un-
disturbed sites until 34 years after mining. Lists of preponderant
species are provided. Trees had poor form and were of different ages;
therefore, it was concluded that timber production would be poor. About
45 percent of the species seen were classified as useable by wildlife.
Limstrom (1960) has also concluded that adequate stands of forest
trees for commercial timber production are very unlikely to establish
naturally in areas disturbed by mining. He suggests several reasons why
this is true. Good seed sources must be present; this is not the case
for most strip mined areas except perhaps at the edne. Conditions on
spoil banks are not conducive to the lodging and germinating of seeds.
Erosion often causes seeds to be deposited at bottoms between ridges so
this is where most volunteer vegetation is found. Thus, strong com-
petition could occur on these lower areas with no competition on slopes.
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In programs to establish forests on strip mined lands, naturally
occurring vegetation can be both harmful and beneficial (Limstrom,
1960). Volunteer plants can protect young forest species from drying
winds, improve conditions of the soil, and reduce losses from erosion.
However, they can also compete with the trees which have been planted.
Dense ground covers reduce survival of many pines and some hardwoods.
Overhead cover is at times favorable to early survival and growth but
may be a hinderance in later stages.
Milker (1972) has cited a case where natural vegetation may produce
an adverse effect. The plant is sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) whose feeder
roots prohibit understory growth, often leaving the surface bare and
susceptible to erosion.
It is interesting to note that cattails (Typha latifolia, L.) have
been observed to thrive in pools of mine water at pH 2.5 and that ragweed
(Ambrosia elation, L.) can grow well on spoil material below pH 3.0
(Kohnke, 1950).
Volunteer vegetation that appears on land stripped for coal come
predominantly from airborne seeds or from portions of original topsoil
left at the surface. Practical foresters have used the appearance of
vegetation on spoils as in indication that the area may be safely
planted with trees.
Succession in plant communities on coal mine dumps in England has
been studied (Down, 1973). Seventy-three species of vascular plants
were observed. Hemicryptophytes and therophytes comprised over 90
percent of the pioneer flora. Henri crytophytes are plants that produce
buds just beneath or at the soil surface; they grow as dense tufts.
Therophytes complete their life cycle from seed in one growing season;
they survive unfavorable periods as seed or in a vegetative form, often
as a short stem with a rosette of leaves (Willis, 1973). These two
plant forms are well-suited to open, exposed, and unstable habitats such
as are provided by mineral waste dumps (Down, 1973). Certain attributes
of species which have rosette forms add to their capacity to survive
harsh conditions. Long taproots (up to 20 cm) provide positive anchor-
age on unstable surfaces and deliver water from lower depths. The
rosette of basal leaves tends to reduce the range of temperature
fluctuation around the plant and reduces water loss from the soil beneath it.
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The author points out that species similar to these pioneer species
should be considered for ground covers on coal mine wastes. Most effort,
thus far, has concentrated on the artificial planting of grasses and/or
legumes.
Biological succession at excavated mine sites of the Cologne
Lignite District in West Germany was studied by Bauer (1973). Habitats
included gravel slopes, gravel plains, reclaimed fields, coal-dust
areas, depressions and lakes. Despite harsh extremes of soil and
climate, spontaneous rapid colonization by various plants and animals
was observed. Areas were reported to change in appearance from desert-
like to grass-steppe and then gradually to savanna-like. Then trees and
shrubs become established. Successful plant invaders displayed the
ability to germinate rapidly and had very low demands on the environment.
Pioneer vegetation was strongly influenced by the microclimate of mine
wastes. Plants which established were found to be chance combinations
of species without regard to natural associations. Until a closed
canopy begins to form and competition starts, pioneer types (tufts or
grasses, stolons, and rosettes) remain. Because of the variety of habitats
formed by mining activity, such areas support more plant species and
associations than the original and undisturbed site. From studies of
natural plant succession, Bauer and Darmer (1969) formulated the following
principles for reclamation of areas disturbed by mining:
1) Gravel dumps should not stand isolated and should not
be higher than 80 meters. The general inclination
should not be steeper than 1:3.
2) For agricultural reclamation, a loess cover at least 1.5 m
deep is necessary.
3) Extreme microclimatic conditions must be modified and a
balanced bioclimate developed through formation of a suitable
relief and establishment of shelterbelts.
4) Water controls productivity; regulated irrigation and drain-
age, shelterbelts, and lakes balance the humidity of air and
soil.
5) Because of the extreme ecological conditions, trees must
be planted at once and fields must be seeded promptly
while the soil is still loose and well-aerated. One should
not wait for weathering of the soil material or formation of
humus because fine-textured material may be blown or washed
away. At any rate, the soil becomes more dense during any
period that reclamation is delayed.
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6) The more varied the plant cover and the better
ecologically adapted it is, the better are the
opportunities for animal establishment.
7) In addition, the formerly disturbed areas may
become useful for recreation; the varied habitats
of the forest-field-lake landscape offer ideal
conditions for this use.
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
Plant life is dependent on many factors which interact to produce a
habitat in which growth and reproduction can occur. The habitat is the
sum total of all environmental factors which are effective in determining
the existence of a plant community in that place (Willis, 1973).
There are three reasons why a plant grows in a given habitat: 1)
the plant or some of its progenitors happened to get to the location; 2)
the plant has the capacity to survive, grow, and reproduce under the
existing conditions; and 3) the plant has not been crowded out by other
plants or eliminated by animals (Salisbury and Ross, 1969).
Plants are dynamic organisms and are sensitive to continuously
shifting environmental factors. Environment not only influences the
individual plant body but also governs to a large extent the distribution
of plant groups on the earth. For any given species, there are limits
under which it can grow and reproduce. Certain plants display broad
tolerance ranges while others grow only within narrow limits. One of
the most unique features of plant life, however, is its occurrence under
so many conditions and at such harsh extremes. The plant is in a
dynamic balance between its physiological and structural features, and
its immediate surroundings.
Several major sets of conditions interact to form the environment.
These are geographic, geologic (pedologic and edaphic), climatic (e.g.,
light, precipitation, temperature, and wind), atmospheric, and biotic.
The control of these factors is the dominating task of agriculture. And
it is controlling or buffering these factors that will enhance the
survival of plantings which are made for the purpose of suppressing
fugitive dust emission. The following is a discussion of these key
environmental factors, with special attention being given to those which
are of concern in the planting of surfaces from which fugitive dust
arises.
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6.2.1 Geographic
Vegetation is affected by those geographic factors which influence
climate and weather patterns. The proximity of mountains or large
bodies of water plays a major role in the determination of climatic
characteristics.
For example, mountain ranges along a seacoast may produce moist
forests on the seaward side with desert on the inland side. Lesser
relief patterns of land affect vegetation through their influence on
wind velocity and direction, local rainfall, and seasonal temperature.
Ocean currents contribute heavily to the regulation of climate and,
hence, to the distribution of terrestrial flora (Bidwell, 1974).
Altitude and latitude,,are particularly important factors to be
considered in the choice of plant species for the area in question.
These govern solar insolation and temperature which exert strong effects
on many other conditions.
The location of the site to be covered with vegetation is important.
It may dictate the methods of vegetative reclamation that should be
used. For example, in a chiefly agricultural region, planting materials
will probably be readily available whereas in other areas these materials
may have to be brought in, thus greatly increasing costs. It may be
that plant species used for ground cover to prevent general erosion in a
given area would be useful in covering dusty ground surfaces in the same
area. Air quality of a specific locality should be considered if there
is reason to suspect that it may damage planted species. The proximity
of receptors of fugitive dust may determine priorities for vegetating
surfaces which are sources.
6.2.2 Geologic
The geologic processes of a region determine its soil type and
produce its topographic relief. Perhaps the most important aspect of
geologicical phenomena so far as plants are concerned is that of
supplying parent material from which soils are derived. This parent
material, usually bedrock, is extremely important in determining soil
moisture relations, soil type, structure, and nutrition. The kind of soil
plays a significant role in determining which plant species will grow on a
given site.
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Topography also influences factors affecting plant growth such as
extremes of drought, cold, heat, and excess water (Bidwell, 1974). The
topography of an area is also important as to slope inclination and
slope length. If plants are to establish and thrive, topographic features
must not exceed certain limits. Water erosion of soil becomes especially
important in that plants may not be able to remain anchored. If topsoil
is present, it may be lost during rain if slopes are too steep.
Since soil is the most important geologic factor, its origin and
nature (pedology) and its relationship to plant life (edaphology) will
be considered.
6.2.2.1 Pedologic — Weathering of parent material by any particular
combination of climate, vegetation, and relief progresses through a
definite series of stages. At maturity (after many years) the soil
which has been formed is in a state of dynamic equilibrium with the
factors that have determined its course of development. Properties of
soils have been discussed in Section 2 of this report.
The origin of the soil in question is important because it determines
many of its final properties. In many cases where the site is a dust
source, the ground material may be considered a virgin soil essentially
unaltered by wind, water, or biotic factors. Predicting the course of
soil change over a short period (i.e., a few years) will help in deciding
if and how the ground material should be amended to enhance its capacity
to support plant life.
Surface characteristics may be governed—especially in the case of
mining activities--by stratifying different material types. For instance,
topsoil should be stockpiled before and replaced after strip mining. In
some cases, care could be taken to see that pyritic or other acid-
forming minerals are buried deep enough so that they do not influence
surface pH. In a given situation, there may be ways in which layers of
such strata may be replaced to enhance the plant-soil environment rather
than simply haphazardly replacing the material by the fastest and cheapest
means possible.
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In nature, physical, chemical, and biological agents act together
to convert parent rock into soil. Soil development may be divided into
four main stages: 1) mechanical weathering of rock into fragments of
parent material, 2) chemical weathering of this parent material to form
secondary minerals, 3) biochemical weathering accompanied by the accumulation
of organic materials, 4) the maturation of the weathered materials over
time into a fully developed soil (Pearson, 1967).
Physical processes break surfaces or rock masses into smaller and
smaller fragments. Chemical reactions result in compositional changes.
* t' «
within such material. Plants and animals contribute to both processes
and add the organic component to the soil.
Physical agents (e.g., water, wind, ice, and gravity) affect
disintegration of rock. Water and wind are functional through erosive
actions of the load of cutting material they transport. Therefore, the
effect is proportional to speed or force. Temperature effects are
widespread. Rocks can be cracked by differential expansion and con-
traction, particularly when temperature changes are rapid. Temperature
fluctuations are widest in arid regions and at high elevations where
their effectiveness is shown in the coarse, angular soil particles that
occur in these areas.
Chemical processes lead to increased solubility of soil components.
This not only makes nutrients available for plants but renders them
susceptible to leaching during rains. Oxidation (addition of oxygen)
and hydration (addition of water) are common reactions and result in the
softening of rock. Carbonation (uptake of carbon dioxide) yields the
dissolving action of water. Innumerable other chemical reactions occur
among minerals which contribute to the weathering that eventually forms
soil (Costing, 1956).
Living organisms are involved directly and indirectly in the soil
-forming process. Particles are broken up by eating and burrowing animals
and by the pressure and prying action of roots. Animal activities
result in mixing and transfer of differentially weathered materials. By-
products of metabolism such as carbon dioxide and various organic materials
enhance chemical reactions. Organic acids from decaying organic compounds
are especially potent in dissolving mineral materials. The organic
fraction of the soil which is so critical in water and nutrient relations
is added by living organisms.
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Some naturally occurring soils which develop from certain kinds of
rock support very little plant life and are known as "barrens". Either
essential nutrients are lacking or toxic concentrations of certain
materials are present. These problems may also be presented by mine
wastes from ore processing or from strip mine overburden. Severe nu-
trient imbalances that exist in these materials and excesses of heavy
metals (e.g., lead, zinc, mercury, and copper) often combined with low
pH are very unfavorable to plants (Daubenmire, 1974).
6.2.2.2 Edaphic -- Edaphic factors are those characteristics of soil
which interact directly with plants, especially higher plants. Besides
light and carbon dioxide, plants need soil with proper textural and
chemical properties, and with adequate but not excessive moisture for
growth. Optimum growth can only be attained if these needs are met.
More specifically, plants are dependent on soil for mechanical support,
nutrients, water, and oxygen for root respiration.
Soil characteristics are largely governed by the climate. For
example, desert soils, which are very unlike soils of humid regions, may
have actually been derived from identical parent material. The plant-
soil relationship is reciprocal in nature. Soil characteristics are
influenced by vegetative cover while the distribution of plants is in
part determined by soil types.
Brady (1974) has given an in depth discussion of the nature and
properties of soils. Practical and theoretical aspects are considered.
Areas which are sources of fugitive dust may present a number of
edaphological problems. Amelioration of these problems is generally
necessary before plants can be established.
Dean, et al. (1969) have noted that tailings from mineral processing
area: 1) deficient in plant nutrients, 2) contain excessive levels of
salts and heavy metal phytotoxicants, 3) contain unconsolidated sands
which "sandblast" plants, and 4) lack normal microbial populations.
Edaphic problems associated with strip mining spoils include: 1)
excess acidity, 2) low amounts or organic matter and nitrogen, 3) low
phosphorus concentrations, 4) unsatisfactory moisture relations, and 5)
toxic levels of certain elements.
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Approaches that have been taken to solution of these problems are
considered in Section 5.
Edaphic factors fall into the three major realms: physical, chemical,
and biological. There are strong interactions among them, and each is
more or less active in governing the character of the other two.
6.2.2.2.1 Physical — The major physical properties of soil are texture,
structure, porosity, and color. Secondary properties are water retention
and movement, and aeration. These physical characteristics influence
the soil's mechanical supporting strength, drainage, nutrient retention,
and resistance to plant root penetration (Foth and Turk, 1962).
Texture refers to the relative proportions of various soil particle
sizes, or more specifically to the relative amounts of sand, silt, and
clay. A diagram of textural classification is given in Figure 3 of
Section 4. Texture strongly influences soil water and air relationships.
Since it determines the amount of surface area a given volume of soil
particles will have, it is also very important in governing the rates
and extents of chemical reactions. As soils are created, horizons which
result usually differ in texture.
This texture profile can be beneficial or harmful to plant growth.
Up to a certain level, increasing the content of clay in soil is desirable
since water and nutrient holding capacities will be increased accordingly.
This in turn reduces loss of nutrients by leaching since downward
percolation of water is slowed. However, too much clay can form a clay
pan (compacted layer) which can restrict the movement of water and air.
In addition, root penetration can be hampered. Since infiltration of
water is inhibited, runoff increases with accompanying increases in
erosion. Sometimes altering the texture profile can help to control wind
erosion (Foth and Turk, 1972). It has been observed that, where sandy
surface soils are underlain by soil containing 20 to 4C percent clay,
deep plowing served as an aid to halting wind erosion. Deep plowing had
to be accompanied by other erosion control practices since alone it was
not completely successful.
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Soil structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil particles
(i.e., sand, silt, or clay) into compound particles or clusters which
are separated from adjoining clusters by surfaces of easy cleavage.
Texture is modified by structure. Structure affects moisture and air
relationships, plant nutrition, microbial activities, and root growth.
There are several forms of soil structure. These are single grains,
massive, granular, platy, blocky, primatic, and puddled (i.e., "run
together"). Structure develops during the soil formation process as
parent material is weathered. Soil organisms produce agents which act
as cement that aid in aggregate formation. Structure is important from
the standpoint of 1) aeration, 2) water permeability and its relation-
ship to runoff, 3) resistance to soil erosion, and 4) forming a good
seedbed to initiate plant growth (Thompson and Troeh, 1973).
A good seedbed should provide a suitable environment for the seeds
to an adequate depth. Enough small aggregates should contact the seed
to supply sufficient moisture. There should be enough pore space to
supply oxygen, first to the seed and then the seedling. Possibilities
of the decomposition of organics by microorganisms, making nitrogen and
other nutrients temporarily deficient, should be considered and eliminated.
There exists, on a research basis at least, the ability to produce
soil structure. Soil conditioners are used; these are polymerized
organic compounds which degrade very slowly such as Krilium, introduced
in 1952. At present these products are too costly for general agricul-
tural usage (Thompson and Troeh, 1973).
Porosity is simply the pore spaces within the soil bulk. These
spaces are of importance because they are largely filled with water and
air. These two important soil components are vital for plant growth.
Movement is governed by the amount and size of pore space. Pore space
is directly related to texture and structure.
Soil color is related to organic content, climate, drainage, and
parent material. Color may be used to interpret various soil properties.
For example, a drak colored soil may be high in organic matter. Soil
color is particularly important to the heat balance of soil. A soil
which is dark in color may absorb 80 percent of incoming solar radiation,
while a light colored sand may only absorb 30 percent.
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Water from the soil is vital to plant growth and often limits the
range of various plant populations. The rate at which water will in-
filtrate the soil is determined by soil texture. Coarse soils admit
most of the rain they receive while finer soils may lose much of it
through runoff which results in erosion. Water that does enter fine
grained soils is held longer and is much less mobile than in coarser
soils.
Water exists in the soil in four forms:
1) Gravitational water occupies large soil pores and is
readily available to plant. It drains away by gravity.
Generally this draining away, with replacement by
air, takes two or three days.
2) Capillary water is retained by surface forces as films around ,
soil particles. When this water is at its peak amount, just
after gravitational water has drained away, the soil is said
to be at field capacity. Most of this water is available to
plants, but as it is depleted, a point is reached where sur-
face forces become so strong that plant roots can no longer
absorb it.
3) Hygroscopic water is a very thin film of water which adheres
to particles by surface forces. Unavailable to plants, it
moves within the soil only in vapor form.
4) Vapor is the final type of soil water. It is found in the
soil atmosphere and moves along gradients (Costing, 1956).
The forces responsible for movement of water within the soil are gravity,
hydrostatic pressure, capillary action, and chemical gradients.
Soil aeration is essential since roots must have oxygen for growth.
The amount of air (by volume) in well-aerated soils ranges from 60 to 70
percent. This lessens as water enters the soil. In coarse soils or
well-aggregated heavy soils, large pore spaces facilitate gas movement.
In such soils carbon dioxide, produced by respiration of organisms
within the soil, readily diffuses out, and the oxygen consumed is replenished.
In poorly aggregated fine soils, toxicity due to carbo- dioxide accumulation
and oxygen deficiency may limit plant growth. A disadvantage of strongly
aerated sandy soils is that humus content remains low due to rapid
oxidation. Trees grown in very poorly aerated soils have been found to
be more susceptible to root diseases than those under more aerated conditions
(Daubenmire, 1974).
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6.2.2.2.2 Chemical - Chemical aspects of soil that are of significance
to plants include cation exchange capacity, pH, nutrition, toxicity
(under certain conditions), and salinity. Imbalances of these factors
often cause difficulties in establishing plant covers over sources that
may emit fugitive dust.
The mineral component of the soil is composed primarily of silica,
aluminum, and iron oxides. The small amounts of calcium, potassium, and
magnesium which are combined in this soil fraction are not readily
available to plants. The utility of" this fraction lies in its ability
to absorb and release nutrients. Colloidal clay particles hold nutrient
minerals by the process of cation exchange. The total exchangeable
cations absorbed within a soil is termed its cation exchange capacity
(CEC). CEC is a measure of the soil's ability to hold nutrients.
CEC is usually high in fertile soils. Fertilizer applied to soils
with coarse textures are readily leached our due to their low CEC.
Soils high in colloids and/or organic matter usually display high CEC's
when compared to sandy types. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium are
mainly supplied through cation exchange (Beard, 1973).
• Calcium is the dominant exchangeable cation in nearly all soils.
It imparts chemical and physical stability to the clay-humus complex.
This aids in aggregation of these fine colloidal particles, making a
more desirable structure. Without calcium to produce a granular structure
within clay soils, such soils would be very unfavorable to many forms of
life.
While calcium ions promote soil stabilization, free hydrogen ions,
derived from ionization of acids, stimulate chemical changes. Hydrogen
ions are the active agents in acidic chemical action. In soil, they are
derived from carbonic acid, organic acids from humus, and from acids
that are products of chemical change. Their concentration is expressed
as pH*. The soil pH affects nutrient availability, solubility of toxic
elements, plant root development, and microbial activity. The relationship
of pH and plant nutrient availability are illustrated in Figure 12 of
Section 4. Under very acidic conditions, iron and aluminum become more
soluble and once in solution form complexes with phosphate ions, thus
tying them up. This limits the phosphorus available to plants.
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In general, nutrients are most available to plants around a soil pH
of 6.5. When pHs are near neutral, releases of nitrogen from organic
matter is most rapid. Neutral pH favors the activity of beneficial soil
microorganisms that are responsible for essential element transformation,
organic matter decomposition, and nitrogen fixation. Soils of neutral
pH tend to have better structure, improved moisture, and air relationships
result.
Liming is used to correct excess soil acidity. Liming neutralizes
acids, corrects calcium deficiency, and precipitates soluble metals
(e.g., aluminum, manganese, and iron) that can reach toxic levels.
Compounds used in liming contain calcium or magnesium or both. Carbonates
are commonly used, but hydroxides and oxides are also used (Pearson and
Adams, 1967).
The soil solution is the water in the soil with its dissolved
solids, liquids, and gases. Of the 16 essential plant nutrients--
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, potassium, nitrogen, sulfur,
calcium, iron, manganese, boron, magnesium, zinc, molybdenum, and chlorine--
all but carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are derived exclusively from the
soil solution. It is thought that virtually all substances absorbed by
plant roots must be in aqueous solution. Fertility is a balance of
those solutes that are plant nutrients. In nature, these nutrients, with
the exception of nitrpgen, are derived from parent material. Rocks from
which soils form are, therefore, significant. Igneous rocks of the
acidic series (e.g., granite, granodiorite, rhyolite, gneiss, and schist)
generally produce infertile soils while those of the basic series (e.g.,
basalt, andesite, gabbro, and diabase) usually yield soils with adequate
amounts of plant nutrients. Sedimentary rocks such as limestone usually
form fertile soils, and sandstone derived soils have a fertility level i>
that varies with the clay content of the rock (Daubenmire, 1974). Humus
developed in the soil becomes a nutrient source passed from one generation
of plants to the next.
Nutrients become of concern when they are deficient. The most
commonly limiting nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
*The pH is the negative logarithm (base 10) of the hydrogen ion concen-
tration. A pH of 7 indicates neutrality—at this pH the concentration of
hydrogen ions equals the concentration of hydroxyl ions.
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Hence, these are the principal components of fertilizers. Calcium may
become deficient, especially in humid regions where it is lost by percola-
tion. Additions of crushed limestone correct this deficiency.
When raw parent material first becomes available for plant colonization,
it contains practically no nitrogen, phosphorus, or sulfur which are in
forms usable by plants. These elements ordinarily become available
through the mineralization of humus. Yet plants colonize such materials,
and after a while these nutrients appear and begin to accumulate.
Pioneer plants of such habitats have a low demand for these nutrients,
and can absorb and accumulate very minute amounts from rainwater or from
the products of weathering rock. For example, there is a liverwort
which colonizes freshly deposited volcanic ash in Alaska; it thrives on
a medium as low in nitrogen as it is possible to synthesize. Certain
species may be able to invade relatively infertile substrata because
their roots vigorously excrete carbon dioxide which can extract materials
that are otherwise hard to solubilize. The process of plant succession
of some soils may be governed by the rate of fertility increases (Daubenmire,
1974).
Nutrient deficiency is a common problem on mineral wastes (Cornwell
and Stone, 1968; Cook, ejt al_., 1974). Proper use of fertilizer and
lime, in accordance with soil tests, may be used to correct deficiencies.
It has been said that a bag of fertilizer is worth more than a bag of
cement in controlling erosion. This indeed appears to be true in studies
that have been conducted (Section 7).
Kirkland (1974) found that amending the spoils of an open-pit iron-
titanium mine enhanced the growth of both herbaceous and woody plants.
2
A 5-10-5 pelletized fertilizer was applied at a rate of 45 g/m (400
pounds per acre). Even though soil temperature, soil moisture retention,
and humus content were poor, nutrient levels were the limiting factor
and were the easiest to remedy. Rates of ecological succession are
stimulated by fertilizer addition.
One form of addition is the placement of a fertilizer tablet in the
ground near the seedling at time of planting. One commercially available
form of this fertilizer is Agriform tablets (Sierra Chemical Co.).
These tables have been used in reclamation tests of Copperhill, Tennessee
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soil and show promise for such work (Berry, 1975). This form of fertilizer
application allows nutrients to be placed near roots where they will be
efficiently absorbed by the plant; thus much less fertilizer is required
per acre than for less focused methods of fertilizing. Since the fertilizer
is in a mass it is not as easily leached or carried away in runoff
water. This mass form means that it will be made available over a long
period of time.
Nutrient relations on strip mined spoils and other barren areas can
be improved through the addition of organic matter which has a high
cation exchange capacity. This enhances nutrient and water holding
capacity. Additions of small amounts of dried activated sewage sludge
to the closing hole when planting seedlings has shown promise in the
establishment of trees on barren soils (Berry, 1975).
Lowry (1960) found that additions of organic additives to the root
zones of conifers enhanced their survival on sandy, acid coal mine
spoils. Using proper species and organic matter additions, pines can be
established on sandy spoils with pH as low as 3.2. Under such harsh
conditions more trees per unit area should be planted to insure a closed
stand.
If enough plant nutrients are not present, deficiencies result
which show up as distinct symptoms on plants, or plants simply do not
grow. However, if certain plant nutrients (e.g., aluminum and manganese)
are present in excessive quantities, toxicity can result.
Toxicity can occur at very low pH when metals may become so soluble
that they reach toxic levels. This is one of the main adverse effects
of high soil acidity.
Metal toxicity to plants has been found to be one of the main
difficulties in vegetating mining and smelting wastes.
In a detailed treatment of heavy metal tolerance in plants, Anto-
novices ejt al_., (1971) have discussed the establishment of vegetation on
waste materials contaminated with heavy metals. Mineral tailings may be
as high as one percent in a given metal and other metals may also be
present. Weathering may continue to solubilize these metals for centuries.
Due to the effects of toxicity, combined with lack of nutrients and poor
texture, these wastes heaps remain almost barren. Covering such piles
with normal soils is one technique that enables them to be planted,
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but this is quite expensive. Researchers have sought to find less
expensive methods of amelioration. Additives of organic wastes such as
sewage sludge have shown some promise. However, with decay of the
organic matter the toxic condition would return. The method of using
metal-tolerant plant populations has been explored with success in
England. (Goodman ejt aJL» 1973).
Berg and Vogel (1973) reported that the toxicity of acid coal mine
spoils to plants is caused mainly by manganese and other metals, probably
aluminum. The toxicity of manganese was seen as marginal chlorisis on
legume leaves in both greenhouse and field tests. Manganese toxicity
could be predicted from spoil pH, but not from measures of water-soluble
manganese. Aluminum toxicity was expressed as stubby roots which lacked
lateral roots. Mulching with hardwood chips raised the extremely acid
pH and reduced soluble salts and water-soluble aluminum in the top 30 cm
of the spoil.
Peterson and Nielson (1973) studied tailings from 15 operations.
Wastes from copper, lead, zinc, and uranium mills displayed one or more
adverse properties. These were poor physical characteristics, nutrient
deficiencies, extremes of pH, salinity, and metal toxicity. Oxidation
of sulfides (e.g., iron pyrites) was found to aggravate metal toxicity
by decreasing the pH. Toxicity symptoms of particular metals were
difficult to identify since metals did not occur singly. The major
problem was pH. On sites where heavy metals occur, artificial leaching
or precipitation along with pH control was suggested.
Goodman et_ a]_. (1973) have pointed out that grasses produced on
sites contaminated with heavy metals cannot be fed to livestock due to
toxic levels of these metals which are accumulated. These authors
provide a discussion of ecological factors that affect plant growth on
mining and smelter dumps.
Repp (1973) has investigated the chemical resistance of plants on a
cellular basis. When harsh sites are to be revegetated, cell physio-
logical resistance tests may be used to screen for suitable plant species.
These tests employ tissue sections which are stressed in various ways
after which cell survival is assessed. According to Repp, the effect of
heavy metals seems mainly to depend on the capacity of a given metal to
coagulate protein.
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Besides their inherent toxicity, metals may also be harmful to
plants by precipitating nutrient ions. Trace metals may also enter into
reactions which result in the volatilization of the very important
nutrient, nitrogen (Wullstein, 1967).
Non-metals may also bio-accumulate in certain plants grown on
sulfide ore wastes. For example, animal toxicity has been observed in
animals, which have fed on plants containing high levels of selenium
(selenosis).
The salt content of soils sometimes reaches levels that inhibit
plant growth. The osmotic potential outside roots may become so high
that they are unable to absorb water. Regions that are poorly drained
and that have evaporative rates suffer from high salt levels (Arnett and
Braungart, 1970). Salinity is a deterrent to plant growth on tailing
piles. An inverse relationship between total soluble salts and plant
growth on acid mine spoils -has been demonstrated (Lorio, 1962).
6.2.2.2.3 Biological -- The soil has both a flora and a fauna. The
flora consists not only of the underground parts of higher plants, but
also of algae, fungi, and bacteria. The fauna is made of various pro-
tozoans and different kinds of worms, insects, and other invertebrates.
Small mammals such as moles, mice, and voles are also included. The
abundance of microorganisms is indicated by the number found in a fertile
agricultural soil (Willis, 1973):
Organism Number per gram of soil
Bacteria 350,000,000
Actinomycetes 700,000
Fungi 400,000
Algae 50,000
Protozoa 30,000
Many of these organisms consume organic matter and thus are important
in nutrient cycles. Important cycles include carbon, phosphorus, and
nitrogen.
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Lack of normal microbial populations has been cited as one of the
adverse characteristics of mineral wastes. Wilson has reported studies
of the microbiology of strip mine spoils (Wilson, 1965). His investig-
ation showed that bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes would increase in
number as vegetation became established. Vegetation was found to exert
a greater effect on spoil microorganisms than did pH. Fewer bacteria
were seen in the rhizosphere (i.e., soil region around roots) than in
the rhizoplane (i.e., root surfaces and adhering soil particles). Fungi
of the same species were seen in both vegetated and barren areas.
Amendment of the spoil with organic matter influenced both numbers and
types of organisms. Microbial by-products contribute to soil aggregation.
Poly-saccharides, produced by bacteria, are one such material. Bacteria
which are good producers of these were lacking from nonvegetated spoils.
Good producers were associated with certain plants. Microorganisms such
as ammonifiers, desitrifiers, nitrifiers, and cellulose decomposers were
more abundant in vegetated than nonvegetated spoil. Except for nitrifier,
these organisms are heterotrophic (require organic matter for energy).
James (1966) reported that gold mine dumps in South Africa contain
no organic matter and no microflora other than bacteria that oxidize
iron and sulfur.
In his study of plant colonization of coal mine waste, Schramm
(1966) found that waste devoid of higher plants lacked fungus. But
wherever tree species that were potentially ectomicorrhizal were estab-
lished, basidiomycetes could be found. Few fungal species were encountered
within the anthracite spoils.
Marx (1975) has pointed out that manipulation of mycorrhizal fungi
on roots of plants can have great potential for revegetaion of devasted
areas. Mycorrhiza are special compound structures that consist of plant
roots and fungal mycelia. The fungus invades the roots of plants and
either forms a mantle around the root or invades the cortex of the root.
In any case, the fungus aids the plant in absorption of both water and
minerals while obtaining nourishment from the plant. The occurrence of
mycorrhizal associations are so common that the nonmycorrhizal plant is
the exception rather than rule. Most plants form these associations and
some plants, pines in particular, cannot develop normally or survive
without the presence of these fungi. Mycorrhiza appear to increase the
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drought tolerance of trees, as well as their tolerance to high soil
temperature, soil toxins, and extremes of soil pH caused by high levels
of sulfur and aluminum.
Two factors which affect mycorrhizal development are light in-
tensity and soil fertility. High light intensity and moderate to poor
soil fertility enhances the growth of beneficial fungi which form them.
It can readily be seen that if mycorrhizal fungi are not present in a
certain area, vegetation would be aided if they could be introduced.
Introduction can be accomplished readily in either of two ways. Pre-
potted nursery stock innoculated with the fungi can be,,used in the
revegetation effort; this is especially helpful if young trees or shrubs
are being planted. An alternate method is to spread the area to be
planted with a light covering of forest topsoil (Marx, 1975).
A second type of plant root relationship is that involved in the
association between certain types of plants, primarily legumes, and the
nitrogen-fixing bacteria. These bacteria invade the roots of legumes
causing nodules to form. Such bacteria can take nitrogen from the air,
which is not available for use by higher plants, and convert it to a
usable nitrate form. By this action, as legumes die off, the bacteria
release a valuable nitrogen source for other plants, making legumes
particularly useful in many revegetation plans.
6.2.3 Climatic
Climatic factors affect many plant processes and are responsible
for the range of plant populations (Searle, 1973). Each factor makes a
vital contribution to sustaining plant life.
Climates in areas of the United States where fugitive dusts are
likely to present a significant problem, will generally be harsh and
unfavorable for vegetation. Daytime temperatures will probably be high,
rainfall low, and winds strong and dry.
In the following sections major climatic factors—light, precipi-
tation, wind, and temperature—will be discussed briefly.
6.2.3.1 Light -- The main importance of light, of course, is that it
drives the photosynthetic cycles of green plants. Sunlight is very
unlikely to be limiting except where dense vegetation produces a heavy
shade. Actually, many plants are saturated with respect to light at
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around 20 percent of full sunlight (full sunlight taken to be 10,000
2
footcandles, 108 k lumens/m ). The quantity as well as quality of light
is important to photosynthesis. The wavelengths between 400 and 700 nm
are particularly important since this is the region of the spectrum
which drives photosynthesis.
Competition for light does become critical in dense stands of
vegetation. Germination of some seeds has certain light requirements.
Certain seedlings (e.g., longleaf pine (Pinus palustris)) cannot survive
under shady conditions.
Photoperiod (i.e., day length) often influences plant growth and
reproduction. This phenomenon is largely responsible for many seasonal
changes observed in various plant species.
Light becomes a problem where plants grown under nursery conditions,
protected from strong light, are planted in the field. Because they are
not conditioned (i.e., hardened), a large percentage of them may not
survive.
In general, light will not be a problem in revegetation of barren
areas except perhaps indirectly as the source of high surface tempera-
tures.
6.2.3.2 Precipitation -- In all probability, water is the single most
important factor affecting plant growth. In areas where rainfall is
high, fugitive dust is less likely to be a problem because in these
areas vegetation is usually plentiful. In addition, wetted surfaces are
not easily eroded by wind. Water shortage is the number one limiting
factor in plant production in many areas of the United States today;
consequently, special techniques for dry land farming have developed
(e.g., mulching, strip cropping, and summer fallow).
The necessity of water for plant growth cannot be overstressed. The
plant body itself is usually 60 to 90 percent water. Not only is water
essential for physiological processes, but it also mobilizes soil
nutrients, making them available for use by the plant. All land plants
constantly lose water through their leaves as vapor in the process of
transpiration. Great quantities are lost this way. A single corn plant
may transpire more than 2 liters of water per day.
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The seasonal distribution of precipitation is quite important since
growing vegetation must have some minimum level of moisture available
constantly. This distribution has to be taken into account in planning
irrigation programs.
Mulches may be used to help conserve water in the soil. Besides
traditional forms of mulches, there exist the possibility of using
various polymeric sprays on the soil surface to help retain water.
Direct conservation of water within the plant itself may be brought
about by the use of antitranspirants. Antitranspirants are chemical
films of various types that are applied directly to plants as sprays
(Gale and Hogan, 1966). Their use might prove useful for establishing
seedlings in harsh environments.
6.2.3.3 Temperature -- The major impact of temperature on living
organisms lies in the fact that raising the temperature increases the
speed of biochemical reactions. For every organism there is a definite
temperature range in which it can live. But for plants as a whole, the
range is wide—from 80°F (27°C) for subartic conifer forests to 140°F
(60°C) for some desert species.
Temperatures on the earth are seldom too hot or too cold for plant
life, although temperature periodicity is very important. As seasonal
temperatures decrease, plants "harden" and become dormant. This affords
them protection in winter.
Another important aspect of temperature periodicity is the diurnal
cycle where daytime temperatures are higher than night. If night
temperatures become higher more products of photosynthesis, which are
produced only in light, will be consumed by respiration during dark
hours. This has an adverse affect on plant vigor since food supplies
are depleted.
Surface temperatures are a problem on barren areac, especially
those which are dark in color. Schramm (1966) reported that high surface
temperatures were a major deterrent in the natural establishment of
plants on anthracite wastes. These black wastes reached temperatures as
high as 75°C in flat areas. Emergent seedlings were heat girdled at the
stem bases or killed underground before breaking the surface. The best
area so far as temperature was concerned were shaded microhabitats on
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steep northerly slopes. Nonlethal temperatures also damaged young
stems, induced dormancy in certain pine seeds, and upset the normal
geotrophic behavior of roots. Superior heat resistance was noted for
two pines, Pinus virglm'ana and Pinus rigida.
6.2.3.4 Wind — Direction, intensity, and duration are the variables of
concern in considering wind effects on plants. The movement of air on a
microscale basis serves to deliver carbon dioxide to leaves, where it is
consumed in the process of photosynthesis. In still air, a 1 to 2 mm
boundary layer exists which impedes diffusion. Gas exchange is favored
by vigorous air movement which thins this boundary layer.
Wind serves to cool leaves, but at very low temperatures this
cooling may become detrimental. Wind action may also desiccate leaves,
and very dry winds can cause severe damage.
Wind is the main factor to be controlled in preventing soil particles
from becoming airborne. When winds are strong, the particles carried
may cause substantial abrasive damage to plants. When plantings are to
be made on potentially dusty sites, provision will have to be made to
control this abrasion until plants are well established.
6.2.4 Atmospheric
The atmosphere supplies the carbon dioxide which is the main raw
material for photosynthesis in plants. It also serves as a sink for
oxygen released by plants.
In this century, atmospheric pollution has become acute in some
areas of the world. The most important pollutants are sulfur dioxide,
ozone, nitrogen oxides, hydrocabons (indirectly), carbon monoxide, and
particulates. The effects of these materials on plants have been
considered by many workers (Jacobson and Hill, 1970).
Because smelting and mining wastes are often located in industrial
areas, pollutants in the air may be harmful to plants that are used as
covers for these materials. In fact, sulfur dioxide in the air is
currently the main problem in establishing vegetation in the Copperhill,
Tennessee area rather than any soil deficiency or climatic problem
(Berry, 1975).
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6.2.5 Biotic
The biotic environment includes all of the living things in the
environment. Organisms in a given locality which interact comprise a
community. There is continuous competition within a given species
(intraspecific) and among different species (interspecific).
There are three major types of organismic interaction; these are
commensal ism, mutualism, and parasitism. In commensalism, plants which
associate neither harm nor benefit each other. Among plants this type
of relationship is demonstrated by epiphytes which grow on trees.
Mutualism between plants results when both members of an association
derive benefit from each other. Nitrogen fixing relationships between
legumes and bacteria are of this type. Both commensalism and mutualism
are forms of symbiosis—intimate associations where neither organism is
s
harmed. Parasitism results when one organism, the parasite, depends on
another, the host, for all or part of its nutrition. The host is
weakened by this relationship; many plant diseases fall into this
category. Misteltoe, for example, is parasitic on hardwoods.
The possibility of plant diseases should be considered when harsh
sites are to be planted. Under such circumstances, plants weakened by
adverse conditions can be more susceptible to diseases.
Plants compete with each other for root space and exposure to
light. The more crowded the plants, the greater will be the reduction in
size and the number of seeds produced. There are some benefits from
crowding, however. If a group of plants occupies all the available
space, they provide a unified front against the invasion of other species.
Dioecious plants (i.e., separate sexes) must be close enough together so
that fertilization can readily occur.
Competition among different species occurs everywhere. Any disease
or other factor that weakens one plant will give the advantage to another
plant. Some plants produce fast growing runners that are effective in
quickly invading new territory.
Animals influence plant populations through consumption and by
distributing plant propagules. Overgrazing by cattle has been cited as
a serious problem in revegetation efforts in some areas.
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7.0 CASE HISTORIES AND RECOMMENDED METHODS FOR TERRAIN
STABILIZATION BY VEGETATIVE COVER
The term "vegetative cover" spans a spectrum of microvegetative
species such as algae, lichen and mosses through grasses, legumes,
vines, shrubs and trees. Natural vegetative succession in inhospitable
soils are discussed in Section 6.1; the present section reports on
specific efforts to establish vegetative cover on common types of mine
and mineral waste heaps, and summarizes recommendations based on these
efforts.
The section is organized by waste types. Section 7.1 covers coal
mine refuse and spoils, Section 7.2 reviews mineral ore tailings,
Section 7.3 discusses spent oil shale deposits, and Section 7.4 deals
with sand and gravel pit revegetation. A catalog of plant species
used in revegetation efforts is given in Appendix B. The entries in this
catalog include the common and scientific names of the plants, general
information about recommended growing conditions, and summaries of
attempts to use the species in specific revegetation programs.
7.1 COAL MINE REFUSE AND SPOILS
Mined coal is invariably accompanied by a large quantity of waste
material, which consists principally of varying amounts of slate,
carbonaceous and pyritic shale, clay and sandstone. The wastes and
unrecoverable coal obtained in underground mining are separated from the
recoverable coal in a preparation plant; fine wastes (primarily coal,
ash and pyrites) are mixed with water and pumped to slurry ponds,
and coarse wastes (coal, shale, clay and sandstone) are dumped to fill
valleys or to form refuse banks (also called refuse piles, gob piles or
culm banks). The refuse banks are aesthetic blights, subject to spontaneous
combustion which can last for decades once begun, and represent serious
sources of water pollution (through acid drainage and siltation into
streams and lakes) and air pollution (through fugitive dust emission and
release of noxious combustion products).
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Additional environmental problems are created when coal is surface-
mined. The composition of the material covering a coal seam (the
overburden) varies considerably with position relative to the surface.
When the excavated trenches or pits are refilled, the resulting surface
may be incapable of supporting natural revegetation.
Strip mining is carried out in several ways, of which the principal
two are area stripping, in which parallel trenches are dug in relatively
flat or rolling terrain, and contour stripping, in which cuts are made
around a hillside.
In area stripping, the overburden removed from each cut is used to
fill in the previous cut. A worked-out stripped area consequently
consists of a series of ridges and troughs (the spoil banks) with a deep
final cut where the last trench was excavated. The final cut is bounded
by a long slope on the side of the spoil banks (the outslope) and a
steep wall on the opposite side (the highwall). The distance between
spoil bank ridges varies from 11 to 21 m (35 to 70 feet), and the ridges
generally vary in height from 3 to 6 m (10 to 20 feet). The highwall
may vary in height from one meter (3 ft) to as much as 30 m (100 feet).
A hill which has been countour-stripped has several topographic
features in common with an area-stripped region. A series of terraces
go up the surface of the hill; each terrace consists of a highwall on
the uphill side, a flat bench with a relatively slight grade, and a long
and frequently steep outs!ope covered with the excavated overburden.
An important part of modern strip mining operations is planning the
excavation and spoil redistribution so that the overburden materials
which are least supportive of plant growth—particularly stony and
pyritic shales—are buried deep in the spoils when the mining has been
completed. Backfilling and grading of spoil banks and highwalls to
restore the land to its original contour and covering with one or more
feet of topsoil prior to vegetating may be performed, aither voluntarily
or under mandate of law.
Revegetation of coal mine spoils has been practiced for many years
in most coal-producing areas of the world, and the literature abounds
with planting recommendations and comparative species evaluations.
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Despite the volume of published information, however, the subject has
not nearly reached the point where the correct species to plant on a
given spoil can be specified with certainty, and research on the per-
formance of existing species and the development of new ones is currently
under way at agricultural and forestry experiment stations throughout
the country.
Several general references discuss revegetation of coal-mine spoil
areas. The document Surface Mining and Reclamation in Kentucky (1972)
provides a good survey of both mining and spoil reclamation techniques.
Other references which discuss the rehabilitation of surface mine spoils
are the Revegetation Manual (1966), published by the USDA Forest Service
in Berea, Kentucky; A Guide for Revegetating Bituminous Strip Mine Spoils
in Pennsylvania (1965, rev. 1971) published by the Research Committee on
Coal Mine Spoil Revegetation in Pennsylvania and obtainable from the US
Soil Conservation Service in Harrisburg, Pa.; and papers by Carter et_
al. (1973, 1974), Limstrom (1960) and Cook et al_. (1974). Discussions of
techniques for stabilizing refuse banks and slurry ponds are presented
by Coalgate ejt al_. (1973) and Kosowski (1973). Cost analyses and case
studies of both deep mine and surface mine-spoil reclamation are contained
in Bureau of Mines document PB-226 725 (1973) entitled "Methods and
Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation", obtainable from the
National Technical Information Service (NTIS).
The most comprehensive summary of references on mine spoil reclama-
tion is contained in Surface Mining and Mined Land Reclamation: A Selected
Bibliography, published in October 1974 by the Old West Regional Commission,
1730 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006. This document lists 1337
references, which include earlier bibliographies, citations of legal
opinions, environmental impact and economic studies, and studies of
spoil properties, planting techniques, and species selection, with a
special section devoted to revegetation of arid and semi-arid lands.
The pages that follow review the material in the general references
cited above and in specific case studies of mine spoil reclamation
efforts. Section 7.1.2 summarizes recommended procedures for mine spoil
reclamation programs; topics discussed include grading and soil cover;
species selection for revegetation of acidic spoils and steep slopes;
various factors involved in the selection of grasses, legumes, shrubs
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and trees; soil treatment procedures (liming and fertilizing); and
planting and mulching techniques. Section 7.1.3 dicusses the revegetation
of refuse banks and slurry ponds, both with and without soil covers, and
Section 7.1.4 discusses surface mine spoil revegetation efforts in the
East, Midwest and West.
At the conclusion of Section 7.1 is a table of species which have
been used for coal mine spoil reclamation, and separate tables of acid-
tolerant species. Each of the species listed in these tables and in
Sections 7.1.2 through 7.1.4 have entries in the plant catalog of
Appendix B, in which are given the scientific names of the plants,
general recommendations for planting, and results of mine-spoil re-
vegetation efforts in which the plants were used.
7.1.2 Elements of A Mine-spoil Reclamation Program
A good survey of the steps involved in the reclamation of a coal
mine spoil is contained in Surface Mining and Reclamation in Kentucky,
(1972), published by the Division of Reclamation of the Kentucky Depart-
ment of Natural Resources. This document presents several hypothetical
case studies, and provides the reader with a highly readable chrono-
logical picture of the problems faced by the mine operator at each stage
of his operation, along with recommended solutions of these problems.
The Guide for Revegetating Bituminous Strip-Mine Spoils in Pennsylvania
(1965, rev. 1971) and the Revegetation Manual (1966) are also excellent
sources of general information and recommendations.
A point made in all of the various published guides for surface
mine spoil reclamation is the need for soil testing and planning before
mining begins. The soil overlying the coal to be mined should be subjected
to a complete analysis, with core-drilled samples being taken at a
series of depths from the surface to the coal seam. The overburden
from adjacent mining operations should also be examined, both to determine
its composition and to see what vegetation is growing on it. A long range
land use plan should then be developed, since the reclamation procedures
needed to establish woodland, agriculture, recreation or wildlife areas
on the abandoned spoils may differ considerably. The ultimate use of the
land is partially governed by economic considerations, but may be largely
dictated by the topography of the mine region and the results of the soil
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tests; anything may be grown on neutral, nutrient-rich spoils, but stony
or highly acidic nutrient-deficient spoils may be capable of supporting
species suitable only for wildlife areas.
A number of potential obstacles to revegetation may be revealed by
soil tests, including overburden strata with poor chemical properties
(e.g., high acidity, alkalinity, or salinity, or high levels of po-
tentially toxic elements) or poor physical properties (e.g., low soil
content or excessive proportions of sand or clay). A discussion of
these and other soil properties and their effects on the establishment
and growth of vegetation has been-given in Section 6. If problem spoils
are predicted by preliminary soil tests, plans should be made to backfill
and grade the spoils in such a way that the worst of the overburden is
buried; this may entail removing and preserving separately the overburden
nearest the surface and using this material as a final cover.
After mining operations have been completed, the spoils should be
subjected to another series of tests. The Guide for Revegetating
Bituminous Strip-mine Spoils in Pennsylvania (1965) suggests preparing a
spoil classification map, which shows the slope, pH, stoniness and
particular problems associated with each region of the mined area. A
detailed revegetation plan should then be formulated using this map as a
guide: among the decisions to be made are 1) whether and how much to
grade or reshape the spoils; 2) whether to add a soil cover or to attempt
to revegetate the spoils directly; 3) which species to plant and how to
plant them; 4) what type and how much lime, fertilizer and mulch to
add.
During each stage of the planning, mining and reclamation operations,
an agronomist familiar with soils and natural vegetation in the area to
be reclaimed should be consulted. Staff scientists at university, state
and federal agricultural and forestry experiment stations are always
extremely helpful in this regard (see Appendix C).
The sections that follow contain general guidelines and suggestions
for mine spoil reclamation procedures, based on published studies of
successful and unsuccessful revegetation efforts.
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7.1.2.1 Grading -- Spoils and refuse banks should be graded to a slope
of less than 25 percent for agricultural uses, and to less than roughly
35 percent for recreation and wildlife uses. A minimum grade of 1-2
percent should be provided to prevent impounding of water. Diversion
furrows or ditches should be provided to allow drainage and to control
erosion (Guide to Revegetating... 1965).
Grading may have a positive or negative effect on plant growth,
depending primarily on the soil texture. Soils with high clay contents
tend to become overcompacted when graded, thereby reducing the possible
rate of water infiltration. Species planted on such soils may conse-
quently have a lower probability of survival, and if they survive they
may grow at a low rate relative to the same species planted on ungraded
spoils. Many case studies of plantings on spoils in the Midwest, which
are characterized by high clay and limestone contents, show evidence of
this negative grading effect (Chapman, 1967; Clark, 1954; Geyer and
Rogers, 1972; Merz and Finn, 1951). Chapman (1967) recommends avoiding
grading whenever possible on soils with clay contents in excess of 15
percent. On the other hand, survival and growth on coarse spoils of the
type more common in Pennsylvania may be helped by grading, a phenomenon '
cited by Czapowskyj (1970).
Possible changes in the chemical makeup of the surface material due
to grading should be taken into account when selecting species to plant.
Spoils tend to be nonuniform in acidity, for example, and grading may
take concentrated highly-acidic regions and either bury them (which is
desirable) or spread them out, which may be good or bad, depending on the
size of the acid region and the species to be planted.
7.1.2.2 Soil Cover -- The spoil revegetation technique which is most likely
to succeed is to apply a soil cover prior to planting. The problem with
this approach is the cost of transporting, spreading and compacting the
soil cover, a cost which normally far exceeds the cost of planting. In
revegetation projects cited in Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse Reclamation
and Reclamation (1973), planting costs ranged from 1.2
-------
It is clearly desirable to minimize or eliminate the necessity for
soil cover, and to find species which will grow directly on spoil
material. Direct revegetations of strip mine spoil banks are numerous,
and several instances of successful slurry pond revegetations are
recorded (See Section 7.1.3); there have been no particularly successful
revegetations directly on coarse refuse, however, so that given the
present state-of-the-art, direct revegetation of a bare refuse bank
should probably not be attempted on anything but an experimental basis.
When a soil cover is not required by state regulations, the need
for one depends on the spoil analysis—particularly the pH, the con-
centrations of potential toxins like aluminum and manganese, and the
soil content. A spoil with a pH less than about 3.5 which also has a
high sulfur content should always be covered, since even if lime is
added to raise the pH, the sulfur eventually oxidizes to form metal
sulfates and sulfuric acid and the pH drops again. Spoils containing
excessive quantities of trace metals and soluble salts may be leached
(irrigated and drained to remove the objectional material), but this is
generally an inefficient process and covering may be preferable.
A minimum of 20 percent of soil-sized particles (mean diameters
less than 2 mm) is considered necessary to support plant growth (Tree
Planting in the Allegheny Section. 1961). The problem of excessive
stoniness may be partially alleviated by weathering of the refuse— a
combination of physical disintegration and chemical decomposition over a
period of time. If a stony spoil contains quickly decomposing shales,
it should be given three years to weather before planting is begun; if
it is primarily sandstone and other slowly weathering materials, and
contains less than the minimum proportion of soil-sized particles, a
cover is necessary (Coalgate, 1973).
A one-foot soil cover has been recommended for plateaus by several
authors (Brundage, 1974; Kosowski, 1973; Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse
Disposal and Reclamation. 1973), and a deeper cover is suggested for
slopes. The choice of a cover material (undisturbed soil, strip mine
overburden, and digested sewage sludge being three possible alternatives)
is discussed in detail in Section 7.1.3.
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7.1.2.3 Species Selection — The choice of species to plant is largely
dictated by local climatic conditions, desired land use (cropland,
livestock forage, timber production, or recreation and wildlife pre-
servation), and the physical and chemical makeup of the spoil or soil
cover to be revegetated.
General species recommendations for different types of soils are
given by Searle (1973), and species recommended specifically for mined
land revegetation are summarized in Sections 5.1.3 and 5.1.4 and in
Table 17. General considerations which go into making the choice are
summarized below.
7.1.2.3.1 Planting on acid spoils -- Few plants can grow satisfactorily
on soils with pH less than 5, so that it is normally advisable to use an
alkaline material to bring the pH of acidic spoils at least to this
level and preferably to a value in the range 6 to 8. The most common
neutralizing material is agricultural limestone; other materials which
have been used on an experimental basis include power plant fly ash
(Capp and Gillmore, 1973), municipal sewage effluent (Sopper ejt al._,
1975), and mined phosphate rock (Armiger ejt al_._, 1975; Bennett, 1971).
The normal neutralization procedures is to mix the lime into the
top six inches of the spoil; on particularly acidic spoils with high
sulfur concentrations, the lime should be mixed to a depth of 12 inches
(Revegetation Manual. 1966). It is preferable to allow six months for
the lime to react with the acidic materials in the spoil before seeding
is attempted, assuming this requirement does not conflict with state
regulations (Ibid.).
Even after the soil has been neutralized, oxidation of sulfides to
acid sulfates may eventually lower the pH again, so that it is usually
best to choose species known to be acid-tolerant for revegetating
pyritic spoils.
Tables 18, 19 and 20 list grasses, legumes, shrubs, and trees which
are known to be acid-tolerant. (Searle, (1973) may also be consulted in
this regard). Additional points concerning survival and growth in
acidic media are given below.
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Most of the species known to tolerate highly acidic soils (pH less
than 4) are trees and shrubs; of the trees, most are conifers, with the
exceptions of gray and white birch, red oak, black locust and European
alder.
The most widely recommended tree for acid sites at this time is
European black alder. Like black locust, the alder fixes atmospheric
nitrogen and serves as a good nurse crop for other species; it is
somewhat less vigorous than locust, but it lives longer, has a much
better form, and has a potential for timber production which locust does
not. It has survived at a pH as low as 3.5 (Ruffner, 1966). It is
subject to damage by drought, however, and should not constitute more
than one-third of any tree mixture (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965).
Black locust has usually had the best survival and short-term
growth record of any species tested in a given location (Brown and
Tryon, 1960; Clark, 1954); however, its poor form and susceptibility to
borer damage have led to its general abandonment for reclamation projects
except as a nurse crop for other species or on steep slopes or ridges
where no other species can be induced to grow (Medvick, 1973). Recently,
efforts have been undertaken to develop a hybrid black locust which
retains the acid tolerance of this species but displays better form and
resistance to borer attack. The result is the "dominant stem" black
locust, which shows considerable potential for use in revegetation of
acid spoils (Ruffner, 1966; Ruffner and Stevens, 1973).
Other hardwoods which tolerate pH less than 4 include aspen (Knabe,
1964), which has been observed to invade strip mine spoils in Pennsylvania
and West Virginia (Medve, 1974; Mellinger et_ aj_., 1966), and gray birch,
European white birch and river birch (Guide for Revegetating.... 1965;
Horn and Wood, 1969; Knabe, 1964; Revegetation Manual, 1966; Wheeler,
1965). Red oak has been known to survive at pH 3.2 (29 percent after 10
years—Hart and Byrnes, 1960), but grows slowly at first. Knabe (1964)
suggests black cherry as part of a mixture on acid spoils. Several
authors suggest hybrid poplars for low pH soils (Davis, 1964; Eschner,
1960; Jones, 1973), but their precise capabilities are still not known
and clone selection makes a great difference in performance.
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A Virginia pine has been observed growing in Indiana at a pH of
3.5, and a hybrid of pitch and loblolly pine survived at a pH of 2.5
(Limstrom, 1964). Virginia pine is one of the most widely recommended
conifers for acid spoils; it is considered by some to be the most acid-
tolerant pine (Miles ejt al_._, 1973) and has done comparatively well in
survival and growth on near-toxic sites (Boyce and Neebe, 1959; Czapowskyj
and McQuilken, 1966; Dale, 1963; Mellinger ejt aK_, 1966; Ruffner, 1966);
however, it is usually outperformed by other conifers in tests on moderately
acid to neutral soils (Boyce and Neebe, 1959; Brown, 1962).
Pitch pine is acid-tolerant but has poor form and growth and is not
recommended for forest plantings (Boyce and Neebe, 1969; Czapowskyj,
1970; Geyer and Rogers, 1972; Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Red pine and jack
pine are also highly acid-tolerant although, like Virginia pine, they
are not good choices for better soils; they require well-drained soil
and are susceptible to tip moth and sawfly damage (Finn, 1958). Red
pine is recommended for acid spoils in Pennsylvania (Guide for Revegetating...,
1965), but it is highly susceptible to tip moth damage and its use in
Indiana plantings was discontinued in 1963 (Medvick, 1973). Jack pine
has good initial growth but slows up considerably between 10 and 15
years after planting (Wheeler, 1965).
White pine has been used extensively, but its growth during the
first three to five years is usually less than that of most other pines;
it is susceptible to weevil infestation, and it is less acid-resistant
than Virginia, pitch, jack, and red pines (Czapowskyj, 1970; Funk and
Krause, 1964; Guide to Revegetation, 1965; Lowry, 1960). Its
potential for long-range growth (greater than 20 years) on acid spoils
has not been adequately explored.
Several acid-resistant shrubs have been cultivated. Arnot bristly
locust has been found to provide effective cover for pH greater than 3.5
and is particularly recommended for erosion control on steep outer
slopes of spoil banks (mcWilliams, 1971; Miles et a]_., 1973; Revegetation
Manual. 1966; Ruffner and Stiner, 1973). The "belmont" strain of
Japanese fleeceflower grows and reproduces at a pH of 3.5 and tolerates
as pH as low as 3.2 (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Horn and Ward (1969)
found scotch broom to be the most acid-tolerant shrub they tested, followed
by Japanese and bicolor lespedezas and autumn olive. Autumn olive is also
110
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recommended by Carter, ejt a]_. (1974), the Guide for Revegetating (1965),
and the Revegetation Manual (1966). Ruffner (1965) suggests that autumn
olive may tolerate a pH in the range of 3-4, and both Ruffner (1966) and
Mellinger ejt al_. (1966) rate it second only to black locust in its
ability to provide cover on poor sites.
For pH greater than 4.5, any of the species listed in Tables 5-2,
3, and 4 may be planted.
7.1.2.3.2 Planting on slopes — Establishment of vegetation on steep
slopes is relatively difficult, since the slopes are difficult to access
and are susceptible to severe, rapid erosion. Hydroseeding (mixing and
spraying a slurry of water, fertilizer, seed, and a wood fiber or paper
pulp mulch on the areas to be revegetated) is presently the most effective
technique for slope reclamation (Surface Mining and Reclamation in
Kentucky. 1972).
When trees or shrubs rather than grasses and legumes are to be
established on slopes, direct planting rather than seeding is generally
recommended. The few woody species which have been successfully seeded
include black locust, bristly locust and shrub lespedezas (Revegetation
Manual 1966). The most difficult type of area to revegetate is a steep
slope which is highly acidic. Ruffner (1965) recommended bristly locust
for this purpose, since it can be seeded, provides quick stabilization,
and is acid-tolerant.
Soil and drainage characteristics vary bewtween the upper and lower
slopes of spoil banks, and different species are frequently recommended
for these locations. On highly acidic Pennsylvania spoils, red oak is
recommended for the lower slopes, and black locust is suggested for the
upper slopes (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). On Illinois spoils, conifers are
recommended for ridges and upper slopes, and hardwoods are recommended
for lower slopes and valleys (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Tree survival
also depends on the direction in which the slope faces, and is generally
better on slopes with a northern or eastern exposure (Clark, 1954;
Czapowskyj and Writer, 1970; Limstrom and Merz, 1949; May et_ al_^, 1971;
Schramm, 1966).
Ill
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7.1.2.3.3 Choosing grasses and legumes — Most spoils are deficient in
nitrogen, and the inclusion of at least 5 to 10 percent of a legume in
seeding mixtures to fix atmospheric nitrogen is usually essential
(Medvick, 1973; Struthers, 1960). Legumes should always be inoculated
with suitable growth-inducing microorganisms prior to planting (Carter
ejt aj_. 1974). Particular grasses and legumes recommended for spoils of
different types are listed in Table 17.
The most widely recommended perennial grass is tall fescue, usually
the Kentucky-31 variety. Several varieties of wheatgrass have been used
with good results in reclamation of western spoils, and bermudagrass and
bahiagrass are effective in the South. On acidic spoils (pH less than
5.5) bermudagrasses, deertongue and weeping lovegrass are preferable to
fescue, which is susceptible to aluminum toxicity in acidic spoils
(Vogel and Berg, 1968). Deertongue is particularly acid resistant, but
it is difficult to establish (Ruffner, 1966). Annual or perennial
ryegrasses are almost invariably chosen for short-lived, quick cover;
millet grass is also used for this purpose in the South.
The most widely recommended legumes are alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil,
crownvetch, flat pea, and Sericea lespedeza. Alfalfa works quite well
on relatively nutrient-rich soils with pH greater than 6, but tends to
fail under difficult growing conditions.
Birdsfoot trefoil and crownvetch provide attractive ground covers,
but may be difficult to establish. Birdsfoot trefoil, particularly the
Empire variety, has reasonably good acid tolerance, and is salt and
drought-resistant (Sorrel 1, 1974). Crownvetch is less acid-tolerant, is
effective on slopes, and should be planted with a quick cover grass such
as weeping lovegrass or annual ryegrass. It may take up to three years
to establish a good stand by planting, and is often extremely difficult
to establish by seeding, although Ruffner (1966) reports success in this
regard.
Flatpea is acid-tolerant and drought-tolerant, but slow to establish,
and produces seeds which are poisonous to livestock (Miles et al_.,
1973; Ruffner, 1966).
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Sericea lespedeza has been recommended for a wide variety of soil
and climatic conditions; it grows best on well-drained loose soils, and
prefers a pH between 6 and 6.5 but grows in the range 4-7 (Guernsey,
1970). Kobe lespedeza may be somewhat more tolerant of acidic conditions
(Berg and Vogel, 1968).
Several varieties of clover and sweetclover have been used in
plantings, but with mixed success except under ideal soil conditions.
Kudzu is also an effective plant for spoil reclamation, but it tends to
smother everything else around it (Figure 14) and should not be used in
mixed plantings or in plantings where other vegetation is already present.
7.1.2.3.4 Choosing trees and shrubs — The selection of trees and
shrubs is more geography-dependent than is the selection of grasses and
legumes. Comparative species ratings and recommendations are given in
Section 6.1.4, which reviews spoil revegetations in different regions of
the country. The sections that follow discuss more general considerations
in the selection and planting of trees.
7.1.2.3.5 Planting trees on spoils with existing herbaceous covers -- A
common technique is to plant a cover of grasses and legumes to provide
rapid stabilization of a spoil bank, and to overplant trees for long-
range reclamation. Some caution is necessary when doing this, since
some herbaceous species—particularly grasses—may hurt the growth of
the trees. Tall fescue and ryegrass in particular tend to suppress tree
growth, and the partial replacement of these species by weeping lovegrass
and legumes in areas to be reforested is recommended (Revegetation Manual,
1966). An alternative is to plant an annual grass in the Spring, let it
die, and then plant trees (Ibid.).
7.1.2.3.6 Conifers vs. hardwoods — No unanimity exists on the relative
merits of conifers and hardwoods. On acidic soils, the best species for
quick stabilization and growth are nitrogen-fixing hardwoods like black
locust and European alder, followed by various pines. Czapowskyj (1970)
and Chapman (1967) indicate that hardwoods generally survive and grow
better than conifers on Pennsylvania anthracite spoils and spoils in the
113
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central states respectively, while the Revegetation Manual (1966) makes
the opposite claim for Kentucky. Boyce and Neebe (1959), in recommending
species for Illinois, suggest that pines are better on acid spoils and
hardwoods are preferable for calcareous areas; they also recommend
planting conifers on ridges and upper slopes, and hardwoods in lower
slopes and in valleys. Limstrom (1960) indicates that both hardwoods
and conifers are adaptable to sands or loose loams and clays, but most
pines should not be planted on compact loams and clays, the exceptions
being white pine and eastern red cedar.
7.1.2.3.7 Mixed tree plantings: nurse species ~ As a rule, mixtures
of tree species should be planted, since most areas to be revegetated
vary in composition from one point to another and the best species for
one site may not be the best for another (Medvick, 1973). Limstrom
(1960) recommends planting bands of five rows each or blocks of different
species. The Revegetation Manual (1966) offers the same suggestion with
respect to pines, sycamore, cottonwood and hybrid poplar, and suggests
planting other hardwoods in mixtures; the same reference suggests 30-50
ft strips of shrubs and trees alternating with strips of grasses and
legumes of the same width as an attractive scheme for wildlife preservation
areas. Smith (1971) proposes alternating rows of pioneer species (black
locust and European alder), pulpwood species (cottonwood, silver maple,
sycamore, red gum, bigtooth aspen and autumn olive) and timber species
(red oak, white oak, tulip tree, white ash and black walnut).
Much has been written about the interplanting of nitrogen—fixing
trees to act as nurse species--i.e., to facilitate growth of other
interplanted species. Black locust has traditionally been used for this
purpose, but many plants cannot compete successfully with black locust
and caution should be exercised when using this tree in mixed plantings.
In particular, it has been suggested that black locust not be interplanted
with conifers, sycamore or cottonwood (Limstrom, 1960), and that no more
than 25 percent of black locust be included in any interplantings (Carter
§1 lL_> 1974; Revegetation Manual. 1966). Species which reportedly do
well interplanted with black locust include red oak, yellow poplar,
sweetgum, and green and white ash (Limstrom, 1960),
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European alder is frequently included instead of black locust as a
nurse in plantings. It has a beneficial effect on the growth of hybrid
poplars (Knabe, 1964), and on the survival and growth of ash and several
pines on acid soils (Dale, 1963).
The damage done by nitrogen-fixing nurse species usually occurs
when the nurses overtop the species they are supposed to be helping. An
alternative is to interplant a nitrogen-fixing shrub, which functions as
a nurse but remains below the growth level of the interplanted trees.
Shrubs recommended for this purpose include autumn olive, bristly locust,
and Natob bicolor lespedeza (Revegetation Manual, 1966); the first two
are particularly suited to acid spoils.
7.1.2.4 Soil Neutralization — When the pH of a soil is less than about
5, metals such as aluminum and manganese in the soil dissolve and become
available to plants in potentially toxic quantities, and at the same
time important nutrients like phosphorus and potassium precipitate out
and become unavailable to the plants (McCart, 1973). Raising the soil
pH above 5.5 by applying an alkaline material is usually sufficient to
overcome these problems.
Agricultural limestone is the most commonly used neutralizing
material. Burned lime and hydrated lime can also be used, but they are
generally much more expensive (Revegetation Manual, 1966). Other materials
which have been used on an experimental basis include power plant fly
ash (Capp and Gilmore, 1974) and municipal sewage effluent (Sopper ejt
aJL, 1975; Bennett, 1971). The first two of these materials are discussed
in greater detail in Section 7.1.3. The effectiveness of a combined
treatment with limestone and sewage sludge has been noted by several
authors (Carter e_t al_., 1974; Sutton and Vimmerstedt, 1973).
The amount of neutralizer to apply can be determined from a soil
analyhsis. If liming is to be carried out at all, the pH of the soil to
be treated should be raised to at least 6.0 for the establishment of
grasses, legumes or hardwoods, and to at least 5.5 for conifers or acid-
tolerant shrubs. If conifers are to be planted, the pH should not be
rasised above 6 since above this pH the level of iron in the soil falls
below the optimum range for conifer survival and growth (Lowry, 1960).
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The normal neutralization procedure is to mix the lime into the top
6 inches of the spoil; on particularly acidic soils with high pyrite
concentrations, the lime should be mixed to a depth of 12 inches
(Revegetation Manual, 1966). It is preferable to allow six months for
the lime to react with the acidic materials in the spoil before seeding
is attempted, when this requirement does not conflict with state re-
gulations (Ibid).
Lime can be spread in relatively flat regions by conventional
techniques and a blower mounted on a lime truck has been found effective
for applying lime to outslopes (Revegetation Manual. 1966). Using a
tractor at the top of a ridge to drag a chain across a slope has been
found to be an effective way to work the lime into the soil (Ibid.).
7.1.2.5 Fertilization -- The principal nutrients required for plant
growth are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (See Section 6). Mine
spoils are almost invariably deficient in nitrogen, and are often
deficient in phosphorus; few instances of potassium deficiency are
reported, however.
A soil analysis is essential to determine the amount and type of
fertilizer needed to revegetate a mine spoil, and the fertilizer require-
ments also depend to a great extent on what is to be planted. Grasses
invariably need nitrogen, but do not necessarily respond to additions of
phosphorus and potassium (Cook, Hyde, and Sims, 1974; Grandt, 1965); on
the other hand, legumes need phosphorus but not nitrogen, since they are
capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen (Grandt, 1965; Mays, 1975), and
the addition of nitrogen in fertilizer may even inhibit their germination
(Dean e_t aJK, 1974). The Guide for Revegetating Bituminous Strip-Mine
Spoils in Pennsylvania (1965) recommends, in the absence of a soil test,
2
the annual application of at least 5.6 g/m of nitrogen (50 Ibs/acre),
11 g/m (100 Ibs/acre) of phosphoric acid and 11 g/m2 (100 Ibs/acre) of
potash on herbaceous plots, with the nitrogen being eliminated on plots
where legumes predominate.
The effect of fertilization on the survival and growth of trees is
complex. Czapowskyj (1973) found that fertilization had little effect
on the survival and growth of red pine and Japanese larch on anthracite
breaker refuse in Pennsylvania. Funk and Krause (1965) found that
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fertilization hurt the survival of yellow poplar, white ash and white
pine on Ohio mine spoils, but that it increased the growth rate of the
trees that survived.
Nutrient requirements are generally lower for conifers than for
hardwoods (Limstrom, 1960). The Guide for Revegetating Bituminous
Strip-Mine Spoils in Pennsylvania (1965) recommends, in the absence of a
2
soil test, 5.6 g/m (50 Ibs/acre) each of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and
potash; on many spoils in the Midwest and West the latter two nutrients
could probably be eliminated.
A good discussion of fertilizers and methods of mixing commercially
available fertilizers to meet desired specifications are given in the
Revegetation Manual (1966).
7.1.2.6 Planting -- Most revegetation guides indicate that early spring
and early fall are the best seasons for planting, but differ in their
choices between the two. Cook et_ aU (1974) suggest as a general rule
that the best time to seed is just prior to the season that receives the
most dependable precipitation. Other references suggest planting trees
in the Spring (Guide for Revegetating.... 1965; Grandt, 1965; Limstrom,
1960; Revegetation Manual. 1966; Wheeler, 1965). Fall seedings are
recommended for cool season grasses like fescue (Revegetation Manual,
1966), and in general for the Southwest and mountainous areas of the
West where most precipitation occurs in the fall (Cook ejt aK, 1974).
Spring seedings are preferable for warm season grasses like weeping
lovegrass, sorghum and millet, and for legumes, which may be winter-
killed (Revegetation Manual, 1966). The Revegetation Manual (1966)
recommends several seeding mixtures for different seasons.
The various guides to revegetation offer a number of miscellaneous
suggestions regarding planting. Planting should be carried out immediately
after grading (Revegetation, 1966). Legumes should be inoculated just
prior to planting (Carter et al., 1974). Livestock should be kept from
grazing on newly planted areas for at least two years (Revegetation Manual,
1966). Trees should be planted within two weeks after delivery, and must
be kept moist prior to planting (Ibid.).
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Seeding may be carried out by drilling or disking the seed onto a
loose soil (pre-tilled, if necessary) and then, if possible, covering it
or rolling or plowing it under. Broadcasting generally requires twice
as much seed as drilling (Cook ejt a]_., 1974).
Dry broadcasting of seed alone or of seed and fertilizer can be
accomplished effectively on level ground with a cyclone seeder, a blower
attached to a lime-spreading truck, or an airplane (Revegetation Manual,
1966). Hydroseeding is an effective method of seeding, fertilizing and
mulching slopes and highwalls (Ibid.).
Tree and shrub seedlings rather than seeds should generally be
used, since most attempts to seed trees and shrubs directly in the field
have been failures. Hand-planting of seedlings is generally necessary,
although mechanical tree planters may be used on soil that is neither
too steep nor too stony (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965). For all but
steep slopes a spacing of 6 ft by 6 or 7 ft (1.8 m by 1.8 or 2.1 m) is
frequently recommended, except for Christmas tree plantings, for which 7
ft x 7 or 8 ft (2.1 m x 2.1 or 2.4 m) plantings are recommended (Ibid.).
Closer spacing is recommended for steep slopes where erosion control is
a primary objective {Revegetation Manual, 1966). Seedlings in one row
should be spaced to alternate with seedlings in adjacent rows (Ibid.).
7.1.2.7 Mulching -- The addition of a mulch--any material other than
seed, plants, or chemical soil amendments--to a planted area serves
several purposes:
a) Reduces evaporation from the soil.
b) Varies the surface temperature by absorbing more or less
sunlight than the soil, according to whether a dark or
light mulch is used.
c) Adds organic material to the soil.
d) Stabilizes areas subject to wind or water erosion,
particularly steep slopes.
Mulches are strongly advised if the annual precipitation in the
region to be revegetated is less than 46 cm (18 inches) (Cook et al.,
1974. In seedings of grasses on strip mine spoil banks in Wyoming, the
addition of mulch was found to be the most important factor in promoting
survival (May et al., 1971).
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Mulches are strongly advised if the annual precipitation in the
region to be revegetated is less than 46 cm (18 inches) (Cook et a]_.,
1974). In seedings of grasses on strip mine spoil banks in Wyoming, the
addition of mulch was found to be the most important factor in promoting
survival (May ejtaJL, 1971).
Mulching is essential on dark spoils, such as coal refuse banks,
which if uncovered often reach temperatures too high to support plant
growth (Schramm, 1966), and on steep banks which would otherwise be
eroded. Rates of mulching should be increased on acidic spoils which
have been limed, since root establishment on such spoils takes place
almost entirely near the surface, the location most susceptible to
evaporative drought (Revegetation Manual, 1966).
Several materials are commonly used as mulches. One of the best is
straw, bound with an asphalt emulsion or a soil stabilizer to keep it
2
from being carried away by wind or water. An application of 34 g/m
2
(300 Ibs/acre) is recommended, with 75 ml/m (80 gal/acre) (Revegetation
Manual. 1966) to 0.28 £/m2 (300 gal/acre) (Cook et. al_., 1974) of asphalt
o
emulsion or 28-37 ml/m (30-40 gal/acre) of a soil stabilizer (Revegetation
Manual, 1966) added as a binder. The problems with straw are its expense
and the difficulty of spreading it on long outslopes. Also, it tends to
be contaminated with grain and weed seed which germinate and compete
with newly planted grass seedlings (Cook ejt aK, 1974).
Shredded bark is another effective mulch, which unlike straw needs
no binder to keep it in place, but like straw is difficult to spread on
3 2
slopes. Application at 4.7-5.7 m /m (25-30 cu yd/acre) is recommended
(Revegetation Manual, 1966).
- 2
Shredded wood fiber or paper pulp applied at 0.17 kg/m (1500 Ibs/
acre) is an effective mulch, principally in hydroseeding operations. The
addition of a soil stabilizer in conjunction with this type of mulch on
steep slopes is recommended. Wood fiber gives consistently good results
except in areas where frost heaving or excessive water flow is a problem
(Cook ejtal., 1974).
If straw or wood chips are used as mulches the rate of application
2
of nitrogen fertilizer should be increased by about 4.5 g/m (40 Ib/acre),
since some of the nitrogen is consumed in the decomposition of the mulch
(Revegetation Manual, 1966).
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7.1.3 Refuse Bank and Slurry Pond Reclamation
A thorough survey of the factors affecting growth on coal refuse
is given by Schramm (1966), and discussions of coal refuse reclamation
efforts are provided by Coalgate ejb al_. (1973) and Kosowski (1973).
Much of the ensuing material is based on these sources. The material to
be presented is applicable only to the East and Midwest; no references
to revegetation of refuse banks in the West have been encountered.
The general rules for grading set forth in Section 5.1.2 are
applicable to refuse piles. Several authors stress the necessity of
providing a slight grade at all points to prevent water impoundment, and
of constructing furrows, ditches or culverts to allow drainage and
erosion control (Brundage, 1974; Kosowski, 1973; Sorrel!, 1974).
7.1.3.1 Vegetation of Bare Refuse -- The generally hostile chemical and
physical environment and the extremely high surface temperatures which
characterize coal wastes make revegetation without a soil cover extremely
difficult to achieve. Surface temperatures, which may be as high as
74°C (166°F) following evaporative dessication of the refuse surface
layers, may be principally responsible for the low probability of plant
survival; invasions of such species as pines, birches and aspens have
occurred in some cases, but usually only on steep northern slopes, which
receive a minimum of sunlight (Schramm, 1966).
Vegetation has been established directly on refuse banks, but good
or even reasonable coverage and growth has never been achieved, and a
cover of not less than one foot of soil is recommended for all but small
experimental refuse bank revegetation projects. On the other hand,
successful revegetations of the fine wastes which constitute slurry
ponds have been reported. Kosowski (1973) established a grass cover
by liming and fertilizing heavily, seeding a mixture of 15 percent
perennial ryegrass, 30 percent tall fescue, 15 percent reed canarygrass, >
5 percent Ladino clover and 35 percent Balboa rye, and mulching with
straw. (Planting details and cost data are given by Kosowski). An
excellent stand of grass was achieved within nine months of seeding.
Crownvetch was seeded, but did not germinate. The only problem
encountered was the formation of an erosion ditch at one point; once
better provisions for drainage were made, the revegetation proceeded
smoothly.
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An article entitled "How Green are Our Valleys" (1968) reports on
the revegetation of a slurry pond near Idamay, West Virginia, where a
hydroseeded cover of bluegrass, fescue, lespedeza and ryegrass is
reportedly very well established.
There are several documented attempts to grow vegetation directly
on refuse banks, most of which failed (Coalgate, 1973; Methods and Costs
of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation, 1973; Schimp, 1973; Schramm,
1966). The article "How Green are Our Valleys" (1968) suggests that
hydroseeding has been used to establish a cover on refuse banks, but no
details are given.
Schimp (1973) successfully germinated switchgrass, weeping love-
grass, yucca, bristly locust and Virginia pine on bare bituminous coal
refuse; switchgrass was the only grass which survived beyond the first
year.
Establishment of vegetation on bare refuse banks has been reported
in other studies by Czapowskyj ejt al_. (1968) (crownvetch planted on
anthracite breaker refuse in Pennsylvania); Davidson (1974) (red pine,
weeping lovegrass, tall fescue and Korean lespedeza on bituminous refuse
in Pennsylvania) and Sorrel 1 (1974) (tall fescue, perennial ryegrass and
birdsfoot trefoil on a refuse pile in West Virginia).
The success of the first two efforts in achieving coverage of the
refuse can at best be considered fair, and the third study reports
results obtained only one month after planting, which precludes a
proper evaluation. All of the authors found the addition of lime and
mulch to be beneficial to the survival and growth of herbaceous species
and to the growth of trees. Fertilization was necessary to establish
grasses (Davidson, 1974) but did not appear to be beneficial to the
establishment of crownvetch (Czapowskyj ejt al_. 1968). Attempts to seed
crownvetch rather than transplant it failed (Ibid.). Sopper et al.
(1975) suggest that weeping lovegrass and deertongue grass are potentially
good cover species for anthracite refuse banks.
7.1.3.2 Vegetation of Covered Refuse Piles — Revegetations of refuse
piles which were graded and covered with soil are described in a number
of references, including Brundage (1974), Kosowski (1973), and Methods and
Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation (1973). Test sites in
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these studies were located in Missouri, Illinois, West Virginia, Kentucky,
Pennsylvania, Ohio and Kansas; results and recommendations are summarized
in the paragraphs that follow.
7.1.3.2.1 Grading and covering the refuse pile — The recommendations
for grading given in Section 7.1.2 are applicable, except that the
potentially negative effects of grading on plant growth provide less
cause for concern if a cover is to be applied.
Brundage (1974) found that a nine inch soil cover was adequate to
assure survival and growth on refuse piles in Missouri, and that additional
cover did not lead to measurable improvement. He recommends a 30-46 cm
(12-18 inch) cover to provide a margin of safety, and observes that mine
spoil from adjacent spoil banks may be a better cover than soil from
undisturbed areas. Kosowski (1973) also suggests a one-foot cover for
plateaus, but indicates that a deeper cover might be needed on slopes.
In Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation (1973), a
one-foot cover is recommended for plateaus and a six foot (1.8 m) cover
is suggested for slopes.
7.1.3.2.2 Species selection -- Most plantings on covered refuse banks
are mixtures of long-lived perennial grasses (principally Kentucky
(tall) fescue, some bromegrass, orchardgrass, red fescue, and weeping
lovegrass), a short-lived grass for quick cover (usually perennial or
annual ryegrass), and a legume (alfalfa, birdsfoot trefoil, crownvetch,
Korean lespedeza, red clover, Sericea lespedeza or yellow sweetclover),
the legume being included for its nitrogen-fixing ability.
Relatively few tree plantings are reported. White pine has been
planted on covered banks in Kentucky (with poor results), Pennsylvania
and West Virginia, and black locust has been planted in Kansas, Pennsylvania
and West Virginia (Methods and Costs..., 1973). Brundage (1974) observed
volunteer cottonwood and black willow trees on revegetated refuse piles
in Missouri.
The potential of trees for long-term refuse bank stabilization has
probably not yet been realized. Schramm (1966) observes that trees
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are the only species that can survive on highly acidic refuse piles in
Pennsylvania. One inference is that grasses and legumes may become
established on soil covers, but they will not succeed in extending their
roots into the refuse. To achieve this objective, trees should be
planted (when possible) which can tolerate the acidity and trace metal
levels of the refuse; once established on the soil, they may be able to
penetrate into the refuse to some extent, anchoring the soil cover and
providing permanent stability.
Data for tree survival and growth on refuse—covered or bare—is
scarce. Table 20 may be used as a guide for species selection.
7.1.3.2.3 Liming and fertilizing — The recommendations given in
Section 7.1.2 are applicable. Brundage (1974) used no lime or fertilizer
in his reclamation of refuse piles in Missouri, but he had good soil to
work with; in less hospitable regions like the Appalachians, soil
amendments are invariably necessary. The use of fly ash or municipal
sewage effluent as an alternative to limestone should be considered (See
Section 7.1.3.3).
7.1.3.2.4 Planting and mulching -- The recommendations for planting
given in Section 7-1-2 are applicable, Hydroseeding has been found to
be a particularly effective technique for establishing grass-legume
covers on slopes of refuse and spoil banks. Techniques for planting
trees are summarized by Coal gate et aK (1973). A mulch cover is recommended
for seedings of grasses and legumes.
7.1.3.3 Treatment of Refuse with Municipal Sewage Effluent and Fly Ash —
The use of treated municipal sludge and sewage effluent as additives to
coal refuse has been studied by Sopper, Kardos and D.iLissio (1975), who
applied varying amounts of sludge and sewage effluent to samples of
Pennsylvania anthracite refuse, and observed the effects of the additives
on the survival and growth of trees (white spruce, hybrid poplar, black
locust, red pine, white pine and Austrian pine), and various grasses and
legumes. Similar studies on the survival and growth of perennial ryegrass
and sorghum were carried out by Carter, Zimmerman and Kennedy (1973)
using sludge and limestone treatments on coarse refuse and slurry from
an Illinois mine.
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Both studies show that municipal sludge is an effective source of
plant nutrients, but that additional amendments is needed to neutralize
the acidity of the refuse; sewage effluent served this purpose in the
first study, and limestone achieved it in the second. Sludge was found
to be a good source of nitrogen and phosphorus, but it also could raise
the aluminum content of the soil to potentially toxic levels if applied
in sufficient quantity (Sopper et al_., 1975). Sewage effluent raised
the pH of the refuse, and caused significant reductions in the level of
extractable aluminum and iron (Ibid.).
While these results show that the use of sludge and sewage effluent
has a good potential for use in refuse pile reclamation, no definite
conclusions can be reached in the absence of field studies. The effects
of these soil amendments on the surface temperature of the refuse, which
Schramm (1966) regards as the principal growth-inhibiting factor, have
not been determined, and the economic feasibility of transporting sludge
to mine wastes which are not immediately adjacent to a sewage treatment
plant must be examined.
Extensive research has been carried out by Capp and coworkers on
the use of power plant fly ash as an additive to coal refuse (Capp and
Gillmore, 1974; Adams, Capp and Gillmore, 1972; Capp and Adams, 1971).
Fly ash is alkaline, and so raises the pH of the refuse; in addition,
the fly ash improves the texture of the waste, increasing its porosity
and moisture retention capacity, and adds some plant nutrients. The fly
ash must be spread and thoroughly mixed with the waste material prior to
planting, and after being seeded and fertilized, the planted areas
should be mulched.
A mixture of tall fescue (35 percent), redtop (14 percent), orchard
grass (18 percent), perennial ryegrass (28 percent) and birdsfoot
trefoil (5 percent) is recommended for planting on fly ash-treated
refuse. Capp and Gillmore (1974) evaluated several other grasses and
legumes and found that intermediate wheatgrass, common goatsrue, flatpea,
Blackwell and Carthage switchgrass, and yellow sweetclover show promise.
No data are provided for growth of trees on refuse treated with fly
ash, but tests showed that trees planted on freshly treated surface mine
spoils often suffered a high mortaility rate, which was reduced if
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several years elapsed between treatment with fly ash and planting.
Crabapple and red oak had the best survival rate, and European alder had
the best combination of survival and growth. Species which normally do
well in spoils, such as Japanese larch, autumn olive, and black locust,
failed on the fly ash-treated plots (Capp and Gillmore, 1974).
It appears that the use of fly ash as a soil amendment is a pro-
mising technique for refuse pile reclamation. If a grass cover is to be
established, the planting may take place immediately following the
addition of the fly ash, but if trees are planted, several years should
be allowed (if possible) to elapse between treatment and planting; also,
care should be taken to select species which are compatible with fly
ash.
7.1.4 Surface Mine-Spoil Reclamation
General considerations concerning mine spoil revegetation have
been presented in Section 7.1.2. The present section summarizes the
results of revegetation attempts in the East, Midwest, and West—regions
which differ significantly in climatic and agronomic characteristics and
hence for which different species selections are generally appropriate.
Table 17 provides a listing of species which have been successfully
used in spoil reclamations. This table should be used in conjunction
with the plant catalog of Appendix B, which provides planting information
and references to case studies for all species.
The sections that follow summarize species recommendations for the
three principal geographical coal mining regions of the country.
7.1.4.1 Eastern States (Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia, Virginia,
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama) -- Several guides for revegetation in
eastern states have been published, two of the best being the Guide for
Revegetating Bituminous Strip-Mine Spoils in Pennsylvania (1965, rev.
1971) and the Revegetation Manual (1966), which is applicable principally
to Kentucky. Suggestions for revegetation programs and comparative
evaluations of different species are given in the references listed
below:
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Eastern States: Planting Sites in the Northeast (1961), Ruffner
(1965), Ruffner and Steiner (1973). The first of
these references is not specifically applicable
to mine spoils.
Kentucky: Boyce and Merz (1959), Revegetation Manual (1966).
Ohio: Finn (1958), Smith (1971), Struthers (1960).
Pennsylvania: Miles ejt aK (1973), Guide for Revegetating...
(1965). Hart and Byrnes (1960), Magnuson et al_.
(1969).
Virginia: McCart e_t al_. (1973).
West Virginia: Ruffner (1966). (This reference evaluates a large
number of species.)
Spoil acidity is frequently the principal growth-limiting factor in
the East, and the plants which are most often recommended are those
known to be acid-tolerant. Tables 18, 19, and 20 list such species.
On moderately acid to neutral spoils, tall fescue is by far the
most frequently recommended perennial grass for the Northeast and
Middle Atlantic states, and bermudagrass and bahiagrass are often
recommended for the Southeast. Annual and perennial ryegrass and
weeping lovegrass are often recommended for quick cover, with millet
being recommended for this purpose in the Southeast and for summer
plantings (which are generally inadvisable) in the North. The most
popular legumes are birdsfoot trefoil, crownvetch, and sericea lespedeza;
alfalfa, sweetclover and rye are less adaptable to acidic spoils, and so
are recommended only under relatively good planting conditions.
The best shrubs for use on acidic planting sites appear to be
autumn olive (Cardinal), bristly locust (Arnot), indigobush, and Japanese
fleeceflower. For milder planting conditions, Amur and Tatarian honeysuckle,
bicolor lespedeza (Natob), and multiflora rose are also recommended.
Arnot bristly locust is particularly noted for its ability to provide rapidly
a dense cover on steep or acidic spoil banks.
The hardwoods most often recommended are European black alder and
black locust (both nitrogen-fixing species which provide rapid stabilization
of spoil banks, and serve as nurses for other species). "Dominant stem" black
locust appears to have all of the advantages of ordinary black locust
and fewer disadvantages (Ruffner, 1965). (See Section 7.1.2.3.1).
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Other frequently recommended hardwoods include European white birch,
gray birch, river birch, and red oak, all of which are reportedly acid-
tolerant. The survival of red oak is adversely affected by grading, and
its initial growth rate is usually low. Hybrid poplars appear to be
promising for use under a wide variety of conditions; several acid-
resistant clones have been developed, and rates of survival and growth
are generally good. Cottonwood, green and white ash, and sycamore—all
of which have done very well in Midwestern plantings—have been used
with only intermittent success in the East.
Numerous studies have been made of the relative performance of
coniferous species on Eastern mine spoils. The most frequently re-
commended species are Virginia pine, Scotch pine, jack pine, white pine,
and Japanese larch, and, for particularly acidic spoils, pitch pine and
red pine. Ruffner (1966) found Virginia pine to be the most widely
adaptable conifer of those he tested in West Virginia, and Davis and
Melton (1963) obtained their most consistent results with Scotch pine in
Pennsylvania. Wheeler (1965) found Japanese larch to be the fastest
growing conifer tested in Pennsylvania. A number of authors note the
excellent acid tolerance of red pine, but observe that is susceptibility
to pine moth damage limits its usefulness. White pine has been included
in many plantings, and is characterized by a relatively slow initial
growth rate, but has a good long-range revegetation potential.
Conifers which have been used with mixed success include Austrian
pine (reportedly acid tolerant), shortleaf pine, Norway spruce, and in
the Southeast, loblolly pine.
7.1.4.2 Central States (Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Missouri,
Oklahoma) -- An overview of the problems and economics of mine spoil
reclamation in the Midwest is given by Carter ejt al_. (1974). Species
evaluations and recommendations are provided in several references.
Midwest: Crowl (1962), Limstrom (1960), Ruffner (1965)
Illinois: Boyce and Neebe (1959), Grandt and Lang (1958)
Grant (1965)
Indiana: Medvick (1973)
Iowa: Lorio et aJL- (1964)
Kansas: Geyer (1971)
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Midwestern spoils tend to be less acidic than spoils in the East.
Although highly toxic areas are often found, poor soil texture and
inadequate drainage are more likely to be the principal growth-limiting
factors.
Tall fescue is generally recommended for Midwestern plantings,
although not as unanimously as it is in the East. Orchardgrass and
smooth bromegrass are also recommended perennials, with orchardgrass
being used more often by virtue of being easier to handle (Struthers,
1960). None of these species is well adapted to acidic spoils, although
fescue is the best of the three in this respect. Redtop has been
suggested for use on acidic spoils and to cover bare spots on previously
planted areas (Struthers, 1960), but the life expectancy of this grass
is only two to three years. For quick cover, perennial ryegrass is
suggested for neutral spoils (Crowl, 1962; Struthers, 1960) and weeping
lovegrass is recommended for acidic spoils'(Struthers, 1960).
The most widely recommended legume for neutral sites is alfalfa,
followed by birdsfoot trefoil and sweetclover. Birdsfoot trefoil re-
portedly provides the best cover, but is more difficult to establish
than the other species. On acid spoils Korean and Sericea lespedezas
have been used effectively.
Ruffner (1965) provides a large list of ratings of shrubs for
Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky and Ohio. Species receiving good ratings in
at least one experiment include indigobush, autumn olive (rated as acid-
tolerant), Russian olive, bicolor lespedeza (acid-tolerant), Japonica
intermedia lespedeza, Amur honeysuckle, and multiflora rose.
As in the East, black locust and/or European black alder are re-
commended for inclusion in almost all hardwood mixtures, with emphasis
shifting to the latter tree in more recent plantings. Other hardwood
species recommended for non-acidic spoils include green and white ash
(moist sites, lower slopes and bottoms), cottonwood (not to be included
in mixtures with black locust), silver maple, black walnut (can be
seeded, best for mixed plantings rather than pure stands), sweetgum
(warmer climates only), northern red oak (lower slopes, sands or loose
loams), bur oak, sycamore (should not be planted with black locust),
osage orange and yellow poplar (warmer climates only). Hybrid poplars
apparently have not been tested in the Midwest, although the success
achieved with hybrids in the East suggests their use.
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Medvick (1973) recommends for non-sandy, non-acidic soils in
Indiana mixed plantings of northern red oak, yellow poplar, sweetgum,
black walnut, and either white ash or red or silver maple, or alter-
natively mixtures of cottonwood, sycamore, and European alder. He also
recommends, for aesthetic purposes, mixing pines in with these plantings,
particularly by roadsides. Smith (1971) suggests groups of three alter-
nating rows: the first of black locust and European alder; the second
(for pulpwood) of cottonwood, silver maple, sycamore, red gum, bigtooth
aspen and autumn olive; and the third (for timber) of red oak, white
oak, tulip tree, white ash and black walnut.
Coniferous plantings are generally preferable for acidic or sandy
spoils. The conifers most frequently recommended include white pine
(grows slowly, and should be planted in mixtures with more rapidly
growing species), pitch and jack pine (acid tolerant species, need good
drainage), Virginia pine (for wildlife cover only) and eastern red cedar
(the only conifer which may be interplanted with black locust). The
susceptibility of red pine to tip moth damage has discouraged its
inclusion in plantings. Geyer (1971) recommends loblolly and shortleaf
pines for Kansas spoils; both species are adapted to warm climates only,
however, and shortleaf pine is susceptible to tip moth damage.
7.1.4.3 Western States (Montana, North and South Dakota, Wyoming,
Colorado, Utah, Arizona, New Mexico) — The best general reference for
mine-spoil reclamation in the western states is Revegetation Guidelines for
Surface Mined Areas by Cook, Hyde and Sims (1974); much of the material
in the present section is based on this reference. The most compre-
hensive bibliography for mine spoil reclamation in the West (as well as
the rest of the country) is Surface Mining and Mined Land Reclamation
(1974), compiled by the Old West Regional Commission; and another large
bibliography was prepared by Gifford, Dwyer and Norton (1972). References
to reclamation efforts in high altitude areas in the Rocky Mountains are
given by Berg (1974), Townsend (1974), Eaman (1974), and Steen and Berg
(1975). Recent discussions of specific revegetation efforts are pre-
sented for New Mexico by Merkel and Currier (1971), for Montana by
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Sindelar ejt al_. (1973, 1974), for Colorado by Merkel, Hale and Sims
(1973) and for Wyoming by Tresler (1974).
Mine spoils in the western states present more obstacles to re-
vegetation than do spoils in any other region. Like Eastern spoils,
spoils in the West have regions of high acidity, steep slopes, and low
soil contents, and like Midwestern spoils, many spoils in the West have
high clay contents, correspondingly poor drainage, and nitrogen de-
ficiencies. In addition, western spoils are characterized by regions of
high alkalinity and/or salinity, and high concentrations of potentially
toxic trace metals. The principal limiting factor in the West is lack of
moisture, however—total annual precipitations of less than 38 cm (15
inches) are commonplace, and in the northern regions most of the pre-
cipitation occurs as snow. In consequence, recommendations for plantings
in the West show very little overlap with recommendations for the East
and Midwest.
Most revegetation attempts have involved grasses, legumes and
shrubs rather than trees, and the most frequently recommended species
for all but desert areas in the Southwest are wheatgrasses. Crested
wheatgrass is cited as being drought-resistant and suitable for steep
slopes, but poor for wet, saline or alkaline spoils; it has been re-
commended for all Western regions but desert areas in Arizona and New
Mexico and the alpine regions in Colorado (Cook et aK, 1974). Western
wheatgrass is suggested for Montana, Wyoming and the Dakotas; it is
reportedly adaptable to moist, saline-alkaline spoils (Thornburg, 1975),
and is suitable for heavier textured soils (Tresler, 1975), but may be
hard to establish (Berg, 1975).
Tall wheatgrass has also been recommended for dry saline-alkaline
spoils (Thornburg, 1975), and slender wheatgrass is suggested for use in
mountainous regions (Cook ejt al_., 1974), although its life expectancy
may only be 4-5 years at high elevations (Berg, 1975). Intermediate,
streambank, pubescent, thickspike, bearded and beardless wheatgrasses
have also been used, with mixed results.
In the Northern Great Plains and the forested and subalpine regions
to the south, smooth bromegrass has been used effectively; it is drought-
resistant, and tends to dominate stands if fertilized intensively.
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Other recommended grasses for cooler climates include tall, red and
hard fescues, meadow and creeping foxtails and tufted hairgrass (moun-
tainous regions), bluegrasses, orchardgrass and blue and sideoats grama.
In the northern sandhills warm season grasses are suggested, including
switchgrass, bluestem and Indiangrass (Cook et al_., 1974). In the
foothill regions of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico wheatgrasses
are recommended; Indian ricegrass is also suggested, but this grass is
usually extremely difficult to germinate. Sand dropseed and alkali
sacaton are recommended for growth on sandy spoils from northern New
Mexico to northern Colorado (Ibid.).
Arid desert areas in New Mexico, Arizona, Utah and Western Colorado
are probably the least hospitable areas to plant growth in the country,
and as a rule the only species which can be grown in these areas are the
species which are already there. Indian ricegrass and sand dropseed are
among the grasses recommended by Cook ejt al_. (1974) for these regions.
The only legume recommended for all but mountainous spoils is
Russian wildrye, which has been successfully used in dry and saline-
alkaline region plantings from Montana to New Mexico. In the mountains,
alfalfa has been the only legume to perform consistently, although
short-term success has been obtained with red and white clover (Townsend,
1974). Yellow sweetclover is recommended for the Colorado sandhills and
foothills (Cook ejt a]_- , 1974), and the Montana plains (Thornburg, 1975).
A variety of shrubs have been used in western mine spoil reclamations,
almost invariably chosen from species native to the spoil regions. Big
sagebrush and rabbitbrush are recommended for the northern plains,
western foothills, and southwestern deserts, and fourwing saltbush and
greasewood are also suggested for the deserts and for saline-alkaline
regions (Cook et al_., 1974). In studies in Montana, Thornburg (1975)
reports good results on dry spoils with caragana, honeysuckle, Russian
olive, skunkbush sumac and matrimony vine, and on wet and saline-alkaline
spoils with buffaloberry, Russian olive and skunkbush sumac. May (1971)
had success in Wyoming with Russian olive. Other recommended species
for intermediate elevations include snowberry, chokecherry, serviceberry,
and mountain mahogany (Cook e^ al_., 1974). Ludeke (1973) provides
descriptions of a large number of shrubs which may be suitable for mine-
spoil reclamation in the southwestern desert.
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The tree mentioned most often in connection with reclamation of
Western mine spoils is the Ponderosa pine. In mountainous regions
aspen, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce and lodgepole pine may be trans-
planted (Cook et al_., 1974). Douglas fir is native to mountainous
regions, but no references to its use in mine spoil reclamation have
been encountered.
7.1.5 Summary
1) A detailed land use plan for the spoil area to be reclaimed
should be prepared before the mining operation begins and complete soil
tests should be performed before and after mining operations have been
completed. Stripping operations should be planned so that topsoil is
stockpiled separately and used as a final cover, and pyritic shales and
other potentially toxic overburden materials should be buried as deep as
possible when the spoils are graded prior to planting.
2) If the spoil or refuse bank to be revegetated has a pH less
than 3.5 and contains a substantial amount of pyritic shales, or if it
has less than 20 percent of soil-sized particles (diameter less than 2
mm) and is unlikely to weather (decompose) to a significant extent, a
soil cover should be provided prior to planting. A minimum cover of one
foot (0.3 m) should be applied on plateaus, and up to six feet (1.8 m)
should be applied on slopes. A cover is usually required for refuse bank
reclamation and is often required for reclamation of slurry ponds, but
is not usually essential for spoil revegetation.
3) Spoils should be graded to a slope of less than 25 percent for
agricultural uses and to less than 35 percent for recreation and wildlife
uses. A minimum grade of 1-2 percent should be provided to prevent
water impoundment, and diversion furrows or ditches should be provided
to allow drainage and to control erosion. Grading should be minimized
on soils with clay contents above 15 percent to avoid overcompacting.
4) Grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees which have been used in
mine spoil revegetation attempts are listed in Table 17. Shown in this
table are species recommended for mine spoils in the East, Midwest, and
West, and for acidic spoils, saline and alkaline spoils, arid
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regions and warm and cool climates. This table should be used in con-
junction with the plant catalog of Appendix B, which gives the scientific
names of each plant, general planting recommendations, and results of
mine-spoil revegetation efforts in which the plants were used. Summaries
and discussions of species recommendations are given in Section 7.1.3
for refuse bank and slurry pond revegetation, and in Section 7.1.4 for
mine-spoil revegetation.
5) The choice of whether to plant grasses and legumes or trees
and shrubs is largely dictated by the desired land use—agriculture,
pulpwood or timber production, or recreation and wildlife preservation.
The chemical composition of the spoils and prevailing climatic conditions
may impose restrictions on the choice, however. On highly acidic refuse
and spoils, trees and shrubs may be the only species that can be estab-
lished, while in arid desert regions the use of grasses and drought-
tolerant shrubs may be mandatory.
6) The pH of acidic spoils should normally be raised to 5 or more
prior to planting, but should be kept below 6 if conifers are to be
planted. Agricultural limestone is the most commonly used neutralizing
material; other alkaline materials which have been used on an experimental
basis include power plant fly ash, municipal sewage effluent, and mined
phosphate rock. The neutralizing material should be mixed into the top
six inches (15 cm) of the spoil, or into the top twelve inches (30 cm)
on particularly acidic spoils with high sulfur concentrations. It is
advisable to allow six months to elapse between neutralization and
planting.
7) Acid-tolerant plants should be used on acidic spoils, even
following soil neturalization, since reoxidation of pyrites in the
spoils may eventually reacidify the spoils. Tables 18, 19, and 20 list
grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees which are known to be acid-tolerant.
8) Hydroseeding is an effective technique for establishing grass
and legume covers on steep slopes. Planting rather than seeding is
recommended for establishing tress and shrubs on slopes; the few woody
species which have been established by direct seeding include black
locust, bristly locust and shrub lespedezas.
133
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9) In plantings of herbaceous covers, at least 5 to 10 percent
legume should be included to fix and add atmospheric nitrogen to the
soil. Legumes should always be inoculated with suitable microorganisms
prior to planting.
10) The survival and growth of newly planted trees may be adversely
affected by the presence of existing covers of certain grasses, including
fescue and ryegrass. If trees are to be overplanted on a herbaceous
plot, less competitive herbaceous species such as weeping lovegrass and
legumes are preferable covers. Alternatively, a temporary herbaceous
cover may be grown, killed and plowed under prior to tree planting.
11) Conifers and nitrogen-fixing hardwoods like European black
alder and locust are the best species for rapid stabilization and growth
on acidic spoils; hardwoods are generally preferable to conifers on
neutral and calcareous spoils. Conifers are recommended for ridges and
upper slopes, and hardwoods are preferable for lower slopes and valleys.
Most conifers are unsuitable for growth on compact loams and clays.
12) Mixtures of tree species should be planted to maximize the •
likelihood of a successful reclamation. Using up to 25 percent of
nitrogen-fixing nurse species such as black alder and black locust in
tree plantings can be extremely effective; black locust should not be
interplanted with conifers or with cottonwood or sycamore, however.
Nurse species should not overtop the species they are supposed to be
helping. A good method of avoiding this occurrence is to use nitrogen-
fixing shrubs such as bristly locust and autumn olive as nurse species.
13) Trees should be planted in the spring. Cool season grasses
like fescue should be planted in the fall; spring plantings are generally
preferable for legumes and warm season grasses. In arid regions, plantings
should be carried out just prior to the season that receives the most
dependable precipitation.
14) Mulching is generally recommended, and strongly advised for
arid regions and on dark spoils and refuse banks.
15) The establishment of vegetation directly on refuse banks is
difficult to achieve, and a soil cover is recommended for all but small
experimental refuse bank revegetation programs. Direct revegetation of
134
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slurry ponds is possible, but requires extensive soil amendments, and
careful provision for drainage and erosion control.
16) Treated municipal sewage sludge has been found to be an
effective soil amendment in a number of studies. It provides both
nitrogen and phosphorus, but may acidify the spoil and raise the aluminum
content to a potentially toxic level, and so should be used with care.
17) No general catalog or revegetation guide is a substitute for
the expertise of an agronomist or forester familiar with the area in
which the revegetation is to be performed. The consulting services of
an extension specialist affiliated with a local agricultural, Forest
Service or Soil Conservation Service experiment station (Appendix C)
should be used at all stages of planning and executing a land reclamation
program.
135
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Table 17. SPECIES USED FOR MINE-SPOIL REVEGETATION
Grasses
East
Midwest
West
Alkali Sacaton
Bahiagrass
Bermudagrass
Bluegrass
Bluestem
Bottlebrush Squirrel tail
Bromegrass (field, smooth)
Deertongue
Fescue
Foxtail
Grama (blue, sideoats)
Indian
Indian Ricegrass
Millet
Needlegrass
Oatgrass (tall)
+W
++W, D, S
*C
*
+R, T
+A
+R, T, W
Alk, D, S
+W, D, S
+C
N
+D
+C
+D
+ - Recommended
++ - Highly recommended
* - Used
- - Failed
A - Recommended for acidic spoils (pH less than 5.5)
Alk - Recommended for alkaline spoils
C - Recommended for cooler climantes
D - Recommended for dry regions (less than 18 inches (46 cm) of precipitation
per year)
N - Native or volunteer plant, not necessarily recommended
R - Recommended for rapid stabilization and erosion control
S - Recommended for saline spoils
T - Temporary or short-lived crop
W - Recommended for warmer climates
Blank-No information
136
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Table 17 (cont'd)
Grasses
East
Midwest
West
Orchardgrass
Povertygrass
Prairie Sandreed Grass
Redtop
Reed Canarygrass
Rye
Ryegrass
Sand Dropseed
Sheep Sorrel1
Sorghum
+C, T
*
+W
+C, R, T
+T
+T
+c
+C, R, T *C, R, T
*
Switchgrass
Timothy
Weeping Lovegrass
Wheat
Wheatgrass
Wildrye
+W
*
++A, R, W
+A
++A, R, W
*T
++A, R, W
++Alk, D, S
*D
137
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Table 17 (cont'd)
Legumes
Alfalfa
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Pirpr Milkvpt.rh
East Midwest West
+ ++ +D
++C ++C +C
*
Clover (red, white) *
Crownvetch ++C +
Flatpea +A, C
Kudzu * *
Lespedeza (Sericea, ++A ++A
Kobe, Korean)
Narrowleaf Trefoil +
Sweetclover +Alk +D
138
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Table 17 (cont'd)
Shrubs & Vines East Midwest West
Arrowwood +
Black Chokeberry +
Bladder Senna *
Bristly Locust ++A, R ++A, R
Buffaloberry +Alk, S
Coral berry *
Greasewood +Alk, D, S
Honeysuckle + + +D
Indigobush +A +A
Japanese Fleeceflower *
Juniper *
Matrimony Vine +Alk, D, S
Multiflora Rose *
Olive (autumn, Russian) ++A, Alk, R +A +-fAlk, D, S
Rabbi tbrush +D, VI
Russian Thistle N
Sagebrush (big) +Alk, D, S
Saltbush +Alk, D, S
Sassafras N
Scotch Broom +A, W +W
Shadscale +D, N
Silky Dogwood +
Sumac (fragrant, shining,
skunkbush, smooth) +A + ++Alk, D, S
139
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Table 17 (cont'd)
Trees
Ailanthus
Alder (black)
Apple
Ash (green, white)
Aspen
Austrian Pine
Bald Cypress
Birch (gray, river, white)
Black Cherry
Black Locust
Black Walnut
Caragana
Cedar (red)
Chestnut Oak
Cottonwood
Crabapple
Dogwood
Douglas Fir
Elm (Siberian)
Hazel nut
Jack Pine
East
++A, R
*C
*
N
*A
+A
*A
++A, R
+
*
Midwest
West
++A, R
N, C
++A, R
+D
N, C
+D, S, Alk
+A, C
+A
140
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Table 17 (cont'd)
Trees
East
Midwest
West
Japanese Black Pine
Larch (European, Japanese)
Loblolly Pine
Longleaf Pine
Maple (red, silver, sugar)
Mugho Pine
Oak (bur, chestnut, red,
white)
Osage Orange
Pitch Pine
Ponderosa Pine
Poplar (hybrid, yellow)
Redbud
Red Pine
Scotch Pine
Shortleaf Pine
Spanish Pine
Spruce (Norway, red, white)
Sweetgum
Sycamore
Virginia Pine
White Pine
Willow (tall)
Yucca
+ (Japanese)
++W
*W
+A
+A
+A (red)
*A
+A, C
-n-
+A
N
+D
++A, W
+A, C
*D
141
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Table 18. ACID-TOLERANT SPECIES: GRASSES AND LEGUMES
pH<4.5
pH<5.5
References
ro
Grasses
Bentgrass
Bermudagrasses
Charlottetown 80
(Barley)
Deertongue
Redtop
Ryegrass (annual
and perennial)
Switchgrass
Tall (Ky) Fescue
Weeping Lovegrass
Legumes
Birdsfoot Trefoil X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Bennett (1971), Goodman et al. (1973)
Bennett (1971)
Dean et al. (1971), Hill (1971)
Bennett (1971), McWilliams (1971), Miles et al . (1971),
Ruffner (1965), Sopper et al . (1975)
Bennett (1971), Carter et al . (1974), Crowl (1962), Guide
Revegetating (1965), Revegetation Manual (1966), Williams
Wallace (1973)
Carter et al. (1974), Revegetation Manual (1966)
Bennett (1971), Carter et al. (1974), Miles et al . (1973)
Revegetation Manual (1966), Sopper et al . (1974), Vogel
for
and
,
and
Berg (1968)
Bennett (1971), Carter et al. (1974), Guide for Reveqetatinq
(1965)
Bennett (1971), Carter et al. (1974), Davidson (1974), Fleming
et al. (1974), Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1966),
Sopper et al. (1975), Vogel (1970), Vogel and Berg (1968)
Bennett (1971), Carter et al. (1974), Hill (1968), Revegetation
Manual (1966), Sorrel! (1974), Vogel and Berg (1968")
(a)
Tall fescue tolerates low pH but only in soils with little or no aluminum (Vogel and Berg, 1968).
-------
Table 18 (cont'd)
Flatpea (Wagner)
Kobe Lespedeza
Sericea Lespedeza
pH < 4.5 pH < 5.5 References
X Bennett (1971), Miles et al. (1973), Ruffner and Stevens (1973)
X X Berg and Vogel (1968), Revegetation Manual (1966), Vogel and
Berg (1968)
X X Bennett (1971), Carter et al. (1974), Dickens and Orr (1969),
Guernsey (1970), Hill (1974). Methods and Costs . . . (1973),
Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1965), Sorrel! (1974),
Vogel and Berg (1968)
-------
Table 19. ACID-TOLERANT SPECIES: SHRUBS AND VINES
pH<4.5
Amur Honeysuckle
Autumn Olive
Bicolor (Natob)
Lespedeza
Bristly Locust
Flameleaf Sumac
Indigobush
Japanese
Fleeceflower
Scotch Broom
Shining Sumac
X
X
pH<5.5
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
References
Carter et al. (1974), Crowl (1962), Revegetation Manual
(1966), Ruffner (1966), Ruffner and Stevens (1973)
Carter et al. (1974), Magnuson and Kimball (1969), Guide for
Reveqetatinq . . . (1965), Revegetation Manual (1966),
Ruffner (1965)
Carter et al. (1974), Crowl (1962), Guide for Reveqetatinq .
(1965), Ruffner (1965)
Carter et al. (1974), McWilliams (1970), Revegetation
Manual (1966), Ruffner (1965), Sopper et al. (1975)
Miles et al. (1973), Ruffner (1966)
Carter et al. (1974), Miles et al. (1973), Revegetation
Manual (1966), Ruffner (1965, 1966), Ruffner and Stevens
TT9737
Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1965), Ruffner and
Stevens (1973)
Crowl (1962), Horn and Wood (1969), Ruffner (1965)
Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1965)
-------
Table 20. ACID-TOLERANT SPECIES: TREES
in
Ash (Green and
White)
Aspen
Austrian Pine
Black Locust
Cottonwood
European Alder
Gray Birch
Hybrid Poplar
Jack Pine
Japanese Birch
Loblolly Pine
Mugho Pine
pH<4.5
X
X
X
X
pH<5.5
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
References
Knabe (1964), Revegetation Manual (1966)
Knabe (1964)
Guide for Reveqetatipq . . (1965), Horn and Ward (1969),
Sopper et al. (1975)
Boyce and Neebe (1959), Carter et al. (1974), Crow! (1960),
Czapowskyj (1970), Guide for Reveqetatinq . . (1965),
Limstrom (I960), Revegetation Manual (1966), Wheeler (1965)
Dale (1963), Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1966)
Carter et al. (1974), Czapowskyj (1970), Dale (1963), Guide
for Revegetati ng . . (1966), Knabe (1964), Magnuson and
Kimball (1969), Miles et al. (1973), Revegetation Manual
(1966), Ruffner (1966), Wheeler (1965")
Coal gate et al. (1973), Horn and Ward (1969)
Davis (1964), Eschner (1960), Jones (1973), Kendig (1973),
Revegetation Manual (1966)
Crowl (1962), Czapowskyj (1970), Czapowskyj and McQuilken
(1966), Guide for Revegetating . . (1965), Hart and Byrnes
(I960), Limstrom (I960), Lowry (1960), Magnuson and Kitnball
(1964), Wheeler (1965)
Czapowskyj (1970), Czapowskyj and McQuilken (1966), Guide for
Revegetating . . . (1965), Magnuson and Kimball (1969),
Wheeler (1965)
Carter et al. (1974), Chapman (1967), Crowl (1962), Boyce
and Neebe (1959), Dale (1963), Limstrom (1960), Plass (1968),
Revegetation Manual (1966), Thor and Kring (1964)
Guide for Revegetating . . (1965), Miles et al. (1973),
Ruffner (1966)
-------
Table 20 (cont'd)
•£»
Red Oak
Red Pine
Scotch Pine
Sycamore
Virginia Pine
White Birch
pH<4.5
X
pH<5.5
X
X
X
References
Guide for Revegetatinq . . (1965), Hart and Byrnes (1960),
Knabe (1964), Limstrom (1960), Ruffner (1966)
Coalgate et al. (1973), Crow! (1962), Czapowskyj and McQuilken
(1966), Guide for Revegetatinq . . (1965), Hart and Byrnes
(I960), Horn and Ward (1969), Limstrom (1960)
Brown (1962), Carter et al. (1974), Crowl (1962), Knabe (1964)
Limstrom (1960), Revegetation Manual (1966)
Boyce and Neebe (1959), Carter et al. (1974), Crowl (1962),
Dale (1963), Funk and Krause (1965), Plass (1968), Revegetation
Manual (1966)
Boyce and Neebe (1959), Carter et al. (1974), Crowl (1972)
Czapowskyj and McQuilken (1966), Dale (1963), Guide for
Revegetating . . . (1965), Limstrom (1960), Miles et al. (1973),
Revegetation Manual (1966), Ruffner (1966)
Coalgate et al. (1973), Guide for Reveqetating . . (1965),
Horn and Ward (1969), Knabe (1964)
-------
7.2 MINERAL TAILINGS
The mineral waste heaps produced by various mining operations
consist of overburden spoils (the soil removed from above a buried
mineral deposit), gangue and tailings (Table 1, Section 3). The com-
position of overburdens and gangue is relatively independent of the
mineral being mined, and the discussion of coal mine-spoil revegetation
given in Section 7.1 is equally applicable to these materials. On the
other hand, tailings frequently contain a significant fraction of the
mined mineral, and so present unique revegetation problems. Tailings
are generally fine particles which are transported in slurries and
stored in ponds. When these storage ponds dry, the potential for fugitive
dust emissions is high, making wind stabilization a severe although
often localized problem.
A common solution to the problem of revegetating tailings is to
cover the tailings pond or pile with topsoil or other ground cover.
This approach, which dominates current tailings revegetation programs
has been discussed in Section 7.1. The pages that follow deal with the
establishment of vegetation directly on the tailings without the assistance
(and expense) of a soil cover.
Tailings are generally deficient in plant nutrients and water, and
are often excessively saline, potentially toxic, of variable pH, and
subject to severe wind erosion and sandblasting. Establishing a
vegetative cover directly on tailings is as difficult as revegetating
bare coal refuse; efforts to so are often abandoned and stabilization by
other methods (such as a chemical cover) are implemented instead.
A primary requirement for vegetative stabilization of a tailings
pile is to stabilize the tailings against wind erosion while the initial
vegetation is being established. Combinations of mulches, chemical
coatings, rapidly established plant covers and watering have been used
to assist in achieving this objective.
Criteria for selecting suitable species and tailing amendments to
foster growth and recommended planting and maintenance techniques are
generally the same as described in Section 7.1. The sections that follow
present considerations specific to individual minerals.
147
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Table 21 lists some of the grasses, legumes, shrubs and trees that
have been used or evaluated for the vegetative stabilization of mineral
tailings. Few species have entries under more than one of the column
headings, reflecting the importance of climate and geography upon vegetative
growth.
7.2.1 Copper Tailing^
Copper tailings are found primarily in the West from Montana to
Arizona (Ludeke, 1974; Day and Ludeke, 1973; Nielson and Peterson, 1972),
and in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and in Ontario. The techniques and
species used successfully at one site do not generally carry over to other
sites because of differences in geography, climate and tailing composition.
7.2.1.1 Midwestern/Canadian Copper Tailings -- Michigan and Ontario
copper tailings tend to be acidic, and even with a copper residue of only
1000-2000 ppm could present a toxic environment to vegetation when the
pH is low. A key first step in revegetation is to lime the tailings
to raise the pH to a point close to 7.0 (Young, 1969; Peters, 1970).
Fertilizer amendments dictated by tailings analysis should be made in
advance of seeding.
August or early fall is the preferred season for seeding because of
better mositure availability. The initial seeding should be on the windward
edge of the tailings to minimize wind blasting and burial of the emerging
plants. A companion or nurse crop should be used to provide shade and reduce
surface wind; snow fencing should be erected in exposed areas to reduce wind
velocity (Young, 1969).
A grass seed mixture used successfully on the Copper Cliff tailings
in Ontario is the following (Young, 1969):
12.5 Ibs (5.7 kg) Canada Blue Grass
12.5 Ibs (5.7 kg) Mixed Seed
1 part Timothy
2 parts Red Top
1 part Kentucky Blue
1 part Crested Wheat
1 part Creeping Red Fescue
148
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This grass seed mixture along with 16 Ibs (7.3 kg) of either alfalfa or
sweetclover and .1 1/2 bushels (53 dm3) of oats was used to seed an acre
O
(0.4 hm ). Bromegrass was added at the rate of 10 Ibs/acre (1.1 g/m2)
following this initial seeding. Annual maintenance includes the addition
of lime and fertilizer as needed. The establishment of a maintenance-
free revegetated area has not yet been reached (Erbisch, 1975).
7.2.1.2 Western U.S. Copper Tailings -- Copper tailings in Arizona were
among the first copper tailings on which vegetation was successfully established.
The most reliable technique for revegetation was to cover the tailings with
7.6 cm (3") or more of soil from the surrounding area [Ludeke, 1972].
A procedure for revegetation of uncovered tailings recommended by
Nielson and Peterson (1972) begins with an analysis of the tailings,
including measurement of pH, conductivity and salinity, and the concentra-
tion 'of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulfide within the tailings.
When salinity is high (above 4 mmho/cm), water leaching must be carried
out prior to planting. On acidic sites with large concentrations of heavy
metals, lime must be used to raise the pH to at least 6. Repeated appli-
cations of lime may be required. Commercial fertilizers can be prescribed
using conventional soil amendment criteria.
The second major recommendation of the Nielson/Peterson procedure
is control of wind erosion and damage until plants are established.
Chemical binding layers such as those described in Section 5 are effective
and economical. The erection of physical wind barriers, such as snow
fences and mulching are alternative but usually less effective approaches.
Another consideration is the need for adequate water. Irrigation is
required on most Western sites and may have to be maintained even after
plants are established. Not until native species take over the site
can one abandom this maintenance step. The initial, establishment of any
species greatly speeds up the invasion of native species because seed is
trapped and protected by the established vegetation.
On raw copper tailings in Southern Arizona, Ludeke (1973, 1975) has
succeeded in establishing a variety of grasses, shrubs, trees, and cacti.
Among the better performers are Buffel grass, blue panicgrass,>ermudagrass
and various saltbush species. These grasses were planted by hydroseeding
149
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on a south-facing tailing slope (1.5:1). Annual grasses (such as barley
or rye for the winter; sudan or milo-maize during the summer) can also
be used to establish quick, temporary stabilization that aids the invasion
of natural species.
Species of cacti, desert trees and shrubs have also been successfully
transplanted onto copper tailings. Even with grasses, vegetative
plugging produces more complete long-term cover than broadcast seeding
(Day and Ludeke, 1973).
Nielson and Peterson (1972) have evaluated a large number of species
both in the laboratory and in the field, for stabilizing copper tailings
at Magma, Utah. Of the species tested, tall wheatgrass has been the most
durable. All species germinated and produced excellent stands but the hot
dry, windy summer took a heavy toll, especially among the legumes.
Sweetclover had a higher survival rate than alfalfa. Russian olive,
hybrid poplar and European sage had the highest survival rate of the woody
plants tested. Stands have persisted for 3 years and natural vegetation,
chiefly tamarix, is currently invading the field test sites. The
species planted are surviving with natural precipitation only, so that
a permanent revegetation of these copper tailings appears to have been
achieved. Fall seeding is recommended to establish a mature stand before
the summer drought commences.
7.2.2 Uranium Tailings
Uranium mining takes place in the same general region as copper
mining. Because of the radioactivity associated with the tailings, a
strong argument exists for covering the tailings with soil before
revegetating. Nonetheless, some work has been carried out on raw tailings,
Greenhouse studies by Nielson and Peterson (1972) show that "plants
can be grown on uranium tailings if the pH, salinity, plant nutrients and
moisture are corrected to, or maintained at, levels suitable for plant
survival." Tall wheatgrass does well on Colorado uranium tailings
(Nielson and Peterson, 1972; Berg, 1971). These tailings are always
nitrogen deficient so that fertilizer must be added. Irrigation or
sprinkling with water is also necessary to establish a vegetative stand.
150
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Species established on uranium tailings at Durango, Colorado include
smooth brome, sweetclover, cereal rye, wheat, barley, alfalfa, and
various wheatgrasses (tall, intermediate, pubescent, western and crested)
(Berg, 1971). These species were broadcast-seeded, fertilized with both
nitrogen (as urea or ammonium sulfate) and superphosphate and sprinkled.
Continued maintenance has been required, and invasion by native
vegetation is limited so far.
7.2.3 Iron Tailings
Iron ore tailings are primarily a feature of the Northern Minnesota
landscape, a by-product of the Mesabi range and its well known taconite
deposits. Lesser mining operations are also found in the East.
7.2.3.1 Pennsylvania Iron Ore Tailings ~ Revegetation of iron ore
tailings in Pennsylvania has been described by Francis (1965, 1973,
2
1974), who hydroseeded 200 acres (81 hm ) of inactive tailings with 115
2
Ibs/acre (13 g/m ) of the following seed mixture:
Switchgrass
Weeping lovegrass
Kentucky bluegrass
Perennial ryegrass
Korean lespedeza
Sericea lespedeza
Winter vetch
Crownvetch
Yellow sweetclover
Buffalo alfalfa
In addition, seedlings of various trees and shrubs were hand-planted at
a density of 1500/acre (37/dam2). The hydroseeding included a paper
mulch, fertilizer and agricultural sulfur (to reduce the soil pH of
8.9). This treatment, completed in 1962, produced a permanent vegetative
cover which has since survived and thrived without additional maintenance.
151
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Some species—shortleaf pine, Japanese black pine, gray Douglas fir, con-
color fir, and bristlecone pine—grew directly on the tailings without
any stabilization, fertilizer or other amendments.
This small tailing site is located in the heart of some of the richest
farmland in the United States, a fact which undoubtedly accounts for much
of the success of this program.
7.2.3.2 Minnesota Taconite Tailings -- Large tailings basins characterize
the Minnesota taconite regions. Many of these basins are active, containing
a wet center which is fed from ongoing mill operations. The wet, water-
covered basin does not present an erosion problem until it is full;
however, the sloping dam sides and berms are dry and must be stabilized
immediately against both air and water erosion. Cutting horizontal
benches in the slopes reduces water runoff by creating ponds on the
various benches which then either infiltrate or evaporate.
Hydroseeding of tailing slopes is a frequently recommended technique;
however, for best results fertilizer should be incorporated into the top
10-13 cm (4-5 inches) of the tailing which hydroseeding does not do. If
fertilizing is followed by a discing operation or, a Klodbuster treat-
ment, the fertilizer, particularly the phosphorus amendment needed for
plant root development, becomes better distributed. This treatment can
then be followed by conventional planting and mulching. (Dickinson, 1975).
Legumes are particularly valuable because of their nitrogen fixing
properties. Taconite tailings are generally alkaline, and hence ideal for
legumes. Of legumes tested by Dickinson (1975), birdsfoot trefoil, alfalfa
and sweetclover "showed the greatest promise".
Grasses are important for their root-forming ability and stabilizing
effects. The best grasses tested by Dickinson (1975) on Minnesota taconite
tailings were intermediate and western wheatgrasses, reed canary grass,
smooth brome and hard fescues.
Two seed mixtures, containing both grasses and legumes, are used by
Dickinson:
152
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Ibs/acre (g/m2) Ibs/acre (g/m2)
Intermediate wheatgrass 15 1.7 Smooth Brome 20 2.2
Red fescue 15 1.7 Perennial rye
grass 5 0.6
Alfalfa 10 1.1 Alfalfa 5 0.6
Birdsfoot Trefoil 5 0.6 Birdsfoot 10 1.1
Trefoi1
Total t 45 5.1 40 4.5
These mixtures are hydroseeded onto the slopes, either together with
fertilizer or following a separate fertilization step. Planting is done in
either October or May. A mulch, preferably straw, is applied with a blower
and held in place by asphalt "tac".
Woody plants such as red and jack pine and shrubs such as Russian
olive, serviceberry and silverberry are planted after the tailing surface
has been stabilized by the grasses and legumes.
Some planting of annual grasses such as barley, rye or millet on
the flat peripheral regions of active basins is both worthwhile and
relatively simple, since more conventional farming equipment can be used
and conventional farming procedures can be followed. Dickinson (1975) has
also successfully raised vegetables, such as squash, potatoes, carrots,
radishes and beets, in these flat basin area.
Native vegetation is now invading the areas initially stabilized with
grases and legumes and the establishment of a permanent, maintenance-
free vegetative cover on taconite tailings seems to be well underway.
7.2.4 Other Metallic Ores
In general the experiences associated with revegetating copper, iron
or uranium tailings apply to revegetating other mineral tailings. All
tailings are likely to be toxic, nutrient-deficient, highly acidic
or highly alkaline, excessively saline and of poor texture. Very few plants
survive on such inhospitable substrates without proper leaching, fertilizing,
liming and irrigation—at least during initial plant establishment.
153
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The approach of developing a species or clone of a species that is
exceptionally tolerant to a specific heavy metal has been followed by
Goodman and coworkers in England (Goodman elt al_., 1973). They find, for
example, that the grasses red fescue, hard fescue, bentgrass, Anthosanthum
odoratum*, A^ stolonifera* and Silene maritina* are tolerant to lead and
zinc. Multiple tolerance to two or three metals can probably be found or
developed by growing species or collecting those that have developed on old
metal mine sites. In Goodman's (1973) work, zinc tailings proved to be
more toxic than either copper or steel-mi 11 tailings.
In general, however, the search for a "super" species, capable of
surviving and growing when other species cannot, is a long, expensive
undertaking. Even when such a plant is identified or developed, the pro-
blem of acquiring sufficient seed or stock to cover large areas remains.
The more popular and practical approach has been to accomodate the site to
the requirements of the readily available vegetation.
Molybdenum tailings at Climax, Colorado have been studied in extensive
laboratory tests and field tests by Berg et al_. (1975). They find that
leaching of soluble salts and the addition of lime and fertilizer are essential
for successful revegetation. Cereal rye (secale cereale), provides
satisfactory temporary stabilization but continued maintenance and amend-
ment appear necessary for long-term stabilization.
Sand tailings and slimes resulting from gold mining operations in
South Africa have been the subject of extensive revegetation studies
(James, 1966; "Stabilizing Mine Dumps," 1968; Creswell, 1973). Presently
recommended procedures include the construction of a windbreak from reed
canes to protect individual plots of about 15' x 20' (4.6 m x 6.1 m),
and liming the plots to adjust the pH to 6.5. Conventional seeding and
fertilizing then establishes a grass mixture including both fast growing
annuals and perennials. By the third season weeping lovegrass dominates
in most plots. Eventually invaders and even the reeds move in to further
stabilize the tailings. Some success with agricultural crops such as
alfalfa and barley has also been demonstrated.
*Scientific name used since species is not listed in Appendix B
154
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7.2.5 Phosphate Slimes
Phosphate slimes constitute a unique problem for solution by vegetative
methods. The overburden spoils and tailings from phosphate mining are generally
not deficient in nutrients other than nitrogen. Indeed a major use of the
phosphate rock being mined is as a source of agricultural phosphorus. Standard
agricultural practices have been used to revegetate both phosphate spoils
and tailings in Tennessee and Florida (Moorman, 1975).
The major environmental problem is not wind erosion but separation of
the fine phosphatic clays from the water slurry. These particles are small
enough to pass through 2 pm sieve openings and remain in suspension for long
periods of time. Even in static tailings ponds the particles settle very
slowly so that the proliferation of these slime pits, drying out by slow
evaporation or settling processes in humid Florida, is now a growing environ-
mental problem as well as a source of mineral loss (about one-third of the
mined rock ends up in the slime pond (Florida Phosphate Slimes..., 1975).
A vegetative solution to the dewatering of phosphate slime wastes
consists of growing water hyacinths in them. Like any plant, hyacinths
absorb water and transpire it to the atmosphere. Hyacinths seem to do
it better than most and can increase the solids content of slurries as much
in weeks as natural evaporation and settling processes do in years. Some
ponds as old as 40 years, are still not dry and show little change with
time.
Hyacinths are also useful for cleaning slurries and effluents but as
the news item of Figure 15 reflects, are not always regarded as a blessing.
Water mint and water cress have also proved effective in dewatering
tests at Salt Lake City (Dean, Havens, Harper and Rosenbaum, 1969).
7.2.6 Chemical-Vegetative Covers
A technique for establishing vegetative cover on exposed, inhospitable
mineral tailings is the combination chemical/vegetative method developed
by the Bureau of Mines at Salt Lake City (Dean, Havens and Glantz, 1974;
Dean, Havens and Harper, 1969; Havens and Dean, 1969). This technique
applicable to a wide variety of tailings and well suited to the dry,
155
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Water Hyacinth,
Long a Lowly Plant,
Soaks Up Prestige
* * *
It Also Soaks Up Pollution,
As NASA Studies Show;
Will It End Up on Mars?,
By DOUGLAS MARTIN
Staff Reporter of THE WALL STREET JOURNAL
BAY ST. LOUIS, Miss. - Quick now:
What's green, reproduces a thousand times
faster than a cottontail rabbit and may stop
water pollution cheaper and better than
anything else—but will get you in trouble
with the feds if you carry it across a state
line?
The water hyacinth, you say? Of course.
And who's using it to clean dirty water? The
National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion, naturally.
NASA got interested in water hyacinths
jfour years ago because it was concerned
I about pollution at its space-technology labo-
Iratories here at Bay St. Louis. Or, more
| precisely, C. B. Wolverton, 42, a NASA
I biochemist, got interested in water hy-
acinths. Up till then, water hyacinths had
few influential friends like Mr. Wolverton.
For years the plants have been a scourge in
the South, blocking waterways there. Mil-
lions of dollars a year are spent to eradicate
them, and their interstate transport violates
federal law.
But, says Mr. Wolverton, who runs a
NASA water-hyacinth project, "Water hy-
acinths clean up waste better than any sys
tern technology has available."
Cleaner Than Tap Water
The water hyacinth is a hardy, vascular
plant with big leaves, thick stems and violet
blossoms. It removes water pollutants by
.absorbing them through its roots. Among
the chemicals it briskly extracts are such
insidious killers as mercury, lead, strontium
90 and some complex organic compounds
that scientists link to cancer. Mr. Wolverton
says the plants are so greedy for such
chemicals that he has measured toxic
metals 10,000 times more concentrated in
water hyacinths that in their surrounding
water.
NASA operates a water-nyacmm system
to remove its own chemical wastes and
those of other government laboratories on
the NASA base here. It also is installing hy.
acinth sewage-filtration systems for the city
of Bay St. Louis and Orange Grove, another
Mississippi community. Under consideration
is an experimental system for purifying
drinking water.
NASA's own system has worked well, of-
ficials say. It consists of seven intercon-
nected ponds teeming with water hyacinths.
Where the water enters the first pond, it
looks, smells and is foul. Flowing from the
last pond, it is nrtm-i»«q ana clear. "We have
fewer chemicals in there than in water out
of the tap," Mr. Wolverton says, pointing to
the cleansed flow.
Water hyacinths are so saturated with
chemicals \tfthin a month or so that they're
unable to absorb more. A newly developed
machine harvests the old plants. Remaining
hyacinths quickly reproduce new ones. One
hyacinth can breed 65,000 offspring a year.
Unloved in Louisiana
Which means, among other things, that
Donald Lee is fighting a losing battle. Mr.
Lee heads the state of Louisiana's water-hy-
acinth eradication program. In 1972, some
442,000 acres of Louisiana water were
choked with water hyacinths. More than $3
million a year has been spent to clear them.
But they now infest 1.2 million acres. In
hundreds of places, Mr. Lee says, they have
blocked waterways. "In no way can you
keep up with water hyacinths," he says.
''You just can't keejj up with reproduction."
Mr. Wolverton says" the fecundity 01
water hyacinths is precisely why they are
ideal for pollution work. "If water hyacinths
weren't such a nuisance," he says, "they
wouldn't be ideal for this project."
Primarily a Southern plant, the water
hyacinth usually won't thrive in the North,
although it could grow in water warmed by
discharges from nuclear reactors or other
heat-generating systems.
But there remains the problem of dispos-
ing of large amounts of highly polluted hy-
acinths. In a process called anaerobic fer-
mentation, water hyacinths have been con-
verted to methane, a natural gas. But con-
ventional methods of producing methane
are much cheaper.
Relevance to Space
Still, Mr. Wolverton says, "Water hy-
acinths are an inexhaustible natural re-
source. As we deplete the supply of (under-
ground) gas, its cost will go up, up, up.
Then (the water-hyacinth process) will be-
come a very economical way to get en-
ergy."
Other possibilities include drying pol-
luted hyacinths and extracting their heavier
metals, .including silver and gold. NASA
men think the dried and cleansed plants
could be used as fertilizer, cattle-feed addi-
tives, swine and poultry feed and garden
mulch.
Figure 15. The Water Hyacinth (from the Wall Street Journal, Friday,
August 22, 1975).
156
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windy West, consists of applying a chemical coating to a freshly seeded
and fertilized wet tailing surface. The chemical coating, such as
Coherex (see Section 5), should restrict evaporation from the surface,
although it must also be porous enough to allow air and moisture to penetrate
to the tailings. The chemical itself cannot be toxic or physically inimical
to the vegetation, but at the same time it should stabilize the surface
against wind erosion so that the emerging plants are not physically damaged
or buried before becoming established. Coherex has also been shown to
possess the advantageous property of promoting seed germination and plant
survival on saline copper tailings, apparently countering the toxic effects
of the salts that normally exist in the tailings (Dean e_t a]_., 1974).
The chemical/vegetative method has been successful in establishing
vegetation on copper tailings at high altitudes in Nevada. Six years
after the seeding with a mixture of various wheatgrasses, Russian wild rye,
alfalfas and clover, an ecological succession has occurred. Twenty-
seven different plant species are now growing on the site, seventeen of
which are invading native species. No irrigation or maintenance has been
carried out since the initial seeding, and wind erosion is no problem in
spite of the severe windstorms that often occur in the area (Dean e_t al_., 1973)
157
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Table 21. SPECIES RECOMMENDED FOR MINERAL TAILINGS RECLAMATION
Grasses
East
Midwest
West
Bahiagrass
Barley
Bentgrass (fine)
Bermudagrass
Bluegrass
Bromegrass
Buffel Grass
Fescue
Indian Ricegrass
Milomaize (see Sorghum)
Pangolagrass
Pubescent Wheatgrass
Quack Grass
Rye
Ryegrass
Saltgrass
Sorghum
Switchgrass
D, P, U
*P
*Fe
*Fe: R, T
*P
*P
*Fe
+Fe
*Fe
+Cu: Alk, S
+
+Cu
*U: C
+Cu: C
+Cu: Alk, S
+Cu: C
*0
*Cu
*A1
++0
-Cu
*Cu
+Cu: C, T
-Cu
+A1, Cu: W
+ - Recommended
++ - Highly recommended
* - Used
- Failed
Al - Bauxite spoils
Alk - Recommended for alkaline spoils
C - Recommended for cooler climates
Cu - Copper tailings
D - Recommended for dry regions
(less than 18 inches of pre-
cipitation per year)
Fe - Iron ore tailings
Mo - Molybdenum tailings
N - Native or volunteer plant, not
necessarily recommended
0 - Oil shale
P - Phosphate spoils
R - Recommended for rapid stabili-
zation and erosion control
S - Recommended for saline spoils
T - Temporary or short-lived crop
U - Uranium spoils
V - Vanadium spoils
W - Recommended for warmer climate
158
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Table 21 (cont'd)
Grasses
East
Midwest
West
Timothy
Weeping Lovegrass
Wheat
Wheatgrass
Wildrye (Russian)
*Fe
-H-V: R
++Cu
+Cu
++Cu, U, V:
+Cu: D
Alk, S
Legumes
East
Midwest
West
Alfalfa
Birdsfoot Trefoil
Clover
Sweetclover
+P
+Fe, Cu
+Fe
+Fe
+Cu
+Cu: D, S
+Cu, V
159
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Table 21 (cont'd)
Trees, Shrubs, & Vines East Midwest West
Alder +Fe
Aspen +Mo: C
Austrian Pine *
Birch +Fe: Alk
Black Locust +Fe *Fe
Blue Palo Verde +Cu: Alk, D, S
Bristlecone Pine +Fe
Bristly Locust +Cu
Cacti +Cu: D, W
Caragana +Cu
Cottonwood +Cu
Creosote Bush +Cu: Alk, D, S
Datura +Cu: Alk, D, S
Desert Broom +Cu: Alk, D, S
Desert Encelia +Cu: Alk, D, S
Desert Tobacco +Cu: Alk, D, S
Desert Willow +Cu: Alk, D, S
Douglas Fir
Eucalyptus +Cu: N, S
Greasewood -Cu
Hopseed Bush +Cu: Alk, D, S
Isenberg Bush +A1
Jack Pine +Fe
Japanese Black Pine *Fe
160
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Table 21 (cont'd)
Trees, Shrubs, & Vines
East
Midwest
West
Juniper
Kochia
Mesquite
Myrtle
New Mexico Forestiera
New Mexico Locust
Olive (Russian)
Peru Pepper
Poplar (hybrid)
Rabbitbrush
Red Pine
Ruby Sheepbush
Russian Thistle
Sagebrush (big)
Saltbush
Scouring Rush
Short!eaf Pine
Spruce (Engelmann)
Tamarisk
++Fe
+Fe
Cu: N
+Fe
+Cu, Mo
+Cu
+Cu: Alk, D, S
+A1
+0
++0
+Cu, 0
+Cu: Alk, D
+A1, Cu
+Cu: Alk, D, S
+Cu: Alk, S
+Cu
+Cu: Alk, S
+Cu: Alk, D, S
+Mo: C
+Cu: Alk, S
161
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7.3 SPENT OIL SHALE
Vegetative growth has not been established on untreated spent oil
shale due to the excessive salinity of this material. Typical conductivities
of spent shale are on the order of 15 mmhos/cm, where the upper limit
for growth has been placed at 4 mmho/cm; consequently, raw spent shale
must be leached before vegetation of any kind has any chance of survival
(Harbart and Berg, 1974; Schmehl and McCaslin, 1973; Merkel, 1973; Cook,
1974). Alternative treatments, such as soil cover or mixing with adjacent
soil, may be used; however, salt can contaminate the soil cover by
capillary action so that such measures may not be permanent unless
unusually thick covers are employed (Harbart and Berg, 1974).
Bloch and Kilburn (1973) have published a collection of shale
revegetation studies. The papers include results of greenhouse and field
experiments, economic analyses and environmental impact studies. An
appendix to that report, reproduced here as Table 22, lists 68 species
of grasses, legumes, shrubs that have been planted on various test
plots.
A series of reports on various aspects of revegetating spent oil
shales is being prepared by the Environmental Resources Center of
Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado 80523, several of
which have already been issued (Cook, 1974; Harbart and Berg, 1974; Sims
and Redente, 1974; Steen and Berg, 1975). Other useful reports concerning
the properties and uses of oil shale are Disposal and Uses of Oil
Shale Ash (1970) and Robinson and Cook (1973).
7.3.1 Site Preparation and Maintenance
Before spent shale may be used as a plant growing medium, the
concentration of soluble salts in the shale must be reduced to levels at
which the measured electrical conductivity is less than 4 mmhos/cm.
Forty-eight inches (120 cm) of irrigation water passing through the
shale should be adequate for this purpose (Cook, 1974). For maximum
irrigation efficiencies, the water should be applied at a rate low
enough to avoid runoff but high enough to minimize evaporative losses.
162
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Table 22. PLANTS GROWN IN PARACHUTE CREEK PROCESSED SHALE
REVE6ETATION PLOTS (Bloch and Kilburn, 1973).
Classification GRASSES
Nat
N (PC)
Nat (PC)
Exotic
N
Exotic
N (PC)
N (PC)
Exotic
Exotic
Exotic
N (PC)
Exotic
N (PC)
N
N
Exotic
Exotic
N
N
Nat
N
N
N
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
N (PC)
Exotic
Exotic
Exotic
N
N
N
Exotic
Exotic
Exotic
N (PC)
N (PC)
Nat (PC)
N
Scientific name
Agropyron cristatum (L.) Gaertn.
A. dasystachyum (Hook.) Scribn.
A. desertorum (Fisch.) Schglt.
A. elongatum Host.
Agropyron griffithsi Scribn. & Smith
A. intermedium (Host) Beauv.
A. ripjarium var. sodar Scribn. & Smith
A. smithii Rydb.
A. trichophorum (Link) Richt.
Bronius inermis Leyss.
Dactyl is glomerata L.
Elymus cinereus Scribn & Merr.
E. junceus Fisch.
E. sal inns. Jones
Festuca arizonica Vasey.
Common
duriuscula (L.) Koch.
F. ovina L.
Festucaovina var.
Lolium jerenne L.
Oryzopsis hymenoides (R. & S.) Ricker
Poa amp! a Merr.
P. pratensis L.
Sporobol us aj rgides_ (Torr.)
S. cryptandrus (Torr.) A. Gray
Stipa cor.;ata_ Trin. & Rupr.
FORBS
Achillea lanulosa Nutt.
Astragalus ciceri Dougl. ex Hook
A. falcatus Lam.
Coronilla varia L.
Cowani_a_ stansburiana Torr.
Da lea purp^a_ Vent.
Fallugia paradoxa (D. Don) Endl.
Med_icago sajtiya. var. ladak L.
Melilotus alba Desr.
M. officinalis (L.)
£enstemon
Rosa
strictus
Lam.
Benth.
sp
Sal sol a
Yucca sp.
Kali L.
fairway wheatgrass
thickspike v/heatgrass
crested v/heatgrass
tall wheatgrass
Griffith's wheatgrass
intermediate wheatgrass
streambank wheatgrass
western wheatgrass
pubescent wheatgrass
smooth brome
orchard grass
basin wildrye
Russian wildrye
sal ina wildrye
Arizona fescue
sheep fescue
hand fescue
perennial rye
Indian ricegrass
big bluegrass
Kentucky bluegrass
alkali sacaton
sand dropseed
needle --and- thread
yarrow
cicer milkvetch
sicklepod milkvetch
crownvetch
cliffrose
dalea
apache plume
alfalfa
sweetclover (white)
sweetclover (yellow)
Rocky Mtn. penstemon
wild rose
Russian thistle
yucca
163
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Table 22 (cont'd)
Classification SHRUBS
N
N
N
N
N
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
Exotic
N (PC)
N (PC)
N (PC)
Exotic
N
N
Nat
N
N
(PC)
N
N
N
N
N
N
N
Exotic
N (PC)
N (PC)
(PC)
(PC)
(PC)
N
N
Exotic
Exotic
(PC)
Scientific name
Amelanchier utahensis Koehne
Art erne si a t_ri dent a t a Nutt.
Atriplex conferti folia. (Torr. & Fremon)
S. Wats
A. canescens (Pursh) Nutt.
A. nuttallli S. Wats
Baccharis sp.
Caragana arborescens Lam.
Cercocarpus montanus Raf.
Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall) Britt.
C1ematis 1igusticifolia Nutt.
Colutea arborescens L.
Cowania stansburiana Torr.
C. nauseosus var. graveolens (Nutt.) H.C.
Eleagnus angustifolia L.
Forestier_a neomexicana A. Gray
Koc h i a vest i ta (S. Ha ts) Rydb.
Mahorn'a sp.
Populus angustifolia James
P. sargentii Dode
Purshia glandulosa Curran
P. tridentata'~(Pursh) DC.
Quercus gambelii Nutt.
Rhus trilobata Nutt.
Robina neomexicana^ A. Gray
Sal via carnosa Dougl.
Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook) Torr.
Symphoricarpos oreophilus A. Gray
TREES
Juniperus scopulorum Sarg.
Picea engelmarmTl (Parry) Engelm.
Salix sp.
Ulmus pumila L.
Common Name
serviceberry
big sagebrush
shadscale saithush
fourwing saltbush
Nuttall's saltbush
baccharis
caragana
mountain rnahoganv
rubber rabbitbrush
Western virginsbower
common bladdersenna
cliffrose
rabbitbrush
Russian olive
New Mexico forestiera
desert molly
Oregon grape
narrov/leaf cottonwood
broad! eaf cottonwood
desert bitterbrush
antelope bitterbrush
Gambel's oak
skunkbush
New Mexico locust
purple sage
greasewood
mountain snowberry
Rocky Mountain juniper
Englemann spruce
golden willow
Chinese elm
Key to Classification:
N Native to Colorado
Nat Naturalized
(PC) Native to Parachute Creek area
164
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The leaching can be performed by sprinkling (Cook, 1974), which may also
serve to maintain the vegetation on those sites subject to periodic
droughts, or by some form of drip irrigation (Bengston, 1975).
Nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies exist at all sites and must be
corrected by fertilizer. If legumes do not become part of the vegetative
stand, continued addition of nitrogen will most likely be required.
Harbart and Berg (1974), report relatively poor performance of vegetation
on sites facing the south or southwest in the lower and mid-elevations
of the Colorado oil shale region. Surface temperatures in the summer
are significantly higher on such slopes, leading to a large water requirement,
(Cook, 1974). Sheltering heaps of spent shale on their south and southwest-
facing sides could be an inexpensive but important step before a vegetatiion
program is undertaken.
7.3.2 Species Selection
The species selected for revegetation should consist of a mix of
grasses, forbs, shrubs and trees. Table 22, reproduced from Bloch and
Kilburn (1973), lists plants that have been grown in a specific experimental
plot of spent shale in Parachute Creek, Colorado.
Of the species listed in Table 22 Merkel (1973) rated pubescent
wheatgrass as the best performer among the grasses on 100 percent spent
shale as well as in various shale/soil mixtures. New Mexico locust did
best among the shrubs, followed by New Mexico forestiera and Russian olive.
Baker and Duffield (1973) identified their most successful grasses as
alkali sacaton, Russian wildrye and crested wheatgrass followed by
Indian ricegrass, sand dropseed and streambank wheatgrass. Among the
shrubs they tested, fourwing saltbush did the best followed by desert
molly. Streambank wheatgrass and western wheatgrass did better when
seeded in the spring. Woody plants should be transplanted.
At another location—the Piceance Basin in Colorado—Harbart and
Berg (1974) experienced fair to poor establishment of such grasses as
western wheatgrass and Indian ricegrass on their experimental plots of
TOSCO process spent shale. They attributed this disappointing performance
to low seeding rates and competition from barley which germinated from
seeds in the mulch.
165
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The shrubs and legumes seeded by Harbart and Berg did better,
establishing fair to good stands. The best performers were big sagebrush
followed by mountain mahogany and bitterbrush among the shrubs; Utah
sweet vetch and various pentstemons among the legumes. All species were
seeded, unlike the woody species evaluated by Merkel (1973) and by Baker
and Duffield (1973), which were for the most part transplanted.
7.3.3 Present Status
Vegetative stabilization of spent shale is an active area of
contemporary research. What has been shown is that various site pre-
paration steps may render spent shale capable of supporting vegetation
in the short run. Long-term success is not yet documented because
serious investigations of this problem began only 10 years ago. No
commercial scale action is underway; all field results reported are from
experimental plots set up in the oil shale regions.
Methods of covering spent shale with soil (including rock) or
mixing the surface shale with various volumes of soil are also being
studied as alternative methods for stabilizing spent shale.
7.4 SAND AND GRAVEL PITS
7.4.1 Planning and Site Preparation
A survey of environmental problems and land rehabilitation practices
associated with sand and gravel extraction operations is given by Schellie
and Rogier (1963). Much of the material that follows is based on this
reference.
The tailings (refuse) from sand and gravel processing and the
subsoil which constitutes most of the overburden are generally deficient
in nutrients and poor in texture. The recommended extraction procedure
is to strip and stockpile the topsoil separately, and to use it as a
final cover for land to be revegetated. In addition, the porosity and
consequent poor moisture retention capacity of sand and gravel make it
advisable to put a layer of a clay or other fine subsoil material below
the topsoil, if such a material can conveniently be isolated during the
stripping operation.
166
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The extent of the site grading which must be carried out after
extraction operations have been completed varies considerably with the
intended use of the land. Schellie and Rogier (1973) give a large
number of potential uses for worked-out extraction sites, along with
grading recommendations for each use. Several suggested maximum grades
are 0 percent for building construction, 1 percent for athletic fields,
10 percent for picnic and lawn areas, 25 percent for hiking trails, and
50 percent for ground cover areas.
A complete soil test prior to planting is an essential part of a
revegetation program, both to serve as an aid in species selection and
to determine soil amendments which might be needed. The porosity of
sandy soils frequently leads to leaching away of nitrogen and potassium
by rainfall or irrigation, so that the periodic replenishment of these
two elements is likely to be required. Phosphorus tends to be readily
immobilized, and so is less subject to washout.
The addition of humus (organic matter) to coarse soils prior to
planting is generally advisable, both to improve the soil texture and to
provide nutrients. Schellie and Rogier (1963) suggest using decayed
plant material (muck or peat) for this purpose; consideration should
also be given to the use of treated municipal sewage sludge, which has
been found quite effective in coal and mineral spoil revegetation (See
Section 7.1.2). An alternative means of providing organic nutrients is
to plant a quick cover crop and to plow it under after it has become
established. Legumes are suggested for this purpose, since they also
fix atmospheric nitrogen and add it to the soil; particular species
recommended include alfalfa, soybeans, sweetclover and red clover.
Finally, neutralization is often required to bring the soil pH to
the optimal range for growth of the selected plant species. Agricultural
limestone is usually used to raise the pH of acid soils; other alkaline
materials which may be used for this purpose include municipal sewage
effluent and power plant fly ash (See Section 6.1.2). The pH of alkaline
soils can be lowered somewhat by the addition of humus, and to a greater
extent by adding sulfur.
167
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7.4.2 Species Selection
Schellie and Rogier (1963) give a large list of trees, shrubs and
grasses adaptable to different regions of the United States. The intended
use of this list is unclear, however; there is no indication that the
listed species are particularly well adapted to sandy soils, and many of
the species recommended for growth in sandy soils by such references as
Limstrom (1960) and Medvick (1973) are not listed. The presumption
appears to be that topsoil and nutrients may always be applied in amounts
sufficient for the choice of plant species to be made entirely on the
basis of landscaping considerations.
Relatively few references to species suitable for growth directly
on sand and gravel have been encountered in the literature. Several
authors suggest weeping lovegrass for this purpose (Dalrymple, 1968;
Ruffner and Steiner, 1973; Struthers, 1960). This grass needs at least
15-20 inches (38-51 cm) of precipitation per year, and begins to die out
after 3-5 years (Cresswell, 1973). Other sand-tolerant grasses include
coastal panicgrass, beachgrass (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973) and sand
dropseed (Cook et_ al_. 1974). Jones (1973) proposes growing hybrid
poplars in gravel pits, and notes that native cottonwoods which volunteer
on gravel pits generally do well. Graetz (1973) observes that Eastern
red cedar, Japanese black pine, live oak and yucca do well on sandy
soils. Crow! (1962) makes the same observation about jack pine, and
Goldfinger (1971) recommends scotch pine.
A large body of information exists on the establishment of vegetation
on beaches and in desert areas; it is reasonable to assume that the
species recommended for use in these areas have a good potential for use
in sand and gravel pit reclamation. The most comprehensive reference to
beach vegetation is the document Dune Formation and Stabilization
of Vegetation and Planting by Davis (1960), which lists and discusses
hundreds of species adaptable to coastal areas. Sear1a (1973) also
lists many species suitable for seaside plantings. Other useful information
about beach vegetation is contained in articles by Graetz (1973), Harbaz
et al_. (1965), and Woodhouse ejt al_. (1967, 1968).
168
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Several references cite the use of American beachgrass for dune
stabilization (Blake et al_., 1973; Davis, 1960; Woodhouse and Hanes,
1967). This is a hardy salt-resistant grass which thrives along the
eastern shoreline from New England to South Carolina, and has also been
used in plantings along the Oregon and Washington coasts (Davis, 1960).
Below North Carolina, seaoats is the dominant dune grass, and saltmeadow
cordgrass (Spartina patens) grows extensively in sand flats and dunes
away from the shoreline, and in salt marshes throughout the East (Wood-
house and Hanes, 1967). Bermudagrass is recommended for revegetation of
sandy areas in warmer climates (Davis, 1960). Davis also cites successful
plantings of shrubs and trees that have been found to be acid-tolerant
in coal mine spoil revegetations, including black locust, red oak, black
willow, scotch broom, black alder, various pines and Russian olive.
Davis (1960) and Graetz (1973) both cite the adaptability of northern
bayberry to dune areas in the East.
Species which have been found suitable for mine-spoil revegetation
in desert areas in the Southwest should also be suitable for sand and
gravel pit reclamation in warm, arid climates. The references on mine-
spoil revegetation in the West cited in Section 7.1.4, particularly
those of Cook, Hyde and Sims (1974) and Ludeke (1973), should be valuable
sources of information in this regard. In addition to the species
already mentioned in this section, consideration should be given to
wheatgrass, switchgrass, bluestem, indiangrass, indian ricegrass,
sagebrush, rabbitbrush, fourwing saltbush and greasewood, and in cooler
climates caragana, skunkbush sumac, honeysuckle and matrimony vine (Cook
et al., 1974; Thornburg, 1975).
169
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Use of Polymers for Stabilizing Mineral Wastes. Industrial Agriculture,
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?03
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9.0 GLOSSARY
Actinomycetes - Filamentous or rod shaped bacteria.
Aforestation - The artificial establishment of forest crops by planting
or sowing on land that has not previously, or not recently, grown tree
crops.
Alluvial - Describes material such as earth, sand, gravel, or other
rock or mineral materials transported by and laid down by flowing water.
Amendment - Any material, such as lime, gypsum, sawdust, or synthetic
conditioners, that is worked into the soil to make it more productive.
Amphoteric - Having both acidic and basic properties.
Amphibole - Common rock forming minerals.
Annual - Plants that live only one year.
Berm - A strip of coal left in place temporarily for use in hauling
or stripping. A layer of large rock or other relatively heavy stable
material placed at the outside bottom of the spoil to help hold the pile
in position (a toe wall). Also used similarly, higher in the spoils for
the same purpose.
Biennial - Plants that live two years, usually does not show above ground
before the second year.
Bone - Carbonaceous shale containing 40-60% noncombustible materials
such as clay intermixed with coal.
Breaker Refuse - Slate, bone, or rock as removed by hand or mechanical
cleaners in all classes of breakers.
Broadcast - To scatter or sow seeds.
Calcareous - Containing limestone or other forms of bound calcium.
Chlorosis - A diseased condition in green plants marked by yellowing
or blanching.
Conifer - Cone-bearing--any of an order of mostly evergreen trees
and shrubs.
Cotyledon - The first leaf or one of the first pair or whorl of leaves
developed by a seed plant.
Culm - Refuse from coal screening.
Deciduous - Vegetation which sheds leaves or other parts.
Dicotyledon - A plant with two seed leaves.
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Direct Seeding - A method of establishing a stand of vegetation by sowing
seed on the ground surface.
Edaphic - Resulting from or influenced by the soil rather than the climate.
Effluent - Any water flowing out of the ground or from an enclosure to
the surface flow network.
Elluviation - Movement of soil material from one place to another within
the soil, in solution or in suspension, when there is an excess of rain-
fall over evaporation.
Feldspar - Aluminum silicate with either potassium, sodium, calcium
or barium.
Forb - Any herb other than grass.
Friable - Easily crumbled or pulverized.
Gall - A swelling of plant tissue usually due to fungi or insect parasites.
Gangue - The worthless rock or vien matter in which valuable minerals occur.
Grass - a monocotyledonous herb with jointed stems, slender sheathing
leaves.
Herb - A seed producing plant species that does not develop persistent
woody tissue but dies down at the end of a growing season.
Humus - The organic portion of soil resulting from partial decomposition
of plant or animal matter.
Hydroseeding - Dissemination of seed hydraulically in a water medium.
Mulch, lime, and fertilizer can be incorporated into the sprayed mixture.
Illite - A silicate of potassium, aluminum, iron and magnesium. A general
term for the clay-mineral constituent of agrillaceous sediments belonging
to the mica group.
Illuviation - Deposition in an underlying layer of soil (soil horizon
B) of colloids, soluble salts, and small mineral particles which have
been leached out of an overlying soil layer (soil horizon A). The
action occurs in humid climates.
Leaching - The removal of materials in solution by the passage of water
through soil.
Legume - Any of a large family of dicotyledonous herbs, shrubs and trees
having nodules on the roots that contain nitrogen fixing bacteria—e.g.,
peas, benas, clover.
Lespedeza - Any of a genus of herbaceous or shrubby leguminous plants
such as hay.
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Loess - Unstratified, usually buff to yellowish brown, loamy soil,
generally deposited by wind transport.
LOI - (loss of ignition) The loss in weight which results from heating
a sample to a high temperature (after the sample has been dried to a
temperature just above the boiling point of water, removing the free
moisture).
Minus Mesh, Minus Sieve - The portion of screened sample passing through
the sieve of the stated size. -20 + 30 means that portion of the sample
that passed through a No. 20 (0.85 mm) sieve but was retained on a No. 30
(0.60 mm) (Figure 4).
MoHi sols - The surface layer of permanently frozen ground in which the
ice melts during the summer.
Monocotyledon - Any seed plant having an embroyo with a single cotyledon.
Nodulate - Form or a swelling on a leguminous root that contains symbiotic
bacteria.
Qrstein - Refers to the hard, cemented B horizon of a podozol.
Overburden - The soil or material covering a layer or vein of valuable
ore. To surface mine the ore, the overburden must be stripped off and
set aside.
Pedalfer - A soil that lacks a hardened layer of accumulated carbonates.
Pedocal - A soil that includes a hardened layer of accumulated carbonates.
Pelletizing - Formed or compacted into pellets--!.e., soil.
Perennial - Plants that live from year to year; includes trees, shrubs
and herbs.
Pioneer - A plant capable of establishing itself in a bare area and
initiating an ecological cycle.
Plugging - Transplanting of grass and other species in sod by sections.
Plus Mesh. Plus Sieve - The portion of a screened sample retained on the
sieve of the stated size.
Polymorphous - Having many parts or members in a whorl.
Pozzolana - Finely divided siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material
that reacts chemically with slaked lime at ordinary temperature and in
the presence of moisture to form a strong, slow-hardening cement.
Propagation - Any method employed to increase plants—plant breeding,
vegetative, etc.
Resinous - Solid or semi sol id amorphous fusible, flammable natural organic
substances formed in plant secretions--!'.e., pine resin.
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Rhizome - An elongated, usually horizontal subterranean plant stem that
is often thickened by deposits of reserve food material, produces shoots
above and roots below and is distinguished from a true root in possessing
buds, nodes and usually seal el ike leaves.
Scarification - For thick-coated seeds, scratching of the seed coats to
ensure germination at the desired time.
Seed - Plant by scattering seeds.
Seedling - Nursery started plants.
Slag - Substance formed in any of several ways because of chemical action
and fusion at furnace operating temperatures—by chemical reaction between
refractories and fluxing agents such as coal ash, or between two types
of refractories.
Slime - Fine particles derived from ore, associated rock, clay, or
altered rock, found in old dumps and ore deposits which have been
exposed to climatic action.
SIurry - Fine carbonaceous discharge from a colliery washery; any finely
divided solid which has settled out as from thickners.
Slurry Pond - Any natural or artificial pond or lagoon for settling and
draining the solids from washery slurry.
Spoils - Overburden left behind a strip mining operating.
Swale - a low-lying or depressed and often wet stretch of land.
Talus - A slope or pile of rock debris.
Terete - Of approximately cylindrical shape but usually tapering at both
ends.
Talus - A slope or pile of rock debris.
Tailings - The leftover minerals, after the desirable (valuable) ores
have been removed; these leftovers are without economic value and are
discarded.
Volunteer - Growing spontaneously without direct human control or supervision.
Weathering - The group of processes, such as chemical action of air and
rainwater and of plants and bacteria and the mechanical action of changes
in temperature,, whereby rocks, on exposure to the weather, change in
character, decay, and finally crumble.
Xeric - Requiring only a small amount of moisture.
Xerophilous - Thriving in or tolerant of xeric environment.
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10.0 APPENDICES
A. Woodruff Wind Erosion Equation 209
B. Catalog of Plants Used and/or Recommended for Spoil
Revegetation 213
C. Listing of Directors of State Agricultural Experiment
Stations, Institutes and Centers 295
208
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APPENDIX A
WOODRUFF WIND EROSION EQUATION
The eleven primary variables of wind erosion (Section 5.1) are not
independent. For example, the quantity, kind and orientation of vegetative
cover all depend upon plant species. These variables in turn influence
soil moisture content, local wind velocity at the ground level, sheltered
distance, etc.
One useful combination of meteorological variables is to create a
general climatic erosion index from the wind velocity and soil surface
moisture variables as follows (Woodruff and Siddoway, 1965; Cowherd, et_
al_. 1974):
C1 = 34.483 ¥_*- (1)
(P-E)2
where C1 = the wind erosion climatic factor [%, relative to climate
of Garden City, Kansas]
v = the mean annual wind velocity corrected to a standard
height of 9.14 m (30 feet) [mph]*
P-E = the Thornthwaite precipitation/evaporation index (Thornthwaite,
1931) which is a function of soil moisture content (dimensionless)
34.483 = normalizing factor to make C1 = 100 at Garden City, Kansas,
circa 1954-1956 [mph]-3
The wind erosion climatic factor describes general long term average
weather and climatic conditions over which local variations have little
or no influence over a long period of time. The wind velocity at 9.14 m
(30 feet) is relatively independent of the terrain beneath; the P-E
index is a regional measure of precipitation and evaporation (evaporation
is calculated from temperature (Thornthwaite, 1931). Maps of both P-E
index and the resulting climatic factors C1 (eq.l) for the U.S. are
shown in Figures 16 and 17 respectively. These factors are assumed to
be natural phenomena beyond human control; that is, weather or climatic
changes are ruled out as control methods for minimizing wind erosion.
At the local level, however, wind velocity and surface moisture levels
can be altered greatly; indeed, methods for doing one or the other or
both constitute the basis for all the major control methods.
*SI units are not used here in order to preserve the constants in this
equation in their original values.
209
-------
285
THORNTHWAITE'S
•S PRECIPITATION-EVAPORATION INDEX
Figure 16. Thornthwaite's Precipitation-Evaporation Index (P-E)
-------
ro
ANNUAL
CLIMATIC FACTOR C
ORIGINAL DRAWING ^-17-68, D. V. ARMBRUST.
ARK.. IA., KY., LA., TENN., W. VA, ADDED
J\lM\t t JLf\» f IXJ. • f
11-24-71, K. P.
WOODRUFF.
Figure 17. Climatic factor used in wind erosion equation.
-------
The climatic erosion index is but one variable in a general wind
erosion equation developed by Woodruff and others (Woodruff and Siddoway,
1969; Skidmore, Fisher and Woodruff, 1970). In this equation the eleven
primary variables given in Section 5.1 are reduced to five as follows:
E = f(I', K', C1, L', V)
where E = an erosion rate (soil loss in tons/acre/yr)
I' = a soil credibility factor
K' = a soil-ridge roughness factor
C' = the climatic factor given in equation 1
L1 = the median unsheltered travel distance across a
given field
V = an equivalent vegetative cover factor
The five variables of equation 2 represent a regrouping, conversion
and combining of the original eleven variables. Forms for facilitating
those field measurements needed to calculate E have been published by
Skidmore, Fisher and Woodruff (1970) who have also developed a computer
program to carry out the calculations.
The Woodruff equation predicts total soil erosion rate—soil movement
due to saltation and creep as well as suspension. Consequently it does
not predict increases in total suspended particulates. The two quantities
are directly, although not simply, related.
212
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APPENDIX B
CATALOG OF PLANTS USED AND/OR RECOMMENDED FOR SPOIL REVE6ETATION
This Appendix provides brief descriptions of the plant species
referenced in earlier sections of the report, along with summaries of
experiences in which the species were included in mineral spoil and
tailing revegetation programs. The species are listed alphabetically by
i.
common name.
AILANTHUS: Ailanthus altissima
Hardwood trees, confined chiefly to the tropics and warmer parts of
Northern Hemisphere including the eastern United States (Sargent, 1933).
Volunteers on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Medve, 1974). Twenty
percent survival after 10 years on Indiana spoils (DenUyl, 1962).
ALDER: European Black - Alnus glutinosa
Speckled - A. sucana
Hardwood trees inhabiting swamps, river bottom-lands and high
mountains; widely and generally distributed throughout the Northern
Hemisphere (Sargent, 1933).
Planted in Japan to control erosion, to attain rapid covering of
denuded land and to promote the growth of conifers (Hashimoto et al.,
1973). Interplanted with hybrid poplar with good results in Germany
(Knabe, 1973). Tolerant to high pH and salinity in fuel ash in England;
suggested as nurse species (Hodgson, 1973).
Eastern Spoils
Speckled and European Alder are fast growing, single-stemmed
species which show good adaptation to all classes of Pennsylvania
spoils; 87 percent survival on spoils above pH 4.5, 36 percent on spoils
with pH 3.5 or below; appear to be free from disease or insect damage
(Miles et aj_., 1973; Magnuson and Kimball, 1969; Revegetation. 1965).
Sixty-eight percent survival (2.0 m (6.4 ft) in height) after five years
on Pennsylvania anthracite spoils (pH 4.0-7.0) that were graded; 44
percent survival, 1.3 m (4.2 ft) height on ungraded spoils.
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European alder can be planted as an alternative to black locust on
West Virginia spoils; not as complete or quick a cover as black locust;
can be used for pulpwood production (Brown, 1971). Alder has a good
survival rate on spoils in West Virginia with pH as low as 3.5; less
vigorous, but more disease resistant than black locust; resists livestock
grazing (Ruffner, 1966). Classified as a pioneer species on West Virginia
gob piles (Coalgate, 1973).
Good results on Kentucky spoils (pH 3.5-7.5) (Revegetation
Manual, 1966; Carter et^ a_K , 1974). Eighty percent survival, 3.7 m
(12.2 ft) height after five years on eastern Kentucky spoils with pH
3.5-5.5; good nurse species, provides shade and fixes nitrogen, helps
growth of other species (Dale, 1963).
European black alder had the highest survival (80-98 percent) of
trees planted on Ohio spoils in the Cincinnati area (Hill, 1968).
Eighty-five to one-hundred percent survival, 0.6 m (2 ft) in height on
loose shaly clay of Ohio spoils after two years at pH 5.0-7.0 (Funk and
Krause, 1965). Preferred for strip mine reclamation because of easy
establishment, rapid growth, abundant leaf litter production and ability
to fix nitrogen for associated trees (Funk, 1973). Good results in
plantings on poor sites where other species fail; used for plywood and
other pulpwood production (Ibid.).
European grew on Georgia kaolin spoils which were deficient in
nitrogen and phosphorus (May ejt aJL, 1973). Good growth with European
on acidic spoils with pH 2.0-3.0 overlaid with 5 cm (2") municipal
sewage effluent (Dickerson, 1971).
Mineral Tailings
Good results on Pennsylvania iron ore tailings for European;
seedlings were planted in hydroseeded cover of paper pulp mulch, grass
seed, sulfur and fertilizer; attained 0.9 m (3 ft) in four months
(Francis, 1965).
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ALFALFA: Medicago sativa
Perennial legume.
Eastern Spoils
Recommended for spoils having a pH of 6.0 or greater in Pennsylvania
(Guide for Revegetating..., 1965) and West Virginia (Mellinger et a]..,
1966), and a pH of 6.5 or greater in Kentucky (Carter et al_., 1974);
Revegetation, 1966).
Alfalfa grew well on Ohio spoils, except on sandy spoils in the
southern part of the state, where lespedezas grew (Struthers, 1960). It
does not spread by seed, and so may be lost from planting mixtures if
overgrazed (Ibid.). It is more persistent than clover (Carter ejt al_.,
1974). A weevil-tolerant variety like Lancer or Weevilchek should be
used (Ibid.). Good results were obtained growing Iriquois alfalfa on
toxic spoils (pH 2.0-3.0) overlaid with municipal sewage effluent and
sludge (Sopper et_ al_., 1974). Unless fertilized, vigor on West Virginia
spoils was poor, and growth was hurt by competition from sweetclover
(Ruffner, 1966).
Midwestern Spoils
Recommended as part of grass-legume mixtures for spoils with pH
6.5-7.5 (Crowl, 1962). Good forage crop (Ibid.). Good yield on Illinois
spoils which were relatively neutral and rich in nitrogen and potassium
(Grandt, 1965).
Western Spoils
Recommended for dry subalpine regions in Colorado (Berg, 1975;
Townsend, 1975) and for good soils with pH 7.5-8.5 in regions of Montana
that receive at least 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per year
(Thornburg, 1975). Lakad 65 is a drought-resistant, winterhardy variety
for sandy and loamy soils in Colorado (Townsend, 1975). Susceptible to
gopher damage (Berg, 1975). May cause bloat if grazed (Townsend, 1975).
Mineral Tailings
Grown successfully on Tennessee phosphate wastes (Morgan and Parks,
1967), and mixed with bromegrass on heavily fertilized alkaline iron
tailings in northern Michigan (Shetron and Duffek, 1970). Poor results
were obtained in plantings on copper tailings in Nevada (Shirts et al_.,
1974) and Washington (Shirts, 1975). Germinated on leached copper
tailings in Utah, but did not do as well as yellow sweetclover (Nielson
and Peterson, 1972).
215
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ALKALI SACATION: Sporobolus airoides
A perennial bunchgrass, which grows in moderately alkaline soil
from South Dakota to eastern Washington south to Texas and southern
California (Hitchcock, 1935). Recommended for revegetation of saline
and alkaline spoils in the northern Great Plains, and for western desert
areas with a least 20 cm (eight inches) of precipitation per year (Cook
et al_., 1974).
APPLE TREES: Malus sp.
Growth confined to North America, western and southeastern Europe,
central, southern and eastern Asia (Sargent, 1933). Hulls Deer Apple is
vigorous, has good winter fruit retention but needs nitrogen additives
(Ruffner, 1966). Good results obtained in eastern Kentucky spoils at
490 m (1600 ft) elevation; pear and peach also tried with poor results
("Flexible Mountaintop...," 1964).
ARROWWOOD: Viburnum dentatum
Shrub. Survived 10 years (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Good survival
except on very acid spoil banks, not as good as black chokeberry (Ibid.).
Best results when planted on spoils with pH 5.0 or greater and slopes 25
percent angle or less, medium to heavy fruit production (Revegetation,
1966; Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
ASH: Green - Fraxinus Pennsylvania
White - F. americana
Eastern Spoils
Green produced little growth or vigor on Pennsylvania bituminous
spoils after four years (Miles et^ aJL, 1973). Green is good first year
then declines; Oyster Shell Scale severely damages tree (Wheeler, 1965).
Green and White had fair survival (68 percent after 10 years), slow
growth, little litter deposition, damaged by cicada, scale and aphids
(Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Particularly poor results on upper slopes of
Pennsylvania spoils (Ibid.).
216
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White volunteers on West Virginia spoils (Mellinger et al_-> 1966).
Ninety-three percent survival, 1.8 m (5.9 ft) height on ungraded eastern
Kentucky spoils (pH 3.5-5.5, silty clay shale) in pure stands and 85
percent survival, 2.3 m (7.4 ft) height in mixtures with European Alder
(Dale, 1963).
Eight-four percent survival of white ash on unfertilized Ohio
spoils (pH 5.0-7.0, loose shaly soil) after two years; 64 percent survival
on fertilized spoils (Carter et. aJL, 1974). Good results of White and
Green on spoils at pH 4.5-8.0; nurse species aids growth (Ibid.). Green
is adaptable to plantable Ohio spoils, best suited to moist sites,
should be planted in mixtures with black locust on barren spoils banks
(Finn, 1958). Good results obtained for white ash planted on lower
slopes and bottoms of Ohio spoils having a high percentage clay and
loam, will tolerate graded banks having high clay content, can be planted
in mixtures with black locust (Ibid.). White survived despite heavy
herbaceous cover (Limstrom, 1964).
Midwestern Spoils
Good survival on Midwestern spoils (pH 6.0-7.5) when planted on
lower slopes and graded banks, 0-25 percent mixture, recommended for
sands and loose or compact soils and clays (Limstrom, 1960). Good
results on Midwestern spoils in mixtures with other hardwoods at pH 4.0-
8.0, (Crowl, 1962).
Poor growth on neutral southern Illinois spoils after 16 years
(Ashby and Baker, 1968). Seventy percent survival of green ash on
ungraded Illinois spoils (pH 5.0-6.0, 40 percent soil content) after 21
years; 79 percent on graded spoils (Chapman, 1967). Good results on
lower slopes and bottoms of Illinois spoils at pH greater than 5.5, can
be planted with sweetclover or other low plants (Boyce and Neebe, 1969).
Green is adaptable to all spoil banks, can be underplanted with black
locust, subject to severe injury by rabbits (Limstrom and Merz, 1954).
White more adaptable than Green, tolerant of compact soils where clay is
graded, subject to rabbit damage (Ibid.).
Green and White best suited for planting on Indiana spoil banks
having a dense cover of sweetclover, can be grown on acid loams and
silty shales (Deitschman and Lane, 1952). Sixty-six percent survival of
green ash after 10 years on Indiana spoils.
217
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Good survival and growth of green ash on Kansas, Missouri and
Oklahoma spoil banks, best in moist locations, 63 percent survival after
6 years, tolerates competition (Clark, 1954). Mix with black locust for
quick cover (Ibid.). Twenty-six percent survival, 2.3 m (24 ft) height
of green ash on Kansas spoils (pH 5.6-6.1) after 22 years, damaged by
locust (Geyers and Rogers, 1972; Seidel and Brinkman, 1962).
Western Spoils
Good results on Montana spoils with pH 7.5-8.5, coarse soils,
overlaid with topsoil and 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per
year (Thornburg, 1975). Green ash is sensitive to nutrient conditions,
survival related to exchangeable aluminum, soluble salt concentrations
and pH; rated excellent for coal spoil revegetation (Lorio and Tatherum,
Iowa Res. Bull. 535).
ASPEN: Populus tremuloides
P. grandidentata
Large fast-growing trees (Sargent, 1933). In the extreme north,
often forms large forests, common on bottom-lands of streams and on high
mountain slopes (Ibid.). Excellent volunteering species (Mellinger e_t
aj., 1966; Medve, 1973; Revegetation, 1965). Good results obtained in
Colorado alpine regions 3,000 m ((10,000 ft) and greater elevation (Brown,
1974). Raube (1969) recommends aspen for planting on acid spoils in
mixtures.
AUSTRIAN PINE: Pinus nigra
Conifer found in central and southern Europe and northeastern
United States (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Tolerant of drought and alkalinity, more sensitive to frost than
other pines (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Compatible with sod, annual
plants, and light brush (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Sopper ejt al_., (1975)
report good survival in laboratory tests on Pennsylvania anthracite
spoils at pH 3.0 along with red and white pine. Fifty-one percent
survival after five years on graded anthracite spoils at pH 4.0-7.0;
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22 percent on ungraded spoils (Czapowskyj, 1970). Average survival on
other Pennsylvania spoils, 74 percent; 78 percent on spoils with pH
above 4.5, 2 percent at pH below 3.5 (Magnuson and Kimball, 1969). Poor
specimen on bituminous spoils, 25 percent or less on slopes with pH
greater than 5.0 (Guide for Revegetatincj..., 1965). Planted in West
Virginia as ornamental species, but too early to recommend for
forestation (USBM, Circular 109, 1960).
Produced good results on Midwestern spoils at pH 4.0-7.5, good
wildlife cover (Crowl, 1962).
Mineral Tailings
Produced good cover and stabilization, excellent growth 3-7.6 m
((10-25 ft) in height) and adaptation on Arizona copper tailings (Ludeke,
1972; 1974).
;-
BAHIAGRASS: Paspalum notatum
Rhizomatous perennial grass, grows primarily in the southeast
(Hitchcock, 1935). Recommended for poor sites in southeastern beach
areas—tolerates salt spray (Graetz, 1973). A good grass for growth in
central Alabama, and the only suitable grass found for southern Alabama
y
(Dickens and Orr, 1969). Requires 4.5 g/m (40 Ibs of nitrogen per
acre) per year, but does not respond to phosphorus or potassium addition
(Ibid.). Lower yield than coastal bermudagrass on kaolin clay spoil in
Georgia (May ejt al_., 1973). Recommended for erosion control on sand and
gravel extraction sites (Schellie and Rogier, 1963). Does well on dikes
and around slime pits in Florida phosphate wastes (Craig, 1975).
BALD CYPRESS: Toxadium distichum
Resinous trees, found in river swamps, usually submerged several
months of the year throughout the eastern U.S., Gulf states and part of
the Midwest (Sargent, 1933). Ruffner (1966) reported slow growth on
West Virginia spoils with stands below 50 percent. Fair survival on
Pensylvania spoils but good growth rate (Miles et al_., 1973). Grew
slowly on western Kentucky spoils and suffered blot crown (Boyce and
May, 1948). Crowl (1962) reported fair results on Midwest spoils with
pH 5.5-6.5 but subject to bagworm.
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BAMBOO: Wild - Similax auriculata
Perennial grass, usually large, sometimes tree-like, woody, rarely
herbaceous or climbing; of wide geographical range (Bailey, 1942).
Graetz (1973) reported success by direct seeding on sand dunes on
the North Carolina coast.
BANKS PINE (see Jack Pine)
BARLEY: Hordeum vulgare
An annual grass, normally grown in the western United States but
also found in the Northeast (Hitchcock, 1935). Winter barley germinated
quickly and grew rapidly on saline-alkaline copper tailings in Arizona
and provided good cover and erosion stabilization (Ludeke, 1974).
Winter barley has also been used to stabilize gold mine tailings in
Sourth Africa (Stabilizing Mine Dumps, 1968). A special variety,
Charlottetown 80, grown on Prince Edward Island by the Canadian Depart-
ment of Agriculture, is highly resistant to aluminum toxicity and grows
in acidic wastes with pH as low as 3.0 (Dean et a/K, 1971; Hill, 1971).
BEACHGRASS: American - Amophilia breviligulata
European - A. arenaria
Rhizomatous perennial. American beachgrass is grown along the
eastern coast from Maine to North Carolina, and on the shores of the
Great Lakes from Lake Ontario to Lake Superior and Lake Michigan.
European beachgrass (also known as marram) is found along the northwest
coast from San Francisco to Oregon (Hitchcock, 1935). American beach-
grass is dominated by sea oats on beaches below North Carolina (Woodhouse
ejt a]_., 1968). Suggested for rapid stabilization of sand and gravel
pits (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). An attempt to grow American beachgrass
on an acid coal mine spoils neutralized with fly ash yielded poor results
(Capp and Gillmore, 1974). European beachgrass has been used to stabilize
sand tailings from South African gold mines (James, 1966).
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BENTGRASS: Fine - Agrostis tenuis
Annual or perennial grasses with erect or creeping stems and open
panicles of small flowers (Bailey, 1942). Fine bentgrass occurs throughout
the Northeast and along the northwest coast (Hitchcock, 1935). Strains
of this grass have been developed in Wales which are tolerant to aluminum,
copper, iron and zinc (Goodman ejt al_., 1973).
BERMUDAGRASS: Cynodon dactylon
Rhizomatous perennial which grows primarily in the Southeast
(Hitchcock, 1935). Recommended as the best grass for the southeastern
and southwestern United States—tolerates drought and high temperatures,
and spreads vigorously (Schellie and Rogier, 1963).
Common bermudagrass can be planted both by seeding and plugging; it
needs both nitrogen and phosphorous fertilizationand is not well adapted
to acidic soils (Mays, 1975). Coastal bermudagrass is good for sandy soils
in the Southeast, needs fertilization, and cannot be seeded (Graetz,
1973); it has been used to revegetate a kaolin clay spoil in Georgia
(May et al_., 1975).
Giant bermudagrass has been established both by broadcast seeding
and plugging on fertilized copper mine tailing berms in Arizona (Day and
Ludeke, 1973). Best results were obtained by plugging. A 90-100 percent
cover was obtained within two years (Ibid.).
BIRCH: Black - Betula lenta
European White - B. pendula
Grey - B. populifolia
River - B. nigra
Yellow - B. lutea
Trees with smooth resinous bark (Sargent, 1933). Widely distributed
from the Artie Circle to Texas, southern Europe, the Himalayas, China
and Japan; some species form great forests at the north or cover high
mountain tops (Ibid.).
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Eastern Spoils
Grey birch produced good results whenever planted and was repro-
ducing effectively in less than 10 years (Davis and Melton, 1963).
Useful as initial cover and soil conditioner on the less favorable
spoils and steeper slopes in Pennsylvania (Ibid.). Acid tolerant
(Wheeler, 1965). Grey did not survive on ungraded breaker refuse even
after hydroseeding and liming; poor results on graded spoils after same
treaments (Czapowskyj and Writer, 1970). Mixtures of European, grey and
red pine produced good results for highly acid Pennsylvania spoils
(Revegetation 1965). Black and river birch invade spoils (Bramble and
Ashley, 1955).
European white and grey produced best survival rate on West Virginia
spoils with pH below 3.5 (Coalgate, 1973). Brown (1960) and Mellinger
ejt aJL (1966) both reported that black birch volunteers on West Virginia
spoils. Ruffner (1966) reports that seedings in spring and fall produce
the best results.
River birch produced good results on Kentucky spoils at pH 4.0-7.5
(Carter et al_., 1974). Should be planted in a mixture with other hard-
woods (Ibid.).
Mineral Tailings
Grey produced good results on Pennsylvania iron ore tailings at pH
8.9 (Francis, 1964).
BIRDSFOOT TREFOIL: Lotus corniculatus (see also Narrowleaf Trefoil)
Long-lived perennial, cool season flowering legume.
Eastern Spoils
Recommended for spoils with pH of 5.0 or greater in Pennsylvania
(Guide for Revegetating..., 1965; Miles e/t al_., 1973) and Ohio (Hill,
1968), pH 4.5 or greater in Kentucky (Carter e_t al_., 1974; Vogel and
Berg, 1968) and pH 5.5-6.0 or greater in West Virginia (Mellinger et_
aj_., 1966; Ruffner, 1966). Establishment may be difficult, and may
require extensive liming, fertilization and mulching (Revegetation.
1966; Ruffner, 1966; Struthers, 1960). Tolerant to manganese (Berg and
Vogel, 1968). Once established, it frequently provides better cover
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than sweetclover, alfalfa and lespedezas (Hill, 1968; Struthers, 1960;
Vogel and Berg, 1968). Recommended for high elevations (Carter et al_.,
1975; Ruffner, 1966). Best sown in spring (Revegetation, 1966). Must
be inoculated before seeding, and is susceptible to damage by quick
cover species (Carter ejt al_., 1974).
Good results were obtained when birdsfoot trefoil was planted on a
pH 2.0-3.0 spoil overlaid with municipal sewage effluent and sludge
(Sopper ejt al_., 1974). Capp and Gillmore (1974) successfully grew
Empire birdsfoot trefoil on an acid spoil treated with fertilizer and
alakaline fly ash, but had no success with common birdsfoot trefoil.
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Recommended for relatively neutral, nutrient-rich soils (Crowl,
1962; Grandt, 1965). Excellent germination and growth in mixture with
grasses on acidic spoils in Illinois; tolerated drought very well
(Sorrell, 1974). Cannot withstand competition from quick cover crops
(Crowl, 1962). May persist for several years in upper subalpine regions
of Colorado; attractive and palatable to animals (Berg, 1975).
Mineral Tailings
Suggested for copper tailings in Arizona—drought resistant and
salt tolerant (Ludeke, 1973).
BLACK CHERRY: Prunus Serotina
Trees with bitter aromatic bark and leaves (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Outperformed hybrid poplar on acid West Virginia spoils (Trimble,
1963). Volunteers on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Medve, 1974).
Common near coasts in sandy soils—Outer Banks of North Carolina and
northern South Carolina coast (Graetz, 1973). Good results on sandy
soils, moderate salt-spray resistance (Ibid.). Showed great response to
improved soil nitrogen conditions provided by black locust on Ohio
spoils (Finn, 1953).
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Midwestern and Western Spoils
Twenty percent survival (less than locust and bur oak) after 22
years on Kansas spoils that were nutrient rich at pH 5.6-6.1 (Geyer and
Rogers, 1972). Recommended for cover with black locust (Ibid.). Chapman
(1967) reported 62 percent survival on silty clay spoils after 20 years
at pH 5.5-7.0 in Kansas and Missouri. Forty-seven percent survival, 11
m (35 ft) height on ungraded spoils and 13 percent, 4 m (13 ft) height
on graded spoils j_Ibid.). Good results obtained on moist Midwestern
spoil sites; tolerates competition (Clark, 1954). Should be planted in
mixtures and under decadent black locusts (Ibid.). Adapated to calcareous,
loamy and clayey banks in Illinois with high proportion of soil (Limstrom
and Merz, 1955). Can be used in underplanting on these spoils; plant in
mixtures with black locust and other hardwoods (Ibid.).
Poor results obtained, except under ideal conditions, on coarse
Montana spoils that were covered with topsoil, at pH 7.5-8.5 and 36-46
cm (14-18 inches) precipitation per year (Thornburg, 1975).
BLACK CHOKECHERRY: Pyrus melanocarpa
Aronia Melanocarpa
Small deciduous-leaved shrub, excellent growth on drier, rocky soil
(Bailey, 1942). Excellent survival, moderate fruit yield, provides food
and cover for wild game (Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
BLACK LOCUST: Robinia pseudoacacia
Tree, found on the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains, central and
southern Pennsylvania, northern Georgia, southern Illinois and westward
to the Ozark region of southern Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma, widely
naturalized east of the Rocky Mountains (Sargent, 1933). Effective
cover in 4-5 years, most vigorous and widely adaptable tree species
(Ruffner, 1966).
Good nurse species either in pure stands or in a mixture with black
cherry, sycamore and bur oak for quick cover and soil erosion control
(Limstrom, 1960; Geyer and Rogers, 1972; Bureau of Mines, 1961). Good
results obtained on nutrient rich, ungraded soils at pH 5.6-6.1 in
mixtures with bur oak, sycamore and loblolly pine (Geyer and Rogers,
224
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1972). Used chiefly for gully control, elsewhere as a nitrogen fixing
nurse (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Subject to borer injury (Ibid.). Should
not be planted on poorly drained, highly toxic spoils (Ibid.). Best
results obtained on well-drained soils (Ibid.). Good results obtained
on very acid spoils (pH 2.0-3.0) when overlaid with 5 cm (2") municipal
sewage effluent (Dickerson, 1971).
"Dominant Stem" black locust (hybrid) gave superior growth rate and
has low susceptibility to locust borer (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973).
Eastern Spoils
Rated best species for adaptation on Pennsylvania mine spoils,
usually planted in a mixture for better survival rate because of
susceptibility to locust borer (Miles et. aK, 1973). Good nurse for
hybrid poplars planted on Pennsylvania spoils, provides lots of litter,
stimulates growth of other hardwoods (Kendry, 1973; Hart and Byrnes,
1969). Volunteers in mixture with blackberry, pokeweed, thistles,
elderberry, timothy and hickory, maple, oak and cherry (Ibid.). Ninety
percent survival obtained when hydroseeded on upper slopes of Pennsylvania
spoils and covered with overburden more alkaline than local soil, better
than crownvetch and ryegrass (Bureau of Mines, 1973). Good for banks
with low soil content and upper slopes in a mixture with Japanese birch
(Hart and Byrnes, 1960). On Pennsylvania spoils, mixtures including
black locust may be harmful if the black locust should overtop the other
species (Ibid.). Excellent response when fertilized with sewage sludge
(Sopper, 1968). Volunteers on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Medve,
1974).
Excellent survival rate and growth, although poor form and sus-
ceptibility to severe damage from the borer seriously limits commercial
potential (Davis and Melton, 1963).
Revegetation (1965) reports that it is a good nurse on neutral soil
with pH greater than 5.0 and slopes 25 percent angle or less; for
erosion control 4.5 g/m2 (40 Ibs) of nitrogen and 9 g/m (80 Ibs) of
phosphorus should be added. Failed on anthracite breaker refuse even
after hydroseeded and limed (Czapowskyj and writer, 1970). After 5
years, 64 percent survival on graded spoils with pH 4.0-7.0 and 22
percent on ungraded (Czapowskyj, 1970).
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Brown and Tryon (1960) reported good results on West Virginia
spoils with pH 4.0 or greater, better results as pH increases and slope
decreases. Mellinger ejt al_. (1966) reported that black locust suffers
more damage if planted on spoils below pH 6.0. Should only be planted
on level ground (Ibid.).
Common black locust is best for quick growth and cover on West
Virginia spoils (Ruffner, 1966). Protective cover established after 4
years and soil stabilization after 8 (Ibid.). Should not be grazed;
"Dominant Stem" and Clone BN-4194 are better species than Common (Ibid.).
Brown (1962) reported 68.7 percent survival rate on West Virginia spoils
(less than red pine, white pine, and yellow poplar). Uniform growth on
slopes, nitrogen fixing, good adaptability, provides cover and stabilization
(Ibid.). Good seed production, rapid juvenile growth (Brown, 1971).
Volunteers on West Virginia spoils; November-March best period for
direct seeding, should not be planted in low precipitation areas (Brown,
1960). Germination 5 percent greater on northeast facing slopes than
southwest facing slopes; however, mortality rate is higher on northeast
facing slopes (Brown, 1973). Growth is correlated to slope percent,
elevation and the extent of regrading (compaction of the spoil surface);
indirectly affected by the amount of moisture available for plant growth,
temperature and evaporation losses (Ibid.). Indeterminate growth habit;
reduction in growth occurred only at elevation above 760 m (2500 ft)
(Ibid.).
Berg and Vogel (1960) reported black locust to be tolerant to
manganese in Kentucky spoils. Should be no more than 25 percent in
mixtures to inhibit overtopping (Revegetation Manual, 1966). Can be
used alone to provide quick cover on steep Kentucky slopes (Ibid.).
Carter ejt al_. reports that black locust can be planted on spoils at pH
4.8 for a rich cover in critical areas; not recommended for large areas.
Proved to be valuable as a nurse crop for shade-tolerant species;
however, wind movement of the thorny branches frequently caused severe
mechanical damage to other trees planted in a mixture with it (Boyce and
Merz, 1959).
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Found superior on bare spoils or in a mixture with shortleaf pine
in Ohio plantings (Finn, 1953). Nitrogen fixing, excellent nurse for
black walnut, black cherry and yellow poplar (Ibid.). Good early
survival and growth; stands begin to break up after 7 years on clay
sites in Ohio (Ibid.). Mouse girdling has caused severe damage and has
been specifically reported on black locust (Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Midwest Spoils
Good results produced on all planting zones with pH 4.0-7.5,
recommended for sands or loose loams and clays (Limstrom, 1960). Competes
successfully on loose, shaly clay Kansas spoils with pH 7.5 or greater
(Seidel and Brinkman, 1962). Caused severe damage to red cedar and
sycamore when planted in mixtures (Ibid.). Geyer (1971) reports
successful stabilization, rapid spreading, early crown closure. Un-
affected by grading, subject to borers, crooked stems; dies back (on
graded lands) (Geyer, 1971; Chapman, 1967). Most trees died after 20-21
years on spoils with pH 5.0-6.0 (40 percent survival); in Kansas and
Missouri spoils with pH 5.5-7.0, 58-63 percent survival (less than
sycamore, loblolly, buoab, red cedar or shortleaf pine) (Chapman, 1967).
Good results obtained in plantings on Illinois spoils; fast early
growth, ability to spread by root sprouts (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Added
nitrogen to soil which was in short supply on newly mixed areas (Ibid.).
Will survive on all plantable spoils; growth and development varies with
each site (Limstrom and Merz, 1954).
Seventy-four percent survival rate after years on Indiana spoils;
85 percent with height of less than 7.6 m (25 ft) (DenUyl, 1962). Can
be planted on highly erosive banks and used as a stabilizer and cover
(Deitschman and Lane, 1952). Medvick (1973) states that black locust
was abandoned permanently in 1956 as a species for Indiana spoils.
Mineral Tailings
8 Good results after two years on fertilized northern Michigan irom
ore tailings at pH 7.8-8.1 (Shetron and Duffek, 1970). It was found
that fertilization hurt survival (Ibid.). Red pine did better in
general on tailings (Ibid.).
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BLACK WALNUT: JugUns nigra
Tree found throughout the North and Southeast, Midwest and Gulf
States of the United States; most abundant in regions west of Allegheny
Mountains and western slopes of mountains in Tennessee and North Carolina
(Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Good results on northeastern spoils when seeded with treated seed
rather than planted (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Damaged in mixed plantings
with black locust on Pennsylvania spoils (Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
Growth and survival best on lower slopes and in bottom-lands on Kentucky
spoils (in a mixture with black locust) (Boyce and Merz, 1948). Un-
suitable for planting in pure stands (Ibid.).
Thirty-three percent survival after 2 years when seeded on loose,
shaly clay of Ohio spoils (pH 5.0-7.0) (Funk and Krause, 1965). Should
not be planted on sandy soil; best results on lower, ungraded slopes at
pH 5.5-8.0; nurse species aids growth (Carter ert al_., 1974; Finn, 1953).
Midwestern Spoils
Good results obtained, light to heavy cover, when planted on lower
slopes and ungraded banks (pH 6.0-7.5) with loose or compact sands or
clays (Limstrom, 1960). Crowl (1962) reports good results in all areas
at pH 5.0-8.0 with the use of stratified nuts or seedlings. Tolerates
heavy competition on Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma spoils; good for
mixed plantings on moist sites (2-3 seeds/spot planted) (Clark, 1964).
Adapted to loamy and clayey Illinois banks in mixtures with black
locust or other hardwoods, at pH 6.5-8.0 (Limstrom and Merz, 1954; Boyce
and Neebe, 1959). Unsuitable for planting in pure stands or acidic
spoils, better growth on calcareous spoils (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Good
growth rates on neutral spoils, 2.4 m (8 ft) (4 years), 4.9 m (16 ft) (8
years), 9.8 m (32 ft) (12 years), 14 m (47 ft) (16 years) (Ashby and
Baker, 1968). Chapman (1967) reported 60 percent survival for seeds (35
percent for trees) on ungraded Illinois spoils at pH 5.0 and 40 percent
soil, 62 percent survival for seeds (18 percent for trees) on graded
soils. Thirty percent survival after 10 years on Indiana spoils (DenUyl,
1962).
228
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Eighteen percent survival, 10 m (34 ft) height on ungraded Kansas
and Missouri spoils; failed on graded spoils (Chapman, 1967). Pure
stands had better survival on Kansas spoils (pH 7.5, loose, shaly clay)
than in mixtures with black locust (Seidel and Brinkman, 1962). Can be
mixed with bur oak, sycamore, red cedar or green ash (Ibid.).
Mineral Tailings
Growth was poor on saline-alkaline Arizona copper tailing slopes;
nurse was needed (Ludeke, 1974). Good cover on other Arizona tailings;
uninjured by early frost (Ludeke, 1972).
BLADDER SENNA: Colutea arborescens
Deciduous shrub, good growth on sandy soil (Bailey, 1942). Not as
vigorous as autumn olive; palatable to wildlife (Ruffner, 1966). Tolerant
to high pH and salinity (Hodgson, 1973). Adaptable to areas where
temperature does not go below zero during the year (Ruffner, 1966). It
is not nitrogen fixing (Ibid.).
BLUEGRASS: Canada - Poa compressa
Kentucky - Poa pratensis
Cool season perennial grass. Canada bluegrass grows primarily in
the Northeast, and Kentucky bluegrass is found throughout the northern
United States (Hitchcock, 1935).
Eastern, Midwestern and Western Spoils
Bluegrass tends to become established slowly, and so should only be
planted in mixtures with more rapidly growing species. Kentucky bluegrass
is recommended for Pennsylvania spoils with pH greater than 5.0
(Guide for Revegetating.... 1965). Poor results were obtained after one
year with Kentucky bluegrass in Ohio (Hill, 1968), and with both Canada
and Kentucky bluegrass in West Virginia (Ruffner, 1966). Crow! (1962)
recommends a mixtue of Kentucky bluegrass and legumes for neutral
Midwestern spoil reclamation. Berg (1975) observed poor bluegrass
seedling vigor but persistent growth of established stands in subalpine
regions of Colorado; he also found that Kentucky bluegrass was preferable
on moist sites, and that Canada bluegrass was harder to establish but
better adapted to dry sites.
229
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Mineral Tailings
Canada bluegrass has been used with moderate success on fertilized
uranium tailings in Colorado (Shirts, 1975). Kentucky bluegrass is part
of a seeding mixture for gold mine tailings in South Africa (Stabilizing
Mine Dumps, 1968), and is cited as a promising grass for mineral tailings
revegetation in the Southwest (Dean et. aj_., 1971).
BLUE PALO VERDE: Cercidium floridum
Trees or shrubs, found in southern Texas and northern Mexico
(Sargent, 1933). Excellent results obtained on Arizona alkaline-saline
copper tailings (Ludeke, 1974). Survives drought; better results when
watered and fertilized; grows to 7.6 m (25 ft) (Ludeke, 1973).
BLUE SPRUCE: Picea pungens
Pyramidal trees with tall tapering trunks (Sargent, 1933). Found
primarily in western United States at higher elevations (2000-3400 m)
(6500-11,000 ft) (Ibid.). Shirts e_t al_. (1974) reported almost complete
failure on Nevada copper tailings, 2000 m ((6500 ft), 21 cm (8.3 inches)
of precipitation per year) even after fertilization and stabilization
with Coherex.
BLUESTEM: Big - Andropogen gerardi
Perennial bunch-type grass. Slow to become established on moder-
ately acid soils in Pennsylvania, but stands improve with age (Miles et
a\_., 1973). Fair results in West Virginia plantings (Ruffner, 1966).
Failed in acid spoil treated with fly ash (Capp and Gillmore, 1974).
BOTTLEBRUSH SQUIRRELTAIL: Si tan ion hystrix
Grass native to the western United States. Invades older spoil
banks in Wyoming, and becomes dominant in stable areas after 15 years;
has also been observed to volunteer in test plantings of other species
(May et al_., 1971).
BRISTLECONE PINE: P. aristata
Resinous small tree with short trunk, found from California to
Colorado (Bailey, 1942; Chittendon, 1956). Survived on untreated
Pennsylvania iron ore tailings with pH 8.7 (Francis, 1964).
230
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BRISTLY LOCUST: Robinia fertilis
Legume or shrub, nitrogen fixing, found in the United States and
Mexico (Sopper et al_., 1974; Revegetation Manual. 1965; Sargent, 1933).
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Seventy-eight percent survival on Pennsylvania spoils at pH 4.0.
Arnot bristly locust had better survival and more plant vigor (McWilliams,
1971). Rapid growth, provides dense canopy and good adaptability,
excellent for establishment of ground cover on barren sites (Miles et
al_., 1973; McWilliams, 1970). Well suited for use on steep banks of
spoils and cutbanks of construction projects (McWilliams, 1970). Plants
did not survive on highly acidic spoils immediately adjacent to exposed
seams (Ibid.). Fifty-five percent survival on Pennsylvania bituminous
spoils at pH 4.5 or above and slopes of 25 percent or less (Magnuson and
Kimball, 1969; Revegetation. 1965). Excellent for erosion control on
steep outer slopes with heavy seeding (Miles £t al_., 1973; Ruffner,
1965). Good results on highly toxic Pennsylvania spoils (pH 2.0-3.0)
overlaid with 5 cm (2") municipal sewage and 5 cm (2") sludge per week;
best legume for acid spoils (Sopper ejt aK, 1974; 1975). Best coverage
of any grass or legume, third to weeping lovegrass and deertongue in dry
-matter production (Ibid.).
Arnot bristly locust produced good results on spoils at pH 3.5 or
greater, grew 2.4-3.0 m (8-10 ft), abundant seed production (Ruffner and
Steiner, 1973). Arnot had high vigor and rapid development; spreading,
thicket-forming growth habit is good for erosion control (McWilliams,
1970). Provides a dense canopy in summer and good leaf litter; shows
adaptability on spoils at pH 4.5-7.5; ideally suited for conservation
(Ibid.).
Sixty-seven percent germination of 50°C on dark Kentucky spoils (pH
4.0-7.5); mulching important (Revegetation. 1966; Carter etaK, 1974).
Palatable to livestock; good growth and cover; effective erosion control
on Kentucky spoils; acid tolerant (Ruffner, 1966; Carter et_ al_., 1974,
Revegetation Manual, 1966).
One of several recommended shrubs of Midwestern acid spoils (Carter
et al., 1974).
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Mineral Tailings
Good cover, 3-4.6 m (10-15 ft) height, excellent adaptability on
Arizona tailings (Ludeke, 1972).
BROMEGRASS: Field - Bromus arvensis
Smooth - Bromus inermis
Smooth bromegrass is a rhizomatous perennial found primarily in the
northern United States west of Ohio. It is cultivated as hay and
pasture grass (Hitchcock, 1935). Field bromegrass is a cool season
annual grass.
Eastern, Midwestern and Western Spoils
Field bromegrass is recommended as a quick cover grass for fall
seedings in Kentucky on spoils with pH greater than 5.0; however, it may
compete with and retard the growth of permanent species (Carter et al.,
1974; Revegetation Manual, 1966).
Smooth bromegrass is recommended for netural spoils in Pennsylvania
(Guide for Revegetating..., 1965), and was used in a mixture with
alfalfa to revegetate an acid spoil in Ohio (Krause, 1964). In another
reference to Ohio spoil reclamation, it is rated as satisfactory but
difficult to handle beacuse of its large seed (Struthers, 1960). It
performed poorly in West Virginia (Ruffner, 1966) and failed in tests on
acid spoil overlaid with municipal sewage effluent and sludge (Sopper ejt
al., 1974).
Crow! (1962) recommends smooth bromegrass for revegetation of
neutral Midwestern spoils, noting its value for wildlife cover and
forage. Smooth bromegrass is also recommended for subalpine regions in
the Rocky Mountains; it is reportedly easy to handle and grows persistently,
but has a high nitrogen requirement and is susceptible to gopher damage
(Berg, 1975; Eamon, 1974). It generally did well in transplants in
Montana, but not from seed and performed poorly on wet soils (Farmer et_
al., 1974; Thornburg, 1975).
Mineral Tailings
Smooth bromegrass was used in combination with alfalfa on iron ore
tailings in northern Michigan (Shetron and Duffek, 1970), and did well
after three months on acidic copper tailings in Washington which had
been heavily limed, fertilized, and treated with sewage sludge (Shirts
et a]_., 1974). In the latter tests fescue and wheatgrass also worked
well, and orchardgrass and alfalfa failed.
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BROOMSEDGE: Andropoqon virginicus
Perennial grass. Invaded plantings in Pennsylvania (Bramble and
Ashley, 1955) and West Virginia (Ruffner, 1966). Attempts to establish
by broadcasting seed on outer slopes in West Virginia were unsuccessful
(Ibid.).
BUFFALOBERRY: Sherperdia argentia
A shrub, 4.9-5.5 m (16-18 ft) in height, native from Manitoba and
Saskatchewan south to Colorado, Nevada and New Mexico, now grown in
upper Mississippi Valley and northward (bailey, 1942). Poor results on
dry soils (Thornburg, 1975). Good cover obtained on saline-alkaline
Montana spoils with coarse wet soil, pH 7.5-8.5 and 25-36 cm (10-14
inches) of precipitation per year (Ibid.).
BUFFEL GRASS: Pennisetum ciliare
Warm season rhizomatous perennial grass which reproduces by seed
(Ludeke, 1973). Grows in sand, but prefers heavy clay soils (Ibid.).
Used in phosphate tailing sands in Florida, but was slow to establish
(Craig, 1975). It was used successfully to revegetate saline-alkaline
copper tailings in Arizona, and was the only grass to yield a high cover
density when hydroseeded (Ludeke, 1974).
CACTI: Cactacea
Succulent trees or shrubs with copious watery juice (Sargent,
1933). Ludeke (1974) reported success on Arizona copper tailings with
Saguaro. Resistant to rodent activity, drought, dessication and sunscald
(Ibid.). Other types of cacti can be transplanted to tailing slopes;
best transplant species are prickly pear, octillo, cholla and yucca
(Ibid.). Saguaro grows slowly to 15 m (50 ft) on Arizona tailings
(Ludeke, 1972). Smaller unbranched specimens are easily transplanted
(Ibid.). Prickly pear provides good growth when propagated either by
vegetative means or from seed (Ibid.).
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CARAGANA (Siberian Pea Tree): Caragana arborescens
Small tree, one of the best hedge shrubs for the prairies of the
Northwest (Bailey, 1942). Poor results on Indiana bituminous mine
spoils (Ruffner, 1965). Did not germinate on Nevada copper tailings
2000 m (6500 ft) with 21 cm (8.3 inches) of precipitation per year) even
after fertilization and treatments of Coherex (Shirts ejt al_., 1974).
Good results obtained in same regions when root-transplanted (Ibid.).
Good results on dry coarse soils of Montana tailings with pH 7.5-8.5 and
25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per year (Thornburg, 1975).
Poor results on wet, saline-alkali soils (Ibid.). May et^ al_. (1971)
reported 50 percent survival on irrigated Wyoming spoils, 8 percent on
non-irrigated spoils (pH 6.4, high clay content, 23.93 cm (9.42 inches)
of precipitation per year).
CEDAR: Northern White Cedar - Thuja occidental is
Eastern Red Cedar - Jum'perus virginiana
Northern white cedar is a tree with a short, often lobed and
buttressed, trunk; Eastern red cedar is a tree with an often lobed,
eccentric and frequently buttressed trunk (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Eastern red cedar is promising in dune areas; prefers alkaline
sandy soils; needs protection from wind (Graetz, 1973). White cedar is
slow growing; tolerates wetness and high pH (Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Planting failures due to heavy competition; will hold in spoils with pH
6.0 or above or in spoils with limed upper subsoils (Ibid.). White is
tolerant of poor drainage and lime; should be planted with caution
except at higher elevations (Ibid.). Red cedar is tolerant of
alkalinity and drought (Ibid.). Good results in pure stands or in a
mixture with black locust on calcareous Ohio spoils (Finn, 1958).
Eastern red produces good results on Ohio spoils at 5.0-8.0; should not
be planted on graded banks with compact soil materials (Carter et_ aK,
1974). Both Eastern and Northern survived well with heavy herbaceous
cover (Limstrom, 1964). On silty clayey Ohio spoils, white cedar had an
86.3 percent survival after 2 years; red cedar had 61.7 percent—outperformed
all other pine species (Lowry, 1969).
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Midwestern and Western Spoils
Red cedar and white cedar are recommended for Midwestern spoils
with pH 6.0-7.5, on sands and loose or compact loams and clays (Limstrom,
1960). Good results with red cedar on soils at pH 5.0-7.0, grown under
black locust (Crowl, 1962). Chapman (1967) reported 35 percent survival
on ungraded silty, clayey spoils in Illinois (pH 5.0-6.0, 40 percent
soil) and complete failure on graded spoils. Eighty-seven percent
survival on silty, clayey, ungraded Kansas and Missouri spoils (pH 5.5-
7.0, sixty-three percent soil) and 11 percent survival on graded spoils
(Ibid.). Eastern grew in mixtures with black walnut on loose, shaly
clay Kansas spoils at pH 7.5 (Seidel and Brinkman, 1962). Some locust
damage (Ibid.). Geyer and Rogers (1972) reported 24 percent survival,
after 22 years, of eastern red cedar on nutrient rich Kansas spoils at
pH 5.6-6.1 (less than shortleaf, bur oak, black locust but better than
other pines). Eastern red cedar produced good results (42 percent survival
after 6 years, 1.5 m (5 ft) average height) on calcareous, mildly acidic
banks in Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma (Clark, 1954). Slow growth on
acid sites; tolerates competition (Ibid.). Red cedar should not be
planted near or in apple orchards; it is an alternate host for cedar-
apple rust (Ibid.).
Best results obtained on calcareous upper and lower slopes in
Illinois and Indiana (Boyce an Neebe, 1959; Limstrom and Merz, 1954).
Slowest growth on highly toxic spoils in both areas; red cedar can be
planted in mixtures with pine or hardwoods (Ibid.). Deitschman and Lane
(1952) reported that red cedar could be grown on Indiana spoils for
Christmas trees or greens; best suited for planting on a bank having a
dense cover of sweetclover.
Seventy-nine percent survival rate of Eastern red cedar on Iowa
spoil banks; poor results on spoils with exchangeable aluminum and
soluble salt concentrations (Lorio and Gatherum, 1966).
CHESTNUT OAK: Quercus montana
Trees or shrubs, found on hillsides and high rocky banks of streams
(Sargent, 1933). Ruffner (1966) reported chestnut oak not as good as
red oak; however, too early to evaluate completely. Limstrom (1960)
recommended planting on sands or loose loams and clays with pH 5.0-6.0.
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Mineral Tailings
White clover has been grown with timothy grass on fertilized
alkaline iron ore tailings in northern Michigan (Shetron and Duffek,
1970). Red clover was grown on limed phosphate wastes in Tennessee
(Morgan and Parks, 1967).
CORALBERRY: Symphorecarpos orbiculatus
Deciduous upright or, rarely, prostrate shrub, 0.6-1.5 m (2-5 ft)
tall (Bailey, 1942). Crow! (1962) reports good results on Midwestern
spoils with pH 5.0-6.5 as cover crop under black locust.
COTTONWOOD: Plain - Populus tremuloides
Eastern - Populus deltoides
Large, fast-growing tree (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Considerable volunteering on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Medve,
1974). Good vigor and form shown by seedling; good cover, best results
on West Virginia spoils at pH 4.0 (Ruffner, 1966). Forty percent survival
in pure stands on ungraded eastern Kentucky spoils (pH 3.5-5.5, silty,
clay shale), 60 percent survival in mixture with European alder (Dale,
1963). Good results when planted in bands or blocks on western Kentucky
and Ohio spoils (Carter ejt al_., 1974). Should not be planted on upper
slopes of ungraded banks with coarse or loose soils in pure stands
(Ibid.). Hill (1968) reported erratic survival, but generally good
results. Adaptable to a wide variety of spoils; a good plant stock is
essential (Finn, 1958).
Midwestern Spoils
Fast growing in pure stands on all Midwestern spoils at pH 5.0-8.0
(Crowl, 1962). Light cover, good growth on slopes and graded banks (pH
6.0-7.5); recommended for sands and loose or compact loams and clays
(Limstrom, 1960).
Sixty-two percent survival, 18 m (60 ft) height on ungraded
Illinois spoils (pH 5.0-6.0, forty percent soil, mostly silt and clay)
after 21 years; 40 percent, 12 m (40 ft) on graded soils (Chapman,
1967). Established naturally and by planting on all Illinois spoils;
better growth and development on loamy and clayey banks (Boyce and
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CICER MILKVETCH: Astragalus deer
Rhizomatous legume used in several western spoil reclamation
efforts. Adaptable to dryland conditions in the central Great Plains;
does not grow as well as alfalfa, but unlike alfalfa does not cause
cattle bloat (Townsend, 1975). It has done well on coarse wet,
alkaline, north- and east-facing slopes in Montana, and poorly under all
other conditions (Thornburg, 1975). It makes poor fodder, displays weak
vigor and is susceptible to gopher damage in Colorado subalpine regions
(Berg, 1975), and is considered to have little or no value for mine
spoil reclamation in Wyoming (Tresler, 1975).
CLOVER*: Alsike - Trifolium hybridum
Ladino - Trifolium repens ladino
Red - Trifolium pratense
White - Trifolium repens
Nitrogen fixing legume, useful as feedstock (as pasturage or hay)
or as a green manure (Bailey, 1942). Eastern Spoils
Red and white clovers are recommended for spoils in Pennsylvania
with pH 5.0 or greater (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965) and spoils in
Kentucky with pH 6.0 or greater (Carter e_t a]_., 1974; Revegetation,
1966). Ladino clover and Pennscott red clover did well after 11 weeks
in tests on acid spoils overlaid with municipal sewage effluent and
sludge (Sopper e_t aK, 1974). White clover failed on sandy spoils in
Ohio (Struthers, 1960).
Western Spoils
Alsike clover is well established on a southwestern Wyoming spoil
banks after nine years, but needs periodic irrigation (May ejt al_.,
1971). White clover has done poorly on alkaline spoils in Montana (Thornburg,
1975). White clover has been grown on moist sites in upper subalpine
regions of Colorado but has displayed poor vigor; red and alsike clovers
displayed good vigor in the same regions, but where short-lived (Berg,
1975).
Alsike, red and white clovers are tolerant to salinity, alkalinity,
and the presence of boron in the soil, but less so than white sweetclover
(Hodgson et al_., 1973).
*See also sweetclover, listed separately.
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Neebe, 1959; Limstrom and Merz, 1954). On calcareous spoils and lower
slopes and alluvial bottoms, excellent growth obtained (Boyce and
Neebe,1969). Intolerance to shade; should not be planted with black
locust (Ibid.). Poor or complete failure on acidic Illinois spoils
(Ibid.).
Adaptable to dry site conditions of rocky Indiana spoils; good
results on both calcareous sands and acid loams (Dietschman and Lane,
1952). Fifty-seven percent survival after 10 years; should not be
underplanted with black locust (DenUyl, 1962).
Volunteered on moist bottom areas of Kansas spoils (Geyer, 1971).
Good results on nutrient rich spoils at pH 5.6-6.1; better results from
nursery plantings (Geyer and Rogers, 1972). Volunteers on Kansas,
Missouri and Oklahoma spoils; does not tolerate intense competition
(Clark, 1954).
Western Spoils
Poor results on Montana spoils under dry conditions; good on
coarse spoils at pH 7.5-8.5 covered with topsoil (Thornburg, 1975).
Successful establishment and good growth on Iowa spoils; perfor-
mance depends on exchangeable aluminum and soluble salt concentration,
nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies; 76 percent survival (Lorio and
Gatherum, 1966; Lorio and Gatherum, Iowa Res. Bull. 535).
Mineral Tailings
Good growth in 12 years on Arizona copper tailings at pH 7.0-8.0
without irrigation or fertilizer (Miami Cu, 1972). Narrow!eaf gave poor
results on Climax mine tailings; not hardy enough (Brown, 1974).
CRABAPPLE: Malus sp.: Asian Crabapple - M. sp ?1
Manchurian - M. bracteata
Tree. Slow growth rate on Pennsylvania and West Virginia spoils;
nitrogen addition needed (Miles e_t al_., 1973; Ruffner, 1966). Large
numbers of crabapple species planted on various mine spoils with varying
degrees of success (Ruffner, 1966). Asian gave poor results on Ohio
spoils (Ruffner, 1965).
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CREUSATE BUSH: Larrea tridentata
Evergreen shrub, year-round flowers, good windbreaker (Ludeke,
1973). Excellent on saline-alkaline tailings when watered and fertilized;
will survive in shallow dry soils (Ludeke, 1974; Ibid.).
CROWNVETCH: Coronilla varia
Perennial flowering cool-season legume, which spreads both by seeds
and rootstalks (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Several varieties are
available commercially, notably Chemung, Emerald, and Penngift.
Eastern Spoils
Recommended for spoils with pH 5.5 or greater in Pennsylvania
(Kendig, 1973; Miles et a]_., 1973), Kentucky (Carter et a]_., 1974;
Revegetation Manual, 1966), and West Virginia (Ruffner, 1966), and on
calcareous spoils banks in Ohio (Breeding, 1961; Parsons and Struthers,
1962). Should be seeded in the spring (Revegetation Manual. 1966).
Chemung crownvetch is suggested for use throughout the Appalachian
bituminous mining region; Emerald performs as well as Chemung in Kentucky,
and Penngift is suitable for Pennsylvania and Ohio, but in its early
growth is inferior to Chemung (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). For acid
spoils (pH less than 5.5) birdsfoot trefoil is a preferable legume
(Revegetation Manual, 1966).
The establishment of a crownvetch cover may require two or three
years, especially if seeding is used. Seeding crownvetch in combination
with a quick cover crop may be advisable for erosion control. The
Revegetation Manual (1966) suggests using weeping lovegrass for this
purpose; Ruffner (1966) has used ryegrass; Ruffner and Hall (1962)
suggest black locust and Kendig (1973) proposes hybrid poplar. An
established cover of crownvetch may hurt the growth of tree seedlings
(Carter et al_., 1974).
Parsons and Struthers (196]) indicate that lime is the most important
soil amendment for establishing crownvetch covers and note that the
plants also respond to phosphorus. Ruffner (1966) found that the cover
was not improved by fertilization as long as the soil pH exceeded 5.5.
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Crownvetch was planted on limed anthracite breaker refuse in
Pennsylvania, and survived at a rate of 90 percent after 2 years, but
did not spread to a signficant extent (Czapowskyj et_ al_., 1968).
Liming was essential to survival, and mulching helped to a lesser
extent; but fertilization had little effect (Ibid.).
Attempts were made to hydroseed crownvetch onto limed anthracite
spoils and refuse banks. No growth was achieved on the refuse, and only
fair survival was achieved on the northeast slopes of the spoils
(Czapowskyj and Writer, 1970). Dickerson (1971) achieved good results
planting crownvetch on acidic spoils overlaid with municipal sewage
effluent and sludge. An attempt to grow crownvetch on a fertilized acid
spoil neutralized with alkaline fly ash failed (Capp and Gillmore,
1974).
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Crowl (1962) recommends crownvetch for growth on steep banks in the
Midwest with pH in the range 5.5-7.5. Crownvetch was planted in a
subalpine region of Colorado, with poor results (Berg, 1975).
DATURA: Datura arborea
Evergreen shrub, large leaf and flower (Ludeke, 1973). Excellent
results obtained on fertilized saline-alkaline tailings (Ludeke, 1974).
DEERTONGUE GRASS: Panicum clandestinum
Perennial grass native to eastern United States, so far used only
for experimental plantings in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Exceptionally
acid-tolerant--grows on spoils with pH as low as 4.5 (Miles et al.,
1973; Ruffner, 1966). Recommended for seedings in mixtures with switchgrass
(McWilliams, 1971). Seedlings are weak, and cover is slow to develop
(Ruffner, 1966). Considered second only to weeping lovegrass in its
potential for revegetating anthracite refuse banks treated with municipal
sewage effluent and sludge (Sopper ejt al_., 1975).
DESERT BROOM: Baceharis sarothroides
Evergreen shrub, very adaptable, forms dense mat, 20-61 cm
(8-24") high, 1.8 m (61) spread (Ludeke, 1973). Excellent results on
fertilized Arizona saline-alkaline copper tailings; mixed with saltbrush,
when fertilized (nitrogen and phosphorus added) (Ludeke, 1974).
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DESERT ENCELIA: Encella faunosa
Herb or sub-shrub, native to Utah and from California to Chile
(Bailey, 1942). Rated excellent on saline-alkaline Arizona copper
tailings with the addition of fertilizer (Ludeke, 1974).
DESERT TOBACCO: Nicotiana qlauca
Grows as annual, reseeds profusely, grows on alkaline soils, slopes
and rocky areas (Ludeke, 1973). Rated excellent on saline-alkaline
Arizona copper tailings when fertilized (Ludeke, 1974).
DESERT WILLOW: Chilopis linearis
Deciduous shrub, grows 11 m (351) in one season, withstands cold
and drought (Ludeke, 1973). Excellent results on fertilized saline-
alkaline Arizona copper tailings (Ludeke, 1974).
DOGWOOD: Silky - Cornus amomum
Flowering - Cornus florida
Trees and shrubs, found usually under shade of taller trees in
rich, well-drained soils (Sargent, 1933). Poor cover and stabilization
on West Virginia spoils, inferior to autumn olive (Ruffner, 1966).
Silky, very poor on acid spoils; good results on neutral spoils in
Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Virginia (Ruffner, 1965).
DOUGLAS FIR: Pseudotsuga menziesii
Pyramidal trees, native to mountainous regions (Sargent, 1933; Cook
ejt a]_., 1974). Frost sensitive and subject to needle cast (Rhabdocline)
(Bureau of Mines, 1961). Should be restricted to sites with good soil
and air drainage (Ibid.). Balsam fir suitable on coarse soils; may
require fertilization; restrict to higher elevations and cool slopes
(Ibid.). Douglas compatible with sod and annual plants (Bureau of
Mines, 1961). Did not survive on elevations greater than 3000 m (10,000
ft) (Brown, 1974). Poor results in Pennsylvania (Hart and Byrnes,
1960). Survived on untreated iron ore tailings (pH 8.7) (Francis,
1964).
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ELM: American (White Elm) - Ulmus Americana
Siberian - Celmus pumila
Tree with a tall trunk frequently buttressed at the base, found on
river bottom-lands, intervales, low rich hills and stream banks
(Sargent, 1933).
Siberian second to Russian olive in survival and growth on sloped
sites (May ejt al_., 1971). Well adapted to growth on Wyoming spoils with
pH 6.4, high clay, salt and organic material content and 23.93 cm (9.42
inches) of precipitation per year (Ibid.). Thornburg (1975) reports
Siberian produced good results on coarse soils under dry conditions and
on saline-alkaline spoils of Montana (pH 7.5-8.5) with 25-36 cm (10-14)
inches) of precipitation per year. American elm volunteered on Kansas
spoils (pH 6.0) (Geyer, 1971). Red elm is well adapted to loamy and
clayey soils, especially calcareous banks (Limstrom and Merz, 1954).
Can be planted in pure stands or in a mixture with black locust and
other hardwoods; can be used in under planting (Ibid.).
EUCALYPTUS: Silver Dollar Gum - Eucalyptus polyanthenmos
Tiny Capsule - E. microtheca
Red Gum - E. rostrata
Mainly large trees, some shrubs; Silver Dollar Gum and Tiny Capsule
are drought resistant; Red Gum is frost resistant, native to Australia
and Malayan region (Bailey, 1942).
Rated fair to good on fertilized saline-alkaline Arizona tailings
(Ludeke, 1974). Microtheca is strong growing, drought-tolerant and
provides good stabilization (Ludeke, 1972). Poly-anthemos produced fast
growth, good adaptation, excellent foliage (Ibid.).
FESCUE: Chewings - Festuca rubra var commutater
Hard, Sheep, Durar - F. ovina
Red - F. rubra
Tall - F. arundicea
Annuals or perennials (Hitchcock, 1935). Chewings is fine leaf,
with a dense matted root system, best for well-drained sandy loams,
usually combined with other grasses (Schellie and Rogier, 1963). Hodgson
(1973) reports that Red tolerates ash with high pH and salinity in
planting studies done on fly ash spoils in England. Red is a good
242
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cover on fertilized sites, but stands are short-lived (Ruffner, 1966).
Flemining et al_. (1974) reports that Fescue withstands low pH (4.0-5.0),
excess manganese (4-64 ppm), but is less tolerant than lovegrass to
aluminum deposits (2-12 ppm).
Tall fescue mixed with Ky 31 is persistent on slightly acidic
spoils for at least 5 years; fertilizer is essential to establish
(Ruffner, 1966).
Eastern Spoils
Tall grows well on West Virginia spoils at pH less than 6.0 when
mixed with birdsfoot trefoil (Mellinger et al_., 1966). PI ass (1968)
reports that Tall produced good results on spoils of pH 4.5-5.5. Trees
planted in a two year growth of Tall did not hurt survival; however,
growth of sycamores was limited; little effect on white or loblolly pine
(Ibid.). More persistent than any cool season grass; provides good
stands on limed soils; at pH 5.0, less than 20 percent cover in 3 years
(Ruffner, 1966).
Struthers (1960) reports that fescues grow well on Ohio spoils but
suffer from nitrogen deficiency. Tall and red fescue are recommended
for plantings on Pennsylvania spoils; Red is not recommended for slopes
of 25 percent or more (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965). Revegetation
Manual (1966) reports that fescues may be seeded throughout the year in
a mixture of lespedeza or birdsfoot trefoil and a quick cover species--
ryegrass or weeping lovegrass (for spring seeding); Sudax, Pearl or
Foxtail Millet or weeping lovegrass (summer seeding); ryegrass, rye or
winter wheat (fall seeding); however, if erosion potential is a slight,
a quick cover species may not be needed. Vogel and Berg (1968) observed
that fescue did not produce well in Kentucky spoil reclamation without
the addition of nitrogen; least tolerant to spoil toxicities associated
with low pH. Mixtures containing a fescue did much better than those
without. Some of the better mixtures are serecia lespedeza and crownvetch
(Magnuson and Kimball, 1969). The mixture of creeping red fescue and
serecia lespedeza had the highest ground cover percentage, averaging 45
percent (Ibid.).
Midwestern Spoils
Sorrel 1 (1974) reports good results from the broadcast seeding of
Kentucky fescue on Illinois spoils. Carter (1974) recommends tall and
red fescue for Midwestern spoils with pH 4.0-5.5-
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Mineral Tailings
Tall fescue produced 100 percent cover on northern Michigan iron
ore tailings (pH 7.8-8.1) after 3 fertilizer applications; 30-40 percent
cover obtained with only one application (Shetron and Duffek, 1970).
Fair to poor results in plantings of tall fescue on moderate to coarse
soils in Montana (pH 7.5-8.5); unsatisfactory results when planted on
dry soil or steep slopes (Thornburg, 1975). Hard fescue gave moderate
to weak seedling vigor in the subalpine regions of Colorado; subject to
winterkill (Berg, 1975). Red fescue produced good results for upper
subalpine regions in Colorado with long snow cover periods (Ibid.).
Merkel (1973) reports that Arizona fescue improved in density and
vigor in regions of Colorado with 41.7 cm (16.4 inches) of precipitation
per year (50 percent snowfall) and good soil; produced great amount of
herbage. Good results obtained from a mixture of Ky 31 fescue, and
perennial rye in a mixture with lespedeza and purple flowering vetch
when hydroseeded and fertilized with paper pulp mulch and sulfur on
Pennsylvania iron ore tailings (pH 8.9) (Francis, 1965). Czapowskyj and
Writer (1970) report that tall fescue produced spotty ground cover on
anthracite spoils and failed on breaker refuse even after hydroseeding
and liming.
FLATPEA:
Climbing, herbaceous perennial legume (Hitchcock, 1935).
Attractive flowers, good soil stabilizer, tolerates drought, thrives at
pH 5.0; semi-evergreen in Southern Appalachians (Ruffner and Steiner,
1973).
Eastern Spoils
Grown successfully in West Virginia on spoils more acidic than pH
5.0 when fertilized with fly ash (Capp and Gillmore, 1974). Flatpea
grows well in a mixture in Pennsylvania and is an excellent plant for
wildlife (McWilliams, 1971). Good adaptation and vigorous growth; will
grow in sandy soil and is acid-tolerant (Zak e_t al_., 1971; Miles ejt al_.,
1973).
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FOXTAIL GRASS: Creeping - Alopecurus arundinaceus
Meadow - A. pratensis
Annuals. Unsatisfactory results were found when planted in
Pennsylvania bituminous spoils at pH 2.0-3.0 even when fertilized with
sewage and sludge (Sopper et al_., 1974). In Western subalpine regions
only commercially available species to produce viable seed; fair to good
vigor for meadow foxtail and fair to poor for creeping (Berg, 1975).
Shows little promise as an adaptable species (Ruffner, 1966).
GOATSRUE (common): Tephrosia virqiana
Perennial herb. In West Virginia grows well on acid spoils when
fertilized by fly ash (Capp and Gillmore, 1974). Fails on sandy soil
(Zak et al_., 1971).
GRAMMA: Blue - Bouteloua gracilis
Sideoats - B. curtipendula
Tufted, rhizomatous perennial or annual (Radford ejt aJL, 1968). Low
growing grass, adapted to the Southwest desert areas, needs heavy
seeding (Schellie and Rogier, 1973). Suggested for nothern Great Plains
and northern New Mexico desert (Cook e_t al_., 1974).
GREUSWOOD: Sarcobatus vermiculatus
Naturally occurring shrub, found in flat valley bottoms of high
salinity (May ejt al_., 1971; Cook et. al_., 1974). Recommended for dry
saline-alkaline spoils in northern Great Plains and for desert areas in
Arizona, Utah, Colorado and Wyoming (Cook ejt al_., 1974).
HAZELNUT: Cory!us americana
Shrub, 0.9-2.4 m (3-8 ft) high (called Filbert in Europe), grows
well on moderately rich well-drained soil, subject to frost injury
(Bailey, 1942). Susceptible to severe attacks of fungus disease
(Cryptosporella anomala) (Ibid.). Fair to poor survival after 10 years
on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
>45
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HEMLOCK: Tsuga carr.
Tall pyramidal trees (Sargent, 1933). Compatible with sod and
annual plants (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Difficult to plant in open; use
for underplanting or to hold cool moist sites (Bureau of Mines, 1961).
HONEYSUCKLE: Japanese - Lonicera japonica
Tatarian - L. tatarica
Amur -L. Maackii
Red - L. Zabelii
Shrub, palatable to wildlife; shows more vigor and adaptability as
plants become mature (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973; Miles et al_., 1973).
Amur honeysuckle tolerates pH 5.0; adaptable throughout northeastern
U.S. (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Amur is best suited for spoils over
pH 5.5 and overlaid with limestone overburden (Miles et al_-, 1973). Less
damage from deer and rabbits than autumn olive (Ibid.). Japanese
honeysuckle provides food for wildlife, may climb wall and partially
conceal it; susceptible to browse (McCart, 1973).
Eastern Spoils
Tatarian had 47.5-percent survival rate on spoils with pH 4.5 or
greater in Pennsylvania (Magnuson and Kimball, 1969). Did not provide
adequate cover (Ibid). Other species showed good vigor on spoils with
pH greater than 5.0 and slopes 25 percent or less (Revegetation. 1965).
Amur was slower to establish than autumn olive on bituminous spoils with
pH 5.0 or greater (Ruffner, 1965). Tatarian produced very poor results
on acid spoils and fair to good on moderately acid spoils in West
Virginia and Pennsylvania (Ibid.). Carter et al_. (1974) reported good
results on Kentucky spoils with amur and tatarian at pH 4.5-7.5; good
wildlife habitat.
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Bush honeysuckle produced good cover and wildlife food on Mid-
western spoils at pH 4.5-7.0 (Crowl, 1962). Thornburg (1975) obtained
good results on coarse, dry Montana spoils with pH 7.5-8.5 and 25-36 cm
(10-14 inches) of precipitation per year. Poor results were obtained on
wet, saline-alkaline soils (Ibid.).
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HOPSEED BUSH: Dodonacea viscosa
Fast-growing multi-stemmed shrub; resistant to cold (Ludeke, 1973).
Excellent results on fertilized saline-alkaline Arizona copper tailings
(Ludeke, 1974).
INDIAN GRASS: Sorghastrum spp.
Coarse perennial (Hitchcock, 1935).
Eastern Spoils
Failed in West Virginia on acid spoils even when fertilized with
fly ash plus another fertilizer (Capp and Gillmore, 1974). Ruffner
(1962) reports that indian grass is adaptable on soutern West Virginia
acid spoil banks. Evidence of spreading but original stand is not
uniform. One of the better grasses; good stands have been produced on
outer slopes by frost seedings. In Pennsylvania it is slow to become
established, but shows good vigor and ability to reseed on spoils; can
improve the ground cover (Miles ert aK, 1973). Cheyenne indian grass
failed when planted on sandy soils (Zak et a_K, 1971).
INDIAN RICEGRASS: Oryzopsis hymmerroides
Perennial bunchgrass common to arid and semi-arid regions of the
West (Hitchcock, 1935). Grows naturally in sand; survives on 3-18 cm
(5-7") rainfall per year; clumps, trapping windblown seeds of other
species; seeds prolifically; fixes nitrogen (Shirts et al_., 1974).
Difficult to germinate and treatments prescribed to reduce germination
time include addition of sulfuric acid etch and hormone treatments
(Ibid.).
Western Spoils
In Colorado, indian ricegrass establishes well with good stabilization
(Merkel e_t aK, 1973). Dean ejt. al_. (1974) reports that encouraging
results were obtained on Southwestern tailings. Poor germination rate
on leached tailings of Utah copper mines (Nielson and Peterson, 1972).
Shirts et al. (1974) reports that it was found to be satisfactory
in laboratory studies on tailings neutralized with limestone and sewage
sludge. Satisfactory germination and survival was achieved on Washington
copper tailings and Colorado uranium tailings (pH 2.7-3.5) after 15
weeks; poor results on highly saline Arizona copper tailings (Ibid.).
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INDIGOBUSH: Amorpha frutiscosa: Mountain Indigo - A. gal bra
Shrubby legume, grows 3-4.6 m (10-15*)» acid-tolerant but prefers
soils with pH 7.5-8.0 (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Open crown, sparse
foliage, nonpalatable to livestock (Ibid.).
Eastern Midwestern Spoils
Adaptable over a wide range of acid mine spoils in West Virginia;
provides little cover; good survival rate; heavy seed producer but does
not spread rapidly by seeding (Ruffner, 1966). Mountain indigo produced
poorly on acid spoils in West Virginia, good results on moderate to
neutral spoils (Ruffner, 1965). Good results on Kentucky spoils with pH
4.5 or greater; hard to obtain commercially (Revegetation Manual,
1966). Ruffner (1965) reports that indigobush rated very good on Ohio
spoils at pH 5.0; poor on Pennsylvania spoils at pH 4.0-5.0; good on
spoils at pH 5.0; poor on Pennsylvania spoils at pH 4.0-5.0; good on
spoils at pH 5.0 or greater; good on Virginia spoils at pH 5.0-7.0.
Carter (1974) recommends indigobush for Midwestern acid spoils.
Mineral Tailings
False anvil indigo is slow to establish in tailing sands of Florida
phosphate pits (Craig, 1975).
ISENBERG BUSH: Melastoma malbathricum
Trees, shrubs or herbs with watery juice, confined chiefly to the
tropics and South America (Sargent, 1933). Plucknett (1961) reported
rapid spreading on Hawaii bauxite spoils.
JACK PINE (also Scrub Pine, Gray Pine, Banks Pine): Pinus banksiana
A short-lived conifer native to the northern United States and
Canada from the East Coast to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains
(Powells, 1965). Good initial growth, but slows up between 10 and 15
years (Wheeler, 1965). Outgrown by Virginia pine on anthracite spoils
(Czapowskyk, 1970). Hardy species for infertile or frosty sites, but of
poor form and subject to windthrow—should be used chiefly as a nurse
for other species in adverse sites (Planting Sites..., 1961). Subject to
injury by drought, and good only for pulpwood production (Wheeler,
1965). Subject to sawfly damage (Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
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Eastern Spoils
Should grow satisfactorily at higher elevations, and will tolerate
poor soils (Tryon et al_., I960). Red pine is preferable under these
conditions, however (Ibid.).
Survival is highly dependent on pH, being best for acid spoils
(Czapowskyj, 1970). Recommended for spoils with pH 5.0 or greater—
provides good cover (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965). Survives on
Pennsylvania acid spoils at pH 3.5 (Wheeler, 1965). Survival percentage
was 89 percent on a plot with pH greater than 4.5, and 22 percent on
another plot with pH less than 3.5 (Magnuson and Kimabll, 1969). Five
year survival on Pennsylvania anthracite spoils at pH 4.0-7.0 (85 percent
graded and 44 percent ungraded). Best conifer studied (Czapowskyj,
1970).
After 7 years on anthracite spoils, 74 percent survival at pH 4.0-
4.5; 72 percent at pH 4.6-5.0; 55 percent at pH 4.1-5.5 and 34 percent
for pH 6.1-6.5; best conifer studied for acid spoils (Czapowskyj and
McQuilken, 1966). .Performed well but less consistently than scotch pine
(Davis and Melton, 1963).
Midwestern Spoils
Well adapted for planting on all sites except poorly drained bottoms
and areas subject to flooding (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Recommended for
sands and loose loams or clays; needs good drainage (Crowl, 1962; Goldfinger,
1971; Limstrom, 1960; Limstrom and Merz, 1964). Successfully planted on
clays and sands, and on acid and calcareous spoils (Boyce and Neebe,
1959).
On nutrient-rich spoil of pH 5.6-6.1 in Kansas, 19 percent survived
after 22 years (less than shortleaf, Virginia and loblolly pines and
cedars, greater than pitch pine), and the average height was 6.1 m (22
ft) (relatively low) (Geyer and Rogers, 1972). In Illinois on pH 5.0-
6.0 spoils, 52 percent survived after 21 years (one of the best conifers),
and the average height was 5.5 m (18 ft) on ungraded spoil and 4.0 m (13
ft) on graded spoil (relatively poor) (Chapman, 1967). In average
survival and growth it was inferior to pitch pine on acid spoils, and
inferior to red cedar and white cedar on mildly acid spoils (Lowry,
1960). It should not be planted with black locust or with any other
species that will overtop it (Finn, 1958). Does best on south and west
slopes; no serious disease, insect or rodent damage observed (Boyce and
Neebe, 1959).
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Mineral Tailings
Grew from 1.8-2.4 m (6 to 8') in 3 years on untreated refuse in
Pennsylvania with pH 8.9 (Francis, 1965). Grew on tailings with pH
7.8-8.1 in northern Michigan, but was outgrown by red pine (Shetron and
Duffek, 197). Fertilization appeared to have a negative effect on growth
(Ibid.).
JAPANESE BLACK PINE: Pinus thunberqii
Trees or, rarely, shrubs (Sargent, 1933). Growth slows down after
second and third years (Ruffner, 1966). Seems to be best pine for beach
growth (Graetz, 1973). Francis (1964) reported that it survived on
untreated iron ore tailings at pH 8.7.
JAPANESE FLEECEFLOWER (Knotweed): Polygonum cuspidatum
Large, robust perennial, dies back every year, provides much
surface litter (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Belmont strain (Ky 795)
grows and reproduces at pH 3.5; tolerates spoils as low as pH 3.2; adapts
to spoils in Ohio, West Virginia and Kentucky (Ibid.). Miles et al_.
(1973) reports that the species grows rapidly, providing fair cover on
Pennsylvania spoils. Established both vegetatively and by seed; rated
very good on neutral spoils in Pennsylvania and West Virginia (Ruffner,
1965). Ruffner (1966) reported that adaptation is limited to a pH of
4.5 and above for plantings on West Virginia spoils and a pH of 5.0 for
seeding on outerslopes of these spoils. Fair to poor results in 2 year
test on acid West Virginia spoils with the addition of fly ash and
fertilizer. Revegetation Manual (1965) reports good results on Kentucky
spoils at pH 4.0 or greater, but hard to obtain commercially.
JUNIPER: Eastern - Juniperus virginiana
Chinese - J. chinensis
Shore - J. conferta
Savin - J. sabina
Pungent, aromatic trees or shrubs (Sargent, 1933). Savin and shore
juniper are outstanding under adverse conditions (Dickens and Orr, 1969).
Savin and Chinese juniper planted on several treated and untreated
tailings in the West; showed growth on Washington copper and Colorado
uranium tailings after 4 weeks; growth resulted on highly saline Arizona
250
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copper tailings only after treatment with sewage and sludge (Shirts et
al_., 1974). Eastern juniper produced poor results of Wyoming tailings
(May, 1971). Results obtained on Wyoming spoils with an average pH of
6.4, high clay, salt and organic plant content and 2.39 cm (9.42 inches)
of precipitation per year (Ibid.). Thornburg (1975) reported that Rocky
Mountain juniper produced good results on dry soils, pH 7.5-8.5, coarse
soil covered with topsoil and 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation
per year. Creeping juniper gave fair to poor results except on moist
non-saline spoils (Ibid.). Prostrate juniper produced good results at
elevations greater than 3000 m (10,000 ft) (Brown, 1974).
KOCHIA: Kochia scoparia
Annual in polymorphous genus of shrubs, often woody at the base
(Bailey, 1942). Best survival rate of all native plants on leached and
nonleached Utah copper tailings (Nielsen and Peterson, 1973). Twenty
percent growth without leaching and 80 percent with leaching (Ibid.).
KUDZU: Pueraria thunbergiana
Trailing or climbing semi-woody vine (Radford et al_., 1968). Not
to be planted near trees; useful for erosion control; good results on
spoils with pH 5.5-7.5 (Crowl, 1962).
LARCH: Dunkfeld Hybrid - Larix eurolepsis
Japanese Larch - L. japonica, L. leptolepis
European - L. decidua
Tall pyramidal trees widely distributed over the northern and
mountainous region of the Northern Hemisiphere (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern SpoilJL
Japanese larch is preferred to European larch on Northeastern
spoils except on drier sites; Japanese grows as well or better elsewhere
with less variation from tree to tree (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
European is adaptable to medium fertility, moderate to good drainage;
both European and Japanese are tolerant of late frost (U.S. Bureau of
Mines, 1961). European is more drought-tolerant (Ibid.).
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Eighty-two percent survival of Japanese larch on Pennsylvania
spoils with initial pH above 4.5; 56 percent on spoils below pH 3.5
(Magnuson and Kimball, 1969). Larch usually provides more protective
ground cover than most conifers because needle fall is greater and leaf
litter accumulates more quickly; growth is reduced on leveled or compacted
soils (Miles et. a]_., 1973). Davis and Melton (1963) reported that
Japanese grew well on graded and ungraded spoils; European performed
poorly on most banks and did not perform as well as Japanese. Both
Japanese and European produced good cover, although hard to establish on
Pennsylvania bituminous spoils with pH above 5.0 and slopes 25 percent
or less. Japanese reported to be fastest growing conifer (Guide for
Revegetating..., 1965; Wheeler, 1965). Forty-two percent survival after
10 years, 3.75 m (12.3 ft) height on graded spoils, 6.34 m (20.8 ft)
height on ungraded spoils—for Japanese larch. Good results on upper
slopes, spoils with low soil content (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Fifty
percent survival after 5 years on Pennsylvania anthracite spoils at pH
4.0-7.0 for a graded spoil; 44 percent for ungraded (Czapowskyj, 1970).
Japanese had best all-round survival rate on Pennsylvania anthracite
spoils (68 percent average, 1.8 m (5.9 ft) in height) after 7 years;
European was hurt by acidity and helped by grading (Czapowskyj and
McQuilken, 1966).
European and Japanese larch are hard to establish on West Virginia
spoils (Ruffner, 1966). Ruffner (1966) does not recommend this species
for planting on spoil sites in the State. European subject to frost
injury; suggested for plantings at elevations below 1200 m (4,000 ft);
requires soils which are moist with good drainage (USBM, Circular 109,
1960). Japanese expected to be important in future as it will tolerate
unfavorable spoil conditions (Ibid.). Rapid growth on West Virginia
spoils, but nonuniform (Ruffner, 1966; Brown, 1971).
Compatible with annual plants and with the thinner or more open
types of sod for Allegheny plantings; susceptible to damage from frost,
rabbit clipping and deer browsing (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
European should be planted in pure stands on Ohio spoils; will grow
well in northern part of State on relatively moist sites containing
coarse textured materials (Finn, 1958).
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LESPEDEZA: Kobe - Lespedeza striata
Korean - L. stipulacea
Bicolor - L. blcolor
Sericea - _L. cuneata
Chinese - L. cuneata
Natob - L. bicolor natob
Japanese - L. japonica
Thunberg - L. thungergii
Annual or perennial (Hitchcock, 1935). Japanese is a small shrub,
1.8-2.4 m (6-8 ft); most stems die back in winter; exists only as far
north as Long Island (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). Sericea used widely
but often establishes slowly (Vogel, 1964). Responds well on spoils
above pH 5.0 when nitrogen and phosphorus are added (Ibid.). Sericea
best all-round lespedeza; grows well on drained loose soils of Mississippi,
Tennessee and Kentucky and the red soils of the Piedmont; reasonable on
sandy loams (Guernsey, 1970). Best results obtained on spoils with pH
6.0-6.5, but grows on spoils with pH 4.0-7.0; plant early spring with
fertilizer and lime (Ibid.). Good mixed with fescue (Ibid.).
Eastern Spoils
Sopper e_t al_. (1974) report that lespedeza grows well after 11
weeks on spoils with pH 2.0-3.0 when fertilized with municipal sewage
effluent and sludge. Sericea will grow on refuse banks covered with
clay but not fertilized or limed (Bureau of Mines, 1973). Ruffner
(1966) reports that Natob is the only lespedeza to produce in West
Virginia mountains. Good survival on spoils above pH 4.5; not effective
for erosion control; poor results on steep slopes where pH is 5.3 or
higher (Ibid.). Sericea has also proved to be good cover on West Virginia
acid spoils; useful for mine spoil revegetation (Ibid.).
Sericea produced adequate results on northeastern slopes of
Pennsylvania anthracite spoils after hydroseeding and liming (Czapowskyj
and Writer, 1970). No survival .on ungraded breaker refuse; better than
crownvetch on other ungraded sites (Ibid.). Korean lespedeza is less
tolerant than fescue to adverse conditions of mine refuse; used in
treatment plots; needs lime and fertilizer for good establishment
(Davidson, 1974). Can be established from plants and by direct seeding;
not effective as ground cover; best for Pennsylvania spoils with pH 4.5
(Miles eial_., 1973). Chinese lespedeza produces good ground cover on
253
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moderately acid spoils of low fertility (Ibid.). Magnuson and Kimball
(1969) report average survival with natob lespedeza on pH 4.5 spoils;
66.5 percent survival typical.
Sericea is widely used to revegetate Kentucky spoils and other
disturbed areas but establishes slowly, doesn't respond to phosphorus in
spoils above pH 5.0 but has good response with the addition of nitrogen
(Vogel, 1964). Can also be established with weeping lovegrass (Ibid.).
Korean and Kobe reseed themselves every year and provide quick cover;
Kobe is more acid tolerant (Revegetation, 1966). Carter et_ a]_. (1974)
recommends a mixture of Sericea and Ky 31 plus various quick cover
2
species, 2.2 g/m (20 Ibs per acre) for all year planting on Kentucky
2
spoils; Korean and/or Kobe, 0.6 g/m (5 Ibs per acre) for early spring
planting. Bicolor and Japanese produced well for winter food and
wildlife habitat on spoils with pH 4.5-7.0 (Ibid.). Sericea is inferior
to birdsfoot trefoil at higher altitudes (Ibid.). Bicolor and Thunberg
produce best results on spoils with pH 5.0 or greater; nitrogen fixers
(Revegetation Manual, 1965).
Struthers (1960) reports that Sericea and Korean are very useful
since they supplement seeding mixture when other plants fail on spoils
in Ohio. Hill (1968) reported that Sericea stands were erratic in some
areas and outstanding in others on Ohio spoils.
Midwestern Spoils
Carter e_t aJL (1974) recommends Sericea as the best legume for
acidic Midwestern spoils, and Japanese and Bicolor as best shrubs.
Chinese lespedeza produces profuse cover for wildlife on spoils with pH
4-5-6.5 (Crowl, 1962). Korean produces good forage on pH 4.5-6.5;
Bicolor and Japanese produce good food and cover on spoils with pH 4.5-
7.5 (Ibid.).
LIVE OAK: Quercus virginniana
Tree (Sargent, 1933). Promising for dune areas, along with Eastern
red cedar (Graetz, 1973). Direct planting of acorns has produced good
results (Ibid.).
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LOBLOLLY PINE: Finns taeda
Tree with a tall, straight trunk (Sargent, 1933). Better growth
than shortleaf, Virginia or pitch pine after 6 months in laboratory
tests on sandstone and shale soils, 51 cm (20") (pH 3.5); 56 cm (22")
(pH 3.9); 60 cm (23.5") (PH 6.6); 30 cm, (12") (pH 7.6). Grew one year
on kaolin spoils in Georgia; needed nitrogen and phosphorus.
Eastern Spoils
Failed to establish a stand when planted on Pennsylvania spoils
(Miles et_aK, 1973). Ruffner (1966) reported rapid growth after seven
years in plantings on West Virginia spoils. May prove to be a valuable
species in the warmer sections of the State; only limited test plantings
as yet recommended (U.S. Bureau of Mines, Circular 109, 1960).
Best form among the pines in western Kentucky plantings; best
results on ridges and upper slopes, planted on moderately acid to acid
spoils (pH 6.5-4.5) (Boyce and Merz, 1948). Fast growth, desirable
timber species, may suffer snow damage (Revegetation Manual, 1966;
Carter et_ al_., 1974). Sixty-seven percent germination at temperatures
from 30°-50°C; 41 percent at 60°C; and 15 percent at 65°C (Revegetation.
1965). Forty-six percent survival, 2.7 m (8.8 ft) in pure stands; 3.1 m
(10.2 ft) in mixtures with European alder, after 5 years on ungraded,
silty clay shale spoils in eastern Kentucky at pH 3.5-5.5 (Dale, 1963).
Thirty percent survival after 4 years on sandstone and shale spoils at
pH 4.5-5.5 (Plass, 1968).
Preferred species for plantings in Tennessee and Alabama; erratic
performance in pure stands; good results in mixtures with Virginia pine
(Zarger, Curry and Allen, 1973). Fifty-five to seventy-five percent
survival of planted trees on slopes at pH 4.1-5.3 (silty clay loam,
variable fertility) after 3 years in the Tennessee-Cumberland spoils;
better growth with a southern exposure (Thor and Kring, 1964). Planted
trees survived better than seeded (Ibid.).
Faster growth than shortleaf or Virginia during first 5 to 10 years
in plantings in Southern States; 65 percent survival, good ground cover
(Plass and Burton, 1967).
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Generally reported to be compatible with annual plants on Allegheny
spoils; very compatible with light brush (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Midwestern Spoils
Fast growing, good form on Midwestern spoils at pH 4.0-7.5; re-
commended for plantings on sands or loose loams and clays (Crowl, 1962;
Limstrom, 1960).
Suitable for plantings in sparse stands of sweetclover on Illinois
spoils; unsuitable for underplanting or mixed plantings; killed in
northern Illinois by freezing (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Fastest growing
pine planted on acidic spoils (pH 4.5-6.9) of southern Illinois; best
results on well drained bottoms and lower slopes (Ibid.).
Forty-two percent survival on spoils in Kansas, Missouri and
Oklahoma after 6 years (Clark, 1954). Sixty-eight percent survival on
ungraded Illinois spoils after 21 years (pH 5.0, rocky soil); 83 percent
survival, 15 m (50 ft) height, on Kansas and Missouri spoils that were
ungraded; grading cuts survival to 30 percent (Illinois) and 6 percent
(Kansas-Missouri) respectively (Chapman, 1967).
Twenty-two percent survival, 6.1 m (22 ft) height after 22 years on
Kansas spoils at pH 5.6-6.1; promising results (Geyer and Rogers, 1972;
Geyer, 1971).
LONGLEAF PINE: Pinus palustris
A tree with a tall, straight, slightly tapering trunk (Sargent,
1933). Generally reported to be compatible with sod and annual plants; a
conifer that may be browsed by deer (Bureau of Mines, 1961). Good
growth reported, although difficult to plant in relation to other pines
(Plass and Burton, 1967). Fourteen percent survival on spoils with pH
4.0 or better; very important in strip mine afforestation (Ibid.). Good
prospect for pulpwood production (Ibid.).
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MAPLE: Red - Acer rubrum
Silver - Acer saccharinum
Sugar - Acer saccharum
Trees or, rarely, shrubs; widely distributed over the Northern
Hemisphere (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Red volunteers on Pennsylvania bituminous and West Virginia spoils
(Medve, 1974; Brown, 1960). Red is most tolerant of species tested
(Sturn, 1973). Sugar produced the best growth and survival rate when
grown in a mixture with black locust on lower slopes and well drained
bottom lands of Kentucky spoils (Merz and Boyce, 1948). Silver adapted
to strip mined spoils in Ohio, but shows fastest growth on moist soils
(Finn, 1958). Tendency toward multiple sprouting (Ibid.). Silver
produced good results on Ohio spoils with coarse or loose soils at pH
4.0-8.0 (Carter et. al_., 1974). A nurse species aids growth; should not
be planted on upper slopes (Ibid.).
Midwestern Spoils
Plant silver maple on upper and lower slopes with pH 6.0-7.5 in a
0-25 percent mixture with black locust and on sands and loose or compact
loams and clays (Limstrom, 1960). Sugar maple should be planted on
lower slopes (pH 6.0-7.5) in a 25-50 percent mixture with other hardwoods
on loose or compact loams and clays (Ibid.). Crow! (1962) reported that
silver and sugar also produced good results on Midwestern spoils with pH
4.0-8.0, in a 25 percent mixture with black locust (silver) and in a
mixture with other hardwoods (sugar).
Silver is adaptable to all Illinois spoils having a high proportion
of soil; should be planted in a hardwood mixture or for underplanting on
decadent black locust stands (Limstrom and Merz, 1954; Boyce and Neebe,
1959). Slow growth, but high survival rates—59 percent on northern
Illinois spoils, less than 43 percent on southern Illinois spoils
(Ibid.). After 21 years on spoils with pH 5.0-6.0, 40 percent soil
content, silver had a 46 percent survival rate, 12 m (40 ft) height on
ungraded spoils and a 10 percent survival, 5.5 m (18 ft) height on
graded spoils (Chapman, 1967).
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DenUyl (1962) does not recommend silver or red maple for plantings
on Indiana spoils—50 percent survival after 10 years. Deitschman and
Lane (1952) reported good results, however, with silver maple planted on
calcareous loams and silty shales of Indiana spoils when underplanted
with decadent black locust.
MATRIMONY VINE (Box-Thorn): Lycium sp.
Deciduous or evergreen shrub, with or without thorns (Bailey,
1942). Good on dry, coarse, saline-alkaline soils with pH 7.5-8.5 when
covered with topsoil in Montana (25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipi-
tation per year (Thornburg, 1075)).
MESQUITE: Prosopis: Chilean - Prosopis chilensis
Native or Honey Locust - p. juliflora
Trees or shrubs, found from southern Kansas to Patagonia and
tropical Africa, southwestern and tropical Asia (bargent, 1933)- Pro-
duces hard durable wood, valuable as fuel; pods are used as fodder
(Ibid.).
Mineral Tailings
Native and Chilean mesquite produced excellent results on saline-
alkaline Arizona copper tailings (Ludeke, 1974). Honey showed good
adaptation and excellent stabilization on alkaline spoils; grew 9.1-12 m
(30-40 ft) (Ludeke, 1972). Chilean can withstand insect damage to an
extent, excellent adaptation, grew to 9.1 m (30 ft) (Ibid.).
MILLET GRASS: Foxtail - Sintaria italica
Pearl - Pennisetum galucum
Annual. Foxtail is cultivated in warmer parts of U.S. especially
Nebraska to Texas (Hitchcock, 1935). Pearl cultivated to limited extent
in South (Ibid.). Used as temporary cover on spoils with pH 4.5 or
greater in Kentucky (Revegetation Manual, 1966). Carter (1974) recommends
pearl or German millet mixed with Ky 31 and Sericea for late spring
2
planting, 1.1 g/m (10 Ibs/acre).
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MICROSCOPIC PLANTS (Algae, Lichens, Mosses)
Dean ejt al_. (1974) reports that these plants failed in saline
copper tailings in the Southwest. Worked to some extent on uranium and
other less saline copper tailings; promising for arid regions with low
salinity (Ibid.).
MUGHO PINE (Mountain Pine): Pinus Mugo muqhus
Shrub or tree, about 4.6 m (15 ft) tall, in mountains of central
and southeastern Europe (Chittendon, 1956). Only specie to perform well
on West Virginia spoils below pH 4.5, and slopes at 25 percent angle or
less; slow growth rate; acid tolerant (Ruffner, 1966; Revegetation.
1965). Miles et_ al_. (1973) reported good results on Pennsylvania spoils
at pH 4.0-4.5; cover produced is attractive for wildlife purposes.
MYRTLE (Downy and Indian Gooseberry): Rhodomyrtus tomentosa
Trees or shrubs abounding in pungent aromatic volatile oil, with
minute scaly buds (Sargent, 1933). Grows rapidly on Hawaii bauxite
spoils (Plucknett, 1961).
NARROWLEAF TREFOIL: Lotus tenuis
Herbs and legume (Bailey, 1942). Establishes well on spoils above
pH 5.0 and responds well to fertilizer; semi-prostrate growth habit,
non-rhizomatous; cover is inferior to crownvetch (Ruffner, 1966). Best
adapted to northern Pennsylvania; fertilizer is required only on spoils
of high lime content and on north or east exposures (Miles e_t al_.,
1973). On Allegheny spoils, exceptional for production of vigorous
stands; appears as pasture plant on dry shallow soils; good adaptation
to strip mine spoils (Ruffner, 1962).
NEEDLEGRASS: Stipa avenacea
Perennial, grows in dry or rocky open woods (Hitchcock, 1935).
Tresler (1975) reports green needlegrass, native species in Wyoming, is
good for loams and heavier soils with precipitation greater than 33 cm
(13") per year.
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NORTHERN BAYBERRY: Myrica pennylsvania
Aromatic resinous trees and shrubs, with watery juice, terete
branches and small scaly buds (Sargent, 1933). Promising shrub for
dune areas (Graetz, 1973).
OAK: White - Quercus alba
Red - Q. borealis, Q. rubra
Chestnut - Q. montana
Bur - Q. macrrocarpa
Sawtooth - Q. acutissima
Trees or shrubs with astringent properties (Sargent, 1933).
Inhabits temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and high altitudes
in the tropics, southward to the mountains of Colombia and to the Indian
Archipelago (Ibid.).
Eastern Spoils
Sawtooth oak Kioduced poorly as a soil stabilizer (Ruffner and
Steiner, 1966). Good results obtained on moist, fertile, slightly
acidic spoils of Virginia, Kentucky and central and southern West
Virginia (Ibid.). Magnuson and Kimball (1969) reported an average
survival rate of 42.5 percent for sawtooth oak on Pennsylvania spoils
with pH above 4.5, but inadequate cover production.
Red oak has a slow growth rate for the first few years, good
survival rate and adaptability—better on graded (pH 5.0 or greater,
slopes 25 percent or less) than ungraded Pennsylvania spoils (Miles et_
al_., 1973; Re vegetation, 1965; Davis and Melton, 1963). Wheeler (1965)
reported oak to be more adversely affected by grading of Pennsylvania
bituminous spoils than other species. Hart and Byrnes (1960) reported
red to be best for highly acidic Pennsylvania spoils (pH 3.2, 29 percent
survival after 10 years) followed by pitch pine (23 percent) and red
pine (21 percent); little litter or ground vegetation. Better growth on
lower slopes and sheltered areas (Ibid.).
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Bur oak produced good results on the upper and lower slopes of
Midwestern spoils at pH 5.0-6.0 in a 0-25 percent mixture on sand and
loose or compact loams and clays (Limstrom, 1960). Good results on
Kansas spoils at pH 7.5 (loose, shaly clay) (Seidel and Brinkman, 1962).
Transplants survived better than seedlings on nutrient-rich Kansas
spoils at pH 5.6-6.1—27 percent survival after 22 years, 8.5 m (28 ft)
height, tolerates heavy herbaceous competion (Geyer and Rogers, 1972;
Clark, 1954). Seeds produced 72 percent survival (pH 5.5-7.0, 63
percent soil), 11 m (35 ft) height after 20 years, on Kansas and
Missouri ungraded spoils; 16 percent survival, 6.1 m (20 ft) height on
graded spoils (Chapman, 1967).
OATGRASS: Tall - Arrhenatherum elatius
Perennial, good stands on fertilized acidic spoils, some evidence
of spreading, stands not persistent at any one place (Ruffner, 1966).
Eastern Spoils
Fails on sandy soils (Zak ejt al_., 1971). Shows better vigor and
cover first year than tall fescue, decreases on lime spoils (Ruffner,
1966). Shows good adaptation on spoils in Pennsylvania; recommended
species for spoils with pH 4.5 or greater (Miles e_t al_., 1973; Guide
for Revegetating.... 1965). Ruffner (1962) recommends tall oatgrass on
spoil banks and shallow shale soils; adapts to moderately acid spoils of
low fertility.
OLIVE: Autumn - Elaeagnus umbel!ata
Russian - E. anguistifolia
Shrub. "Cardinal" autumn olive is a nitrogen-fixing, non-
leguminous shrub, multiple-stemmed, grows 4.6-6.1 m (15-20 ft) on good
sites (Ruffner and Steiner, 1965). Next best species to black locust
for quick stabilization (Ibid.). Russian is tolerant of high pH and
salinity (Hodgson et al_., 1973). Widely adaptable and useful over a
longer period of time than most shrubs (Ruffner, 1965).
261
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Eastern Spoils
Autumn produced good cover and yielded heavy fruit on Pennsylvania
spoils at pH 4.5 or greater, 54.5 percent survival (Magnuson and Kimball,
1969; Davis, 1973). Russina gave poor results on Pennsylvania bituminous
spoils; autumn poor on highly toxic bituminous spoiles, but good results
on spoils with pH 5.0 or greater (Ruffner, 1965).
Autumn olive adapted to variable sites and climatic conditions of
West Virginia spoils; heavy fruit production; nitrogen fixing (Ruffner,
1966; Brown, 1971). Russian did not survive on spoils below pH 4.0
(Ruffner, 1966). Autumn olive provides erosion control and wildlife
habitats on Kentucky spoils at pH 4.0-7.5 (Carter ejt aK, 1974;
Revegetation Manual, 1965). Autumn olive produced good results on
acidic Ohio spoils and fair results on moderately acidic spoils
(Ruffner, 1965).
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Russian rated good on Illinois bituminous spoils (Ruffner, 1965).
Autumn tolerates pH 3.0-4.0 on Illinois and Indiana spoils (Ibid.).
Autumn is one of several highly adaptable shrubs recommended for Mid-
western spoils (Carter ejt al_- > 1974). Russian olive produced best
survival and greatest growth rate on Wyoming spoils, average pH 6.4,
high clay, salt and organic content, average rainfall, 2.39 cm (9.42
inches) per year (May ejt al_., 1971).
Mineral Tailings
South African olive produced good adaptation and stabilization on
Arizona copper tailings; good resistance to insects (Ludeke, 1972).
Native olive produced good growth on alkaline tailings; good adaptation
but fertilizer is needed (Ibid.). Thornburg (1975) reported good results
for Russian olive on all Montana tailings at pH 7.5-8.5 when covered
with topsoil and receiving 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per
year.
ORCHARDGRASS: Dactyl is glomerta
Perennial, introduced forage grass (Radford, 1968). Stands
difficult to establish without prepared seedbed; density not outstanding
(Ruffner, 1966).
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Eastern Spoils
Grows on mine spoils with PH 2.0-3.0 when treated with 5 cm (2")
sewage effluent and 5 cm (2") sludge (Dickerson, 1971). Mellinger et
al_. (1966) suggests that orchardgrass be mixed with alfalfa for spoils
with pH greater than 6.0. In Ohio it was mixed with birdsfoot trefoil;
this proved not as successful as the alfalfa mixture which took over
from the birdsfoot trefoil (Krause, 1964). Grows well on Pennsylvania
spoils with pH 5.0 or greater, on non-stony soil and slopes less than 25
percent (Guide for Revegetating.... 1965). Struthers (1964) rates
orchardgrass as the principal grass for Southeast Ohio soils; rated both
for stand and vigor in spring seeding.
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Use in mixture on Midwestern spoils with pH 6.0-8.0; hardy growth
results (Shirts e_t al_., 1974). On Western spoils, good for high altitude
plantings (Eamon, 1974).
Mineral Tailings
Shetron and Duffek (1970) recommend orchardgrass for northern
Michigan iron mine tailings with pH 7.8-8.1, after fertilization. Dean
ejt aJK (1971) reports promising results on mine tailings in the South-
west. Poor results obtained on Washington copper tailings (pH 2.6-3.5,
978 m (3209 ft) altitude, 76 cm (30") rainfall per year), even after
addition of fertilizer, lime and sewage sludge; brome, tall fescue and
wheatgrass fared better in this area (Shirts et a]_-, 1974).
OSAGE - ORANGE: Madura pomifera
Tree with stout, erect spreading branches forming open irregular
round-topped head (Sargent, 1933). Found in rich bottom lands, southern
Arkansas to southern Oklahoma and south to Texas (Ibid.). Most abundant
and largest in size in the Red River Valley in Oklahoma (Ibid.). Used
in Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma as fenceposts (Clark, 1954).
Recommended for planting on sands or loose loams and clays, at pH 4.5-
8.0; will also grow on compact loams and clay (Limstrom, 1960; Crow!,
1962). Suitable for planting in dense stands on upper slopes and ridges
and for underplanting in decadent black locust stands on Illinois spoils
(Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Survival rate 33-67 percent on well drained
spoils of pH 4.5 or greater. (Ibid.). Does well on most strip mined
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spoils in Ohio, either in pure stands or in mixture with black locust
(Finn, 1958).
PANDA6RASS (mixture with Intortim)
Grows on bauxite strip spoils, needs extensive fertilization
(Younge, 1961).
PANICGRASS: Panicum amarum
Deep-rooted, long-lived coastal warm season perennial (Radford,
1968). Adaptable from Massachusetts to North Carolina (Ibid.). Good on
very sandy, droughty sites, graded and ungraded sand and gravel, sand
dunes (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973). No viable seeds; only wild rootstalk
can be transplanted (Graetz, 1973). Gave fair response on West Virginia
spoils even though fertilized with fly ash plus another fertilizer (Capp
and Gillmore, 1974).
PERU PEPPER
Tree or shrub usually found in the tropics (Bailey, 1942). Very
rapid growth, 4.6-7.6 m (15-25 ft) on Arizona copper tailings; tolerant
of alkaline spoils; especially useful for desert tailings (Ludeke,
1972).
PITCH PINE: Pinus rigida
Tree with a short trunk (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Good results produced on coarse soils at low elevations or warm
sites, suitable for deep dry sites and as nurse or cover on other adverse
sites (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961). Lorio and Gatherum (1966) reported
76 percent survival related to cation exchange capacity, nitrifiable
nitrogen and soluble salt concentration. Recommended for sands and
clays (Ibid.).
Good survival on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils at pH greater than
5.0 and slopes 25 percent or less (Guide for Revegetatinq.... 1965)~36
percent survival after 10 years on Pennsylvania spoils; tolerates
acidity; abundant litter but killed by pine sawfly (Hart and Byrnes,
1960). Czapowskyj (1970) reported a 76 percent survival rate on graded
anthracite spoils (pH 4.0-7.0) after 5 years; 28 percent for ungraded.
Fair survival but poor vigor (Miles et_ al_., 1973).
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Dale (1963) reported a 90 percent survival on ungraded, silty, clay
shale, Kentucky spoils (pH 3.5-5.5). Excellent results on western
Kentucky spoils of pH 6.5-4.5 (Boyce and Merz, 1948; Carter et al_->
1974). Reported to be generally compatible with annual plants (U.S.
Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Grows slowly and is commonly rough in appearance on West Virginia
spoils; survives on shallow, dry soils which are low in fertility; will
tolerate a high pH; recommended for use on adverse sites (USBM, Circular
109, 1960). Germination occurred soon after seeding; (Brown, 1973).
After 6 months, PI ass (1960) reported good results in laboratory
tests on sandstone and shale soils; grew 43 cm (17") for pH 3.5-6.6
(less than loblolly, equal to shortleaf and greater than Virginia) and
28 cm (11") at pH 7.6.
Lowry (1960) reported good survival and growth on strongly acidic
Ohio spoils, both sandy and silty clay soils. Well adapted to upper
slopes as well as sandy and loamy spoils; plant in pure stands or in
group mixtures with other conifers (Limstrom and Merz, 1954). Should not
be planted with black locust or other species that will overtop it; will
grow on relatively dry ridges of Ohio spoils; fastest growth on lower
slopes (Finn, 1968).
Midwestern Spoils
Recommended for sands or loose loams and clays at pH 4.0-7.5;
resists tipmoth but often has poor form (Crow!, 1962; Limstrom, 1960).
Should not be planted in forest plantings because of poor form and
growth; successfully planted on all sites except poorly drained areas in
Illinois (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Forty percent survival after 21 years
on Illinois spoils of pH 5.0-6.0, 40 percent soil content (Chapman,
1967).
Fourteen percent survival on nutrient-rich Kansas spoils after 22
years at pH 5.6-6.1 (only Ponderosa pine fared worse).
PONDEROSA PINE: Pinus ponderosa
Tree found on mountain slopes, dry valleys and high mesas from
northwestern Nebraska and western Texas to the shores of the Pacific
Ocean and from southern British Columbia to lower California and northern
Mexico (Sargent, 1933).
265
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Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Inferior growth to pitch pine on strongly acid spoils, and to
cedars on neutral spoils (Lowry, 1960). Average survival and growth
after 2 years on Ohio acidic spoils with sandy loams or silty clays
(Ibid.). Geyer and Rogers (1972) reported 3 percent survival after 22
years on nutrient rich Kansas spoils of pH 5.6-6.1, 7.6 m (25 ft)
average height. Rated poor in all respects after 10 years on Pennsylvania
bituminous spoils (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Fifteen percent survival
after 6 years on Missouri and Oklahoma spoils, particularly susceptible
to needle-cast fungus (Clark, 1954). Fair results on Montana spoils (pH
7.5-8.5) when overlaid with topsoil and receiving 25-36 cm (10-14 inches)
of precipitation per year (Thornburg, 1975).
POPLAR: White - Populus alba
Yellow or Tulip - Liriodendron tulipifera
Large fast growing trees (Sargent, 1933). White is tolerant of
high pH and salinity in fly ash spoils in England (Hodgson et al.,
1973). Good results from interplantings with European black alder in
Germany (Knabe, 1964).
Eastern Spoils
Hybrid popular and other hardwoods are worth planting only on
better sites of Northeast spoils, with adequate preparation and pro-
tection. Poplar should be restricted to moderate and well drained sites
with moderate to high fertility (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Seems to be vulnerable to frost damage and rabbit clipping in
plantings on Allegheny spoils (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Fifty percent survival on pH 3.0-5.0; should be good on gravel pits
in Pennsylvania (Jones, 1973). Eastern shows little promise; planted
seedlings inferior to volunteer plants (Miles ejt al_., 1973). Hybrid
showed good growth at pH 4.5 or greater and slopes 25 percent or less;
should not be planted with larch (Revegetation, 1965). Forty-five
percent survival after 10 years, 9.4 m (31 ft) average height on Penn-
sylvania spoils; susceptible to canker; provides sparse litter; has good
form and forms closed canopy (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Seventy-seven
percent survival on graded spoils; 55 percent, ungraded on Pennsylvania
anthracite spoils (pH 4.0-7.0) after 5 years (Czapowskyj, 1970).
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Yellow poplar volunteers on West Virginia spoils (Brown, 1960).
Curly poplar produced good stands, becomes multiple-stemmed and bushy
without maintenance (Ruffner, 1966). Clones NE-41, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51
and 53 all produced good results on West Virginia spoils (Eschner,
1960). Trimble (1963) reported good results with hybrid clones on high
altitude, stony spoils in West Virginia (limed and unlimed surfaces);
20 percent survival on unlimed spoils after 3 years, 80 percent on
limed; 0.9 m (3 ft) height on unlimed surfaces after 10 years, 1.2 m (4
ft) on limed. Highest survival rate on West Virginia spoils was 80.3
percent; did not do well on strip mined spoils (Brown, 1962). Yellow
volunteers on West Virginia spoils (Brown, 1960).
Sixty-eight percent survival in pure stands after 5 years for
yellow poplar on eastern Kentucky ungraded spoils (pH 3.5-5.5, silty
clay shale); 50 percent in mixtures with European alder (Dale, 1963).
Yellow poplar does best on well drained bottoms and in mixtures with
black locust on spoils in western Kentucky; slow growth, poor form
(Boyce and Merz, 1948).
Yellow poplar has erratic survival on Ohio spoils (Hill, 1968).
Yellow adapted to loamy and clayey banks in protected locations; best
results when pH is 5.5-8.0; should be planted on bottoms or lower slopes
or in mixtures with black locust (Limstrom and Merz, 1954). Hybrid is
suitable for planting on most strip mined land in Ohio; survives well
and grows rapidly (Finn, 1958). Yellow should only be planted on lower
slopes and banks composed of loamy and well drained clayey materials;
should not be planted on very acid banks (Ibid.). Tulip should only be
planted on lower slopes of ungraded spoil banks; nurse species aids
growth (Carter ejt al_., 1974). Sixty-eight percent survival on unferti-
lized Ohio spoils (pH 5.0-7.0, loose, shaly soil) after 2 years; 36
percent on fertilized spoils (Funk and Krause, 1965). Grading hurts
survival and growth of yellow poplar (Limstrom, 1964).
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QUACK GRASS: Aqropyron repens
Dense, rhizomatous perennial common to fields, waste places and
roadsides in the Southeast (Radford, 1968). Poor results on sandy soils
(Zak et al_«t 1971). Failed to germinate on leached tailings in the West
(Nielson and Peterson, 1972).
RABBITBRUSH: Big - Chrysothamnus nanseousus
Little - C. viscidiflorus
Low branching shrub, matures rapidly and furnishes browse; nutritious
(McArthur et_ al_., 1974). Very useful for erosion control and recommended
for desert areas in the West (Ibid, Cook e_t al_., 1974). Ludeke (1974)
reported excellent results on saline-alkaline Arizona copper tailings.
Volunteers on Wyoming tailings and looks promising in other areas (May
et al_., 1971; Dean ejt al_., 1971).
REDBUD: Cercis canadensis
Tree or shrub found in the eastern and western parts of North
American, southern Europe, and southwestern, central and eastern Asia
(Sargent, 1933). Good survival and vigor on moderately acid spoils in
Illinois, but very poor results on Pennsylvania spoils (Ruffner, 1965).
RED PINE: Pinus resinosa
Tree with a tall straight trunk, usually on light sandy loams or
dry rocky ridges (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Good growth on Pennsylvania spoils under severe conditions when
mixed with lovegrass, fescue and lespedeza (Walter, 1974). Survival was
better on spoils treated with lime and fertilizer (Ibid.). Severely
damaged where European pine shoot moth was prevalent (Davis and Melton,
1963). Effective species for revegetating disturbed lands and good
adaptability (Aharrah and Hartman, 1973). Forty-nine percent survival
(less than Scotch pine, better than other conifers), 2.1 m (7 ft) height
(less than jack, Scotch, pitch pine or Japanese larch) after 10 years on
Pennsylvania bituminous spoils (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Guide for
Revegetating (1965) reports good results and adaptation on bituminous
spoils with pH 5.0 or greater and slopes 25 percent or less. Sopper et^
al_. (1975) reported good survival along with Austrian and white pine in
268
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laboratory tests on anthracite spoils at pH 3.0. Eighty percent sur-
vival after 5 years on graded anthracite spoils of pH 4.0-7-0; 36
percent survival on ungraded spoils (Czapowskyj, 1960). Czapowskyj and
Writer (1970) reported failure on limed and hydroseeded graded Penn-
sylvania spoil and breaker refuse.
Good results obtained in forestation of West Virginia gob piles
with pH below 3.5 in a mixture with birch (Coalgate, 1973). Best
adapted to higher elevations, 760 m (2500 ft), tolerant of low nutrient
and moisture soil, and drought, suited to unfertile, dry areas (Bown,
1971; USBM, Circular 109, 1960; Ruffner, 1966). Grows well for 10-15
years then declines in warm areas; 70.6 percent survival on West Virginia
spoils (Brown, 1962).
Herbaceous ground cover and foliage coloration have positive effect
on red pine with use of fertilizer on New York spoils (Kirkland, Jr.,
1952). Good growth on upper slopes and well drained sandy and loamy
soils or Ohio spoils (LImstrom and Merz, 1954). Plant in pure stands or
mixtures with other conifers (Ibid.). Poor results on loose shaly soil
of pH 5.0-7.0 in Ohio; 8 percent survival, 20 cm (8") height after 2
years (Funk and Krause, 1965).
Midwestern Spoils
Good results on soils with pH 4.0-7.5, subject to tipmoth (Crowl,
1962). Recommended for sands and loose loams and clays (Limstrom,
1960). Stopped planting in Indiana in 1963 (Medvick, 1973).
Mineral Tailings
Good results on northern Michigan iron ore tailings with dark, very
fertile sands; good for reforestation (Goldfinger, 1971). Out survived
jack pine and black locust after 2 years on Michigan iron ore tailings
with pH 7.8-8.1.
REDTOP: Agrotis alba
Cool season, medium-lived grass. Thrives almost everywhere—most
spoils, shallow ponds, well drained, infertile soils, acid spoils (pH
4.5-7.5); forms dense sod, binds against erosion (McWilliams and Wallace,
1973; Carter et al_., 1974). Invades, good as temporary cover mixed with
Kentucky bluegrass, lasts 2-3 years, less competitive than ryegrass;
grows best in northeastern United States (Bramble and Ashley, 1955;
Schellie and Rogier, 1963).
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Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Struthers (1960) recommends that redtop be added to mixtures as it
quickly spreads into bare spots. Grows on acid spoils in Pennsylvania
with pH 4.5 or greater and on slopes of less than 25 percent angle
(Guide for Revegetating.... 1965). Grows on Midwestern spoils with 5.0-
6.0; very successful in ravines in mixtures (Crowl, 1962).
Mineral Tailings
Used as part of a mixture for stabilizing gold mine tailings in
South Africa (Stabilizing Mine Dumps, 1968).
REED CANARYGRASS: Phalaris arundinacea
Rhizomatous perennial, common to low woods and stream banks (Radford,
1968). Failed on sandy soils (Zak et_ al_., 1971). Good results obtained
on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils with pH 5.0 or greater, and on steep,
non-stony slopes and soils (Guide for Revegetating.... 1965). Will also
grow on toxic soils (pH 2.0-3.0) when fertilized with 5 cm (2") sewage
effluent and 5 cm (2") sludge per week—good results (Sopper et al.,
1974). Carter ejt al_. (1974) recommends reed canarygrass for Midwestern
acid spoils in a mixture with fescue and switchgrass. Grows on moist
sites but hard to establish on subalpine spoils (Berg, 1975).
RHODESGRASS: Chi oris gayana
Promising meadow grass in irrigated regions (Hitchcock, 1935).
Preferable to bermudagrass when rainfall is less than 64 cm (25") per
year; recommended for southwestern United States (Schellie and Rogier,
1963).
ROSE: Multiflora - Rosa multiflora
Deciduous shrub with vigorous, long, recurving or climbing branches
(Bailey, 1942). Good results obtained on soils with pH 4.5 or greater
and slopes 25 percent or less (Revegetation. 1965). Fair to poor results
on West Virginia spoils at pH greater than 5.0 (Ruffner, 1965). Good
results obtained on Indiana spoils and very good results on Ohio spoils
with pH 4.5-6.5; some cases of unwanted spreading. Wildrose produced
good results on coarse dry spoils in Montana with pH 7.5-8.5, overlaid
with topsoil and 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per year
(Thornburg, 1975).
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ROSE ACACIA: Robina hlspida
Trees or shrubs (Sargent, 1933). Often confused with bristly
locust—acacia is smaller and generally sterile (McWilliams, 1970).
RUBY SHEEPBUSH: Enchylaena tomentosa
Evergreen shrub, hardy on alkaline soils, tolerates spoils with
high salt content (Ludeke, 1973).
RUSSIAN THISTLE: Sal sol a kali-
Annual (May et al_., 1971). Volunteered on younger Wyoming spoil
banks—primary pioneer species (Ibid.). Sixty-nine percent survival on
leached Utah copper tailings, second only to kochia (Nielson and Peterson,
1973). Volunteered on fertilized Nevada copper tailings, 2000 m (6500
ft) altitude in areas with 21 cm (8.3 inches) of precipitation per year.
RYE: Balboa, Winter - Secale cereale
Russian Wild Rye - Elymus jum'cias
Annual.
Eastern Spoils
Russian wild rye failed on West Virginia acid spoils although
fertilized with fly ash plus another fertilizer (Capp and Gillmore,
1973). In Kentucky Balboa grows on spoils with pH 4.5 or greater;
o
recommended for early spring or late summer plantings, 7.8 g/m (70 Ibs
per acre) in a mixture with Ky 31 and sericea. Quick cover in winter--
more competitive than wheat with permanent species (Revegetation Manual,
1966). Reveqetation (1966) reports that rye is one of the best species
for high germination in a mixture with tall fescue, weeping lovegrass,
and hybrid sorghum.
Mineral Tailings
— n ~ "~-— L t
Fair growth observed on saline copper mine waste when pelletized
and sewage sludge added (Dean and Havens, 1973). Shirts ejt al_. (1974).
report that plantings were tried on Nevada copper tailings at 2000 m
(6500 ft) in an area with 21 cm (8.3") rainfall per year; when mixed
with alfalfa and clover, fertilized and Coherex added—overall survival
12 percent after 1 month. Russian wild rye survived and did well at
same altitude in Nevada on tailings with pH 7.5 and rainfall 13-25 cm
(5-10") per year (Shirts et al_., 1975). Fair to poor in Montana on
271
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coarse spoils plus topsoil with pH 7.5-8.5 (Thornburg, 1975). Merkel et_
al. (1973) observed that Balboa wild rye gave good stands in Colorado in
comparison to wheatgrass in areas of 41.7 cm (16.4 inches) rainfall and
50 percent snow; not adequate to prevent erosion, however. Russian wild
rye produced a good stand under the same conditions on tailigns with pH
8.4. Salina wild rye made only fair progress under identical rainfall
and snowfall conditions, but it is probably best suited for erosion
control (Ibid.).
RYEGRASS: Annual - Colium multiflorum
Perennial - Lolium perenne
Short-lived cool season perennials and annuals (Radford, 1968;
Hitchchck, 1935; Carter et. aJL, 1974). Perennial does well on fertilized
sites but decreases rapidly after first year; tolerant to high pH and
salinity (Hodgson, 1973; Ruffner, 1966). Schellie and Rogier (1963)
report that ryegrass can be good for 3-4 years, best on fertile moist
soils.
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Annual responds to fertilizer and provides quick cover on sites as
low as pH 5.0 in West Virginia; failed on unfertilized mine spoils
(Ruffner, 1966). Grew on Kentucky spoils covered with clay and then
seeded (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1973). Either is recommended for spring
planting on Kentucky mine spoils, 1.1 g/m (10 Ibs per acre) in a
mixture of Ky 31, lespedezas; annual may also be used for summer planting
in mixture with Ky 31 and sericea on spoils with pH 4.5 or greater.
Carter ejt aJL (1974) observed good growth in Midwestern laboratory
studies on very acid soils treated with lime and sewage sludge. On
Midwestern spoils, Crow! (1962) observed quick cover on spoils with pH
6.0-7.0.
Mineral Tailings
Germinated on leached copper and uranium tailings (pH 7.0) (nielson
and Peterson, 1972). Czapowskyj and Writer (1970) observed no survival
of perennials on breaker refuse of anthracite spoils and negligible
growth on graded spoils. Francis (1965) recommends ryegrass for
Pennsylvania iron ore tailings with pH 8.9, when hydroseeded with paper
pulp mulch, sulfur, fertilizer and in a mixture with Ky 31, lespedeza
272
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and purple flowering vetch. Annual ryegrass gives quick cover for
winter growing season on Arizona copper tailings; high growth, good
stabilization, but less cover than winter barley (Ludeke, 1974).
SAGEBRUSH: Big Sagebrush - Artemisia tridentata
Shrub, grows up to 3.7 m (12 ft), mostly in the Northern Hemisphere
and most abundant in arid regions (Bailey, 1942).
Big sagebrush is rich in protein in the winter when other plants
are low in nutrients (McArthur et. al_., 1974). Rapid growth, exceptional
reproduction, establishes well when included in aerial seeded mixtures
of herbs; good vigor and cover (Ibid.). Other species of big sagebrush
are effective soil stabilizers as well as range species (Ibid.). Big
sagebrush volunteers on Wyoming spoils (May et. aJL, 1971). Ludeke
(1974) reported that big sagebrush produced good results on saline-
alkaline Arizona copper tailings.
Grassland sagebrush has good suitability and moderately good
availability for rehabilitation (Farmer ejb aJL, 1974). Sagebrush steppe
dominates in open grassland containing wheatgrasses and needle and
thread on silt to silty clay loam soils (Ibid.). Occurs chiefly in
northeastern Wyoming; good suitability and availability for rehabilitation
(Ibid.).
European sage produced good results on leached Utah copper mine
tailings (Nielson and Peterson, 1972).
SAINFOIN: Onobrychis viciaefolia
Tolerant legume, but less tolerant than sweetclover (Hodgson et
al_., 1973).
SALTBUSH: Nutall - Atrip!ex nutallii
Three Wing - A. canescens
Four Wing - A. canescens
Cut Bush - A. vesicarum
Quail Bush - A. lentiformis
Australian - A. semibaccata
Old Man - A. nummuloria
Shrub, native to the Southewast, drought tolerant (Ludeke, 1974).
Produces good results on saline-alkaline Arizona copper tailings when
273
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fertilized with 22 g/m2 (200 Ibs, 1 acre) nitrogen, 5.6 g/m (100 Ibs, 1
p
acre) phosphorus and 11 g/m (50 Ibs, 1 acre) of potassium (Ibid.).
Four wing and three wing and old man saltbrush provide good cover; Old
Man should be cut less than three or four wing (Ibid.). Poor results
obtained from Quail Bush and Australian (Ibid.). Used in range re-
storation and soil stabilization; high forage yield and wide adaptation
(McArthur and Giunta, 1974).
Ludeke (1973) reported that four wing tolerates high alkalinity and
is fire resistant; quail bush tolerates salinity. Good results obtained
with four wing on dry coarse Montana spoils, covered with topsoil (pH
7.5-8.5) and receiving 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) precipitation per year
(Thornburg, 1975). Poor results obtained on wet soils (Ibid.). Low (12
percent) germination rate for four wing on leached Utah copper tailings;
no germination on non-leached tailings (Nielson and Peterson, 1973).
2
Four wing produced good results on loam and sandy soils, (0.1 g/m (1 Ib
seed per acre))of Wyoming spoils in areas with less than 41 cm (16
inches) of precipitation per year (Tresler, 1975). Springfield (1970)
suggests heavy seeding for good germination results for four wing.
SALT GRASS: Distich!is stricta
Perennial. Failed to germinate when planted on Utah copper tailings
(Nielson and Peterson, 1972).
SAND DROPSEED: Sporobalus cryptandium
Perennial, usually in small tufts (Hitchcock, 1935). Found every-
where but in the southeast (Ibid.). Recommended for desert areas through-
out Southwest and north to Colorado sandhills (Cook et_ al_., 1974).
Beverly (1970) reports that it grew in one summer on Colorado uranium
tailings.
SASSAFRAS: Sassafras albidum
Aromatic trees found in the uplands of western New England to the
mountains of western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee (Sargent,
1933). Volunteers on West Virginia spoils (Mellinger ejt al_., 1966).
274
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SCOTCH BROOM: Cytisus scoparin*
Most acid tolerant shrub tested (horn and Ward, 1969). Valuable
for wildlife forage and cover plant on Midwest spoils (Crowl, 1962).
Best results reported on spoils with pH 4.0-7.5 (Ibid.). Ruffner (1965)
reported good results in Ohio on spoils with pH 4.5-7.5. Unable to
withstand winters in Pennsylvania and West Virginia (Ibid.).
SCOTCH PINE: Pinus sylvestras
Tree, widely distributed through the Northern Hemisphere (Sargent,
1933). Planted as ornamental and Christmas trees (Ibid.; USBM, Circular
109, 1960; Brown, 1971; Crowl, 1962).
Eastern Spoils
Hardy species for dry and infertile sites; select seed origins with
good winter color and other characteristics; prefer phosphorus where
suitable; foliage may discolor on coarser soils (U.S. Bureau of Mines,
1961). Not recommended for timber production in Pennsylvania because of
low production value (Ibid.). Eighty percent survival after 10 years on
bituminous Pennsylvania spoils, 2.6 m (8.4 ft) height (Hart and Byrnes,
1960). Produces well on spoils with pH 5.0 or greater and on slopes 25
percent or less (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965). Failed on Pennsylvania
anthracite breaker refuse even with hydroseeding and liming; poor emergence
but good growth on graded spoils (Czapowskyj and Writer, 1970).
Seventy-four percent survival, 1.3 m (24 ft) height after 5 years on
graded anthracite spoils; 42 percent on ungraded (Czapowskyj, 1970).
Brown (1962) reported 65.8 percent survival on West Virginia spoils
at pH 4.0 and above—less than black locust, red and white pine, European
larch or yellow poplar. Less vigor than Virginia and shortleaf pine,
same as red and more than white (Mellinger et a]_., 1966). Nutrient and
moisture requirements are low for West Virginia plantings; growth and
survival good; origins from central Europe best for pulpwood production
(Brown, 1971). Reported to be compatible with annual plants (U.S.
Bureau of Mines, 1961). Mouse girdling specifically reported in West
Virginia (Ibid.). Stands deterioriate at early age (USBM, Circular 109,
1960).
275
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Slow growth on Kentucky spoils for the first few years; good
results on spoils at pH 4.0-7.5 (Carter ejt a]_., 1974; Revegetation
Manual 1966). Good results on New York spoils with the addition of
fertilizer (Kirkland, Jr., 1974).
Midwestern and Western Spoils
Planting recommended for sands and loose loams and clays at pH 4.5-
6.0 (Limstrom, 1960). Good results obtained at pH 4.0-7.5 on Midwestern
spoils (Crowl, 1962).
Fair results on coarse Montana spoils at pH 7.5-8.5, overlaid with
topsoil, in areas of 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of precipitation per year;
poor results on saline-alkaline soils (Thornburg, 1975).
Mineral Tailings
Good results on northern Michigan tailings in light colored sand
(Goldfinger, 1971).
SCOURING RUSH: Equisetum hyemale
Weed, found usually in moist or swale-like places (Bailey, 1942).
Most conspicuous volunteer on northern Michigan copper tailings (Erbisch,
1975).
SEA OATS: Uniola pam'culata
Coarse, rhizomatous perennial (Radford, 1968). Predominates from
Virginia to Texas, found on beaches, takes over from American Beachgrass
(Woodhouse e_t al_., 1968; Graetz, 1973). Good replacement for beachgrass
in pioneer zone plantings; persists after soil is stabilized; slow to
start; interplanting is recommended with beachgrass for quick cover
(Ibid). Woodhouse e_t a]_. (1968) recommend nursery germination then
transplantation—hard to transplant wild sea oats; nitrogen and phosphorus
are good additives, but can grow without them. Deep planting of established
growth is key (Graetz, 1973).
SHADESCALE: Atrip!ex confertifolia
Shrub, native to Wyoming and uplands of Colorado (May et al.,
1971; Cook et_ al_., 1974). Recommended for desert areas in Utah, Colorado,
Wyoming and Montana (Cook et a_l_., 1974).
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SHEEP SORREL (also Sour Grass): Rumex acetosella
Root sprouting perennial (Radford, 1968). Failed in Pennsylvania
plantings (Miles elt al_., 1973). Ruffner (1966) reports that emergence
on West Virginia spoils was poor until second or third year. Produces a
better cover than most grasses on low fertility sites; averaged 25 to 30
percent on spoils between pH 4.5-5.0 (Ibid.).
SHORTLEAF PINE: Pinus echinata
Tree with tall tapering trunk found throughout the United States
(Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Sixty percent stand in Pennsylvania when seeded on pH 4.5 spoils
(Miles et^al_., 1973). Sixty-six percent survival and good growth—11 m
(37 ft) from plantings on southern spoils (Plass and Burton, 1967).
PI ass (1969) reported fair to good results in laboratory studies on
sandstone and shale spoils after 6 months: 41 cm (16"), (pH 3.5); 43 cm
(17"), (pH 3.9); 53 cm (21"), (pH 6.6); 36 cm (14"), (pH 7.6).
Best initial vigor of pines studied on West Virginia spoils; vigor
improving, canopy not closed (Mellinger ejt a]_, 1966; Ruffner, 1966).
Fifty-one and one-half percent surival on West Virginia spoils (less
than European larch, yellow poplar, red spruce, black locust, red and
white pine, Scotch pine, Norway and red spruce) (Brown, 1962). Good for
plantings on eroded and dry sites at elevations of 300 m-460 m (1,000 to
1,500 ft) or less; susceptible to winterkill; mouse girdling a specific
problem (Brown, 1971; Bureau of Mines, 1961). Should be planted in
warmer sections of State on well drained spoils (USBM, Circular 109,
1960).
After 5 years, 74 percent survival on ungraded, silty clay shale of
Kentucky spoils of pH 3.5-5.5; 2.4 m (7.9 ft) average height planted in
pure stands, 2.8 m (9.2 ft) in mixtures with European alder (Dale,
1963). Good results at pH 4.0-7.5 (Carter ejt al_., 1974).
Six percent survival on Ohio spoils at pH 5.0-7.0 (loose, shaly
soil; worst tree but best conifer) (Funk and Krause, 1965; Lowry, 1960).
In Ohio it should be planted only in the southeast (Carter et aJK,
1974). Limited generally to spoil banks; do not plant on calcaceous
spoils; otherwise site requirements and recommendations are as for jack pine
277
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(Limstrom and Merz, 1954). Best results on moderately acid sites in
Ohio, adaptable to variety of spoils, should not be planted with black
locust or other species that would overtop it (Finn, 1958).
Midwestern Spoils
Good results on spoils at pH 4.0-7.5; survival often affected by
drought (Crowl, 1962). Recommended for sands or loose loams and clays
(Limstrom, 1960). Stopped planting in Indiana in 1957 (Medvick, 1973).
Best results on southern Illinois spoils (pH 4.5-5.9); more resistant
to storm damage than loblolly, heavily infested with tipmoth (Boyce and
Neebe, 1959). Chapman (1967) reported 35 percent survival on spoils (pH
5.0) in Illinois after 21 years; 68 percent in Kansas and Missouri (pH
5.0-7.0). Twenty-nine percent survival on nutrient rich spoils, pH 5.6-
6.1, in Kansas after 22 years; a recommended species (Geyer and Rogers,
1972).
Mineral Tailings
Survived on untreated Pennsylvania iron ore tailings at pH 8.7
(Francis, 1974).
SILKY DOGWOOD: Cornus obligua or Cornus amomum
Shrub, recommended for spoils with pH greater than 4.5 (Revegetation
Manual, 1966). Good survival on slopes with a 25 percent angle or less,
except on very acidic spoils (Revegetation. 1965; Hart and Byrnes,
1960). Survival rate less than black chokeberry on highly toxic spoils
in Pennsylvania (Hart and Byrnes, 1960).
SORGHUM GRASS: Sorghum spp.: Milo-maize - Sorghum vulgare
Sudangrass - S. sudanense
Coarse perennial or annual (Radford, 1968). Sudangrass (annual)
provides temporary crop for erosion control; killed by frost; should be
seeded with perennial (Schellie and Rogier, 1963).
Eastern Spoils
Sudax (hybrid of Sudangrass and Sorghum) good for temporary cover
on Kentucky spoils, germinates with fertilizer (Revegetation, 1966;
Revegetation Manual, 1966). Best germination at low temperatures (30-
40°C); 90 percent successful at 60°C, outgrows almost everything, will
germinate at higher temperatures mixed with weeping lovegrass, tall
fescue or rye (Revegetation, 1966). Carter ejt al_. (1974) suggests a
278
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mixture of Sudax with Ky 31 (2.2 g/m2) (20 Ibs per acre) for late
spring planting. May poison livestock (Revegetation Manual. 1966).
Mineral Tailings
Younge (1961) reports that sudangrass grows on Hawaii baxuite
tailings but only after the addition of a great deal of fertilizer.
Sudan and milo-maize have extremely quick germination during summer
growing season on Arizona copper tailings (Ludeke, 1974). Milo-maize
provides good stabilization, food and cover for wildlife (Ibid.). Morgan
and Parks (1967) report that grain sorghum and sudangrass did well on
Tennessee phosphate spoils with pH 5.3 but both needed nitrogen and lime
additives. Sudangrass also needed potassium additives (Ibid.).
SPANISH PINE: Pinus Pinaster
Tree, successfully cultivated in central and southern California
(Sargent, 1933). Stands planted on West Virginia spoils are decreasing
slightly (Ruffner, 1966).
SPRUCE: Red - Picea rubens
Norway - P. abies
White - P. glauca
Englemann - P. engelmannii
Pyramidal trees, with tall tapering trunks, often stoutly buttressed
(Sargent, 1933).
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Red spruce seems to grow on any soil with a surface or raw humus
layer; only fair results on acid sites (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Black is resistant to frost, infertility, poor drainage; good for cover
but not timber production; white, tolerant of poor drainage and high
lime, sensitive to low fertility, more suitable for Christmas tree
production (Ibid.). Norway is preferred to white because of faster
growth; affected by white pine weevil, frost, fertility and very poor
drainage; should be planted at higher elevations (Ibid.). Norway is
shade tolerant, but takes many years to provide suitable cover (Wheeler,
1965). White rated poor for growth on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils
(Hart and Byrnes, 1970).
279
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Ninety-four percent survival of Norway spruce on Pennsylvania
spoils with pH above 4.5; 27 percent on spoils below pH 3.5 (Magnuson
and Kimball, 1969). Fifty-two percent surival of Norway and white
spruces after 7 years on anthracite spoils at pH 5.1-5.5; better results
on ungraded spoils (Czapowskyj and McQuilken, 1966). Czapowskyj (1970)
reported 41 percent survival on graded anthracite spoils (pH 4.0-7.0)
and 20 percent on ungraded after 5 years; 36 percent on graded and 25
percent on ungraded for White. Norway and white spruce produced good
results on spoils at pH 2.0-3.0 when overlaid with 5 cm (2") municipal
sewage effluent (Dickerson, 1971).
Red spruce outperformed hybrid poplars on acid spoils in West
Virginia plantings (Trimble, 1963). Norway and red had 59.1 percent and
63.2 percent survival rates respectively on West Virginia spoils; grows
very slowly the first 6 or 7 years, needs protection (Brown, 1962).
Brown (1971) reported that Norway spruce has very high water and nutrient
requirements; survival and growth on West Virginia spoils is fair.
Norway is good for Christmas tree production; moist well drained soil is
preferred for West Virginia spoils; heavy clays, eroded and dry sites
should be avoided (USBM, Circular 109, 1960). Red spruce grows well
only where the soil is moist; should be planted in colder sections of
the State; desirable timber species but susceptible to damage by spruce
budworm and fire (Ibid.).
Reported to be compatible with annual plants on spoils in the
Allegheny regions; Norway and white area also compatible with light
brush (Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Crow! (1962) reports good results with Norway spruce on Midwestern
spoils at pH 5.0-6.0; good Christmas tree production.
Mineral Tailings
Brown (1974) reported good results with Englemann on high altitude
mineral tailings, poor results with blue spruce.
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SUDANGRASS: (see Sorghum sudanense)
SUMAC (Sumach): Smooth - Rhus glabia
Skunkbush - R. trllobata
Shining - R. copallina
Fragrant - R. raromatica
Tree with colorless water juice (Sargent, 1933). Found on dry
hillsides and ridges from northern New England to eastern Kentucky,
Tennessee and southern Florida, southeastern Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and
the San Antonio Valley, Texas (Ibid.).
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Good results on acid, low fertility spoils; provides little cover
(Ruffner, 1966; Miles et al_., 1973). Good survival on spoils with pH
4.0; fragrant is not acid tolerant (Ruffner, 1966). Flame!eaf produces
well on acid, low fertility spoils; adaptable to pyritic and limestone
spoils in Pennsylvania (Miles ejt al^, 1973). Shining and smooth produced
good results on spoils with pH 4.0-5.5; poor results below pH 4.0; poor
cover producing plants (Ruffner, 1965; Revegetation Manual. 1965). Brown
(1960) reported that skunkbush volunteers on West Virginia spoils.
Smooth produces good results on Midwestern spoils with pH 5.0-6.5;
good as late winter bird food, deer browse (Crowl, 1962).
Mineral Tailings
Not adaptable for revegetation of Wyoming spoils; poor results in
all locations (Lang, 1971). Average Wyoming spoil had pH 6.4, high clay,
salt and organic material content and 2.39 cm (9.42 inches) of pre-
cipitation per year (Ibid.). Skunkbush gave good results on all Montana
spoils (coarse, dry, saline-alkaline, pH 7.5-8.5) when overlaid with
topsoil. These Montana spoils typical receive 25-36 cm (10-14 inches)
of precipitation per year (Thornburg, 1975)
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SWEETGUM: Liquidambar styraciflua
A tree with balsamic juices (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Showed little promise when planted on Pennsylvania spoils but
established a 60 percent stand when seeded on pH 4.5 spoils (Miles
et al., 1973). No vigor, poor stands on West Virginia spoils below
pH 5.0; better stands at lower elevations (1966).
Ninety percent survival, 0.6-0.9 m (2-3 ft) height on sandstone and
shale of Kentucky spoils of pH 4.5-5.5 (Plass, 1968). After 5 years 67
percent, 2 m (6.7 ft) height on ungraded silty clay shale spoils of
pH 3.5-5.5 when planted in pure stands; 47 percent, 2.7 m (8.7 ft)
height in stands mixed with European alder (Dale, 1973). Plant in bands
or blocks on Kentucky and Ohio spoils at pH 4.5-7.5; nurse species aids
growth; do not plant on upper slopes with loose or coarse soils (Carter
et al., 1974).
Midwestern Spoils
Good results on sands and loose or compact loams and clays in 0-25
percent mixture, pH 4.5-7.5 (Limstrom, 1960; Growl, 1962).
Seventy percent survival after 21 years on silty clay ungraded
Illinois spoils (40 percent soil, pH 5.0-6.0), 19 m (63 ft) height; 45
percent survival, 10 m (33 ft) height on graded spoils (Chapman, 1967).
Can be planted under black locust and shortleaf pine on neutral Illinois
spoils; average height 4.3-5.5 m (14-18 ft) after 16 years—less than
black walnut, yellow poplar and silver maple. Good growth on lower
slopes and bottoms where pH was more than 5.5 (Boyce and Neebe, 1959).
Suitable for planting in areas with flooding either as pure plantings or
in a mixture with silver maple, ash, and black locust (Ibid.; Limstrom
and Merz, 1954). Survival less than 20 percent in northern Illinois
where species was damaged by ice (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Adapted to
clay and to loamy and sandy soils having a reasonably high percentage of
soil; susceptible to rabbit damage (Limstrom and Merz, 1954). Fifty-
five percent survival after 10 years on Indiana soils; good results on
moderately acidic spoils (DenUyl, 1962).
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SWITCHGRASS: Panicum virqatum '
Annual or perennial, usually in large clumps (Hitchcock, 1935).
Tall, robust warm season perennial with short rhizomes (Ruffner and
Steiner, 1973). Easy to establish on soils with pH 5.5 or greater;
persistent stands, good stabilizing cover (Ibid.). Black switchgrass is
good for all Northeastern spoils; Carthage best for coastal plains
(Ibid.). Will establish on tailing sands (Craig, 1975).
Eastern and Midwestern Spoils
Good results obtained with Blackwell on Pennsylvania spoils at pH
2.0-3.0, when overlaid with 5 cm (2 inches) sewage effluent and 5 cm
(2inches) sludge per week for 11 weeks (Sopper et al_., 1974). Failed on
sandy soils (Zak e£ al_., 1971). Guide for Revegetating... (1965) reports
good results on neutral spoils and steep slopes. Drought tolerant and
adaptable to Pennsylvania spoils with low fertility; stands usually
better than bluestem or indiangrass (Miles et^ al_., 1973; Williams,
1970). Cover established in tree planting on mine spoils (Williams,
1970). Good results produced on high lime spoils even when too steep or
stony for using normal agricultural practices; desirable grass for
wildlife food and cover (Ruffner, 1962). Blocks erosion and holds
refuse in place on Pennsylvania spoils; produces substantial cover;
germination and survival percentage good; proper grading and terracing
necessary to maintain (Smith, 1972; Schimp, 1966).
Blackwell and Carthage produced good results on West Virginia acid
spoils with the addition of fertilizer and fly ash (Capp and Gillmore,
1974). Best growth on spoils at pH 6.0; good stands established by
seeding without fertilizer; good cover and erosion control (Ruffner,
1966).
Good results on Kentucky spoils at pH 4.5-8.0; provides habitat and
food for wildlife; tolerates less abuse than Ky 31 (Carter et al_.,
1974; Revegetation Manual. 1966). Kanlow and Blackwell switchgrass are
recommended in mixtures with rye, and sericea or birdsfoot trefoil
(Revegetation Manual, 1966). Vogel and Berg (1968) reported good results
on very acid Kentucky spoils but required 2 years to establish. In less
acidic spoils switchgrass yields herbage on top and roots about equal to
lovegrass yields (Ibid.).
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Carter et al., (1974) recommends switchgrass for acidic Midwestern
spoils in a mixture with fescue and reed canarygrass.
SYCAMORE: Platanus occidental is
Tree found on the borders of streams and lakes on rich bottomlands
of the Midwest, northeastern and southern United States (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Does not exhibit the vigor or rapid growth on Pennsylvania spoils
usually common to volunteering plants (Miles et al., 1974). Eighty
percent survival, rapid growth but little vigor on West Virginia spoils;
volunteers, provides little cover (Ruffner, 1966; Mellinger et al.,
1966; Brown, 1960). Grazing sycamore produced good results (Ruffner,
1966).
One of the best hardwoods for planting in pure stands on Kentucky
spoils; failed when planted in a locust mixture (Merz and Boyce, 1948).
Adaptable to wide range of spoil conditions; good survival, rapid height
growth (Ibid.). Should not be planted on upper slopes or ungraded banks
with coarse or loose soils in western Kentucky; best results at pH 4.0-
8.0 (Carter et aK, 1974). Fifty-three percent survival on eastern
Kentucky spoils (pH 3.5-5.5, ungraded, silty clay shales) after 5 years;
30 percent when interplanted with European alder—average height of pure
stand, 2.5 m (8.1 ft); interplanted, 3.8 m (12.4 ft) (Dale, 1963).
Plass (1968) reported 80 percent survival, 0.9 m (3 ft) height after 4
years of plantings on sandstone and shale in eastern Kentucky spoils at
pH 4.5-5.5.
Grew 1 year on kaolin spoils in Georgia; nitrogen and phosphorus
needed (May et al_., 1973).
Suitable for moist sites on Ohio spoils; grows well on mid-slopes
(Limstrom and Merz, 1954; Finn, 1958). Successfully interplanted with
black locust and other hardwoods in Ohio (Ibid.). Should not be planted
on upper slopes of ungraded banks with coarse or loose soil (Carter et
aj_., 1974). Eighty-eight percent survival after 22 years on Ohio spoils
with coarse soil at pH 5.0-7.0 (Funk and Krause, 1965).
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Midwestern Spoils
All species recommended for sands, loams and clays; growth on all
slopes and graded banks at pH 6.0-7.5 (Limstrom, 1960). Successful
results in large scale plantings in pure stands on spoils at pH 4.0-8.0
(Ibid.).
One of the best hardwoods for southern Illinois spoils at pH 4.5-
8.0; suitable for silty clay spoils and areas where flooding does not
exceed 1 week (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Can be planted with sweetclover
and low plants to form a sparse cover; should not be underplanted with
black locust (Ibid.). Seventy percent survival on Illinois spoils
(Ibid.).
Adaptable to dry Indiana site conditions; found on very rocky
stripped lands; good results on acid loams and silty clays (Dietschman
and Lane, 1952). Should not be planted under locust cover (Ibid.).
Sixty-seven percent survival after 10 years on some Indiana spoils; 63
percent, 6.1 m (20 ft) height and 37 percent, 7.6 m (25 ft) height on
others (DenUyl, 1962). Plant only on calcareous soil (Ibid.).
Can be planted in mixtures with black walnut on southeastern Kansas
spoils of loose shaly clay at pH 7.5 (Seidel and Brinkman, 1962).
Twenty-four percent survival, 11 m (37 ft) height after 22 years on
nutrient-rich Kansas spoils of pH 5.6-6.1 (Geyer and Rogers, 1972).
Eighty-two percent survival, 17 m (55 ft) height on ungraded Kansas and
Missouri spoils, (63 percent soil, pH 5.5-7.0) after 20 years; 20 percent
survival, 7.6 m (25 ft) height on graded spoils (Chapman, 1967). Clark
(1954) reported 38 percent survival, 2.1, (7 ft) height after 5 years on
spoils in Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma. Moist sites produced good
results; does not tolerate heavy cover. (Ibid.).
TAMARISK (Tamaria): French Tamarisk or Sultcedur - Tamarix gallica
Weed, invaded plantings of other species on Utah copper and uranium
tailings (Nielson and Peterson, 1972). Salt and wind resistant, tolerates
high pH and salinity (Graetz, 1973; Hodgson, 1973). Rated excellent
when fertilized.on saline-alkaline Arizona copper tailings (Ludeke,
1974).
285
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TIMOTHY: Phleum pratense
Perennial. Guide for Revegetating (1965) reports timothy grows
well on neutral spoils (pH 5.0 or greater) in Pennsylvania and on slopes
less than 25 percent. It has been used as a nurse for white clover on
northern Michigan mine tailings (Shetron and Duffek, 1970). Berg (1975)
reports it is used to broadcast on steep slopes; small round seed
catches in cracks of Colorado sub-alpine regions. Dies in 5-6 years at
high elevations (Ibid.).
TOBIRA PITTOSPORUM: Pittosporum tobira
Evergreen shrub, salt and wind resistant (Graetz, 1973).
VIRGINIA PINE: Pinus virqiniana
Tree with a short trunk found mainly in the north and southeastern
United States (Sargent, 1933). More successful than Scotch or Australian
pine, provided good cover and stability (Schimp, 1966). Recommended for
sands or loose loams and clays at pH 4.5-6.0 in mixtures of 1 to 5
percent (Limstrom, 1960). Less growth than shortleaf, loblolly or pitch
pine after 6 months on sandstone and shale spoils in laboratory tests
(Plass, 1969).
Eastern Spoils
Well suited for planting on poorer, dry shale soils in the Northeast
(U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Davis and Melton (1963) reported good results with plantings on the
Pittsburgh seam only. Most acid tolerant of all conifers; plants have
been found volunteering on spoils at pH 3.5 in Pennsylvania; slow growth
rate, however, on highly acidic spoils (Miles ejt al_., 1973). Good vigor
on slopes of 25 percent or less (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965).
Fifty-six percent survival on graded Pennsylvania anthracite spoils at
pH 4.0-7.0 after 5 years; 23 percent on ungraded spoils (Czapowskyj,
1970). Sixty percent survival, 1.7 m (5.7 ft) height after 7 years on
anthracite spoils (Czapowskyj and Writer, 1966).
One of the better successes on Tennessee spoils; can be mixed with
ryegrass and fertilizer for better production (Varger et al_., 1968).
286
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Po r growth ft™, with nany 11-S extend1ng ^ ^ ex
on pitting, on western Kentucky spoils; susceptible to ™th attack
Boyce and Merz, ,948). Carter eta!. ,1974) reported good results „„
Kentucky spoils at pH 4.0-7 5- shnnin h« i 4. -, .
v °' should be Planted in bands of 5 rows or
^- -- _»~ee percent survival after 5 years at PH 3.,
Virginia pine is generally compatible with annual plants, but mouse
gridling has been reported and deer browsing occurs on certain species
U.S Bureau of Mines, 1961). Good results on poor sites; recommended
for planting at elevations below 760 m (2500 ft) on poorest sites; good
results on heavier textured clay soils (U.S. Bureau of Mines, Circular
109, 1960). Forty-eight and seven-tenth percent survival, good species
for strip mined aras, low moisture and nutrient requirements, may suffer
winter injury if planted above 760 m (2500 ft) (Brown, 1962- 1971)
Ruffner (1966) reports that Virginia pine has widest range of adaptability
on West Virginia spoils of the nine conifers tested; tolerates acidity
as low as pH 4.0.
Midwestern Spoils
Good results on spoils of pH 4.0-7.5; subject to tipmoth (Crowl,
1962). Hardy species in northern Illinois plantings; best survival was
on slopes, ridges and acid areas (pH 4.5-6.9) (Boyce and Neebe, 1959).
Forty-five percent survival on Illinois spoils at pH 4.0 after 21 years;
grading had little effect (Chapman, 1967). Twenty-one percent survival,
7.3 m (24 ft) height, after 22 years on nutrient-rich Kansas spoils at
pH 5.6-6.1 (Geyer and Rogers, 1972).
WAGNER FLATPEA
Legume. Vigorous growth, tendency to vine, but seeds are poisonous
to livestock (Ruffner, 1966). Adapted climatically throughout West
Virginia; takes 2 to 3 years longer than crownvetch to form 100 percent
cover; will tolerate a slighly more acid spoil than flatpea (Ibid).
WEEPING LOVEGRASS: Eragrostis curvula
Warm season, short-lived perennial, good seedling vigor, quick
cover, tolerates acid spoils pH 4.0-5.0 (Ruffner and Steiner, 1973).
Produces well on most well-drained soil types; excellent results and
stabilization obtained on sandy loams soil (Dalrymple, 1968).
287
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Produces comparatively well on low fertility soils; nutritious and
palatable when fertilizer is applied regardless of inherent fertility of
soil; excellent cover with legume (Ibid.).
Does well in different mixtures: forage legume-lovegrass--promising
for forage and conservation; bermudagrass-lovegrass--also good results;
alfalfa-lovegrass--suitable for hay, winter grazing and conservation
(Ibid.). Ermelo weeping lovegrass has been used for nematode control in
tobacco cordons of Africa; recommended for permanent cordons in Brazil
coffee, cotton and tobacco (Ibid.). Schellie and Rogier (1973) observed
that weeping lovegrass needs 15-20 inches of precipitation per year.
Eastern Spoils
Provides quick cover on Kentucky spoils; adaptable to wide range of
spoil conditions (Vogel, 1964). Weeping lovegrass was found to spread
onto adjacent barren areas by natural seeding from established plants,
but it is not an aggressive spreader and does not pose a threat as a
potential weed in cultivated land (Ibid.). Vogel and Berg (1968)
reported that weeping lovegrass provided 70-90 percent ground cover in
one season on highly toxic spoils (pH 4.0-4.5) when fertilized consistently.
Better adaptation to drier sites and summer conditions (Ibid.). Carter
et al. (1974) obtained good results on western Kentucky spoils (pH 4.0-
p
8.0) in a mixture with Ky 31 and sericea (0.3 g/m ) (3 Ibs per acre)
when planted in spring. In mixtures with tall fescue, rye or hybrid
sorghum it has one of the best high temperature germination rates
(Revegetation. 1966).
On West Virginia spoils, it gives quickest cover (Ruffner, 1966).
Reseeds well on spoils with pH of 5.4; cover decreases at pH 5.5 or
higher—salt sensitive (Ibid., Revegetation, 1966). Capp and Gillmore
(1974) reported little success after first year of growth on West Virginia
acid spoils even after addition of fly ash and fertilizer.
Mineral Tailings
Fleming et. al_. (1974) reported laboratory test results showed that
lovegrass tolerates pH 4.0; manganese (964 ppm), and aluminum (12 ppm)
are harmful to growth, but lovegrass is more tolerant to aluminum than
tall fescue. Tolerates spoils of pH 2.0-3.0 when overlaid with 5 cm (2
inches) sewage effluent and 5 cm (2 inches) sludge per week for 11 weeks
(Sopper et a^., 1974). Good response obtained in mixtures with
Blackwell switchgrass, deertongue or reed canarygrass. Craig (1975)
288
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found giant lovegrass very slow to establish on tailing sands of Florida
phosphate mines. Mice killed the lovegrass and spread began to decline
after 3 years on Japanese copper mines (Usiu and Suzuki, 1973). Beverly
(1970) reported excellent results on Arkansas vanadium tailings in one
year without fertilizer (150 cm (60 inches) precipitation per year, long
growing season). Used in mixture on gold mine tailings in South Africa
(Stabilizing Mine Dumps, 1968). Successful for 5 years on South African
gold mine tailings which were limed and fertilized (Cresswell, 1973).
WHEAT: Winter - Triticum aestivum or Triticum vulgare
Annual (Hitchcock, 1935).
Eastern Spoils
Good on spoils with pH 4.5 or greater (Revegetation Manual. 1966).
Quick cover, less competitive with peremanent species than rye (Carter
et al_., 1974).
Mineral Tailings
Winter wheat promosing on Southwest tailings (Dean ejt al_., 1971).
Nielson and Peterson (1972) reported 90 percent germination on leached,
copper mine tailings of Utah. Fifty-two percent germination after one
month when planted in September, fertilized and sprayed with Coherex on
high altitude tailings, 2000 m (6500 ft) and with 21 cm (8.3 inches) of
precipitation per year (Shirts ejt aK, 1974). These results are better
than for other grasses or legumes (Ibid.).
WHEATGRASS: Agropyron sp.: Sodar or Streambank - A. riparium
Slender - A. trachycaulum
Pubescent - A. trichophorum
Western - A. smithii
Bluebunch - A. spicatum
Intermediate - A. intermedium
Thickspike - A. dasystachyum
Siberian - A. si bin'cum
Crested - ; A. desortorum
Crested (fairways) - A. cristatum
Tall - A. elongatum
Bearded -A. subsecundum
289
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Perennials, often with creeping rhizomes; most furnish forage and
a few are among the most valuable range species in Western States
(Radford, 1968; Hitchcock, 1935). Tresler (1975) observed that thick-
spike is rhizomatous, well adapted to low precipitation areas, 25-36 cm
(10-14 inches) rainfall per year and sandy soils; Western (Rosana) is
rhizomatous, good for heavier-textured soils; Beardless (Whitmar) is a
bunchgrass, good for dry soils. Bluebunch is a bunchgrass, excellent
results in coarse soils in areas with 25-36 cm (10-14 inches) of pre-
cipitation per year and in loam soils (Ibid.). Streambank (Sodar) is
rhizomatous, good results in dry areas, loam and sand; Pubescent--
rhizomatous--good in spoil areas with greater than 36 cm (14 inches) of
precipitation per year and is a good pasture and hay producer (Ibid.).
Crested is a bunchgrass, early spring forage and produces well in normal
soils with greater than 25 cm (10 inches) of rainfall per year (Ibid.).
Intermediate (Tegmar) is a short-lived rhizomatous plant (Ibid.).
Eastern Spoils
Intermediate wheatgrass produced good results on West Virginia acid
spoils that were neturalized with the addition of fly ash (Capp and
Gillmore, 1974). Ruffner (1966) reported that crested wheatgrass pro-
duced a good stand on fertilized plots at pH 5.5; stand still fair to
good after 4 years, but some reseeding was needed to maintain stand.
Cover is poor compared to fescue (Ibid.). Intermediate wheatgrass also
produced a good stand on fertilized West Virginia spoils at pH 5.5
(Ibid.).
Western Spoils
Western wheatgrass produced excellent yield on Colorado spoils;
well adapted to different types of ranges (Merkel ejt al_., 1973). Pro-
duced sufficient amount of herbage on spoils with good soil, 42 cm (16.4
inches) of precipitation per year and 50 percent snowfall (Ibid.).
Bearded bluebunch and Griffiths wheatgrass performed sufficiently well
at the Meeker planting; litter production adequate (Ibid.). On Colorado
spoils, crested wheatgrass gave good litter on soils at pH 8.4; inter-
mediate produced excellent results but provided little cover; pubescent
gave excellent stands, aids in soil erosion control (Ibid.).
290
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Berg (1975) reported that slender wheatgrass is no good at the high
elevations of the Colorado subalpine regions, dies in 4-5 years.
Intermediate adapted to drier sites in the lower subalpine regions;
pubescent is similar to intermediate, except that it is less palatable,
and more spreading; streambank produced fair vigor, lower growth than
intermediate; western, hard to establish, produced results like inter-
mediate (Ibid.).
Black and Siddoway (1971) reported that tall wheatgrass served as
an excellent barrier for soil erosion control and reduced wind velocites
on plantings on the Great Plains.
Different species of wheatgrass produced fair to good results on
coarse Montana spoils at pH 7.5-8.5, graded topsoil and 25-36 cm (10-14
inches) of precipitation per year (Thornburg, 1975). Crested good for
dry soils, poor for wet soils; intermediate generally poor results;
pubescent good for dry soils, poor for wet and saline-alkaline spoils;
Siberian good for dry soils and steep slopes, poor results on wet soils;
slender fair to poor results; streambank good for dry soils and steep
slopes, poor for wet soils; tall good for saline-alkaline spoils, poor
for steep slopes; thickspike good for dry, steep slopes, poor for wet
soils; western good for wet, saline-alkaline spoils (Ibid.). Buchholz
(1972) reported that wheatgrass on Montana spoils also needs nitrogen
and phosphorus additives.
In greenhouse testings in Wyoming, crested and western gave best
germination percentage; western better adapted than inland saltgrass;
intermediate and crested are good cool season grasses, produced better
results with the addition of mulching (May ejt al_., 1971).
Alkar tall wheatgrass tolerates high salinity, grew in leached
spent shale—best of the species tested on oil shale spoils (Schmehl and
McCaslin, 1973; Cook, 1974).
Mineral Tailings
Slender wheatgrass exceptionally vigorous and produced seed in
first growing season on Utah mineral tailings (Farmer ejt al_., 1974).
Wheatgrass dominated in dry-weight production in each seed mixture
tested (Ibid.). Shirts (1975) reported that a mixture of crested and
clover produced the best results on Utah uranium tailings at 2000 m
291
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(6500 ft) elevation with pH 8.0 and fertilizer added. Tall wheatgrass
best for leached copper tailings in Utah; intermediate, Siberian, sodar
and crested wheatgrass also good (Nielson and Peterson, 1972; Dean ejb
aj_., 1971; 1974).
Tall and crested in a mixture with Regar brome and tall fescue
produced good results after 3 months on Washington copper tailings at pH
2.6-3.5, 978 m (3209 ft) elevation and 76 cm (30 inches) of precipitation
per year (Shirts ejt aj_., 1974). Siberian wheatgrass produced 95 percent
germination in laboratory tests on uranium tailings at pH 2.7 that were
neutralized with lime and sludge (Ibid.). Tall and Siberian produced 15
week survival and high germination on neutralized Washington and Colorado
tailings, failed on highly saline Arizona berm tailings (Ibid.).
Beverly (1970) reported excellent results with a mixture of tall
and crested wheatgrass and sand dropseed on Colorado uranium tailings
that were covered with soil and irrigated (25 cm (10 inches)) of pre-
cipitation per year). Irrigation is essential; applications of manure
is also helpful; mixtures of tall fescue and tall wheatgrass also proved
success-ful (Ibid.).
Crested wheatgrass produced fair results on saline Nevada copper
tailings that were pelletized and mixed with sewage sludge (Dean and
Havens, 1973).
WHITE PINE: Pinus strobus
Tree, forming nearly pure forests on sandy drift soils, or, more
often, small groves (Sargent, 1933).
Eastern Spoils
Versatile as to site but influenced by infertility, frost pockets
and poor drainage; adaptable to wide range of spoils; weevil or blister
rust may damage species (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
White pine did well on spoils of the Brookville and Pittsburgh coal
seams but very slow growth on the spoils of the Lower and Middle Kittanning
seams (Davis and Melton, 1963). Failed to establish when direct seeding
was used (Miles e_t aj_, 1973). Seventy-three percent survival on Pennsylvania
spoils with pH above 4.5; thirty-three percent on spoils at pH below 3.5
(Magnuson and Kimball, 1969). Best results on spoils above pH 5.0 and
292
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slopes of 25 percent or less (Guide for Revegetating..., 1965). Thirty-
nine percent survival on Pennsylvania bituminous spoils after 10 years;
heavily infested with White pine weevil; bad results on exposed ridge
tops (Hart and Byrnes, 1960). Good results on Pennsylvania spoils at pH
2.0-3.0 when overlaid with 5 cm (2 inches) municipal sewage effluent
(Dickerson, 1971). Sixty-three percent survival after 5 years on graded
Pennsylvania anthracite spoils (pH 4.0-7.0); 20 percent on ungraded
spoils (Czapowskyj, 1970). Sixty-four percent survival 0.8 m (2.5 ft)
height after 7 years on Pennsylvania anthracite spoils (Czapowskyj and
McQuilken, 1966). Sopper et al_. (1975) reported 80 percent survival in
laboratory tests on anthracite refuse at pH 3.0; sludge treatment brings
survival up to 100 percent.
Generally reported to be compatible with sod and annual plants on
Allegheny spoils, also compatible with light brush. Damaged by deer
browsing but little rabbit clipping (U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1961).
Best adapted conifer for growing in climate of West Virginia; less
initial vigor than Virginia, shortleaf, Scotch or red—good stand once
established (Ruffner, 1966; Mellinger et aK, 1966; Brown, 1962).
Sixty-eight and six-tenth percent survival on West Virginia spoils
(Brown, 1962). Brown (1971) reports white pine adaptable to wide range
of spoils; good growth, can be used for sawlogs and pulpwood. Best
growth on deep loamy, well drained soils; very susceptible to blister
rust and white pine weevil (USBM, Circular 109, 1960).
Slow growth the first 3-5 years on eastern Kentucky spoils
(Revegetation Manual, 1965). Should not be used with a nurse species or
planted on graded banks with firm, fine soils (Carter et aj_., 1974).
Should not be planted with black locust or other species that would
overtop it on Ohio spoils; should be confined to relatively coarse-
textured strip mine sites having a high percentage of soil; does not
produce good results on calcareous, fine textured land material (Finn,
1958). Limstrom and Merz (1954) suggest that plantings be limited to
spoils with loamy or sandy soils; plant in pure stands or with other
conifers. Sixty-four percent survival on unfertilized loose, shaly Ohio
spoils of pH 5.5-7.0; 24 percent survival on fertilized spoils (Funk and
Krause, 1965). Lowry (1960) reported average 2 year survival and growth
on sandy, loamy, or silty clay Ohio spoils with varying pH.
293
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Midwestern Spoils
Recommended for compact loams and clays at pH 4.0-7.5 (Crow!,
1962). Light to heavy cover at pH 4.5-6.0; good results on sandy soils
also (Limstrom, 1960).
Poor growth on Illinois spoils; survival and height good on acidic,
ungraded, southern Illinois spoils (Boyce and Neebe, 1959). Forty
percent survival, 12 m (40 ft) height after 21 years on ungraded Illinois
spoils with pH 5.0, 40 percent soil (39 percent of which was clay);
complete failure on graded soils (Chapman, 1967).
Mineral Tailings
Good results on dark sand with high fertility on northern Mighican
mine tailings and dunes (Goldfinger, 1971).
WILDRYE: (See Rye)
WILLOW: Tall, Purple Osier - Salix purpurea
Trees or shrubs with watery juice (Sargent, 1933). Pioneer specie
on West Virginia gob piles (Coalgate, 1973). Ruffner (1965) reports
good results on bituminous Ohio spoils with pH 5.0 or greater and
excellent results with pH 6.0 or greater. Good results on wet soils in
Montana at pH 7.5-8.5 (Thornburg, 1975).
YUCCA: Yuccae
Tree found from Bermuda and the eastern Antilles through the south
Atlantic and Gulf States to Oklahoma and Arkansas, and through New
Mexico and northward along the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains to
South Dakota, westward to middle California, and southward through
Arizona, Mexico and lower California to Central America (Sargent, 1933).
Promising for dune areas (Graetz, 1973). High survival rates on all
spoils in Pennsylvania, good adaptability and provides good surface
cover (Schimp, 1966). Grows well in poor soil; drought resistant (How
Green are Our Valleys, 1968).
294
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APPENDIX C
LISTING OF DIRECTORS OF STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS ,
INSTITUTES AND CENTERS; REGIONAL CONTACTS (CSRS-OD-1020, July 1975)
USDA, COOPERATIVE STATE RESEARCH SERVICE
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20250
(Courtesy of C.W. Carlson, Assistant Administrator)
ALABAMA-Auburn
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Auburn University
Auburn, AL 36830
Tel: 205-826-4840
Dean & Dir.
Assoc. Dir.
Asst. Dirs.
R. Dennis Rouse
Stanley P. Wilson
C.F. Simmons
Tom Corley
ALASKA—Fairbanks
Institute of Agricultural
Sciences
University of Alaska
Fairbanks, AK 99701
Tel: 907-479-7188
Acting Dir.: Charles E. Logsdon
ARIZONA—Tucson
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Arizona
Tucson, AZ 85721
Tel: 602-884-2711
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dirs.
Asst. Dirs.:
Gerald R. Stairs
David Thorud, Ruth Hall,
Martin Massengale,
Richard K. Frevert (Acting)
D.S. Metcalfe,
D.F. McAlister
ARKANSAS—Fayettevi 11 e
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Arkansas
Fayettevilie, AR 72701
Tel: 501-575-2253
Dir.: Lloyd 0. Warren
CALIFORNI A—Berkeley
UNIVERSITYWIDE ADMIN.
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720
Tel: 415-642-3235
Vice Pres. & Dir.: James B. Kendrick, Jr.
Assoc. Dir.: W.E. Waters
College of Natural Resources
University of California
Berkeley, CA 94720
Tel: 415-642-7171
Assoc. Dir.: Roy L. Sammet
295
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CALIFORNIA—Davis
College of Agricultural &
Environmental Sciences
University of California
Davis, CA 95617
Tel: 916-752-0107
Dean & Assoc. Dir.: Charles E. Hess
CALIFORNIA—Riverside
Citrus Research Center
College of Biological &
Agricultural Sciences
University of California
Riverside, CA 92502
Tel: 714-787-3101
Dean & Assoc. Dir.: W. Mack Dugger, Jr.
CALIFORNIA—Parlier
San Joaquin Valley
Agricultural
Research & Extension Center
Parlier, CA 93648
Tel: 209-646-2794
Asst. Dir.: William B. Hewitt
COLORADO—Fort Collins
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, CO 80523
Tel: 303-491-5371
Dir.: John
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Patrick Jordan
D.D. Johnson
R.E. Moreng
CONNECTICUT—New Haven
Agricultural Experiment
Station
P.O. Box 1106
New Haven, CT 06540
Tel: 203-787-7421, Ext 23
Dir.: Paul
Vice Dir.:
E. Waggoner
C.R. Frink
CONNECTICUT—Storrs
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Connecticut
Storrs, CT 06268
Tel: 203-486-2917
Dir.:
Asst.
Edwin
Dir.:
J. Kersting
J.J. Lucas
DELAWARE—Newark
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Delaware
Newark, DE 19711
Tel: 302-738-2501
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
William E. McDaniel
W.J. Benton
296
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FLORIDA—Gainesville
University of Florida
Institute of Food &
Agricultural Sciences
Gainesville, FL 32601
Tel: 904-392-1784
Dean: John W. Sites
Asst. Deans: Ernest T. Smerdon,
S.H. West,
Howard H. Wilkowske
Asst. Dir.: George R. Freeman
GEORGIA—Athens
Agricultural Experiment
University of Georgia
Athens, GA 30602
Tel: 404-542-2151
Dir.: William P. Flatt
Asst. Dir.: G.B. Braselton, Jr.
GEORGIA—Experiment
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Georgia Station ,
Experiment, GA 30212
Tel: 404-228-7263
Assoc. Dir. (North Georgia):
Curtis R. Jackson
GEORGIA—Tif ton
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Coastal Plain Station
Tifton, GA 31794
Tel: 912-382-5561
Assoc. Dir. (South Georgia):
E. Broadus Browne
GUAM—Agana
Resource Development Center
University of Guam
P.O. Box EK
Agana, GU 96910
Tel: 734-9162
Dir.: Wilfred P. Leon Guerrero
Assoc. Dir.: E.V. Smith
HAWAII—Honolulu
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, HI 96822
Tel: 808-948-8234
Acting Dean & Acting Director:
Wallace C. Mitchell
Assoc. Dir.: L.D. Swindale
Asst. Dir.: R.M. Bullock
IDAHO—Moscow
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Univeristy of Idaho
Moscow, ID 83843
Tel: 208-885-6681
Dir. & Assoc. Dean: Raymond J. Miller
Asst. Dir.: E.W. Owens
Asst. Dir.: C. Seymour Card
297
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ILLINOIS—Urbana
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Illinois
109 Mumford Hall
Urbana, IL 61801
Tel: 217-333-0240
Dir.: Glen W. Salisbury
Assoc. Dir. Benjamin A. Jones, Jr.
Asst. Dirs.: Samuel R. Aldrich,
Harvey J. Schweitzer
INDIANA—West Lafayette
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Purdue University
West Lafayette, IN 47907
Tel: 317-749-6004
Dir.: Bernard J. Liska
Assoc. Dir.: Herbert H. Kramer
IOWA—Ames
Agriculture & Home Economics
Experiment Station
Iowa State University
Ames, IA 50010
Tel: 515-294-2518
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir,:
Lee R. Kolmer
John Mahlstede
R.C. Powers,
Charlotte Roderick
KANSAS—Manhattan
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Kansas State University
113 Waters Hall
Manhattan, KS 66506
Tel: 913-532-6147
Dir.: Floyd
Assoc. Dirs.:
W. Smith
Donald Trotter
R.V; Olson (Acting)
KENTUCKY—Lexington
Agricultural Experiment
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506
Tel: 606-257-4772
Dean & Dir.
Assoc. Dir.
Asst. Dir.:
Charles E. Barnhart
C. Oran Little
A.J. Worms
LOUISIANA—Baton Rouge
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Louisiana State University
& A&M College
Drawer E, University Station
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
Tel: 504-388-4181
Dir.: Doyle Chambers
Assoc. Dir.: H.R. Caffey
298
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MAINE—Orono
Agricultural Experiment
University of Maine
105 Winslow Hall
Orona, ME 04473
Tel: 207-581-7161
Dean & Dir.: Frederick E. Hutchinson
Asst. Dir.: E.H. Piper
MARYLAND—CO! lege Park
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Maryland
College Park, MD 20742
Tel: 301-454-3707
Acting Dir.: Robert L. Green
MASSACHUSETTS—Amherst
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, MA 01002
Tel: 413-545-2766
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Arless A. Spielman
John A. Naegele
MICHIGAN—East Lansing
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Michigan State University
East Lansing, MI 48823
Tel: 517-355-0123
Dir.: Sylvan H. Wittwer
Assoc. Dir.: J. Hoefer
MINNESOTA—St. Paul
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Minnesota
St. Paul Campus
St. Paul, MN 55101
Tel: 612-373-0751
Dir.: Keith Huston
Asst. Dir.: Landis L. Boyd
MISSISSIPPI—Mississippi State
Agricultural & Forestry
Experiment Station
Mississippi State University
P.O. Drawer ES
Mississippi State, MS 39762
Tel: 601-325-5455
Dir.: James H. Anderson
Assoc. Dirs.: R.R. Foil
W.K. Porter, Jr.
A.D. Seale, Jr.
299
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MISSOURI—Columbia
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Missouri
Columbia, MO 65201
Tel: 314-882-3846
Dir. & Dean:
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Elmer R. Kiehl
Richard J. Aldrich
Homer J.L'Hote
MONTANA--Bozeman
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Montan State University
Bozeman, MT 59715
Tel: 406-994-3681
Dir.: Joseph A. Asleson
Assoc. Dir.: Martin J. Burn's
Asst. Dir.: L.P. Carter
NEBRASKA—Lincoln
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Nebraska
Lincoln, NB 68503
Tel: 402-472-2045
Dir.: Howard W. Ottoson
Assoc. Dir.: Robert W. Kleis
Asst. Dirs.: W.S. Sans
Particia Sailor
NEVADA—Reno
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Nevada
Reno, NV 89507
Tel: 702-784-6611
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Dale W. Bohmont
Ralph A. Young
NEW HAMPSHIRE—Durham
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of New Hampshire
Durham, NH 03824
Tel: 603-862-1450
Dean & Dir.
Assit. Dir.
Harry A. Keener
Willard E. Urban, Jr.
NEW JERSEY—New Brunswick
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Rutgers University
P.O. Box 231
New Brunswick, NJ 08903
Tel: 201-932-9867
Acting Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Grant Walton
Harry D. Brown
R.H. White-Stevens
NEW MEXICO—Las Cruces
Agricultural Experiment
Station
New Mexico State University
P.O. Box 3BF
Las Cruces, NM 88003
Tel: 505-646-1806
Dean & Dir.
Assoc. Dir.
Asst. Dir.:
Philip J. Leyendecker
Marvin L. Wilson
V.H. Gledhill
300
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NEW YORK—Ithaca
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Cornell University
Cornell Station
Ithaca, NY 14853
Tel: 607-256-5420
Dir.: Noland L. VanDemark
Assoc. Dir.: Reuben M. Heermann
Asst. Dirs.: H.A. Wadsworth,
Bertha A. Lewis (Acting)
NEW YORK--Geneva.
Agricultural Experiment
Station ,
State Station
Geneva, NY 14456
Tel: 315-787-2211
Dir.: Donald W. Barton
Asst. Dir.: B.E. Clark
NORTH CAROLINA—Raleigh
Agricultural Experiment
Station
North Carolina State University
University
Box 5847
Raleigh, NC 27607
Tel: 919-737-2717
Dir.: J.C. Williamson, Jr.
Asst. Dirs.: J.L. Apple
E.L. Ellwood
K.R. Keller
G.J. Kriz
NORTH DAKOTA—Fargo
Agricultural Experiment
Station
North Dakota State
University
State University Station
Fargo, ND 58102
Tel: 701-237-7654
Dir.: Arlon G. Hazen
Asst. Dirs.: H.R. Lund
Peder A. Nystuen
OHIO—Columbus
Ohio Agricultural Research
& Development Center
Ohio State University
Columbus, OH 43210
Tel: 614-422-6891
Dir. & Dean: Roy M. Kottman
OHIO—Wooster
Ohio Agricultural Research
& Development Center
Wooster, OH 44691
Tel: 216-264-1021
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dirs.:
Clive W. Donoho
R.R. Davis
Ted L. Jones
Charles Johnston
301
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OKLAHOMA—Stillwater
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, OK 74074
Tel: 405-372-6211
Dean & Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Frank H. Baker
J.C. Murray
James A. Whatley
George H. Waller
OREGON—Con/all is
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
Tel: 503-754-1251
Dir.: John R. Davis
Assoc. Dir.: W.H. Foote
Asst. Dirs.: R.W. Henderson,
D.P. Moore
PENNSYLVANIA—University Park
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Pennsylvania State
University
229 Agricultural Admin.
Bldg.
University Park, PA 16802
Tel: 814-865-2541
Dean & Dir,
Assoc. Dir.
Asst. Dirs.
James M. Beattie
Walter I. Thomas
H.F. Fortmann
R.F. Hutton
R.J. Flipse
PUERTO RICO—Rio Piedras
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Puerto Rico
P.O. Box H
Rio Piedras, PR 00928
Tel: 809-767-9705
Acting Dir.:
Asst. Dirs.:
Mario E. Perez-Escolar
C. Moscoso
J.A. Muratti
L.Lopez-Matos
RHODE ISLAND—Kingston
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Rhode Island
Kingston, RI 02881
Tel: 401-792-2474
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Gerald A. Donovan
Earl Patric
David W. Whelan
SOUTH CAROLINA—Clemson
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Clemson University
Clemson, SC 29631
Tel: 803-656-3141
Dir.: W.C. Godley
302
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SOUTH DAKOTA—Brookings
Agricultural Experiment
Station
South Dakota State
Univeristy
Brookings, SD 57006
Tel: 605-688-4149
Dir.: Ray A. Moore
Acting Dir.: W. Lee Tucker
TENNESSEE-Knoxville
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Tennessee
P.O. Box 1071
Knoxville, TN 37901
Tel: 615-974-7121
Dean: John A. Ewing
Asst. Deans: T.J. Whatley,
D.M. Gossett
TEXAS—College Station
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
Tel: 713-845-3711
Dir.: Jarvis E. Miller
Asst. Dirs.: V.E. Schember,
George C. Shelton,
Dudley T. Smith
UTAH—Logan
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Utah State University
Logan, UT 84322
Tel: 801-752-4100, Ext 7314
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Doyle J. Matthews
C. Elmer Clark
VERMONT—Burlington
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Vermont
Burlington, VT 05401
Tel: 802-656-2980
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Asst. Dir.:
Thomas W. Dowe
David L. Weller
R.J. Hopp
VIRGINIA—Blacksburg
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Virginia Polytechnic Institute
& State University
Blacksburg, VA 24061
Tel: 703-951-5282
Dir.: Coyt T. Wilson
Assoc. Dir.: P.H. Massey, Jr.
Asst. Dir.: S.J. Ritchey
303
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VIRGINIA ISLANDS—St. Croix
Agricultural Experiment
Station
P.O. Box 920
College of the Virgin Islands
Kingshill, St. Croix, VI 00850
Tel: 809-778-0050
Dir.: Fenton B. Sands
Tel: 809-778-0246
WASHINGTON—Pullman
Agricultural Experiment
Station
Washington State University
Pullman, WA 99163
Tel: 509-335-4563
Dir.: James Nielson
Assoc. Dir.: Dennis L. Oldenstadt
WEST VIRGINIA—Morgantown
Agricultural Experiment
Station
West Virginia University
Morgantown, WV 26506
Tel: 304-293-2395
Dean & Dir.: Dale W. Zinn
WISCONSIN—Madison
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Wisconsin
Madison, WI 53706
Tel: 608-262-1251
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dirs.:
Glenn S. Pound
Robert W. Bray,
Robert W. Hougas
WYOMING—Laramie
Agricultural Experiment
Station
University of Wyoming
University Station
P.O. Box 3354
Laramie, WY 82070
Tel: 307-766-4133
Dean & Dir.:
Assoc. Dir.:
Neal W. Hilston
Lloyd C. Ayres
SAES REGIONAL CONTACTS:
George M. Browning,
Regional Director
North Central Agricultural
Experiment Station Directors
Agricultural Experiment
Station
18 N Curtiss Hall
Ames, LA 50010
Tel: 515-294-5717
Mark T. Buchanan,
Di rector-at-Large
Western Agricultural Experiment
Station Directors
317 University Hall
2200 University Avenue
Berkeley, CA 94720
Tel: 415-642-3507 or 3508
304
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Henry R. Fortmann, Regional Coordinator
Northeast Agricultural Experiment
Station Directors
Agricultural Experiment Station
229B Agriculture Admin. Bldg.
University Park, PA 16802
Tel: 814-865-5222
James E. Hal pin, Director-at-Large
Southern Agricultural Experiment
Station Directors
124 Long Hall
Clemson University
Clemson, SC 29631
Tel: 803-656-3143
305
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read lHntr,ictions on :lie rercrse before completing}
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-76-087
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Vegetative Stabilization of Mineral Waste Heaps
5. REPORT DATE
April 1976
6. PERFORMING OMGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHORlS)
R. P. Donovan, R. M. Felder, and H. H. Rogers
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Research Triangle Institute
P.C. Box 12194
Research Triangle Park, NC 27709
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1AB012; RCAP 21AVA-008
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-02-1325, Task 31
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
EPA, Office of Research and Development
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final; 2-9/75
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
is. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Task officer for this report is D. K. Oestreich, Mail Drop 62,
Ext 2547.
16. ABSTRACT -phe report reviews the establishment of vegetative cover as a candidate
method for reclaiming mineral ore waste heaps. It begins by describing the location
and properties of spoils and tailings from mining and ore beneficiation, and briefly
reviews present methods for controlling dust emissions from them. Most of the
report develops fundamentals for establishing vegetative cover, and gives a detailed
review of case histories of both successful and unsuccessful revegetation. The report
also contains a catalog of individual plant species. This mass of information can be
used to provide general guidelines for establishing vegetative cover.
KEY VVOHDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
Pollution
Vegetation
Reclamation
Minerals
Mining
Beneficiation
Dust Control
Spoil
Tailings
Plants (Botany)
B. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. CCSATI Held/Group
Pollution Control
Revegetation
Waste Heaps
19. SECURITY CLASS ('Jlu'.t Report)
Unclassified ___
2 6 . ;; E c u"n i T Y c L A :! ~
Unclassified
/i is >agc)
13 B
06C
08G
081
11F
13H
21. NO. C ~ PAGES
314
22. PRICE
EPA Foim 2220-1 (C-73)
306
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