Environmental Protection
Agency
1200 Sixth Avenue
Seattle WA 98101
October 1988
&EPA
Water Division
Effectiveness of
Agricultural and Silvicultural
Nonpoint Source Controls
Final Report
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Final Report
EFFECTIVENESS OF AGRICULTURAL AND SILVICULTURAL
NONPOINT SOURCE CONTROLS
Work Assignment No. 5
EPA Contract 68-02-4381
Submitted by:
Jones & Stokes Associates, Inc.
1808 - 136th Place N.E.
Bellevue, Washington 98005
206/641-3982
May 27, 1988
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Acknowledgment •
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region X
appreciate and acknowledge the time and efforts of the
interagency Workgroup which participated in the development of
this report. The Workgroup provided technical reviews and com-
ments on the plan of work and drafts of the report. They also
identified references and contacts for the consultants. We also
acknowledge the support of the Nonpoint Sources Branch, U.S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency in Washington, DC.
The Workgroup was composed of experts in the areas of water
quality monitoring, aquatic biology and nonpoint source controls
from the Pacific Northwest. It met several times in Seattle to
review draft reports and provide guidance to the consultant. The
project staff from Jones & Stokes, Inc. were always in attend-
ance. The Workgroup consisted of the following individuals:
Bill Brookes
Bureau of Land Management
Portland, Oregon
Bill Clark
Idaho Department of Health and Welfare
Boise, Idaho
John Jackson
Department of Environmental Quality
Portland, Oregon
>
David Moffit
Soil conservation Service
Portland, Oregon
Gerald Swank
U.S. Forest Service, Region VI
Portland, Oregon
Dick Wallace
Department of Ecology
Olympia, Washington
Dr. Dale McCullough
Columbia River Inter Tribal
Fish Commission
Portland, Oregon
Environmental Protection Agency Staff
Rick Albright, Office of Water Planning
Bruce Cleland; Oregon Operations Office
Evan Hornig; Environmental Services Division
Don Martin; Idaho Operations Office
Elbert Moore; Project Monitor
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 - INTRODUCTION 1
Background 1
Problem 2
Objectives 3
Approach 4
Chapter 2 - REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL-RELATED MONITORING 7
Introduction 7
PART I: CONFINED ANIMAL AND FEEDLOT OPERATIONS 8
Coast Range 8
Tillamook Bay Project, Oregon 8
Puget Lowland 10
Johnson Creek Project, Washington 10
Newaukum Creek Project, Washington 12
Kamm Slough Project, Washington . 14
Tenmile Creek Project, Washington 16
Samish River Project, Washington 17
Sequim Bay Project, Washington 19
Quilcene and Dabob Bays Project, Washington „ 19
Snohomish River Project, Washington 21
Clover, South Prairie, and Muck Creeks Project,
Washington 23
Totten, Henderson, and Eld Inlets Project,
Washington 24
Burley and Minter Creeks Project, Washington 25
Coweeman and Arkansas Rivers Project,
Washington 27
Lacamas Creek Project, Washington 28
PART II: IRRIGATED FARMING 29
Willamette Valley 29
Polk County Project, Oregon 29
Sierra Nevada 30
Bear Creek Project, Oregon 30
Eastern Cascades 32
Klamath Project, Oregon and California 32
Columbia Basin 33
Moses Lake Clean Lake Project, Washington 33
South Yakima Project, Washington 35
Snake River Basin/High Desert 37
Harney and Malheur Lakes Project, Oregon 37
Rock Creek Rural Clean Water Program, Idaho 38
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PART III: DRYLAND FARMING 41
Idaho State -Agricultural Water Quality Program 41
Columbia Basin 42
Palouse River Basin Project, Washington
and Idaho 42
Southeast Washington Cooperative River Basin
Project, Washington 44
Little Greasewood and West Fork Greasewood
Creeks Project, Oregon 45
Tammany Creek Project, Idaho 46
Pine Creek Project, Idaho 48
Little Canyon and Big Canyon Creeks Project,
Idaho 49
Northern Basin and Range 50
Rock Creek Project, Idaho 50
PART IV: GRAZING 52
Forest Rangeland: Eastern Cascades Slopes
and Foothills 52
Freemont National Forest, Oregon 52
Forest Rangeland: Northern Rockies 54
East Fork Salmon River Project, Idaho 54
Forest Rangeland: Blue Mountains 55
Meadow Creek Project, Oregon 55
Burnt River Project, Oregon 56
Open Rangeland: Columbia Basin 58
Douglas Creek Project, Washington 58
Open Rangeland: Blue Mountains 59
John Day River Project, Oregon 59
Crooked River Project, Oregon 61
Open Rangeland: Middle Rockies 62
Upper Teton River Valley Project, Idaho 62
Open Rangeland: Snake River Basin/High Desert 64
BLM Pilot Riparian Program, Idaho 64
Reynolds Creek Project, Idaho 65
Chapter :i - REVIEW OF SILVICULTURAL-RELATED MONITORING 67
Introduction 67
Southeast Alaska 68
Indian River Project, Alaska 68
Kadashan River Project, Alaska 70
Auke Bay Laboratory Project, Alaska 71
Washington State Timber, Fish, and Wildlife Agreement 72
Coast Range 74
Carnation Creek Project, British Columbia 74
Olympic National Forest 76
Clearwater River Project, Washington 78
Alsea River Project, Oregon 79
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Siuslaw River Project, Oregon 81
Coos Bay Project, Oregon 82
Elk River Project, Oregon 84
Siskiyou National Forest, Oregon 86
Puget Lowland 88
Lake Whatcom Project, Washington 88
Capitol Forest Project, Washington 89
Cascades 90
Entiat Experimental Forest Project, Washington 90
Goat Creek Project, Washington 92
North Fork Willame Creek Project, Washington 93
Wind River Project, Washington 94
Bull Run Watershed Project, Oregon 96
Middle Santiam River Project, Oregon 98
H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon • 100
Umpqua National Forest, Oregon 102
Sierra Nevada 103
Evans Creek Project, Oregon 103
Idaho State Nonpoint Source Impacts on Water
Quality 105
Northern Rockies 107
Boise National Forest, Idaho 107
Sawtooth National Forest, Idaho 109
Coeur d'Alene Unit Project, Idaho 110
Three Mile Creek Project, Washington 111
Horse Creek Project, Idaho 113
Silver Creek Project, Idaho 114
South Fork Salmon River Project, Idaho 116
Blue Mountains 118
Umatilla Barometer Watershed Project, Oregon 118
Chapter 4 - ANALYSIS OF NONPOINT SOURCE MONITORING 121
Characteristics of NPS Monitoring 121
Types of Monitoring 122
Types of Monitoring Parameters 124
Common Monitoring Techniques 134
Assessment of Current NPS Monitoring Efforts 134
Agricultural NPS Control Programs 134
Silvicultural NPS Control Programs 135
Success of Effectiveness Monitoring Programs 136
Summary 137
Chapter 5 - RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING
EFFECTIVENESS OF NONPOINT SOURCE CONTROLS 139
Introduction 139
General Considerations 139
Statement of Objectives 140
111
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Recommended Approaches to Effectiveness Monitoring 142
Selective Effectiveness Monitoring 142
Silviculture 142
Agriculture 143
Intensive Effectiveness Monitoring 147
Criteria for site Selection for Intensive
Effectiveness Monitoring 147
Silviculture 148
Rangeland 149
Irrigated Farmland . 150
Dryland Agriculture 151
Confined Animal and Feedlot Operations 152
REFERENCES 155
LIST OF INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED 167
LIST OF PREPARERS 183
APPENDIX A - GENERAL FORMAT FOR TELEPHONE INTERVIEWS
APPENDIX B - IDAHO. AGRICULTURAL WATER QUALITY PROGRAM
PROJECT LIST
APPENDIX C - BLM PILOT RIPARIAN PROJECTS IN IDAHO
APPENDIX D - REVIEW OF MONITORING TECHNIQUES
IV
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LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
4-1 Level of Effort for Monitoring Approach 123
4-2 Parameters and Techniques Used in Monitoring
Agricultural Nonpoint Source Pollution 125
4-3 Parameters and Techniques Used in Monitoring
Silvicultural Nonpoint Source Pollution 129
5-1 Typical Pollution Problems Associated with
Land Use Category 144
5-2 Recommended Parameters 145
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
The nation's efforts to improve water quality conditions in
rivers, lakes, estuaries, and territorial seas received a
significant boost in 1966 with passage of the Water Pollution
Control Act. Major revisions to the law occurred with passage of
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 (PL 92-500), which
was later amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977 (PL 95-217) and
the Water Quality Act of 1987 (PL 100-4). This body of law (33 USC
466 et seq.) has been commonly referred to as the Clean Water Act
since 1977.
The Clean Water Act classifies sources of pollutants in one
of two categories. A "point source" refers to "any discernible,
confined and discrete conveyance." The Water Quality Act of 1987
(Section 503) specifies that this "does not include agricultural
stormwater discharges and return flows from irrigated
agriculture." Nonpoint source is not defined in the Clean Water
Act but is usually taken to include all other sources that are
typically diffuse. Examples include runoff from agricultural and
silvicultural lands, mining operations, and construction sites,
and intrusion of saline water into estuaries, rivers, and lakes as
a result of reduction in freshwater flow.
Water quality management during the 1970s and early 1980s
focused on the reduction of pollution from municipal and
industrial point sources. An effort was also made in the 1970s to
establish federal programs to collect nationally consistent water
quality data in association with state and local monitoring.
The substantial improvement in the nation's water quality has
been widely acknowledged (e.g., The 1987 Report of the Association
of State and Interstate Water Quality Administrators) but further
progress toward achieving national goals depends on a deliberate
effort in solving water quality problems associated with nonpoint
sources of pollution (Smith et al. 1987). Nonpoint sources of
pollution (i.e., pollution from diffuse sources such as
agricultural lands, timber lands, and storm runoff from urban
areas) are expected to prevent achievement of water quality goals
in many rivers, lakes, and estuaries even after completion of all
planned point source control programs.
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Recognition of the nonpoint source problem led Congress to
pass the Water Quality Act of 1987 with new provisions directed at
nonpcint sources of pollution. Section 316(b) of the Water
Quality Act of 1987 establishes as policy
"that programs for the control of nonpoint sources of
pollution be developed and implemented in an expeditious
manner so as to enable the goals of this Act to be met
through the control of both point and nonpoint sources of
pollution."
Section 316(a) of the Water Quality Act of 1987 amends Section
319, to address nonpoint source management programs.
.'Section 319 of the Clean Water Act, as amended, requires the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to approve Nonpoint
Source (NFS) Assessment Reports and NFS Management Programs
prepared by the states. The State NPS Assessment Reports will: 1)
•identify water bodies that cannot meet the water quality standards
without NPS controls, 2) identify categories of nonpoint sources
that adversely impact these water bodies, 3) outline the processes
necessary to identify Best Management Practices (BMPs), and 4)
outline existing state and local NPS control programs. The State
NPS Management Program must: 1) identify BMPs which will be
undertaken to solve priority NPS pollution problems, 2) identify
programs to implement the BMPs designated, 3) schedule annual
milestones for implementation of both program methods and the
BMPs, 4) certify that the laws of the state provide adequate
authority to implement the management program, 5) describe the
sources of federal and other financial assistance, and 6) identify
federal financial assistance programs and federal development
projects to be reviewed for consistency.
Problem
Water quality data collected in the Pacific Northwest between
1974 and 1981 as part of nationwide water quality monitoring
programs indicate general reductions in levels of fecal
streptococcus bacteria and lead in the region's rivers and lakes,
but increasing levels of suspended sediment, nitrate, and arsenic
(Smith et al. 1987). These data demonstrate that a few of the
water chemistry variables commonly used to indicate water quality
have not improved despite extensive efforts in point source
control.
In addition to the earlier lack of recognition of the NPS
pollutant problem, a second major problem in the nation's water
quality improvement programs is the failure to directly monitor
improvements in fish populations and aquatic habitat from point
source control implementation. Although ample evidence of
improvement in water quality in the vicinity of point source
discharges can be found, most of the evidence is chemical rather
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than biological. The typical post-implementation water quality
monitoring program focuses on changes in physical and chemical
characteristics of the receiving water, based on the assumption
that fish populations and aquatic habitat benefit from
improvements in physical and chemical conditions. Thus, direct
evidence of progress toward one of the goals of the Clean Water
Act, i.e., "biological integrity of the Nation's waters" (Section
101(a)), is incomplete.
EPA guidance to the states on implementing Section 319
emphasizes the need for states to assess the effectiveness of
their NFS programs. In addition, EPA Region 10 has become
concerned about potential inadequacies of water quality monitoring
programs established as part of the land management plans that EPA
reviews under the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),
particularly when the monitoring program addresses NFS controls.
Traditional monitoring of physical and chemical characteristics of
receiving water has often been unsatisfactory in evaluating the
effectiveness of NFS controls because of the diffuse nature of the
pollutant loading.
EPA Region 10 has determined that established NFS monitoring
programs must be evaluated to ensure the protection of water
quality from nonpoint sources of pollution. The agency recognizes
the need to consider a wider range of parameters, in addition to
standard water quality indices, to evaluate NFS control programs.
EPA Region 10 wishes to assess the potential of using broader
ecosystem indicators of aquatic habitat quality and to offer this
information to federal, state, tribal, and local resource managers
as they prepare NFS assessment and management programs.
Objectives
This document analyzes specific monitoring methods and
monitoring programs for NFS controls germane to agricultural and
silvicultural practices and provides the necessary information on
which to base guidelines for monitoring effectiveness of NFS
control programs. The effectiveness of the individual BMPs was
not part of the scope of work and is not addressed in this
document.
The four main objectives of the report are to:
• inventory selected monitoring programs associated with BMPs
implemented by resource management agencies in the
agricultural and silvicultural sectors, including programs
that use only baseline monitoring;
• summarize the water quality and aquatic habitat parameters
that have been monitored and the techniques that have been
used;
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evaluate th'e applicability of monitoring techniques,
particularly those assessing aquatic habitat condition; and
jrecommend, based on experience of the region, appropriate
elements of a monitoring program.
Approach
The consultant team consisted of two main working groups: one
focused on agricultural and the other on silvicultural programs in
the Pacific Northwest. At the direction of EPA, the team
concentrated on programs in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, with
effort: in Alaska directed toward only the forestry sector in
Southeast Alaska.
The team contacted federal and state land and water
management agencies in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington, and forestry
agencies in Alaska. Targeted agencies included the U. S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Conservation Service (SCS),
Bureau of Land Management (BLM), U. S. Forest Service (USFS), EPA
operations offices, state fish and game departments, state
agencies responsible for water quality regulation, and state
forestry departments. At the state level, the consultants
identified and contacted agency personnel in regional offices who
were knowledgeable about local agencies (e.g., local soil
conservation districts) that have executed NFS control programs or
relevant habitat quality monitoring. These local entities were
also contacted in many cases.
>
A guideline prepared by the team for use during telephone
interviews with agency personnel provided consistency in
information collection (Appendix A). A majority of the questions
focused on the monitoring program objectives, the environmental
features being monitored, the techniques used to measure response,
the reliability of the data collected, and the duration of the
monitoring program. The team members also noted the type of
monitoring involved (e.g., whether baseline, implementation,
effectiveness, or validation monitoring is underway; whether
cumulative effects are being considered; and whether impact on
beneficial uses of water has been monitored). In addition to
noting information sources (references) germane to the monitoring
program, the team members requested names and phone numbers of
additional people who should be contacted by the team.
In many cases it was discovered that data had been collected
that w«ire used to document adverse effects or that could be used
as baseline information, but no post-implementation monitoring had
been conducted or was planned. Some of these programs are
included in this report because they: 1) serve as models of the
kind of effort undertaken by the agency, 2) could include post-
implementation monitoring if funds were made available, or 3) help
portray the range of parameters and techniques that could be used
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in monitoring effectiveness of NFS control programs. For these
same reasons, a few projects involving NFS investigations are
included in the report even though BMPs have not been
implemented.
This report catalogs and summarizes many of the data
collection activities that are part of NFS control programs in the
Pacific Northwest (Chapters 2 and 3, Appendices B and C). The
report also presents an inventory of the environmental features
and beneficial uses that have been monitored and the techniques
that have been used. It evaluates and summarizes the current
status of NFS monitoring efforts in the Pacific Northwest (Chapter
4). An approach to monitoring effectiveness of NFS control
programs is then recommended along with suggested guidelines for
selection of environmental parameters and techniques (Chapter 5).
For each technique, the report presents a brief analysis of its
applicability, the factors required to ensure reliability of the
data collected, and its utility for broader application (Appendix
D). Techniques used to measure aspects of living aquatic
resources are emphasized.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF AGRICULTURAL-RELATED MONITORING
Introduction
Information on agricultural NFS monitoring activities in the
Pacific Northwest is presented in Chapter 2 by ecoregion as
defined by Omernik and Gallant (1986). The information is
organized and condensed from published material wherever
possible, or compiled from information gathered in telephone
interviews. Information for each activity is organized and
summarized under the following headings.
Site Description. The site description gives a brief
outline of the geography and climate. Enough information is
presented to enable readers to determine whether their site
conditions are comparable.
Land Use. A brief description is given of the major land
uses, especially those contributing to NFS pollution, in the
project watershed. Land use types and acreages, and quantities
of pollutants are summarized where the information is available
to enable readers to determine whether their projects are
comparable with others in the region.
Beneficial Use. This section focuses on those beneficial
uses that the BMPs are or should be addressing. A complete list
of the beneficial uses of a water body is not intended.
Best Management Practices. The kinds of BMPs that have been
applied to the watershed, the percent of the watershed that has
had BMPs applied, and the length of BMP implementation is
discussed in this section to enable readers to cross-reference
their projects with others in the region. No attempt is made to
discuss the merits of individual BMPs, and there is no attempt to
relate individual BMPs to a specific reduction in NFS pollution.
Monitoring. The objectives of a NFS pollution control and
monitoring program are essential for judging the success of the
program. The objectives of the NFS program are given in the
first paragraph of this section whenever possible. Details of
the design of the monitoring program (parameters measured,
sampling regime, time frame) are given. The data collected by
the monitoring program are of little interest since the main
concern of this report is the design of monitoring programs; data
from monitoring are therefore not reported here.
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Discussion. The discussion section highlights the
conclusions of the monitoring program, whether the objectives
were met, if any of the measured parameters were particularly
useful, and if there were any major problems of the program.
Additional Information. The names and addresses of project
leaders, and references to selected published reports are given
to enable readers to gather additional information on the
project. A full bibliography of reports is not intended, rather,
key references that can be used as an introduction to the project
and its outcome are noted.
PART I: CONFINED ANIMAL AND FEEDLOT OPERATIONS
Coast Range
Tillamook Bay Project. Oregon
Site Description. The Tillamook Bay drainage basin is
located in northwestern Oregon bounded on the east by the Pacific
Coast Range and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Annual
precipitation averages 230-380 cm (90-150 in) in the drainage
basin. Five major river systems (the Miami, Kilchis, Wilson,
Trask, cind Tillamook) flow into the Tillamook Bay estuary. Soils
in the basin are quite varied, ranging from well drained, fine-
texturec soils in the uplands to poorly drained, extremely acid
soils ir the tidelands.
Lard Use. The basin area is 147,170 ha (363,520 ac), of
which 130,790 ha (323,050 ac) are forested and 9,530 ha
(23,540 ac) are agricultural. The primary agricultural industry
is dairy farming, which involves approximately 4,935 ha
(12,190 ac). The livestock produce over 270,000 tonnes
(300,000 tons) of manure each year, which resulted in severe
instream water quality problems. Additional farmland is used for
hay and silage production, and raising other types of livestock.
Beneficial Use. The estuary is Oregon's primary oyster .
growing area, which has been continually threatened with closure
due to excessive fecal coliform levels in the growing waters.
Recreational clam digging, fishing, boating, and numerous other
activities attracting more than a million tourists a year have
also bee:i affected.
Bes't Management Practices. BMPs are aimed to 1) prevent
rain wator and clean surface water 'from coming into contact with
manure, and 2) when this is not possible, prevent contaminated
surface water from reaching the streams and bays. BMPs have been
encouraged since 1981 and so far have been applied to 109 farms
8
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of approximately 150 in the basin. The BMPs cover a range of
systems, including permanent vegetative cover (51 percent
installed: 146 ha [362 ac]), animal waste utilization
(36 percent installed: 1,288 ha [3,181 ac]), structural animal
waste management systems (waste storage, roofing, guttering),
grazing land protection systems, streambank protection, and
erosion control structures. Over 50 percent of the planned BMPs
have been installed for all the river basins, except for Trask
River (31 percent installed).
Monitoring. Monitoring objectives were to identify the
sources of fecal coliform contamination, to determine the extent
of improvement once BMPs were implemented, and to extend the
shellfish harvest season.
From 1979 through 1981, the Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality (DEQ) conducted an intensive weather-
related survey to determine fecal coliform densities and to
identify the major sources of fecal contamination in the basin.
The survey included 79 river and stream stations selected for
proximity to shellfish growing areas, and the 5 small sewage
treatment plants that discharge either to the bay or into the
lower reaches of one of the major rivers. Because nonpoint
source loading is closely related to precipitation and soil
conditions, water quality data were collected during four
different weather periods: 1) heavy rain on saturated ground,
2) rain after a period of dry weather, 3) summer low-flow during
dry weather, and 4) the first "freshet" storm at summer's end
with sampling beginning prior to soil saturation. Since 1981,
fourteen monitoring stations, funded by a Section 205(j) grant
(Clean Water Act) from EPA,.were established in Tillamook Bay.
Samples were collected by DEQ on a quarterly basis since 1984,
changing in October 1986 to monthly sampling with an intense 12-
day sampling period conducted by the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA) in early December 1986. Water temperature, salinity, and
fecal coliforms were monitored in addition to oyster bacterial
content at two stations.
The DEQ and the Soil and Water Conservation District (SWCD)
sampled 12 tributary sites at monthly intervals and analyzed for
pH, water temperature, turbidity, discharge at stream gage sites,
and fecal coliforms. Three of these sites are still being
monitored to provide information on BMP effectiveness.
Water samples were collected using approved EPA methods and
were analyzed by the DEQ laboratory, the Tillamook City
Laboratory, and the Oregon State Health Division Laboratory.
Discussion. A comparison of 1975-1983 data with 1983-1985
data shows that the bacterial levels in the tributary streams
have been reduced by between 30 and 78 percent, depending on
sampling location, by the implemented BMPs. Fecal coliform
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counts ihave also been reduced in the bays by between 16 and
64 percant, depending on sampling location. The improved water
quality allows a longer oyster harvest season. Although it is
improving, degraded water quality continues to occur low in the
watersheds near the bay. The cause of this is not known. The
results of the extensive monitoring program will be used to
develop a water quality model.
Additional Information.
Contact: John Jackson or Andy Schaedel
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality
811 S.W. Sixth
Portland, OR 97204
503/229-6035
Reports: The latest annual report is Oregon Department of
Environmental Quality (1986).
Puqet Lowland
Johnson Creek Project. Washington
Sit3 Description. The Johnson Creek watershed is located in
Whatcom County, Washington. This 5,445 ha (13,450 ac) watershed
lies in the north central portion of the county with the southern
boundary being the Nooksack River and the northern boundary being
the United States/Canadian International Boundary. Johnson
Creek, the major stream in the watershed, is a tributary of the
Sumas River and comprises about 40 percent of the Sumas River
Basin.
The climate of the area is influenced by Puget Sound on the
west and the Cascade Mountains on the east. The mean annual
precipitcition is 120 cm (47 in) . The mean annual temperature is
8°C (49°F), and the average growing season is about 140 days.
Land Use. The watershed is predominately used for dairy
farming. There are 57 family-owned small dairy farms with an
average size of 117 acres, producing approximately 150 million
liters (40 million gal) of animal wastes per year. The wastes
are applied to pasture and cropland when weather conditions
permit. The storage of animal waste during the wet season was a
major problem.
Beneficial Use. Johnson Creek is no longer used for
swimming, and fish populations are greatly reduced due to poor
water quality.
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Best Management Practices. A detailed conservation planning
inventory was completed for all the farms in the watershed in
1979; BMPs were individually applied to each farm from 1980 on.
The measures included guttering, animal waste storage facilities,
and ffencing of streams to limit livestock access. Wastes,
organic matter, and canary grass were removed from the natural
stream bottom, and the streambanks were revegetated with
snowberry and dogwood cuttings. The cost of implementing the
BMPs were met by USDA funds and by a self-imposed tax upon the
local farmers. The majority of BMPs have been implemented.
Monitoring. The farmers proposed to improve the quality of
the watershed, restore the salmon and trout habitat, and lower
the water table of pasture and cropland to facilitate waste
application.
Baseline water quality data were collected by the SCS, and
monitoring was continued by the Washington Department of Ecology
(DOE) while the BMPs were implemented. DOE conducted a water
quality survey over a 2-day period in August, 1980. They
measured fecal coliforms, dissolved oxygen, temperature,
turbidity, pH, nitrate, total phosphate, and flow. They also
conducted a visual survey of water quality.
Discussion
The effectiveness of the BMPs in improving water quality has
been assessed by observation only. The river banks are walked
annually by the farmers and a SCS representative. It is observed
that the water flow rate is improved and cattle are away from the
stream banks, although canary grass encroachment is still a
problem. Fish populations are monitored by the Washington
Department of Fisheries using counts of spawning adults. There
has been no major increase in fish population, although more of
the stream channel is now used for spawning. Crayfish are
returning to the creek where gravel substrate has been maintained
by reduced organic deposition and improved water flow. The local
organizations would like the post-implementation water quality
monitoring program to include water column measurements.
Additional Information.
Contact: Joanne Miller John Gillies
Whatcom County USDA SCS Whatcom County
Conservation District 6975 Hannegan Road
6975 Hannegan Road Lynden, WA 98264
Lynden, WA 98264 206/354-5658
206/354-5658
Reports: Whatcom County Conservation District et al. (1981).
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Newaukum Creek Project, Washington
Site Description. The Newaukum Creek watershed is located
in King County, Washington, approximately 60 km (40 mi) southeast
of the Seattle Metropolitan area. This 7,530 ha (18,600 ac)
watershed is in the southeastern portion of the county. Nearly
75 percent of the watershed lies on the broad Enumclaw Plateau
which is 90 m (300 ft) above the Green and White Rivers. The
landscape varies from a plateau to steep foothills. The
remaining quarter of the watershed is in the steep, forested
foothills of the Cascade Mountains. The soils are silty loams,
with areas of wetland.
The climate of the area is influenced by Puget Sound on the
west and the Cascade Mountains on the east. The mean annual
precipitation is 125 cm (49 in) with approximately 80 cm (33 in)
occurring during the 6-month period between October and March.
The mean annual temperature is 9°C (50°F). The average growing
season :Ls 200 days.
Land Use. The watershed is primarily rural. Woodland
comprises 40 percent, and pastureland and hay land 48 percent of
the land use. Pastureland associated with commercial
enterprj.ses, primarily dairy farming, consists of 1,580 ha
(3,904 e;c) . Five thousand animals produce 151 million liters
(40 million gal) of waste a year, which is applied to the
pasturelands. Small rural ownerships comprise about 360 ha
(900 ac) of pastureland. The majority of the woodland is in
private ownership, and woodland harvesting is presently at a"
minimum.
Beneficial Use. Newaukum Creek is used for spawning by
coho, Chinook, and chum salmon and steelhead trout, and provides
rearing habitat for juvenile salmonids and resident fish
populations all year long. Recreational activities, such as
fishing and hiking, are enjoyed in the watershed.
Best Management Practices. A BMP program was implemented in
1985, and as of 1986, six contracts had been completed. The BMPs
are designed to improve water quality, to improve fish habitats,
and to enhance pasture conditions. The most important are the
correct application of manure to pastures, installing gutters and
diversion pipes to separate rainwater from dirty runoff,
installing curbs to prevent manure runoff, building manure
storage ponds, and fencing along streams.
Monitoring. The Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle
(METRO) conducted a preliminary water quality survey in 1971 and
a follow-up study in 1972-1974. The studies showed high levels
of total coliform counts, nutrient concentrations, and turbidity.
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METRO again monitored the creek from August 1977 to June
1979 with the following objectives: 1) to document groundwater
levels and quality in the basin; 2) to document storm runoff and
basin flow characteristics as related to land uses; and 3) to
select a method for estimating the effects of urbanization on
stream flow and water quality in the basin. Water levels were
measured in 22 wells and samples taken from 15 wells. In
addition, stream flow was monitored continuously at four sampling
stations: three at the mouths of urban, forested, or
agricultural subbasins, and one near the mouth of the creek.
Turbidity, alkalinity, specific conductance, 5-day biochemical
oxygen demand, flow, temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen; total
and fecal coliform counts, fecal streptococci; suspended,
settleable, and non-settleable solids; nitrogen and phosphorus
ions; metals; and pesticides were measured. Aquatic
invertebrates (species and biomass) and periphyton colonization
on artificial substrate were also monitored. At the time of
sampling, the riparian vegetation was qualitatively noted and
stream bank stability was likewise observed.
Monitoring is to continue at three sites on a monthly basis.
The Muckleshoot Indian Tribe, METRO, and SCS have joint
responsibility and cost sharing.
Discussion. Data showed that concentrations of suspended
solids, nutrients, and bacteria were highest at the agricultural
site. Invertebrate samples were taken once in September and were
analyzed by proportion of Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and
Trichoptera (EPT), mass, and species diversity.
The forested subbasin had a low invertebrate biomass due to
low nutrient concentrations, shading, and high water velocities.
The biomass at the agricultural site was about half that of the
forested site, due to fine sediments in the stream substrate.
Periphyton biomass was minimal in the three subbasins. Diatoms
were prevalent in the shaded, low nutrient water of the forested
site, whereas algae were prevalent.at the agricultural site.
Sedimentation limited algal colonization on the rock. Two
stations on the mainstem of Newaukum Creek had high periphyton
biomass. High nutrient availability, minimal sedimentation, and
moderate stream velocity were cited as reasons. However,
excellent exposure to sunlight at one site resulted in a biomass
that was six times greater than that of the second site,
indicating the importance of localized conditions for periphyton
colonization.
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Additional Information.
Contact: Joe Henry
USDA SCS King County
935 Powell Avenue S.W.
Renton, WA 98055-2908
206/226-4867
Reports: USDA (1984a).
Prych and Brenner (1983).
Kamm Slough Project. Washington
Si^:e Description. Kamm Slough watershed is located in
northwestern Washington in Whatcom County. It drains through an
abandoned oxbow of the Nooksack River, entering the Nooksack near
Lynden, Washington. The 20 sq km (8 sq mi) watershed ranges in
elevation 12-42 m (40-140 ft) above mean sea level.
Mean annual precipitation is about 106 cm (42 in). The
watershed has a high water table and numerous springs. Minor
flooding occurs in the lower reaches of Kamm Slough watershed
during cinnual peak flows of the Nooksack River. There is a water
deficit through the summer months, requiring supplemental
irrigation for crops.
Alluvial deposits, outwash sand and gravel, and silt and
clay arei the major soil materials.
Lar;d Use. Farming is the main industry of the watershed,
using 84 percent of the land area. Dairy farms use over
60 percent of the watershed for pasture, hay, and silage crops.
Vegetables, berries, beef operations, and small acreage owners
account for the remainder. Cattle manure is the main source of
NPS pollution.
Beneficial Use. The Kamm Slough watershed is a spawning
ground for salmon; the Lummi Tribal Fisheries Department and the
Washington Department of Fisheries released fry in 1983, 1984,
and 1985.
Best Management Practices. BMPs for the area include the
storage of animal waste through the winter, spreading the correct
amount of animal waste on the fields in the dry season, excluding
livestock from waterways, diverting milkhouse wastewater to the
animal waste storage pond, and separating clean rainwater from
feedlot runoff.
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To date, 65 percent of the farms spread animal waste year-
round, 52 percent have less than 1 month storage capacity in
their waste holding facilities, 42 percent of the farms allow
animal access to waterways, and few farms have well-managed
riparian vegetation.
Monitoring. Monitoring was initiated to enable the county
conservation district to form a basis for documenting and
evaluating the impact of agriculture on water quality and fishery
resources.
Three sites were initially sampled in March, 1985;
thereafter, two sites were monitored on a monthly basis through
February 1986. One sample site was near the Kamm Slough/Nooksack
junction? the other was two-thirds up the watershed. The
parameters measured were dissolved oxygen, temperature, flow,
conductivity, turbidity, total alkalinity, suspended solids
(standard methods); phosphate, nitrate, nitrite and ammonia
(spectrophotometer); fecal coliform (membrane filter); and pH.
These parameters were measured either in the field or at the
Lynden Sewage Treatment Laboratory.
A fish survey was conducted by both the Lummi Department of
Fisheries and Washington Department of Fisheries, for which the
following parameters were measured: fine sediments (one sample
in 1984), population studies in 1984 and 1983 (electrofishing),
and riparian vegetation survey (observation).
Discussion. Further implementation of BMPs was recommended.
There are no current plans for future monitoring.
Additional Information.
Contact: Joanne Miller
Whatcom County Conservation District
6975 Hanagan Road
Lynden, WA 98264
206/354-5658
John Gillies
USDA SCS Whatcom County
6975 Hanagan Road
Lynden, WA 98264
206/354-5658
Reports: Whatcom County Conservation District (1986a).
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Tenmile Creek Project. Washington
Site Description. Tenmile Creek is located in Whatcom
County, Washington, joining the Nooksack River at Ferndale. The
watershed is almost 9,300 ha (23,000 ac) , and ranges in elevation
3-113 m (10-370 ft) above mean sea level.
Th€>. watershed is divided into two regions, the King Mountain
uplands to the southwest and the Nooksack Lowlands. The lowland
soils are alluvial, well drained, and productive, but require
irrigation. The upland soils are heavy and poorly drained.
Average annual precipitation ranges from 205 cm (85 in) in
the west to 115 cm (45 in) in the east, with 70 percent falling
in the winter months. The average annual temperature is 9°C
(49°F) with a mean maximum of 20 C (75°F) and a mean minimum of
-2°C (29°F). Flooding of the lowlands is a common occurrence in
heavy rains.
Land Use. About 4,860 ha (12,000 ac) is used for grazing
and forage production for dairy and beef cattle. Twenty-five
percent of the watershed is second-growth woodland, although very
little is being managed for timber production, and 9 percent is
cropland for berries and vegetables.
Beneficial Use. The wetlands serve as a feeding and resting
area for migrating waterfowl and the bald eagle. Recreational
activities include fishing and birdwatching. Some areas are
utilized by salmon.
Best Management Practices. The construction of manure
storage lagoons for the winter months is a high priority since
over 63 percent of the farms have less than 2 weeks storage.
Gutters and pipes to separate rainwater from wastewater are
needed on 56 percent of the farms. Riparian vegetation is in
fair to poor condition in over 92 percent of the farms with
stream access, and fencing and riparian replanting is needed.
A cost share BMP program is being considered.
Monitoring. A monitoring program was devised to identify
the sources of sediment and dairy waste, monitor physical and
biological water parameters with particular reference to fish
habitat, and develop watershed rehabilitation strategies.
Watcir quality parameters were measured on a monthly basis
from March 1985 through February 1986 at 15 sites located
throughout the watershed. Temperature, conductivity, and flow
were measured in the field. Dissolved oxygen (Winkler method),
pH, phosphate, nitrate, nitrite, ammonia (spectrophotometer),
fecal coliforms, turbidity, total alkalinity, and suspended
solids were measured at the City of Lynden sewage Treatment
Laboratory. Macroinvertebrates were assessed qualitatively in
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July, fish populations were measured once (electrofishing, five
sites), and stream channel and riparian vegetation were assessed
qualitatively.
Discussion. The BMPs are being implemented.
implementation monitoring has yet been conducted.
Additional Information.
No post-
Contact: Joanne Miller
Whatcom County Conservation District
6975 Hannegan Road
Lynden, WA 98264
206/354-5658
>
John Gillies
USDA SCS Whatcom County
6975 Hannegan Road
.Lynden, WA 98264
206/354-5658
Reports: Whatcom County Conservation District (1986b)
Samish River Project. Washington
Site Description. The Samish River watershed occupies
35,900 ha (88,665 ac) in northern Washington. The Samish River
originates near Acme, adjacent to the floodplain of the South
Fork of the Nooksack River, and flows southwest to join the
Skagit River near Burlington, Washington. The upper watershed
consists of narrow- to broad-bottomed valleys used for
agriculture, and steep forested slopes managed for timber harvest
by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR)-and industrial and
private owners. The middle watershed has a broad, gently sloping
valley floor, and many reaches of the Samish River are braided.
The lower watershed is the Samish River floodplain (9,716 ha
[24,000 ac]), protected from high tides by levees and dikes.
The soils of the bottom lands range from poorly-drained,
clayey gleys to sandy organic soils. The upland soils are thin,
derived from glacial and volcanic deposits. The climate is
maritime.
Land Use. Croplands total 11,340 ha (28,000 ac), mostly in
the lower portions of the watershed. Crops are predominately
vegetables and flower bulbs, with hay, corn, and silage grown for
livestock feed. There are 24 dairy farms in the valley (total
area of 1,740 ha [4,300 ac]) with 8,832 animal units producing
125 million liters (33 million gal) of manure per year.
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Beneficial Use. The estuary at the mouth of the Samish
River produced over $10 million worth of oysters and crab and
over $4 million worth of commercial fishing. Recreational
activities of the watershed include sportfishing (worth
$4.2 million), boating, and swimming.
Best Management Practices. Twelve dairy farms in the
watershed have long-term storage (at least 6 months) for animal
waste. About half of the farms confine their animals for the wet
season. About 80 percent of the farmers do not allow direct
animal access to the waterways; 58 percent separate clean roof
water from wastewater; and only four dairies do not store
milkhouse waste.
Monitoring. The Conservation District survey aimed to:
1) identify any water quality problems in the Samish River;
2) inventory the dairy farms in the watershed; 3) inventory the
dairy waste management practices; and 4) identify the sources of
NFS pollution.
Water samples were collected from four sites: one each
upstream, midstream, and downstream, and one tributary. Samples
were collected in January, April, early and late June, 1987, and
analyzed by the Skagit County Health Department for total and
fecal coliforms.
Discussion. Results indicate that the level of fecal
coliforns exceed DOE water guality standards for Class A
waterways. This is particularly true following a rainfall event.
BMPs wiLl be encouraged, particularly those minimizing
contaminated runoff. Further concerns are the proper application
of manure to fields.
No further monitoring is planned, as implementation of BMPs
is the current objective.
Additional Information.
Contact: Vickie Robert
Skagit Conservation District
227 North Fourth Street
Mount Vernon, WA 98273
206/336-2257
Reports: Robert (1987).
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Seguim Bay Project. Washington
Site Description. Sequim Bay is located on the Olympic
Peninsula to the west of Port Townsend, Washington. The Sequim
Bay area has a low annual rainfall because of its presence in the
Olympic rainshadow.
Land Use. The land is used predominately by dairy and beef
operators ranging from part-time farmers to large commercial
operations.
Beneficial Use. The river and bay are used recreationally.
Monitoring. An initial monitoring program was conducted
September 1986 through July-1987 to find the sources of pollution
within the watershed. Fecal coliforms were measured, with one
sample of water and one sample of sediment being analyzed for
herbicide pollution in November 1986. Two large dairy and beef
farms contribute 95 percent of the pollution as measured by fecal
coliform counts.
Discussion. The second phase of the NPS program is to
encourage farmers to implement BMPs, which is scheduled to occur
through 1988. There is some concern that the lack of financial
incentive for the farmers will slow the schedule. A water
quality monitoring program and a public education program will
also be conducted through 1988.
Additional Information.
Contact: Bill White
Environmental Health Division
223 East Fourth
Port Angeles, WA 98362
206/452-7831
Reports: No published reports are available.
Quilcene and Dabob Bays Project. Washington
Site Description. The Quilcene Bay and Dabob Bay watersheds
are on the eastern shore of the Olympic Peninsula, Washington,
and include Tarboo and Donovan Creeks, and the Little and Big
Quilcene Rivers. The geology of the area consists of basalt
ridges, low gradient valley bottoms, and river outwash. A
hardpan of soil compacted during the Ice Age is commonly found at
a depth of 25-100 cm (10-40 in), impeding water movement. A
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perched; watertable occurs 0-60 cm (0-24 in) below the surface in
much of the area. The area experiences a maritime climate with
short, dry summers, long, wet winters, and an average annual
precipitation of 120 cm (49 in).
La.nd Use. The majority of the project area (27,570 ha
[68,106 ac]) is forested and harvested for timber. Annual
production averages 150 million board feet. Farms, often small
and rur; as a hobby or for a second income, cover 610 ha
(1,510 ac). Many farms have livestock.
Beneficial Use. Quilcene Bay is a natural spawning ground
for oysters and supports 10 commercial shellfish growers,
marketing over 320,000 tonnes (350,000 tons) of oyster meat per
year. The oyster hatchery run by Coast Oyster Company, the
largest hatchery in the world, is located in the bay. Other
marine resources include crab, shrimp, and salmon, and a herring
spawning ground. The bays and rivers are also recreational
resources used by boaters and fishermen.
Best Management Practices. An 18-month BMP program is being
introduced to the farmers. There are two main areas of concern:
the first is to protect stream banks from animal access and
encourage riparian growth; the second is the removal of livestock
from a 25-acre pasture that, is tidally inundated. So far, about
25-30 percent of the farmers have installed BMPs focusing on
protecting the stream banks from animal access. The removal of
livestock from the inundated pasture is now complete.
Monitoring. Sampling by the Department of Social and Health
Services (DSHS), 1983, showed several of the marine sampling
stations failed to meet the FDA standards for fecal coliforms in
areas used for commercial shellfish growing/harvesting. The
headwaters of the Quilcene Bay were closed, and a study to
provide baseline information on fecal coliform densities in the
basin through time was initiated.
Sampling was conducted at each of the 9 marine and 18
freshwater ambient monitoring stations at least once per month
for 10 months with replicate samples taken at all stations.
Samples were taken 1-6 inches from the surface to maintain
consistency with historical records and monitoring protocol. No
sediment sampling was conducted. Marine samples were analyzed
for fecal coliforms (Most Probable Number, MPN). Freshwater
samples were analyzed for fecal coliforms using the membrane
filter technique. Analytic procedure was as described in
Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater
(American Public Health Association [APHA] 1985).
In addition to analysis of fecal coliform concentration in
marine water, salinity and temperature were recorded at each
station to the bottom or until readings stabilized. Temperature
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and stream flow were measured at the lowest station in each
stream. The flow data were used in calculating bacterial loading
to the receiving waters.
Reconnaissance monitoring, taking up to 100 water samples in
a particular drainage over a period of a day or two to further
define the existence and location of NFS pollution sources, was
conducted twice for most drainages to provide a wet-season, dry-
season comparison. Storm event sampling, necessitated by the
elevated bacterial counts in marine waters following intense
rainfall, was conducted at the freshwater sites once in late
winter.
Other aspects of the Dabob and Quilcene Bay study are a
septic tank survey, including soils and land use, and a harbor
seal survey.
Discussion. Results show that: 1) sampling stations with
the highest fecal coliform counts had the greatest variability
through time; 2) there was no consistent correlation between
fecal coliform levels in the freshwater and the bays; 3) the
total loading of fecal coliforms from the streams did not change
during the wet season; and 4) bacterial counts were elevated at
the start of a storm event, but fell to normal levels within a
week. It was suggested that further monitoring should include
turbidity or suspended sediment analysis, a study on the
contribution of harbor seals to bacterial contamination, and the
encouragement of voluntary implementation of BMPs by farmers.
Monitoring the implementation of the BMPs has ceased as the
Conservation District technician is no longer employed.
Additional Information.
Contact: Janet Welch
Jefferson County Planning and Building Department
Port Townsend, WA 98368
206/385-9140
Reports: Welch and Banks (1987).
Snohomish River Proiect. Washington
Site Description. The Snohomish River flows into Puget
Sound at Everett, Washington. The lower reaches of the river,
which comprise the study area, flow through flat farmland.
French Creek, a very polluted tributary flowing into the
Snohomish River near the town of Snohomish, is an intensive study
site.
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Land Use. The predominant land use is dairy farms, ranging
in size from 50-500 head. Other livestock and poultry farms are
also found. Most of the farmers in the French Creek watershed
are part-time/hobby farmers.
Beneficial Use. The Snohomish River is used for recre-
ational boating and fishing.
Beat Management Practices. A BMP program was initiated in
early 1987, and of 160 farms in the watershed, 12-15 have
contracts to implement BMPs. BMPs include waste storage lagoons
with 9-rnonth capacity, gutters to separate rainwater and manure,
and crop rotation to improve soil fertility. In French Creek,
the BMPs involve drainage control and reseeding the pastures,
fencing and herd rotations, placing a water supply away from the
stream, and confining the animals in the wet season.
Monitoring. The Tulalip Tribe is conducting a monitoring
program at their own laboratory, with quality control assessed by
the DSHS. Thirty-two sampling sites, located on the tributaries
and main stem, are being sampled at 18-20 day intervals for
3 years, funded by a DOE grant. The measured parameters are
dissolved oxygen, turbidity, suspended sediments, temperature,
nitrate, and fecal coliforms. The same parameters are being
monitored at French Creek, at one upper and one lower watershed
sampling station.
Th<5 program is funded by DOE, the State Conservation
Commission, and an internal tree-selling program.
Discussion. The project is too new for the impact of the
BMPs on water quality to be known. A public involvement program
has been an important part in the success of the program.
Additional Information.
Contact: John Andrews
USDA SCS Snohomish County
630 Vernon Road, #1
Everett, WA 98205
206/335-5634
Reports: No published reports are available.
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Clover. South Prairie, and Muck Creeks Project. Washington
Site Description. The three creeks are located in Pierce
County, Washington. The South Prairie Creek drains into the
Carbon River; Muck Creek drains into the Nisqually River, close
to McKenna; and Clover Creek, an ephemeral stream, drains into
Chambers Creek which discharges to Puget Sound near Steilacoom.
Land Use. The South Prairie watershed has a mix of dairy
farmers and part-time/hobby farmers. BMPs have been implemented,
mainly manure storage ponds. Farmers in the Muck Creek watershed
have also applied BMPs which include lagoon storage of manure,
tile drainage, separator devices to keep rainwater from manure,
and fencing. The Clover Creek watershed is predominately urban
with hobby farmers and no BMPs have been applied. The creek bed
itself is full of trash and canary grass.
Beneficial Use. The creeks have no direct beneficial use
apart from aesthetics.
Monitoring. Since there are no known background data, a
monitoring program was initiated in the spring of 1988. There
are six sampling stations along Clover Creek, three on South
Prairie Creek, and six stations on Muck Creek. Conductivity and
dissolved oxygen were measured twice at each site, and duplicate
grab samples were analyzed by the Conservation District for fecal
coliforms. Sampling was conducted once a week in the wet season
for 16 weeks.
Discussion. The first spring rainfall in March and early
April resulted in elevated fecal coliform counts, but counts fell
through April despite continued rains. The urban Clover Creek
has higher conductivity measures and fecal coliform counts than
the rural Muck and South Prairie Creeks, which have had BMPs
applied.
Additional Information.
Contact: Claire Harrison
USDA SCS Pierce County
10923 Canyon Road East
Puyallup, WA 98343-4262
206/536-2804
Reports: There are no published reports available.
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Totten. Henderson, and Eld Inlets Project, Washington
Site Description. The three tidal inlets are at the
southern tip of Puget Sound, Washington. Henderson Inlet is east
of Olyirpia, and the Eld and Totten Inlets are west of Olympia.
The soils of the watersheds are developed from glacial and
lacustrine deposits. The climate is maritime, with an annual
average precipitation of about 100 cm (40 in).
Land Use. The land use of the watersheds includes part-
time/hobby farms, a few commercial dairies, forested areas, and
residential development.
Beneficial Use. The streams which flow into the marine
inlets support significant populations of salmon. The inlets
support shellfish populations for commercial and recreational
use. The lower portions of Henderson and Eld Inlets have been
designated by the DSHS as closed (Henderson Inlet) and
conditionally approved (Henderson and Eld Inlets) depending upon
rainfall within a 24-hour period. The reason for these
designations is nonpoint source pollution.
Be«;t Management Practices. BMPs are being installed in all
three inlets; riparian fencing, gutters, and downspouts are most
common„
Monitoring. An intensive monitoring survey of the Eld and
Henderson Inlets was conducted from August 1983 to August 1984.
Monthly and quarterly samples were taken at the head and mouth of
the tributaries, streams, and throughout the marine area. In
1985, Totten Inlet was intensively studied. Since 1986,
surveillance monitoring of all three inlets has occurred, and
since 1987, a wet-dry season monitoring program has been
conducted for major streams and marine stations.
Thurston County SCS is monitoring water quality as it
concerns .BMPs. Samples and flow measurements are taken from
creeks at points above and below priority farms (five in Eld and
Henderson Inlets, four in Totten Inlet), before and after BMP
implementation, three to four times in the wet season, and once
or twice in the dry season. Samples are analyzed for fecal
coliforms and temperature following Department of Environmental
Health (DEH) guidelines. Suspended sediments are about to be
monitored for Totten Inlet samples.
Discussion. The early action watersheds (as defined by the
Puget Sound Water Quality Authority) of Eld, Henderson, and
Totten Inlets are part of Thurston County's overall water quality
plan. Their plan includes a Lake Management Program initiated in
1978, and a groundwater monitoring program initiated in 1987,
and a stormwater quality survey initiated in 1988. With all
these programs in place, monitored parameters may include pH,
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suspended solids, salinity, conductivity, heavy metals, fecal
coliforms, temperature, dissolved oxygen, nutrients, and organics
(Hofstad pers. comm.).
Additional Information.
Contact: Linda Hoffman
Office of Water Quality
2000 Lakeridge Drive S.W.
Olympia, WA 98502
206/754-4111
Reports: Thurston County Health Department (1987).
Hurley and Minter Creeks Project, Washington
Site Description. Burley Lagoon and Minter Bay are two
small watersheds, 4,178 ha (10,319 ac) and 4,256 ha (10,514 ac)
respectively, on the south side of the Kitsap Peninsula,
Washington, and flow into Henderson Inlet. These rural areas,
part of northern Pierce County and southern Kitsap County, saw a
threefold population increase in the 1970s.
Land Use. The watersheds support predominately part-
time/hobby farmers, who rear a variety of animals, including
horses, llamas, and guinea fowl. There are over 175 farms in the
project area, with 66 percent less than 4 ha (10 ac) in size.
The agricultural acreage occupies 7 percent of the watersheds,
residential occupies 13 percent, and unharvested forestland
68 percent.
Beneficial Use. The streams flow into Burley Lagoon and
Minter Bay, which are heavily used for commercial oyster fishing.
DSHS found Burley Lagoon oysters contained over 700 times FDA
standards for the concentration of fecal coliforms during routine
testing in 1978. The bays were closed to commercial shellfish
harvestingr~in 1978, and remain closed to date.
Best Management Practices. The implementation of BMPs was
initiated in 1984 and is ongoing with projects such as stream
fencing, sediment ponds, streambank protection, culvert
installation, gutters and downspouts, livestock crossings,
grassed waterways, and riparian plantings. As of June, 1987, 19
of the 33 landowners contacted had agreed to implement BMPs on
their property and 13 had already installed a total of 3,150 m
(10,300 ft) of fencing.
Monitoring. The DOE conducted an in-depth 12-month study on
baseline water quality in 1984. Four marine stations and 16
freshwater sites were sampled every 2 weeks. Flow, temperature,
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pH, turbidity, conductivity, nitrogen (ammonia, nitrate and
nitrite), total and orthophosphate, suspended sediment, and
bacteria (fecal coliforms and fecal streptococci) were monitored.
Currently, samples are collected in the spring from 12 sites
in the Hurley watershed. Turbidity and fecal coliforms are
measured. Future work in the area will include monitoring the
streams, Burley Lagoon, and Minter Bay under different flow,
tide, and weather conditions, and monitoring will be conducted
above/below and before/after specific BMP implementation.
Similar work will be performed in the Minter watershed.
Discussion. The ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal
streptococci varied between 0.7 (indicative of animal waste) and
4.0 (indicative of human waste), and was consequently
meaningless. Fecal streptococci measurements were discontinued.
The Burley and Minter watersheds have received substantial
attention since 1979 and several reports defining the problem
were written between 1979 and 1985. The BMP implementation was
initiated in 1984, and between then and July 1987 both failing
septic systems correction and agricultural BMP implementation
have bee:n addressed. Significant water quality improvements have
occurred, apparently coinciding with the number of BMPs applied.
For example, Bear Creek had three livestock BMPs implemented and
six failing septic systems repaired, resulting in an 80 percent
reduction in fecal coliforms. In contrast, Purdy Creek had only
one livestock BMP implemented and one failing septic system
corrected, resulting in a 33 percent reduction in fecal
coliformr.. Public education and cooperation are considered the
most important components of the project.
Additional Information.
Contacts Francis Naglich
U. S. SCS Kitsap County
Courthouse Annex, 614 Division
P.O. Box 146
Port Orchard, WA 98366
206/876-7171
Reports: Several reports are available from the SCS. The DOE
report is Determan et al. (1985). An assessment of
applicable BMPs was made by Jones & Stokes Associates
(1984).
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Coweeman and Arkansas River Project. Washington
Site Description. The Coweeman River flows into the
Columbia River just east of Kelso, southern Washington. The
Arkansas River flows into the Cowlitz River just east of Kelso,
southern Washington. A drainage ditch, Ditch 5/10, part of the
flood control drainage ditch system for the cities of Longview
and Kelso, is also monitored for industrial and urban pollution.
The soils are quite well drained, although the lowlands are
only about 6.5 m (20 ft) above mean high tide. The area has a
gently rolling topography with a maritime climate, receiving an
average of 120 cm (45 in) of rain a year.
Land Use. The Coweeman River watershed is 90 percent third- .
growth forest. It is privately managed, and will be cut within a
few years. Part-time/hobby farmers use the rest of the
watershed. The Arkansas River is composed of 50 percent private
forestry property and 50 percent rural farming: mostly cattle
grazing, some chicken farms, and horses.
Beneficial Use. The Coweeman River is a major recreational
area, with fishing and swimming being prime activities.
Best Management Practices. Most of the farmers adjacent to
the Coweeman River have fenced off the riparian area. No BMPs
have been implemented along the Arkansas to date.
Monitoring. A monitoring program to assess water quality
was initiated in autumn 1987. There are four sampling stations
on Coweeman River and five on Arkansas River. Water samples will
be analyzed for fecal coliforms, pH, conductivity, suspended
sediments, temperature, and ammonium-N. Flow will also be
measured. Intense storm event sampling is planned with sampling
once or twice a day for 3 days following a storm (1.8 cm
[0.75 in] rainfall in 24 hr). The sampling program, supported by
Centennial Clean Wate.r Act funds, will continue until the funds
are exhausted.
Discussion. Much of the watershed is forested, and several
of the streams are temperature sensitive, as defined by the State
Forest Practices Act (FPA). Agricultural BMPs will be important
in contributing to improved and sustained water quality.
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Additional Information.
Contact,; Sheldon somers
Cowlitz County
Conservation District
1708 Allen Street
Kelso, WA 98626
206/425-1880
Reports: No published reports are available.
Lacamas Creek Project. Washington
Site Description. The Lacamas Creek drainage basin is
located in southern Washington, Clark County. Lacamas Lake is in
the lower reaches of the drainage, close to the Columbia River,
into which Lacamas Creek eventually drains. Lacamas Lake has a
relatively rapid water exchange; average water residence time is
about 3 weeks, yet it is becoming eutrophic through excessive
inputs oJ: nutrients. The river basin, 17,410 ha (43,000 ac) , is
both residential and agricultural, with animal-keeping (llamas,
sheep, ponies, cattle) the dominant farming activity.
Land Use. The land use in the watershed is predominately
agricultural. A 2-year study (1983-1985) showed Lacamas- and
Round Lakes were severely over-enriched with nutrients,
particularly phosphorus. The sources of phosphorus were
identified as failing septic systems and agricultural practices.
This lead to the second, and latest, phase of the Lacamas Lake
Restoration Project: to identify the specific sources of
phosphorus, the major contributors, and any major mitigation
actions to be taken.
•
The agricultural inventory involved 11,740 ha (29,000 ac),
concentrating on farms adjacent to streams, farms with 5 animal
units or more, and farms 2.5 ha (6 ac) or more in size. The
inventory was extensive, surveying farm management practices, the
structural condition of the farm, the status of riparian and
pasture vegetation, and the amount and quality of farm runoff. A
single sample of runoff was tested for fecal coliforms, nitrate,
ammonia, Kjeldahl nitrogen, and phosphorus.
The agricultural and septic tank survey showed that
96 percent of the phosphorus entering Lacamas Lake was the result
of animal wastes.
Beneficial Use. Lacamas Lake is used for recreational
fishing and boating.
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Best Management Practices. The identified BMPs include
improved waste management (e.g., dry stack, roofed dry stack,
roof gutters, outlet pipes), pasture management (reseeding), crop
management, and riparian management (fencing, animal crossings,
alternative watering sites, revegetation). To date, no BMPs have
been installed.
Monitoring. The monitoring program is not yet devised. It
is anticipated that measurements will include fecal coliforms,
phosphorus, nitrate, ammonia and Kjeldahl nitrogen, with
monitoring sites above and below farms. It is hoped that two
farms will be monitored to test the efficacy of specific BMPs.
Discussion. The program identified 47 agricultural sites
requiring BMPs and about 19 percent of the septic systems as
requiring attention with a cleanup cost of $3 million. No post-
BMP implementation data are gathered.
Additional Information.
Contact: Thomas Waltz
Intergovernmental Resource Center
1013 Franklin Street
Vancouver, WA
206/699-2361
Reports: Waltz (1987).
PART II: IRRIGATED FARMING
Willamette Valley
Polk County Project. Oregon
Site Description. Several watersheds in the Willamette
Valley are being studied by the Department of Soil Science at
Oregon State University (OSU). The watersheds are located in
southern Polk County, north of Corvallis, on rolling terrain,
With gentle slopes and slight elevation. Runoff flows into the
Willamette River which drains northward to the Columbia River.
Average January and July temperatures are 3° and 18°C
respectively (38° and 70°F). Average annual rainfall is about
120 cm (47 in) most of which falls in the winter as rain. The
soils are fine silty clays overlying paleosol or weathered
sandstone parent material.
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Letnd Use. The land is devoted almost entirely to production
of grasis seed, hay, pasture, and orchard crops, with minor areas
of forest.
Beneficial Use.
purposes.
The watersheds are managed for experimental
Best Management Practices. The predominant BMP is the
installation of tile drainages, which improves soil water
drainage and reduces runoff and soil erosion.
Monitoring. The experimental watersheds are intensively
monitor3d; various erosion plots are installed, and subsurface
moisture is measured with wells, piezometers and tensiometers.
RUnoff is monitored with V-notch weirs, and various experiments
have studied the transport of suspended sediment, total and
dissolved inorganic phosphorus, nitrate and ammonium, turbidity,
conductivity, and the redistribution of 1 Cs is measured to
assess erosion. The sampling intensity varied. One program was
monitored for 24 hrs, 7 days a week for 9 months, from 1976 to
1982.
Disicussion. The Oregon State University run project is
experimental, studying soil erosion rates and the measurement of
erosion on farmed, hilly land. Various BMPs are applied and
tested; however, the aim of the research is not to improve water
quality in streams, rather to directly measure soil erosion.
Additional information.
Contact: Gerald Kline
Soil Science Department
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR
503/754-2441
Reports: OSU Agricultural Extension Station (1980).
Brown et al. (1981).
OSU Agricultural Extension Station (1985).
Sierra Nevada
Bear Creek Project, Oregon
Site Description. Bear Creek watershed is in southern
Oregon in the northern part of the Sierra Nevada ecoregion as
defined by Omernik and Gallant (1986). Bear Creek flows 40 km
(25 mi) south from Emigrant Lake through a wide, flat valley and
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the town of Medford before joining the Rogue River. The Rogue
River system includes two major reservoirs and a wild and scenic
river reach between the towns of Grants Pass and Agnes.
Land Use. The land use of the valley is mixed, and includes
irrigated cropland, orchards, grazing animals, forestry, and
quarrying.
Beneficial Use. A park corridor has been created along the
length of Bear Creek, which provides many recreational
opportunities, including bicycling, horseback riding, boating,
fishing, and bird watching. River water is used for irrigation.
Best Management Practices. Approximately 2,400 ha
(6,000 ac) have been•converted from flood irrigation to sprinkler
irrigation, with an increase in irrigation efficiency from
35 percent to 70 percent, on average.
Permanent crop cover is planted in orchards, and orchardists
have removed chemical and heating devices from close proximity of
streams and irrigation ditches.
Monitoring. A monitoring program, funded by an EPA grant to
the Division of Soil and Water Conservation, was undertaken in
1980. The Rogue Valley Council of Governments has monitored 38
sites along Bear Creek and its tributaries for temperature, fecal
coliforms, and suspended sediments. Nutrient measurements will
begin in 1988.
Discussion. Since the start of the monitoring program in
1980, fecal coliform counts have dropped from 2,000
colonies/100 ml to 350 colonies/100 ml. Qualitative observations
on fish populations show higher populations of anadromous fish
and migration further upstream. Suspended sediments, however,
are virtually unchanged, probably due to 4 years of drought and
reduced overland runoff. The success of the program is
attributed to public education and raising the environmental
consciousness of individuals in the area.
Additional Information.
Contact: Eric Dittmer
Rogue Valley Council of Governments
155 South Second Street
Central Point, OR 97502
503/664-6674
Reports: Rogue Valley Council of Governments (1987).
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Eastern Cascades
Klamath Project. Oregon and California
Site Description. The Tule Lake and Lower Klamath National
Wildlife Refuges and the Shoalwater Bay and Squaw Point Wildlife
Management Areas, located on the Oregon/California border, is one
of several areas in the western states that have been identified
by the U. S. Department of Interior (DOI) as areas where
irrigation drainage might be causing, or have potential to cause,
adverse effects on wildlife and human health. Based on
increasing national concern about irrigation drainage and the
documented toxicity problems involving selenium in the irrigated
western San Joaguin Valley, California, the DOI initiated a
screening program to determine whether irrigation drainage waters
have caused or have the potential to cause harmful effects on
human health, fish and wildlife, or other water uses. The
screening program is being executed by the U.S. Geological Survey
(USGS) j.n cooperation with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
(USFWS) and the Bureau of Reclamation.
Monitoring. Water samples will be collected at a time that
optimizes peak irrigation season and natural use patterns and
migratory cycles of fish and wildlife. Flow, pH, specific
conductance, temperature, and dissolved oxygen will be measured
in the field. Water and sediment samples will be collected and
analyzed for selected pesticides, metals, and trace elements.
Sampling of aguatic organisms will occur at the peak period of
use for migratory species and the peak period of metabolic
activity for resident species. Plant and animal tissues will be
analyzed for selected metals, trace elements, and pesticides.
Bottom sediments will be collected only once after a period of
prolonged low to steady flows during or after the irrigation
season.
Sampling and field measurements for water and sediments
followed standard methods described in the "National Handbook of
Recommended Methods for Water Data Acquisition." Analyses
followed standardized USGS procedures for water and sediments,
and USFWJJ procedures for biological materials. Quality assurance
procedure's include splitting samples, testing field blanks,
instrument calibrations, analysis of blind standard reference
samples, interlab comparisons of split samples, and analysis of
spiked scimples.
Discussion. The activities carried out under this program
at the Klamath Lake Project are not directly related to
monitoring the effectiveness of BMPs. They provide, however,
preliminaxy baseline data that would be relevant to any
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subsequent effort to reduce the impact of pesticides, heavy
metals, or trace elements on aquatic biota. Affiliated agencies
on the project are USFWS and Bureau of Reclamation.
Additional Information.
Contact: Marc Sylvester
USGS
345 Middlefield Road
Menlo Park, CA 94025
415/329-4415
Reports: No published reports are available.
Columbia Basin
Moses Lake Clean Lake Pronect, Washington
Site Description. Moses Lake is a large, shallow, eutrophic
lake located in Lincoln and Grant Counties, Washington, to the
southeast of Ephrata. The watershed is about 6,345 sq km
(2,450 sq mi), drained by Crab Creek (84 percent of the
watershed) and Rocky Ford Creek.
The climate is severe, with extremes ranging from 34°C
(104°F) to -31°C (-33°F), although the average summer temperature
is 18°C (71°F) and the average winter temperature is 1°C (34°F).
Precipitation is 23 cm (9 in), 60 percent of which falls in
winter. The soils are very gravelly and porous, allowing rapid
water percolation to the groundwater. They are young soils, with
little structural development, and tend to have a saline horizon
at 40-63 cm (15-26 in), particularly near Quincy.
Land Use. Much of the land of the Crab Creek watershed is
agricultural: rangeland (255,060 ha, 630,000 ac), dryland
agriculture (316,350 ha, 781,400 ac), and irrigated farmland
(5,280 ha, 130,520 ac). The latter predominates in the lower
watershed and is believed to be the primary source of NPS
pollution. The City of Moses Lake, on the east shore, has a
population of 27,000.
Beneficial Use. Moses Lake is regulated as part of the
Columbia Basin Project which supplies water to over 200,000 ha
(500,000 ac) of farmland. The lake is used extensively for
recreational purposes, primarily fishing, boating, and swimming.
Best Management Practices. Six BMPs were identified for the
project area: irrigation water management, irrigation system
improvements, fertilizer management, animal waste control,
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sediment and water control structures, and stream protection
systems;. The farmers are reimbursed at a 75 percent cost share,
and to date, about 2,164 ha (5,346 ac) are under BMP
implementation, other non-agricultural BMPs, including diluting
the lake water with Columbia River water and overhauling existing
sewage systems, have greatly contributed to water quality
improvements.
Monitoring. Moses Lake has been studied since the early
1960s to determine the cause of noxious algal blooms. Diluting
the water with low nutrient Columbia River water was initiated in
the 1970s, and in 1982, grants from Washington DOE and EPA
allowed an investigation into the nutrient sources.
The Moses Lake Clean Water Project was conducted in three
stages. The first stage, focusing on nutrient source
identification, was completed in March 1984. The second phase
focused on nutrient control demonstrations and the evaluation of
the effect of these controls on Moses Lake water quality and was
completed in March 1985. This phase included on-farm nutrient
control:;, detention pond construction, improved septic tank
control;?, stream dredging, and carp eradication. Stage 3,
completed in May 1987, provided for the implementation of control
practices on and off farms.
Tho lake was sampled at 8 sites approximately twice a month
from March through September, 1983 through 1985. Major inputs to
the lake; were sampled on a year-round basis at six sites. The
samples were analyzed for pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen,
chlorophyll, phytoplankton cell volume, nitrogen (total and
nitrite/nitrate), phosphorus (total and orthophosphate), specific
conductance, and transparency (Secchi disc).
The watershed was sampled at 80 sites in 1982-1983; 25
stations monitored the watershed behavior, whereas the remainder
monitored specific farming practices. Groundwater was monitored
at 26 wells and 12 spring locations. The sampling schedule
varied with station, ranging from bi-weekly to quarterly. The
measured parameters likewise varied, but included flow (current
meter, staff gage), suspended solids, specific conductance,
nitrogen (total and nitrite/nitrate) and phosphorus (total and
orthophossphate) . Fifteen of these stations (six surface water
sites, four springs, and five wells) were sampled for the same
parameters from March 1986 to March 1987. Monitoring of most of
the 15 stations is planned for 1989-1990 along Rocky Ford Creek
and at the Crab Creek inlet to Moses Lake. Grab samples will be
taken and analyzed for suspended solids, total and nitrate
nitrogen, total phosphorus, and orthophosphate by a testing
laboratory in Seattle following EPA standard methods.
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Discussion. There has been noticeable improvement in the
water quality of Moses Lake; phosphorus levels have declined by
50 percent, chlorophyll-a levels have dropped 62 percent, and
lake water transparency has doubled. It is difficult to
attribute the improvement to any one control measure; lake water
dilution, septic tank improvements, agricultural BMPs, and fish
management all contributed. A Moses Lake management model was
written and verified with 1978 and 1979 water quality data.
Additional Information.
Contact: Richard Bain, Jr.
Route 5, Box 454
Vashon, WA 98070
206/463-3388
Reports: Publications are numerous. The final stage summary is
by Bain and Moses Lake Conservation District (1987).
South Yakima Project. Washington
Site Description. The Yakima is one of the largest rivers
in Washington and has a drainage of 1.6 million ha
(3.0 million ac). The river is 355 km (220 mi) long, flowing
southeasterly from the Cascade Range to meet the Columbia River
at the city of Richmond, Washington. The soils of the watershed
are developed from basalt parent material or from unconsolidated,
glacially deposited material. Annual precipitation is between
330 cm (140 in) in the mountains to 25 cm (10 in).
Land Use. Major land use practices include timber
(36 percent of the watershed), pasture grazing (47 percent),
irrigated agriculture (16 percent), and urbanization
(0.8 percent). Irrigated agriculture and urbanization are of
primary importance with respect to water quality effects.
Beneficial Use. The Yakima River is used extensively for
irrigation and for the generation of hydroelectric power. At
certain times of the year, up to 80 percent of the flow in the
Yakima River is comprised of irrigation return water. The river
was historically one of the most important fish producers in the
Columbia River system. Major efforts are underway to restore
habitat and remove migration barriers to improve current fish
production.
Best Management Practices. Sediment reduction practices
include the conversion from furrow to sprinkler irrigation,
installing sediment ponds, and water management to minimize
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runoff from the fields. These were implemented with the help of
cost-share programs. When the project stopped in 1986, nearly
100 percent of the BMPs were implemented.
Monitoring. Water quality data have been collected in the
Yakima Mver Basin since 1910 and many studies have since been
conductod. Water quality parameters that have been measured in
various studies include discharge, temperature, specific
conductance, dissolved oxygen, color, turbidity, pH, suspended
sediments, loads and particle size, trace elements, organic
compounds, pesticides, bacteria, and fish.
A comparison of the data collected after treatment with the
historical data show the forested reaches have retained the
background levels of turbidity, bacteria, nutrients, and major
ions. Concentrations of turbidity, nutrients, and ions are above
background during and after logging. Agricultural drains have
the largest concentrations of turbidity, nutrients, major ions,
bacteria, and pesticides.
Currently, the Yakima River is one of the seven National
Water Quality Pilot Studies. The program's aim is to describe
existing water quality conditions and how they vary spatially and
temporally, and to address water quality problems limiting the
identified beneficial uses of the river and watershed. Six areas
are addressed: salinity, trace elements, organics, suspended
sediments, sanitary quality, and bioassessment. The
bioassesisment will include tissue analyses, fish and macro-
invertebrate population studies, and aims to describe why and how
the species are restricted both spatially and temporally in the
river.
Data collection started April 1987 and will continue at an
intensive level for 3 years, drop to a low level for 6 years, and
intensify again for another 3 years. The intensive program
involves comprehensive monthly sampling at 6 sites and synoptic
sampling. Synoptic sampling provides a "snapshot" of water
quality conditions over a broad geographical area by making
single measurements at many sites (over 100) during a week. Each
synoptic study is tailored to a specific set of water quality
variables. To date, four have been held for nutrients, two for
bacteria and suspended sediments, two for ions and elements, and
one for trace elements in bottom material. A sample for total
recoverable and bottom organics is planned.
Discussion. One study by King et al. (1983) involved an
extensive water quality sampling program from 1977 through 1981
in tandem with BMP implementation. The nearly complete
implementation of BMPs accompanied by the intensive water quality
monitoring program demonstrated water quality improvements.
Sediment loadings were reduced by up to 80 percent and total
phosphorus was reduced by up to 50 percent. Sediment control
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BMPs had little effect on nitrogen loadings. The Imhoff cone was
used effectively at the farm level to help the irrigator
visualize his soil loss and optimize water management for soil
retention. The project contributed greatly to the understanding
of how specific BMPs reduced soil erosion, and the data set was
used to develop an economic model.
The current study (McKenzie and Rivella 1987) is not
directed towards BMP implementation, although extensive
interaction with agencies responsible for BMP implementation
occurs. A synthesis report of the Yakima River National Water
Quality Pilot Study is anticipated in 1992.
Additional Information.
•
Contact: Stuart McKenzie
USGS
Portland, OR
503/231-2016
Reports: King et al. (1983).
Johnson et al. (1986).
McKenzie and Rivella (1987).
Snake River Basin/High Desert
Harnev and Malheur Lakes Project. Oregon
Site Description. Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, located
in Harney County in southeastern Oregon, is one of several areas
in the western states identified by the DOI as areas where
irrigation drainage might be causing, or have potential to cause,
adverse effects on wildlife and human health. Based on increasing
national concern about irrigation drainage and the documented
selenium toxicity problems in the irrigated western San Joaquin
.Valley, California, the DOI initiated a screening program to
determine whether irrigation drainage waters have caused or have
the potential to cause harmful effects on human health, fish and
wildlife, or other water uses. The screening program is being
executed by the USGS in cooperation with the USFWS and the Bureau
of Reclamation.
Monitoring. Samples were collected in March, 1988 and will
be collected again in May and June to coincide with irrigation.
Flow, pH, specific conductivity, temperature, and dissolved
oxygen were measured in the field. Water and sediment samples
were collected and analyzed for selected pesticides, metals,
nutrients, and trace elements. Plant and animal tissues were
analyzed for selected metals, trace elements, and pesticides.
37
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Water samples were collected at a time that optimized cycles of
fish and wildlife. Sampling of aquatic organisms occurred at the
peak period of use for migratory species and the peak period of
metabolic activity for resident species. Sediments were
collected only once after a period of prolonged low to steady
flows.
Sampling and field measurements for water and sediments
followed standard methods described in the "National Handbook of
Recommended Methods for Water Data Acquisition." Analyses
followed standardized USGS procedures for water and sediments and
USFWS procedures for biological materials. Quality assurance
procedures include splitting samples, testing field blanks,
instrument calibrations, analysis of blind standard reference
samples, interlab comparisons of split samples, and analysis of
spiked samples.
Discussion. A similar project in the Snake River/High
Desert ecoregion is underway at American Falls Reservoir, located
on the Snake River in southeastern Idaho, near Pocatello. The
activities carried out under these programs are not directly
related to monitoring the effectiveness of BMPs. They provide,
however, preliminary baseline data that would be relevant to any
subsequent effort to reduce the impact of pesticides, heavy
metals, or trace elements on aquatic biota. Affiliated agencies
on the project are USFWS and the Bureau of Reclamation.
Additional Information.
Contact: Marc Sylvester
USGS
345 Middlefield Road
Menlo Park, CA 94025
415/329-4415
Reports: No published reports are available.
Rock Creek Rural Clean Water Program. Idaho
Site Description. The Rock Creek watershed is located in
south central Idaho, with headwaters in the Sawtooth National
Forest in western Cassia County, and draining to the Snake River
near Twin Falls, Idaho. Soils in the lower watershed are highly
erosive, thin, medium textured surface soils and strongly
calcareous silty subsoils. The climate in the lower watershed is
semi-arid with moderately cold winters and hot summers. Annual
precipitation averages approximately 23 cm (9 in).
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Natural hydrology of Rock Creek has been significantly
altered by the development of irrigated agriculture in the lower
watershed and by hydroelectric projects. Historically, flows
were driven by snowmelt, with high flows in the spring and low
flows in the summer and fall. Peak flows now occur in September
as a result of irrigation drainage and generation of
hydroelectric power during the summer months.
Land Use. Approximately 25 percent of the watershed area is
in irrigated cropland (21,000 ha of 80,300 ha [51,870 ac of
198,340 ac]). Typical crops are dry beans, dry peas, sugar
beets, corn, small grains, and alfalfa. All crops are irrigated
by water diverted from the Snake River and delivered through a
series of canals. It is estimated that approximately 50 percent
of precipitation and delivered water percolates to subsurface
drainage and 14 percent returns to surface waters by way of
irrigation drainage (Clark 1986).
Beneficial Use. Hydroelectric power generation occurs in
the lower watershed, and the river water is used for irrigation.
Fishing and swimming are common all along Rock Creek.
Recreational floating (tubing) is popular in the Rock Creek Park
area.
Best Management Practices. BMPs are individually tailored
for each participating farm. Conservation tillage (minimum or no
tillage) has been most commonly identified as the best practice.
Other conservation practices include emplacement of sediment
basins, mini-basins, I-slots, vegetative filter strips, buried
.pipe runoff control systems, concrete irrigation ditches, and
gated pipelines. Cessation of stubble-burning is also encouraged
as a non-structural BMP. Improved animal waste management
practices are also being implemented for confined animal
operations. The project is federally funded. Cost-sharing
grants are made to farmers cooperating in the program through the
implementation of qualified BMPs. BMP implementation is expected
through 1995. „
Monitoring.^ Rock Creek has been identified as a pollution
problem for many'years. Many water quality investigations have
been conducted over the past 25 years, and major efforts have
been made to reduce waste loading from point sources.
Rural Clean Water Program (RCWP) funds were obligated for
the Rock Creek watershed in 1980; monitoring has been conducted
by the Idaho Department of Health and Welfare, Department of
Environmental Quality (IDHW-DEQ) since 1981 and is planned to
continue through 1990. The objectives of the monitoring program
are to identify water quality conditions in irrigation drains and
Rock Creek, and to quantify changes in water quality as a
function of changes in land management activities in the drainage
areas.
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Suspended sediment, nutrients, and bacteria are monitored
weekly during the irrigation season (April-October) on the
subbasin drains. Rock Creek is sampled twice monthly during the
irrigation season for flow, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature,
specific conductivity, suspended sediment, nutrients, fecal
coliform bacteria, metals, common ions (P04/ Mg, Na, Ca, K, Cl,
F), and monthly during the non-irrigation season. Nutrient
measurements include total phosphorus, dissolved orthophosphate,
nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, and Kjeldahl
nitrogen. Monitoring of volatile suspended solids was added in
1986. Additional parameters that have been or will be examined
less frequently are bank erosion, cobble embeddedness, stream
channel sediment characteristics, benthic macroinvertebrate
populations, and fish populations (electroshocking). In
addition, fish tissue is monitored for metals and pesticides
annually. Changes in riparian habitat and aesthetic features are
documented qualitatively by color photography.
Tho list of parameters that have been monitored vary
annually and by station. It is anticipated that monitoring for
some metals will be discontinued and monitoring for pesticides
will increase.
Que;lity assurance for laboratory and field measurements
began with the 1985 field season and includes duplicate (split)
samples for water chemistry and bacteria, and percent recovery
from field spiked samples. Results indicate variability in the
quality of measurement. Water chemistry parameters are assayed
using standard protocols approved by EPA or the APHA.
Groundwater contamination by. salts and nitrate in the
general area has been examined by the U.S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Research Station in Kimberly,
Idaho. Additional groundwater monitoring is planned beginning in
1988 by the IDHW-DEQ.
Discussion. The 8-year Rock Creek RCWP has included two
drought years and one 100 year flood, representing extreme
hydrological conditions. The data are correspondingly quite
varied. Suspended sediments, for example, decreased markedly in
some subbasins, up to 99 percent for some sample dates, but
overall reduction was masked by increased river channel erosion.
The fecal coliform and macroinvertebrate data were likewise
variable. Nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) have declined
slightly„ but are still considered pollutants. The total fish
population increased substantially in three sampling stations and
rainbow trout biomass increased at four of the six stations.
Roc): Creek RCWP is administered by the USDA Agricultural
Stabilizettion and Conservation Service. Technical assistance is
provided by the USDA Soil Conservation Service, and the Snake
River and Twin Falls Soil Conservation Districts. The USDA
40
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Agricultural Research Station in Kimberly, ID and the University
of Idaho are also involved in researching technical and economic
aspects of the Rural Clean Water Program.
Additional Information.
Contact: William Clark
IDHW-DEQ
450 West State Street
Boise, ID 83720
208/334-5860
Reports: Many reports on water quality issues in Rock Creek
watershed have been published. A comprehensive water
quality monitoring report is available (Clark 1986) .
The National Water Quality Evaluation Project (1985)
has evaluated Rock Creek RCWP data and made comparisons
with similar projects.
PART III: DRYLAND FARMING
Idaho State Agricultural Water Quality Program
The IDHW-DEQ and the Soil Conservation Commission jointly
administer a state Agricultural Water Quality Program. The
program financially assists soil conservation districts (SCO)
with control and abatement programs that receive priority ranking
during a screening process undertaken by the IDHW and the Idaho
Soil Conservation Commission. Applications for assistance are
prepared by the local SCDs. Once approval of a project is made,
up to 75 percent of implementation costs of BMPs are supported by
the state cost-sharing program.
As of 1987, 17 cost>-sharing projects have been implemented.
Of these, 14 projects involve implementation of BMPs in
watersheds in dryland agriculture and three involve watersheds in
irrigated land. Three additional projects involving dryland
agriculture and one additional project on irrigated land will
begin in 1988. A list of ongoing projects, new projects for
1988, and projects still in the planning phase is attached as
Appendix B.
Best Management Practices. BMPs are individually designed
for each participating farm. The most common BMPs include
minimum or no tillage, terracing, subsoiling, emplacement of
sediment basins, and strip cropping. Another practice is the use
of the Conservation Reserve Program.
41
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Monitoring. IDHW-DEQ conducts the baseline analyses for the
cost-sharing projects. Baseline data are collected for 1 year;
sampling occurs at least once in the fall during low flows and
twice each month from February through July.
The information that is collected is generally consistent
for all cost-sharing projects. The data include flow, temper-
ature, suspended sediment, turbidity, specific conductivity,
dissolved oxygen, pH, fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus
(membrane method), and nutrients (total ammonia, nitrate and
nitrite nitrogen, Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and
orthophosphate). The IDHW-DEQ Twin Falls Region includes
dissolved volatile solids and macroinvertebrate surveys (Shannon-
Wiener diversity, functional feeding groups, and biotic condition
index) :.n the baseline.
Discussion. The state program provides baseline data useful
for evaluating effectiveness of NFS control programs. No funds
are currently available for post-implementation monitoring. The
Twin Falls Regional Office has plans to conduct a follow-up water
quality survey in approximately 2 years.
Additional Information.
Contact: Contact persons at the IDHW-DEQ regional offices and
the local USDA SCS District Conservationists are listed
in Appendix B. At IDHW-DEQ in Boise, the main contact
is:
Robert Braun
IDHW-DEQ
450 West State Street
Boise, ID 83720
208/334-5860
Reports: Reports for some of the individual projects are
available from IDHW-DEQ.
Columbia Basin
Palouse River Basin Project. Washington and Idaho
Sit
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The elevation varies from 150-1,600 m (500-5,300 ft) above
sea level. Annual precipitation ranges from less than 30 cm
(12 in) in the west to over 90 cm (35 in) in the east.
There are 10 sub-watersheds in the basin: South Fork
Palouse, North Fork Palouse, Rebel Flat Creek, Cottonwood Creek,
Pine Creek, Thorn Creek, Rock Creek, Cow Creek, Union Flat Creek,
and the Palouse River main stem.
Land Use. A large part of the basin, 38 percent, is dryland
cropland, with wheat being the dominant crop, followed by barley,
legumes, and summer-fallow. Twenty-eight percent of the basin is
rangeland, with animals overwintered in pens.
Beneficial Use. The Palouse River feeds into the Snake and
Columbia Rivers, which have many beneficial uses, including
irrigation, hydroelectric power production, and providing
municipalities with water. There is limited opportunity for
recreational use; hunting, and to a lesser extent, trout fishing,
are most common.
Best Management Practices. Sheet and rill erosion, soil
slips, and gully and stream channel erosion have degraded the
soil and water quality and resulted in considerable economic
loss. BMPs to reduce sediment yield, including minimum tillage,
stubble mulch tillage, field strips and divided slope farming,
terraces, and reseeding, are being implemented and are expected to
be completed in the 1990s.
Monitoring. Monitoring was conducted to establish the scope
of the problem. Turbidity data were collected by Washington DOE
and EPA at bimonthly intervals from a site near the mouth of the
Palouse River from August 1970 to September 1971, and October
1973 to August 1976. Nitrate and nitrite analyses were also
conducted, and aerial photographs and field checks were used to
identify wildlife habitat in the basin.
**
Discussion. The focus of the project was to determine which
sub-watershed was a major contributor to NFS pollution and to
develop suitable BMPs to ameliorate the problem. Extensive
baseline data were gathered, but monitoring since the BMPs were
applied has been limited.
Additional Information.
Contact: Paul Taylor
USDA SCS
360 U. S. Courthouse
West 920 Riverside
Spokane, WA 99201-1080
509/456-3710
43
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Reports: There are many reports on the individual watersheds. A
project summary for the Palouse Cooperative River Basin
study is given by the USDA (1978).
Southee.st Washington Cooperative River Basin Project, Washington
Site Description. The Southeast Washington Cooperative
River Basin Project area, located in southeast Washington state,
encompasses over 1,000,000 ha (2,785,081 ac). The area is
bordered on the south by the State of Oregon and on the east by
the State of Idaho and the Snake River. The northern and western
boundary of the study area is formed by the northern drainage
boundary of the Snake River from Whitman and Franklin Counties.
Mean annual precipitation varies from less than 25 cm
(10 in) per year in the west, to about 170 cm (70 in) a year in
high mountain areas. The annual temperature range is -29°C to
30°C (-30°F to 95°F). The forest and rangeland is transected with
numerous steep canyons. The soils are generally silt loams
formed from deposited loess, mixed in the lowlands with alluvial
deposits.
Major waterways include the Columbia River and the Snake
River. Numerous small tributaries include Alkali Flat Creek in
Whitman County; Grande Ronde River and Asotin Creek in Asotin
County; Alpowa Creek in Garfield and Asotin Counties; Deadman
Creek in Garfield County; Tucannon River and Pataha Creek in
Columbia and Garfield Counties; the Touchet River in Columbia and
Walla Walla Counties; and Dry Creek and the Walla Walla River in
Walla Walla County. The watersheds of these stream systems
constitute the 10 major areas used in the study.
Land Use. Forty-three percent of the area (484,210 ha
[1,196,000 ac]) is used for the production of crops, mostly
winter wheat. Seven percent of the land is used for irrigated
crops, :30 percent for rangelands, and 17 percent is forested.
Beneficial Use. The Wenaha-Tucannon Wilderness area contains
streams suitable for recreational fishing of salmon. The Touchet
River i:> a sport-flyfishing stream.
Beat Management Practices. Erosion of the topsoil within the
study area is estimated to total 9,393,800 tonnes
(10,357,000 tons) per year, of which 8,750,700 tonnes
(9,648,000 tons) are from cropland. Productivity of crop and
rangeland have deteriorated, and there is a significant loss of
fish spawning and rearing habitats due to sedimentation and high
stream temperatures. BMPs fall into the general categories of
minimum tillage and stubble mulching, increasing terraces and
strip cropping, increasing the acreage planted to small grain
. 44
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crops, reducing summer-fallow, reducing the acreage of strip
slopes under cultivation, pasture reseeding, and herd management.
These are being implemented throughout the study area.
Monitoring. Major study objectives included: 1) basin-wide
evaluation of erosion and sediment problems, present land
management and stream habitat condition; 2) intensive study of
the Tucannon River to determine instream effects of erosion and
sediment on water quality and stream habitat conditions; and
3) evaluation of impacts of conservation practices and land use
changes as applicable to cropland and forested areas, and
production practices on rangeland areas in the basin.
The monitoring program to establish baseline information was
extensive. Washington State University, USGS, SCS, and DOE have
been monitoring water guality parameters on an ongoing basis
since 1979. The results of the study are presented in four types
of reports: a summary document, ten individual watershed
reports, and two separate reports relating directly to the
Tucannon River instream investigation.
Discussion. The project aim was to identify which watershed
contributed the greatest amount to NFS pollution and to encourage
the use of BMPs to reduce pollution input. Public education was
a major part of the project.
Additional Information.
Contact: Paul Taylor
USDA SCS
360 U. S. Courthouse
West 920 Riverside
Spokane, WA 99201-1080
509/456-3710
Reports: The summary document is USDA (1984b).
Little Greasewood and West Fork Greasewood Creeks Project, Oregon
Site Description. The North Central Oregon Wheat Growing
Region project covers five counties; Umatilla, Morrow, Sherman,
Gilliam and Wasco, along the south bank of the Columbia River.
The area is characterized by rolling hills and steep slopes, hot
dry summers and cold, wet winters. Occasional severe summer
storms and freeze-thaw cycles with snowmelt cause extremely
severe soil erosion. Little Greasewood watershed, 16 km (10 mi)
northeast of Pendleton, Oregon, was selected to demonstrate that
BMPs could reduce erosion from dry cropland.
45
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Land Use. Little Greasewood watershed contains 1,814 ha
(4,480 ac) of cropland, and the West Fork Greasewood watershed
has 1,836 ha (4,660 ac) of cropland.
Best Management Practices. BMPs have been enthusiastically
received by the 30 farmers in the watersheds. All are using a
wider variety of crops in their rotations with winter wheat.
Conservation tillage is being carried out on 1,980 ha (4,900 ac).
There are now 6.5 km (4 mi) of grassed waterways and 13 km (8 mi)
of creek bank terracing and planting with wheatgrass.
Monitoring. Eight sampling stations were placed at
intervals from the head to the mouth of the creeks; grab water
samples were taken periodically from November 1981 to March 1983.
Field boundary .runoff was collected in December 1982, and all
water samples were analyzed for suspended solids (Imhoff cones).
Precipitation, soil temperature, and rill erosion were also
monitored.
Discussion. Two attempts to use mechanical equipment (a
stage rcicorder and a continuous water sampler) resulted in
failure due to silting and freezing. A portable turbidity meter
was inadequate because the upper range of the meter was exceeded
when erosion was occurring.
In 1981, the suspended sediment loading was less than 8 ml
sediment per liter at all stream sample sites. In 1983, runoff
from farms with BMPs applied had significantly declined, reducing
the stream discharge. Soil erosion from two conventionally
tilled farms continued to occur. Due to the lower stream
discharge, the concentration of sediment increased to 19 ml/1..
The result of the water quality monitoring, taken in isolation,
appears to imply the implemented BMPs were not working. This, in
fact, would be a false conclusion and emphasizes the need for a
watershed management approach to controlling NPS pollution.
Additional Information.
Contact: Bob Adelman
USDA SCS Umatilla County
1229 S.E. Third
Pendleton, OR 97801
503/276-3811
Reports: George (1983).
Tammany Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. Tammany Creek flows into the Snake River
at the southern edge of Lewiston, Idaho.
46
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Land Uses. Much of the area is under dryland crop farming.
Urban development encroaches on the lower reaches of the
watershed. Livestock operations are found in the watershed.
Beneficial Use. Tammany Creek is protected for secondary
contact recreation (e.g., wading and floating), and coldwater
fisheries, including salmon spawning. The creek enters the Snake
River at Hells Gate State Park, a high use recreation area that
includes swimming beaches and a marina.
Best Management Practices. Tammany Creek is currently under
a PL-566 Small Watershed Program. Currently, six farmers have
been contacted and three have applied BMPs to their land. The
stream has been proposed by the Nez Perce SCO as a candidate for
the Idaho State Agriculture Water Quality Program. If selected,
further BMPs would be identified and implemented with state cost-
sharing.
Monitoring. Baseline water quality conditions were sampled
by IDHW DEQ six times between November 1983 and April 1984.
Eleven parameters were measured at the mouth of the creek, and
turbidity measurements were recorded for 19 stations upstream.
Water quality data were also collected on seven occasions between
May 1976 and February 1977. Parameters included temperature,
dissolved oxygen, pH, bacteria (fecal coliform and fecal
streptococcus), nutrients (total phosphorus, ammonia, nitrate-N,
and nitrite-N), turbidity, suspended solids, and flow.
Discussion. BMPs have been implemented under the PL-566
program and further implementation is planned. Baseline data have
been gathered and monitoring is continuing to measure the
effectiveness of BMPs in reducing NFS pollution. The
implementation of BMPs is monitored by SCS under the PL-566
program. Various agencies worked in cooperation, including the
Nez Perce Soil Conservation District, USDA SCS, and IDHW-DEQ.
Additional Information.
Contact: Byron Chase
USDA SCS Nez Perce County
3510 - 12th Street
Lewiston, ID 83501
208/746-9886
Reports: Unpublished file reports are retained by USDA, SCS and
IDHW-DEQ.
47
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Pine Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. The Pine Creek Project is a represen-
tative example of the Idaho Agricultural Water Quality Program.
The watershed is in the northeast corner of Nez Perce County,
Idaho, and is a third-order tributary to the Clearwater River.
There are 13 first- and second-order streams, 1.6-4.8 km (1-3 mi)
long, that drain the 6,820 ha (16,850 ac) in the watershed. The
last 8 Ton (5 mi) are in a canyon where elevation drops 30 m
(1,000 ft) to Clearwater River at 21 m (875 ft).
The rolling plateau, at an elevation of 640-850 m (2,200-
2,800 ft) has slopes of 4-30 percent of highly erodable silt-loam
soils. The canyon has slopes of 30-60 percent.
Land Use. There are 30 operators farming the 5,260 ha
(13,000 ac) of dryland crops of peas and winter wheat. Most of
the remaining 1,560 ha (3,850 ac) are rangeland and timber.
Beneficial Use. The stream is used as an agricultural water
supply and for secondary contact recreation. Salmonid spawning
habitat is present, but is limited by water guality.
Best Management Practices. Various farms have started to
implement BMP programs. Some BMPs, such as sediment basins,
grassed waterways, and tile drains, are in use.
Monitoring. The objectives of the planning study were to:
1) determine water quality in various reaches and sub-watersheds;
2) determine baseline water quality; and 3) document the effects
of stom event runoff on water quality in Pine Creek.
Three monitoring stations were chosen on Pine Creek to
divide the watershed. This method allowed the separate
watersheds to be evaluated for their contributions to the
sediment and nutrient loads. One station was 1.6 km (1 mi)
above the community of Leland, another station characterized' the
east fork of Pine Creek, and the third station was at the mouth,
portraying the whole watershed.
Methods of sample collection, preservation and analysis
followed Standard Methods (APHA 1985) or EPA guidelines (EPA
1979). Samples were taken every 2 weeks for 1 year beginning
February 1985 through February 1986, with a concentration of
effort in spring 1985 and during storm events. Flow, water
temperature, conductivity, and pH were measured in the field.
Turbidity, suspended sediment, total Kjeldahl nitrogen, total
ammonia, total nitrite plus nitrate, total phosphorus, total
hydrolyziable phosphorus, orthophosphate, and fecal coliform were
analyzed in the laboratory.
48
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This project served as part of a series of quality assurance
checks by IDHW-DEQ on precision and accuracy of sampling
procedures. Duplicate and spiked samples were collected from
various stations and on different dates. The data were pooled
for several projects and results were compiled.
Discussion. Substantial quantities of suspended sediment,
total phosphorus, and nitrogen were lost from the watershed. A
BMP implementation plan submitted by the Nez Perce SWCD
emphasized: soil erosion reduction from critical acreages;
riparian enhancement in the upper watershed, including bank
stabilization on the lower end of the east fork of Pine Creek;
reduction of nutrient losses from cultivated fields, specifically
inorganic nitrogen in the early spring; and control of animal
wastes from feedlots, barnyards, and pastures.
The quality assurance checks for IDHW-DEQ gave variable
results. Precision estimates for suspended sediment, total
phosphorus, total nitrite plus nitrate, total Kjeldahl nitrogen,
and turbidity were good to excellent. Orthophosphate, total
hydrolyzable phosphate, and total ammonia exhibited poorer
precision.
Additional Information.
Contact: Byron Chase
USDA SCS Nez Pierce County
3510 - 12th Street
Lewiston, ID 83501
208/746-9886
Reports: Latham (1986).
Little Canyon and Big Canyon Creeks Project. Idaho
f*-
Site Description. Little Canyon and Big Canyon Creeks drain
into the Clearwater River in Lewis County, Idaho.
Land Use. Approximately 90 percent of the combined
watersheds are in dryland farming.
Beneficial Use. The Clearwater River provides significant
anadromous fish spawning habitat. It also supports a significant
recreational and subsistence fishery.
Best Management Practices. No BMPs have been formally
initiated on the watersheds.
49
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Monitoring. The Lewis County Soil Conservation District has
been collecting water quality data in Big Canyon Creek, Little
Canyon Creek, and tributaries to Little Canyon Creek during low
flowso Data collected over the past 18 months include flow,
tempere.ture, pH, Kjeldahl nitrogen, nitrate and nitrite, ammonia,
orthophosphate, fecal coliform, fecal streptococcus, and riparian
cover.
Discussion. Monitoring effectiveness of BMPs has not taken
place. The existing data can be used as baseline for further
monitoring projects.
Additional Information.
Contact: Biff Burley
USDA SCS Lewis County
019 West Main street
Craigmont, ID 83523
208/924-5561
Reports: Published reports are not available.
Northern Basin and Range
Rock Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. Rock Creek in Power County drains into
the Snake River below American Falls, Idaho. The majority of the
watershed lies in the Northern Basin and Range ecoregion. Lower
reaches of the watershed lie in the Snake River Basin/High Desert
ecoregion. The valley floor slopes gently from south to north,
with rolling foothills on the valley flanks giving way to steep
mountain slopes. The surface soils in cropland areas are
predominately deep silt loams formed from loess. In grazing
areas, the surface soils are stony, gravelly, and cobbly loams.
Th<= climate is characterized by cold, moist winters and hot,
dry summers. Wind erosion is particularly severe because of
strong winds from the southwest during the spring when the
cultivated ground is bare. Most of the upper tributaries to Rock
Creek are ephemeral, flowing only during heavy summer storm
events or during snowmelt (February and March). Mean annual
precipitation is 33 cm (13 in).
Land Use. The majority of the 830 sg km (320 sq mi) basin
is used for dryland agriculture and livestock grazing. A small
amount of irrigation occurs in the watershed. Hard red winter
wheat and barley are the principal dryland crops, while row
crops, pasture, and hay are irrigated. Rangeland is
50
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predominately in small holdings. In the Sublett subbasin,
1,972 ha (2,400 ac) are in irrigated cropland, and 5,300 ha
(13,100 ac) are in rangeland.
Beneficial Use. The primary use of water is downstream in
the Snake River. Some recreational use occurs, as well as use by
fish and wildlife species. In-basin use for irrigation also
occurs.
Best Management Practices. A cooperative agreement in 1981
between the Power County Soil Conservation District, USDA SCS,
and USFS has resulted in implementation of BMPs in 9,350 ha
(23,100 of 36,200 ac) in the Sublett subbasin in southern Power
County. Terracing and conservation tillage practices are the
primary BMPs, with approximately 160 ha (400 ac) placed in
permanent vegetation.
Monitoring. Baseline data were collected from October 1977
through June 1979. Data collected included flow, pH,
temperature, dissolved oxygen, suspended solids, turbidity,
volatile suspended solids, nutrients (ammonia nitrogen, Kjeldahl
nitrogen, nitrate and nitrite nitrogen, total phosphorus,
orthophosphate), conductivity, selected ions (Ca, Mg, Fe, Na, K,
Cl, SO4, F), total and fecal coliforms, and selected metals (As,
Ba, Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, Mn, Se, Ag, Zn). Benthic
macroinvertebrate communities were also characterized.
Discussion. The water sampling program was designed to
provide background information on sediment inputs and problem
areas, and there has been minimal post-BMP implementation
monitoring. Data showed bacterial concentrations were variable,
and were inversely correlated with river discharge. Aquatic
invertebrate results were similarly variable, and there were no
statistical trends in either species diversity or evenness.
Ephemeral streams were found to contribute large pulses of water
and sediment during relatively short periods of time.
Additional Information.
Contact: James Stalnaker
USDA SCS Power County
American Falls, ID 83211
208/226-2177
Reports: Power County Soil Conservation District (1981).
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PART IV: GRAZING
Forest Ranaeland; Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills
Freemen': National Forest. Oregon
Site Description. The Freemont National Forest comprises
almost half a million hectares (1.2 million ac) and is located in
Lake and Klamath Counties of south central Oregon, beginning at
the Oregon-California border. The topography is dominated by
northwest trending fault-block mountains and valleys, and various
volcanic: landforms such as cinder cones and basalt flows. The
elevation ranges between 1,219-2,438 m (4,000-8,000 ft) above sea
level, and slope gradients are generally 40 percent or less.
The soils are young, developed from volcanic debris, and
have a low to moderate fertility. The forest lies in the high
desert country, the rain shadow of the Cascade Mountains.
Average precipitation varies from 40-100 cm (16-40 in) a year,
with intense (50 cm/week) summer storms. Annual temperature
extremes range from -30°C to 33°C (-22°F and 91°F).
The vegetation is diverse. There are 42 forested
communities, with the dominant trees being juniper, Ponderosa
pine, white fir, and lodgepole pine. The 15 non-forested
communities include sage brush-bunchgrass prairies, wet meadows,
and fire-adapted shrub flats.
Land Use. The 281,780 ha (696,000 ac) of forest rangeland
is divided into 73 grazing allotments, and permits about 71,000
animal unit months of grazing yearly. Beef cattle are the
predominant livestock. About 20 percent of the allotments show
some degree of resource damage, primarily to riparian areas and
below optimum growth of forage species. Logging is managed on a
non-declining flow basis with harvest of only those lands capable
of producing 1.4 cu m/ha/yr (20 cu ft/ac/yr).
Currently, forest management is undergoing revision. The
area is to be managed to preserve the economic activities and to
preserve or enhance recreation, wildlife habitat, range
management, and fisheries habitat.
Beneficial Use. Major rivers of the forest are the
Chewaucah, Sycan, and Sprague Rivers, which are important sources
of water for agricultural lands and the municipalities in the
surrounding valleys. Reservoirs, stockponds, and wetlands are
located in the forest, and the lakes and streams provide areas
for recreational fishing, boating, and camping.
52
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Best Management Practices. BMPs already implemented in the
rangeland include riparian fencing (both permanent for exclosure
studies and temporary to allow regrowth) and regulation of the
grazing season. BMPs for logged areas are designed for each
harvested unit, with the aim that 80 percent of the activity area
be left in a condition of acceptable productivity potential for
trees. Tractors and skidders are avoided on wet soils and
slopes. Skyline yarding is preferred on slopes exceeding these
recommendations. Reseeding is conducted, with a minimum stocking
of 100 trees per acre.
Monitoring. There are eight baseline water quality
monitoring stations distributed throughout the forest, and a
variable number of project stations located before/after and
above/below the worked area. Dissolved oxygen, temperature,
flow, and suspended sediments (grab samples) are measured. It is
planned to establish 10 paired watersheds: six pairs on large
streams and four on tributaries in the rangeland. One of each
pair will be a grazing exclosure.
Riparian monitoring along high priority streams has been
planned to include bank walks. Photographs and aerial
photographs will be taken. It is hoped that a limited aquatic
macroinvertebrate sampling program and population surveys will be
expanded. Monitoring will be conducted in cooperation with the
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife.
Discussion. To date, the monitoring program has
characterized baseline water quality conditions; there has been
insufficient monitoring to accurately identify the most
significant cause of NPS pollution. The monitoring program will-
be expanded if further funds become available. It appears that
road construction and logging have the greatest cumulative impact
on water quality, but grazing has a concentrated impact on
riparian vegetation and channel morphology.
Additional Information.
Contact: Orville Grossarth
Freemont National Forest
524 North 9 Street
Lakeview, OR 97630
503/947-2151
Reports: There are several publications and reports. A
synthesis is provided by USFS (1987a).
53
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Forest Rancreland: Northern Rockies
East Fork Salmon River Project, Idaho
Site Description. The East Fork Salmon River is located in
Custer County, Idaho, and empties into the Salmon River
downstream of Clayton, Idaho. The upper half of the watershed is
located in Challis National Forest and the Sawtooth National
Recreation Area. The system displays a low to medium gradient
and flows through wide valleys of lodgepole pine forest, meadow
ranchland, or sagebrush/grass habitat. Surface soils are
primarily highly erosive sandy and clay-loam soils.
Land Use. Most of the watershed is associated with ranching
activities.
Beneficial Use. The East Fork Salmon River and its
tributaries were important spawning streams for wild spring and
summer e.hinook salmon and wild steelhead trout. The system is a
treaty-guaranteed fishing area for members of the Shoshone-
Bannock Tribes.
Best Management Practices. Land use BMPs have not been
implemented or planned. Effort will be directed to enhancing
fish habitat directly through instream activities and enhancement
of riparian habitat.
Monitoring. Idaho Department of Fish and Game and the
Shoshone-Bannock Tribes conducted a fish and aquatic habitat
inventory in 1986 in preparation for a habitat enhancement effort
funded through Bonneville Power Administration. Data collected
include flow, temperature, stream morphology, riparian cover,
stream substrate (cobble embeddedness), and fish populations
(observations during snorkeling and electroshocking).
Str^ambed characteristics are being evaluated with three
different methods: Leopold transects across the stream,
wentworth scale, and analyses of sediments collected with a
McNeil corer.
Discussion. The study currently provides baseline data
necessary to evaluate effectiveness of instream and riparian
habitat enhancement activities. Affiliated agencies on the
project are Bonneville Power Administration, USFS, and Bureau of
Land Management.
54
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Additional Information.
Contact: Carl Richards
Shoshone-Bannock Tribes
P.O. Box 306
Fort Hall, ID 83203
208/238-3748
Reports: Richards and Cernera (1987).
Forest Ranaeland: Blue Mountains
Meadow Creek Project. Oregon
Site Description. Meadow Creek is located in the Starkey
Experimental Forest and Range, about 56 km (35 mi) southwest of
La Grande, Oregon. It flows east to eventually join the Grande
Ronde River near La Grande, Oregon. The area was logged in the
early 1900s, and was heavily grazed. Grazing was regulated by
the USFS in 1940, and in 1975 the USFS Pacific Northwest Forest
and Range Experimental Station initiated a multidisciplinary case
study on Meadow Creek.
The study area included about 8 km (5 mi) of stream flowing
through Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir forests, and small
meadows. The creek drains approximately 98 sg km (35 sq mi).
Annual precipitation is 50 cm (19 in), falling primarily as
winter snow and as fall and spring rain. The soils are
predominately well-drained sandy loams.
Land Use. The land use is pasture grazing.
Beneficial Use. Meadow Creek is a steelhead and rainbow
trout breeding ground.
Best Management Practices. Small contiguous pastures were
fenced along Meadow Creek and stocked with 2-20 heifers,
depending on pasture size and grazing system. For 5 years, the
pastures were stocked to represent the following management
options: 4-yr pasture, 1-yr rest-rotation; deferred rotation;
season-long; and no grazing. Big game had access to all
treatments in one area and were excluded from these same
treatments in another area.
Monitoring. The monitoring objectives were several-fold:
1) to compare infiltration rates, sediment production and
compaction under different grazing regimes; 2) to study bank
55
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movement generated by different grazing systems; and 3) to
compare levels of fecal contamination associated with different
systems of grazing cattle.
Water samples were collected above and below each pasture
every 3-4 weeks and analyzed for fecal coliforms (membrane
filtration). Samples were collected June-October in 1980 and
1981, a:nd intensively during September 1982.
Infiltration rates were estimated on paired treatment-
exclosure plots in each grazing system. The plots were sampled
early in the grazing season each year during 1975, 1976, 1980,
and 1981. Sixteen metal stakes were used as reference points on
the edge of cutbanks on straight sections of the stream in each
treatment. Bank erosion was measured after each winter period.1
Discussion. It was found that monitoring only the rate of
bank retreat was of limited value; other features such as bank
shape or channel form may have more ecological meaning.. Large
numerical differences in fecal coliform estimates were observed,
although due to background variability, there were no
statistically significant differences between grazing treatments.
It appears that large populations of indicator bacterial species,
testing positive as fecal coliforms, are present in creek
sediments, and that these may or may not track the pathogenic
organisms of concern to human health.
Additional Information.
Contact: Larry Bryant
Forest Service Range and Wildlife Laboratory
1401 Gekeler Lane
La Grande, OR 97850
503/963-7122
Reportsi Buckhouse et al. (1981).
Buckhouse and Bohn (1983).
Burnt River Project, Oregon
Site Description. The Burnt River flows generally southeast
from Unit/ Reservoir to join the Snake River near Huntington,
Oregon, near the Idaho-Oregon border. The river valley is
initially wide (37 km [23 mi]), then narrows into a canyon before
widening again. The canyon is the site of a BLM study. Since the
valley runs east-west, temperatures in the canyon are extreme and
the river often freezes in the winter. Hot summer temperatures
are common, although regular river flows are maintained by the
reservoir, The bedrock is basalt, and the elevation ranges from
850-1,765 m (2,800-5,800 ft).
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Land Use. The wide valleys above and below the canyon are
used for irrigated agriculture. The BLM land includes two
grazing allotments.
Beneficial Use. The canyon supports recreational gold
miners; four to six prospectors are operational at any one time.
Fishing is currently limited since trout are uncommon.
Best Management Practices. One grazing allotment has had
partial fencing along the stream for 15 years. Fencing is being
planned for the unprotected 8 km (5 mi) of bank, and is to be
located about 0.4 km (0.25 mi) from the stream. The SCS is
actively encouraging BMPs on the agricultural land.
Monitoring. Sampling was conducted in 1982 and 1983. Grab
samples of water were taken at two stations and analyzed at the
regional BLM Soil and Water Laboratory, Boise, Idaho for
suspended solids, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature,
ortho- and total phosphorus, nitrate, nitrite, total bicarbonate,
calcium bicarbonate, alkalinity, and sulfates. Three sediment
samples were taken from each station in July for
macroinvertebrate analysis. The samples were analyzed by the
Forest Service Macroinvertebrate Laboratory, Provo, Utah.
Discussion. Fencing and controlled riparian grazing are
very effective BMPs. The current riparian vegetation was
compared to infrared photographs taken in 1983. Stream shade is
20-30 percent greater in the less intensely grazed allotments due
to the well-developed tree and shrub vegetation. The fenced
reaches of streams are too short to see an impact on water
chemistry. To date, there have been no observable changes in
macroinvertebrate or fish populations. Macroinvertebrates have
been measured for only 3 years and there has been no significant
change in diversity and abundance, and there are too few stream
reaches with fish to observe an improvement in fish populations.
The Soil Conservation Service has received a grant for a
year-long water quality monitoring program, starting in spring
1988.
Additional Information.
Contact: Mathew Kniesel
Bureau of Land Management
Baker Resource Center
P.O. Box 987
Baker, OR 97814
503/523-6391
Reports: There are no published reports available.
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Open Rangeland: Columbia Basin
Douglas Creek Project, Washington
Site Description. The Douglas Creek grazing allotment lies
approximately 6 km (4 mi) north of Palisades, Washington. The
allotment ranges in elevation from 512-1,050 m (1,680-3,460 ft).
Topography varies from gentle to steep. Average total annual
precipitation is approximately 25 cm (10 in). The total area of
the allotment is 1,300 ha (3,200 ac).
Lard Use. The allotment has historically been grazed in the
spring and early summer. In 1974, a Habitat Management Plan
(HMP) was prepared for the area, implementing BMPs. The HMP was
revised in 1982, but the following year the grazing lease for the
allotment was cancelled. The allotment was rested for 2 years
(1983 and 1984). In 1985, the allotment was leased with the
stipulation that an allotment management plan would be
implemented in the future. Interim management prior to
implementation of the grazing plan is 2 years of spring grazing
followed by 2 years of fall grazing.
Bencificial Use. The exclosure of 400 ha (1,000 ac) around
Douglas Creek has resulted in a public recreational area for
camping, hunting and fishing, and provides important habitat for
mule deer, upland game birds, and many other wildlife species.
Best Management Practices. Douglas Creek was fenced to
exclude cattle, and gap fences and watering devices were
installed in 1974. In 1982, an additional 3.2 ha (8 ac) of
riparian area was fenced and further fencing, planting, and
alternative watering devices are planned for 1988.
Monitoring. The objectives of a 1979 riparian inventory
were as follows: 1) to characterize current riparian vegetation
composition and structure; and 2) to establish a series of fixed
and located photo plots to^monitor future riparian development.
Riparian vegetation inventory sheets formed the basis for
the vegetative composition and structural portion of the
inventory. Initial visual estimates of species and structural
composition were used to establish stream sites, and an inventory
sheet was completed for each site.
Discussion. The results showed that the riparian vegetation
was recovering, although the stream channel was periodically
damaged by winter storms. The observed beaver activity was
encouraginc, since beaver ponds trap stream sediments.
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A monitoring program was re-established in 1987 to assess
the impact of grazing and to achieve the following objectives:
1) maintain the ecological condition of all riparian areas in the
allotment; 2) improve the ecological condition of the riparian
areas in certain sections; 3) collect baseline data for riparian
key areas and establish measurable objectives for the riparian
key areas; 4) provide additional cover and feed for wildlife; and
5) increase livestock carrying capacity.
Baseline cover and ecological condition data are to be
collected at riparian key areas, and photopoints will be
established at riparian key areas.
Additional Information.
Contact: Dana Peterson
Bureau of Land Management
1133 North Western Avenue
Wenatchee, WA 98801
509/662-4223
Reports: Peterson (1987).
Hedges and Yamasaki (1979).
Open Ranqeland: Blue Mountains
John Day River Project. Oregon
Site Description. The John Day River system includes the
upper reaches of the John Day River (the Middle Fork, the main
stem, and the South Fork) encompassing an area of 5,200 sq km
(2,000 sq mi) reaching north to Kimberly, Oregon. Part of the
140,480 ha (347,000 ac) area was used in the Oregon Range
Evaluation Project (EVAL) established in 1976.
Watersheds range in size from 1.2-18.1 sq km (0.5-7.0 sq mi)
and in mean elevation from 1,450-1,992 m (4,750-6,534 ft).
Predominant vegetation is mountain meadow, western larch, fir-
spruce, Ponderosa pine, and lodgepole pine. Geologic formations
of the watersheds are dominated by volcanic material (primarily
basalt), meta volcahics, and igneous intrusives.
Climatic data indicate that 70 percent of the 49 cm (20 in)
annual precipitation is received as snow between the months of
November and April. Average annual temperature is 2°C (36°F)
with maximum of 32°C (90°F) in the summer, and minimum -18°C
(-5°F) in winter.
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Land Use. The land is grazed by both sheep and cattle,
predominantly cattle.
Beneficial Use. The beneficial uses of the waterways
include irrigation and drinking water. Resident and anadromous
fish populations occur in the streams.
Best Management Practices. The effect of grazing systems
and intensities was studied from 1967-1984 as part of the EVAL
studies. The grazing rotations were deferred rotation,
continuous grazing, and no grazing. The BMPs implemented since
1984 by the SCS have embraced the entire project area. Practices
include the development of off-stream water supply, prescribed
burning, rotational grazing at high density, riparian fencing,
and reseeding. Farmers are being contracted at a rate of 6-10
per year to apply BMPs .
Monitoring. The EVAL study looked at the impact of range
management strategies upon water guality. Grab samples of stream
water were collected at 3- to 6-week intervals from 1978-1984.
Parameters measured include nitrate (cadmium reduction),
orthophosphate (ascorbic acid), calcium, magnesium, potassium and
sodium (atomic absorption spectroscopy), pH, fecal coliforms
(membrane filtration), and water flow.
The 7-year monitoring program, initiated in 1984,
concentrates on stream morphology for fish habitats, riparian
vegetation (fixed photo-points and transects), canopy closure
(radiometer), temperature, stream channel morphology (intensive
transects at 1-ft intervals), and along-stream inventories
(looking at the number of redds per mile, vegetation condition,
stream overhang and bank condition) are included in the
monitoring program.
Discussion. The EVAL study found elevated levels of
nitrogen when alder was among the riparian vegetation, and that
pastures grazed only in the summer had high fecal coliform levels
in the winter flows. One result of .the current BMP program is
the establishment of riparian vegetation. Salmonid redds have
also increased two- to threefold, but this cannot be attributed
to BMPs at this point.
Additional Information.
Contact: David Wilkinson
Soil and Water Conservation District
721 S. Canyon Blvd.
John Day, OR 97845
503/575-0135
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Jack Ward Thomas
La Grande Research Station
La Grande, OR
503/963-7122
Reports: Tiedeman et al. (1987a, 1987b).
Crooked River Proiect. Oregon
Site Description. Crook County is located in central
Oregon, in the Blue Mountains. The relief is varied, and
rainfall averages 20 cm (20 in) a year. Much of the rangeland
has been invaded by juniper trees, which reduce forage guality.
About 670 km (400 mi) of stream are under study, including the
following watersheds: Camp, Bear, Sanford, Deer, Birch, Wolf,
Committee, Bronco, Beaver, Roba, Indian, Eagle Rock, and Twelve
Mile Creeks; and Crooked, John Day, and Deschutes Rivers. Most
of the creeks flow into Crooked River, which drains to the
Deschutes and eventually the Columbia River.
Land Use. Rangeland grazing by cattle is the dominant land
use.
Beneficial Use. The beneficial uses include resident and
anadromous fish populations, recreation and fishing, and
irrigation.
Best Management Practices. Experiments conducted in the
1960s showed that herd management had little impact on forage,
but that the removal of juniper trees greatly improved forage
quality. The BMPs implemented in the region focus on increasing
grass production and reducing the water sediment load. BMPs
include: riparian fencing; placing salt, water, rubbing posts
and supplemental feeds away from the'stream; prescribed burning;
and various grazing rotations. A unique 10-year management plan
is devised for each creek, based on consideration of creek bed
geology, average flow, velocity, sediment loading, and watershed
topography.
Monitoring. Monitoring techniques that have been most
successful include a photographic inventory of stream bank
vegetation, benthic macroinvertebrate analysis, and infrared
photographs of the stream and vegetation. Other monitoring
parameters include fish habitat, the riparian community, channel
stability, water quality (flow, pH, temperature, conductivity,
dissolved oxygen, and phosphorus), and groundwater levels (160
piezometers).
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Discussion. There has been a noticeable improvement in
riparictn vegetation, pasture growth, and stocking density. Bear
Creek„ for example, no longer dries out and now supports trout.
Additional Information.
Contact: Wayne Elmore
Bureau of Land Management
185 E. Fourth
Prineville, OR 97754
503/447-4115
Reports: No published reports are available.
Open Ranqeland: Middle Rockies
Upper Ttiton River Valley Proiect. Idaho
Site Description. The Upper Teton River Valley is a high
mountain valley surrounded on three sides by mountain ranges in
Teton County, eastern Idaho. South of State Highway 33, near
Tetonia, Idaho, the river begins to drop in a series of canyons
to the north and then west.
The climate in the Upper Teton River Valley is characterized
by cold winters and cool summers. Precipitation in the Driggs,
Idaho area averages approximately 40 cm/yr (16 in/yr) mostly
falling as snow. On the east side of the Upper Teton River, the
soils consist of a thin layer of silt loam with gravelly
subsurface material. A deeper layer of windblown silt loam
(loess) is found on the west side of the valley. Extensive
wetland meadows occur in the Upper Teton River Valley. Higher
elevations are timbered, although logging occurs to a limited
extent only in the Big Hole Mountains to the west.
Land Use. The Upper Teton River Valley encompasses
approximately 115,380 ha (285,000 ac), of which 66,400 ha
(164,000 ac) are in public lands. Approximately 20,000 ha
(50,000 ac) of privately owned land are used for hay, pasture, or
rangeland. Half of this occurs on wetland meadows. Another
23,000 ha (57,000 ac) of private land are irrigated cropland.
Irrigated cropland is predominately in seed potato production,
with some> barley and hay. Irrigation is generally accomplished
through oravity-fed sprinkler systems. Barley and wheat are
grown on approximately 5,260 ha (13,000 ac) in dryland. The
public land is used for grazing.
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Beneficial Use. Recreational use of the Teton River is
common. Fishery habitat was severely affected in the lower Teton
River and the South Fork Snake River when the U.S. Bureau of
Reclamation's Teton Dam failed in 1976. The Teton River at one
time was considered a high quality trout stream. The presence of
the Teton Range and Grand Teton National Park on the east side of
the valley offers potential for recreational development in the
upper watershed of the Teton River.
Best Management Practices. Erosion is most severe in the
spring. Typically, snowmelt occurs rapidly with high surface
flows over frozen soils. Grazing land, dryland crop areas, and
seed potato fields are particularly susceptible to erosion.
Current survey work conducted by Idaho Department of Fish and
Game (IDFG) indicates impacts on fisheries habitat are most
severe from grazing practices (Gamblin, pers. comm.).
Preliminary data collected by USDA SCS also indicate that
suspended sediment loading is higher in tributaries draining
publicly owned grazing land (Smart, pers. comm.).
Wetland meadow areas are all privately owned and are
generally used all summer as pasture or as natural hayfields.
Grazing also occurs on public lands. BMPs have not yet been
implemented on grazing land. Based on inventory data collected
by IDFG, proposed BMPs are expected to include fencing stream
banks to restrict access by livestock and revegetation of stream
banks with woody riparian vegetation. In-channel enhancement is
also planned by IDFG. Activities are currently in the planning
phase, with a stream enhancement plan expected in early 1988.
On irrigated land, BMPs include crop residue management,
irrigation water management, and rotation of crops with extensive
periods in hay production. On non-irrigated land, fallow
rotation is the most common BMP.
Monitoring. Baseline inventory data have' been collected by
IDFG on grazing use and intensity, bank erosion, stream channel
profile, percent riparian cover, and fish population estimates.
USDA SCS has collected preliminary data on suspended sediment.
The objective of the aquatic habitat baseline inventory is to
provide information necessary to develop recommendations for
remedial actions. There are no plans for long-term monitoring.
Discussion. This project could be classified under dryland
agriculture or irrigated farmland as well as grazing management
on forested rangeland and high elevation meadowlands. It is
classified in the grazing section of this chapter because
personal communications with USDA SCS and IDFG personnel working
on the project suggest that grazing practices have greater
adverse effects on aquatic habitat.
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The Upper Teton River Valley has high potential for post-
implementation monitoring of effectiveness of BMPs for grazing
management. IDFG has collected detailed baseline data on aquatic
habitat and fisheries. There are also excellent opportunities
for comparing the relative effects of imposing BMPs on grazing
activities, dryland agriculture, and irrigated agriculture.
Additional Information.
Contact:: Mark Gamlin Steve Smart
IDFG USDA SCS
1515 Lincoln Rd. P.O. Box 87
Idaho Falls, ID 83401 Driggs, ID 83422
208/522-7783 208/354-2955
Reports: No published information is available.
Open Ranqeland: Snake River Basin/High Desert
BLM Pilot Riparian Program. Idaho
Pro'iect Description. The Bureau of Land Management has
initiated a program to improve riparian habitat in grazing
allotments throughout the western United States. Each BLM
district office in Idaho has developed a plan to conduct a pilot
riparian project. A list of project sites is included as
Appendix C. Most of these are centered on perennial streams.
The Warm Springs Creek project in the BLM Salmon District is
atypical because it focuses on wetland meadows with very small
perennial flows.
Best Management Practices. A variety of BMPs have been or
are expected to be implemented as part of the pilot .riparian
projects. These include practices such as fencing, deferred or
rotational grazing, and alteration of distribution of livestock
(e.g., placing salt licks away from streams, providing water
tanks, or creating upland shade).
Monitoring. The program calls for monitoring over 'a 5-year
period. ;:n addition to monitoring change in riparian habitat,
the proposed protocols for projects in Idaho include analyses of
flows, susipended sediments, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen,
temperature, conductivity, stream channel morphology, bank
erosivity, and aquatic macroinvertebrates. Riparian vegetation
and bank exosivity are generally being monitored with
photographic records. On the Big Elk Creek project in the
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Cottonwood Resource area, fish density (electroshocking or
snorkeling observations) and habitat quality are also being
investigated. Habitat quality is being measured with techniques
developed by Binns and Eisermann (1979).
Discussion. The program is relatively new. Although
riparian vegetation composition is subject to site-specific
edaphic conditions, personal communications with BLM District
personnel indicated satisfaction with the program, especially the
analysis of aquatic macroinvertebrate communities. Aquatic
invertebrates were monitored at selected sites before BMPs were
implemented, and community analyses indicated the water quality
was fair to good.
Additional Information. A list of project sites is included
in Appendix C.
Reynolds Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. The 233 sq km (90 sq mi) Reynolds Creek
watershed is located in Owyhee County about 80 km (50 mi) to the
southwest of Boise, Idaho. Reynolds Creek drains north into the
Snake River in a rural area south of Nampa, Idaho. Elevation of
the watershed ranges from 1,097 m (3,600 ft) at the outlet to
2,252 m (7,390 ft) at the summit. The climate in the area is
semiarid. Annual precipitation at lower elevations averages
25 cm (10 in), occurring mostly as rain, and increases to over
102 cm (40 in) at the watershed summit. Annual sediment yield
averages 0.68 tonnes/ha (0.25 ton/ac) of which 7 percent
originates from snowmelt or rain-on-snow events.
Soils range from shallow desertic at the lower elevations to
deep organic soils in the forested areas. An impressive
diversity of plant communities typical of the Great Basin Desert
are found at the lower and middle elevations, while mountain
brush and forest vegetation is typical at the higher elevations.
Land Use. Seventy-seven percent of the watershed is under
federal and state government ownership with the remaining
23 percent in private ownership. The primary land use is
livestock grazing with about 800 ha (2,000 ac) or 3 percent of
the watershed irrigated from Reynolds Creek for hay production.
Beneficial Use. Water from Reynolds Creek is diverted by
structures for flood irrigation of hay fields and pasture land.
Best Management Practices. Grazing management treatments
include fencing, water development, deferred rotation grazing,
and herding.
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Monitoring. The watershed research mission is to
quantitatively describe the hydrologic processes and interactive
influences of climate, soils, vegetation, topography, and
management on rangeland watersheds, and to develop information
inventories, simulation models, and expert systems that can be
used by action agencies and producers to assist in determining
optimum management strategies. Hydrologic data have been
collected in the Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed by USDA-
Agricultural Research Service (ARS) since 1961. Available data
include precipitation, streamflow, and suspended and bedload
sediments.
Nutrient levels and bacterial contamination of surface
runoff have also been studied at different times by research
scientists at ARS and affiliated institutions; however, no
current water quality studies are being conducted. The frequency
of samples collected and the list of parameters investigated
varied by study. Collected data typically included streamflow,
temperature, turbidity, suspended sediments, dissolved oxygen,
conductivity, pH, total and fecal coliform, fecal streptococci,
ammonia nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen, Kjeldahl nitrogen,
orthophosphate, total phosphorus, and selected ions (Na, K, Ca,
Mg, Cl, carbonate, sulfate). Bacterial counts normally were
obtained with the membrane filter technique. A groundwater study
that focuses on the water budget of a 16 ha (40 ac) basin has
been collecting data from 1983, with a groundwater quality study
in the pilanning stages.
Affiliated agencies in the project are the University of
Idaho, Utah State University, Boise State University, USDA scs,
and BLM.
Additional Information.
Contact: W. Blackburn
USDA Agricultural Research Service
Northwest Watershed Research Center
270 South Orchard
Boise, ID 83705
208/334-1363
Reports: Many reports have been prepared as a result of research
on the watershed. The majority of these reports have
been prepared by or with the participation of
researchers at USDA ARS.
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Chapter 3
REVIEW OF SILVICULTURE-RELATED MONITORING
Introduction
Silvicultural projects are organized in the same manner as
the agriculture-related projects (Chapter 2), under the following
headings.
Site Description. The site description gives a brief
outline of the geography and climate. Enough information is
presented to enable readers to determine whether their site
conditions are comparable.
Beneficial Use. This section focuses on those beneficial
uses that the BMPs are or should be addressing. A complete list
of the beneficial uses of a water body is not intended.
Best Management Practices. Forestry BMPs generally follow
state guidelines; percent of cut, harvest rotation, and road
construction are briefly discussed to enable readers to cross-
reference their projects with others in the region. No attempt
is made to discuss the merits of individual BMPs, and there is no
attempt to relate individual BMPs to specific reduction in NPS
pollution.
Monitoring. The objectives of an NPS pollution control and
monitoring program are essential for judging the success of the
program. The objectives of the NPS program are given in the
first paragraph of this section whenever possible. Details of
the design of the monitoring program (parameters measured,
sampling regime, time frame) are given. The data collected by
the monitoring program are of little interest, since the main
concern of this report is the design of monitoring programs. The
data collected are therefore not reported here.
Discussion. The discussion section highlights the
conclusions of the monitoring program, whether the objectives
were met, if any of the measured parameters were particularly
useful, and if there were any major problems of the program.
Additional Information. The names and addresses of project
leaders, and references to published reports are given to enable
readers to gather additional information on the project. A full
bibliography of reports is not intended, rather, key references
that can be used as an introduction to the project and its
outcome are noted.
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Southeast Alaska
Indian River Proiect. Alaska
Site Description. The Indian River watershed is located on
the north side of Tenakee Inlet, on northeast Chichagof Island,
Alaska. The study area is a 2,849 ha (7,040 ac) sub-watershed of
a 5,439 ha (13,440 ac) watershed that drains into saltwater.
Elevations range from 91 m (300 ft) near the stream gage to 910 m
(3,000 :ft) at the ridge crest.
Climate is typical of coastal Alaska: cool and wet. Major
peak flows generally occur in the fall rainy season with
secondary peaks occurring during April and May snow melt. Winter
snowpack is generally intermittent below 305 m (1,000 ft) in
elevation. Approximately 40 percent of the annual 269 cm
(106 in) of valley precipitation occurs in September and October.
A wide range of soil types exists in the Indian River
watershed. Poorly drained organic soils are found in the alpine
and valley bottom muskegs. Well-drained alluvial soils are
widely distributed along the valley bottom. Sub-alpine brush
slopes have deep, well-drained, gravelly loam soils.
Vegotation in alpine areas are heaths, grasses, and forbs.
Muskeg species are predominantly western hemlock and Sitka
spruce. Alaska cedar and lodgepole pine are common on poorly
drained sites, and mountain hemlock is predominant in higher
elevation timber stands.
Beneficial Use. Anadromous fish distribution in the Indian
River is restricted to the lower 1.5 km (1 mi), several
kilometers below the monitoring site. The major species include
pink and chum salmon, with smaller numbers of coho and sockeye
salmon. Resident fish species in the upper watershed (study
area) are Dolly Varden char and cutthroat trout.
Best Management Practices. Logging and road development
began in the upper Indian River watershed during the summer of
1979 and was completed by the fall of 1980. A total of 101 ha
(250 ac), or about 8 percent of the watershed was harvested by
high lead cable yarding during the study period.
BMPs were prescribed in the study area in order to reduce
potential nonpoint source sediment inputs from logging and road
construction activities. Log suspension was required for yarding
over most ephemeral channels. Timber harvesting was not allowed
on sensitive flood plain soils and highly braided channel areas.
Trees were; left along stream banks as needed to provide stream
bank stabilization and to provide fish habitat diversity. Trees
are generally not yarded across perennial streams. Road designs
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utilized a rolling road grade, thus minimizing the amount of road
cut and fill, and reducing the potential for concentrating
surface water runoff on road surfaces and ditches. Slash from
road clearing right-of-way was generally piled in windrows
downslope of the road fill to act as a sediment filter. Road
drainage culverts were bedded at natural channel grade with rocks
placed at the culvert outlets as energy dissipaters. Grass seed
and fertilizer were applied to road cutslopes and ditches
immediately after construction was complete. A good ground cover
was established in most disturbed areas within one year.
Monitoring. The objective was to study sediment production
regime of a large fourth-order stream and its response to logging
and road building. The base measurement period for this study
was water year 1978-1979. Monitoring continued through the
period of logging and for 2 additional years. Monitoring, which
occurred some distance from the logging and road construction,
focused on flow, suspended sediment, turbidity, and bedload
transport.
Discussion. The highest monthly suspended sediment
discharge in the 6-year monitoring period for Indian River
occurred in conjunction with unusually high runoff prior to
significant logging disturbance. No apparent changes in the
relative magnitude of distribution of monthly discharge were
otherwise indicated by the data. Values for post-logging annual
suspended sediment yields were within the range of suspended
sediment yields measured during the pre-logging baseline period.
Results revealed no detectable changes in suspended sediment
delivery during the first 2 years of logging activities in the
watershed.
The lack of detectable sediment yield changes could be
attributed to a number of factors: high natural variability in
sediment yields during baseline monitoring, successful
implementation of BMPs, relatively light treatment in the
watershed (only 8 percent of the watershed harvested), and
monitoring well below the watershed treatment. In addition,
researchers concluded that traditional sediment measurement
procedures for determining BMP effectiveness in relation to
sediment impacts in a large watershed may not be the most
appropriate approach. Researchers recommended that the
effectiveness of BMPs was best evaluated at the sub-watershed
level, near the watershed treatment.
Additional Information.
Contact: Steve Paustian
Tongass'National Forest
204 Siginaka Way
Sitka, AK 99835
907/747-6671
Reports: Paustian (1987)
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Kadashan River Project. Alaska
Site Description. The Kadashan River is located on the
south side of Tenakee Inlet on Chichagof Island in Alaska. The
study area consists of three first- and second-order streams
which drain into the Kadashan River near its mouth. These small
streams originate from snowmelt and springs, and range in size
from 12 ha (30 ac) to 32 ha (80 ac). The majority of
precipitation occurs in the fall, with May, June, and July
normally being the driest months. Streams rise and fall rapidly
in response to precipitation and snowmelt, with highest flows
observed in the fall and in response to rain-on-snow events in
the winter and spring.
So:.ls in the upper part of the study area are comprised of
thin glacially derived.materials and organics. Valley bottom
soils consist of unconsolidated alluvium, colluvium, and glacial
sediments. Vegetation is dominated by old-growth stands of
hemlock and spruce. In the alpine areas, grasses, forbs, and
heaths are common.
Bereficial Use. Coho salmon and Dolly Varden char can be
found in streams in the area.
Best Management Practices. Road building began in the
Kadashan watersheds in the summer of 1984 and was completed
within 1 week. Roads traverse side slopes of between 20 and 30
percent, and are comprised of both cut and fill sections. Road
clearing slash was generally placed on fill slopes to act as a
sediment filter and cross culverts were placed at the natural
elevation of the streambed. Exposed slopes were seeded and
fertilized immediately, and a good vegetative cover was
established within 1 year. No timber harvest has taken place and
the roadis have not been utilized by heavy trucks.
Monitoring. The objective was to study sediment production
in response to road building and logging. All three watersheds
were equipped with sediment settling basins and continuous
streamflow recording devices located 30-60 m (100-200 ft)
downstrecim from road crossings. During high flow periods,
automatic: pumping samplers collected suspended sediments. Grab
samples vere also taken to determine the accuracy of the
automated samplers. Total sediment load (suspended and bedload)
was accounted for at each monitoring station. Analyses of
settling basin deposits (partial size fractions) were also
performed. Monitoring began 2 years before the start of road
construction and is continuing.
Discussion. As expected, short-term increases in suspended
sediment concentrations were noted immediately below road
crossings during road construction. Sediment deposition rates
remained above control levels for at least 2 years following road
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construction. It was estimated that it took a period of 1 to 2
years for the pulse of construction-related sediment to travel
less than 100 m (300 ft). Researchers concluded that small,
relatively steep streams have a considerable storage capacity to
buffer downstream movement of fine sediments between 0.5 and
4 mm (0.02-0.16 in). Sediments smaller than this are flushed
quickly downstream. Total sediment yields increased between 20
and 66 percent following road construction, but the relatively
short monitoring period and natural variation in sediment
production prevented the researchers from estimating what portion
of this increase was due to road construction. It was concluded
that monitoring near the pollutant source provides the most
effective quantitative assessment of BMPs on small watersheds.
Additional Information.
Contact: Steve Paustian
Tongass National Forest
204 Siginaka Way
Sitka, AK 99835
907/747-6671
Reports: Paustian (1987).
Auke Bay Laboratory Project. Alaska
Site Description. The Auke Bay Laboratory, operated by the
National Marine Fisheries Service, has conducted extensive
research on 18 streams in six locations in southeast Alaska. The
study streams were small, with a low flow discharge of between
0.01-0.38 cu m (0.3-13.4 cfs) and channel gradients between 0.1-
3.0 percent. Peak stream flows occur in late fall in response to
heavy rains. Ice cover was absent or minimal from the streams.
In general, streams are similar to many in southeast Alaska.
Steep valley walls are vegetated with a dense forest dominated by
western hemlock and Sitka spruce.
Beneficial Use. Streams in the area are populated with coho
salmon, steelhead and cutthroat trout, and Dolly Varden char.
Chum and pink salmon are also present, but were not the focus of
the studies.
Best Management Practices. The study was based on extensive
comparisons of three silvicultural treatments: old-growth with
no disturbance, clearcuts with buffer strips, and clearcuts with
no buffer strips. Buffer strips ranged from 10-130 m (30-390 ft)
in width, and harvest occurred between 1 and 12 years prior to
sampling.
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Monitoring. The overall objective of the various studies
taking place since the mid-1970s has been to assess the impact of
different harvesting practices on salmonid populations and their
habitat. A wide range of variables have been monitored,
including fish densities, distribution and age structure, benthic
invertebrate densities, algae, water temperature, organic debris,
fish habitat type, channel stability, and stream sedimentation.
Discussion. The studies concluded that buffer strip width
affected fish habitat quality, particularly pool area. These
pools were found to be critical winter habitat for steelhead, and
units with no buffer strips had significantly less pool habitat
than buffered or old-growth units. Pool quality was also higher
on buffered reaches due to an abundance of cover. Reaches with
no buffer strips tended to have higher summer water temperatures,
more algae and more benthos, and tended to produce larger fry.
Researchers questioned whether this advantage would be lost as
the fish grew and required the high quality pool areas which the
buffered reaches possessed in greater numbers.
Additional Information.
Contact1.: Mike Murphy
Auke Bay Lab
National Marine Fisheries Service
PoO. Box 210155
Auke Bay, AK 99821
907/789-7231
Reports: Numerous articles have been published by the Auke Bay
Laboratory. Examples are Heifetz et al. (1986), and
Murphy et al. (1986).
Washington State Timber. Fish, and Wildlife Agreement
Introduction. The Timber, Fish, and Wildlife (TFW)
Agreement provides the framework, procedures, and requirements
for managing state and private forests to meet the needs of the
timber industry and to provide protection for fish, wildlife, and
water resources, and the cultural/archeological resources of
Indian tribes within Washington state.
Participants in the agreement included representatives of a
number of Indian tribes, the Northwest Indian Fisheries
Commission, the Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission,
Washington Environmental Council, Audubon Society, Washington
Forest Protection Association, Washington Farm Forestry
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Association, the Northwest Renewable Resources Center of Seattle;
Weyerhaeuser, Georgia Pacific, Plum Creek, and Simpson Timber
Companies; and the State Departments of Natural Resources,
Ecology, and Fish and Game.
The goals sought by all parties are to ensure that the
activities of the timber industry are compatible with the
conservation of fish, wildlife, water, and cultural and
archeological resources. The wildlife resource goal is to
provide the greatest diversity of habitats (particularly
riparian, wetlands, and old-growth forest), and to assure the
greatest diversity of species to maintain the native wildlife of
Washington forest lands. The fishery resource goals are long-
term habitat productivity for wild fish, and the protection of
hatchery water supplies. The water resource goals are for
protection of water needs of people, fish, and wildlife. The
archeological and cultural goals are to develop a process to
inventory, evaluate, preserve and protect traditional cultural
and archeological areas in managed forests and assure tribal
access. The timber resource goal is the continued growth and
development of the state's forest products industry.
Current forest practices rules and regulations provide a
management framework for forest practices on state and private
lands in the state of Washington. The TFW participants have
identified several areas wherein this current system is not
meeting the needs of one or more of the parties involved. A
critical element of the proposed management system is the inter-
disciplinary team (ID Team) concept. The ID Team, assembled by
the Department of Natural Resources, will have technical
expertise in soils, geomorphology, geology, hydrology, fisheries
and wildlife biology, and forest engineering.
Monitoring. The objective of TFW is to provide a basis for
understanding resource management interactions and the impacts of
forest practices on public resources. The results of these
efforts will be used to improve future forest practices, to
identify where rules and regulations need to be modified, and to
identify cooperative (non-regulatory) efforts that can be
implemented. A unique aspect of the proposed management system is
the opportunity for the participants to meet both before and
after timber harvests have occurred. Discussion of harvest plans
will provide all parties an opportunity to voice their concerns
and needs well in advance of the actual timber operations.
Among the topics covered in the agreement are forest roads,
riparian management zones, unstable slopes, and silvicultural
activities. Additional topics include upland management areas,
archeological/cultural, old growth, cumulative effects,
corrective action, and incentives/compensation.
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Discussion. The general principle for future silvicultural
practices is to modify the site only to the degree necessary to
achieve the desired biological results in the most cost effective
manner, while protecting the public resources. Management is
guided by the following goal statements:
1, Site-specific watershed prescriptions for timber
management should aim at reducing ecosystem
disturbances.
2. All decisions, whether silvicultural or non-timber in
nature, should be made from an ecosystem perspective
that recognizes the interaction of biology, physical
sciences and economics.
3. Adaptive management should be introduced and used.
Implementation of the agreement began January 1, 1988.
Technical committees have been formed for. each of the topics
covered in the agreement, and monitoring programs are being
decided upon. To date, no monitoring program has been
implemented.
Additional Information.
Contact: Jim Rochelle
Weyerhaeuser Corporation
Research and Development
33663 - 32nd Drive South
Auburn, WA 98477
206/924-2345, ext. 6327
Reports: On file at Northwest Renewable Resources Center
Coast Range
Carnation Creek Project. British Columbia
Sit'.e Description. The Carnation Creek basin is a 1,000 ha
(2,471 cic) drainage located in a western hemlock-western red
cedar forest on the south side of Barkely Sound on Vancouver
Island„ British Columbia. Elevations in this research watershed
are below 800 m (2,640 ft), with the creek flowing directly into
saltwater. The watershed contains steep slopes which border a
wide valley bottom through which the stream meanders. Soils
consist of an organic layer underlain by loamy sands, gravel, and
bedrock.
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The climate is mild and wet, with an average annual
precipitation ranging from 120-480 cm (83-198 in). Approximately
5 percent of this occurs as snow. Streamflows in Carnation Creek
range from a low of about 0.02 cu m (0.7 cfs) in August to a
winter maximum of about 48 cu m (1,694 cfs).
Beneficial Use. The stream contains small but viable
populations of chum and coho salmon, and steelhead and cutthroat
trout. Some pink salmon have been known to use the estuary.
Best Management Practices. The Carnation Creek study was
designed as a research project. Between 1976 and 1981,
approximately 40 percent of the watershed was logged, primarily
in the winter. A full range of buffer strip practices were
utilized, ranging from logging to the stream channel to leaving
considerable strips of native vegetation. Treatments can be
summarized in three groups: 1) a strip of trees varying in width
from 1 to 70 m (3-230 ft) was left along the stream margin;
2) all but five trees were felled away from the stream, debris
was kept from the stream, and stream-side alder was removed; and
3) logging occurred simultaneously on both sides of the creek,
some trees were felled across the creek and yarded from it,
rotten windfalls in or across the creek were broken by felling
and yarding, merchantable windfalls were yarded from the creek,
streamside alder were individually sprayed with Tordon 22 K One
year before logging occurred, and broadcast burning and
replanting occurred on each cutblock.
Monitoring. The Carnation Creek study was designed to
determine the impacts of typical logging practices on fisheries
resources. Monitoring at Carnation Creek has been carried out in
three phases: 1) 1971-1975, pre-logging baseline monitoring;
2) 1976-1981, monitoring of road construction and logging; and
3) 1981-present, post-logging monitoring. Parameters measured
included flow, ions (calcium, magnesium, sodium, nitrate,
chloride, sulphate, sodium bicarbonate), temperature, gravel
quality, organic debris distribution, and channel morphology. In
addition, a number of biologic indices were monitored, including
macroinvertebrate; periphyton biomass and species composition;
population trends, ages, growth, and habitat utilization of coho
salmon; and sculpin population trends and interaction with
salmonids. Conditions were monitored in the upper reaches of the
creek as well as near the mouth.
Discussion. Data indicate that, in general, concentrations
of dissolved ions increased after logging, but began to decline
within 3 years after disturbance. Five years after logging,
concentrations of some ions had not yet returned to prelogging
levels. Moderate increases in maximum temperature and
temperature fluctuation were recorded where the canopy was
removed. The magnitude of changes was roughly proportional to
the extent of streamside vegetation removal. Insignificant
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changes to debris characteristics and channel morphology were
observed before and after logging when buffer strips were
maintained. When minimal or no buffer strip was left intact, the
number and mobility of instream debris pieces increased as did
channel erosion. The amount of large, stable debris decreased in
the case where no buffer strip was retained.
Biologic sampling revealed a variety of results. Riparian
vegetation removal seemed to have minimal impact on algal
biomass, although available light was increased. Differences in
drift invertebrate biomass and species composition were not
discernible between logged and unlogged regions. Studies imply
that within unlogged sites, fluctuations due to natural
conditions may be large enough to encompass differences observed
between logged and unlogged sites. In channels where the
overstory was removed, the short-term temperature increases were
accompanied by enhanced coho smolt production. Longer-term
changes, such as alteration of gravel quality and debris movement
appear to have reduced coho smolt production about 5 years after
logging.
Additional Information.
Contact: Charles Scrivener
Fisheries Research Branch,
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
Pacific Biological Station
Nanaimo, B.C. V9R 5K6
604/756-7220
Reports;; Hartman (1982) .
Olympic National Forest. Washington
Sj.te Description. The Olympic National Forest is located
on the Olympic Peninsula in the northwestern corner of Washington
state. The narrow, low altitude coastal strip on the west side
of the Olympics has an. annual rainfall of 183 cm (72 in); on the
east side, the annual precipitation drops to as low as 61 cm
(24 in). This mild, maritime climate supports a dense coniferous
forest dominated by Douglas-fir and western hemlock at low
elevations, and western hemlock and Pacific silver fir on higher
ridges. Red cedar and Sitka spruce are abundant in moist areas.
Riparian vegetation consists of red alder and black cottonwood.
The large streams in the region drain areas greater than
775 sq km (300 sq mi).
Soils are developed mainly from sandstone, siltstone, shale
and basalt rock sources, and exhibit a wide range of
characteristics.
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Beneficial Use. The wood products industry is the mainstay
of the forest. Anadromous fish populate many of the region's
streams. The Wishkah, and the Big and Little Quilcene Rivers
serve as municipal watersheds. Boating, fishing, and swimming are
common throughout the forest's streams.
Best Management Practices. Acceptance of the BMP concept
for timber harvest activities has placed emphasis on establishing
a desired ground or vegetative condition after completion of
timber harvest activities. Directional felling, selective tree
removal, and clearcutting with buffer strips are examples of
Olympic National Forest BMPs.
Monitoring. In the past year, the Olympic National Forest
has started a process of visually monitoring two timber sale
activities per Ranger District per year, after completion of the
sale. The objectives are to: 1) determine if the concerns
addressed in the Environmental Assessment Report (EAR) were
carried through to the timber sale contract; 2) determine if the
terms of the timber sale contract were met; 3) assess whether the
BMPs which were prescribed in the timber sale contract
accomplished what was intended (e.g., were enough trees left
after a partial cut); and 4) assess feasibility of implementing
BMPs (e.g., was directional felling with jacks possible on slopes
over 65 percent).
Monitoring projects are prioritized. High priority
watersheds include those sprayed with herbicide or fertilizer.
Monitoring BMP implementation is second priority, and sensitive
areas, such as municipal watersheds, are third priority.
Discussion. Water quality monitoring emphasized turbidity
and water temperature data collection. Other parameters commonly
monitored were streambed, streambank, and vegetative and soil
conditions. Meaningful interpretation of data was usually
difficult due to natural variation. Water temperature data was
easier to interpret, and meaningful information has resulted
(Burns 1986).
The Olympic Monitoring Plan, fiscal years 1981-1985,
provided $29,000 in funding (in 1981) for 85 water monitoring
stations and $10,500 for 179 soil monitoring stations (Carlson
1981).
Additional Information.
Contact: Roger Stephens
Olympic National Forest
P.O. Box 2288
Olympia, WA 98507
206/753-9431
Reports:
Burns (1986).
Carlson (1981)
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Clearwater River Project. Washington
Site Description. The Clearwater River, a tributary to the
Queets River, drains a 375 sq km (145 sq mi) basin on the western
slope of the Olympic Mountains in western Washington. Slopes are
steep and covered with Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western red
cedar, Sitka spruce, and white fir. Soils are classified as silt
clays and silt loams overlying silt and sandstones. The climate
is typical low elevation maritime, with annual precipitation
averaging about 250 cm (138 in). Rainfall is strongly seasonal,
falling mostly between November and March and snow remains on the
ground only briefly at the higher elevations. River discharge
roughly parallels precipitation, with a maximum recorded high
flow of about 1,076 cu m/sec (38,000 cfs) occurring in mid-
winter, and low flows of about 1 cu m/sec (35 cfs) occurring in
August or September. Average annual streamflow for water year
1974-1975 was about 28 cu m/sec (1,000 cfs).
Beneficial Use. The Clearwater River and its tributaries
support a wide variety of fish species. Coho and Chinook salmon
as well', as steelhead and cutthroat trout can be found in the
basin. Minor runs of sockeye and chum salmon also exist.
Bost Management Practices. The Clearwater basin is under
intensive timber management by state, federal, and private land
owners. About 60 percent of the basin has been logged at least
once, primarily by high-lead techniques. Clearcuts average about
32 ha (79 ac) in size, with 10-100 m (33-330 ft) buffer strips
left along larger streams on state lands. Streams on private
lands, however, are generally cut over, and smaller streams often
have no buffer strip retained. Roads are constructed on full
benches! to minimize sidecast.
Monitoring. The study was initiated to determine the impact
of silvicultural activities on salmonid populations and habitat.
Following two large landslides on a small creek in the upper
portion, of the basin, monitoring of gravel composition, channel
morphology, benthic insect abundance, and fish population
parameters began in 1972. Although monitoring began near the
slides, it has been expanded to .encompass the entire Clearwater
River basin. The scope of parameters monitored has also been
expanded to include riparian vegetation composition and shading,
water quality, benthic community composition, and fish
escapement.
Discussion. Studies on the Clearwater suggest that the most
useful measured parameter has been streambed gravel, whereas,
aquatic macroinvertebrates have shown no significant change over
the course of the study (Cederholm pers. comm.). The intrusion
of fine-grained sediment into spawning gravels is the most
significant forestry-related impact in the watershed. On a
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basin-wide scale, it has been estimated that survival-to-
emergence of coho salmon has been lowered by 20 percent.
Sediment generated by road-related landslides and road surface
erosion are the most important sources for fines affecting
spawning habitat; future landslides could be nearly eliminated by
road designs which avoid unstable slopes.
Winter refuge habitat is being lost due to disruption or
blockage of small floodplain channels, and channel stability has
decreased due to removal of large woody debris. Aggradation of
coarse sediment has reduced available summer habitat. Study
conclusions emphasize that although many parameters have been
monitored for nearly 15 years, the processes studied occur with
varying frequency over long time periods.
In addition, researchers consider the basin's population of
coho salmon to be depressed due to heavy fishing harvests. They
conclude that this depression predisposes the salmon population
to perturbation associated with silviculturally-related habitat
degradation.
Additional Information.
Contact: Jeff Cederholm
Washington Department of Natural Resources
Olympia, WA 98504
206/753-0671
Reports: Numerous reports have been generated by the Fisheries
Research Institute, University of Washington, Seattle,
WA. Summary information can be found in Cederholm and
Reid (1987).
Alsea River Project. Oregon
Site Description. The Alsea River watershed is in Oregon's
Coast Ranges, between Newport and Waldport, 11 km (7 mi) south of
the town of Toledo. The study was conducted on three small
watersheds: Deer Creek (304 ha [750 ac]), Needle Branch
(71 ha [175 ac]), and Flynn Creek (203 ha [500 ac]). The Alsea
Watershed Study (1958-73) was one of the first long-term
watershed studies to consider the impact of timber harvest
practices on the biological characteristics of streams, including
their anadromous fish populations.
Beneficial Use. The Alsea- watershed was used as a research
area to determine the impact of timber harvesting on biological
characteristics of streams. Fish populations present on the
watershed include coho salmon and cutthroat trout.
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Best Management Practices. The study was designed with two
experimental watersheds and one control watershed. Needle Branch
watershed was completely clearcut without stream protection using
harvesting methods that were common prior to forest practice
regulations. Deer Creek watershed was patch-cut in three cuts,
25 ha [62 ac) each, with a buffer strip left along the main
stream channel. The Flynn Creek watershed remained unmodified as
a control area.
Monitoring. Stream gaging weirs and two-way fish traps were
constrticted on all three watersheds in 1958-59, and monitoring
began in mid-1959. Roads were constructed in 1965 and logging
took place from March through October, 1966. Post-logging
monitoring continued until the fall of 1973.
Measurement of change in streamflow, dissolved solids, water
temperature, dissolved oxygen, and suspended sediment were
important components of the Alsea study. These physical
characteristics were monitored to measure changes caused by
harvesting and road construction on the water resources and to
aid in interpreting changes in the biological communities.
Riparian canopy, substrate composition, and fish populations were
the biological and habitat characteristics measured.
Discussion. Dramatic changes in water temperature were
recorded on the clearcut watershed although no changes were
observeid where the riparian vegetation remained intact.
Dissolved oxygen was greatly reduced in streams receiving fresh
logging slash; the levels returned to normal once the slash was
removed. There was an increase in the percentage of fine
sediments in spawning gravels which coincided with a reduced
number of emergent fry per spawning female salmon. Suspended
sediment increased fivefold over the baseline values in the
first vrinter after slash burning on the clearcut watershed.
Yields declined to near baseline levels 4 years after the
harvest:. The single most important measure of response of the
fish populations in the watersheds was expected to be seen in the
numbers! of outmigrating smolts. However, the variability in
numberst of returning adults confounded the interpretation of
smolt data, and no conclusion could be drawn.
Ar; important result of the Alsea study was the base it
provided for future research. Also, the study brought managers
and researchers from several disciplines together on a long-term
basis to work on problems and seek solutions. As a result, the
findings from the Alsea study have been used to help develop
forest practice .regulations (requirements for the use of buffer
strips along fish-bearing streams, to protect streambanks during
yarding, to provide shade, and to keep slash out of streams) in
the Pacific Northwest.
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Additional Information.
Contact: James Hall
Department of Fisheries and Wildlife
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/754-0123
George Brown
Forest Engineering Department
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/754-0123
Reports: Numerous reports were prepared based on research
conducted in the Alsea watershed. A retrospective
review of the project is presented in Hall et al.
(1987) .
Siuslaw River Project. Oregon
Site Description. The land managed by the BLM on either
side of the Willamette Valley, the Siuslaw area in the Coastal
Range ecoregion, and the McKenzie region in the Cascades
ecoregion totals 130,000 ha (320,000 ac) and is managed as a
unit. About 1,600 ha (4,000 ac) of Douglas-fir are harvested per
year.
The BLM land to the west of Eugene, Oregon within the
Coast Range ecoregion has a heavily dissected landscape and the
steep-sided valleys have a high landslide potential. The soils
are deep, developed on a sandstone bedrock, and annual
precipitation ranges from 200 to 250 cm (80 to 100 in). The
McKenzie Valley BLM land to the east of Eugene, within the
Cascades ecoregion, has a moderately dissected landscape with a
maximum ridge height of 910 m (3,000 ft). The soils, developed
from igneous parent material, are moderately deep. Precipitation
is 100 to 150 cm (40 to 50 in) a year. Landslides are
infrequent, but large.
Beneficial Use. Beneficial uses of water resources include
fishing and water supply for municipal areas.
Best Management Practices. Riparian zones are left along
third-order streams and larger. The width of the zone is decided
in the field, but in general is 15 m (60 ft) for third-order
streams, 30 m (100 ft) for fourth-order and 60 m (200 ft) for
fifth-order streams. First- and second-order streams are treated
individually. If stream slopes are steeper than 80 percent, the
vegetation is left standing to the brow of the hill. Roads are
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not bud.lt on slopes greater than 60 percent and skyline yarding
is used on steeper terrain. Head walls, which are landslide
areas, are not cut.
Monitoring. The area is prone to landslides which are
exacerbated by logging, and past management practices resulted in
a lawsuit. Monitoring is being conducted by both BLM and USFS to
gather baseline data and to evaluate changes in water quality due
to management practices.
Baseline and long-term monitoring of water quality is being
conducted at eight stations. Flow (automated stage and gage),
suspended solids, temperature (continuous), turbidity and
conductance (once a week in winter, once a month in summer) are
monitored. Temperature will be correlated with stream shade.
Currently, the baseline stations are positioned above logging
sites, although all the forest will eventually be cut.
Stations established to study special monitoring projects
and individual timber sales are sampled once a week in the winter
and once a month in the summer. Streams are analyzed for
suspended solids, flow, and turbidity for 1 year before and after
management activity. Bank stability and fecal coliform are
monitored (twice in high flow, twice in low flow) at selected
stations.
Additional Information.
Contact: Allen Schloss
Bureau of Land Management
P.O. Box 10226 (1255 Pearl St.)
Eugene, OR 97440
503/687-6651
Fred Swanson
H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest
Forestry Science Lab
3200 Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/757-4387
Reports: Administrative reports are available for study areas,
for example, Swanson and Roach (1987) .
Coos Bay Project. Oregon
Site Description. The Coos Bay District in southwestern
Oregon covers 124,023 ha (306,230 ac) of commercial forest land.
Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar are the most
common tree species, while white cedar and grand fir are found
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occasionally. The understory consists of salmonberry, huckle-
berry, sword fern, vine maple, and rhododendron. The riparian
vegetation consists of primarily red alder, with myrtle and big
leaf maple as the climax species. Much of the riparian
vegetation is relatively new due to the past logging practice of
splash dams, used from 1880 to 1956.
The soils in the northern Coos Bay area are of uplifted
sandstone. A clay base and vegetation removal have made the
steep slopes quite erodible. In the southern end, the soils are
of the Klamath Mountain Formation, consisting of a variety of
rocks, predominantly granite and serpentine.
Timber harvest in 1972 was managed at 1 million cubic meters
(234 mbf) a year. The current proposed management plan allows
for a slight increase in harvest.
Beneficial Use. Elk hunting, trout and steelhead fishing
are popular sports in the district's forests. Many small streams
of the forest feed reservoirs that supply the water to the Cities
of Coos Bay and North Bend. A potential 5 million dollar oyster
farming industry is pending agreement with the City of Coos Bay
to reduce sewage outfall into the bay.
Best Management Practices. The BMPs proposed in the new
plan include leaving 4 percent of the commercial forest land
(CFL) as riparian vegetation (4,372 ha; 10,800 ac). Seven
percent of the CFL is designated as fragile and incapable of
supporting sustained timber yields.
The Coos Bay District BLM adheres to the requirements of the
Oregon FPA. Broadcast burning of slash leaving down timber,
flagging snags for wildlife habitat, installing gabions in
streams, and creating pools for salmon spawning are additional
practices of the district.
Monitoring. In 1982, the BLM Oregon State drew up the
manual "Monitoring Western Oregon Records of Decision," which
details the monitoring plans for fisheries and water quality.
Baseline data are collected on temperature and flow from
eight streams in the district. Prioli Creek's watershed
(130 ha; 320 ac) is all BLM owned with a fish hatchery below and
logging above. Sampling of sediment, temperature, conductivity,
and precipitation has been done since 1984. At Cherry Creek,
which is 80 percent BLM land and 20 percent private land,
suspended sediment, turbidity, and conductivity data are
collected. Sampling is done above and below the harvest site,
during the sale, and for 3 to 7 years after the timber cut.
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The new management plan calls for a monthly monitoring of
stream flow profiles, temperature profiles, dissolved oxygen, pH,
and bedload. These parameters will also be monitored after major
storm events. A thorough stream habitat monitoring is to be done
periodically (once in a 10-year period for major streams)
including channel structure, riparian vegetation, bedload
composition, fish, and aquatic populations.
Additional Information.
Contact: John Anderson
U.S. Department of the Interior
Bureau of Land Management
Coos Bay District Office
333 South Fourth Street
Coos Bay, OR 97420
503/269-5880
Reports: USDI, Bureau of Land Management (1982).
USDI, Bureau of Land Management (1986).
Elk River Project. Oregon
Site Description. The Elk River basin is located 10 km
(6 mi) northwest of Port Orford on the southern Oregon coast.
Douglas-fir, Port Orford cedar, western hemlock, tanoak, and
Pacific Madrone are the main tree species in the forest; big
leaf maple and alder are the dominant vegetation in the riparian
zones. Annual precipitation is approximately 254 cm (100 in),
most of which falls between September and May. The basin is
characterized by high relief and steep slopes that are
susceptible to mass wasting.
Beneficial Use. The Elk River basin is an important
producer of wild chinook salmon, cutthroat and winter steelhead
trout for sport and commercial fisheries. A fish hatchery is
located within the boundary of the National Forest and is
operated by the Oregon State Department of Fish and Wildlife..
The basin is also used for commercial timber. The BMPs
prescribed focus on protecting the fisheries resource.
Best Management Practices. The BMPs of the Siskiyou
National Forest are dictated by the FPA. Water quality criteria
follow the forestwide standards and guidelines, a collaborative
agreement between the Forest Service and the State of Oregon.
The hydrogeology of the basin is such that few pools are
formed fur critical spawning beds. Five reaches of stream,
primarily in tributaries, were identified as exceptionally
productive habitats and are referred to as "flats" because of
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their low gradient (generally less than 2 percent) and wide
valley floor. Harvesting practices near these sites is modified
to prevent sediment loading in the spawning beds.
Riparian zones are widened at the request of the staff
geologist if it is determined that timber harvesting is occurring
on unstable slopes.
Monitoring. The objectives of the study were to:
1) determine where and when (within the past 25 years) mass
movement events initiated and terminated in selected areas of the
Elk River basins; 2) determine what historical trends, if any,
have occurred in stream water temperature and analyze observed
trends to determine possible influences of changes in climate,
riparian vegetation cover, and channel morphology; 3) inventory
fish habitats to determine where salmonid fish are most
productive and where they are most sensitive to management
activities within selected subbasins of Elk River; and 4) prepare
a risk assessment map showing effects of mass erosion on fish
habitat on a basin-wide scale. All research for this study was
conducted from 1984 through 1986 in the spring and summer months.
Monitoring began in 1986 to check the maintenance of
riparian zones after timber harvest and to determine whether the
forestwide standards and guidelines were met.
Discussion. The study revealed that there was an increase
of landslide occurrences, as determined from aerial photographs,
in sites of timber harvesting and associated road building
compared to areas of natural forest cover. Most failures (65
percent) occurred within 5 years of harvest. Approximately 40
percent of all debris produced from mass wasting was delivered
directly to streams of third-order or greater.
Summer water temperatures in mainstem Elk River at the
hatchery generally decreased from 1965 to 1970, increased between
1971 and 1974, and decreased from 1974 to 1985. Temperature
increases tended to follow the occurrence of large winter runoff
events when riparian vegetation may have been damaged from a
landslide that delivered sediment to the channel system.
The salmon and trout production potential of the Forest
Service portion of Elk River basin was high but varied with
species and year. The variability was attributed to differences
in escapement of adults between years and reduced survival of
redds and eggs from a storm in February 1986.
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Additional Information.
Contact: Fred Everest
Pacific Northwest Research Station
3200 Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/757-4390
Reports;: Reeves et al. (1987) .
Siskiycu National Forest. Oregon
Site Description. The Siskiyou National Forest (469,000 ha
[1,092,000 ac]) is located in the extreme southwest corner of
Oregon, with a small extension into California. The area is
characterized by a rugged, youthful topography with 600-1,500 m
(2,000-5,000 ft) of relief. Average annual precipitation ranges
from 10;> cm (40 in) on the east side to more than 406 cm (160 in)
on the west side. As a result, the forest annually yields about
10 billion cubic meters (8.2 million af) of water, 70 to 80
percent between December and March. Nearly half of the forest
streamflow drains into the Rogue River basin. Drainage densities
average 3 km/sq km (3.7 mi/sq mi) of perennial stream per land
surface.
Most of the soil types have developed from weathered
metamorphosed volcanic and sedimentary rock. Much of the forest
is underlain by relatively impervious rock which results in low
infiltration rates and high runoff. Current sediment production
for the forest is estimated to be about 565,000 metric tons
(623,000 tons) per year. Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western
red cedar, Port Orford cedar, Ponderosa pine, white fir, redwood,
madrone, and tanoak are the main tree species found in the
forest.
Beneficial Use. The major resources of the forest are
timber, fish, water, recreation, wildlife, and minerals. The
Rogue River is nationally known for its excellent salmon and
steelhead fishing. The fisheries in the forest are valued at
several million dollars annually. The streams of this area boast
one of the largest remaining wild stocks of Chinook and coho
salmon and steelhead and cutthroat trout in the continental
United States.
Best Management Practices. High drainage densities result
in 757,000 ha (187,000 ac) of near-stream riparian habitats.
Slightly T,ess than 40,500 ha (100,000 ac) are within the land
base suitable for the production of timber. The remainder is
either in wilderness or in areas unavailable or unsuitable for
timber production.
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Prior to the 1970's, many riparian areas were clearcut and
roaded, particularly along perennial streams that were not used
by fish for spawning. Today riparian areas are managed more
objectively, taking or leaving trees based on their contribution
to the stated objectives and the ecosystem as a whole. Riparian
areas are between 46 m (150 ft) and 30 m (100 ft), depending on
the stream class. Other requirements for riparian area
management on perennial streams include directional felling; no-
burn areas within the riparian area; a silvicultural prescription
and individual site-specific analysis; full suspension of logs
across a stream; stream quality monitoring before, during, and
after logging; and ensuring that five to eight potential and
existing snags per ha (two to three per acre) will remain on
cutover areas.
Monitoring. The monitoring objectives are to determine
whether a timber sale results in any adverse effects to flow
rates, turbidity, or temperature. The primary water quality
problems within the forest are above-optimum water temperature in
the summer (due to natural conditions, low summer flows, and past
logging practices) and high turbidity during major winter storms.
Temperature is considered the forest's critical water quality
factor as it has a major effect on the highly valued anadromous
fisheries.
Turbidity samples are taken during periods of high flow
before any road building or timber harvesting activity, as well
as during and after the harvest. Samples for turbidity are taken
above and below the unit or on paired watersheds.
Selected riparian areas are monitored to determine the
extent of conifer removal and any physical impacts to the
residual vegetation or the stream. Stream water temperature
warmed by direct solar radiation after impacting shade canopy is
a common concern in the forest.
Additional Information.
Contact: Bob Ettner
Siskiyou National Forest
200 N.E. Greenfield Road
P.O. Box 440
Grants Pass, OR 97526
503/479-5301
Reports: Anderson (1985).
Amaranthus (1981).
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Puget Lowland
Lake Whatcom Prolect. Washington
Site Description. Lake Whatcom is a multiple use forested
watershed located in the western foothills of the Cascade
Mountain Range approximately 29 km (18 mi) south of the Canadian
border. The watershed is 145 sq km (56 sq mi), of which 8 sq km
(3 sq mi) are within Bellingham city limits. There are seven
continuously flowing creeks that flow into the lake. The lake is
also fed by a diversion from the Middle Fork Nooksack River,
which adds an additional 150 sq km (58 sq mi) to the watershed.
The maritime climate gives an annual average rainfall of
130 cm (51 in), of which 70 percent falls in winter. The soils
of the watershed are derived from glacial parent material and are
immature. The area is dominated by western hemlock, western red
cedar, and Douglas-fir.
Forestry constitutes over 80 percent of the land use of the
watershed. The largest owners are Georgia Pacific, the State of
Washington, and Scott Paper. The entire area had been logged by
the 1920's, and now second and third growth is harvested.
Beneficial Use. Lake Whatcom is a municipal water supplier
for the City of Bellingham and Whatcom County Water District 10.
Households and industry withdraw water directly, and the lake is
a storage basin to prevent flooding along Whatcom Creek.
Additionally, Lake Whatcom supplies a salmon hatchery and is an
important habitat for fish and wildlife. Water skiing, swimming,
and boating are popular recreational uses of the lake.
Best Management Practices. The Washington State FPA is the
primary regulatory control on logging in the watershed. However,
a TFW agreement has been enacted which supersedes some guidelines
in the state FPA. Additional BMPs have been proposed for
consideration, including further restrictions on the use of
pesticides; appropriate use of riparian buffer zones; stream
stabilization projects; designing roads, drainage, yardage
designs eind cut layouts to minimize sediment yield and impacts
upon the scenic values of Lake Whatcom.
Monitoring. A monitoring program has been in place in Lake
Whatcom since 1962. The program is designed to detect major
changes in the water quality in the lake.
Currently, the monitoring program consists of monthly (June-
October) or bimonthly (November-May) sampling at five lake sites
and twice annual sampling at selected creek sites. The water
samples are analyzed to measure temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
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conductivity, Secchi depth, nutrients (total phosphorus, soluble
phosphorus, total nitrogen, nitrate/nitrite, and ammonia),
alkalinity, turbidity, dissolved inorganic carbon, total organic
carbon, cations and anions, chlorophyll, phytoplankton,
zooplankton, and coliforms. In addition, in 1986, the program
included analyses for EPA Priority Pollutants.
Discussion. It is recommended that the water quality
monitoring program continue as long as the lake is being used as
a source of drinking water. The continued program will collect
baseline data on nutrients, inorganic constituents, synthetic
organics, algae, physical properties, and coliform bacteria; and
identify the sources of future water problems by monitoring
incoming creeks and storm drains. The goal is to make the
results as useful as possible, and accessible to all agencies
concerned with overall lake management.
Additional Information.
Contact: Dan Taylor
Whatcom County Planning Department
401 Grand Avenue
Bellingham, WA 98225
206/676-6756
Reports: Many reports on Lake Whatcom have been published. A
synthesis is given in Institute for Watershed Studies
(1986).
Capitol Forest Project, Washington
Site Description. Capitol Forest, managed by DNR, is
located in Olympia, Washington. The average annual precipitation
is between 75 to 12.5 cm (35 to 50 in) . The mild, quasi-
mediterranean climate supports the predominantly Douglas-fir
forest. The soils are derived from igneous and sedimentary
parent materials. A forest plan was written in the late 1970's
and harvesting is nearing completion.
Beneficial Use. In addition to logging, the forest has
popular campgrounds and trails because of its close proximity to
the City of Olympia.
Best Management Practices. The DNR is managed to bring the
highest revenue for the school endowment trust fund that is
compatible with the state FPA. The BMPs are detailed in the
Washington Forest Practices Rules and Regulations of January
1988. Capitol Forest, being state-owned, is also under the
Timber, Fish, and Wildlife Agreement.
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Monitoring. Monitoring is being done on five river
drainages that drain most of the land in the forest, with
sampling sites as close to the forest as possible. During storm
events, samples are taken every 2 hours; once the storm subsides,
sample frequency decreases to every 4 hours. The parameters
measured are stream flow, temperature, suspended sediment,
rainfall, air temperature, and relative humidity.
Discussion. Riparian management, as dictated by Washington
FPA, is considered important.
Additional Information.
Contact: Jim Ryan
Department of Natural Resources
MQ-11
Forest Land Management Division
Olympia, WA 98504
206/753-0671
Cascades
Entiat Experimental Forest Project. Washington
Site Description. The experimental forest is located on the
east side of the Cascade Range in north central Washington, a few
miles north of Wenatchee. The area consists of four watersheds:
Fox (473 ha [1,169 ac]), Burns (564 ha [1,394 ac]), McCall
(514 ha [1,270 ac]) and Lake (4,000 ha [9,884 ac]), with the
streams draining southeast to the Entiat River which joins the
Columbia River. The maximum elevation range is 603 m (1,978 ft)
to 2,16!5 m (7,103 ft), and mean channel gradient is 28 percent.
Slopes average 50 percent, but 90 percent is common. Winters are
moderately cold and wet with 70 percent of the 203 cm (80 in)
annual precipitation falling as snow. Summers are hot and dry.
The bed rock is a batholith which weathers deeply when exposed.
A 6 m (19 ft) layer of popcorn pumice is common below the sandy
loam soil.
The area had never been logged prior to a major fire in
1970, and the climax forest was Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir
with lodgepole pine in the unburned Lake Creek watershed. The
Fox, Burns, and McCall watersheds were severely and uniformly
burned in a few hours, with a virtual destruction of surface
litter. Following the fire, Fox Creek watershed remained
untouched as the burnt control. Burns and McCall Creek
Watersheds were reseeded with grass and fertilized with ammonium
sulfate and urea respectively. Lake Creek Watershed was the
unburnt control.
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Beneficial Use. The Entiat Experimental Forest is a
research facility maintained by the Pacific Northwest Forest and
Range Experiment Station since 1959.
Best Management Practices. Two roads were constructed to
log burned timber in the watersheds. Logging by tractors was
allowed on slopes less than 30 percent, or 40 percent if snow
covered; otherwise helicopters were used.
Monitoring. Water yield and precipitation has been measured
on these watersheds since 1959. Water temperature and stream
chemistry have been measured since 1968 and 1970, respectively.
Three of the watersheds of the experimental forest were severely
and uniformly burned in the 22,000-ha (55,000-ac) Entiat fire.
The pre-fire data provided a unique opportunity to assess the
impact of a large wildfire and follow-up fertilization on water
quality. Samples of stream flow for chemical analyses were
collected from the mouth of each stream at monthly or biweekly
intervals from fall to late winter, and twice weekly or biweekly
during spring run-off (March to June) from 1970 to 1975.
Precipitation and snowpack samples were collected and analyzed
also.
Laboratory measurements included pH, total alkalinity,
conductivity, nitrate, urea, ammonium, Kjeldahl nitrogen,
calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. Streamflow was
measured with V-notch weirs and associated stilling ponds, from
which sediment was periodically removed and measured. Suspended
sediment, turbidity, and total phosphorus were measured in the
laboratory using standard methods (APHA 1985).
Discussion. In comparison with the low levels of stream
chemical constituents prior to the fire and in the control
stream, wildfire has exerted striking and prolonged effects on
nitrogen levels of these streams. Effects of fertilization on
water quality, however, appear to be negligible. This is
explained by the watersheds' capacities to exhibit a high degree
of chemical retention. Increases in nitrate were up to 50 times
greater than the undisturbed conditions, but were not of
sufficient magnitude to degrade water quality when compared to
EPA water quality criteria. Solution losses of N, P, Ca, Mg, K,
and Na, although small, were sufficient to restrict vegetation
growth. Annual sediment yield increased as much as 180 times
above the pre-fire levels and were well correlated with
turbidity.
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Additional Information.
Contact: Dr. A. R. Tiedeman
Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experimental
Station
Forest Service, USDA
La Grande, OR 97850
503/963-7122
Reports: Helvay et al. (1985).
Tiedemanri et al. (1978).
Goat Creek Project. Washington
Site Description. Goat Creek is located 1 km (0.6 mi) west
of the southwest corner of Mt. Rainier National Park in Gifford
Pinchot, National Forest. The typical tree species are Douglas-
fir, western hemlock, western red cedar, and Pacific silver fir
at higher elevation. The elevation ranges for the watershed are
from 550 m (1,800 ft) to 1,700 m (5,600 ft) at Mt. Adams. Annual
precipitation ranges from 180 cm to 300 cm (70 in to 120 in),
most of which is snow.
The soils are developed primarily from volcanic rock with
some deep glacial deposits. Heavy periods of rainfall and rapid
snowmelt are common in the area. The weather and soil
conditions, coupled with the removal of forest vegetation and
road construction for timber harvest, have lead to increased
slumping, landslides, and soil erosion.
Beneficial Use. Goat Creek is used for domestic and
commercial water supply. Timber harvest is the major industry of
this area. Wildlife habitat and recreation are other important
uses.
Best Management Practices. The area was logged in the
summer of 1983. BMPs utilized included skyline logging with full
suspension over Goat Creek required. Prior to logging, the
timber sale officer and hydrologist marked trees within the creek
for removal or retention. All embedded logs were left in the
creek. Stream cleanout of material resulting from logging and
handpiling of slash was also required. Willow and cottonwood
cuttings were planted along the streambanks in June 1984.
Monitoring. During the summer of 1983, water quality
monitoring was conducted on Goat Creek. Objectives of monitoring
were: 1] to test for compliance with Washington State water
quality standards for Class AA streams; and 2) to determine if
forest service standards for Class I streams were met.
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A timber sale was designed to salvage windthrown timber
along Goat Creek. There are heavy debris accumulations in Goat
Creek and several mass failures resulting from bank undercutting
and loss of root stability.
Sampling locations were established above and below the cut
area (Unit #6). No change in the parameters monitored below Unit
#6 was assumed to mean no impact at the domestic water intake
downstream. Stage readings and grab turbidity samples were taken
at the site approximately twice weekly. An ISCO Model 1680
automatic sampler was set on a two-hour sampling interval below
the site to analyze turbidity and suspended sediment.
Discussion. The photo points are expected to be valuable in
assessing the long-term impact of management activities on Goat
Creek channel morphology and riparian vegetation.
Additional Information.
Contact: JoAnn Metzler
Packwood Ranger District
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
P.O. Box 559
Packwood, WA 98361
206/494-5515
Paul Rea
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
6922 East Fourth Plain Blvd.
Vancouver, WA 98668-8944
206/696-7521
Reports: Metzler (1984).
North Fork Willame Creek Project. Washington
Site Description. The North Fork of the Willame Creek is
located 25 km (40 mi) south of Mt. Rainier in Gifford Pinchot
National Forest. The creek's elevation ranges from 1,250-300 m
(4,100-1,000 ft) where it flows into the Cowlitz River. The
average annual precipitation is 140 cm (55 in) most of which
occurs as snow. Typical tree and target harvest species are
Douglas-fir, western hemlock, and western red cedar. The forest
understory consists of salal, salmonberry, huckleberry, devils
club and alder. Soils are derived from volcanic, pyroclastic
rocks.
Best Management Practices. BMPs include leaving 20-25 live
trees and 5-10 snags per acre within a 50-foot strip of a Class
III, fish-bearing stream. Approximately 95 trees were marked to
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meet riparian and wildlife goals. Hand firelines are constructed
to protect riparian vegetation during slash disposal. Highlead
yarding is also used.
Monitoring. The three objectives stated in the monitoring
plan are: 1) assess cumulative impact of shade removal on
temperature; 2) check compliance with Washington state
temperature standards; and 3) test applicability of Brown's
temperature model, as described in "An Approach to Water
Resources Evaluation of Non-Point Silvicultural Sources" (EPA
1980). Water quality monitoring on the North Fork willame Creek
began in 1983 and was completed December 1987. Monitoring was
done above and below a clearcut harvested n 1970, and above and
below Unit 6 of the Skate Creek timber sale downstream from the
clearcut.
Baseline temperature and suspended sediment data were
gathered from June through September for 1983, 1984, and 1985.
Post-harvest monitoring was performed from June to September
1987, channel morphology and riparian cover were assessed.
Discussion. Shade removal due to the 1970 clearcut has
resulted in a significant difference in temperatures above and
below the unit. The maximum temperature increase of 2.5°C
(4.5°F) occurred in July, August, and September. The temperature
increase was predicted by Brown's model which was validated.
Additional Information.
Contact: JoAnn Metzler
Packwood Ranger District
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
P.O. Box 559
Packwood, WA 98361
206/494-5515
Reports: Metzler (1986).
EPA (1980).
Wind River Project. Washington
Site Description. The project site is located in the Wind
River watershed, Gifford Pinchot National Forest, in southwest
Washington. The lower Wind River is characterized by volcanic
soils and forests of Douglas-fir and western hemlock.
Precipitation averages about 203 cm (80 in). Two sites received
herbicide application. One site is located on the Cedar Creek,
12 km (7.5 mi) upstream from the confluence with Wind River, 7 km
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(4.3 mi) from the Columbia River. The other site is located on
Brush Creek, 5 km (3 mi) upstream from the confluence with Wind
River, 4.7 km (2.9 mi) from the Columbia River.
Beneficial Use. Lower Cedar Creek is used as a domestic
water supply. Brush Creek'has a resident trout population.
Best Management Practices. BMPs used to protect the stream
water and aquatic community in this project were: 1) a priori-
tization of monitoring sites (i.e., priority given to domestic
watersheds); 2) buffer strip widths along streams of 30 m
(100 ft); 3) timing of application; 4) adequate flight paths
avoiding crossing streams as much as possible; 5) flying in winds
of less than 10 kph (6 mph) to minimize drift to non-target
areas; and 6) following herbicide label directions for
application. "Roundup" was applied to a total of 31 ha (76 ac)
at an active ingredient rate of about 1.8 kg/ha (2 Ib/ac).
Monitoring. The specific objectives of this monitoring
project were to: 1) ensure compliance with all applicable state
and federal water quality standards; 2) determine if any offsite
movement of herbicide was occurring; and 3) determine if correct
buffer strip widths, flying procedures, etc., were used, and make
recommendations for future projects of this type. Monitoring in
both creeks occurred approximately 152 m (500 ft) below the
application site.
One control water sample was taken at each creek before the
project started. Four project samples were taken during and
after spraying the units, at times indicated by the travel times
of the stream and sampling station location below the unit. They
were cooled to 4°C (39°F), and sent immediately to the laboratory
(Oregon State Department of Agriculture). The control sample was
analyzed individually and the four project samples were
composited as one sample for each creek.
Discussion. Results showed that no residue was detected
either in the control or composite samples, therefore, compliance
with state and federal water quality standards was ensured.
Generous buffer strip widths (30 m [100 ft] for both Cedar and
Brush Creeks) and timing (i.e., the low stream flow season in
late August), seem to be the main contributing factors in finding
insignificant levels of "Roundup" in the stream water.
Additional herbicide spray projects were conducted within
Gifford Pinchot National Forest. In 1978, the St. Helens Ranger
District sprayed two units (totalling 43 ha; 106 ac) with
2,4,5-T. Three of the six sample sites showed residual 2,4,5-T
that exceeded the EPA maximum contaminant level for 2,4,5-T in
drinking water. Other projects were conducted by the Mt. Adams
Ranger District using "Roundup", 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T.
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A careful and well-planned spraying job, observing all
control procedures relating to wind, speed, temperature, humidity
and precipitation, and the provision of buffers proved to be
relatively effective in keeping herbicide from entering the
stream.
Additional Information.
Contact:: Paul Rea
Gifford Pinchot National Forest
6926 E. Fourth Plain Blvd.
Vancouver, WA 98668-8944
206/696-7521
Reports: On file at Wind River/Mt. Adams Ranger Districts, and
Mount St. Helens National Volcanic Monument.
Bull Run Watershed Project. Oregon
Site Description. The 24,300 ha (60,000 ac) Bull Run
Watershed is located on the west side of the Cascade mountains
close to the northern Oregon border. The Bull River flows east
through Portland before joining the Columbia River. The
topography is gently rolling, with a few steep incised draws and
a maximum elevation in the watershed of about 1,350 m (4,500 ft).
The site has experienced major fires at about 400-year intervals.
The last burn was in the early 1900s.
The rainfall ranges from 230 to 480 cm (90 to 190 in) a year.
The geology is dominated by Columbia River Basalts, which have
given ri.«;e to well-drained, deep and stable soils.
The climax species, Douglas-fir, silver fir and hemlock, are
harvested. • There are no programmed harvests, and cutting is
variable. A 2,430 ha (6,000 ac) blowdown is the current harvest
site. Strong east winds, up to 145 km/hr (90 mph), funnel
through the Columbia Gorge, causing severe blowdowns on about a
10-year cycle.
Beneficial Use. The Bull River is a major source of
drinking water for the City of Portland. Turbidity and bacteria
are primary water quality concerns.
Best Management Practices. BMPs are designed to reduce
sediment and erosion. Road construction is minimal, designed to
follow a low grade and reduce erosion. Trees are yarded by
helicopter as much as possible, and tractors are not used. The
riparian .buffer is generally the immediate stream valley, and can
be 61 m (200 ft) wide.
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Monitoring. The monitoring program is very complete and is
designed to determine compliance with the Revised Bull Run Water
Quality Standards. The monitoring program includes measurements
of physical riparian characteristics and water quality charac-
teristics. The water quality program is run by the USFS and
Water Bureau, which take samples above and below harvest and
control sites.
The physical riparian monitoring program includes stream
shading, bank stability, vegetation coverage, and in-channel
debris conditions over time. This inventory monitoring consists
of three stages: 1) conducting detailed stream/riparian surveys
along selected streams within timber sale units; 2) stratifying
stream/riparian areas into separate reach areas and establishing
photo points and measurement plots/transects within the reaches;
and 3) measuring the condition of physical riparian character-
istics before and for several years after timber sale activities.
Photo points and solar sample points were established to assess
stream shade, riparian vegetation, present and future woody
debris input to the streams. The photo points were re-evaluated
following felling, helicopter yarding, stream cleanout, fuels
treatment, and once a year for 5 years following the completion
of post-sales activities.
The water quality monitoring program involves sampling at
five key stations located at major tributary junctions, and at
least 10 tributary and four reservoir stations on a regular
basis. The key stations are sampled daily for turbidity,
temperature, pH, conductance, color, suspended sediment,
dissolved oxygen, flow, bacteria (total, total coliform, fecal
coliform, fecal streptococci); weekly for algae, chlorophyll-a,
alkalinity; at 14-day intervals for nitrate, total nitrogen,
total orthophosphate, dissolved orthophosphate, total phosphorus,
silica; and 28-day intervals for total organic carbon, tannin,
and lignins. The following parameters are analyzed annually:
ammonium nitrogen, arsenic, barium, cadmium, total chromium,
copper, fluoride, iron, lead manganese, mercury, selenium,
silver, sodium, zinc, endrin, lindane, methoxychor, toxaphene,
2,4-D and 2,4,5-TP. Transparency (Secchi disc) is measured
weekly at the reservoir stations.
Discussion. The data collection at the Bull Run Watershed
is extensive; 39 parameters are measured and over 15,000 datum
points are generated a year. The most informative parameters are
turbidity, which is very responsive to logging and correct BMP
implementation; pH, which has been increasing over the past 8
years in logged and control watersheds for as yet no apparent
reason; and nitrate-nitrogen. Nitrate-nitrogen responds to
burning BMPs. If the watershed is burned there is an immediate
release of nitrate that is substantial for 4-5 years. With no
burn the release is delayed for about 3 years, but continues for
a much longer time.
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A previous 7-year USGS survey showed no significant
difference in macroinvertebrates, turbidity, and suspended
sediments between logged and unlogged watersheds. These results
are substantiated by current USFS monitoring, indicating BMPs are
properly and adequately implemented.
Tha monitoring program at Bull Run Watershed costs about
$300,003 a year for water quality sampling alone and is too
expensive to implement at all national forests and logging
operations. Communication of the results is thought to be an
important but as yet undeveloped aspect of the research program
(McCammon pers. comm.).
Additional Information.
Contact: Bruce McCammon
Columbia Gorge Ranger District
Mt. Hood National Forest
31520 S.E. Woodard Rd.
Troutdale, OR 97060
503/695-2276
Reports: USDA Forest Service (1987b).
Middle Santiam River Project. Oregon
Site Description. The study area includes 8,000 ha
(19,768 ac) of the Middle Fork of the Santiam River watershed
located on the western slopes of the Cascade Range in Oregon.
The Middle Santiam River flows to Green Peter Reservoir 30 km
(19 mi) downstream, encompassing a total watershed area of
approximately 28,000 ha (69,160 ac). The watershed rises in
elevation from 335 m (1,100 ft) to 1,465 m (4,807 ft).
Slopes in excess of 60 percent occur on 58 percent of the
area. The soils found on these slopes are shallow to moderately
deep and medium textured. The climate of the region is maritime
with coo]., wet winters and warm, dry summers. Annual precipi-
tation reinges from 150 cm (59 in) at the lower elevations to
330 cm (].30 in) at the higher elevations.
Overstory vegetation on forested slopes is predominantly
350-year-old Douglas-fir. Ridgetops have a mixture of western
hemlock, Pacific silver fir, and subalpine fir. Alluvial valley
bottoms and undrained depressions support mixed stands of big-
leaf maple, red alder, and western red cedar.
Best Management Practices. Road construction and timber
harvesting of old growth forests began in 1972. Care was taken
to minimize erosion during harvesting. Roads were carefully
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designed, and the main roadways were surfaced with crushed rock.
Logging of old-growth Douglas-fir was accomplished almost
exclusively with highlead cable systems which lifted logs uphill
to midslope or ridgetop landing. The few gently sloping sites,
such as the benches above the valley bottom, were logged with
tractors. Trees were harvested in units averaging about 20 ha
(49.4 ac) in area, although as cutting progressed, area of
contiguous plantation increased. Clearcut units generally were
handplanted with Douglas-fir seedlings within 1 year following
harvest.
Monitoring. The purpose of the monitoring was to measure
the integrated effects of timber harvesting and road construction
on the export of suspended sediments from a medium-sized
watershed over time. Water samples were collected every 6 hours
from two locations just upstream and 11 km (7 mi) downstream from
the study site in the mainstream of the Middle Santiam River and
analyzed for suspended sediment and turbidity. Since 1963,
stream discharge has been measured at the USGS gaging station
located within 30 m (98 ft) of the downstream station.
Precipitation was monitored continuously with a tipping bucket
rain gage at a weather station located near the downstream
sampling location.
Discussion. The site of the sampling station was critical
to monitoring water quality changes. Over the 9-year period that
turbidity and suspended sediment were measured, seven road-
related slope failures occurred. Although increases in turbidity
and suspended sediment were measured in association with nearly
all of the mass failures, the scale and duration of increases
varied. Small failures (less than 1,000 metric tons) appeared to
increase turbidity and suspended sediment for a period of 1 to
2 days but did not alter monthly or yearly averages. Large
failures which altered annual turbidity patterns in small
tributaries for up to 1 year produced detectable changes in the
main channel for only 1 month.
Additional Information.
Contact: Kathleen Sullivan
Environmental Sciences & Technology Dept.
Weyerhaeuser Technology Center
Tacoma, WA 98477
206/924-6191
Reports: Sullivan (1985).
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H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Oregon
Si1:e Description. The Andrews Forest consists of 6,404 ha
(15,813 ac) 80 km east of Eugene, Oregon on the western slope of
the Cascades. Douglas-fir, western hemlock, red cedar, true fir
and mountain hemlock are the predominant tree species that grow
in the mild climate of the region. The average mean temperature
during the wet, warm winters is 2°C (36°F) (January), and 20°C
(69°F) during the dry summer (July).
The! H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest was established in
1948 by the USFS to examine the effects of different logging
methods on reforestation, erosion, and water quality. It has
become an active site for research on coniferous forest and
stream ecosystems. In 1969, the Andrews Forest was selected as
an intensive study site by the Coniferous Forest Biome
(International Biological Program) because of the existing long-
term data base.
Beneficial Use. The gauged watersheds are managed strictly
as research basins.
Best Management Practices. Three sets of gauged watersheds
have been sites for nonpoint source stations. Watersheds 1, 2,
and 3 were established in 1954 and remained undisturbed until
1959 when road construction began. Since that time, various
combinations of road building and harvesting have occurred on the
watersheds. Roads were constructed to standard USFS
specifications, and cut and fill slopes were mulched and seeded.
Watershed 1 was clearcut in 1966 and broadcast burned in 1967;
Watershed 2 remains unlogged; Watershed 3 had 25 percent of its
land clearcut from 1964-1966 in patches and 8 percent in roads.
Watersheds 6, 7, and 8 were established in 1965. Watershed 6
was completely clearcut in 1974 and broadcast burned; Watershed 7
had 67 percent of the volume removed in a shelterwood cut in 1974
and 10 yeiars later the overstory cut, the residual was piled and
burned; Watershed 8 remains uncut. Watersheds 9 and 10 were
established in 1965. Watershed 9 remains uncut; Watershed 10 was
clearcut in 1975 and remains unburned. Cable logging was
utilized for harvesting.
Monitoring. The objective of the monitoring is to determine
the effects of logging on stream guantity and guality. Water-
sheds 1, 2, 3, 9 and 10 contain large bedload basins which enable
measurement of mass sediment movement rates. Grab sampling
during storm events on Watersheds 1, 2, and 3 is done to measure
sediment yields in manipulated conditions. Watersheds 2, 6, 7,
8, 9 and 10 have automatic proportional pumping samplers that
increase their rate of sampling during a storm event. Data for
the pumping samplers dates back to 1967 for Watersheds 9 and 10,
and 1965 for 6, 7, and 8.
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Sampling is done at the mouth of the watersheds. The water
from Watersheds 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 is tested for ions,
alkalinity, conductivity, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other
constituents. Suspended sediments are analyzed for organic and
inorganic components. Water chemistry has been tested in both
stream and rainwater for 15 years in some watersheds. Duality
assurance is checked against the USGS Water Quality Survey.
The Mack Creek gauge was established in 1978, and is being
monitored for nutrient losses and suspended sediments. It, too,
has a proportional pumping sampler. Lookout Creek, the major
stream draining H. J, Andrews, has been gauged since 1950 by the
USGS. Lookout Creek has revealed a varied history of sediment
storing and routing conditions. Stream cross-sectional profiles
have been measured since 1970.
Discussion. Watershed 3 experienced massive road failures
and sediment production associated with the December 1964 storm.
Following the road failures, the stream did not return to
normalcy for over 10 years.
Runoff from undisturbed watersheds in this area remains
clear during the summer low-flow months. Suspended sediment
reaches concentrations of 100 ppm during winter storm peaks.
Runoff from the first rainstorms after road construction carried
250 times the concentration carried in an adjacent undisturbed
watershed. Two months after construction, sediment had
diminished to levels slightly above those measured before
construction. Sediment concentrations for the subsequent 2-year
period were significantly different from preroad levels. In
about 10 percent of the samples, sediment concentrations were far
in excess of predicted values, indicating a stream-bank failure
or mass soil movement. Annual bedload volume the first year
after construction was significantly greater than the expected
yield, but the actual increase was small. A trend toward
normalcy was evident the second year.
Since 1977, the National Science Foundation has supported a
baseline monitoring program that includes climatic variables,
streamflow, stream water chemistry, atmospheric deposition,
litterfall, and successional changes in the composition and
structure of the vegetation. Oregon State University, the
Pacific Northwest Research Station, and the Willamette National
Forest have shared administrative responsibility for the Andrews
Forest since 1977. Current management is directed toward
maintaining the research value of the site and enhancing it
wherever possible. More than 85 separately funded research
projects are now using the Andrews Forest. Topics of study
include succession and decomposition patterns, fluvial
geomorphology, forest-stream interactions, fish population
biology, entomology, tree mortality, and soil invertebrates.
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Additional Information.
Contact: Arthur McKee
Forestry Sciences Lab
3200 Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/757-4395
Stan Greggory
Fish and Wildlife Department
Oregon State University
Corvallis, OR
503/754-4336
Fred Swanson
H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest
3200 Jefferson Way
Corvallis, OR 97331
503/757-4395
Reports: Many reports are available. Brenneman & Blinn (1987)
summarizes some of the current projects at H. J.
Andrews.
Umpoua National Forest. Oregon
Site Description. The Umpqua National Forest is about 32 km
(20 mi) east of Roseburg, Oregon, in the western Cascade Range.
The 4,000 sq km (1,544 sq mi) National Forest has an extensively
dissected topography, with steep slopes and an elevation range of
370 to 1,500 m (1,214-4,922 ft). Annual precipitation averages
127 cm (50 in), most of which occurs in the winter, since the
freezing level fluctuates, winter runoff is supplied by both
rainfall and snowmelt.
The dominant tree species are Douglas-fir, western hemlock,
incense cedar, Ponderosa pine, and Jeffery pine. The understory
consists of salal, rhododendron, and Oregon grape.
Beneficial Use. Water is withdrawn from various creeks for
municipal uses. Water turbidity during winter months is a major
concern. The Forest Service and private logging companies manage
the area around the watershed.
Best Management Practices. Forest plan activities are
designed to meet or exceed water quality standards for the state
through application of BMPs.
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Monitoring. An extensive network of 41 water quality
baseline monitoring stations was developed in 1969, with the
purpose of characterizing the major watersheds and to rank them
by water quality measurements. Currently, 25 stations are being
monitored.
Monitoring is conducted in accordance with the National
Forest Management Act of 1976. Temperatures are recorded daily,
turbidity and/or suspended sediment samples are taken through the
winter or after heavy rains. Stream flow is recorded at USGS
gauging stations. The Safe Drinking Water Act (1979) parameters,
total coliform and turbidity, are measured monthly; inorganics
yearly; and organics every 5 years on surface drinking water
sources. Biotic parameters (fish populations, macroinverte-
brates, and bacteria) have been monitored.
Discussion. Analysis of the turbidity data shows decreasing
turbidity on one creek and stable turbidity on a second. Summer
temperatures in a third creek are decreasing, due to cooler
summers and riparian vegetation regrowth.
Monitoring of the implemented BMPs is being planned under
the forest plan.
Additional Information.
Contact: Mikeal Jones
Umpqua National Forest
P.O. Box 1008
Roseburg, OR 97470
503/672-6601
Reports: Smith (1986).
Sierra Nevada
Evans Creek Project. Oregon
Site Description. The Evans Creek watershed is about 540 ha
(209 sq mi). The creek flows southwest to join the Rogue River
near Grants Pass. The basin is located in the Klamath Mountains,
which is characterized by rugged terrain. Elevations vary from
30 m (1,000 ft) to 1,555 m (5,103 ft). Annual precipitation
averages 80 m (32 in), and the mean annual temperature is 10°C
(54°F).
Over 90 percent of the basin is forested and is actively
harvested by the USFS, BLM, and private owners. Small
agricultural areas are confined to the valley bottoms.
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Beneficial Use. Anadromous fish populate the Evans Creek
drainage.
Beast Management Practices. A large percentage of the Evans
Creek basin has been harvested by tractor and highlead methods.
Monitoring. The monitoring project was designed to develop
a procedure in response to the Oregon 208 Assessment of Nonpoint
Source Problems. Intensive water quality sampling was conducted
by the USGS at three sites in August, 1977. Water samples were
taken at hourly intervals and analyzed for nutrients, temper-
ature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, chlorophyll-a, algal
growth potential, fecal coliforms, suspended sediments,
turbidity, and flow.
The creek was walked, and bank stability, riparian
vegetation, stream condition, fish and macroinvertebrate habitat
and populations were inventoried and described using "Stream
Reach Inventory and Channel Stability Evaluation" (USFS 1975) and
a slightly modified version of this technique.
Discussion. The qualitative approach to monitoring the
physical and biological conditions of the stream revealed the
following trends. Channel stability varied between moderately
unstable to unstable, while fish habitat conditions ranged from
poor to (good. Slumps, debris torrents, and small slides
contributed debris of varying size to the channel which resulted
in poor habitat conditions and channel instability. Field
channel surveys and aerial photo interpretation were able to
identify and rank habitat conditions associated with differing
land use procedures.
Wator quality parameters measured during low flow failed to
adequate].y define water quality impacts (including suspended
sediment) resulting from land management activities on sensitive
terraino Violation of water quality standards for dissolved
oxygen and pH did occur, but were linked to low flow conditions
rather than land management activities. It was recommended that
sampling during high flow events would be a more useful indicator
of stream quality. The study also recognized the extreme
variability of water quality parameters and suggested that,
unless an intensive water quality monitoring effort could be
undertaken, limited resources would be more efficiently utilized
by focusing on stream and fish habitat conditions.
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Additional Information.
Contact: John Jackson
Department of Environmental Quality
811 S.W. Sixth Ave.
Portland, OR 97204
503/229-6035
Reports: Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (1978).
Idaho State Nonpoint Source Impacts on Water Quality
Introduction. In 1980, the Idaho Water Quality Standards
were revised to include specific language for control of nonpoint
source pollution. The Forest Practices Act Rules and Regulations
(1979) administered by the Idaho Department of Lands were
identified as BMPs for silviculture. An interdisciplinary task
force was established in 1982 to study the problems of NFS
pollution from forest practices. The task force would provide
technically sound answers to the following questions:
1. Do BMPs provide adequate water quality protection for
protected uses as defined in the Water Quality
Standards?
2. Are current forest practices affecting water quality,
and if so, to what extent?
3. Are the existing regulatory controls for silvicultural
operations adequate to prevent water quality impacts?
Twenty-five forest operations were inspected by the Task
Force in 1984 for compliance with the Idaho FPA and for their
potential for impacting salmonid fish habitat. Seven of the 25
operations were considered a major impact or hazard to salmon
habitat due to direct delivery of sediment associated with roads
or skid trails. At the remaining sites, impacts on protected uses
were prevented either by site conditions (low geologic hazard,
streams with no protected uses) or by good practices.
Monitoring. Eight task force members, representing major
agencies and interest groups involved in the issue of NFS
pollution on forested lands, tested specific monitoring
techniques and provided technical expertise in the following
fields: silviculture, hydrology, geology/soil science, forest
road construction, fishery biology, and water quality. Sampling
design incorporated consideration of geographic location,
geologic land type, logging methods, proximity to streams, and
the need to examine forest operations after the first runoff
season.
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Analysis of water quality impacts was based primarily on the
effects of sedimentation on fisheries habitat. A site was rated
by obse:rvation of direct sediment delivery to streams and the
potential for continuing impacts from the site. Observation of
cobble (smbeddedness estimated the existing status of sediment
impacts in the drainage.
Site selection was stratified based on land ownership
categorj.es; 10 in private operations, 10 in national forests,
and 5 in state operations. Sites were selected randomly from a
list of candidate operations. Although 25 sites do not comprise
a statistically valid sample of forest operations in Idaho,
observed trends of compliance with practices, of impacts on
streams, and of administrative procedures used by land management
agencies are considered to be representative.
Discussion. Compliance with the FPA varied by land
ownership category. Forest Service-administered lands had a high
compliance rate. Only 5 percent of the individual ratings
(n=371) were judged as a minor departure from the intent of the
rules. Noncompliance ratings were higher on state and private
lands. On state lands, 21 percent of the individual ratings were
considered a minor departure, and 12 percent a major departure.
On private lands, 10 percent were judged a minor departure, and
8 percent a major departure.
Cobble embeddedness was used as an indicator of the existing
substrata condition with respect to cumulative effects of
watershed activities. Of the 25 sites inspected, 14 were near a
Class I istream, that is, a stream that could be used by resident
or anadromous salmonids. Of these 14 streams, obvious cobble
embeddedness was observed in 9. At these nine sites (60 percent
of Class I streams), sediment delivery from past or ongoing
activities may have already caused sustained damage to the
fishery habitat.
Most of the task force's work has yet to be done. Current
testing is focusing on a probe which determines intergravel
dissolved oxygen.
The following agencies are involved in the program: Idaho
Department of Health and Welfare Division of Environment, Idaho
Department of Lands, Idaho Fish and Game Department, Idaho
Conservation League, American Fisheries Society, Idaho Forest
Industry Council, and USFS.
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Additional Information.
Contact: Stephen B. Bauer
Idaho Department of Health and Welfare
Division of Environmental Quality
450 West State Street
Boise, ID 83720
208/334-5860
Reports: Bauer (1985).
Bauer et al. (1987).
Levinski (1986).
Northern Rockies
Boise National Forest. Idaho
Site Description. Boise National Forest is located in the
west central portion of the state on the western edges of the
Idaho Batholith. The forest covers 1.3 million ha
(3.2 million ac) with elevations ranging from 900 to 3,200 m
(2,700 ft to 10,500 ft). The mountains have sharply-crested
ridges and steep cut slopes. Peak river flows occur in May and
June during the snowmelt.
Soils developed from granitic rock generally lack cohesion
because of their low silt and clay content causing them to be
extremely erodible. The soils are generally shallow and overlie
weathered bedrock that disintegrates rapidly upon exposure.
At elevations above 2,000 m (6,500 ft), lodgepole pine is
the dominant tree species. Douglas-fir is found at moderate
elevations and Ponderosa pine at elevations between 900 and
1,500 m (3,000 and 5,000 ft). The timber harvest target species
are Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir.
Beneficial Use. The forest resources are fish, wildlife,
timber, and recreation. Historically, large runs of summer
chinook salmon populated many streams in the area.
Best Management Practices. The basic premise of the
watershed monitoring program is that NPS pollution can be
controlled through the application of BMPs or soil and water
conservation practices carefully designed to protect not only
designated instream beneficial uses, but also on-site soil
productivity.
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Monitoring. The goal of the watershed monitoring program is
to monitor and evaluate resources and activities to determine if
the projects and practices implemented on the Boise National
Forest are meeting management objectives. Watershed monitoring
includes both monitoring of the soil resource to assure adequate
protection of long-term soil productivity, and monitoring of the
water resource to assure adequate protection of water quality.
Mandates for this monitoring come from the National Forest
Management Act, the Clean Water Act, and State of Idaho water
quality laws and regulations.
To secure water quality and soil productivity protection,
monitoring must address the following questions:
1. Are BMPs implemented as designed?
2. Are BMPs effective in meeting management objectives?
3. Are instream beneficial uses and/or soil productivity
protected?
Thirty baseline monitoring sites scattered throughout the
forest liave been selected to represent sample conditions of the
forest. These stations will serve as indicators of long-term
trend and to characterize the water quality resource. The most
extensive monitoring will be documenting whether project plans
and prescribed BMPs are implemented both as designed and in
accordance with existing standards. Monitoring to determine if
mitigation measures and BMPs were effective in controlling
pollutants, will be done mainly where there are issues or
concerm; relating to unknown effectiveness of practices, and as a
demonstration of BMP effectiveness. Information obtained will be
used to refine mitigation measures and BMPs for improved
application to future projects. Some monitoring will be
conducted to answer whether Forest Plan assumptions are
appropriate to meet regulations, policy, and objectives. The
validation of a sediment yield model and the relationship between
sediment: yield and fish habitat are of particular interest.
Disicussion. The monitoring program is still in draft form
which ha.s yet to be implemented.
Additional Information.
Contact: John Potyondy
USFS Boise National Forest
1750 Front Street
Boise, ID 83702
208/334-1650
Reports: On file at district office.
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Sawtooth National Forest. Idaho
Site Description. The majority of land (600,000 ha
[1.5 million ac]) for the Sawtooth National Forest is located in
the Northern Rockies ecoregion around Ketchum, Idaho. The
southern portion of the Sawtooth National Forest on the Utah
border near Twin Falls (245,000 ha [604,000 ac]) is within the
Northern Basin and Range ecoregion. The mountains of the
northern forest have sharply crested ridges and steep slopes cut
by steep walled, narrow stream valleys. Coniferous stands of
lodgepole and Ponderosa pine, Douglas-fir and subalpine fir are
common at higher elevations. At lower elevations Utah juniper,
aspen and mountain mahogany are found. Cottonwood and willow are
the primary source of streamside cover within riparian zones.
The average annual precipitation for the forest is 64 cm
(25 in), ranging from 114 cm (45 in) near Ketchum to 25 cm (10
in) near Twin Falls. Most precipitation is in the form of snow.
Beneficial Use. The Sawtooths are a popular recreational
area for fishing, hunting, boating, hiking, and skiing. Timber
harvest and livestock grazing contribute significantly to local
economies. Mining is also an important, localized land use.
Some stream disturbance has resulted from placer, shaft, and open
pit metal mining.
Best Management Practices. In addition to complying with
the Idaho FPA, the Sawtooth National Forest has stratified
riparian areas to facilitate establishing management goals. The
Riparian Area Inventory provides a description of the status of
the riparian area as it relates to its potential and management
goals.
Monitoring. The various riparian areas of the Sawtooth
National Forest have been divided into five value categories,
each with a set of minimum standards for management. The goal is
to tailor the management guidelines to the type of riparian area.
Each riparian designation category has a specific requirement for
management of fish, wildlife, recreational opportunities, and
water quality.
Riparian complexes, described using dominant vegetation
species and land form descriptions, are identified first on
aerial photos and then field verified.
Where situations warrant it, intensive site data will be
collected with riparian complexes. Community type compositions
will be determined using long line transects. Foliage
height/volume measurements will be taken for wildlife habitat
diversity. Some areas will be intensively mapped for soil types.
Streambank transects will be used to characterize streamside
communities, streambank stability, and reproductive success of
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woody species. Data on aquatic habitat components, including
spawning habitat conditions, fish populations, bank cover, and
macroinvertebrate populations will be collected. Hydrologic
conditions of the stream will be examined for width/depth ratio,
channel cross-section, gradient, sinuosity, bed material
composition (pebble -counts), and stream bank material
composition. Water quality data (temperature, dissolved oxygen,
and fecal coliforms) will be collected.
The data collected will be used to monitor riparian areas.
Permanant end points for the transects will be established and
the sites will be remeasured at 3-year intervals. Permanent
monitoring locations will be used to evaluate effects of multiple
use management activities on riparian areas.
Discussion. The inventorying and monitoring of riparian
areas provide an interdisciplinary approach to management of
soils, landform, water, wildlife, recreation, fishery and
livestock. The inventory also serves as a tool to help others
(ranchers, other agency personnel, etc.) to understand the
ecological relationships and possibilities for riparian areas.
Additional Information.
Contact: Gary Ketcheson
Sawtooth National Forest
2647 Kimberly Road East
Twin Falls, ID 83301-7976
208/737-3200
Reports: On file at office.
Coeur d'Alene Unit Project. Idaho
Site Description. Plum Creek Timber Company initiated a
monitoring program which evaluated and documented the effects of
forest management operations on the aquatic ecosystem in 1985.
Two drainages have been selected for monitoring. These are
Prospector Creek (a tributary to the St. Joe River near Avery,
Idaho) and the Middle Fork of Calispell Creek (a tributary to the
Pend Oreille River near Newport, Washington). These streams were
selected because they are representative of the Coeur d'Alene
unit and have had relatively little past lumbering activity.
Calispell Creek, running through the Kaniksu National
Forest, joins the Pend Oreille River in the northeastern corner
of Washington. The topography is gentle, with a maximum
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elevation in the watershed of 1,600 m (5,256 ft). Precipitation
is moderate, 75 to 100 cm (30 to 40 in) a year. Deep glacial
deposits overlay granitic bedrock. Features of Prospect Creek
are similar.
Beneficial Use. The primary beneficial use for both creeks
is fishing.
Monitoring. The goal of the monitoring program is to
document and evaluate water quality or aquatic ecosystem changes
which may occur as the result of forest management activities.
Sampling of each site included aquatic insects (Surber Sampler),
waterflow (staff gage), water chemistry (alkalinity, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity), channel substrate (modified McNeil
sampler), water temperature, weather conditions, and water
velocity. Each stream was sampled four times in 1987 (April,
June, August, and October). Samples were collected at the
Prospect Creek site for analysis of water chemistry by the Idaho
Department of Health and Welfare.
Analysis of data will be done by using indices to evaluate
invertebrate populations. Tolerance quotient (TQA), species
diversity, density, functional groups, and species composition
represent the different quantitative and qualitative techniques
for data analysis.
Discussion. The use of aquatic insects to monitor water
quality is a relatively new technique that is being assessed in
this project. Similar projects currently operating are the
Gallatin Project near Bozeman, Montana (since 1982) and the
Naches Project near Yakima, Washington (since 1986).
Additional Information.
Contacts: Scott Hess
Plum Creek Timber Company, Inc.
Clearwater Unit
700 South Avenue West
Missoula, MT 59801
406/728-8350
Reports: Hess (1987).
Three Mile Creek Project. Washington
Site Description. Three Mile Creek is a small tributary of
the Pend Oreille River, Colville National Forest, in northeast
Washington. The sampling site is located on Three Mile Creek at
the forest boundary. A timber sale was scheduled to occur in the
watershed during 1987, but has been temporarily postponed.
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Summers are warm or hot, with the average daily temperature
around 27°C (81°F); while winters tend to be cold, averaging -1°C
(30°F). Precipitation occurs in the mountains throughout the
year, with an average seasonal snowfall of 75 cm [30 in], and
usually supplies sufficient water for the agriculture in the
area. The annual precipitation is about 75 cm (30 in).
Coniferous stands are Ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, white pine,
grand fir, Douglas-fir, western larch, western red cedar, and
western hemlock.
Beneficial Use. Timber is the primary product of the area.
Best Management Practices. Timber management will use BMPs
to protect water quality and site productivity.
Monitoring. The objective is to determine if the conduct of
the Three Mile timber sale will cause any noticeable change in
water quality in Three Mile Creek and, if so, what specific
activity caused the change.
The parameters measured are stream temperature, specific
conductivity, total dissolved solids, and turbidity. Other
parameters will be measured for fisheries needs if significant
changes are noticed in the above four parameters.
Precipitation data are collected at Boundary Dam. These
data are used to relate changes in water quality to precipitation
events. An activity log of road building and timber harvesting
will be kept to help identify any sources of accelerated
sedimentation.
Stream temperature is recorded continuously with a
submersible thermograph during July, August, and September. This
allows analysis of daily maximums and diurnal fluctuations.
Water samples taken every 6 hours are composited daily using an
ISCO automatic sampler and analyzed for turbidity, suspended
sediment, pH, and dissolved oxygen.
Discussion. The Three Mile Timber Sale is scheduled to sell
in 1991 and baseline data are currently being gathered.
Additional Information.
Contact: Bert Wasson
Colville National Forest
695 South Main
Colville, WA 99114
509/684-3711
Reports;; On file at Forest Supervisor's Office, Colville, WA.
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Horse Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. The project area is located in the Selway
Ranger District, Nez Perce National Forest. Horse Creek flows
east into Meadow Creek, part of the Selway and Clearwater River
system. The Horse Creek watershed is approximately 3,100 ha
(7,700 ac) in size, with instrumented subdrainages ranging in
size from 24-148 ha (58-365 ac). Elevations range from 1,253 m
(4,110 ft) to 1,836 m (6,025 ft). Grand fir is the predominate
tree species; other species include Douglas-fir, western red
cedar, Engelmann spruce, and Pacific yew. Climate and topography
are typical of much of northern Idaho, eastern Washington, and
western Montana. Steep slopes and erodible soils present a
challenge to land managers concerned with protecting streams,
spawning beds, and the total forest ecosystem.
Beneficial Use. The project area is reserved for studies
designed to develop and test practices that can be implemented to
reduce the impacts of road construction and timber harvesting on
sensitive areas.
Best Management Practices. To minimize road mileage and
ground disturbance, steeper subdrainages were logged with skyline
equipment. Differences in sediment production and streamflow
were recorded and compared to other methods, such as ground
skidding and helicopter logging.
The information gathered from studies being conducted in
Horse Creek will be used in developing land management plans in
other areas. Topics of investigation are transportation systems,
sedimentation, hydrology, logging engineering, water chemistry,
and aquatic biology.
Monitoring. The Horse Creek watershed is part of a larger
area that was designated a "barometer watershed" in 1964. Since
that time, climate, vegetation, streamflow, and water quality
have been measured to provide an extensive base of information
about natural processes on the site. Additional attention is
given to monitoring water quality, streamflow and sedimentation
before, during, and after each phase of the job.
The project's objectives are to: 1) measure the effects of
forest road construction and timber harvest on water quality,
streamflow, and sediment production; 2) evaluate the physical and
economic feasibility, and associated environmental effects of
alternative road designs and harvesting systems; and 3) develop
improved capabilities to predict the physical and environmental
consequences of alternative practices.
Monitoring of climate, streamflow, and sediment began in
1965. Roads were built in 1978 and timber harvest began in 1981.
Monitoring will continue through 1988. One subdrainage remained
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undisturbed as a control, while timber was harvested from the
nine remaining subdrainages. Roads were constructed across six
subdrainages. A network of instruments continuously record
climatic variables and streamflow throughout the study area.
Eight climatic stations record precipitation, air temperature,
humidity, and other meteorological information. Snow depth and
water content are measured during winter months. Streamflow and
sediment monitoring installations are located in ten subdrainages
with the Main Fork of Horse Creek.
Discussion. Hydrologic responses to road building in six
small headwater watersheds were highly variable. Actual changes
in flow could not be detected on four watersheds after road
construction. Similar results occurred on two other watersheds
which were significantly altered after road construction.
Additional Information.
Contact:: Jack King, Project Leader
USDA Intermountain Research Station
Moscow, Idaho
208/882-3557
Reports: King and Tennyson (1984).
Silver Creek Project. Idaho
Site Description. The Silver Creek Experimental Area is
located within the Emmett Ranger District of the Boise National
Forest in the headwaters of the Silver Creek drainage, a
tributary to the Middle Fork of the Payette River. Approximately
932 ha (2,300 ac) are included in the study area. Field studies
are being conducted on eight small, unlogged watersheds ranging
in size from 26-202 ha (64-500 ac).
The site is representative of much of the range in
conditions found in the Idaho batholith. Soils range in depth
from about 127 cm (50 in) in the lower portions of the watersheds
to less than 25 cm (10 in) in the drainage heads. Elevations
range from 1,370-1,830 m (4,500-6,000 ft). Ponderosa pine,
Douglas-fir, and grand fir are the dominant tree species in the
existing timber stands.
Covering about 41,400 sq km (16,000 sq mi) in central Idaho,
the Idaho batholith spans large portions of eight National
Forests. Much of the area is steep, with coarse granitic soil
that tends to slide or wash away when the native vegetation is
disturbed or removed. The climate can be desert-like in summer
and arctic in winter.
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Beneficial Use. The batholith contains a wealth of natural
resources, and supports logging, grazing, tourism, wildlife, and
fisheries. About 50 percent of the total water yield for the
State of Idaho originates from the Idaho batholith.
Best Management Practices. Selected silvicultural alter-
natives have been used on individual watersheds. Alternatives
were to clearcut all merchantable trees in units up to 10 ha,
2 ha, or 0.4 ha (25 ac, 5 ac, or 1 ac), or select cutting. One
watershed was left undisturbed as a control.
The four alternatives cover the full range in opening sizes
usually encountered in timber harvest operations in the
batholith, and are representative of clearcutting, large and
small grouped selection cuttings, and tree selection cutting.
Slash was burned, or lopped and scattered.
Monitoring. The monitoring objectives of the study program
were fourfold: 1) to evaluate the environmental impacts of
logging methods, silvicultural systems, and associated road
construction, both at harvest sites and downstream locations;
2) to evaluate the effectiveness of a variety of road designs and
soil stabilization practices under various site conditions; 3) to
compare costs and efficiencies of different logging and road
construction practices; and 4) to provide basic data for
development of models for predicting environmental, economic, and
sociological effects of alternative management programs.
The Silver Creek Study began in 1961 and two of the
watersheds were logged in 1976. The logging was completed in the
autumn of 1987 and the site will continue to be monitored for
5 years.
The major areas of investigation are forest road design,
construction and revegetation, harvesting systems and techniques,
size of cut opening, site preparation, regeneration, productivity
and residual stand responses. Biological parameters measured are
wildlife responses to changes in habitat, aquatic insect
activity, and plant succession and biomass. Streamflow, water
quality, and sediment yields, stream channel characteristics,
nutrients, and soil surface conditions are observed as well.
Discussion. Many studies have been conducted in the Silver
Creek Experimental Area. One such study observed the erosional
and chemical denudation rates over 11 years (Clayton and Megahan
1986). For three of the four watersheds studied, erosional
denudation rates exceeded chemical denudation rates. On the
fourth watershed, the rates were approximately equal. The
relationship between annual water yield, erosional, and chemical
denudation were explored. Chemical denudation is highly
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correlated with annual water yield. Erosional denudation rates
are also related to increasing water yield, but are not as
strongly correlated as chemical denudation.
Erosion rates on the study watershed were minimal because of
the well developed forest cover. This condition'is expected to
change, due to man-caused accelerated erosion and natural
disasters.
Additional Information.
Contact:; Walter Megahan
Intermountain Station
316 East Myrtle Street
Boise, ID 83706
208/334-1457
Reports: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station (no date).
Clayton and Megahan (1986).
South Fork Salmon River Project. Idaho
Site Description. The South Fork of the Salmon River
drainage, part of the Columbia River Basin, comprises an area of
33,500 ha (826,700 ac). The watershed is almost entirely within
the Idaho batholith. Approximately one-third of the land in the
drainage lies within the Boise National Forest and about two-
thirds is within the Payette National Forest.
Elevations range from 825 to 2,830 m (2,700 to 9,280 ft),
with about half of the drainage in the 1,500-2,300 m (5,000-
7,500 ft) class. The area is characterized by steep slopes with
overstory vegetation dominated by Ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir
at the lower elevations, and lodgepole pine, grand fir, Engelmann
spruce, eind subalpine fir at the higher elevations. The granitic
bedrock of the batholith produces shallow, coarse-textured soils
that exhibit high erosion rates, especially when exposed or
disturbed.
Summers are typically hot and dry, with warm season preci-
pitation occurring primarily during high-intensity thunderstorms.
Winters are characterized by heavy snows and cold temperatures.
Long-duration, low-intensity storms are common in fall, winter,
and spring. Most of the annual precipitation falls as snow.
Beneficial Use. The South Fork basin has a wealth of
resources involving minerals, recreation, timber, water, forage,
wildlife, and fish. Annual water yields for the basin average
2 billion cubic meters (1,661,000 af). Several permit
116
-------
applications have been filed for hydroelectric development. The
South Fork system supports fish populations of resident species,
such as trout and char, and anadromous species including salmon
and s.teelhead. Historically, the South Fork supported Idaho's
largest population of summer Chinook salmon, although populations
have declined dramatically. The South Fork is considered
particularly crucial as a source of spawning and rearing habitat
for anadromous fish populations.
Monitoring. The South Fork of the Salmon River is one of the
most intensively studied forested river basins in the United
States. A comprehensive monitoring program was implemented to
evaluate the effects of management activities through studies
conducted at project sites, in tributary streams, and in the main
stem of the South Fork. Timely feedback to land managers
regarding existing or potential problems was an integral part of
the monitoring process. In addition, the South Fork Salmon River
Monitoring Committee, consisting of soil, water, and aquatic
specialists from various concerned agencies and organizations,
was established to review monitoring results and make
recommendations. Parameters monitored are stream discharge,
turbidity, bedload, suspended sediment, fish populations,
macroinvertebrates, bacteria, temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen,
conductivity, alkalinity, nitrogen, phosphorus, ions, and metals.
Discussion. The early monitoring efforts showed few major
impacts from new land-use activities and evidences of habitat
improvement. Land disturbances producing sediment were halted
from 1984-1986 when some spawning areas failed to show continued
improvement as measured by average particle size of streambed
substrate. Sediment rates were stabilized at about 113 percent
of background, and anadromous fish habitat was estimated to be 55
percent of potential. A hatchery program, improved downstream
fish passage, and other mitigating measures are contributing to
increasing fish populations. (Seyedbagheri et al. 1987).
Additional Information.
Contact: Walter Megahan
Intermountain Research Station
316 East Myrtle Street
Boise, ID 83706
208/334-1457
Reports: An annotated bibliography has been compiled by
Seyedbagheri et al. (1987) which includes the relevant
published and unpublished reports on fishery and
hydrology studies conducted in the South Fork of the
Salmon River drainage.
117
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Blue Mountains
Umatilla Barometer Watershed Project. Oregon
Site Description. The High Ridge Evaluation Area is located
in the Blue Mountains, 18 km (11 mi) northeast of Elgin, Oregon.
The area is approximately 227 ha (560 ac) in size and is
comprised of four small watersheds: High Ridge One (HR1) is
30 ha (73 ac); High Ridge Two (HR2) is 24 ha (60 ac); High Ridge
Three (HR3) is 53 ha (132 ac); and High Ridge Four (HR4) is
118 ha (292 ac).
Elevations in the High Ridge Evaluation Area range from
1,148-1,615 m (4,750-5,300 ft) above sea level. It is situated
at the headwaters of Buck Creek, a tributary to the South Fork
Umatill.a River. Soils in the area are developed from parent
matericil consisting of basalts and lacustrine sediments, and are
silt loams. Slopes range from 2 to 25 percent. Timber species
in the area consist of grand fir, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir,
lodgepole pine, and Englemann spruce. Average annual
precipj.tation is 134 cm (53 in) , of which approximately
78 percent is in the form of snow.
Best Management Practices. The three watersheds were
harvested by various harvest methods in 1976. One was selected
as the control watershed and treatment was deferred. HR1 was
clearcut in two blocks and 43 percent of the stand was removed.
Half of each clearcut was planted with Englemann spruce and
western larch in 1977. Fifty percent of the stand of HR2 was
removed, and the watershed was not reforested. HR4 was clearcut
in small patches removing 22 percent of the stand. The final
watershed, HR3, was the uncut control.
Monitoring. Monitoring was conducted to determine the
effect of timber harvest on water yield. Discharge was monitored
from 1956 to 1982.
A second harvest of the watersheds, with a greater
percentage of stand removal, was conducted in 1984. Ongoing
monitoring included water temperature, flow, streambank
stability, and water quality.
Discussion. There was a slight increase in annual stream
flow after harvesting, and no difference in peak flow timing or
magnitude when pre- and post-harvest runoff were compared.
Results from the second harvest are not expected to become
available until after at least 5 years of monitoring.
118
-------
Additional Information.
Contact: Ed Calame
Umatilla National Forest
2517 S.W. Hailey Avenue
Pendleton, OR 97801
503/276-3811
Reports: Felix (1984).
119
-------
Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF NONPOINT SOURCE MONITORING
This chapter evaluates and summarizes the current status of
nonpoint source (NFS) monitoring efforts in the Pacific Northwest.
Chapters 2 and 3 indicate that NPS control programs are collecting
a wide range of data, although a number of projects collect
baseline data only. If these less extensive programs were
excluded, a large data base would be lost which would limit the
usefulness of this report. The approaches and methods reported in
Chapters 2 and 3 were given close analysis. This chapter:
• characterizes the current NPS monitoring approaches,
• assesses the relative degree of success of the current
monitoring efforts in the Pacific Northwest, and
• summarizes the projects described in Chapters 2 and 3 in a
matrix delineating the parameters measured for each project.
In association.with this chapter, Appendix D reviews the
monitoring techniques and comments on the advantages and
limitations of some of these techniques.
Characteristics of Current NPS Monitoring Effort
The fundamental purpose of a monitoring program is to detect
and measure change in the environment, although the sought after
condition may be no change. Monitoring programs typically
identify trends, i.e., change in an environmental parameter over
time. Change is observed with respect to the achievement of
management goals and regulatory standards. Characterization of
environmental conditions by acquisition of time-dependent data is
often a principal goal.
Data collected in the Pacific Northwest on NPS control
programs have come from a mixture of monitoring, research, and NPS
investigations. Most of the data are collected to identify
sources and impacts of NPS pollutants and to help design
appropriate BMPs; thus, the approach taken usually focuses on a
specific objective or action. Monitoring for the purpose of
identifying long-term trends in the environment is rare and
usually associated with long-term research on experimental
watersheds.
121
-------
Types of Monitoring
Four types of monitoring are used in NFS programs: baseline,
implementation, effectiveness, and validation. A generalized
comparison of the comprehensiveness of these monitoring
approaches is presented in Table 4-1.
Baseline Monitoring. Baseline monitoring typically involves
the collection of data used to describe conditions before an
action is taken. Ideally, baseline monitoring is conducted over
a sufficient period of time to provide adequate data to estimate
the natural variability that may occur. The purpose is to have
the information necessary to distinguish effects induced by an
action from naturally variable conditions.
In many of the NFS control programs that have been
implemented in the Pacific Northwest, baseline monitoring has
focused on collecting data that characterize seasonal changes in
water quality; rarely are baseline data collected over the course
of mere than 1 year or on biological features of aquatic systems.
It is unlikely that representative data can be obtained in only
1 year. Active exchange of data between projects within the same
ecoregion may help project managers estimate variability. Often,
"one-time" investigations are conducted to portray conditions and
spatial variation at the time of sampling, particularly when a
small area is thought to contribute a disproportionally large
amount of pollution.
.Most watersheds appear to have been investigated reasonably
well to determine whether nonpoint source pollution is a serious
problem, what the likely sources are, and which BMPs may be most
appropriate. Extant physical and chemical data are often more
than adequate for post-implementation monitoring, but biological
data Ls of uncertain value.
Implementation Monitoring. Implementation monitoring
ensures that required or agreed BMPs are actually implemented and
maintained. Any tendency to assume that implementation monitoring
need be done only once should be resisted. Land use practices are
readily modified over time by social and economic conditions,
particularly in the agricultural sector. As a result,
implementation monitoring is particularly important to determine
whether the BMP is being continued and maintained. The standard
practice of USDA SCS is to annually inspect continued
implementation of BMPs by farmers under PL-566 contract.
Implementation monitoring is also an integral part of the USFS
logging program.
Effectiveness Monitoring. Effectiveness monitoring is needed
to document whether a BMP provides the intended protection to
water quality and aquatic resources. Documentation of post-BMP
conditions is especially important where compliance with
environmental quality criteria or standards is required.
122
-------
Table 4-1. Level of Effort for Monitoring Approach
Baseline Implementation Effectiveness Validation
Cost
Labor
Technology
T i me F r ame
Intensity
of Effort
Scientific
Training
Moderate Moderate
High High
Hodera t e/ Lou
High
Varies Varies
Modera t e/ Low
High
Moderate/ Moderate
High
Selective Intensive
Low High High
Low High High
Low High High
Long Long Long
Low High High
Low/ High High
Moderate
Parameters Many
Few/
Moderate
Few
Many
Many
Note>: Baseline monitoring is more extensive, demanding, and
costly i.f the program is designed for intensive effectiveness
or validation monitoring foil o.w ing BMP implementation.
123
-------
Effectiveness monitoring requires pre-implementation (baseline)
data and post-implementation monitoring data and analysis.
Effectiveness monitoring is also useful to demonstrate recovery
and rehabilitation of aquatic resources following implementation
of BMPs.
Examples of effectiveness monitoring occur predominately on
watersheds managed for research and development purposes (e.g.,
H. J. Andrews Forest and in Polk County, Oregon) and in projects
involving long-term commitments of federal resources (e.g., the
Rock Creek RCWP, the Moses Lake Clean Lake Project, the Silver
Creelic Project, and the Reynolds Creek Project) . Effectiveness
monitoring is typically costly.
Validation Monitoring. Validation monitoring is useful when
theoretical analyses and numerical modeling were used to define
the nature and magnitude of a problem and in projecting the
response of the environment to BMP implementation. Data
collection in this type of monitoring may be designed to refine
model assumptions. Calibration and verification of mathematical
models should occur prior to use of a model in compliance
monitoring.
Types; of Monitoring Parameters
Tables 4-2 and 4-3 summarize in matrix form the scope of
environmental parameters incorporated in the NPS control
activities described in Chapters 2 and 3. Projects are listed by
ecoregion in the order used in Chapters 2 and 3. Page numbers
are given for ease of reference to project descriptions. The
parameters used in each monitoring program are given in the
matrix.
Biological and Habitat. Biological indices used in the
Pacific Northwest to assess NPS impacts include measurable
features of riparian vegetation, fish populations, benthic
macroinvertebrates, algae, and fecal bacteria. Certain BMPs are
designed to protect and maintain riparian habitat.
Riparian vegetation as a habitat type provides benefits that
include stabilization of stream banks, moderation of air and water
temperature, fish and wildlife food and cover, and regulation of
stream flow. Riparian habitat quality is commonly included in
monitoring to assess the effects of grazing practices (Table 4-2).
BMPs are often implemented to reestablish or improve riparian
habitat types. BMPs to protect riparian habitat are important
components in both silviculture and agriculture. Planted
streamside vegetation is monitored (Tables 4-2 and 4-3), although
changes in natural riparian vegetation are not commonly followed.
Monitoring the status of fish populations may be the most
direct method of evaluating the success of NPS control programs
because the majority of BMPs implemented in the Pacific Northwest
124
-------
Table 4-2 Parameters and Technioues Used in Monitoring Agricultural Sonpoir.t Source Pollution
*•*
ic
t-
i£
t-
PROJECTS
a
n
Stream
Disclia
>,
•- *
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CONFINED ANIMAL AND FEEDLOT OPERATIONS
V
TILLAMOOK
JOHNSON
NEKAUKUM
XAKM SLOUGH
TEN.MILE
SAMISH
SEQUIM
QUILCENE/DABOB
SNOHOMISH
CLOVER
TOTTEN
HURLEY /.MINTER
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
SS
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X
01
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X
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X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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X
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p
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8
12
14
16
17
19
19
21
23
24
25
to
Ul
X indicates standard technique (See Appendix D). Specific techniques identified as follows:
SS suspended sediment I species identification Ch chlorophyll 1:2 nitrite nitrogen
B bedload W wood inventory K Xjeldahl nitrogen c? crthophosphats
V overhang E electrofishing A ar.-onia nitrogen T total phosphorus
C canopy Sn snorV.eling N3 nitrate nitrogen H hydrolyzable phosphorus
O organic phosphorus
Ql qualitative analysis
Monitoring Objective: •Saselir>e Alniplementation
? specific techniques not identified in information provided »Effectiveness *Validation
-------
Table 4-2 Continued
w
L;
1
<
c.
PROJECTS
COKEEKAN
LACAKAS
0
tr
e a
o u
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27
28
IRRIGATED FARMING
POLK COUKTY
BEAR
KLAMATH
MOSES LAKE
S. YAKIMA
HARKEY/MALHEUR
ROCK CREEK -
RCKP '
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
ss
ss
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X
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29
30
32
33
35
37
38
DRYLAND FARMING
IDAHO AKQP
PALOUSE
X
X
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ss
X
X
X
X
X
X
K,A,
N2,
N3
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41
42
to
indicates standard technique (See Appendix D). Specific techniques identified as follows:
SS suspended sediment
B bedload
V overhang
C canopy
I species identification Ch chlorophyll
W vood inventory K Kjeldahl nitrogen
E electrof ishing A
Sn snorXeling H3
ar-T.onia nitrogen
nitrate nitrogen
Ql qualitative analysis
? specific techniques not identified in information provided
K2 nitrite nitrogen
o? orthophosphate
T total phosphorus
H hydrolyzable phosphorus
O organic phosphorus
Mcnitoring Objective: •Baseline A Impleroentation
•Effectiveness #Validation
-------
Table 4-2 Continued
a.
t;
t-
IX
c.
PROJECTS
SOUTHEAST
WASHINGTON
GREASEKOOD
TAKKAXY
PINE
CANYON
ROCK CREEK
o
tr
u
[Stream
Discha
X
X
X
X
>,
XI
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X
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XI
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45
46
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49
50
GRAZING
FREMONT
EAST FORK
SALMON RIVER
MEADOW
BURNT
DOUGLAS
JOHN DAY
X
X
X
X
X
SS
SS
X
X
X
X
X
v.c,
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v.c
v,c
V C
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v,c.
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X
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52
54
55
56
58
59
M
to
indicates standard techniaue (See Appendix D).' Specific techniques identified as follows:
SS suspended sediment
B bedload
V overhang
C canopy
I species identification Ch
W vood inventory K
E electrofishing A
S.n snorkel ing N3
chlorophyll
Kjeldahl nitrogen
a-jsonia nitrocen
nitrate nitrogen
Ql qualitative analysis
? specific techniques not identified in information provided
N2 nitrite nitrogen
o? orthophosphate
T total phosphorus
H hydrolyzable phosphorus
O organic phosphorus
Monitoring Objective:
Baseline
Effectiveness
AImplementation
*Validation
-------
Table 4-2 Continued
w
t-
PROJECTS
CROOKED
UPPER TETON
ELM R1PAPJAN
REYNOLDS
! Stream
Discharge
X
X
X
Turb.tdity
X
X
J
Scdiiicnt
SS,B
SS
SS
Channel
1 Morphology
X
X
X
X
JSubst.rato
Composition
X
[Riparian
Habitats
v,c,
I
v,c
v,c
Irish
Popu.l ation
E,Sr.
E
! Macro -
invcr tebrate
X
X
Uactcria
X
X
o
13
Temperature
X
X
X
0.
X
X
X
1 Dissolved
Oxyi|on
X
X
X
Conductivity
X
X
X
Salinity
•H
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r*t
C
0
5
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z
NS'
Phosphorus
T
oP,T
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X
n
c
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Metal:
(Pesticides
1 1
IMONLTOIiINC
OBJ.JCTIVICS II
• *
•
•
• A
*
3
61
62
64
65
indicates standard technicrue (See Appendix D) . Specific techniques identified as follows:
IO SS suspended sediment
03 B bedload
V overhang
C canopy
Ql qualitative analysis
I species identification Ch
W wood inventory K
E electrofishing A
Sn snorV.eling K3
chlorophyll
Kjeldahl"nitrogen
anr.onia nitrogen
nitrate nitrogen
K2 nitrite nitrogen
o? orthophosphate
T total phosphorus
H hydrolyzable phosphorus
O organic phosphorus
? specific techniques not identified in information provided
Monitoring Objective: •Baselir.e A Implementation
•Effectiveness #Validation
-------
Table 4-3 Parameters and Techniques Used in Monitoring Eilvicultural Kcr.point Source Pollution
p£
t;
f-
2:
c.
PROJECTS
INDIAN RIVER
KADASHAN RIVER
AUKE BAY LAB.
CARNATION CREEK
OLYMPIC
CLEARKATER
RIVER
ALSEA RIVER
SIUSLAW
RIVER
CC'CS SAY
DISTRICT
ELK RIVER
SISKIYOU
LAKE KHATCOM
CAPITOL FOREST
V
&
u
Stream
Discha
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
jj
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X
X
X
X
X
X
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SS
SS
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X
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T,0
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X
X
a
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X
Metals
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-------
have protection and restoration of fish as the prime objective.
Fish populations were sampled in 38 percent of the agricultural
and in 31 percent of the silvicultural projects described (Tables
4-2 and 4-3). Some of these observations included assessments of
size of fish populations or magnitude of fishing activity.
The composition of benthic invertebrate communities is
monitored in some NFS programs relating to agricultural and
silvicultural practices (Tables 4-2 and 4-3) east of the Cascades.
Benthic invertebrates are used as an index of both water and fish
habitat quality. Variance in data results in difficulties in
interpretation of statistical significance of changes or trends.
Monitoring of algal populations in relation to NFS control
programs occurs primarily in lakes or streams where nutrient
impact may cause excessive eutrophication or nuisance conditions.
Algae are also monitored in comprehensive programs, and where the
water supplies a municipality and taste and odor could be a
nuisance (e.g., Bull Run).
Bacterial enumerations, particularly fecal coliforms, are
common in projects involving confined animal and feedlot
operations and rangeland management (Table 4-2.) . This is
expected since a major objective of BMPs in such situations is to
reduce fecal coliform contamination of streams, lakes, and
estuaries. Water quality standards typically include limitations
to contamination by fecal coliform bacteria. Bacterial
contamination is used as an indicator of risk to human health from
exposure to pathogenic bacteria and viruses. Fecal coliform
levels become especially meaningful when NFS discharges enter
water containing harvestable shellfish.
Physical. Physical measurements made in NFS assessment and
control programs include: flow, turbidity, suspended sediments,
substrate embeddedness, pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature.
Other key aquatic habitat parameters used in the Pacific Northwest
in assessing NFS impacts include channel morphology, stream
substrate composition, presence or absence of large organic
debris, and pool-riffle ratios. All of these physical parameters
can ba indicators of the quality of fish habitat and are commonly
used as indices of impacts on biota. Flow, temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and suspended solids data are
basic needs in assessing the ecological significance of water
chemistry conditions.
Flow, turbidity, suspended sediments, and temperature are
measured in almost all NFS assessment and control programs (Tables
4-2 and 4-3). The majority of BMPs developed and implemented in
the region are designed to control erosion, either to reduce the
loss of topsoil or to protect and enhance fish habitat. Thus, the
common demonstration of effectiveness of BMPs includes reductions
in turbidity and levels of suspended sediments. Analyses of
stream sediment- characteristics and channel morphology are
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commonly done in the silvicultural sector but 'to a lesser extent
than turbidity and suspended sediment because of costs in
collecting field data and interpreting results.
Chemical. A variety of water chemistry parameters are
included in NFS monitoring programs, because federal and state
water quality standards set limits on water chemistry, and because
of the value of measurements in demonstrating environmental
quality. In the agricultural sector (Table 4-2), measurement of
nutrients is a common aspect of monitoring. Measurements of
standard mineral and dissolved solids levels are frequent in NFS
programs relating to dryland and irrigated agriculture.
Silvicultural programs (Table 4-3) show less variation in
the lists of chemical parameters that are included in water
quality analyses. Silvicultural BMPs in Alaska, Idaho, Oregon,
and Washington meet or exceed the FPAs established by the states.
The FPAs enforce rules that are most often tied to a reduction or
prevention of erosion and the maintenance of natural water
chemical and temperature characteristics. In the majority of
cases, FPA standards and BMPs are designed to protect fish and
wildlife habitat quality.
Chemical measurements for toxic substances, especially
pesticides, associated with agriculture and silviculture are of
increasing concern. These substances are likely to occur more
often in the future in baseline and effectiveness monitoring.
Beneficial Use. Monitoring changes in beneficial uses,
following full implementation of BMPs, has generally not been
included in NFS control programs in the Pacific Northwest, perhaps
because it is assumed that once the water quality standards are
met, beneficial uses will be protected or restored. Exceptions
are NFS control programs designed to reopen commercial shellfish
beds (such as Tillamook Bay, and Burley-Minter Creeks).
Additionally, some information on recreational fishing is compiled
by state fisheries agencies, although these data are rarely
collected as part of an NFS control program.
Changes in fishing activity can be measured when a fisheries
resource assessment is part of a stream habitat enhancement
program (e.g., those funded by the Northwest Power Act through
Bonneville Power Administration). These assessments could provide
useful baseline data for post-implementation evaluations when
habitat enhancement involves BMPs directed at nonpoint sources
(e.g., grazing practices in the Upper Teton River Valley in
Idaho).
Groundwater. In some locations, groundwater quality is
monitored as part of NFS control programs in the Pacific
Northwest. Projects with a planned groundwater monitoring program
associated with BMP implementation are: Thurston County,
Washington (confined animal systems); Polk County, Oregon, and the
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Rock Creek RCWP (irrigated cropland); and Crooked River, Oregon
and Reynolds Creek, Idaho (grazing land). The latter program,
however, focuses primarily on geohydrology and water budgets on
the watershed, rather than quality of groundwater. A limited
amount of groundwater sampling has occurred in the region to
examine the effects of herbicide application on timberlands and
transmission line rights-of-way, but these monitoring programs
usually fall under the category of vegetation management programs
rathor than NFS control programs.
The impact of specific BMPs on groundwater is being
researched at the Institute of Watershed Studies at Western
Washington University (Gayden pers. comm.) and by the USDA SCS in
King County, Washington (Fitch pers. comm.). Investigative work
is being conducted by the USGS as part of its review of water
quality conditions in irrigation drainage projects in the western
states.
Common Monitoring Techniques
Appendix D describes common techniques used to collect and
analyze biological, physical, and chemical data and discusses
some of the advantages and limitations of the various techniques.
In general, standard procedures are well established for measuring
water chemistry and little variation in technique occurs. There
is, however, great variability in techniques for measuring
physical and biological characteristics.
Assessment of Current NFS Monitoring Efforts
^n important distinction between silvicultural and
agricultural land-use is reflected in baseline monitoring efforts.
Baseline monitoring of silvicultural land produces information on
a relatively undisturbed system about to be dramatically altered.
Baseline monitoring of agricultural systems produces information
about land altered by years of seasonal use.
Agricultural NFS Control Programs
The most common form of monitoring in the agricultural sector
establishes baseline water quality conditions. Baseline data are
collected to identify the characteristics of water quality and
degree of pollution (as defined by established water quality
standards). Data are used to target farms that have particularly
severe NPS pollution problems. Much of the monitoring undertaken
through the Idaho State Agricultural Water Quality Program, for
examplo, is baseline monitoring. Baseline monitoring programs
vary significantly in their design in the agricultural sector.
Irrigated and Dryland Agriculture. Two-thirds of the
projects described in this review collected baseline data only.
At a minimum, suspended sediment and flow data were collected,
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although most studies were more extensive. Most included chemical
measurements and a few studied biotic and physical parameters
(Table 4-2). The Idaho State Agricultural Water Quality Program
includes one of the more intensive baseline monitoring efforts;
data are collected for approximately 1 year.
Effectiveness of BMPs applied to dryland and irrigated
farmland is not commonly monitored in the Pacific Northwest. In
part, this may be due to the nature of these BMPs, most of which
focus on erosion control. Historically, these BMPs have aimed
primarily at "soil conservation" and less at protection of water
quality and fish habitat. In dryland agriculture, specific BMPs
are linked to a reduction in soil erosion as calculated by the
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE). Generally, effectiveness of
BMPs on dryland and irrigated farmland, if it is evaluated with
respect to aquatic systems, focuses on physical and chemical
attributes of surface water. Effectiveness monitoring is an
important part of the Rock Creek RCWP in Idaho, of the Moses Lake
Clean Lake Project in Washington, and of the South Yakima River
Project in Washington.
Grazing and Range Management. Forty percent of the projects
reviewed in this report monitored the effectiveness of specific
BMPs (e.g., John Day River, Meadow Creek). All of the projects
include not only typical physical and chemical measures, but also
assessment of change in riparian habitat or fish communities
(Table 4-2).
Confined Animal and Feedlot Operations. BMP implementation
monitoring is common for confined animal (e.g., high density*
pasture) and feedlot operations of farmers involved in cost-
sharing programs. Monitoring effectiveness of BMPs, however,
occurs for only a fraction of those installed and is generally
executed at the project level. Fecal coliforms, nutrients,
temperature, and flow are often the minimum monitoring program in
confined animal and feedlot operations (Table 4-2).
Silvicultural NFS Control Programs
The majority of BMPs on timberlands are designed to reduce
erosion and sedimentation in streams. In most cases, BMPs are
incorporated into state FPAs and therefore required on private
timberlands and state lands in Washington, Alaska, Idaho, and
Oregon. The Washington Department of Natural Resources follows
its own set of BMPs on state lands which meet or exceed the FPAs.
A limited amount of effectiveness monitoring occurs at the local
level on timberlands.
Of the silvicultural programs reviewed in Chapter 3, the
most intensive monitoring of BMP effectiveness is done by
universities in cooperation with USFS research stations on
experimental watersheds. The data collected at H.J. Andrews
Experimental Forest, for example, date back to 1948. The
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monitoring of the watershed rehabilitation program on the South
Fork Salmon River was implemented in conjunction with a 1965
moratorium on logging and road construction. The Silver Creek
and Horse Creek projects in Idaho, operated by the USFS, provide
extensive data on timber harvest practices and effects of road
construction. Bull Run Watershed, the main water source for
Portland, Oregon, is monitored extensively due to public interest
in water quality.
Success of Effectiveness Monitoring Programs
The a priori objectives of a project must be clearly defined
to determine whether the project was successful or not. For
example, an objective can be very localized, such as reducing the
NPS pollution from one farm (e.g., Seguim Bay) or a large-scale
attempt to reduce NPS pollution from a watershed (e.g., the
Palouse Watershed). The project objectives may be to improve the
water quality in a few selected criteria (e.g., the Little
Greasewood and West Fork Greasewood Project) or to more generally
improve or increase the beneficial uses of the water (e.g., Moses
Lake).
Successful Effectiveness Monitoring. The Johnson Creek
Project in Washington is unusual in its low-technology evaluation
of the effectiveness of the NPS control program. Local
landowners, played a large role in setting the objectives and
carrying out the monitoring program. The farmers and a
representative from the local soil conservation office walk the
stream bank annually, noting qualitative changes in riparian
veget.ation, bank stability, water appearance, and fish use.
Although the information obtained is not quantitative, it is
sufficient to support the conclusion that the objectives
established by local landowners have been met. Furthermore,
local farmers have "pride of ownership" in the monitoring
program. However, both the farmers and the local SCS officials
believe that more extensive and traditional quantitative
monitoring of the water chemistry should be undertaken by DOE to
confirm the perceived improvement in water quality.
Cither noteworthy, successful effectiveness monitoring
programs include three major undertakings involving substantial
participation by federal, state, and local agencies. These
include the Rock Creek RCWP (irrigation land in Idaho), the Moses
Lake Clean Lake Project (irrigation land in Washington), and the
Crooked River Project (grazing land in Oregon). These projects
have undergone extensive phases of planning, starting with
careful definition of problems and collection of extensive
baseline data, and continuing through designing experimental
tests of various BMPs and frequent reevaluation of progress. The
Reynolds Creek Experimental Watershed in southwest Idaho is
operated by the USDA Agricultural Research Service and focuses on
136
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range management and grazing practices in high desert habitat.
This research program also offers a substantial amount of data on
the effectiveness of BMPs.
Unsuccessful Effectiveness Monitoring. Monitoring the
effectiveness of BMPs at the watershed level appears to be less
successful than monitoring effectiveness of specific BMPs
implemented on a definable site. For example, the Little
Greasewood and West Fork Greasewood Creeks Project noted the
effectiveness of BMPs where they were applied, but no change was
seen in suspended sediments at the mouth of the watershed.
(Perhaps suspended solids are not an appropriate indicator for
effectiveness.) Similarly, the Totten/Henderson/Eld Inlets
Project and Burley/Minter Project were expected to reduce fecal
coliform levels in their respective estuaries to levels that would
allow commercial shellfish harvest. Commercial shellfish
harvesting is still not permitted due to high fecal coliform
counts. If, however, a BMP is implemented with the stated
objective of reducing a farm's contribution to bacterial levels in
an adjacent stream, it is rare to find failure.
Silvicultural projects frequently include measurements of
turbidity or suspended sediments. Extensive research at Bull Run
Watershed has shown these parameters to be very important
indicators of BMP efficacy. However, several projects have found
their baseline data to be highly variable, and impacts due to
logging were masked by the statistical variance (e.g., Indian
River Project, Alaska and Olympic National Forest, Washington).
The placement of the sampling station is also critical to the
finding of water quality impacts (e.g., Middle Santiam River
Project, Oregon).
Summary
Chapter 4 and Appendix D are intended to complement each
other. Chapter 4 discusses monitoring programs in general and
the broad categories of projects undertaken in the Pacific
Northwest. Appendix D reviews and evaluates the techniques
generally used in monitoring projects.
The broad categories of monitoring parameters included
biological, habitat, physical, and chemical. The specific
techniques are described in further detail in Appendix D.
Monitoring beneficial use and groundwater occurs rarely, although
neither are generally included in existing programs.
This chapter provides a broad overview of monitoring programs
before concentrating on the characteristics of current NPS
efforts in the Pacific Northwest. Baseline monitoring, the
collection of data to describe conditions before an action is
taken, is regularly undertaken, often as a mix of monitoring and
investigation. It commonly incorporates physical and chemical
137
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parameters rather than biotic. Implementation monitoring, to
ensure the BMPs are implemented and maintained, is an integral
part of silvicultural (required by the Forest Practices Acts) and
PL-5S6 agricultural programs. Effectiveness monitoring, designed
to understand whether the BMP is having the desired effect on
water quality, is costly and" is most often conducted on
experimental watersheds. Validation monitoring, conducted when
mathematical models played a major role in defining the NPS
problem, is more complete and specific than effectiveness
monitoring and is generally found only in research projects.
Finally, the current effectiveness monitoring efforts for
each land use type is addressed. Irrigated and dryland
agriculture tend to rely on water column chemistry analyses.
Grazing projects focus on riparian management, often using a
photographic record, channel morphology, and biota. Confined
animal and feedlot operations tend to measure water column
bacteria and nutrients, and usually identify specific farms as a
quasi-point-source needing BMPs. Silviculturai projects are
regulated by the FPAs which determine the BMPs, identify the
probable results, and set minimum monitoring schedules. In each
land use category, there are large and long-term projects
gathering validation data or defining the effectiveness of
specific BMPs.
138
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Chapter 5
RECOMMENDED GUIDELINES FOR MONITORING
EFFECTIVENESS OF NONPOINT SOURCE CONTROLS
Introduction
Best Management Practices are usually derived from empirical
knowledge gained from observing a cause-effect relationship
between an activity and the degradation of a natural resource.
For example, observing streambanks that are freely accessible to
cattle and comparing them with protected streambanks leads to
obvious conclusions about how to protect riparian habitat and
water quality. The idea, therefore, is to change the activity in
ways that avoid or abate the degradation and still allow the
accrual of benefits from the activity. The prescribed element of
the activity that avoids or abates the degradation is the BMP.
In some instances the relationship between use of a BMP and
protection of a resource is clear and measurable, while in other
instances it may be masked by other conditions and events and thus
be theoretical in description. Deciding where the BMP/effect-on-
natural-resource relationships fall on the continuum, from clear
to purely theoretical, significantly influences the design of a
monitoring program and is given consideration in the following
text. The availability of technology to produce and interpret
data and the cost are also important considerations.
Previous chapters presented information on BMPs pertaining to
agricultural and silvicultural and associated monitoring programs.
Four types of monitoring were defined in Chapter 4: baseline,
implementation, effectiveness, and validation. All four types are
interrelated and may appear together or singly in particular
monitoring programs. Guidelines for the selection and use of
these monitoring types are identified and discussed in this
chapter; however, emphasis is placed on effectiveness monitoring,
which is subdivided into selective and intensive levels of effort.
General Considerations
It is generally assumed that the proper implementation of an
appropriate BMP will avoid or abate the pollution or other adverse
effects for which the BMP is prescribed. This assumption seems
acceptable because of the empirical knowledge used in the
prescription of a BMP. Monitoring can therefore fulfill different
functions in the protection of aquatic resources with various land
uses and related BMP programs. (Forest Practice Act Regulations
are synonymous with BMPs for the purposes of this discussion.)
139
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Baseline monitoring data may influence the determination of
need for different BMPs and also establish the starting condition
from which to measure change. Implementation monitoring
determines whether required BMPs were actually applied as
prescribed and subsequently maintained over time. Effectiveness
monitoring can demonstrate the degree of protection and, when
appropriate, the restoration derived from BMPs; or conversely the
failure of BMPs to achieve the intended objective and goals.
Validation monitoring may serve to refine assumptions or the
selection of input data used in models that project desired
results based more on theory than empirical knowledge.
It is evident that all four types of monitoring must be
considered and evaluated in view of the specific conditions and
circumstances of each monitoring program. The planning and design
effort in establishing a monitoring program should initially
identify and describe concise objectives and goals. Monitoring
activities thereafter become the strategy and tactics to achieve
objectives.
Statement of Objectives
To generate an objective, the problem to be addressed must
first be defined. In the context of this report, the
environmental problem tends to be defined by the environmental
need for the use of a BMP. A BMP prescribing water bars on
logging roads may abate erosion (problem), the transport of fine
sediment into streams (problem), and the siltation of salmonid
spawning habitat (problem). The monitoring response may be to
ascertain that water bars are installed as prescribed
(implementation monitoring), observation for evidence of gully
erosion (effectiveness monitoring), and .quantitative analysis of
spawning gravels for percent of materials less than 1 millimeter
(0.04 in) in diameter (effectiveness monitoring).
In this particular case, the general nature of the problem is
accelerated soil erosion which may have adverse effects on
salmonid spawning gravels. The BMP is one remedial action.
Monitoring must determine results of the action; objectives can
state what is intended to result from the BMP; and the elements
constituting the monitoring, measure or give evidence about the
occurrence of the intended result.
A stated objective relative to monitoring a BMP should
fulfill certain rules of formulating objectives:
I.. state fully what the monitoring is intended to
accomplish,
2, exclude from the statement what will not be
accomplished, and
140
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3. specify a goal or endpoint so progress or attainment
can be determined.
An objective may be worded in performance terms.
The objective statement for monitoring in the example case
may be: to measure the effectiveness of environmental protection
afforded by prescribed water bars on:
1. soil loss by runoff erosion,
2. change in percent of fines less than 1 millimeter in
diameter in spawning gravel immediately downstream, and
3. turbidity greater than 25 NTU 48 hours following storm
events.
This objective statement conforms to the three guidelines.
Monitoring is intended to accomplish measurements that define in
comparable ways the effectiveness of the BMP. The monitoring
would use standard methods to measure and record parameters
directly related to soil erosion. It would also have a direct
relationship to the BMP if the stream is responding only to the
perturbations causing the BMP to be implemented. If soil erosion
is wide-spread and from different causes, the instream monitoring
becomes less discrete and must be evaluated with respect to the
influences of other sources.
In the more complex situation, the objective may be stated
differently: to measure the effectiveness of specified BMPs in
the restoration and protection of spawning gravels and fishing in
a named creek between points x and y:
1. reduce the percent of fines (< 1 millimeter [0.04 in] in
diameter) in spawning gravels to below 10 percent, and
2. reduce turbidity to less than 25 NTU 48 hours following
storm events.
In cases where there is a program to abate erosion using
several BMPs over a large watershed, the effects become cumulative
and may not be discernable and related to any one BMP or parcel of
land. Monitoring strategies may require the combined efforts of
baseline monitoring to develop the base from which to measure
change, implementation monitoring to document the application and
maintenance of BMPs, and direct measures of accomplishment by
demonstrating changes in percent fines in spawning gravel and rate
of clearing of water after storm events.
Well formulated statements of objectives lead to savings of
time and money. They also make it possible to evaluate and
interpret data collected during the monitoring operation.
141
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Monitoring data must be collected for a purpose and be related to
the accomplishments for environmental maintenance or change
intended by implementation of the BMP.
Recommended Approaches to Effectiveness Monitoring
It is recommended that all NFS control programs include
elements of baseline, implementation, and effectiveness
monitoring. Effectiveness monitoring may occur at two different
levels of effort: "selective" and "intensive". Selective, the
lower level of effort for effectiveness monitoring, is recommended
when responses to BMP implementation are expected to be readily
observable. In general, less sophisticated, simple observations
of readily observable changes are preferred so that costs of
monitoring will be commensurate with available resources at the
local level. Further discussion of possible approaches and the
situations in which it would be used is found later in this
chapter. An example of this type of approach can be found in the
Johnson Creek Project in Washington.
The intensive level of effort in effectiveness monitoring
occurs at a typically larger scale and is applied when changes in
the environment are expected to be subtle, complex, or the
cumulative results of several actions. It entails the use of more
quantitative techniques of measuring environmental response. An
intensive study is likely to require funding from several sources;
examples include cooperation between two or more local soil
conservation districts or implementation at the state or federal
level. This level of monitoring can not occur for all NPS control
programs; rather, criteria should be used to select representative
projects to receive "intensive" effectiveness monitoring. Further
discussion of approaches is found later in this chapter. An
example of this approach can be found in the Rock Creek RCWP
project in Idaho.
Selective Effectiveness Monitoring
Silviculture
Selective monitoring is appropriate in areas where road
failures are chronic, mass failures of slopes are readily visible,
and monitoring the effectiveness of BMPs can be focused with
little difficulty. Such monitoring should focus on analyses of
flow, turbidity, suspended solids, and temperature at minimum.
Consideration should also be given to whether the scale of the
impact and activity is sufficient to warrant monitoring changes in
fish population characteristics or alternatively, quantifying
changes in channel morphology or sediment characteristics.
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Silvicultural BMPs are typically implemented to preserve or
maintain good quality aquatic habitat. Readily observable
impacts are unusual in most areas of the Northwest. The
performance of silvicultural BMPs will typically be evaluated by
monitoring subtle changes against a context of high natural
variability where intensive effectiveness monitoring is expected
to be of greater value than selective effectiveness monitoring.
Agriculture
In certain situations, agricultural NFS pollution and land
use practices have a readily observable impact on aquatic
systems. If BMPs are effective in addressing these problems, the
response of the aquatic environment is often also readily visible.
Agricultural situations that are amenable to selective
effectiveness monitoring include the recovery of riparian
vegetation on rangeland, confined animal and feedlot operations
following correct management of livestock, and a reduction in
suspended solids concentrations in streams draining highly erosive
dryland or irrigated farmland when minimum tillage is implemented.
In these situations, effectiveness monitoring should focus on
a small number of parameters that are easily observed. The key to
selective effectiveness monitoring at the local level is to
involve, to the maximum extent possible, local landowners and
operators in designing and executing the monitoring program.
These individuals represent a valuable resource because they have
a lower personnel turnover rate and a vested interest in the
effectiveness of the BMP. Within the agricultural sector, the
number of landowners and operators and size of operations will
influence program design. Ideally, the monitoring survey should
be conducted with broad involvement of interested and affected
groups. The monitoring techniques should be easy to understand
and use, require minimum investments in equipment, and focus on
aspects of the aquatic environment that are of interest to
affected and concerned parties.
The ecological parameters that will be monitored and the
techniques that will be used must depend on site conditions, the
stated objectives of the BMPs that have been implemented, and the
stated objectives developed for the monitoring program. Elements
that could be included in agricultural operations are summarized
in the following sections and in Tables 5-1 and 5-2.
Rangeland. Rangeland BMPs are commonly implemented to
protect or restore riparian habitat or to reduce nutrient and
fecal coliform loadings to streams. Restoration of riparian
habitat is usually done to stabilize streambanks and reduce
erosion, modify streamflows, reduce temperature, or improve fish
habitat. Riparian vegetation is easily photographed, and changes
in the vigor of growth and the types (shrubs, trees, forbs,
grasses) of vegetation are easily noted. Photographs taken over
time at established locations have the added advantage of
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Table 5-1. Typical Pollution Problems Associated With Land Use
Category.
Confined Animal Feedlot Operations
• Wator quality - biotic
• Channel morphology
• Stream bank morphology
Ranaeland
• Stream hydrology
• Stream bank morphology
• Water quality - biotic
Dryland Agriculture
• Channel morphology
• Stream hydrology
• Water quality - nutrients
pesticides
Irrigated Farming
Stream hydrology
Water quality - sediment
Water quality - nutrients*
Water quality - chemicals
Water temperature
Forestry
Stream bank morphology
Stream hydrology
Water quality - sediment
Water temperature
Light
Channel morphology
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Table 5-2. Recommended Parameters
Pollution Problem
Channel Morphology
Stream Bank
Morphology
Stream Hydrology
Water Temperature
Selective Monitoring
Flow; depth qualitative
habitat characterization
(e.g. pool/riffle ratio;
substrate composition,
large organic debris.
Flow; depth; temperature;
Intensive Monitoring
Flow; depth; substrate
composition; pool/riffle
ratio; large organic debris;
(bank angle).
Flow; depth, temperature,
riparian vegetation (photo); riparian vegetation; sus-
Uater Quality
Biotic
Water Quality
Sediment
Water Quality
Nutrients
Water Quality
Chemicals
(suspended solids)
(fish +/-).
Flow; depth; (fish +/-).
Flow; temperature; dis-
solved oxygen; vegetative
overhang (photo).
Flow; dissolved oxygen;
(bacteria); (fish +/-).
Flow; suspended sediment;
fish +/-.
Flow; temperature;
dissolved oxygen; pH;
nutrients; algae +/-.
Flow; pH; conductivity;
(fish +/-).
Special Considerations;
pended solids; bank
stability; (turbidity)
(fish).
Flow; depth; fish +/-.
Flow; temperature;
dissolved oxygen;
vegetative overhang;
riparian vegetation;
(invertebrates); (fish);
(algae).
Flow; dissolved oxygen;
nutrients; bacteria;
fish; algae.
Flow; suspended sediment;
turbidity; stream bed
substrate; nutrients;
(invertebrates); (fish).
Flow; temperature;
dissolved oxygen; pH;
nutrients; fish; algae +/-;
(algal species composition).
Flow; pH; conductivity;
salts; pesticides/herbicides;
invertebrates; (fish);
(algae).
• Large organic debris should be measured for siIvicultural monitoring
projects.
• Large streams - measure fish age classes, population, length:weight
ratio, density.
• Small streams - measure fish +/-.
• Host of watershed treated • measure fish +/-.
• Part of watershed treated - measure fish +/-•
• Bank erosion occurring - measure riparian vegetation, channel stability,
and channel morphology.
• CAFO encloses the stream - measure riparian vegetation, channel morphology,
fish age structure.
• CAFO near stream - measure invertebrate species density and abundance.
+/- Presence/absence
( ) Optional, at discretion of resource manager
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providing a record of conditions that can be subjected to
quantitative evaluation later. Some aspects of riparian habitat
(Appendix D) should be monitored as part of a selective
effectiveness monitoring program. A photographic record of
vegetation change following BMP implementation is particularly
dramatic. Monitoring of nutrient and fecal coliform loading
requires an intensive effectiveness monitoring program.
Observations on the presence or absence of fish and how much
of the stream is used by spawning fish may be appropriate if
stream conditions permit visual observation and if BMPs are
expected to alter use of the stream by fish dramatically.
Monitoring of fish populations, however, may be difficult in
streams draining rangeland. In some cases, effects of BMPs on
fish populations may be noticeable only in water significantly
downstream of that part of the watershed in which the BMPs have
been implemented. Thus, great care must be taken in considering
where in the watershed effects of rangeland BMPs are likely to
impact fish populations.
Changes in flow patterns (e.g., less flooding, increased
duration of flow in ephemeral streams) provide useful information
on effectiveness of BMPs on rangelands. If stream sedimentation
and urosion are major concerns in the watershed, sampling with
Imho:?f cones may provide inexpensive, dramatic, and useful
measures of change in sediment concentration. Other measures that
can be readily obtained in the field are temperature, dissolved
oxygon, and pH.
Confined Animal and Feedlot Operations. Most of the
discussion that applies to rangeland agriculture is also
applicable to confined animal (e.g., pastureland) and feedlot
opereitions where BMPs are implemented to protect streambanks.
Riparian vegetation, sediment concentrations, and flow may need
to b€i monitored.
Observations on the presence or absence of fish and how much
of the stream is used by spawning fish may be appropriate if
stream conditions permit visual observations and if BMPs are
expected to alter use of the stream by fish. Monitoring of fish
populations, however, may be of little value if only a small part
of the stream is subject to BMPs. If large areas of the .drainage
are under BMPs, the site may warrant intensive effectiveness
monitoring. Great care must be taken in considering where in the
watershed effects of BMPs are likely to modify fish populations.
Irrigated and Dryland Agriculture. Severe pollution by
suspended sediments may be associated with irrigated and dryland
agriculture. If the problem occurs throughout a watershed and
much of the watershed is under BMPs, the watershed may be a
candidate for intensive effectiveness monitoring. If, however,
the problem is severe and specific to only a small area, then the
site is a candidate for selective effectiveness monitoring.
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In these situations, selective effectiveness monitoring may
focus primarily on the concentration of suspended solids in the
stream and a few associated physical and chemical parameters.
Unless there are compelling site-specific conditions that warrant
their inclusion, biological parameters, such as fish habitat
condition and populations, should not be included because they
respond in subtle ways that are likely to be detected only through
intensive monitoring.
Intensive Effectiveness Monitoring
A BMP at a specific site may be very effective in meeting
specified objectives such as reduction of erosion without a
readily observed improvement in water quality or aquatic habitat.
Thus, resource managers need to design intensive monitoring
programs that are sensitive to such observations.
Physical and chemical parameters are more often useful as
indicators of how effectively a BMP meets specified abiotic
objectives such as reduction of soil erosion, but only biological
measures can effectively describe the response of aquatic
organisms. Indications from ongoing monitoring projects and best
professional judgment suggest that intensive effectiveness
monitoring should include primarily physical and chemical
parameters when a relatively small proportion of .a drainage area
is under BMPs. Inclusion of biological parameters is more likely
to be useful when a larger proportion of the watershed is under
BMPs. Invertebrates and algal measurements are good indicators
for certain water pollutions (e.g., algae for nutrient enrichment,
invertebrates for chemical pollution, and sediment).
Criteria for Site Selection for Intensive Effectiveness Monitoring
Resource managers should select representative sites to
reflect the most common types of activities of the Pacific
Northwest ecoregions, as defined by Omernik and Gallant (1986).
In selecting these sites, the following criteria should be
considered:
• The project site should be representative of the targeted
land use type in the ecoregion.
• Good baseline data should be available on land use, water
quality, and condition of targeted biological resources or
sufficient lead time should be available to gather a data
base.
• Priority should be given to projects with uncertain responses
to BMPs or disturbance.
• Priority should be given to activities that pose a high risk
to water quality and aquatic resources.
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• The severity of the nonpoint source pollution impacts and
the history of land use practices in the watershed should be
such that effectiveness of BMPs is likely to be detected.
• Public interest in the aquatic resources in the watershed
should be high, thereby increasing the potential use of the
monitoring results.
• Large-scale projects should include participation by several
agencies at federal, state, and local levels and by
researchers at local or regional academic institutions.
• Opportunities to maximize public participation and public
education should be identifiable.
• Monitoring should provide a minimum of technical
difficulties for sampling, e.g., proximity to an analytical
lab for samples susceptible to degradation.
The statement of objectives must be formulated before
deciding on the program design and selecting the site for
intensive effectiveness monitoring. The program design must take
into account the common pollution problems associated with major
land use type (Table 5-1). If one or more of these pollution
problems are expected or known to occur, resource managers must
choose an appropriate array of parameters that should be included
in the effectiveness monitoring program.
Table 5-2 lists parameters that should be included for
certain pollution problems as well as a few additional options
(noted in parentheses in Table 5-2) that would be included if site
specific conditions warrant. The special considerations are
listed at the end of Table 5-2, and are discussed in more detail
in the remainder of this chapter.
Silviculture
Common Impacts. The major impacts of nonpoint source
pollution associated with silvicultural practices in the Pacific
Northwest are: changes in stream hydrology; input of sediment
(erosion from roads and disturbed soils on logged areas);
increases in stream temperature or changes in light levels on
streams? and changes in debris loading and channel and stream bank
morphology (Table 5-1).
Existing Monitoring Techniques. Monitoring conducted as part
of timber harvest activities includes measurement of turbidity,
suspended sediment, pH, temperature, and flow. Evaluation of
substrate composition and channel morphology changes is common on
research projects and is increasingly common on other projects.
The .techniques that are used are relatively standardized
throughout the region, and are described in more detail in
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Appendix D. These techniques are generally useful in describing
effectiveness from the standpoint of habitat quality, but do not
specifically address the response of aquatic resources.
Recommended Physical and Chemical Monitoring. The existing
monitoring techniques should be continued in most cases.
Monitoring should continue for several years after BMP
implementation. Root strength of harvested trees, for example,
may last for up to 5-6 years after harvest. Reforestation-growth
is usually sufficient to stabilize the soil by this time, but soil
slide with potential water quality impacts may still result
several years after BMP application.
Recommended Biological and Habitat Monitoring. On
silvicultural sites, effectiveness monitoring should evaluate the
adequacy of forest practices rules as BMPs, where FPAs apply.
State forest practices regulations in Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington include provisions for protection of the riparian
zones in timber harvest areas. Implementation of these BMP
provisions should be monitored.
Some monitoring of fish habitat and fish populations is
currently occurring. It is recommended that fish habitat
monitoring be expanded, depending on the pollution problems
expected (Table 5-2). Site-specific conditions will determine the
type of monitoring that occurs, but in general, annual assessments
of age structure of fish populations would be more indicative of
the health of the fish population than density information, since
age structure is a better reflection of habitat condition for the
full range of life history stages. As noted earlier in the
discussion of selective effectiveness monitoring, great care must
be taken in considering where in the watershed effects of BMPs are
likely to be detected as changes in fish populations and habitat.
Large organic debris (LOD) is an important aquatic habitat
parameter ta monitor in logging areas. It is suggested that LOD
be monitored following logging in both selective and intensive
effectiveness monitoring. Other parameters, such as pool:riffle
ratio, substrate composition, and temperature should be monitored
as deemed appropriate by project objectives.
Rangeland
Common Impacts. The most frequent water quality impacts
associated with rangeland grazing are: changes in flow regime
resulting from modification or loss of riparian vegetation;
increased erosion as a result of streambank modification and loss
of riparian vegetation; and bacterial and nutrient loading from
animal wastes deposited in the streams or along streambanks
(Table 5-1).
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Existing Monitoring Techniques. Streambank stability,
suspended sediment, turbidity, channel morphology, temperature,
flow, bacterial levels, nitrogen levels, and riparian vegetation
are most frequently monitored in aquatic habitats on rangeland.
Recommended Physical and Chemical Monitoring. Existing water
chemistry and stream morphology monitoring parameters should be
continued in most cases.
Recommended Biological and Habitat Monitoring. Grouse and
Kindschy (1982) have developed a method for predicting the
potential for establishing riparian vegetation on high desert
rangelands. A post-implementation monitoring program should
include evaluation of change in riparian vegetation. Riparian
monitoring efforts should be directed toward community composition
and the amount of vegetative shading of the stream. These
parameters most readily respond to implementation of BMPs on
grazing lands. Riparian vegetation recovers rapidly by the growth
of existing plants; grass, for example, will regrow within a few
weeks; of grazing exclusion. Long term monitoring of riparian
vegetation should include species composition. The establishment
of woody shrubs and sedges, important in providing shade and bank
stabilization, can take 10 years or more (Elmore and Beschta
1987). Channel morphology changes also take place over a longer
time-frame.
The species composition and shading of riparian vegetation
directly affect fish populations. Direct monitoring of fish
populations will depend on site-specific conditions (Table 5-2).
In forested areas used for livestock grazing and in perennial
strea.ms in high desert areas, fish populations should be monitored
for age structure because this parameter can be a sensitive
measure of fish habitat quality for all life history stages. In
smaller and ephemeral streams, monitoring of fish could be
limited to noting species present, or the re-establishment of a
fish species in an otherwise suitable stream.
Irrigated Farmland
Common Impacts. Common nonpoint source impacts on irrigated
farmland in the Pacific Northwest include: alteration of flow
regime; elevated sediment loads resulting from erosion; nutrient
loading from fertilizer applications; detectable levels of
pesticides and metals in fish tissue; and temperature changes
(Table 5-1).
Existing Monitoring Techniques. The majority of monitoring
efforts directed toward irrigated agriculture includes a
relatively extensive suite of physical and chemical parameters
(Table 4-2). These include parameters such as suspended
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sediment, turbidity, temperature, pH, nutrient loading,
conductivity, and selected ions. Occasionally heavy metals are
included in the analyses, but pesticides are rarely included
(Table 4-2).
Recommended Physical and Chemical Monitoring. Existing
monitoring techniques should continued in most cases. Heavy
metals and pesticides are rarely included in existing programs
(Table 4-2). Monitoring of pesticides should be included for
intensive effectiveness monitoring, as should the monitoring of
groundwater quality.
Recommended Biological Monitoring. BMPs for irrigated
agriculture are typically directed to controlling soil erosion
and sedimentation. Riparian vegetation is not likely to respond
to changes in turbidity or suspended sediment loads. Riparian
vegetation and channel morphology may be monitored if streambank
erosion is expected to occur (Table 5-2).
Fish community composition may respond to dramatic change in
suspended sediments and turbidity and, therefore, should be
included in monitoring effectiveness of BMPs if the majority of
the watershed is under a BMP implementation program (Table 5-2).
If only a small percentage of total acreage is under BMPs,
monitoring responses of fish communities is not likely to provide
useful information on the effectiveness of the BMPs.
An aspect of irrigation drainage water that is commonly
overlooked in developing BMPs and monitoring their implementation
is the effect of pesticides, nutrients, and other chemical
constituents on aquatic species. Reduction in levels of chemical
pollutants is unlikely to result in measurable changes in fish
populations unless water quality standards are exceeded several-
fold. Monitoring changes in benthic macroinvertebrate
communities may be appropriate in this situation, particularly if
the regulatory framework identifies this community as an indicator
of biotic integrity of the aquatic ecosystem. In situations where
herbicides or nutrients are expected to be major pollutants, algal
biomass and species composition may be useful indicators of
changes in chemical and nutrient levels, particularly in slow
moving Waters.
Dryland Agriculture
Common Impacts. Most of the dryland agriculture in the
Pacific Northwest occurs in the Snake and Columbia River Basins.
The most common NFS impacts include soil erosion; change in flow
regime; channel morphology changes; and impacts from fertilizers
and pesticides.
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Existing Monitoring Techniques. The parameters that are most
commonly included in monitoring associated with dryland
agricultural practices are suspended sediment, turbidity, flow,
temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and nutrient
loading.
Recommended Physical and Chemical Monitoring. Existing
monitoring techniques should be continued in most cases, or
expanded to include groundwater monitoring. Herbicide levels in
groundwater, surface water, and stream sediments should also be
analyzed if herbicide use in the watershed occurs.
Recommended Biological Monitoring. BMPs for dryland
agriculture are typically directed to controlling soil erosion
and sedimentation of stream beds. Riparian vegetation is not
likely to respond to changes in turbidity or suspended sediment
loads. Extent of riparian vegetation and channel morphology,
however, should be monitored if substantial streambank erosion
occurs. In much of the dryland agriculture areas of the Pacific
Northwest, programs that monitor channel morphology (a measure of
fish habitat quality) should be cognizant of the significant
background variability of flow and resulting channel changes.
Accurate assessment of BMP effectiveness, therefore, may require
a long-term baseline measurement period.
Fish community composition may respond to dramatic change in
suspended sediments and, therefore, should be included in
monitoring effectiveness of BMPs on dryland agriculture sites
with perennial streams and if the majority of the watershed is
under BMPs. Other fish population characteristics could be
useful, specifically age structure and condition. These
parameters will likely respond more visibly to subtle changes than
will species composition.
Confined Animal and Feedlot Operations
Common Impacts. In feedlot operations and high density
pasture that abut or surround streams, the most common impacts are
nutrient loading, bacterial levels in violation of water quality
standards, streambank erosion, and alteration of channel
morphology (Table 5-1). In high density pasture or feedlot
operations that are located near streams or that include
application of manure to land subject to direct surface runoff to
streams, nutrient loading, high bacterial levels, and low
dissolved oxygen levels are the most common impacts.
Existing Monitoring Techniques. The parameters that are
most commonly included in monitoring associated with feedlots,
high density pasture, and similar confined animal operations
include suspended sediment, turbidity, flow, temperature, pH,
dissolved oxygen, conductivity, bacterial loading, and nutrient
loading.
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Recommended Physical and Chemical Monitoring. Existing
monitoring techniques should be continued in most cases.
Monitoring for dissolved volatile organics found in animal wastes
below confined animal and feedlot operations may be useful to
include as a measure of BMP effectiveness.
Recommended Biological Monitoring. Monitoring effectiveness
of BMPs implemented for confined animal and feedlot operations
that enclose or abut streams should include monitoring of extent
and species composition of riparian vegetation, channel
morphology, fish population, age structure and condition factors,
and possible macroinvertebrates. Bacterial levels should also be
included.
Monitoring of BMPs implemented for feedlots that are near
streams or include manure application to land susceptible to
direct surface runoff to streams should include species
composition of aquatic invertebrate communities and bacterial
levels as part of an intensive monitoring program.
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LIST OF INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED
Adelman, Robert. USDA SCS Morrow Co., Heppner, OR, 503/676-
5452, 12/2/87.
Almy, John. Fremont National Forest, OR, 503/947-2151, 12/4/87,
5/5/88.
Anderson, Bruce. Ochoco National Forest, OR, 503/447-9577,
11/5/87.
Anderson, Don. Idaho Dept. of Fish & Game, ID, 208/334-3791,
12/3/87.
Anderson, John. Bureau of Land Management, Coos Bay, OR,
503/269-5880, 11/20/87.
Anderson, Tom. USDA Pacific Northwest Research Station,
Wenatchee Forest Sciences Lab., Wenatchee, WA, 509/662-
4315, 11/20/87.
Andrews, John. USDA SCS Snohomish Co., WA, 206/335-5634,
11/12/87.
Baker, Bruce. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Juneau, AK,
907/465-4105, 10/30/87.
Bartos, Louis. USFS, Ketchikan, AK, 907/225-3101, 11/10/87.
Bauer, Steve. Idaho Dept. of Health & Welfare, Dept. of
Environmental Quality, Boise, ID, 208/334-5860, 11/4/87,
12/2/87.
Baumgardener, Bob. Oregon Dept-. of Environmental Quality,
Portland, OR, 503/229-5877, 12/3/87.
Beelman, Joyce. Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation,
Fairbanks, AK, 907/452-1714, 10/29/87.
Bennett, Mel. Okanogan National Forest, WA, 509/422-2704,
11/5/87, 12/4/87.
Beschta, Bob. Oregon State Univ., Dept. of Forestry and
Engineering, Corvallis, OR, 503/754-4292, 11/16/87.
Bilby, Bob. Weyerhaeuser Co., Federal Way, WA, 206/736-8241,
12/7/87.
Bjorn, Ted. Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 208/885-7617, 11/18/87.
167
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Blumesburg, George. Univ. of Idaho, Water Resources Research
Irist., Moscow, ID, 208/885-6111, 11/5/87.
Boner, Dale. USDA SCS Area II, Bend, OR, 503/388-6742, 11/23/87.
Bozorth, Tim. Bureau of Land Management, Idaho Falls, ID,
208/529-1020, 11/17/87.
Brady, Mathew. USDA SCS Snohomish Co., WA, 206/334-2828,
11/12/87.
Braiser, John. Rogue River, OR, 503/776-3661, 11/5/87.
Bright,, Roy. USDA SCS, Portland, OR, 503/221-2746, 11/24/87.
Brock, Terry. Deschutes National Forest, OR, 503/388-8565,
11/20/87.
Brockway, Chuck. Univ. of Idaho, Agricultural Research Station,
Kiimberly, ID, 208/423-4691, 11/17/87.
Brooks,, Bill. Bureau of Land Management, Portland, OR, 503/231-
2IJ53, 11/10/87.
Brusven, Merlyn. Univ. of Idaho, Moscow, ID, 208/885-7540,
11/6/87, 11/10/87.
Bryant, Larry. USFS, Forestry and Range Sciences Lab., OR,
503/963-7122, 11/6/87.
Buckhouse, John. Dept. of Range Resources, Oregon State Univ.,
Corvallis, OR, 503/754-2326, 11/10/87.
Burley, Biff. USDA SCS Nez Perce Co., Lewiston, ID, 208/746-
9886, 11/18/87.
Calame, Ed. Umatilla National Forest, OR, 503/276-3811, n/5/87.
Canning, Doug. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA,
206/459-6785, 11/13/87.
Carelli, Chuck. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA,
206/459-6067, 11/9/87.
Carson, Doug. US Army Corps of Engineers, Portland, OR,
503/221-6471, 11/10/87.
Cederholm, Jeff. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Olympia,
WA, 206/753-0671, 12/15/87.
Champlin, Gary. USDA SCS, Delta, AK, 907/895-4241, 10/29/87.
168
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Chase, Byron. USDA SCS Nez Perce Co., Lewiston, ID, 208/746-
9886, 11/19/87.
Clark, William. Idaho Dept. of Health and Welfare, Dept. of
Environmental Quality, Boise, ID, 208/334-5860, 10/28/87.
Clary, Warren. USFS Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Boise, ID, 208/334-1457.
Claypost, Don. Oregon State Univ. Dairy Center, Corvallis, OR,
503/754-2375, 12/3/87.
Cleland, Bruce. EPA, Oregon Operations Office, Portland, OR,
503/229-6066, 11/20/87.
0
Cogger, Craig. Washington State Univ., Bellingham, WA, 206/840-
8512, 11/4/87.
Copping, Andrea. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, Seattle,
WA, 206/464-7320, 11/20/87.
Couche, Debra. USDA SCS Wallowa Co., Enterprise, OR, 503/426-
3782, 12/2/87.
Gundy, Terry. Univ. of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle,
WA, 206/543-2730, 11/20/87.
Davies, Cecil. Winema National Forest, OR, 503/883-6714, 11/5/87,
Determan, Tim. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA, 206/459-
6788, 10/27/87, 11/10/87, 12/16/87.
Dickens, Dave. Forest Grove RC&D Office, OR, 503/354-2191,
12/2/87.
Dittmer, Eric. Rogue Valley Council of Gov., OR, 503/664-6674,
11/12/87, 5/8/88.
Easter, Frank. USDA SCS Area I, Olympia, WA, 206/753-9454,
11/16/87.
Eddy, John "Dusty." USDA SCS Columbia Co., Dayton, WA, 509/382-
4773, 11/6/87.
Edgington, John. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, AK, 907/772-3801,
11/18/87.
Ellefson, Paul. Univ. of Minnesota, College of Forestry, St.
Paul, MN, 612/624-3400, 11/4/87.
Elmore, Wayne. Bureau of Land Management, Prineville, OR,
503/447-4115, 11/12/87.
169
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Engle, Carl. Washington State Univ., Pullman, WA, 509/335-2811,
11/5/87.
Estes, Christopher. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, AK, 907/267-
2142, 11/16/87.
Ettner, Bob. Siskiyou National Forest, OR, 503/479-5301, 11/5/87.
Evans, Ed. USDA SCS Washington Co., Hillsboro, OR, 503/648-3014,
12/2/87.
Everest, Fred. Pacific Northwest Research Station, Corvallis,
OR, 503/757-4390, 4/26/88.
Faude, Wayne. Soil Conservation Commission, Boise, ID, 208/334-
3865, 11/19/87.
Fausch, Kurt. Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO, 303/491-
6457, 12/15/87.
Felix, Ernie. Deschutes National Forest, OR, 503/388-8566,
11/5/87.
Fitch, Lyall. USDA SCS King Co., Renton, WA, 206/226-4867, 11/4/87
Fortune, John. Oregon Dept. Fish & Wildlife, Klamath Falls,
OR, 503/883-5723, 11/10/87.
Franklin, Gordon, USDA.SCS Clark Co., WA, 509/335-2381,
11/12/87.
Fred, Lou. Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, OR, 503/229-4308,
11/10/87.
Fritts, Ellen. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, AK, 907/465-4105,
10/29/87.
Fritz, Lloyd. Bureau of Land Management, Coos Bay, OR,
503/269-5880, 11/20/87.
Gagne, Raoul. Willamette National Forest, Detroit Ranger Dist.,
OR, 503/854-3366, 11/5/87.
Gamblin, Mark. Idaho Dept. of Fish and Game, Region 6, Idaho
Falls, ID, 208/522-7783, 12/4/87.
Garten, Jerry. Kootenai Valley National Forest, Protective
District, ID, 208/267-5577, 11/5/87.
Gayden, Ernst. Western Washington Univ., Bellingham, WA, 206/676-
3000, 11/18/87.
170
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Gelderman, Fred. USDA SCS Marion Co., Salem, OR, 503/399-5746,
12/1/87.
Geppert, Rollie. Washington Dept. of Wildlife, WA, 206/753-3318,
12/17/87.
Gillies, John. USDA SCS Whatcom Co., Lynden, WA, 206/354-
5658, 11/9/87.
Gilson, Leonard. USDA SCS Linn Co., Albany, OR, 503/964-5931,
12/1/87.
Glasser, Roslyn. Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, Seattle,
WA, 206/464-7320, 11/5/87.
Grace, Glen. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA,
206/438-7095, 11/20/87.
Grant, Gordon. H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, OR,
503/757-4387, 11/6/87.
Gregory, Stan. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR,
503/754-4336, 11/11/87.
Guerroro, Eduardo. USDA SCS Jefferson Co., Madras, OR, 503/475-
3244, 11/24/87.
Gunstrom, Gary. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, Juneau, AK,
907/465-4250, 11/18/87.
Haflich, Bruce. Kootenai National Forest, MT, 406/293-6211,
11/9/87.
Haig, Ron. USFS, Region 1, MT, 406/329-3407, 11/5/87.
Hallock, David. Univ. of Idaho, College of Forestry, ID,
208/885-7123, 11/4/87.
Hammer, Bob. Bitterroot National Forest, MT, 406/363-3131,
11/23/87.
Harner, Richard. Univ. of Washington, Dept. of Environmental
Engineering, Seattle, WA, 206/543-7923, 11/20/87.
Harr, Dennis. H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, OR, 503/757-4387,
11/6/87.
Harrison, Claire. USDA SCS Pierce Co., Puyallup, WA, 206/536-
2804, 11/18/87, 4/21/88.
Hayes, Scott. Oregon State Forest Dept., Salem, OR, 503/378-2560,
11/6/87.
171
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Haywoocl, Andrew. Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle, Water
Quality Lab, Seattle, WA, 206/684-2300, 12/10/87.
Heindi, Alex. Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission,
Portland, OR, 503/238-0667, 12/9/87.
Henkinst, Deena. Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation,
Joieau, AK, 907/789-3151, 10/29/87.
Henly, Russell. University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN,
612/625-5000, 11/4/87.
Henry, Joe. USDA SCS King Co., Renton, WA, 206/226-4867.
Hess, Scott. Plum Creek Timber Co., MT, 406/728-8350, ll/n/87.
Hightower, Jackie, Island Co. Planning Dept., WA, 206/679-7339,
11/16/87.
Hofstad, Linda. Thurston County Environmental Health, WA,
206/754-4111, 11/13/87, 11/25/87.
Holdorf, Herb. USFS, Region 1, MT, 406/329-3407, 11/5/87.
Holloway, Barry- USDA SCS Valley Co., ID, 208/634-7963, 11/23/87.
Hooker, Larry. USDA SCS Walla Walla Co., WA, 509/522-6340,
11/12/87.
Hornig, Evan. EPA Region 10, Environmental Services Division,
Seattle, WA, 206/442-1685, 11/20/87.
Houska, Ken. USDA SCS Latah Co., Moscow, ID, 208/882-0507,
11/13/87.
Houston, Charles. Newman Lake Flood Project, WA, 509/456-3726,
11/20/87.
Hughes, Bob. EPA, Corvallis, OR, 503/757-4601, 11/20/87.
Hughes, Dallas. USFS, Region 6, OR, 503/221-3154, 11/20/87.
Isham, Del. Devils Lake Water Improvement District, OR, 503/994-
53110, 12/2/87.
Jacksonf John. Oregon Dept. of Environmental Quality, Portland,
OR, 503/229-6035, 11/6/87, 11/12/87.
Jacoby, Jerry. USDA SCS Area II, Yakima, WA, 509/545-5865,
11/16/87.
172
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Jayner, Cal. Willamette National Forest, Lowell District, OR,
503/937-2129, 11/5/87.
Johnson, Art. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Tumwater, WA, 206/
753-2826, 5/12/88.
Johnson, Dale. Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, OR,
503/230-5209, 11/20/87.
Johnson, Gary. USDA SCS Spokane Co., Spokane, WA, 509/456-3774,
11/23/87.
Jones, Larry. Idaho Dept. of Lands, Boise, ID, 208/334-3280,
11/5/87.
Jones, Mikeal. Umpqua National Forest, OR, 503/672-6601,
11/5/87.
Jones, Stanley. USDA SCS Klamath Co., Klamath Falls, OR, 503/883-
6932, 12/2/87.
Kelly, Chris. Utah State Univ., Dept. of Chemistry, Logan, UT,
208/882-0289, 11/4/87.
Kendra, Will. Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA,
206/586-0803, 4/27/88.
Ketcheson, Gary. Sawtooth National Forest, ID, 208/737-3200,
11/20/87.
Kindschy, Bob. Bureau of Land Management, Vale, OR, 503/473-
3144, 11/10/87.
King, Jack. USFS Research Station, Moscow, ID, 208/882-3557,
11/4/87.
Kline, Gerald. Oregon State Univ., Soil Science Dept., Corvallis,
OR, 503/754-2441, 12/2/87.
Klingeman, Peter. Oregon State Univ., Water Resources Research
Institute, Corvallis, OR, 503/754-4022, 11/10/87.
Knieger, William. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR,
503/754-3341, 11/13/87.
Kniesel, Mathew. Bureau of Land Management, Baker, OR, 503/523-
6391, 12/2/87.
Knudson, Mark. City of Portland Water Bureau, Portland, OR,
503/796-7499, 11/5/87.
173
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Lamberti, Gary. Oregon State Univ., Corvallis, OR, 503/754-4531,
Lannincj, Brian. USDA SCS Johnson Co., Medford, OR, 503/776-4267,
13./16/87.
Leach, Donald. USDA SCS Clatsap Co., Astoria, OR, 503/325-4571,
12/3/87.
Lider, Ed. Coeur d'Alene National Forest, Fernan Ranger Dist.,
ID, 208/765-7330, 12/4/87.
Lillehaug, John. Idaho Dept. of Lands, Payette Lakes Area Office,
ID, 208/634-7125, 11/5/87.
Lindell, Laurie. Bureau of Land Management, OR, 503/776-4222,
11/10/87.
Lissman, Betty. USDA SCS, Portland, OR, 503/221-2741, 11/9/87.
Lohrey, Mike. Mt. Hood National Forest, OR, 503/666-0700,
11/10/87.
Love, Bill. Bureau of Private Forestry, ID, 208/664-2171,
11/5/87.
Martin, Doug. Dames & Moore, Seattle, WA, 206/523-0650, 12/10/87.
Mathews, Robin. Institute of Watershed Studies, Bellingham, WA,
206/646-3507, 11/5/87, 11/20/87.
Mayer, Richard. Western Washington Univ., Bellingham, WA,
206/676-3974, 11/19/87.
McCammon, Bruce. Columbia Gorge Ranger Dist., OR, 503/695-2276,
11/5/87, 5/13/88.
McCullough, Dale. Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission,
Portland, OR, 503/238-0667, 11/4/87.
McCutchen, Gus. Wenatchee National Forest, WA, 509/662-4307,
11/5/87.
McDonald, Dennis. Northwest Indian Fisheries Comm. , WA,
206/438-1180, 11/20/87.
McKee, Arthur. H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, OR, 503/757-4395,
11/6/87.
McKenzie, Stuart. USGS, Portland, OR, 5030/231-2016, 5/12/88.
174
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McKinney, Earl. Bureau of Land Management, Prineville, OR,
503/447-4115,
McNicholas, Rick. Mason Co. Conservation Dist., WA, 206/427-9670,
11/13/87.
Megahan, Walter. USFS Intermountain Research Station, Boise, ID,
208/334-1457, 10/28/87, 11/4/87.
Melton, Judson. USDA SCS Spokane Co., Spokane, WA, 509/456-
2120, 11/20/87.
Metzler, JoAnn. Gifford Pinchot National Forest, WA, 206/494-
5515, 11/15/87.
Milestone, Jim. Crater Lake National Park, OR, 503/594-2211,
11/20/87.
Miller, Joanne. Whatcom County Conservation District, Lynden,
WA, 206/354-5658, 11/4/87.
Minshall, Wayne. Idaho State Univ., ID, 208/775-4443, 12/15/87.
Moffit, David. USDA SCS, Portland, OR, 503/221-2854, 11/9/87.
Murdough, Dave. Oak Ridge Ranger Dist., OR, 503/782-2291,
11/5/87.
Murphy, Mike. National Marine Fisheries Service, Auke Bay Lab.,
AK, 907/789-7231, 11/16/87.
Naglich, Francis. Kitsap Co. Conservation District, WA, 206/876-
7171, 11/10/87.
Nickles, Dave. Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Habitat
Conservation Div., OR, 503/229-4308, 11/10/87.
Nissley, Steve. USDA SCS Skagit Co., Mt. Vernon, WA, 206/424-
5153, 11/4/87.
Noble, Arthur. Seattle, WA, 206/524-8105, 11/20/87.
Olsen, Arden. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA,
206/753-5315, 11/20/87.
Omernik, Jim. EPA, Corvallis Environmental Research Lab,
Corvallis, OR, 503/757-4666, 11/20/87.
Oswood, Charles. Univ. of Alaska, Institute of Arctic Biology,
Fairbanks, AK, 907/474-7972, 11/4/87.
175
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Page, Wally. Flat Head National Forest, Kalispell, MT,
406/755-5407, 11/5/87.
Paustian, Steve. USFS, Sitka, AK, 907/747-6671, 11/4/87.
Pederson, Robert. USDA SCS Tillamook Co., Tillamook, OR, 503/842-2848,
12/2/87.
Perkinrs, Kerry. USDA SCS Clallam Co., Port Angeles, WA, 206/457-5091,
11/13/87.
Peterson, Dana. Bureau of Land Management, South Douglas Co., WA,
509/662-4223, 11/18/87.
Piccininni, John. Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, OR,
503/230-3268, 11/20/87.
Pierce,, Rick. Thurston Co. Dept. of Environmental Health,
Olympia, WA, 206/754-4111, 11/13/87.
Pitman,, Dexter. Idaho Dept. of Fish & Game, Boise, ID, 208/334-
3791, 12/3/87.
Platts, William. USFS Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station, Boise, ID, 208/334-1457, 10/28/87.
Poraiser, John. Rogue River National Forest, OR, 503/776-3661,
11/10/87.
Porter, Pam. USFS, Juneau, AK, 907/586-8811, 11/16/87.
Portis, Rhoda. USDA SCS Baker Co., Baker, OR, 503/523-7121, 12/2/87.
Potyondy, John. Boise National Forest, ID, 208/334-1650,
11/5/87.
Prentiss, Chuck. Boise National Forest, Boise Ranger District,
ID, 208/343-2527, 12/3/87.
Fringe!1, Russ. USDA SCS, Olympia, WA, 206/758-9454.
Puffer, Ann. USFS, Juneau, AK, 907/586-7864, 11/4/87.
Purcell, Jack. Mt. Hood National Forest, OR, 503/666-0700,
11/5/87.
Quigley, Tom. La Grande Research Station, OR, 503/963-7122,
11/9/87.
Rea, Paul. Gifford Pinchot National Forest, WA, 206/696-7521,
11/5/87.
176
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Redburn, Doug. Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation,
Juneau, AK, 907/465-2653, 10/29/87.
Reed, Rick. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, AK, 907/465-4290,
11/10/87.
Reid, Leslie. Univ. of Washington, Dept. of Geological Sciences,
Seattle, WA, 206/543-1975, 12/2/87.
Reid, Wayne. Conservation Commission, Olympia, WA, 206/459-6227,
11/5/87.
Richards, Carl. Shoshone-Bannock Tribes, Fort Hall, ID, 208/238-
3748, 11/17/87.
Riese, Stephen. USDA SCS Linn Co., Tangent, OR, 503/964-5927,
12/1/87.
Roach, Chris. Siuslaw National Forest, OR, 503/757-4465,
11/12/87.
Robart, Greg. Oregon Dept. of Fish and Wildlife, Habitat
Conservation Division, 503/229-6959, 11/20/87.
Robert, Vickie. Skagit Conservation District, Mt. Vernon, WA,
206/336-2257, 11/4/87.
Roberts, Dave. Washington Department of Ecology, Olympia, WA,
206/438-7072, 5/5/88.
Rochelle, Jim. Weyerhaeuser Co., Federal Way, WA, 206/924-6327,
11/20/87.
Rochester, Doug. USDA SCS Stevens Co., Colville, WA, 509/684-
5065, 11/12/87, 11/18/87.
Roe, Dennis. USDA SCS Whitman Co., Colfax, WA, 509/397-4636,
11/9/87.
Rogers, Paul. USDA SCS Whitman Co., Colfax, WA, 509/397-4636,
11/6/87.
Rose, George. Northwest Washington Area Conservation District,
206/378-2018, 11/16/87.
Ryan, Jim. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Olympia, WA,
206/753-0671, 11/20/87, 11/23/87.
Salo, Ernie. Univ. of Washington, Fisheries Research Institute,
Seattle, WA, 206/543-9041, 12/10/87.
177
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Schaec.el, Andy. Oregon Dept. of Environmental Quality, Portland,
OR, 503/229-5878, 11/10/87.
Schleyer, Laura. USDA SCS Thurston Co., Olympia, WA, 206/754-3588,
11/25/87.
Schloss, Alan. Bureau of Land Management, Eugene, OR, 503/687-
6651, 11/20/87.
Schmidt, Jim. USDA SCS Spokane Co., Spokane, WA, 509/456-3774,
11/6/87.
Schrader, William. USDA SCS Lake Co., Lakeview, OR, 503/947-
2202, 11/24/87.
Schuler, Mark. Washington Dept. of Fisheries, Olympia, WA,
206/336-9538, 11/23/87.
Scrivener, Charles. Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, BC,
604/756-7220, 10/30/87.
Sedell, Jim. USFS Pacific Northwest Forest & Range Experiment
Station, Corvallis, OR, 503/757-4387, 12/3/87.
Slaughter, Chuck. USFS, Fairbanks, AK, 907/474-7443, 11/4/87.
Smart, Steve. USDA SCS Teton Co., Driggs, ID, 208/354-2955,
12/4/87.
Smith, Frederick. USDA SCS Umatilla Co., Pendleton, OR, 503/276-
3811, 12/2/87.
Smith, Gregory. USDA SCS Area III, Baker, OR, 503/523-4437,
11/23/87.
Snider, Bob. Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, WA,
206/399-0307, 11/5/87.
Somers, Sheldon. Cowlitz County Conservation District, Kelso,
WA, 206/425-1880, 11/18/87, 4/22/88.
Springer, Alan. Greys Harbor & Pacific Counties, Montesano, WA,
206/249-5900, 11/18/87.
Stalnaker, James. USDA SCS Power Co., American Falls, ID,
208/226-2177, 11/19/87.
Stender, Pete. USFS, Region 4, Ogden, UT, 801/625-5368, 11/4/87.
Stephens, Roger. Olympic National Forest, WA, 206/753-9431,
11/5/87.
178
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Stevens, Charlie. USDA SCS Thurston Co., Olympia, WA, 206/754-
3588, 11/19/87.
Strohmeyer, Karen. USDA SCS Lincoln Co., Newport, OR, 503/265-
2631, 12/1/87.
Struck, Phil. Kitsap Co. Dept. of Environmental Health, WA,
206/478-5285, 11/17/87.
Sturdevant, Dave. Alaska Dept. of Environmental Conservation,
AK, 907/465-2653, 11/18/87.
Sullivan, Kathleen. Weyerhaeuser Co., Federal Way, WA, 206/925-6191,
ll/H/87.
Sullivan, Tim. Malheur National Forest, OR, 503/575-1731,
11/9/87.
Sullivan, Tim. Deer Lodge National Forest, Butte, MT,
406/496-3400, 11/5/87.
Swank, Jerry. USFS, Region 6, Portland, OR, 503/221-3032,
11/10/87.
Swanson, Fred. H.J. Andrews Experimental Forest, OR,
503/757-4395, 11/6/87.
Sweet, Cline. Bureau of Reclamation, Ephrata, WA, 509/754-4611,
11/4/87.
Sylvester, Marc. USGS, Menlo Park, CA, 415/329-4415,
11/12/87.
Taylor, Dan. Whatcom Co. Planning Dept., Bellingham, WA,
206/676-6756, 11/5/87.
Taylor, Paul. USDA SCS Spokane Co., Spokane, WA, 509/456-3710,
11/5/87.
Teidemann, Art. La Grande Research Station, OR, 503/963-7122,
11/20/87.
Thomas, Dee. Idaho Dept. of Health and Welfare, Department of
Environmental Quality, ID, 208/983-0808, 11/10/87.
Thomas, Larry. Bureau of Land Management, Prineville, OR,
503/447-4115, 11/10/87.
Thrush, Cindy. Office of Planning, Seattle, WA, 206/684-7590,
11/17/87.
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Tracey, Robert. USDA SCS Wasco Co., The Dalles, OR, 503/296-
6178, 12/3/87.
Tulloeh, Ed. Idaho Dept. of Health and Welfare, Department of
Environmental Quality, Coeur d'Alene, ID, 208/664-3524,
11/25/87.
Vancura, James. USDA SCS Douglas Co., Roseburg, OR, 503/643-
8316, 11/25/87.
Vanderheyden, Jon. Willamette National Forest, Rigdon District,
OR, 503/782-2283, 11/20/87.
Vira, Shiraz. USDA SCS Area II, Ephrata, WA, 509/754-3553,
11/6/87.
Wallace, Dick. Washington Dept. of Ecology, Olympia, WA, 206/438-
7069, 10/29/87.
Walters, Carol. Washington Dept. of Natural Resources, Olympia,
WA, 206/753-0671, 11/12/87.
Waltz, Tom. Intergovernmental Resource Center, WA, 206/699-2361,
3.1/10/87.
Ward, Phil. Soil & Water Conservation Division, OR, 503/378-3810,
3.1/16/87.
Wasserman, Larry. Yakima Tribes, WA, 509/865-5121, 12/10/87.
Wassor,, Bert. Colville National .Forest, WA, 509/684-3711,
3.1/5/87.
Webber, Ed. Soil & Water Conservation Dist., Jackson Co., OR,
5i03/776-4367, 11/6/87.
Webber, Phyllis. Alaska Dept. of Fish & Game, AK, 907/452-1531,
31/12/87.
Weber, Diane. Washington Water Research Center, Pullman, WA,
509/335-5531, 11/9/87, 11/11/87.
Weber, Jim. Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission,
Portland, OR, 503/238-0667, 12/3/87.
Welch, Janet. Jefferson Co. Planning Dept, WA, 206/385-9140,
11/10/87.
Wenzel, Dave. Fremont National Forest, OR, 503/947-2151,
31/9/87.
180
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White, Bill. Clallam Co. Environmental Health Division, WA,
206/452-7831, 11/9/87, 4/21/88.
Wilkinson, David. Soil & Water Conservation Dist., Grant Co., WA,
503/575-0135, 11/23/87.
Williams, Terry. Tulalip Tribe Fisheries Dept., WA, 206/653-0220,
11/11/87.
Wittenberg, Loren. Bureau of Land Management, Roseberg, OR,
503/672-4491, 11/20/87.
Wolff, Kirk. Malheur National Forest, OR, 503/575-1731, 11/9/87.
Wysocki, Don. USDA Agricultural Research Station, Pendleton, OR,
503/276-3811, 12/2/87.
Zuniga, Randy. Payette National Forest, ID, 208/634-8137,
12/3/87.
181
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182
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LIST OF PREPARERS
Name
Field of
Expert i se
Respons i biIi ty
Dr. C. Hazel
Water quality, aquatic
biology
Principal -i n-Charge;
contributions to Chapters
1. 4, 5
Dr. H. Van Veldhuizen
Water quality, aquatic
biology
Project Manager; Chapters
1, 4, 5; contributions to
Chapter 2, Appendix D
Mr. R . Denman
Dr. C. Allen-Morley
Ms. T. Leber
Mr . G. Grette
St ream hydro I ogy
Water qua Ii ty, soil
science
Water quality,
toxicology
Fisheries biology
Chapter 3; contributions
to Chapters 4, 5,
Appendix D
Chapter 2; contributions
to Chapters 4, 5,
Appendix D
Appendix D; contributions
to Chapter 3
Contributions to Chapters
4, 5, Appendix D
183
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Appendix A
GENERAL FORMAT FOR GATHERING NFS INFORMATIONS
Introduction
Introduce self and Jones & Stokes Associates; note that JSA
is under contract to EPA Region 10.
Explain nature of NFS work assignment; finding out
information about freshwater monitoring programs designed to
determine the extent of NFS pollution.
Are there any projects, past or present, in their
region/district which have dealt with silvicultural/
agricultural NFS controls?
If YES
What is the project background? Name, location, type,
objective, type of NFS controls or BMPs applied, time scale.
Is a report available? If so, reguest report, ask if they
know of other projects, contracts, contacts, phone numbers,
and terminate interview. Arrange to call back if necessary.
If no report is available continue with telephone interview.
What kind of monitoring program do they have, and what are
objectives of monitoring program (baseline, implementation,
effectiveness, or validation monitoring).
What process did they use to define their monitoring
program.
Are there state or agency guidelines to help them develop
monitoring program. Request copy.
Type of monitoring - qualitative/quantitative, instream,
cumulative effects, pre- and post- impacts monitoring.
What parameters are monitored, and methods, techniques,
QA/QC.
Length of time of monitoring program - total and in relation
to application of NFS controls/BMPs.
A-l
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In general, how effective do they feel the monitoring
program has been? Why? What level of quality control do
they feel they have. Why?
DC they feel their monitoring is capable of realizing the
full impact of the NFS control/BMP?
Inquire about future documents.
Is there any groundwater monitoring effort?
Are there other people within.their agency who are familiar
with these types of programs ? Request name and telephone
number.
Are there other people, agencies, or projects dealing with
these types of programs? Request name and telephone number.
If NO
What BMPs or NFS controls apply or are required for
agricultural/silvicultural programs in their region.
Who dictates the scope of these BMPs/NPS controls.
What process is used to determine if these BMPs/NPS controls
aro applied.
What process is used to determine or evaluate the
effectiveness of these BMPs/NPS controls.
Request copy of present or proposed guidelines, if
appropriate.
Arc>. there other people within their agency who are familiar
with these types of programs.
Arc; there other people, agencies, or projects dealing with
theise types of programs?
A-2
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Appendix B
IDAHO AGRICULTURAL WATER QUALITY PROGRAM PROJECT LIST
Pocatello Region
Contact: Blaine Drewes
IDHW-DEQ
Pocatello, ID
208/236-6160
Caribou SCO
Eastside SCO
Madison SCO
Oneida SCO
Portneuf SCO
Teton SCO
Yellowstone SCO
Twin Falls Region
Contact: Tim Litke
IDHW-DEQ
963 Blue Lakes Boulevard, #2
Twin Falls, ID 83301
208/734-9520
Balanced Rock SCO
Northside SCO
Boise Region
Contact: Trish Klahr
IDHW-DEQ
801 Reserve Street
Boise, ID 83720
208/334-3823
Canyon SCO
Lewiston Region
Contact: Hudson Mann
IDHW-DEQ
1118 F Street
Lewiston, ID 83501
208/799-3430
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Clearwater SCO
Latah fiCD
Lewis !>CD
Nez Perce SCD
Coeur d'Alene Region
Contact: Ed Tullock
IDHW-DEQ
2110 Ironwood Parkway
Coeur d'Alene, ID 83814
208/667-3524
Benewah SCD
Kooteneii-Shoshone SCD
Proiect List
Contact.. SCD and
Phone; Number Project Name
Kevin Davidson Cedar Draw*
Balanced Rock SCD
1701 Main Street
Buhl, ID 83316
208/543-6404
Larry Cooke Mission/Sheep Creek*
Benewah SCD Upper Hangman Creek
222 Seventh Street, Room G-33 Tensed-Lolo Creek
St. Maries, ID 83861
208/245-2314
John Gleim . Conway Gulch*
Canyon SCD Sand Hollow*
510 Arthur Street
Caldwell, ID 83605
208/454-8584
Bob Clark Bancroft
Caribou SCD
159 East Second Street, #4
Soda Springs, ID 83276
208/547-3651
Bruce Hanson Bedrock Creek
Clearwater SCD
2200 Michigan Avenue, Box C
Orofino, ID 83544
B-2
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Dennis Hadley
Eastside SCO
1820 East 17th, Suite 360
Idaho Falls, ID 83401
208/522-5351
208/522-5137
Kim Golden
Kootenai/Shoshone SCO
205 North Fourth, Room 215
Coeur d'Alene, ID 83814
Ken Houska
Latah SWCD
220 East Fifth Avenue, Room 212
MOSCOW, ID 83843
208/882-0507
Jim Graham
Lewis SCO
P.O. Box 67
Craigmont, ID 83523
208/924-5561
David Steube
Madison SCD
50 North Second Street
Rexburg, ID 83440
208/356-6931
Byron Chase
Nez Perce SWCD
3510 - 12th Street
Lewiston, ID 83501
208/746-9886
Ron Davidson
Northside SCD
704 South Lincoln
Jerome, ID 83338
208/324-2501
Travis James
Oneida SCD
30 North 100th Street
Malad, ID 83252
208/766-4748
Badger Creek
Meadow Creek
Tex Creek •
Antelope/Pine Creek (planning)
Northeast Worley
South Fork Palouse River
Little Potlatch Creek
(planning)
Little Canyon Creek (planning)
Lapwai.Creek
West Canyon Creek (planning)
Pine Creek
Vinyard Creek*
Wide Hollow
Dairy Creek
B-3
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Dave Curtis
Portneuf SWCD
205 South Fourth, Suite 112
Pocatelo, ID 83201
208/236-6909
Steve Smart
Teton SCO
P.O. Box 7
Driggs, ID 83422
208/354-2955
Howard Johnson
Yellowstone SCO
315 East Fifth
St. Anthony, ID 83445
Arkansas Basin
Lone Pine
Lower Portneuf River
(planning)
Milk Creek (planning)
Conant Creek
*Projects on irrigated farmland.
agriculture.
All others are on dryland
B-4
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Appendix C
BLM PILOT RIPARIAN PROJECTS IN IDAHO
Boise District
Rabbit Creek
Contact: Pat Olmstead
BLM Boise District
3948 Development Ave.
Boise, ID
208/334-1582
Shoshone District
Thorn Creek
Magic Reservoir
Contact: Steve Langenstein
BLM Shoshone District
208/886-2206
Burlev District
All (12) perennial streams in the district on BLM land.
Contact: Kirk Koch
BLM Burley District
Rt 3, Box 1
Burley, ID 83318
206/678-5514
Idaho Falls District
Wet Creek
Contact: Tim Bozorth
208/529-6367
C-l
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Salmon District
Warm Springs Creek
Sevenmile Creek
Holly Creek
Road Creek
Herd Creek
Sage Creek
Squaw Creek
Ellis Creek
Morgan Creek
Burnt Creek
Summit Creek
Trail Creek
Pattee Creek
McDevitt Creek
Henry Creek
Contact: Lyle Lewis
BLM Salmon District
PO Box 430
Salmon, ID 83467
208/756-5400
Cottonwood Resource Area
Big Elk Creek
Contact: Craig Johnson
BLM Cottonwood Resource Area
208/962-3246
C-2
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Appendix D
REVIEW OF MONITORING TECHNIQUES
This appendix describes the more common techniques that have
been used in monitoring nonpoint source assessment and control
programs (Chapter 4). Most of the techniques have been used in
projects that include experimental research and investigation of
nonpoint sources as well as monitoring effort. The purpose of
this appendix is to assist resource managers in assessing the
ability of various techniques to meet their management needs. To
facilitate the assessment, we have included discussion of the
advantages and disadvantages of separate techniques when several
that measure the same parameter are available.
The techniques are listed by the parameter measured and then
grouped according to whether they are physical, biological, or
chemical features of the environment. Emphasis is placed on'
physical and biological features because these are of greater
interest for the objectives of this report (Chapter 1) and
because the techniques are not as well standardized as they have
been for chemical parameters. Most of the physical parameters
that have been used in the Pacific Northwest (Chapter 4) are
widely accepted as measures of quality of fish habitat.
Physical Monitoring
Stream Discharge
Although a variety of techniques are used to determine
stream discharge, some commonalities exist among methods. All
techniques measure water height or stage with a gage and convert
this to discharge (volume/time) by means of a rating curve
relating the two variables. To develop an accurate relationship,
discharge measurements must reflect a wide variety of stages.
Individual discharge measurements consist of measuring the
average velocity and area of a number of equally spaced cells
within a cross-section. Upon establishment of a statistically
valid rating curve, discharge measurements are needed less
frequently and are conducted to check the reliability of the
rating curve. Changes in stream geometry alter the stage-
discharge relationship; therefore, gaging stations are typically
placed in stable stream reaches. Weirs are sometimes constructed
to control flow and maintain a stable cross-section.
Stage measurement techniques can be delineated into two
basic categories: recording and non-recording gages. The
simplest technique, the non-recording gage, is most often used as
an auxiliary gage or for short duration, limited budget studies.
Non-recording gages are usually staff gages consisting of rigid,
D-l
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precisely graduated'vertical or inclined rods at the edge of the
channel. The inclined staff gages have the advantage of being
less prone to damage from floating debris, but they must be
corrected for slope to obtain true vertical readings. In very
simple studies, stage-discharge relationships are not developed
and data are simply recorded as stream height, not volume.
Recording gages have been the standard discharge measurement
for th€> last few decades. These devices record the water level
at a gctge station at specific time intervals (usually 15 minutes)
over long periods. Measured water levels are correlated with
calculated stream discharges to develop the stage-discharge
relationship. :, .
•i --. • A.
Two basic types of recorders, float and pressure, are most
frequently used (Carter and Davidian 1968). Float recorders
measure water levels in a stilling well (an enclosed structure
With a water level equivalent to that of the stream) by means of
a suspended float attached to a recording device. This device
usually has the advantage of being cheaper and easier to install
but ca;i be prone to damage and is often not as accurate as the
pressure gage. The pressure gage uses the head developed by
different depths of water against pressure produced by a
compressed gas to measure water height. This method is employed
by most USGS gaging stations and requires considerably more
equipment to operate than a float-gage.
Measurement of stream discharge is a necessity for most NFS
monitoring programs. Stream discharge may be considered the
independent variable in. a monitoring scheme as virtually all of
the other parameters measured respond to discharge changes.
Further, stream discharge may respond to a BMP as a dependent
variable. In most cases, a recording gage will be required to
obtain usable data.
Groundwater flow monitoring is sometimes incorporated with
streaniflow measurements when groundwater is suspected of being a
major component of streamflow or when domestic use is an issue.
A serd.es of piezometers or well points are needed to define
grouncwater levels, volumes, and movement accurately. Groundwater
quality is measured by extracting water from piezometers or by the
use oi: tension lysimeters buried in the soil.
Turbidity
Turbidity is one of the easiest and most commonly measured
water quality parameters.
Only a handful of studies use a qualitative measure of
turbidity. The qualitative measures use streamside judgments to
describe the water, rather than analysis of water samples. Terms
such as clear, murky, and muddy are often used to define
turbidity. Visibility, estimated in feet, is sometimes used to
help clarify these terms.
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The majority of workers measure turbidity quantitatively and
express results in terms of Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU).
This measure is an indication of the intensity of light scattered
at some angle, usually 90 degrees, to its original direction. The
results of the alternative method, which involves measuring the
intensity of candle-emitted light passing directly through a water
sample, are reported in Jackson Turbidity Units (JTU). Comparison
between the two units is not valid unless specifics concerning
calibration techniques are known. A major error that is commonly
made when attempting to compare data sets is to assume that the
units of measure (NTU and JTU) are interchangeable; they are not.
Field measurements of turbidity are possible and are
incorporated into a number of studies. Normally, measurements
are taken at gaging stations from grab samples that are not depth
integrated. Depending on the specific objectives of the study,
samples are taken daily, monthly, yearly, or during storm events.
Most sampling is conducted with automatic samplers (see Suspended
Sediment section), and analysis is conducted in the laboratory
with a standard turbidimeter (American Public Health Assoc. [APHA]
1985).
Commonly, stream discharge is recorded at the time the
sample is taken since there is considerable interest in
correlating the two. Also, suspended sediment samples are often
taken in conjunction with turbidity. Because turbidity is easier
to measure than suspended sediment, many researchers are
investigating a possible correlation between the two. Although
some success has been realized for individual storms on particular
watersheds, a regionally valid quantitative relationship between
the two parameters has not been developed (Beschta 1980, APHA
1985).
Sediment
Sediment transport in streams is a complex and poorly
understood process. The sediment load can be divided into
suspended and bedload. Suspended sediment is that portion of the
load which is in full suspension, while bedload is that portion
which moves in partial or complete contact with the channel
bottom.
Regardless of the portion of the sediment load sampled or
the technique employed, consideration of sampling location and
timing is necessary. Usually the sediment sampling station is
located near a gaging station so that an accurate measure of
sediment loading can be made by combining stream discharge with
sediment concentration. If a gaging station does not exist in
reasonable proximity to the site, site-specific flow data must be
taken at the time of sediment sampling. The criteria dictating
the location of a successful gaging station (such as access and
cross-section stability) are equally applicable to the selection
of a sediment sampling station (see Stream Discharge). Because
of the importance of collecting sediment samples during high
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stream discharges (as well as'ascending and descending limbs of
the hydrograph), particular attention should be given to ease of
access from a bridge or cable.
Imhoff cones can be used to determine the sediment content of
water-sediment mixtures. Resource managers report that these
graduated cones are especially effective as a qualitative visual
aid when dealing with landowners. Quantitatively, they can be
used to determine the textural make-up of sediment based on
settling time. The laboratory techniques described in the next
section of the report are more commonly used to determine the
concentrations of sediment.
The need for an understanding of a basin's total sediment
discharge and the varying relationship between flow and sediment
concentration dictates that flow records be available for the
sediment sampling site. Other important parameters that should be
noted when sampling are the hydrograph stage (rising or falling)
and the time of year. If a detailed study of sediment transport
is planned, water temperature should also be noted as it
influences viscosity and hence suspension and deposition of
particles. Basic understanding of regional geologic formations is
very helpful in analyzing trends in sediment transport data.
Suspended Sediment. The basic requirement of a suspended
sediment sampling regime is that samples be representative of the
water-sediment mixture. To accomplish this, a number of factors
must be considered. First, the sampling device must cause a
minimum of disturbance to the flow pattern of the stream,
especially at the intake, and allpw water to enter the sample
container at the same velocity as the surrounding stream.
Second, the technique should be capable of collecting a
representative sample in a vertically stratified water-sediment
mixture. The most representative sampling techniques address this
variability by utilizing some form of depth integration.
One technique used for obtaining depth integrated samples
uses a hand held sampler that collects the sample as it is
lowered to the bottom of the stream and raised back to the
surface. The samplers must be moved at a uniform rate in a given
direction, but not necessarily at equal rates in both directions
(Guy and Norman 1970). Depth integrated samples can be obtained
from swift, unwadeable streams by cable-suspended samplers raised
and lowered at the desired rate. For streams too deep or swift
to sample in a round-trip integration, point-integrated depth
samples can be used to represent the mean sediment concentration.
Although these depth integrated techniques provide the most
representative samples, they are not often utilized for
monitoring suspended sediment concentrations associated with NPS
control programs. The primary reason for this is the labor
intensive nature of the field sampling. Also, managers may decide
these techniques are not necessary if the stream is judged to be
shallow and completely mixed.
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habitat. These considerations have often steered monitoring
programs toward quantification of changes to habitat features
rather than measurement of bedload transport itself.
techniques used to measure bedload movement typically involve
use oJ: permanent instream structures or portable samplers.
Permanent structures capture transported bed materials for a
specified period of time in a trap. These traps vary in
sophistication from a pit or pool to a channel with a false
bottom. A small pit may be adequate for many studies, but
constc.nt monitoring is necessary to quantify the time periods when
filling occurs. These types of studies are often undertaken in
conjunction with channel cross-section studies described in the
Channel Morphology/Physical Habitat section.
A number of different portable samplers are used to quantify
bedload movement, the most common of which is the Helley-Smith
sampler. This device is usually suspended from a cable or bridge
and lowered to the stream bottom at a set number of locations
across the channel. It can yield useful results when used
properly, but can be difficult to control in the high flow
conditions associated with bedload movement.
Laboratory analysis involves fractionation of the sample
using a series of graduated sieves. Sieving is done under wet or
dry conditions, with dry sieving more commonly used.
Channel Morphology/Physical Habitat
Monitoring programs have incorporated many techniques to
identify physical changes to stream channels. The terms "bank
erosivj.ty" and "channel stability" are often used to define both
quantitative and qualitative methods for assessing channel
changes;. Most programs use a reference point or set of points and
return on a regular schedule to evaluate changes. Locations
chosen for evaluation are biologically significant (such as
spawning or rearing habitat) or are undergoing obvious dimensional
changes. The scheduling of data collection varies considerably,
with most programs evaluating changes annually. In a few cases
where flow or debris delivery rates have changed dramatically
channel sinuosity (channel length/ valley length) is calculated as
a measure of overall stability. The more intensive programs
using detailed quantitative techniques incorporate measurements
following each high water episode. For the purposes of
organization, this section separates methods into those utilizing
qualitative and quantitative techniques. Platts et al. (1983)
provides a detailed description of techniques and is the basis for
this discussion.
Qualitative. Qualitative assessments of channel morphology
range from simple annual visual inspections of general channel
conditions to completion of lengthy evaluation forms. Qualitative
methods allow inspection of numerous channel sections over the
course of a year. The simplest technique involves a field
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technician judging the overall stability of channels and noting
specific areas of bank or bed scour. In many projects, this
informal technique is incorporated into other tasks assigned to an
individual.
Many studies, as part of an impact assessment or baseline
monitoring program, use a series of criteria to evaluate channel
conditions. In most cases, target stream reaches are walked by a
biologist or hydrologist who evaluates specific points on the
entire reach. Reaches are usually defined as areas with similar
stream gradient, width, and habitat features.
The most common technique evaluates the upper bank, lower
bank, and stream bottom independently. Stability indicators are
often evaluated in four classes: poor, fair, good, or excellent
and range from one statement concerning overall channel stability
or erosion up to 15 parameters (USFS 1975). Some measure of
stream discharge is nearly always recorded at the time of
evaluation.
Photographs are also used as a qualitative tool to assess
stream morphology characteristics. Aerial and ground photographs
are used to record changes or as a basis for evaluation forms.
Aerial photographs, usually used in conjunction with riparian
habitat evaluation procedures, are often taken at a 1:2,000 scale;
1:1,000 scale photographs are taken in areas where special
problems are known to exist. Use of photographs requires
establishment of an organized storage and record keeping system.
Use of ground photography requires establishment of permanent
photo points from which photos can be consistently taken over
time. Photographs are used more extensively by agricultural
monitoring programs than by silvicultural programs.
Although qualitative techniques are widely employed, some
problems are associated with their use. The primary problem is
interpretation. No matter how specific the definition of an
indicator class, opinions will vary as to whether the site is in
"fair" or "good" condition. Consistency can be improved if
personnel changes are kept to a minimum. A photographic record
also aids in reducing error in subjective variables. The
differences in parameters evaluated and indicator classes also
make comparisons between different agencies or regions difficult.
Quantitative. Many monitoring programs, particularly those
focusing on one stream or watershed, utilize quantitative
techniques to evaluate the effectiveness of NPS controls.
Usually a series of reference points are established from which
detailed measurements are made. These series are often
established in groups to enable monitoring of stream sections
with widely different hydrologic and biological characteristics.
The simplest measurements taken are usually of the distance
from the reference point to the edge of the stream bank (Clark
1986). Successive changes in this distance are monitored as a
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measure of channel change. Measurements are taken in the field
or from photographs. This technique is most often employed on
low gradient streams associated with agricultural programs.
More commonly, complete cross-section profiles are plotted
from measurements taken from reference points. The distance from
a fixed horizontal line to the channel bottom is usually measured
at 1-foot intervals across the channel. This technique, when used
over a number of years, allows the manager to determine channel
bed as well as bank erosion or deposition.
Some studies incorporate detailed fish habitat evaluations
based on physical measurements. Platts et al. (1983) presents
detailed descriptions of techniques. Common measurements include
pool-riffle ratios, width-depth ratio, pool area, pool volume, and
cover. These parameters are used as an index of the stream's
capacity to provide cover, and rearing and spawning habitat.
Qualitative evaluation of pool quality, based on a numerical score
derived from a set of criteria, is sometimes included. In western
Oregon and Washington, measurement of the abundance of woody
debris in channels is sometimes conducted. Presently there are no
standard methods for this evaluation, but it is likely one will
evolve as part of the monitoring programs being developed to
assess silvicultural impacts in Washington state (see chapter 3).
Reproducibility is a concern with all habitat related
measurements. Of particular concern is the delineation of habitat
types. Platts et al. (1983) provides an excellent discussion of
precision and accuracy by habitat parameter.
>
Substrate Composition
Qualitative. Platts et al. (1983) present a visual method
for assessing substrate composition. In this method, a transect
is stretched across the stream and the dominate substrate type is
recorded (boulder, rubble or cobble, gravel, fine sediment) at
each 1 ft interval. The number of observations in each category
are totaled for each transect. Several transects may be
necessary to characterize a stream reach. Overall, the precision
and accuracy of this method is only fair to poor in the size
categories of greatest interest (cobble to fine sediment) (Platts
et al. 1983).
A isemi-quantitative variable that has a higher degree of
accuracy and precision is embeddedness (Platts et al. 1983). This
variable expresses the degree to which larger particles (boulder
through gravel) are covered or surrounded by fine material, and
provider a relative measure of the value of the substrate for
spawning and egg incubation, insect production, and interstitial
cover for juvenile fish. The exact technique for determining
embeddedness varies. Typically, the individual sampling points
are defined by a transect (Platts et al. 1983) or a hoop (Clark
1986). Embeddedness is then visually estimated (Platts et al.
1983) or precisely measured with aid of a plexiglass viewing
device [Clark 1986).
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There are several considerations in assessing the
appropriateness of these semi-quantitative techniques. Surficial
substrate conditions are not always accurate indicators of
subsurface conditions, and surface-oriented surveys may be
inadequate if the focus of the effort is spawning habitat.
Further, seasonal trends in surficial composition may complicate
data interpretation as sampling periods may not coincide with
biologically significant events (e.g. spawning and egg
incubation). In general, if the intent is to monitor spawning
gravel quality intensively, one of the quantitative techniques
would likely be more appropriate. But if the focus is on rearing
habitats for fish or insect communities, then qualitative or semi-
quantitative methods are appropriate because they focus on the
substrate-stream interface.
Quantitative. Fisheries biologists have been quantitatively
sampling the composition of spawning gravel for about 30 years to
assess the effects of land use, particularly logging, on salmonid
spawning habitat. Two main sampling techniques are used, and both
involve removing samples from the streambed and sieving them to
determine the proportion of particles in each of several size
classes. Both techniques are described in the following
discussion. This description is then followed by discussions of
sampling considerations, applicability, and analysis with respect
to their use in monitoring effectiveness of BMPs.
The McNeil sampler consists of a stainless steel tube 6-12
inches in diameter attached to a larger tube that functions as a
basin for the sample. The device is worked into the substrate,
and the sample is hand-excavated into the basin. The tube is
then capped to prevent loss of the sample or the turbid waters in
the basin; however, suspended sediments in the tube are lost
(Platts et al. 1983). The McNeil cylinder as modified by Koski
(1966) has a plunger that draws the turbid water from the tube,
preserving that portion of the sample.
There are several disadvantages to using the McNeil sampler
(based primarily on Platts et al. 1983):
• Analysis of vertical and horizontal particle
distribution is not possible because the sample is
mixed.
• Core depth is limited by depth of penetration into the
substrate, water depth, and the length of the worker's
arm.
• If the tube is not modified with a plunger, suspended
sediments are not sampled.
• It can be difficult to push into the substrate if large
particles predominate or if the substrate is cemented.
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Advantages include:
<* The McNeil sampler is inexpensive.
•> Little support equipment is needed.
» Cryogenic liquids are not needed.
€ It is easy to use and transport in remote sites.
The freeze-core sampler is basically a single or multiple
probe that is driven into the gravel and cooled with a cryogenic
medium (liquid CO^ or N). The probe is then lifted from the
substrate by a tripod-mounted winch, with its adhering sample.
Early samplers consisted of a single probe; a tri-tube sampler is
now used more often and is recommended because a large sample can
be collected using liquid C02, whereas liquid nitrogen is
necessary to get large samples with a single probe device (Platts
et al. 1983).
The disadvantages to using a freeze-core sampler include
(based primarily on Platts et al. 1983):
• The sampler is relatively expensive to build and
operate.
• The technique is equipment-intensive and requires good
access to the site.
• The tri-tube can be difficult to drive into substrates
with a predominance of large particles.
• The liquid nitrogen or C02 may be difficult to obtain in
more remote areas.
Advantages include:
• The vertical and horizontal structure of the sample can
be analyzed.
• It can be used to sample in a broad range of depths and
water temperatures.
• It can sample eggs and alevins within redds.
Sampling Considerations. The goal of monitoring a specific
variablo is to detect temporal changes or differences between
locations. To detect differences, the worker must sample in a
manner that minimizes natural variability. In the case of gravel
sampling, gravel composition varies (in decreasing magnitude)
between riffles of different streams, between riffles of the same
stream, and between locations within a riffle (Adams and Beschta
1980). Also, composition varies seasonally, with highest levels
of fine sediment in late summer and lowest levels in late winter
after flushing occurs. Given this variability, the design of a
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monitoring program should consider carefully the spatial and
temporal distribution of sampling effort as well as the number of
samples. For example, if time constraints limit the total number
of samples, the best distribution of effort may be to take all
samples on one index riffle rather than sampling several riffles.
In addition to the physical variability, there is also
biological variability. Spawning site selection by salmonids is
not random. Variability will be minimized by selecting only
riffles that are known spawning locations. Spawning salmonids
are also very effective at cleaning gravel (Everest et al. 1987),
which has led several researchers (Platts et al. 1983, Everest et
al. 1987, Chapman and McLeod 1987) to suggest that gravel
sampling should be conducted only within redds to assess gravel
composition. However, sampling in redds is not really necessary
if the desired result is an index of spawning habitat quality,
rather than derivation of a survival relationship or a
quantitative estimate of survival. Sampling in artificially
constructed redds is another option for possibly increasing the
utility of the data.
Consideration should also be given to the timing of sample
collection. Sampling during the period when eggs are incubating
is desirable. However, weather or water conditions may preclude
this, while the presence of several species may complicate
selection of the proper period. The most important consideration
is to sample the same time each year to limit interseasonal
variability.
Applicability of Quantitative Gravel Sampling. Gravel
composition is only of interest to fisheries biologists if it can
be translated to an effect on fish populations. It is well known
that high levels of fine sediment can be detrimental to certain
life history stages. Before embarking on a gravel sampling
program, however, it is desirable to determine whether spawning
success is a potential limiting factor for the population of
interest.
Many anadromous salmonids rear for extended periods prior to
emigration. Everest et al. (1987) state that rearing species are
much less likely to be limited by sedimented spawning gravel than
are those species that emigrate soon after emergence. For rearing
species and resident salmonids, it is the availability of rearing
habitat rather than spawning habitat that is generally believed
to limit the potential of the population. This argument is
correct for unexploited or conservatively managed populations;
however, it ignores the cumulative effect of the fishery and
habitat alteration. Cederholm et al. (1981) present an example
where a population of coho salmon (considered a rearing-habitat-
limited species) has been driven to a very low level by the
effects of the fishery and degraded spawning habitat. This
situation is probably often the case for genetically wild
anadromous salmonids in Idaho, Oregon, and Washington because of
the intensity with which these stocks are harvested in mixed-
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stock fisheries. The view of Everest et al (1987), that sediment
is seldom a problem, may be more applicable to rearing-limited
salmonids in Alaska, where escapements are much higher.
The factors determining whether resident salmonids are
limited by spawning success will depend on the intensity of the
local fisheries and the systemwide availability and distribution
of spawning habitat.
Analysis of Data. The composition of spawning gravel has
been described by percent fine sediment (varying cutoff points
for "fines"), geometric mean particle diameter, and the Fredle
Indexo
'"Percent fines" is defined as the weight of the material
passing through a specified sieve divided by the total weight of
the sample, expressed as a percentage. Common upper limits for
"fines" include <0.85 mm, <1.0 mm, <3.3 mm, and <4.7 mm. The
selection of an appropriate cutoff point depends on local
geology. For example, in the South Fork Clearwater River in the
Idaho Batholith region, coarse granitic sands predominate;
therefore, <4.7 mm has been used as the cutoff point for fines.
In the Olearwater River of western Washington, much finer
textured soils predominate and <0.85 mm has been used to define
"fines,"
"Percent fines" has been criticized as an index of gravel
quality because it ignores the composition of the balance of the
sample which also affects suitability for spawning (Platts et al.
1983). Platts et al. (1979) have proposed geometric mean
diameter (dg) as a measure of gravel quality. This has been
criticized as an index because gravel mixtures with the same
geometric mean can have very different size compositions (Tappel
and Bjornn 1983). The Fredle Index, developed by Lotspeich and
Everest (1981), addressed the inadequacy of the geometric mean.
The Fredle Index is defined by Chapman and McLeod (1987) as the
geometric mean particle size divided by the geometric standard
deviation.
Fortunately, use of any one or all of these indices is not
exclusive, nor must an index be selected prior to data
collection. All indices can be calculated from a single set of
sieve data, and selection between them can be based on regional
or individual preferences and study objectives.
Field and laboratory studies have been conducted to define
the precise relationship between gravel composition and survival
to emergence for salmonids. Typically, increased fine sediments
result in decreased survival (Iwamoto et al. 1978). The
relationships have been inappropriately applied at times to
predict marginal increases or decreases in survival based on
gravel composition (Chapman and McLeod 1987). It is this step in
the application of the data to effects on fish populations that
requires caution.
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A recent report by Chapman and McLeod (1987) concludes that
past sampling methods (adjacent to, rather than in, redds) render
sediment-survival relationships derived from field studies
questionable. Also, they note that laboratory studies have been
conducted under conditions that are too artificial and,
therefore, the relationships are unreliable. The overall
conclusion of the report (Chapman and McLeod 1987) is that little
is known about the relationship between sediment and survival.
This is an overly pessimistic view of the state of knowledge
relative to sediment. Precise predictive application of sediment
relationships may be inappropriate, but "rules of thumb" or
consideration of upper tolerable levels are useful. For example,
existing relationships indicate levels of fines greater than 20
percent are detrimental to salmonids (Iwamoto et al. 1978).
Application of this type of criterion to a gravel composition
data set is still appropriate, particularly for a monitoring
study.
Biological Monitoring
Riparian Habitats
Vegetative Overhang. This technique is described by Platts
et al. (1987). It measures a component of riparian vegetation
that is directly relatable to fisheries habitat. A transect is
run perpendicular to the stream channel and only vegetation
intercepted by the transect is evaluated. The horizontal
component of vegetation overhanging the water surface within a 12-
in vertical distance (excluding tree trunks or downed logs) is
measured to the nearest 0.1 ft. Vegetation more than 12 in above
the water surface is included in measures of canopy cover. The
lateral extent (depth) of bank undercutting is added to calculate
total immediate overhead cover.
Streamside cover is rated by the dominant type of cover
(e.g., shrubs, trees, grasses, forbs, or non-vegetative). Tests
of the procedure indicated poor year-to-year precision and
accuracy (Platts et al 1987).
This technique may be a useful monitoring tool in situations
where cover is suspected of being a limiting factor for fish
populations. It is also useful when stream temperature is a
concern, but it is only one of several features of the riparian
zone that are important in shading streams. If the purpose of the
BMP is to re-establish or expand the extent of riparian
vegetation, this technique is of little value as a monitoring
technique compared to direct measures of areal extent. Although
vegetative overhang directly influences quality of fish habitat,
it does not provide any information on the composition of fish
communities or the health of fish populations. Grasses,
herbaceous plants, and some shrubs provide different amounts of
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overhang over the growing season. If overhang is to be a
parameter, data must be collected consistently at a set time in
the growing season to allow meaningful estimation of change in
habitat quality.
Vegetative Canopy. This technique is described in detail by
Platts et al. (1987). Vegetative canopy typically is vertically
stratified. The simplest method of describing canopy is to
measure! percent cover for herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees
separately. Vegetative cover is a useful parameter in monitoring
effectiveness of BMPs in situations where lack of stream shading
adversely affects fish populations and BMPs have been established
to remedy these effects. If the purpose of the BMP is to re-
establish or expand the extent of riparian vegetation, this
technique is of little value compared to direct measures of areal
extent.
Ca.nopy closure (the area of sky over the stream channel that
is bracketed by vegetation) and canopy density (the amount of sky
blocked within the closure by vegetation) are two aspects of
vegetative canopy. Common methods of measurement include
subjective estimates and quantitative measures with a vegetation
profile board or a concave spherical densiometer. On smaller
streams, densiometer readings are taken at each streambank and at
midchannel facing upstream and downstream. On larger streams
(stream order 5-7), additional readings are taken at the quarter
and three-quarter distance across the stream. Use of a concave
•spherical densiometer in riparian zones requires procedural
modifications described by Strichler (1959) in order to remove
bias from overlapping readings lateral to the direction of
observation.
Vegetative canopy can also be measured indirectly by
calculating mean light intensity on the water surface. This is
usually done by determining whether direct sunlight, filtered
sunlight, or shade occurs at randomly selected points on the
water surface, rating each light condition, and calculating the
weighted mean light intensity. Other approaches include
calculations of solar heat transfer and solar shade using
information on latitude, season, topography, prevailing weather
conditions, and vegetative features. These techniques can be
used to evaluate change in the quality of riparian habitat. They
are used more frequently, however, to calculate the effects of
riparian vegetation on water temperature.
Areal Extent of Vegetation. If BMPs have been implemented
in an effort to re-establish or expand the areal extent of
riparian vegetation, the most direct and potentially the easiest
method of monitoring effectiveness is to measure the change in
acreage, width, or length (along the streambank) of the riparian
habitat. The main disadvantage of this technique is that it
requires the ability to recognize plant species that are obligate
or facultative wetland species in order to distinguish between
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upland and riparian zones. In semi-arid environments, this is
usually easy to do; it may require strong botanical skills in
western Washington and Oregon and higher elevations of Idaho.
Two main approaches to measuring areal extent of riparian
vegetation are use of aerial photos and measurements on the
ground. Use of aerial photos requires ground-truthing the
interpretation of the aerial photos, but the amount of time spent
in the field is usually much less than if all measurements were
derived from field work. Aerial photos provide a long-term
record of conditions that facilitates accuracy and reliability in
the data because consistent interpretation is possible. Aerial
photos can also be easily used to construct overlays that, used
with a base map, graphically portray change over time.
The optimal scale for aerial photos appears to be 1:2000;
less resolution may be inadequate to accurately measure change in
areal extent that is likely to occur and makes it difficult to
distinguish between riparian communities. Higher resolution
(e.g., 1:1000) may be useful if great detail is required, but the
costs of conducting the survey increase sharply.
Aerial photos are particularly useful in monitoring
effectiveness of BMPs in agricultural areas where land use
practices modify streambanks (e.g., grazing allotments, dryland
agriculture, confined animal and feedlot operations). It may be
of less use in monitoring effects of silvicultural practices on
riparian vegetation.
Infrared aerial photos are particularly useful in
distinguishing between riparian communities. Because of species-
specific variations in reflection of light from leaf surfaces,
plant species (community composition) are more readily
distinguished in infrared than in the visible light spectrum
(true color or black/white).
A variety of techniques can be used on the ground to measure
areal extent of riparian vegetation. These range from rapid
estimations made while walking along the stream to measurements
made on transects across the riparian zone or along streambanks.
Measurements can be linear (width of riparian habitat or percent
of streambank vegetated) or two-dimensional (hectares of
habitat). If monitoring is limited to work on the ground, care
must be taken to use procedures that are replicable over time.
This entails clear definitions of riparian habitat and a method
to delineate riparian from upland habitat, use of permanent
transect locations or a fixed number of transects within a
specified stream reach, and detailed records.
Riparian Species Identification and Inventory. The quality
of riparian habitat and fish habitat often depends on the
composition of riparian vegetation. Thus, descriptions of the
types of riparian vegetation and species composition of riparian
communities are often included in monitoring. There are, however,
factors that complicate interpretation of these data. Riparian
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areas are often occupied by a complex mosaic of plant species
because of the complex interaction between soil and hydrologic
conditions. Complexity in species composition in some ecological
zones of the Pacific Northwest may be augmented in some cases by
the naturally high rate of geomorphological change along streams,
relative to adjacent upland sites. Thus, some ecological
processes (e.g., succession) typical of plant communities are
modified in riparian zones.
The duration and extent of water fluctuation (hydrologic
regime) are driving forces in the development of riparian
vegetation, with large influence also provided by soil
characteristics and depth to the water table. Riparian
classification schemes, therefore, should entail a description of
floristic, soil, and environmental characteristics of the
assemblage. Nomenclature typically is tied to the dominant
vegetation type, but consideration must be given to constancy and
fidelity within the community type.
Forbs and grasses require more effort to inventory than do
shrubs and trees and are usually not visually dominant in the
landscape. These species, however, are usually more sensitive to
changes typically resulting from BMP implementation and change
more rapidly than shrubs and trees. Care must be taken in
determining how the BMPs are likely to affect forbs, grasses,
shrubs, and trees differentially. Judgment must then be made of
how to incorporate these various plant forms in the analysis of
community composition.
Techniques for describing and inventorying riparian
communities vary widely from qualitative visual determinations of
landscape-dominating species to quantitative studies of overstory
and understory vegetation. Quantitative studies include simple,
quick measures such as length of shoreline dominated by shrubs,
grasses, trees, or forbs. Although species composition data are
generally easy to obtain, it is difficult to analyze the
significance of the information, especially with respect to the
ecological significance of community change noted as part of a
long-tsrm monitoring effort.
Tile use of large scale (higher resolution, usually 1:2000)
aerial photos requires ground-truthing of photo interpretation
effort but offers the general advantage of more thorough field
coverage with less field time and a long-term record of change.
Ground cover, stream width, stream channel and streambank
stability, riparian area (width and total acreage), and
streamside cover are easily monitored with aerial photo
interpretation. Infrared color photos are particularly useful in
identifying species composition and density of trees and many
shrubs. Over-exposure by 0.5 f-stop permits penetration of water
surface, allowing preliminary analysis of stream bottom
characteristics in salmonid spawning areas.
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Woody Riparian Inventory. This technique is described by
Myers (1987). Woody species included in the inventory are those
recognized to be obligate or facultative wetland species. The
technique assumes that the condition of woody wetland species is
a valid index of overall riparian habitat condition. Woody
species are selected because of greater efficiency of inventory
relative to conducting an inventory of herbaceous species and
grasses. This technique has the disadvantage of not measuring
more immediate responses of the herbaceous understory vegetation
to changes in edaphic and hydrologic conditions.
The technique is suitable to streams where deciduous woody
species dominate riparian communities. It does not work in
closed canopy conifer sites, nor is it likely to be useful in
sites where mature aspen stands provide dense canopy. The
technique was developed for use on BLM land in the foothill region
of southwestern Montana. The approach is simple but may be time-
consuming if woody sprouts are abundant. Estimation of the
degree of hedging (effects of foraging by grazers) requires
training and is partially subjective.
Large quadrats (4m X 8m) are located at regular intervals
along stream banks, with a minimum of 20 quadrats per river
reach. All rooted vegetation within the quadrat is classified by
size (basal diameter), height, and condition (degree of hedging).
Density by species is noted for each category of woody plant,
along with riparian community width and wetted channel width.
Canopy measurements, bank erosion, and mean values of density
data are scored separately, and the sum is used to rate habitat
quality by river reach.
The scoring system developed by Myers (1987) is keyed to the
mean values and 95 percent confidence intervals calculated for 8
reaches judged to be in very good or excellent ecological
condition based on wildlife habitat value. A similar scoring
system could be developed that is tied to river reaches providing
high fisheries habitat value. Examples of the scoring system and
blank field forms are provided in Myers (1987).
Fish Populations
Electrofishing. Electrofishing involves use of electric
shock to temporarily immobilize fish, allowing capture.
Electrofishing is safe and effective for most species and can be
used to calculate statistically reliable population estimates.
In addition, determinations of age and growth, biomass, length-
weight relationships, and species utilization are possible.
Shockers are typically DC (some AC units are available) battery-
powered backpack units, or generator-powered units for shore or
boat use.
To estimate the fish population in a specific reach, fine
mesh block nets are used to isolate the area of interest and a
crew, with a shocker, makes several passes through the reach.
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Typically, the operator begins at the lower end of the site
followed by one or more assistants who aid in the capture of
stunned fish.
are two primary estimation techniques: removal-
depletion methods (Zippen 1958; Seber and LeCren 1967) and mark-
recapture (Ricker 1975) . Both techniques provide valid results
and selection between them is based on personal preference. With
either method it is important to consider the underlying
assumptions to ensure that a valid estimate has been made.
Removal-depletion methods involve two or more passes in the
isolated reach with each collection kept separate. Equations for
population estimates and standard error of the estimates are
presented in Platts et al. (1983) . For more rigorous statistical
explanation, see Seber and LeCren (1967) , Zippen (1958) , and
Ricker (1975).
The mark- recapture method (Petersen Method) involves marking
fish captured on the first pass and re-introducing them to the
isolated reach. The population estimate is based on the ratio of
marked and unmarked fish in the second pass. Ricker (1975)
presents pertinent equations and discusses assumptions.
There are a few limitations to using electrofishing sampling
techniques. Very low or very high conductivity of the water can
severely limit the ability of the units to shock fish. However,
most modern electroshockers allow adjustment of voltage,
frequency, and pulse width, and good results can be obtained in
most freshwater habitats. Depth, water turbidity and habitat
complexity can render sample assumptions invalid, and it is a
subjective decision as to whether the resulting estimate is
valid. At low temperatures fish are often not responsive to the
stimulus and can be difficult to collect. Seasonal restrictions
are often in force by state fisheries agencies when eggs or
alevir.s are present, thereby limiting some sampling opportunity.
Also, permits must be obtained from the proper authorities before
sampling. Mortality is typically low for fishes (a few percent) ;
however, small fishes or benthic species occasionally suffer high
mortalities because they are difficult to detect when immobile
and are thereby overexposed to the shock.
Snorkel ing. Direct observation of fish has become
increasingly popular in the past decade. The method can be used
to examine species composition, age structure, habitat
utili2;ation, and population trends. The technique does not allow
accureite measurements of fish size.
The basic technique is simple: an observer enters the
strear\ or river with a mask and snorkel and counts or observes
the fishes there. Typically, it is best to move upstream while
observing if the entire area of interest cannot be surveyed from
one point. In small streams, it is possible to move slowly and
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inconspicuously upstream without disturbing juvenile or adult
fishes, particularly salmonids. Larger streams necessitate
traveling downstream with the current and require more observers.
Equipment ranges from a snorkel and mask to full SCUBA gear.
The most common gear is a wet- or dry-suit and snorkel and mask.
Felt-bottomed wading shoes are helpful in small streams, while
rivers require fins.
Population estimation techniques are evolving, but basically
one or more observers count the number of fish in a particular
reach, stratifying by age group, if possible. Multiple counts
are used to increase confidence in the estimates. In larger
rivers, several observers travel in parallel paths and count
fish to one side of their bodies and a common population estimate
is made. The maximum distance that a fish-size object can be
discerned should be measured on each sampling trip. For more
information see Griffith (1981) and Platts et al. (1983).
Redd Counts. Redd counts are considered rather insensitive
measures of population trends; however, a difference of +50
percent can be detected (Bevan 1961). In general, redd counts are
used for establishing long-term trends in abundance. In terms of
NFS pollution monitoring, redd counts are generally of limited
value as they reflect many impacts unrelated to habitat
(overharvest, migration barriers, etc.). However, monitoring the
spawning population may be valuable in determining population
limiting factors and guiding selection of variables to be
monitored.
There are two approaches: one is to survey all spawning
areas; the other is to choose an index area. The first approach
is appropriate when the scope of the study is large or if
spawning areas are limited. The index approach is necessary when
spawning areas are widely dispersed or manpower is limited.
The actual counts are typically made by ground crews, or by
an observer in a plane or helicopter. Calculation of the final
counts requires knowledge of the life of individual redds. If
redds are clearly visible for many weeks, a single count near the
end of the spawning season may be an accurate measure of total
numbers. Often, redds are visible for only a few weeks and this,
combined with extended periods of spawning, can require multiple
surveys. In this case, redd locations are marked with a dated tag
on adjacent riparian vegetation. Tagging reduces the likelihood
that redds will be recounted on subsequent surveys. If redd
locations cannot be marked (e.g. aerial surveys), all visible
redds are counted on each survey. The total number of redds
counted on each date is plotted on a graph, and a curve is drawn
connecting them. This curve defines an area with the units in
"redd-days." Dividing this value by an estimated redd life
(e.g., 2 weeks) yields an estimate of total redds. The redd life
estimate is based on professional judgment or observation of
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artificial redds or natural redds of known age. Any redd
counting planned in the Columbia Basin should adhere to the
protocols being developed by the Columbia River Intertribal Fish
Commission (Heindl pers. comm.).
Water clarity, water depth, and personnel changes can affect
the confidence in counts. Also, some training is required before
field personnel can detect false redds (areas of exploratory
digging that contain no eggs) and the limits between redds in
heavily used spawning areas. As mentioned earlier, redd counts
reflect many influences on the population that are not directly
relatable to habitat condition or the BMP of concern. Also,
counts are typically limited to particular species or groups (e.g.
salmonids) and are of little value in assessing the total fish
commun ity.
Kethod Selection. For most NFS monitoring programs,
snorkeling or electrofishing will be the primary methods for
evaluating responses of populations or communities to BMP's.
The advantages of electrofishing over snorkeling include:
o Water clarity has less influence on effectiveness.
«) Sampling is possible under low light conditions.
«> Length and weight measurements are possible.
«> Electrofishing is less subjective.
The advantages of snorkeling over electrofishing include:
o Water conductivity is irrelevant.
» Sampling in deep or complex habitats is effective.
(» Little specialized equipment is needed.
(» Fish are not handled or harassed.
Selection between fish population monitoring techniques will
be based on the goals of the program, size of the stream,
complexity of the habitat, and the physical characteristics of the
water (temperature and turbidity). For example, if statistically
valid population estimates in a small stream are desired,
electrofishing is the best option due to the general acceptance of
the methodo In larger streams, snorkeling will likely provide a
better estimate of populations than electrofishing due to the
latter technique's inefficiency in deep water. Turbid waters
necessitate use of electrofishing.
If population age structure data is desired, the difference
in length between age groups of species will determine which
technique is appropriate. Populations where age groups exhibit
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discrete lengths can be described by snorkel observations;
overlapping age groups will require careful measurement (possibly
including scale analysis) of fish captured by electrofishing.
Species composition data can be collected by either method,
with habitat complexity and water turbidity governing selection.
Analysis. Selection of the correct parameter for a
particular monitoring study requires careful consideration. In
general, population levels or biomass may not be responsive to the
types of changes that are likely to result from implementation of
a BMP. Characteristics of the community such as species
composition or characteristics of populations such as age
structure, length-weight relationships (condition factor), and
length-age relationships may be more appropriate. Selection
between these parameters will depend on the type of changes
expected from the BMP. For example, if suspended sediment levels
are expected to change due to the BMP, changes in condition
factor may indicate improvement in feeding opportunities. If a
dramatic temperature change is expected, species composition may
be the best measurement of effectiveness (e.g. re-establishment of
cold-water fishes).
Macroinvertebrate Sampling
Sampling can be either quantitative or semi-quantitative,
with the level of effort and cost being much higher for the
quantitative sampling. The semi-quantitative methods (rapid
bioassessments) are gaining favor in point source investigations
due to their lower cost, but to our knowledge have not been used
extensively in NFS monitoring programs. Some programs reviewed
during this study incorporate the quantitative method developed
by Winget and Mangum (1979). This method is focused on analysis
of tolerant and intolerant species and involves reduced sample
sizes and less effort overall than typical quantitative studies.
A limitation of the method is that the underlying relationships
have not been tested except on the data set from which the method
was developed (Platts et al. 1983).
The following paragraph on techniques is based on Platts et
al. (1983). There are two main samplers used for quantitative
macroinvertebrate studies: the Surber (Surber 1937), and Modified
Hess samplers (Waters and Knapp 1961). Each is placed directly on
the substrate and pressed down firmly. The Surber sampler
contacts the substrate and the modified Hess sampler penetrates
the substrate with the lower portion of the tube (Modified Hess)
to prevent entry of organisms from outside the sample area. The
frame of the samplers defines a known area that is disturbed
carefully to a predetermined depth (50 or 100 mm). The substrate
must be cleaned with a soft brush and visually inspected for
remaining invertebrates. The dislodged invertebrates drift back
into the collection net. The sampler is lifted carefully from the
stream, keeping the front end of the collection net pointed into
the current and up at about 45 degrees. The sample is removed
from the net and preserved in 70 percent ethanol.
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Rapid bioassessment sampling can be conducted with either of
the above samplers or with a kick sampler. The kick sampler is a
net that is held in a riffle downstream from a worker who disturbs
the substrate in a given area for a given time. The dislodged
organisms are captured in the net.
In quantitative studies, sample collection is typically
rapid. Identification of the samples is much more time consuming
and requires taxonomic expertise. Typically, the samples are
sorted into representative taxonomic groups, then detailed study
is undertaken. Rapid bioassessment techniques involve much less
detailed taxonomy and are much faster and cheaper because only a
portion of the sample is analyzed. Analysis of macroinvertebrate
data can be based on species composition, density, biomass,
species richness, species diversity, abundance, biomass,
functional groups, or biotic indices.
The basis of data analysis and the taxonomic expertise
required will depend on the study objectives and the resources
available. For monitoring effects of BMPs, species level
identifications will usually be required. Analysis can range from
consideration of indices calculated from the data to detailed
analysis of the macroinvertebrate assemblage from a community
ecology perspective. Analysis will usually require significant
input ,by a skilled specialist.
I:i general, intensive quantitative study will be necessary to
evaluate BMPs related to silviculture.and agriculture. Rapid
bioassessment techniques are probably appropriate if effects are
expected to be dramatic or if the BMP applies to impacts that are
similar to a point source problem (e.g., outflow from a confined
animal feedlot) where upstream and downstream samples can be
collected. Selection between these methods must be made on a
case-by-case basis by a competent aquatic ecologist based on study
objectives. Use of "cookbook" collection and analytical protocols
should be avoided because the focus will generally be too broad to
yield useful results when evaluating effects of BMPs for
silviculture and agriculture.
Bacteria
The presence of fecal coliform bacteria is used to indicate
the potential for human pathogens such as Salmonella and enteric
viruses. State and federal water quality regulations employ
fecal eoliform counts to monitor fecal contamination and to
define the sanitary status of waters.
Coliforms are a generic group of bacteria capable of lactose
digestion with the production of gas within 48 hrs at 35°C.
Fecal coliforms are a subset that can survive at 44.5 + 0.2°C.
Human waste has a high percentage of fecal coliforms, whereas
animal waste has a high percentage of fecal streptococci. The
ratio between the two groups of bacteria gives an indication of
the source of the contamination, (human or animal waste), and the
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type of associated pathogens. The source of microbes is
important to discern because pathogens causing disease in humans
are generally spread from human to human and not from animal to
human.
Methods. Two methods of bacterial enumeration are described
in "Standard Methods of Examination of Water and Wastewater."
The multiple tube fermentation technique (Standard Methods 908A)
relies on the probability of a dilution tube being inoculated
with a seed organism. The accuracy increases with the number of
replicate tubes, and the index is reported as Most Probable
Number (MPN). The membrane filter technique (Standard Methods
909A) is widely used in freshwater systems; reliability is
questionable when the water sample is highly turbid or contains
chlorine, metals, or phenols. The membrane technique is rarely
used for seawater samples because of technical difficulties with
the salt content.
Considerations. Coliform bacteria populations exhibit daily
and seasonal cycling. Populations usually peak in the early
evening due to factors such as stream stage and water temperature
(Bohn and Buckhouse 1983). Thus, samples should be taken at the
same time of day during monitoring. Annually, populations peak
in periods of warm water and low dilution flows, or after a heavy
runoff event. Water discharge should be measured so that
populations can be expressed in absolute numbers (loading) as
well as concentration.
Although data from Gerba (1983) show that indicator and
pathogenic bacteria in human sludge applied to soil return to
background levels within 3 wks, and that levels of fecal coliforms
in runoff were insignificant, coliform and streptococci bacteria
may survive 20 days in the soil of cattle-grazed land, and at
least 1 yr in cow dung (Bohn and Buckhouse 1983). Saxton et al.
(1983) found that it took almost 3 yrs of cattle absence before
fecal coliform numbers in runoff returned to background levels.
Furthermore, coliforms and streptococci adsorb to sediments
(Stephenson and Rychert 1982). Thus, disturbance of the stream
sediments may give elevated estimates. As a result, there often
will not be an immediate response in indicator bacteria levels to
the implementation of BMPs.
The behavior and survival of fecal coliforms and Salmonella
is similar in natural waters (Geldreich 1970). However, it is
apparent that fecal coliforms are not satisfactory indicators of
Giardia spp. (Bohn and Buckhouse 1983). Fecal streptococci
survive longer than fecal coliforms in soils and sediments, and
contamination can be falsely attributed to animal rather than
human sources.
Enterococci (a subgroup of fecal streptococci) may be a more
informative indicator of presence of human pathogens.
Enterococci are thought to be a more specific indicator of human
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wastewater pollution than fecal coliform or fecal streptococci
numbers, and may be related to human health risk under certain
conditions (Heywood pers. comm.).
Algae
PLanktonic algae have often been used as indicators of water
quality in lakes. Algal populations are usually not monitored in
stream communities in the Pacific Northwest, and their value as a
parameter is not well known.
Species composition, species diversity, biomass, and cell
volume are typical measures applied' to planktonic algae. Species
composition in particular has been used to identify lakes in which
productivity is affected by nitrogen or phosphorous levels.
Careful consideration must be given to timing and location of
sampling.
Currents and winds cause patchy plankton distribution in
lakes, necessitating a number of samples. The surface layer of
the lake should not be over-represented, since certain plankton
are trapped at the surface microlayer. Furthermore, some
planktonic forms migrate vertically in response to light
intensity, and most species have periodic blooms of short
duration.
Cylindrical tube samplers are more accurate than net
samplexs since cell damage is minimized and mesh size does not
affect, sample composition. Enumeration and species
identifications usually must be conducted in the laboratory by
traineid botanists. Freguently the samples must be preserved and
concentrated to facilitate analysis, but this can damage and
distort algal cells. Thus, use of phytoplankton algae in
monitoring programs generally requires considerable expertise and
labor.
Periphyton and aufwauchs are attached to rocky substrates of
streans and lakes and can be quantitatively sampled. Distribution
is typically patchy and replicate samples of the substrate and
attached biota should be collected. As with phytoplankton,
analysis requires specific expertise and is time consuming.
Chlorophyll a is one of the three chlorophylls found in
algae and constitutes 1-2 percent of the dry organic material.
Two analytical methods are available: spectrophotometry, which
measures the optical density of chlorophyll a, b and c; and
fluorometry, which measures the fluorescence of chlorophyll a.
The latter method is more sensitive and requires a smaller sample
than <-he former. Pheophytin a, a degradation product of
chlorophyll a, can interfere with both methods. Acid hydrolysis
breakis down chlorophyll to pheophytin a, which can be measured
with the above techniques. A high chlorophyll a to pheophytin a
ratio indicates a healthy biomass.
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Chemical Monitoring
Water quality criteria identify concentrations of chemicals
that allow propagation of fish and wildlife, recreational uses,
and protection of public health. Criteria are generally derived
from toxicity bioassays of susceptible species and susceptible
individuals based on total population assessments. -In most cases,
the information on susceptibility of individuals (usually derived
from standard deviations around mean survival) is used to
incorporate a safety factor in the water quality criterion. Thus,
large changes in chemical parameters are probably required before
measurable changes occur in population characteristics, community
structure, or survival of individual organisms.
Monitoring of water chemistry typically occurs for two
reasons. First, it determines whether the water quality meets
established standards. Second, it is used as an indicator of
potentially chronic or subtle effects on aquatic species.
Laboratory bioassays are helpful in understanding the response of
organisms to particular chemicals under well-defined test
conditions. In the field, however, exposure conditions are
rarely well defined. Synergistic effects may occur as a result
of the mixture of chemicals that exist in the water body and
subtle effects may occur on organismal behavior that are
difficult to observe in laboratory conditions.
The measurement of chemical levels in water has become
routine. Sophisticated equipment is available to detect minute
levels, and rugged portable units are available for field use for
some of the more common water chemistry parameters. Standardized
protocols outlining methodology have been published; some of the
more common ones include EPA (1982), USGS (1977), and APHA (1985).
The variety and ease of water quality chemistry necessitates
a note of caution; it is easy to fall into a trap of collecting
information on a large number of chemical parameters and give
little thought to the utility of the data. Many researchers and
resource managers are finding that changes in water chemistry do
not necessarily coincide with changes in aquatic communities.
Species composition, abundance, diversity, stability, and
productivity of aquatic organisms often do not show measurable
response to changes in water chemistry that one expects from
implementation of BMPs. Monitoring chemical changes, however, is
very useful in judging whether water quality meets standards
established by regulations.
Temperature. pH. Dissolved Oxygen, and Conductivity
Commercially available instruments provide essentially
continuous records of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen and
conductivity. The electrodes can be placed directly into a
flowing stream. Temperature can also be readily assessed in situ
through the use of electrometric probes that can be used to take
several depth readings at a sampling station.
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Water temperature is used with salinity to determine water
density. Temperature also affects gas solubility and rates of
biological processes.
Temperature influences pH measurements, but better commercial
pH metiers compensate for temperature effects. Calculations for
correcting temperature effects are instrument-specific, depending
on thfi electrode used. Additionally, pH affects the carbonic
acid-carbon dioxide balance in water.
"itration using iodometric methods (e.g., Winkler method)
remains the most precise and reliable procedure for dissolved
oxygen analysis. Membrane electrodes, however, offer advantages
of analysis in situ and eliminate sample handling and storage
errors. The effect of temperature on electrode sensitivity is
proportional to the membrane permeability (i.e., membrane
material and thickness). The availability of dissolved oxygen in
the water is affected by temperature and the amount of organic
matte r.
Conductivity can be readily measured with a continuous
recorder, or with an electrometric probe. Conductivity is at
least as good a criterion as total dissolved solids for assessing
the effects of ions on chemical eguilibria and physiological
effects on plants and animals (APHA 1985).
Salirity
Salinity in estuaries is measured with either a continuous
recorder or a portable electrometric probe. With the latter, it
is useful to take several readings at different depths.
Salinity affects mixing rates and density distribution in
the water column and solubility of dissolved oxygen.
Alkalinity
The alkalinity of water is the capacity to neutralize strong
acidis and is primarily a function of the carbonate, bicarbonate
and hydroxide content. Alkalinity is determined by titration.
Nitrogen
Most effort in monitoring nitrogen levels distinguishes
between organic and inorganic forms of nitrogen. Un-ionized
ammonia is the most toxic of the nitrogen forms and may be of
particular concern in smaller streams. Total nitrogen loading to
small streams may also be of concern because of the potential for
eutrophication followed by depression of dissolved oxygen levels.
Ammonia is an immediate byproduct of the breakdown of urine and
therefore may be useful to trace animal wastes in water.
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Nitrogen exists in various forms which can be interconverted
by chemical and biological means. The interconversion of
nitrogen species should be considered when storing samples prior
to analysis.
The Kjeldahl digestion reduces organic nitrogen to ammonia,
which is quantified colorimetrically. The Kjeldahl process thus
measures both organic nitrogen and ammonia.
For chemical analyses, any ammonium in the sample is
converted to ammonia, and the total ammonia concentration is
measured either colorimetrically or titrimetrically. The
relationship between nontoxic ammonium and toxic ammonia is a
function of temperature and pH, and these two parameters should
be measured in the field to assess ammonia toxicity.
Nitrate can be measured potentiometrically or reduced to
nitrite, which is quantified colorimetrically. Nitrite is
analyzed colorimetrically, although under most natural conditions
it is present in low concentrations since it is rapidly oxidized
to nitrate.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus in water occurs predominately in the form of
orthophosphate and organically bound phosphates. The division
between the species is operationally defined. Filterable (also
called dissolved) phosphorus is that which passes through a
0.45 mm filter. The residue is termed particulate phosphorus, and
the two fractions added are total phosphorus. The chemical
analysis of each fraction provides a further division.
Orthophosphate, a major constituent of fertilizer, is that
fraction which reacts in a colorimetric test without a hydrolysis
or oxidative digestion pretreatment. Hydrolyzable phosphorus is
the fraction that results from a mild acid digestion at 100°C.
This process converts the hydrolyzable-P to orthophosphate, which
'is then measured. Total phosphorus is measured if the sample is
digested in strong acid at elevated temperature (boiling point).
Phosphate content is determined by colorimetric measurement of
orthophosphate. Organic phosphorus can be calculated from total
phosphorus minus the hydrolyzable fraction.
Carbon
Carbon exists in water and sediments in inorganic
(carbonates, bicarbonates) and organic forms (sugars, mercaptans,
oils, cellulose, lignins, tannin).
The saturation of water with respect to calcium carbonate is
a function of calcium ion concentration, pH, temperature,
alkalinity, ionic strength, and total dissolved solids
concentration.
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The Langlier Index (LI) (or Saturation Index, SI) is used to
determine whether or not water is in equilibrium with CaC03.
Calcium carbonate concentration is equivalent to the measure of
hardnoss and can be quantified by EDTA titration.
Total organic carbon is measured by combustion and
subsequent infrared analysis of the evolved carbon dioxide.
Terminal combustion of organic compounds converted to carbon
dioxide occurs at temperatures of 500-650°C.
Analysis of an untreated sample is a measure of total
carbon, while analysis of the acid-treated fraction is a measure
of organic carbon. Inorganic carbon is calculated by
subtraction. Another method of separation is based on
differential thermal combustion. Inorganic carbon is converted
to carbon dioxide at 950-1,300°C, organic compounds at 500-650°C.
Tannins and lignins are highly complex organic materials.
Acid digestion causes the hydroxyl groups to react with indicator
acids;, which change color and can be quantified.
Ions
Hardness. Hardness reflects the ability of ions in water to
precipitate soap. Since calcium and magnesium ions are most
significant, hardness is defined as the concentration of these
ions expressed as calcium carbonate. Hardness can be determined
by calculation or by EDTA titration.
Calcium and magnesium are analyzed by atomic absorption
spectrophotometry after either a filtering or an acid digestion
pretreatment.
Potassium and Sodium. Potassium is analyzed by flame
phot.ometry, following either a filtration or an acid digestion
pretreatment. Sodium is quantified in the same manner.
Chlorine. Chlorine can be determined by titration or
potontiometrically with electrodes.
Metals
Metals in streams exist in various forms (dissolved,
soluble, complex, and particulate), and the toxicity of the metal
is a function of the form it is in. Redox potential, pH,
salinity, chelating compounds, and the presence of fine sediments
will affect the form and distribution of metals.
Selenium has a toxic effect upon mammals similar to arsenic,
and has become an element of concern with respect to irrigation
projects on semi-arid lands of the western states. Elevated
levels of selenium can be found in water resulting from natural
deposits, mining activities, or industrial pollution. Selenium
levels can be determined colorimetrically or by use of an atomic
absorption spectrophotometer.
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Pesticides
Herbicides are commonly chlorophenoxyacetic acids, of which
2,4-D and 2,4,5-TP (Silvex) are the most common. Chlorophenoxy
acids and their esters are extracted from acidified water with an
organic solvent, and completely converted to methyl esters. The
esters are purified on a microabsorption column and are
quantified using gas chromatography.
Organochlorine pesticide use has been restricted because of
its persistence in the environment. This has caused an increase
in the use of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. These
compounds degrade more rapidly than organochlorines but are more
acutely toxic because of their cholinesterase activity, a
component of the animal nervous system. Because the mode of
action of these pesticides is biological, the method of
determining their presence is by total in vitro cholinesterase
inhibition.
The compound 3,3-dimethylbutyl acetate (DMBA) is used as the
substrate for the enzyme cholinesterase. The enzyme-catalyzed
reaction of DMBA results in the hydrolysis of the ester to 3,3-
dimethylbutanol (DMB) and acetic acid. After the reaction
period, the hydrolysis is stopped and the mixture extracted with
carbon disulfide. The determination of DMB is made by gas
chromatograph using a hydrogen flame ionization detector.
D-29
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