EPA-600/2-77-084
TVA-F77 PRS-24
April 1977
Environmental Protection Technology Series
RECENT USSR LITERATURE ON CONTROL
OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Washington, D.C. 20460
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Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection
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2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
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This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY
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EPA-600/2-77-084
TVA-F77 PRS-24
RECENT USSR LITERATURE
ON CONTROL OF PARTICULATE EMISSIONS
FROM STATIONARY SOURCES
by
Charles E. Feazel
Southern Research Institute
2000 Ninth Avenue South
Birmingham, Alabama 35205
TVA Research Agreement TV 42937A
EPA Grant No. R802938-01
ROAP No. 21ADL-034
Program Element No. 1AB012
TVA Project Officer: HI. Falkenberry
Power Research Staff
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee 37401
EPA Project Officer: N.A. Jaworski
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
POWER RESEARCH STAFF
Tennessee Valley Authority
Chattanooga, Tennessee 37401
Prepared jointly for
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Research and Development
Washington, D.C. 20460
April 1977
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ABSTRACT
About 600 articles published from about 1970 through 1975
in several technical and scientific journals in the U.S.S.R.
were compiled and classified according to subject content.
These articles were selected as indicators of U.S.S.R. tech-
nology in controlling air pollution by particulate emissions
from stationary sources, with special emphasis on fly ash from
the combustion of coal in electric power plants. The control
devices include electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers,
fabric filters, cyclones, and granular bed filters.
11
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CONTENTS
Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Electrical Precipitators 3
Use in Electric Power Plants 3
Corona and Electrical Breakdown .6
Electric Field 8
Particle Charging 9
Particle Collection 10
Electrical Resistivity of Particulate
Matter 11
Composition and Properties of Fly Ash and
Other Dusts 11
Electrical Energization 13
Rapping and Fly Ash Reentrainment 13
Gas Flow 14
Wet Electrostatic Precipitators 15
Industrial Applications 16
3. Wet Scrubbers 18
Use in Electric Power Plants 18
Mechanisms of Action 20
Types of Scrubbers 21
Industrial Applications 23
4. Fabric Filters 25
Collection Mechanisms .... 25
Baghouses 27
Filter Fabrics 27
Mist Eliminators 28
Industrial Applications 29
5. Other Collectors 30
Cyclones 30
Granular Bed Filters 30
Acoustical Processes in Particle Collection . . 30
6. Sampling and Measurement Methods 32
References 34
111
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Alan Dean, Associate Chemist at Southern Research Institute,
V. Minic, Manager of the Southern Research Institute Library,
and Ms. Elizabeth Koniuskow, Environmental Protection Agency,
participated in the literature search and preparation of the
report. Mr. J. Pekar and Dr. D.C. Drehmel, Environmental
Protection Agency, provided items from literature searches made
at the Environmental Protection Agency.
IV
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
The scope of this literature survey is the technical and
scientific information recently published in the U.S.S.R. that
is significant in showing the status of the technology of con-
trolling particulate emissions from stationary sources, with
special emphasis on fly ash from the combustion of coal in
electric power plants. The survey is intended to include the
essential information, but not to provide complete bibliographic
coverage of the subject.
The scope was operationally defined in terms of manual
searching of indexes for pertinent items, in Chemical Abstracts
(1973-1975), Air Pollution Abstracts (1973-1975), Engineering
Index (1973-1975), Physics Abstracts (1973-1975), Electrical
and Electronics Abstracts (1973-1975), and Referativnyi Zhurnal
Khimiya (1975-1976, Nos. 1-6). Some pertinent items that had
been obtained from these sources in 1970 through 1972 were also
included.
The following publications were covered by searching their
title pages for 1973-1975 in Current Contents - Physical and
Chemical Sciences and Current Contents - Engineering, Technology
and Applied Sciences: Khimicheskaya Promyshlennost' (Soviet
Chemical Industry), Stal1 (Steel in the USSR), Zhurnal Prikladnoi
Khimii (Journal of Applied Chemistry of the USSR), and Zhurnal
Tekhnicheskoi Fiziki (Soviet Physics-Technical Physics).
Each issue of the following journals for 1973-1975 was
examined: Elektricheskiye Stantsii [electric power plants],
Elektrichestvo (Electric Technology USSR), Energetik [power],
and Teploenergetika (Thermal Engineering). The names in paren-
theses are those of translations that are available.
Some items from APTIC searches that had been made on the
subjects of particulate control and measurements were included
in the survey.
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The search also included a number of unpublished reports
that were provided by the U.S.S-R. members to the U.S. members
of the Stationary Source Air Pollution Control Technology Com-
mittee and the Committee on Design and Operation of Air Pollu-
tion Reduction and Waste Disposal Systems for Thermal Power
Plants.
Other articles, titles, and abstracts were provided by
the staff of the Environmental Protection Agency Industrial
Environmental Research Laboratory.
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SECTION 2
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
USE IN ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Electrostatic precipitators are used in the U.S.S.R. on
electric power units of 300 MW and larger, and on plants burning
coal with 15% or more ash. Precipitator designs and the theo-
retical basis for them have been presented (1,2).
To supply the electrical energy needs of the U.S.S.R. requires
the use of Baltic shale and coal from the large Ekibastuz and
Kansk-Achinsk deposits (3). The shale has a high ash content
(50%) with a high lime content (4). Ekibastuz coal has a high
ash content (40%) , a low sulfur content (<1%), and a high silica
content in the ash (typically 65%), and the fly ash has a high
electrical resistivity (lO^-lO1*1 ohm-cm) (4,5). The Kansk-
Achinsk fuel is a low-ash low-sulfur lignite. Its ash has a
high lime content (6).
When fuels such as Ekibastuz coal began to be used, electro-
static precipitators collecting fly ash gave lower collection
efficiencies than the design efficiency of about 99%. It was
known that a fly ash with a high electrical resistivity is dif-
ficult to collect, and so attempts to improve the collection
efficiency began with changes in the design of the precipitator
to avoid back corona and sparking through the layer of fly ash
deposited on the collection electrode (7). Since electrical
breakdown of the fly ash layer is a function of its electrical
resistivity and the current density, a more uniform current
density would permit operation at a higher resistivity before
the onset of back corona.
This approach led to modification of the shape of the corona
electrode to achieve a more uniform electric field and current
density. The U.S.S.R. precipitator design, like the German
Lurgi design, has a frame-supported corona electrode assembly.
The corona electrode is a strip of metal approximately 1.4 mm
thick and 25 mm wide. Equipping the electrode with needle-like
protrusions was found to improve the performance of the preci-
pitator (8,9).
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Studies of the distribution of corona current and of the
volt-ampere characteristic of the needle-shaped electrodes led
to the conclusion that they allow the collection of high-resis-
tivity dusts with decreased likelihood of back corona and with
increased collection efficiency (10).
Further, when the orientation of the needles on a corona
electrode was changed from the normal perpendicular configura-
tion to one parallel to the collection electrodes, a larger
difference in potential between the corona and the collection
electrode was found. The discharge from each needle is directed
to both collection electrodes, the field near the collection
electrode is equalized, and the effectiveness of cleaning the
gas is increased, especially in collecting high-resistivity
ash. This method of intensifying the discharge and collecting
fly ash has found wide application both in operating and newly
constructed electric power plants (11,12).
Modification of the corona system in electrostatic precipi-
tators on 300 MW units in a power plant by installing leaf-needle
electrodes with a distance between the needles of 40 mm and
rotation of the elements to orient the needles in the direction
of gas flow, together with improvements in the rapping regime
and the electrification equipment, resulted in an increase of
the collection efficiency from 87.5 to 96.8% (13,14).
To determine the optimal construction parameters in an
experimental-industrial horizontal electrostatic precipitator
at a power plant treating 20,000 m3/hr, its electrical charac-
teristic was investigated as it related to the length of the
needles while retaining a constant discharge distance. It was
found that, by changing the length of the needles, the corona
current could be regulated over a wi<3e range. A study was also
made on a model plate precipitator with an industrial needle
electrode system. Orientation of the needles in the direction
of the gas flow substantially decreased the specific corona
current density (12).
An investigation of electrical wind which was made on bench
units showed that an intensive flow arises with a corona dis-
charge from needles; the electrical wind near the needles can
attain a velocity of several meters per second. The local flow
of the electrical wind is largely swept away by the main aas
flow, but owing to the large number of corona points, the elec-
trical wind helps move the fine dust from the central part of
the gas passageway toward the collection electrode (11)
However, modification of the electrodes may not
prevent the appearance of back corona when high-resistivitv
ash is collected. Therefore, at electric power plants wi-H h
collect the ash of low-sulfur coals, methods for humidifying
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(conditioning) flue gases prior to their entry into the electro-
static precipitators have been developed which permit a reduction
in the specific electrical resistance of the ash and an improve-
ment in the discharge characteristics of the gas gap. In such
instances, the effective migration velocity of the particles
could be increased 1.5- to 2-fold without any change in the
design of the electrostatic precipitator, except that the rap-
ping of the collection electrodes was changed to more effective
rapping mechanisms (11).
A wet scrubber can be installed ahead of the precipitator
to add the moisture. The scrubber also reduces the temperature
with a generally beneficial effect on collection. The types
of scrubbers that have been used are spray chambers or venturi
designs modified by the incorporation of spray nozzles (3).
Basic parameters of a combined ash trapping scheme tested
at a 300 MW unit of a power plant firing high-ash coal are
presented (15). The facility is composed of a wet venturi for
removing 90% of the ash and for cooling the flue gas to 75-80°C.
The wet flue gas carrying ash with a reduced electrical resis-
tivity is then admitted into an electrostatic precipitator which
has an efficiency of 99-99.5%.
Modifications of electrostatic precipitators collecting
fly ash from the combustion of Baltic shale are described.
The modifications consist of the installation of needle-shaped
corona electrodes and changes in the electric power supply
(4,8,16).
The use of electrostatic precipitators in the collection
of fly ash with a high lime content (28% CaO) from Irsha-Borodino
coal is described (17). The chemical composition of the fly
ash from this coal is given (18).
In the collection of fly ash with a high lime content,
hydration of calcium oxide in the ash layer on the collection
electrodes hardens the deposited layer, which worsens the elec-
trical indexes of the precipitators with time, especially when
wire corona electrodes are used. Under these conditions, needle
electrodes operate considerably more reliably (11).
Data are presented on horizontal plate-type electrostatic
precipitators used in thermal electric power stations and in
cement plants (19,20).
Reconstruction of an electrostatic precipitator to replace
the corrugated collection electrodes by C-shaped electrodes,
use of impact hammer rappers, and use of needle-shaped electrodes
improved the performance of the precipitator in collecting fly
ash (13).
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Similar measures were successfully applied to electrostatic
precipitators used for removing fly ash from oil shale combus-
tion (21) .
The collection efficiency of horizontal electrostatic pre-
cipitators collecting high resistivity fly ash from low-sulfur
coal was increased by changing the rapping procedure and decreas-
ing the flue gas temperature from 140° to 122°C (22,23).
Problems encountered in installing an electrostatic precipi-
tator in a 300 MW power block are described (24).
The costs of electrostatic precipitators relative to their
sizes have been considered (25,26). The use of a laboratory
version of an electrostatic precipitator for developing best
conditions for the collection of fly ash from Ekibastuz coal
is described (27). Improved methods of calculating efficiency
of removal of fly ash in power boilers are given (28).
A series of papers published in 1974 provides details of
the history of research and development of control methods for
particulate emissions at NIIOGAZ (29-35).
A source book published in 1969 presents background infor-
mation on the technology of the cleaning of stack gases in the
electric power industry in the U.S.S.R. The information includes
discussions of various problems related to the design and opera-
tion of gas cleaning systems (36), and the determination of
the basic properties of dusts and gases (37,38).
A more recent compilation that presents a selection of
new published and unpublished information on various air pollu-
tion control devices and their applications has been provided
(39) .
CORONA AND ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN
Several basic studies have been reported in recent years
on corona discharges and associated electrical phenomena in
gases. Some of these investigations are related to the processes
that take place in electrostatic precipitators; others are less
relevant since they pertain to conditions such as low gas pres-
sure or to electrical breakdown in high-voltage conductors.
A comprehensive review and summary of the fundamentals
of the electrodynamics of suspended particles was published
in 1974. It includes a discussion of techniques that have been
developed for characterizing electric fields and for studying
the behavior of charged particles in them, specifically the
collection of particles from gas streams (40) .
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The effect of variations in the mobilities of ions in uni-
polar corona was studied (41). Changes in ion mobility had
a slight effect on the overall shape of the volt-ampere charac-
teristic, but produced a marked change in the distribution of
the field potential in the corona discharge gap- A dynamic
method for determining ion mobility was developed (42).
The effects of dust concentration and the resulting particle
space charge on the corona field have been calculated (43,44).
Measuring the electric field of a corona discharge in a dust-
laden stream is also discussed (45).
The effects of free radicals from the gas on the performance
of electrostatic precipitators was shown experimentally. The
presence of free radicals can explain the formation of space
charges between positive and negative electrodes. The addition
of substances tending to form free radicals could aid in gas
cleaning (46) . A comparison of the effects of surface finishes
and treatments of the cathode indicates that positive ions in
the gas and on the cathode surface control the production of
effective electrons (47).
Electric breakdown of air gaps has been studied under condi-
tions typical of electrostatic precipitation for wire-plane
and coaxial cylinder geometries with various shapes of electrodes
(48-52). The initiation voltage is calculated (53). The effect
of transitional processes in sparkover on precipitator efficiency
was studied (54).
Other studies on corona include: the electrical discharge
in a multi-electrode system (55); the corona initiation voltage
in structures with semi-conducting coatings (56); the erosion
of electrodes in point-to-plane discharge (57,58); the determina-
tion of corona initiation voltage for electrodes of complex
shape (59,60); the efficiencies of electrostatic precipitators
with various types and shapes of corona electrodes (61-64).
The electrical characteristic of the electrode system and
the trajectories of dust particles were measured under conditions
of back corona in an electrostatic precipitator (65).
An experimental study of particle trajectories showed that
corona from a needle-shaped electrode improves the electrical
characteristic of a precipitator and allows a higher migration
velocity of the particles (66).
A laboratory study of a plate electrostatic precipitator
with a cylindrical discharge electrode (needle-leaf shape) estab-
lished the applicability of the precipitator for the calculation
of the attenuation of current found in the presence of the dis-
persed phase in the interelectrode space (67).
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The equation of the field in corona discharge in an elec-
trode system consisting of a row of conductors between planes
was solved by the use of a series expansion to calculate the
field potential. This method gives better agreement with experi-
mental data than the Deutsch-Popkov method. The values calcu-
lated for space-charge density by the two methods differ by
10% at the plane, 80% at the midpoint of the distance between
conductor and plane, and 40% at the midpoint of the inter-con-
ductor distance (68).
Mathematical models and calculations of the initiation
of electrical discharge and breakdown have been developed (69-
71) .
The distribution of current of unipolar corona at the corona
and non-corona electrodes was measured. The results indicated
that the distribution of current depended on the intensity of
the corona and the electrode geometry, in accordance with theory.
The current distribution on the surface of the corona electrode
was not uniform (72).
The results of an extensive study on the characteristics
of corona discharge in air and in blast-furnace gas indicate
that operation of an electrostatic precipitator should be more
effective at 4 atm pressure of blast furnace gas than at atmos-
pheric pressure (73,74).
The mobility of hydrogen ions in the field of unipolar
corona in a cylindrical electrode geometry at pressures up to
25 atm was determined experimentally (75).
ELECTRIC FIELD
A number of investigations and calculations of electric
fields have been carried out. Examples are: a method of linear
programming for calculation of fields (76) , calculation of the
field between point and plane (77) , calculation of the field
in a spatial system of spherical elements (78) , with ring elec-
trodes (79), a system of parallel toroids (80), in a hetero-
geneous medium of irregular structure (81), and for conducting
particles (82); with the use of an integral equation of the
first order (83,84), of the second order (85), in a periodic
system of interacting spheroids (86), and for a screen with
a complex shape (87); and calculation of plane-meridian and
plane-parallel fields (88-90) .
A method of analysis of 2-dimensional fields formed by
electric or magnetic polarization of solids is presented (91).
An ionization mechanism of the instability of currents
in molecular gases is proposed (92,93) .
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PARTICLE CHARGING
The field-charging and diffusion-charging mechanisms of
particle charging in a corona discharge are discussed from a
theoretical point of view (94,95). A distribution curve for
particle charges was constructed in a study of the charging
of particles with radii of the order of the mean free path of
ions in air (96).
The distribution of dust concentration in the fields of
an electrostatic precipitator was determined (97). The limit
concentrations of the dispersed phase in the electric field
of corona discharge resulting from the decrease in free ion
concentration with increasing space-charge density were calcu-
lated (98). The electric field and an image charge of charged
particles near a non-uniform surface were calculated (99).
Calculations were made of the orientation time and velocity
of ellipsoidal particles in electric fields of 1-3 and 5-10
kV/cm (100). A study was made of the statistical distribution
of the parameters involved in the orientation of elongated par-
ticles (fibers) in an electrostatic field (101).
Equations were derived for describing the motion of ions
and particles in the field of corona discharge (102). The kine-
tics of coagulation of charged particles were modelled mathemati-
cally (103). Charge transfer in the collision of charged drops
was studied experimentally (104).
The charges acquired by aspherical particles in a corona
field can usually be calculated with sufficient accuracy by
assuming the shape to be an ellipsoid of the same axis ratio
and volume. However, up to 30% error can result if the shape
of the particle is sufficiently different, and the amount of
charge acquired can be limited by the onset of corona from the
particle if it is conducting and has a conical shape (105).
The coefficients of coalescence and dispersion of charged
particles are functions only of the coefficient of electric
asymmetry (106).
Experimental studies on electrostatic liquid atomizers
included the effect of electric field on dispersion (107,108),
the energy content of the droplets (109), and their charges
(110).
The effect of the plate spacing on the electrostatic collec-
tion of high-resistivity dust was determined (111).
The relationships of dielectric permeability, time, form,
and concentration of the dispersed phase to the frequency of
a sinusoidal electric field were studied (112) .
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The steady state concentrations of electrons during photo-
ionization of aerosol particles were calculated (113).
A theory of the induction method of measuring the volume
charge density of aerosol particles is proposed, and the param-
eters of the measuring apparatus are discussed (114).
An electrostatic analyzer for charged particles (115) and
a parallel-plate capacitor as a charged particle spectrometer
(116) are discussed.
A patent on the removal of aerosol particles from a gas
stream by an electrostatic field with preliminary charging of
the particles claims increased efficiency by the use of focusing
electrostatic or magnetic lenses (117).
PARTICLE COLLECTION
Results are presented of solutions to equations calculating
the migration and charge of particles in an electric field with
a space charge and mixing of the suspension in turbulent flow,
in the collection of a monodisperse dust in a tubular electro-
static precipitator (118).
In a theoretical study of the orientation of prolate ellip-
soidal particles moving in an electric field, the particle orien-
tation time is related to the hydrodynamic moment (119) .
A theory is developed for the deposition of unipolarly
charged particles in an electrostatic field on grounded and
insulated bodies (120,121). Mathematical models of the particle
collection process have been derived (122).
Equations were developed for calculating the collection
efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator (Deutsch equation),
the electrical field at the collection electrode, the effect
of the ionic mobility, and the effects of electrical field and
current on the collection efficiency (123).
The deposition of dust particles from turbulent gas streams
was studied and the extent of error introduced into the calcula-
tion of collection efficiency of an electrostatic precipitator
by the assumption of uniform mixing of dust in the gas flow
was estimated for various conditions (124,125).
The increase in the rate of gas cleaning by proper design
of the corona electrode, taking into account the character of
the distribution of the dust across the electric field, is dis-
cussed (126) .
10
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Acoustic pretreatment of gases from open-hearth furnaces
and sintering machines increased the collection efficiency of
an electrostatic precipitator (127).
Coagulation of bipolarly charged particles in an electric
field occurred above a critical value of the field which in-
creased with increasing charge. The use of an electric field
for this purpose is of value only for low particle charges (128).
ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF PARTICULATE MATTER
An instrument similar to the Lurgi instrument for measuring
the electrical resistivity of dust under industrial conditions
was developed. The principle of operation involves measuring
the resistance of a dust layer formed in a corona discharge
field. The dust is deposited from the gas by the electric field
produced by a corona discharge electrode (129,130).
In a second method, a layer of the dust (extracted from
the exhaust gas) is formed by pouring it between two flat filter
surfaces and then compressing it by a standard load. The use
of a filter as an electrode makes it possible to draw gas through
the sample (131). A patent describes a similar apparatus in
which the electrodes are in the form of cermet filters (132).
Still another method permits in-situ measurement of dust
resistivity in flue gas. The dust-laden gas flows into a cyclone
from which the deposited dust falls into a hopper that feeds
it to a cell equipped with measuring electrodes (133).
Some factors affecting resistivitv of dusts are discussed
(134) .
The dielectric strength of a dust layer depends on the
packing coefficient, which in turn depends on the size and shape
of the particles. The results of calculating the breakdown
gradient of the layer are given in equations. The good agreement
with experiment indicates that they can be used to determine
the onset of back corona (135).
The potential of an electrostatic precipitator in weakly
developing back corona and its dependence on the specific elec-
trical resistivity of the dust was considered (136).
COMPOSITION AND PROPERTIES OF FLY ASH AND OTHER DUSTS
The effects of water-soluble components of cement dust
at various temperatures and moisture contents on the specific
electrical resistivity were determined (137). Similar effects
of temperature and moisture contents of tin metallurgy dusts
11
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were studied (138). The efficiency of an electrostatic precipi-
tator in collecting various metal oxides was determined (139) .
Chemical and physical properties of dusts from a copper smelter
were measured (140). The chemical composition and physical
properties of dust from the production of aluminum and the
silicon-aluminum alloy silumin were measured (141). Similar
properties of dusts occurring in the production of mercury were
measured (142).
In the combustion of some lignites and brown coals, the
relation of the sintering strength of fly ash to the chemical
composition and particle size of the ash has been studied (143).
The shale burned in Baltic electric power stations produces
an ash high in lime. The ash is highly abrasive and because
of the high ash content of the fuel, the inlet dust burden is
very high (100 g/m3) (11). Mechanical collectors are installed
ahead of electrostatic precipitators for collecting the ash.
The ash from some furnaces is well fused, forming cenopheres.
In other instances, the particles are mostly crystalline and
irregular in shape, with no evidence of fusion. The combustible
content of the ash is 0-20%. The chemical composition of fly
ash from Kansk-Achinsk coal is reported (144) .
The problem of abrasion by fly ash is considered (145-148).
The distribution of adherent particles with respect to adhesion
forces is discussed (149).
The combustion of Ekibastuz coal presents problems due
to the high mineral content of the coal, the high silica content
of the ash, and the high temperatures required for satisfactory
combustion in pulverized fuel fired furnaces (3,5,150,151).
The abrasivity of the fly ash depends on the combustion tempera-
ture, reaching a maximum at 155°C in laboratory measurements.
Some physico-mechanical characteristics of ash and slag
from thermal power plants are presented (152,153). The varia-
tion of free calcium oxide in fly ash from Nazarovo coal is
discussed (154).
The effect of sulfur, oxides in the flue gas on the caking
capacity of fly ash was studied. With increasing content of
sulfur oxides in flue gas, there was a considerable increase
in the hardness of fly ash deposits (155) . The effect of gas
humidity in increasing the collection efficiency of an industrial
dust is discussed (156).
Conditioning agents investigated for metallurgical dusts
include: acetic acid (157), ammonium sulfate (158), and ammonium
chloride (159); the use of naphthenate soap is patented (160).
12
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The efficiency in collecting high-resistivity fly ash from
the combustion of Ekibastuz coal decreased at temperatures above
120 C, but conditioning the flue gas with ammonia was effective
in restoring the efficiency. The optimum level of ammonia addi-
tion was 25 ppm. The conditioning effect was reflected in changes
in the electrical parameters of the precipitator, in the decrease
of the electrical resistivity of fly ash to 6 x 109 ohm-cm,
and in the increase in collection efficiency from 88.5 to 98.3%
(3,9,161,162).
A report published later concludes that ammonia is not
effective enough to justify its cost and the logistical problems
involved in its use. The flue gas can be sufficiently condi-
tioned by a wet scrubber installed upstream of the precipitator.
Either a centrifugal scrubber or a venturi followed by a mist
eliminator can be used (3).
ELECTRICAL ENERGIZATION
The electrical stability of discharge gaps as related to
the problem of an impulse power supply to an electrostatic pre-
cipitator is discussed (163). New electric sets for electro-
static precipitators are described (164). The use of thymistors
for circuit control is discussed (165) . Increasing the effective-
ness of the high-voltage supply on electrostatic precipitators
is discussed (166,167). Protecting high-voltage cables on preci-
pitators from sparking is discussed (168) . Horizontal multi-
field electrostatic precipitators with electrodes 12 m high,
a 16 m length of active zone, and an active cross-section of
up to 265 m2 are being installed on power units of 300 MW or
more. This geometry is causing problems such as reentrainment
of fly ash (6,169).
RAPPING AND FLY ASH REENTRAINMENT
Optimum rapping regimes in collecting fly ash (170-174)
and their relation to reentrainment of fly ash have been studied
(175-177). The optimum rapping interval with a constant thick-
ness of dust layer being deposited in various fields of the
precipitator is related to: the interval between raps in the
first field, the same for subsequent fields, the effective migra-
tion velocity of particles in the corresponding fields, and
the specific collecting surface areas in the corresponding fields
(173).
The effectiveness of removing dust deposited on a collection
electrode was found to depend on the direction of the rapping
impact, the type of electrode and the mechanical stability of
the deposited layer, its porosity, and its total mass (178).
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A graphical method for optimizing the rapping regime has
been developed. An integral curve was constructed for evaluating
the degree of rapping a 12 m collection electrode. The curve
gives the relative surface area on which dust is deposited for
a corresponding value of rapping acceleration, independent of
the physico-chemical properties of the dust (179) .
Experiments with various rapping intervals, to determine
optimum rapping cycles, have resulted in reduction in emissions
by 25 to 40%. To ensure the required schedule for rapping the
collection electrodes, special devices have been developed -
variators with adjustment of the gear ratio from 1:8 to 1:72,
which avoid the complication of the commutation system and
facilitate the operation of the drives and mechanisms. The
variators have high operating reliability (11,175).
Suppression of dust carryover by strong electric fields
is described (180).
GAS FLOW
Studies have been carried out over several years on the
effects of non-uniformity of gas flow on the efficiency of preci-
pitators in collecting dusts, mostly fly ash. Studies of fly
ash concentrations in the vertical plane of a precipitator out-
let have shown higher concentrations of fly ash near the bottom
in the lower part of the equipment. The design of inlet and
outlet sections of the precipitator and of baffles to achieve
uniform gas flow has been experimentally investigated by means
of aerodynamic models (122,181-187).
The problems in the uniformity of gas flow presented by
the use of high (10-12 m) electrodes in new precipitators in-
stalled in power plants have been studied and designs for dif-
fuser grids suggested (188,189).
Some of the changes in precipitator design also reduce
the reentrainment of agglomerated fly ash from the collection
electrode (11,19).
Correcting an uneven gas flow by incorporating air distri-
bution plates into an electrostatic precipitator installed at
a cement plant increased its collection efficiency from 98.4%
to 98.8-99.2% (190).
Electrostatic precipitators with flow of the dust-laden
gas transverse to the electrodes were efficient in the collec-
tion of high-resistivity dust, e.c,., lead smelter fumes from
a sintering plant (191). ~
14
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A coefficient of non-uniformity was introduced into the
Deutsch equation. The predicted dependence of collection ef-
ficiency on this coefficient was verified by tests on a full-
scale precipitator in a power station (192).
The effect of turbulence in the gas stream on the deposi-
tion of aerosol particles in a tubular precipitator has been
studied with a computerized mathematical model (193,194).
One simplified model that has been suggested for the study
of turbulent diffusion of particles suspended in a linear gas
flow assumes constant gas flow and neglects factors such as
molecular particle diffusion, turbulent particle diffusion along
the flow direction, and inertial effects (195).
The mechanics of removing fly ash from precipitator hoppers
and transporting it by wet and dry processes are discussed (196-
202) .
A system of ash removal with the aid of an air duct is
described. It is used for handling ash from combustion of a
mixture of Kansk-Achinsk and Borodino coals. The ash has cement-
ing properties (203).
The effect of initial ash deposits on high temperature
corrosion of boiler steel was studied (204). An internal struc-
ture designed to reduce corrosion was patented (205).
Procedures for installation, maintenance, and testing of
electrostatic precipitators in electric power plants have been
published (206,207).
Industrial uses of fly ash are described (208,209).
WET ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS
Tests on a 3-field tubular wet electrostatic precipitator
of industrial size showed it to be effective in collecting
hazardous silica dust (210).
A process for wet dust collection is based on preliminary
charging of aerosol particles (sodium silicofluoride dust).
The collection efficiency and the relation of particle charge
to dust loading and corona potential were studied (211).
A method for preliminary charging of an aerosol by corona
and collection on a liquid film or foam is described (212).
15
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A wet electrostatic precipitator was more effective than
a turbulent scrubber or a dry glass fiber filter in collecting
an ionizaEle additive in an experimental magnetohydrodynamic
apparatus (213,214).
A patent describes a process of cleaning a gas of dust
by passing it through a liquid on which is imposed an electric
field of 30-200 A/m2 (215).
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Electrostatic precipitators and scrubbers are recommended
for removing dust and hydrogen fluoride in cleaning gases from
aluminum cells (216). The condensation of tarry products from
the gas in the precipitator was investigated (217) . The perfor-
mance of a two-stage system was studied (218).
Discussions of the use of electrostatic precipitators in
nonferrous metallurgical operations include a review on research
in the U.S.S.R. on the subject (219) and accounts of specific
applications: mercury production (142,220,221); copper pro-
duction (222-224), roasting of copper and zinc ores and pyrites
(225,226), and arsenic recovery (227,228).
A study of the electrostatic precipitator in collecting
the fumes in process gases at high temperatures at a tin smelter
showed that an increase in the temperature of collection did
not decrease the collection efficiency, but decreased the content
of arsenic in the sublimate and the amount of water vapor in
the gas phase. As a result the working life of the precipitator
was increased (229).
Applications in the iron and steel industry are discussed
in general (230-235).
Electrostatic precipitators with needle discharge electrodes
and C-shaped collecting electrodes, with three fields, effective
cross-section 70 m2, were installed on a 400-ton open-hearth
furnace, with oxygen lancing (236).
In studies of factors affecting performance of precipitators
installed on open-hearth furnaces, precipitators were satisfac-
torily operated on open-hearth furnaces without oxygen lancing,
but with it humidifying the gas was required (237-239).
The performance of combined wet scrubbers and electrostatic
.n?il:ators in tandem on an open-hearth furnace is described
(240,241).
16
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Electrostatic precipitators used to recover iron ore fumes
from roasting machines had designs based on needle corona elec-
trodes and C-shaped collection electrodes (242) .
Other industrial applications for electrostatic precipita-
tors include: the cleaning of coke oven gases (243), mist re-
covery in sulfuric acid manufacturing (needle corona electrodes
are used) (227,244,245); cleaning gases in high-resistivity
magnesite dust (246-249); cleaning gases in the production of
carbon black (250,251); cleaning of kiln gas in cement manufac-
turing (190) , including a discussion of some operating problems
(252); dust removal in the manufacture of fire brick (253) and
from gases emitted from rotary kilns for baking clay (254);
cleaning gases from kilns for electrode production (255); and
cleaning gases from burning dolomite (256).
17
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SECTION 3
WET SCRUBBERS
USE IN ELECTRIC POWER PLANTS
Wet dust collectors with venturi coagulators installed
on power units with a capacity of up to 200 MW are widely em-
ployed at electric power plants of the U.S.S.R. (257). These
devices collect 95-97% of the ash from flue gases with a total
specific consumption of water of up to 0.25 1/m3 and hydraulic
resistance of 80-120 kg/m2. The flue gases are cooled in the
collectors to 50-70°C and on emission have a temperature approxi-
mately 20°C higher than the wet-bulb temperature thermometer.
This condition is used to prevent corrosion of the ducts and
stacks, since the gases are not re-heated following the col-
lector.
Attempts to improve the design of the collector led to
the development of wet, high-speed ash collectors. The basic
feature of these collectors is the shortening, in comparison
with the normal design, of the intake duct, which is a venturi
coagulator with a rectangular cross section which immediately
adjoins the housing of the apparatus without any intermediate
sections. The relatively large apex angles of the diffusor
and convergent channel of the coagulator permit reducing its
length in comparison with regular design, thereby providing
normal irrigation of the coagulator walls over their entire
length and preventing the formation of deposits on poorly mois-
tened sections of the walls.
Placed in front of the coagulator of. the apparatus is a
small section for acceleration of large fly ash particles to
velocities of at least 15 m/sec, which enhances somewhat their
capture by drops of water in the coagulator but more important,
provides an intensive abrasion, by the coarse ash particles,
of the deposits which form at the boundaries of the dry and
irrigated portions of the walls of the convergent channel.
The stabilization of the dimensions of the boundary deposits
attained here prevents the increase in the hydraulic resistance
of the ash collector caused by the growth of these deposits
(147,199,257-260).
In the 1950's and 1960's, centrifugal scrubbers were widely
used in electric power plants of the U.S.S.R. for cleaning flue
18
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gases. In recent years, these devices have been improved by
redesigning the intake duct to a venturi type. As a result,
the efficiency of collecting the fly ash increased to 97-98%.
However, despite such high efficiencies, wet scrubbers are used
only on units with capacities of less than 200 MW. This limi-
tation is connected with the inevitable cooling of the flue
gas in the scrubber and the corresponding poorer dissipation
in the atmosphere of the gases emitted from the stack. Work
on the improvement of wet ash collectors is at present being
conducted in the direction of further increases in effectiveness
and on the possibility of spraying with water in closed loop
ash-removal systems (259,261).
As the practice of operating ash collectors with venturi
coagulator tubes for many years shows, they are very reliable
and effective devices with a high collection efficiency, 96.5-
97%, which is sufficient in many installations (262).
At the same time, the increased requirements for protection
of the atmosphere and the growth in capacities of boiler units
and electric power plants in general urgently require a further
reduction in the fly ash content of the effluent gases and the
attainment of a collection efficiency of 99% for electric power
plants of medium size equipped with boiler units of up to 650
tons of steam per hour.
To explore the possibilities of increasing the collection
efficiency of these devices, the effect of various parameters
on the process of capture of ash particles by drops of atomized
liquid in venturi tubes was analyzed, and a mathematical model
of the process was developed taking into account the continuous
change in the velocity of the fly ash particles and water drop-
lets in the venturi and with consideration of the transformation
of the polydisperse distribution of the fly ash particles and
water drops according to size (262).
An increase in the particle residence time in the venturi,
i..e. , an increase in the length of the tube, has a positive
effect. The rates of gas flow in the throat which are used
in practice, on the order of 60 m/sec, are optimum for larger
particles.
The consumption of atomized water on the order of 0.12-
0.14 1/m3(NTP) which is at present used is also optimum in the
sense that increasing it substantially increases the cost of
scrubbing and increases only insignificantly the collection
efficiency.
A change in the size of the water droplets affects the
degree of collection noticeably. At the same time, a reduction
in the droplet size, for the same amount of consumption of
19
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water, although it reduces the collection of particles on an
individual droplet, as a consequence of the sharp increase in
the number of droplets leads to a noticeable increase in col-
lection.
The best approach to an intensification of the capture
of particles by droplets in the venturi is an increase in the
fineness of atomization of the water. Full-scale tests of this
conclusion were conducted which confirm its validity (262,263).
MECHANISMS OF ACTION
Several theoretical papers on diffusiophoresis and thermo-
phoresis and their roles in scrubber action have been published.
Expressions have been derived for the rates of diffusiophoresis
and Stefan flow of small volatile aerosol particles in a binary
gas mixture in which one component is the same substance as
that of the particles (e.g_., water droplets in wet air) (264).
The rates of diffusiophoresis of large non-volatile aerosol
particles (265) and volatile particles of medium size were studied
(266). During vaporization of a drop, the velocity of the pos-
sible hydrodynamic flow (Stefan flow) is of the size of terms
that can be neglected (267). Efficiency of collection of aerosol
particles by Stefan flow was analyzed (268).
The theory of thermophoresis of volatile aerosol particles
and its relation to the Knudsen number are discussed (269-274).
The role of thermophoresis and diffusiophoresis processes in
cloud formation are discussed (275). These forces are negligible
in aerosol sedimentation (276). Photophoresis can also be in-
volved (277).
The theory of thermophoresis and diffusiophoresis is dis-
cussed in terms of equations accounting for isothermal, thermal,
and diffusion flow (278).
Equations for the thermodiffusiophoretic forces and the
drag forces of the medium have been derived that take into
account the volatility of the collecting drops. The effect
of the volatility is proportional to the ratio of the radius
of the drop to the mean free path in the supporting gas, but
is generally less than 1% (274).
In a system containing large spherical drops, solid parti-
cles, and gas bubbles, hydrodynamic theory shows that a general
formula for the rate of thermophoresis contains two terms.
The first is proportional to the coefficient of thermal slippage
of the surface of the particle, and the second is the derivative
of the surface tension relative to temperature (279) .
20
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An equation was obtained for the rate and intensity of
thermodiffusiophoresis in a multi-component gas. The equation
includes allowances for dynamic viscosity, particle radius,
diffusion slip of the gases, thermal conductivity of the gases
and particles, mean free path of the gas molecules, density
of the components, and gas temperature (280).
Aerosol deposition mechanisms occurring in water vapor
diffusion fields were studied in a vertical plane-parallel
channel in which dusty, vapor-supersaturated air was cooled.
Aerosol sedimentation in water vapor diffusion fields is prim-
arily due to diffusive forces. The contributions of thermo-
diffusion and diffusiophoresis to sedimentation are negligible
(276) . A mathematical model for the formation of aerosol parti-
cles by condensation of supersaturated vapor was prepared (281).
Experiments were conducted on the deposition of molecules
on spherical aerosol particles (282). Experimental observations
showed that fluctuations in temperature, pressure, and humidity
favor the formation of large droplets by condensation (283).
Aerosol particle motion and capture with relation to growing
or evaporating drops was studied (272,284). Trajectories of
volatile aerosol particles were studied (285).
Condensation in Venturis was found to be effective in re-
moving hydrophobic particles (286-290). Condensation of a dense
vapor flow was investigated (291).
The kinetics of diffusive growth of particles were measured
(292-294) . The role of molecular forces in the coagulation
of liquid aerosol particles is not large (295) . The dependence
of molecular forces on particle size was studied (296).
Improved collection efficiency resulted from preliminary
electrification of the aerosol collected by wet scrubbing (297);
this was observed especially for the finer fractions of the
aerosol. The effect was found in the collection of sodium fluo-
silicate aerosol in a laboratory foam scrubber. The growth
rate of drops in an electric field was 2.5-fold higher than
without the field (298). The deposition of dust particles on
droplets from ultrasonic atomization was investigated (299).
TYPES OF SCRUBBERS
A survey of scrubbers available for removing dust from
gases was made (300) , factors involved in selecting a scrubber
are discussed (301) , and prices are given for installed scrub-
bers (302) .
For dust collection in sieve-plate or packed spray columns,
information has been published on pressure drop (303-305), criti-
cal parameters and calculations of foaming conditions (306-308),
21
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hydraulic resistance (309-312), liquid entrainment (313,314)
and collection efficiency (315).
For collection of fly ash and other industrial particulate
matter in venturi scrubbers, information has been published
on: component equipment for power plants (261); calculation
of collection efficiency for soot (316); droplet size distri-
bution for fly ash collection (317); use of wetting agents in
collecting fly ash (318); calculation of collection efficiency
(319) ; derivation of formulas for fractional collection effi-
ciency which take into consideration the size distribution of
the droplets (320) ; use of design factors in investigating
scrubber processes (321); comparison of ejection-type venturi
scrubbers with the usual venturi (322); type of atomizer (323);
experimental determination of the effect of the extent of atomi-
zation of the water in the action of venturi fly ash collectors
up to 25 kg/cm2 (324) ; selection of optimal parameters of ven-
turi tubes for cleaning gases from open-hearth furnaces and
converters (325,326) and in lime regenerating kilns (327); the
need for using a droplet size distribution in the design of
a venturi (328) ; the use of a lO^mVhr pilot-scale venturi scrub-
ber for evaluating performance parameters (329).
In a study of the hydraulic resistance of a venturi tube
with an irrigated diffuser, the location of spray nozzles for
uniform irrigation was determined (323,330,331). An empirical
relation of the coefficient of hydraulic resistance to operating
parameters was obtained (332). The effects of particle aggrega-
tion (333) and viscosity of the liquid (334) were noted.
The degree of dispersion of water droplets at different
gas velocities, throughputs, and atomizer locations in the
throat of a venturi scrubber was measured by light scattering
(335). A similar study allowed a rational choice of droplet
size to be made (336). Another defined the upper limit on two-
phase flow (337).
On the basis of a study of liquid dispersion, the theory
of coagulation, and data on hydraulic resistance, a system of
equations was obtained for aid in selecting equipment (338).
Heat transfer processes in venturi and packed scrubbers
were studied (339-341).
The chemical and mineralogical compositions of deposits
formed in a spray grid-packed scrubber in a power plant were
about the same as those for the fly ash (342).
The collection efficiency for fly ash was measured and
calculated for a centrifugal scrubber (343). A conical scrubber
with a fluidized bed of spherical packing was designed (344),
and one with coaxial tubes (345).
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The performance of a wet dust collector with a disk liquid
atomizer was examined and a statistical model suggested (346).
The efficiency of a scrubber collecting by impaction was
measured (347).
A foam-vortex scrubber was designed and tested as a dust
collector and gas absorber (348).
The collection efficiencies of various scrubber designs
were measured (349).
A high-capacity, high-efficiency vortex type absorber for
gas absorption and particulate retention from industrial waste
gases is described. The turbulent motion of tangentially ad-
mitted gas streams is increased by the vortex generator, whereby
the wash liquid admitted into the contact zone is disintegrated
to droplets (350).
A method for the determination of statistical characteris-
tics of the motion of suspended particles in a turbulent flow
was developed. Previously derived differential equations de-
scribing the motion of solid suspended particles in a fluid
pulsating stream were used, specifically in the case of slowly
pulsating turbulent flows of low Reynolds numbers of 1-10.
The moments of the first two orders of a random function were
obtained, which characterize the velocity of the suspended
particle (351).
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Scrubber applications in the iron and steel industry are
described (352); installations on cupolas are discussed (353).
The performance of a scrubber-electrostatic precipitator
combination was analyzed as a function of gas temperature,
velocity, and the number of electrical sets in the precipitator
(354). It was shown that preliminary cooling of the open-hearth
gases prior to venturi scrubbers was of no advantage (355).
The performance of venturi scrubbers on open-hearth furnaces
was studied (356-358).
Studies of design and operating parameters in applying
scrubbers to gases from electric steel furnaces are described
(352,359-367).
The use of scrubbers on oxygen converters is described
(368,369). They are compared with electrostatic precipitators
on converters (370) and ore dressing plants (371). Their use
on sintering machines is noted (372,373).
23
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Heat transfer calculations are given for scrubbers under
pressure on blast furnaces (374).
Applications for cleaning gases in the aluminum industry
have been discussed in a number of articles (375-377) : the
design of a grating-type scrubber (378); the redesign of a
vertical-louver scrubber to reduce deposits on the louvers
(379); the composition of alkaline scrubbing liquids (380);
determining the extent of drop entrainment (381); the use of
a scrubber with suspended spherical packing (382); a comparison
of types of scrubbers, which indicated that the rate of dust
removal was highest for fluidized bed scrubbers and lowest for
foam scrubbers (383); studies of the design and operating param-
eters for spray chambers (384,385); a comparison of scrubbers
with electrostatic precipitators (216); and the use of surface-
active agents (386).
Scrubbers are also used for cleaning stack gases in sulfuric
acid manufacture (387), and in carbon black production (251).
A moving bed scrubber is used for collection of sodium fluoride
dust (388).
The cleaning of roaster gas containing 5 g/m3 of arsenic
was studied with a dry electrostatic precipitator, a packed
scrubber, and a wet electrostatic precipitator in series (228)
and with a venturi scrubber (389). Scrubbers on copper smelters
are described (390) .
Other applications include the use of a high-efficiency
scrubber in aluminosilicate roasting ovens (391); scrubbers
containing a moving bed of plastic spheres plus a cyclone in
silicate production (392) , and the recovery of an ionizable
additive in an experimental magnetohydrodynamic apparatus (213,214).
24
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SECTION 4
FABRIC FILTERS
Fabric filters (baghouses) are apparently not installed
on electric power boilers in the U.S.S.R. They are widely used
for the control of other industrial sources of particulate emis-
sions, such as metallurgical operations.
A large body of information is published in the U.S.S.R.
on the theory and mechanisms of collection of particles in
fibrous filters. Also the design of baghouses and the selection
and use of filter fabrics are well covered in the Russian liter-
ature. Some of the more recent information on these topics
is included (393) .
COLLECTION MECHANISMS
The theory of filtration is described (394). The upper
and lower limits of aerosol penetration through a fibrous filter
at Peclet numbers <1 were estimated theoretically by assuming
a haphazardly interwoven network with the axes of fibers parallel
to the plane of flow (395).
A new filtration theory based on the inertial theory of
deposition but including coulombic forces acting in the collec-
tion of particles is presented (396) .
An experimental and theoretical study was made of the
action of a fibrous filter collecting particles by diffusion
(397). The dependence of pressure drop across a filter on the
Knudsen number was studied experimentally and theoretically
for a simple model of parallel cylinders perpendicular to the
gas flow (398-400). Calculated and measured penetrations were
obtained for filters made of fibers ^1 ppm in diameter (401).
The behavior of suspended particles near hard walls was studied
(402,403).
A theoretical equation for the separation of aerosols by
a cylindrical filter was developed (404). Equations are pre-
sented for describing one-dimensional non-stationary gas filtra-
tion in porous media (405).
The cleaning process in bag filters was studied with the
aid of beta radiation attenuation of the deposited dust layers
(406,407).
25
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Equations were obtained that relate performance to filter
parameters (408) .
The flux of gas molecules toward a suspended particle was
calculated; comparison with experiment was hindered by the lack
of data (282). The statistical characteristics of the motion
of suspended particles as related to the gas flow were studied
(351).
The aerodynamics of dust-removal apparatus are discussed
(409). The hydraulic characteristics of filter materials were
investigated (410). The determination of the mean radius of
filter fibers is reported (411).
A simplified model was used for the study of turbulent
diffusion of particles suspended in a flowing gas (195). Theory
was developed for the settling of aerosol particles from turbu-
lent gas flow and it was shown that the mechanism and velocity
of turbulent inertial settling of aerosols is governed by the
effect of the transverse migration of particles to the walls
(412,413).
A process is described in which gases are filtered with
prior electrical charging of the dust particles, with periodic
charging of the filter with the same sign for regeneration (414).
Calculations were made to show that the efficiency of a
self-cleaning filter depends on the fiber length (415). Investi
gation of the empirical relationship of capture coefficient
to the packing density of a filter showed that with an increase
in packing density the deposition increases as the result of
particle inertia and capture (416).
The effect of ultrasound on filtration by small capillary
filters was reported (417). The flow of air through a porous
metal barrier was studied (418), as well as the two-dimensional
flow of dust-laden gas through a nozzle (419). Capture coef-
ficients were calculated for spheres at high Reynolds numbers
(420). Capture coefficients by star-shaped collectors were
measured (421).
Methods were developed for estimating the extent of filling
of pores of different sizes, for relation to filter performance
(422).
A study was made of the volume and surface characteristics
of lubricants defining the film thickness of panels of self-
cleaning filters (423).
An investigation showed that the hydrodynamic resistance
of a layer of mixed fibers is less than the sum of the resist-
ances of equivalent layers of uniform fibers (424). Multilayer
fiber filters were studied (425).
26
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A method was developed for calculating the capture coef-
ficient based on diffusion and entanglement of particles, in-
cluding an allowance for gas slippage around the fibers, the
polydispersity of the fibers, and the non-uniformity of filter
structure (426).
BAGHOUSES
A bag filter holder was designed with separate chambers
for dusty and cleaned gas (427). Mechanical structures for
improved regeneration of bag filters are described (428,429).
On the basis of experimental data on the dust distribution
in a bag, an empirical equation was obtained from which the
geometrical parameters of the bag can be evaluated in dependence
on the gas flow rate (430).
Twisting a bag filter was found to be superior to reverse
jet cleaning for increasing the filter action without increasing
the filter resistance (431). Regeneration by fabric deformation
(432) and mechanical shaking with an electric vibrator (433),
reverse jet (434), and pulsation (435) are described.
Various bag constructions are given: a truncated cone
(436), centrifugal regeneration (437), improved support struc-
tures (438) .
A technical-economic evaluation was made of fabric filter
installations handling 100,000 m3/hr gas flow with different
methods of regeneration (439).
Studies were made of regeneration, by vacuum and ultrasonic
processes, of non-woven fabrics made from synthetic fibers (440),
and a method for regeneration was patented (441).
Correlations were made of the structure and properties
of filter fabrics with the basic indexes of filtration of dust-
laden gases (442).
The relationship of air flow resistance to time and the
breakthrough of a filter were measured (443). The mechanisms
of deposition of particles on a metalloceramic metallurgical
filter were investigated (444) .
A survey of applications and methods of regeneration was
recently published (445) .
FILTER FABRICS
A standard aerosol was used to determine the filtration
properties of synthetic fabrics (446). Quartz dust was used
for a similar study (447).
27
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Information on various glass fiber fabrics is presented
(448). The tensile strength of glass fiber was maximum at 80-
100°C but depended on the absolute humidity of the air (449) .
The durability of glass fibers in filters is maximum at some
temperature below 200°C (450). The physical properties of glass-
fiber filters containing organic phosphates were determined
(451) .
Metal-ceramic fibers for metallurgical filters are described
(452), as are metal fabrics (453, 454) and ceramic filters for
recovery of carbon black (455).
Fabrics made of metallic fibers were found to be suitable
for use in collecting dust from blast furnace gas and electric
furnaces and in ore-dressing plants. After a precoat layer
was formed on a fabric with a linear pore size of about 100
lam, the gas was filtered at 25 m3/min at 700-800°C (456). New
polyamide fibers appear to have greater thermomechanical sta-
bility than glass fibers (up to 300°C) (393,457).
Titanium dioxide was recovered from flue gas by a metal
ceramic filter made by sintering a 0.1 mm steel powder (458).
A separator constructed of porous sintered nickel-copper
tubes used for collecting metallurgical dusts is patented.
It is regenerated by reverse air flow (459).
Fibers made of ion-exchange materials were used for separa-
tion of liquid aerosol materials in the cleaning of galvanizing
equipment emissions (460).
MIST ELIMINATORS
3 The development of high-velocity (gas volumes up to 30,000
m /hr) mist eliminators is described (461). Glass fibers or
synthetic fibers are used. The mechanism of action, including
liquid droplet collection and migration, has been studied (461-
464). Louver-type designs have been investigated (465,466).
A column containing perforated caps covered by filtering
material was patented (467), and a cartridge design containing
glass fibers (1.5 urn in diameter) was described (468). The
optimum structure of polypropylene fiber felts for acid droplet
collection was found to be based on a fiber diameter of 15-20
ym (469,470). The collection efficiency of a 3 ym-diameter
filament vibrated by sound was determined (471).
28
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INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS
Applications of fabric filters include their use for col-
lecting metallurgical fumes from open-hearth furnaces before
passage through waste-heat boilers (472) , oxygen converters
(370) , and electric furnaces (473). A rotary dust collector
made with a metallic fabric, tested in a sintering plant, showed
87-90% collection efficiency (474).
The use of fabric filters in non-ferrous metallurgy includes
ore smelters (228,475-481). They are also used in the produc-
tion of carbon black (482,483), titanium dioxide (484), and
cement (485).
Bag filters of synthetic fiber fabrics were superior to
high-pressure venturi scrubbers for removing dust from gas from
a silicon smeltering furnace (486).
29
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SECTION 5
OTHER COLLECTORS
CYCLONES
Cyclones and similar mechanical collectors for gas cleaning
are discussed in several articles (485,487-501).
Applications that are considered include electric power
plants (495,501-506), open-hearth furnaces (507), coke ovens
(508), chemical plants (509), and catalyst beds (510,511).
Experimental designs and studies of gas flow in cyclones
are presented (500,503,512-521) and methods for analyzing and
improving their operation are suggested (522-530).
For cleaning flue gases at electric power plants, batteries"
of cyclones with collection efficiencies of 94-95% are used.
The use of these devices is limited to units with boiler ratings
of up to 420 tons/hr burning low-ash fuels such as peat (531)
and coal from the Kansk-Achinsk deposit (6).
GRANULAR BED FILTERS
The use of granular bed filters for recovering carbon black
from combustion gases at 600 C is described (532); designs have
been patented (533). The use of electrically charged granules
was patented (534). Applications for granular bed filters
include metallurgy (535), cement manufacturing (536), and the
collection of silica particles (537).
A high-gradient magnetic filter with a bed of 8-mm steel
balls was tested for the removal of dust (60 m3/min) from a
900-ton open-hearth furnace. At the optimum voltage of 80-120
kA/m, the collection efficiency was 80-90%, and the energy con-
sumption was 0.05 kWh/1000 m3 of gas. Without the magnetic
field the collection efficiency was 25-30% (538).
ACOUSTICAL PROCESSES IN PARTICLE COLLECTION
Several investigations have been reported on the acoustic
coagulation of aerosols. The designs and mechanisms of acoustic
generators are described (539-541). Their possible use in power
plants for cleaning stack gases is considered (542). Acoustic
30
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coagulation of shale dust is described (543). A gas-jet acoustic
generator was effective in coagulation of carbon black particles
(544) . The rate of coagulation of an aerosol in an acoustic
field was measured as a function of particle size and other
parameters (545). The variation in mobility of small particles
in an acoustic field causes a sizable deviation in diffusivity
(546).
31
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SECTION 6
SAMPLING AND MEASUREMENT METHODS
Studies of impactors include their use in sampling dust
from aluminum pot lines and measuring its electrical resistivity
(151) and in sampling sulfuric acid mist (547). Work on im-
pactors has also included their use in sampling gases with dust
loadings of 5-7 g/m3 at 100°C (548), and studies of their accuracy
(549), efficiency (550), and calibration (551). Designs were
developed for multi-stage impactors (552,553). A grease for
retaining deposited particles is patented (554).
Information has been published on filters for sampling
dust emissions from aluminum pot lines (555) and on metal fiber
filters for sampling hot gases (556,557). Compact automatic
sampling devices, in which aerosol particles are captured by
a fiber filter, have been developed (558-561).
Techniques and apparatus for sampling hot and corrosive
gases (562) and for maintaining isokinetic sampling are described
(563,564). A tape feed mechanism was developed for aerosol
sampling (565). An electrostatic precipitator for sampling
dust is described (566). A probe connected to a thimble filter
and a capacitor were developed for measuring the charge on
aerosol particles in gas streams (567).
Various techniques for determining particle size distribution
of particulate matter are described (553,568-575). In one type
of analyzer, a rotary centrifuge draws the dust-laden gas through
a channel in the rotor and the particles are separated by centri-
fugal force (576). Flue gas probes for determining particle
size distribution have been used (577, 578). A thermal coagu-
lation technique for determining particle size distribution
was developed (579). Techniques for measuring particle tra-
jectories are discussed (580).
Methods and apparatus for generating sodium chloride aero-
sols are described (581). The production of model aerosols
from solution is discussed (582) . A model developed for calcu-
lating the particle-size distribution of coagulated aerosols
gives a nearly log-normal distribution (583).
Techniques for studying the microphysical characteristics
of liquid aerosols in industrial emissions are discussed (584) .
32
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The determination of the angle of repose of dust is de-
scribed (585) as well as its cohesion (586,587) and wettability
(588) .
A list of basic equipment used in dust and gas research
is given (589). Techniques for determining the dust loading
of flue gases (590-592) and the concentration and properties
of dusts are described (593).
A method of measuring dust loadings in flue gas in the
stack is based on deposition of an electric charge by the impact
of the dust particles in an air jet (594).
A differential thermal method (595) and a capacitance
method (596) for determining the concentration of combustible
matter in fly ash were developed.
The determination of gas humidity (597), dew point (598),
and true density of dust (599) are described.
The measurement of electrical resistivity of fly ash is
discussed in Section 2 of the report.
33
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41
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91
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593 Methods Used in USSR for Determination of Concentrations
and Physical and Chemical Properties of Dusts.
U.S./USSR Working Group on Stationary Source Air Pollution
Control Technology Project A-4. APTIC No. 75267.
594 Kisler, C.Ya., and B.S. Fishkin. Type PK-4 Automatic
Immersion Contact Electric Dust Measurement Instrument.
U.S./USSR Working Group on Stationary Source Air
Pollution Control Technology Project A-4. APTIC No.
75270.
595 Popov, K.N., E.V. Agafonov, and L.N. Antipova. Differen-
tial Thermal Method for Determination of Concentration
of Combustibles in Fly Ash of Pulverized Coal Fired
Boilers. Thermal Eng. lj>(2) :51-55, 1972.
596 Sin'kov, V.M., R.D. Tsiptsyura, L.P. Bogonosov, S.I.
Nagornyi, O.L. Yanovskiy, B.N. Barbyshev, Yu.M. Bulavitskiy,
A.F. Novikov, and A.N. Purtov. Capacitance Method of
Determining Concentration of Combustibles in Fly Ash.
Teploenergetika 17(12)-.42-45, 1970.
597 Determination of Gas Humidity. U.S./USSR Working Group
on Stationary Source Air Pollution Control Technology
Project A-4. APTIC No. 75271.
598 Yankovskiy, S.S., and L.N. Tovgina. Instrument for Dew
Point Measurement of Industrial Gases. U.S./USSR
Working Group on Stationary Source Air Pollution Con-
trol Technology Project A-4. APTIC No. 75272.
599 Determination of Actual Dust Density. U.S./USSR Working
Group on Stationary Source Air Pollution Control Technology
Project A-4. APTIC No. 75273.
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1~"6PCH, NO. PRS-24 (TVA)
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
iriease read Instructions on the reverse before completing!
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE .
Recent USSR Literature on Control of Particulate
Emissions from Stationary Sources
5. REPORT DATE
April 1977
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
Charles E. Feazel
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Southern Research Institute
2000 Ninth Avenue, South
Birmingham, Alabama 35205
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1AB012; ROAP 21ADL-034
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
R802938-01 (EPA)
TV42937A (TVA)
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS "
EPA, Office of Research and Development*
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final; 1-12/76
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/13 and TVA
^.SUPPLEMENTARYNOTES (*)Cosponsored by TVA/Chattanooga, H. Falkenberry, project offi-
cer. EPA project officer is N. Jaworski, 919/549-8411 Ext 2821.
16. ABSTRACT
The report reviews approximately 600 articles, published between 1970 and !
1975 in several technical and scientific journals in the USSR and compiled and classi- !
fied according to subject content. The articles were selected as significant indicators !
of the status of the technology of controlling air pollution by particulate emissions from
stationary sources, with emphasis on fly ash from the combustion of coal in electric
power plants. Control devices include electrostatic precipitators, wet scrubbers,
fabric filters, cyclones, and granular bed filters.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFlERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. cos AT i Field/Group
Air Pollution
Dust
Fly Ash
oal
ombustion
Electrostatic
Precipitators
Scrubbers
Granular Materials
Fabrics
llectric Power Plants Dust Filters
gnarators
ON STATEME
Air Pollution Control
Stationary Sources
Particulate
USSR
Wet Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Fted Filters
13B
11G
21B 07A
21D
HE
10B 13K
S.'DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Unlimited
19. SECURITY CLASS /ThisRep,
Unclassified
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
93
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