Ecological Research Series
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AEROSOL DRIFT FROM A
SALTWATER COOLING SYSTEM
Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal
species, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term
influences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to
determine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical
basis for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms
in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-76-078
July 1976
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AEROSOL DRIFT FROM
A SALTWATER COOLING SYSTEM
by
Ibrahim J. Hindawi, Lawrence C. Raniere
and James A. Rea
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Re-
search Laboratory, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved
for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not
constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
The local terrestrial effects of salt aerosol drift from powered
spray modules and a mechanical draft cooling tower at Turkey Point,
Florida were evaluated through field and controlled exposure studies.
Indigenous vegetation, soil and fresh water were sampled over a year-
long period to acquire pre-activation baseline data and to provide for
the assessment of possible environmental impact of salt aerosol loading
from the test cooling devices. No measurable effects attributable to
salt aerosol emissions from test cooling devices were detected on indig-
enous plants, soil, or fresh water sampled during or following operation
of the test cooling tower/spray modules.
Cultivar plants were sited at varying distances to identify and
characterize the influence of sea salt aerosol drift from the test
cooling devices. The introduced cultivar plants showed visible foliar
injury and elevated salt concentrations, correlated to the combined
influences of cooling device and east wind drift exposure, only at the
exposure site closest (215M) to the cooling tower/spray modules.
Full-term growth effects and salt aerosol tolerance levels of a
cultivar plant, bush bean, were examined by controlled exposure to a
simulated sea-salt aerosol at concentrations representative of the
Turkey Point test site. The trace injury threshold of the bush bean
trifoliate leaf was at a salt aerosol concentration of 5 ug/m for 100
hours cumulative exposure over a four week period, while pod productivity
was reduced at salt aerosol concentrations of 25 pg/m and 75 ug/m at
the environmental conditions of the exposure study.
iii
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Although we assume full responsibility for the viewpoint expressed
in this report, we wish to record an appreciation to many individuals
associated with our Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory who in a
variety of ways have assisted us during the preparation of this report.
We express our thanks to the following: Dan Krawczyk and Bill Griffis
for expediting the chemical analysis of the many plant tissue and APS
mesh samples. We also wish to acknowledge the efforts of Denis Body,
Gary Cloakley and Art Machovec in the design and timely construction of
the exposure chambers. We appreciate the assistance and helpful sugges-
tions of Paul Botts and Larry Male in analyzing the data. The comments
and suggestions of Frank Rainwater, Cliff Taylor, Hilman Ratsch and
Charles R. Curtis, and, Karen Randolph were also appreciated.
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CONTENTS
SECTIONS PAG
V^»^^ta^MV*WW^MW^ .^^_^*AB
I. CONCLUSIONS 1
II. RECOMMENDATIONS 2
III. INTRODUCTION 3
BACKGROUND 3
General Considerations 3
Assignment of Task 3
Location 3
LITERATURE REVIEW 6
Natural Source of Ambient Airborne Salt 6
Cooling Tower Airborne Salt Increment 6
Factors of Foliar Salt Deposition 9
Factors of Foliar Salt Accumulation 9
Detrimental Levels of Airborne and Foliar
Salt Concentrations 10
Mechanisms of Foliar Salt Injury and
Penetration 11
IV. GENERAL STUDY APPROACH 12
RATIONALE 12
Phase I 12
Phase II 12
Phase III 14
OBJECTIVES 14
Phase I 14
Phase II 14
Phase III 14
V. PHASE I, INCREMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SALT AEROSOL
LOADING ON INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENTAL 15
DESIGN'AND PROCEDURES 15
Indigenous Vegetation 15
Soil and Fresh Water 15
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CONTENTS (cont.)
SECTIONS PAGE
VI. PHASE II, INCREMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SALT AEROSOL
LOADING ON INTRODUCED VEGETATION 26
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES 26
Cooling Device Operation 26
Airborne Particle Sampler (APS) Network 26
Vegetation Site Selection 26
Introduced Vegetation 28
Introduced Soil 30
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 31
Combined Effects of Cooling Tower and
Powered Spray Modules (PSM) 31
Cooling Tower Drift Contribution to
Plant Salt Accumulation 35
Powered Spray Module (PSM) Drift
Contribution To Plant Salt Accumulation 39
VII. PHASE III, CONTROLLED EXPOSURE STUDY 45
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES 45
Facilities Description and Exposure 45
Sequence
Aerosol Sampling 53
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 55
Plant Injury 55
Description 55
Aerosol Salt Concentration and Foliar
Injury 60
Foliar Salt Concentrations and Injury 63
Plant Growth Effects 74
Description 74
Leaf Weight 74
Pod Production and Yield 74
Ion Translocation 77
VIII. REFERENCES 82
IX. APPENDICES 86
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
No. Page
1 Map of Turkey Point, Florida location. 4
2 Photograph of the Florida Power and Light Turkey
Point site and mechanical draft cooling tower. 5
3 Photograph of Turkey Point test mechanical draft
cooling tower. 5
4 Photograph of powered spray modules (PSM) in
Feeder canal at Turkey Point. 7
5 Photograph of powered spray modules in opera
i tion. 7
6 Photograph of FP&L Turkey Point reactor site. 8
7 Vegetation site locations of Turkey Point. 13
8 Sodium concentration (ppm) of Mangrove leaves
collected in the proximity of the Turkey Point
cooling tower site. 16
9 pH of native soil samples collected at Turkey
Point. 19
10 Nitrate and chloride concentration of native
soil samples collected at Turkey Point. 21
11 Calcium and phosphorus concentration of
native soil samples collected at Turkey Point. 22
12 Chloride concentration and pH of fresh water
samples collected at Turkey Point. 24
13 Vegetation site locations at Turkey Point. 29
14 Mean tissue sodium concentration for all bean
and corn plants on the western radial transect
of the Turkey Point Cooling Tower. 32
15 Mean sodium concentration for all bean plants
at sites 1, 2, 3, and 9. 33
VI1
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No. Page
16 Photograph of crinkling and yellowing of bean
leaf exposed at site 1. 34
17 Photograph of marginal injury of bean leaf
exposed at site 1. 34
18 Plot and regression of western transect bean
salt concentration against critical wind
exposure for Julian dates 52-74. 36
19 Plot and regression of western transect corn
salt concentration against critical wind
exposure for Julian dates 52-74. 37
20 Isopleths of mean recorded aerosol salt
concentrations for Julian dates 52-74 as
measured by an APS network. 38
21 Plot and regression of western transect
bean and corn sodium concentration against
critical wind exposure for Julian dates
30-51. 41
22 Isopleths of mean recorded aerosol salt
concentrations for Julian dates 30-51 as
measured by an APS network. 43
23 Illustration of a Phase III rotating plat
form exposure chamber and airborne particle
sampler (APS). 47
24 Photograph of operating salt spray nozzle of
a rotating platform exposure chamber. 48
25 Illustration of Phase III pump station and
control board. 49
26 Photograph of exposure chamber control board. 50
27 Photograph of pump station used in Phase III
controlled exposure study. 51
28 Photograph of bush bean plants on exposure
chamber turntable. 52
29 Photograph of APS 52
vm
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No. Page
30 Photograph of aerosol impact craters on
magnesium oxide coated slide. 56
*i
31 Photograph of salt crystals from adaxial
surface of bush bean trifoliate leaf. 56
32 Photograph of tip and marginal necrosis with
spotting on bush bean leaf exposed to salt
aerosol. 57
33 Photograph of bleaching of tissue on adaxial
surface of bush bean trifoliate leaf exposed
to salt aerosol. 57
34 Photograph of primary leaf with marginal wilting
due to salt aerosol exposure. 58
35 Photograph of marginal and intercostal tissue
collapse on bush bean exposed to a salt spray. 58
36 Photograph of seven week old bush bean
exhibiting trifoliate injury. 59
37 Microscopic cross-section of bush bean leaf
illustrating salt aerosol injury. 59
38 Microscopic cross-section of bush bean
leaf injured by salt aerosol. 61
39 Severity of bush bean trifoliate injury
at three sea salt aerosol concentrations. 62
40 Incidence of bush bean trifoliate injury
at three sea salt aerosol concentrations. 62
41 Log dose-response plot for Phase III bush
bean. 65
42 Linear regression plot of Foliar accumu-
lated salt of five week bush bean. 69
43 Severity of bush bean trifoliate injury
plotted against leaf salt concentration. 72
44 Incidence of bush bean trifoliate injury
plotted against leaf salt concentration. 73
IX
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No.
Page
45 Pod productivity per plant exposed to
sea salt aerosol. 75
46 Mean dry weight per pod of mature bush
bean at three sea salt concentrations. 76
47 Pod and seed weight with relation to
plant injury. 79
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Page
1 Sodium concentration (ppm) of Mangrove leaves
prior, during and after cooling tower/spray
module activation. 17
2 Soil pH and nitrate measurements at Turkey
Point sites. 20
3 Soil chloride, calcium and phosphorous
measurements at Turkey Point sites. 23
4 Water pH and chloride measurements at Turkey
Point site. 25
5 Cooling Tower and powered spray modules (PSM)
operation log. 27
6 Schedule of cooling tower/PSM operation. 28
7 Introduced soil pH and sodium measurements
at Turkey Point sites. 30
8 Peak sea-salt aerosol concentrations of site
1-3 during Phase II at Turkey Point. 40
9 Mean chloride accumulation of plants from
Julian date exposure group 30-51. 42
10 Schedule of plant exposure during Phase III. 46
11 Wilcoxon matched-pair signed-rank test of
salt aerosol concentrations in a exposure
chamber determined by simultaneous measure
ment with APS and IK. 54
12 Particle size distribution of sea salt aerosol
in rotating exposure chamber. 54
13 Mean percentage of foliar area injury on upper
trifoliates of three stages of growth of bush 64
beans.
14 Proportion of trifoliate leaves injured
after exposure to salt aerosol during
Phase III. 64
15 Summary of controlled exposure results for
mature bush bean initially exposed at five
weeks old. 66
XI
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No. Pacji
16 Summary of controlled exposure results for
mature bush bean initially exposed at three
weeks old. 67
17 Summary of controlled exposure results for
mature bush bean initially exposed at one
week old. 68
18 Percent of injured bush bean with relation
to trifoliate sodium and chloride accumulation. 71
19 Seed and pod productivity of Phase III bean
plants at maturity. 78
20 Normalized Na /Cl~ ratio of approximate net
aerosol, contribution for composite segments
of bush bean plants five weeks old at initial
exposure. 80
21 Normalized Na /Cl~ ratio of approximate net.
aerosol contribution for composite segments
of bush bean plants three weeks old at
initial exposure. 80
xn
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
No measurable effects attributable to salt aerosol emissions from
test cooling devices were detected on indigenous plants, soil, or local
fresh water sampled during or following operation of the test cooling
tower/spray modules.
Introduced bush bean and sweet corn plants at Turkey Point showed
visible foliar injury and high salt concentrations only at the exposure
site closest (215 m) to the cooling tower/spray modules.
For those bean and corn plants within 215 .m of the cooling devices,
salt concentration correlated significantly with the duration of exposure
to cooling tower/spray module and east wind salt aerosol drift.
Leaf injury to bush bean plants in controlled exposure studies was
directly proportional to salt aerosol concentration and foliar salt
accumulation.
The trifoliate leaves of plants five weeks old at initial exposure
in controlled exposure studies were more susceptible than the trifoliate
leaves of one and three week old plants exposed to the same salt deposition,
The dose threshold for trifoliate leaf injury to the bush bean was
at a salt aerosol concentration of 5 yg/m for 100 hours cumulative
exposure over a four week period beginning at fifth week of growth.
o
Exposure to a salt aerosol concentration of 75 yg/m for 100 cumu-
lative hours over a four week period significantly reduced the fresh and
dry weight of the upper trifoliate leaves of bush bean plants five weeks
old at initiation of exposure.
30ne week-old3plants exposed to salt aerosol concentration of 25
yg/m and 75 yg/m for 100 cumulative hours of controlled exposure
showed reduced pod production and yield, whereas the productivity of
three and five week-old plants showed no effect.
Sodium was translocated from the trifoliate leaf of test bush beans
to other plant parts independent of and comparatively faster than was
chloride.
Microscopic examination of injured leaves by salt aerosol revealed
that the chloroplasts below the upper epidermis disintegrated and lost
their identity. Crystals were observed below the epidermis layer,
between palisade cells and near the vascular bundles. These crystals
resembled sodium chloride in structure.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Future field studies should extend over longer periods and provide
for a larger number of full-term sampling sites for both indigenous and
introduced plants to permit a finer resolution of impact as function of
distance from mechanical cooling device. Sample sites should be at
least tripled and located in all quadrants from the tower where possible.
2. Better coordination and integration of physical monitoring (air
sampling and meteorology) with biological effects assessment is required
for meaningful whole systems analysis.
3. Future controlled exposure studies should provide for simulation of
full-term, low-level ambient salt aerosol exposure over a 24 hour period
as well as transient peak exposures. Salt concentrations applied should
represent total ambient loading anticipated from full complement of
mechanical cooling units.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
General Considerations
Legal restrictions and environmental consequences have made
once-through cooling power plants an increasingly unattractive option to
dissipation of thermal waste associated with each new steam electric
power facility constructed by the utilities. Closed system evaporative
cooling devices, such as cooling towers, spray modules, and cooling
canals, have become more attractive available alternatives to electric
utilities in minimizing the environmental impact of thermal effluents.
Recent Federal Power Commission projections suggest that from 35% to 50%
of new power generating installations constructed from 1976 to 1980 will
utilize cooling towers. Scarce fresh water resources make consideration
of brackish and sea water as cooling media imperative. However, the
current knowledge and understanding of potential and real environmental
impact of saline aerosol drift is sketchy and tentative. The intent of
this report is to make some modest contribution to the effort being made
to characterize the ecological impact of saline aerosol drift from
closed system evaporative cooling devices.
Assignment of Task
In 1973, the Office of Enforcement and General Counsel of the
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency tasked the National Ecological
Research Laboratory (NERL) to assess the terrestrial ecological effects
of aerosol drift from salt water mechanical cooling devices being tested
at the Florida Power and Light nuclear power plant complex at Turkey
Point, Biscayne Bay, Florida. The ecological studies were initiated in
October 1973. The Thermal Branch of The National Environmental Research
Center, Corvallis, Oregon directed the concurrent salt aerosol drift
sampling program and published the following reports (1) Drift Data
Acquired on Mechanical Salt Water Cooling Devices, EPA-650/2-75-060 and
(2) Effect of Cooling Devices on Ambient Salt Concentrations, EPA 600/3-
76-032. This final report documents the finding of that assessment and
constitutes one part of the multi-faceted study required for final
judgment of the U. S. vs Florida Power and Light consent decree.
Location
The Florida Power and Light, Turkey Point Nuclear Power Plant
complex is located about 48 kilometers south of Miami, Florida (Figure
1A). The cooling tower site was about 2.5 kilometers west of Biscayne
Bay (Figures IB & 2). There were two closed system cooling devices.
being tested during this project. One system was a one cell Marley
600/700 mechanical draft tower (Figure 3) with a water circulation rate
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Florida City Canal
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT AT
TURKEY POINT
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Figure 2. The Florida Power and Light's Turkey Point site. Mechanical draft
cooling tower at the mid-ground and airborne particulate sampler (APS)
Station in foreground. The body of water is part of a feeder canal.
Power spray modules (PSM) visible in far right background.
Figure 3. Marley 600/700 mechanical draft cooling tower at Florida Power and
Light's Turkey Point Site. Drift eliminators visible on south side
of tower.
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of 4,500 m /hr (2x10 gpm). The other system was a powered spray
module (PSM) system with a water circulation rate of 4,500 m /hr (Figures
4 and 5). The spray modules were located in the feeder canal immediately
adjacent to the cooling tower. Both of these systems were operated only
in test modes and were not necessary for cooling of the functioning
reactor piles (Figure 6). The continual cooling requirement for the
generating plant was provided by an extensive closed salt water canal
system.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Natural Source of Ambient Airborne Salt
The ocean surface serves as the principal, global-scale
natural source of airborne salt aerosol and particles. The airborne
salt is introduced into the lower few centimeters of the atmosphere
through a bubble-injection mechanism. Generated by the wave action of
white caps and breaking surf, foam bubbles bursting through the ocean
surface inject small sea water droplets into the air. Some of these
injected droplets remain airborne to be distributed deeper into the
atmosphere through turbulent mixing and are carried inland by onshore
winds. Once particles achieve a quasi-equilibrium over a long fetch,
the particles might reach considerable distances inland. Concentrations
on the order of 1 pg/m airborne sea salt particles have been reported
in the Midwestern U.S. (1). However, the bulk of the airborne particles
are rapidly depleted as they are deposited by sedimentation, impacted on
obstacles, or washed-out by precipitation once reaching land, describing
a nearly exponential deposition curve.
Cooling Tower Airborne Salt Increment
There are a variety of diverse predictive salt deposition
models that can be utilized to describe the incremental salt loading
from cooling towers. The models lack extensive field validation and
currently there does not appear to be any favored, established modeling
technique.. Predicted terrestrial deposition rates yielded from the
various models can vary an order of magnitude. Also, the necessarily
generalized nature of the models does not account for local terrain,
which can greatly affect actual site deposition. The current, principal
value of models is that they allow an approximation of the extreme
limits of salt deposition. Despite the modeling variations in quantifi-
cation of actual deposition amounts, determination of the comparative
contribution and geometry of cooling tower salt deposition show the
models to be in broad agreement. Most computational techniques predict
that salt drift can approximate ambient levels found a short distance
inland under conditions of high humidity and low wind speed. Where the
humidity is low (less than 70%), the cooling device increment at any
particular location could be a factor of 10 smaller than ambient (2).
As might be anticipated, all the techniques describe a long term terres-
trial salt deposition which rises abruptly to a maximum in close proximity
to the source, then gradually decays to background levels with increased
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Figure 4. Powered spray modules (PSM) - two pumps and eight spray nozzles, the
body of water is a feeder canal adjacent to cooling tower.
Figure 5. Power spray modules in operation,
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Figure 6. The Florida Power and Light's Turkey Point reactor site.
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distance. The powered spray modules deposit a higher fraction of gener-
ated drift in close to the site location, while the deposition decay
with distance is much greater than that of current cooling towers of
comparable circulation rates (3).
Factors of Foliar Salt Deposition
The severity of plant foliar injury from airborne salt is
broadly related to the quantity of salt deposited and the length of time
the salt remains on the leaf. The rate of salt deposition per unit leaf
surface is largely determined by the airborne salt concentration, settling
velocity, surface roughness factors, wind velocity and persistence.
Wind exposure can have pronounced effects on the quantity of salt collected
by a plant.
Measurements taken with glass slide collectors at different
relative positions near seashore plants subjected to wind salt deposition
showed an order of magnitude difference in collection rates. Leaves on
the windward edge of the indigenous bush canopy had impaction rates of 4
mg/m -hs, while those on the leeward side had a collection rate of only
-4 mg/m -hr (2). The larger fraction of airborne salt is deposited by
impaction, rather than sedimentation due to settling in shoreline areas
(4). Not only is the rate of impaction increased with increased wind
speed, but greater volumes of air are swept across greater amounts of
plant surface area. This not only increases the severity of injury, but
increases the incidence of injury on the plant.
Factors of Foliar Salt Accumulation
Humidity as well as precipitation frequency and amount are
factors which affect foliar salt accumulation. Rain can abruptly reduce
salt build-up on vegetation, while simultaneously lowering the airborne
salt concentration through wash-out. Local rain wash-out can, in some
instances (e.g., tropical cyclone), be offset by the contribution of
increased gradient wind over long ocean fetches which allow a build-up
of salt concentrations in rainfall and increased salt aerosol generation
due to greater wave action (5).
With increased hydration, the adherent and penetrating character-
istics of salt particles also increase. Swain found that no substantial
uptake of foliar applied salt occurred beyond the first post-exposure
hour by bush beans under low humidity conditions. On the other hand,
for plants exposed and maintained under high humidity conditions the
foliar uptake period was extended an additional 8 to 24 hours, though at
a reduced rate (6). McCune et al., reported bush beans subjected to
relative humidities of 50 to 70% during and following exposure required
twice the salt aerosol dose to produce equivalent injury as those plants
exposed to 85% relative humidity. Though no quantitative comparisons
were conducted, similar studies found dry salt aerosol much less toxic
than mist. The authors attributed this increased toxicity to the deli-
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quesent property of Nad near 75% relative humidity allowing increased
foliar penetration (7).
Detrimental Levels of Airborne and Foliar Salt Concentrations
Sea water consists primarily of NaCl, but it also contains
small amounts of MgCl-, MgSO», CaSO., as well as ICSO., CaC03 and MgBr.
Iodine, zinc, manganese, copper and noble metals are present as trace
elements. Investigators (8, 9, 10, 11, and 12) have shown that aerosol
containing salt, especially sea salt, can damage plants, Salt injury
normally begins at the margins and base on broadl eaves. Tip and marginal
necrosis is the most common characteristic symptom of lower levels of
foliar salt injury. When plants are subjected to slightly higher doses,
the characteristic injury is expressed as interveinal chlorosis, and
occasionally necrosis, with possible growth suppression and leaf curl.
The entire exposed leaf surface can become necrotic within a few hours
after exposure to extreme salt concentrations. In the Northeastern U.S.,
field symptoms of acute injury are not usually observed on indigenous
coastal vegetation at airborne salt concentrations below 40 jig/m ,
though growth distribution can be affected at concentrations above 10
(13).
Garber (14) found that spraying beans and lettuce with a 5
percent salt solution caused very severe damage. Concentrations as low
as 0.5 to 1.0 percent sea salt have injured plants by curling the leaf
and causing necrotic areas. Kisser et al., (15) showed that soluble
substances such as salt, when sprayed on the upper surface of the Iqaf,
caused the ions of dissolved salt to diffuse through the epidermis into
the interior of the leaf. Necrotic spots developed unevenly over the
entire surface of the treated leaves. These symptoms indicate that
increased salt concentration in the leaf kills the cells at the point of
entry. Miwa et al., (16) observed that sea salt spray caused necrosis
and loss of leaves and fruit on citrus plants.
A study by Boyce Thompson Institute (17) indicated that pinto
bean plants exposed to salt aerosol produced symptoms of tissue collapse
followed by necrosis. Marginal wilting occurred in^the leaves of plants
exposed to a salt aerosol concentration of 900 yg/m for 30-40 minutes
when the major portion of the particle sizes ranged from 100-150 microns.
An unpublished report by Moser (4) indicated that exposing bean plants
to 100 pg/m for only 12 hours will result in severe injury, whereas
exposure to 10 pg/m for 48 hours has no detrimental effects.
+ In his "Chalk Point Cooling Tower Study," Curtis (18) reported that
Na and Cl observed in injured plant samples collected near the cooling
tower were less than those considered generally toxic for most plants
(i.e., 2000 ppm Na or 5000 ppm Cl" on dry weight basis). According to
Eaton (19) some species of plants show Cl toxicity symptoms at concen-
trations below 5000 ppm. Leaves of avocado and grapefruit showed Cl~
10
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toxicity symptoms at levels as low as 2200 ppm and 2600 ppm Cl~, respec-
tively. Eaton also reported that new growths of apple, peach, and
cherry trees were retarded 14, 60 and 60 percent, respectively, by Cl~,
concentrations around 2000 ppm.
Mechanisms of Foliar Salt Injury and Penetration
Morphological studies of salt-stressed plants have indicated reduc-
tions in total chlorophyll, chloroplast density, stomatal frequency and
intercellular free space, while showing a general leaf thickening and
more extensive palisade parenchyma development as a result of that salt
exposure (20, 21, 22). Foliar injury caused by lower concentrations of
salt accumulation from aerosols appear to disrupt metabolic processes.
Results of extensive salt-stress studies by Strogonov revealed severe
disturbances of nitrogen metabolism as expressed by a reduction of
protein nitrogen content and accumulations of ammonia, amides and free
amino acids. The carbohydrate metabolic pathway was also disrupted as
evidenced by lowered glucose and fructose concentrations with an accumu-
lation of sucrose and non-productive translocation of various assimilates
(23). At high salt concentrations, osmotic plasmolysis appears to occur
on the entire exposed leaf surface. The bulk of investigations examining
salt inhibition of plant growth found nearly equivalent growth effects
of isosmotic solutions of various salts, indicating osmotic effects were
primarily involved (6, 21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28). However, most of these
studies employed the root system as the primary absorption avenue rather
than leaves and used comparatively high osmotic pressures. Boyce made
toxicity comparisons of foliar-applied isosmotic solutions containing a
compound of different combinations of sodium, chloride, potassium and
sulfate on bush beans. His results indicated chloride was comparatively
the most toxic of the ions where the solutions were isosmotic to sea
water (29). It has been found, however, that chloride can be translocated
comparatively rapidly from the leaves of bush beans, while the salt
injury remains localized (30). Whether salt toxicity is a manifestation
of specific ion toxicity, osmotic inhibition, or some variable combination
of both, remains to be persuasively demonstrated and resolved.
The mechanism of salt penetration through the plant leaf
surface is obscure and has not been adequately described. The lipophilic
cuticle presents the major epidermal barrier. Thinly cuticled, young
bean leaves were found to absorb salt solution much faster than mature
leaves. The adaxial surface of the mature foliage was the most impene-
trable to salt, while the abaxial surface of the young leaves offered
the least resistance (31). The thinly cuticled stomatal cavities may
represent the major site of salt penetration, especially in mature
leaves (32). In fact Bernstein has postulated that abberant, prolonged
stomatal opening produced by salt accumulation might be responsible for
the drought-like salt toxicity symptoms of leaves (33). Ion penetration
mechanisms (14, 34, 35) and hydrophilic channels (34, 36) are some other
possibilities that have been suggested to account for foliar salt penetra-
tion. Wind abrasion, insect injury and disease can all injure the
cuticular leaf surface, making an intact cuticle a rarity and permitting
rapid salt penetration in some natural enviroments.
11
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SECTION IV
GENERAL STUDY APPROACH
RATIONALE
This study was divided into three sequential phases. Each succes-
sive phase constituted a logical development of the study's principal
intent to characterize the terrestrial impact of incremental salt aerosol
loading from test cooling devices. This report has been organized to
maintain that sequential division. After briefly outlining the broad
intent of each phase the report will elaborate on the design and results
of each individual phase in numerical sequence.
Phase I
Phase I was designed to determine the impact of salt aerosol
emissions from test cooling devices on selected indigenous vegetation,
soil and fresh water. This year-long phase was initiated August 1973
and was not intended to be an exhaustive environmental sampling program,
but rather to achieve the most comprehensive short term examination
permitted by the external constraints and overall requirements of an on
site study. To accomplish this, ambient salt aerosol concentration
sampling was undertaken prior to and during operation of the test cooling
devices. Samples of native Mangrove leaves, water and soil were collected
on a regular basis during the period of study. The information gathered
was to help delineate the possible incremental risk of ecological effects
posed by the added salt aerosol loadings from the cooling tower and
spray modules.
Phase II
Phase II was scheduled from January 15 to March 15, 1974, when
the test cooling tower was expected to be in full operation. This phase
involved exposures of introduced bean and corn species at varying
distances from the tower site. Test crop cultivars were selected on the
basis of local representativeness and salt sensitivity. Salt sensitive
plants allowed some general characterization of salt aerosol toxicity
symptoms that the indigenous halophytic species might not exhibit due to
intrinsic adaptive tolerance. An analysis of available climatological
data showed that the late winter period is characterized by relatively
low rainfall coupled with predominantly easterly, onshore winds.
Consequently, it was anticipated that during this season the salt
aerosol-stress would be greatest in the vicinity of Turkey Point. Three
principal plant exposure sites were located in a line at varying distances
downwind and due west of the test cooling tower site. Two additional
pairs of plant exposure sites were displaced parallel and to either side
of three downwind sites so as to isolate the tower contribution from the
natural ambient salt aerosol concentration (Figure 7).
12
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50
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Phase III
Phase III was a controlled exposure study conducted from
December 2, 1974, to January 28, 1975. The same variety of bush bean
used at Turkey Point was exposed at various stages of growth to three
sea salt aerosol concentrations in an exposure facility at Corvallis,
Oregon. The concentrations selected were based on combined estimates of
approximate background level, incremental cooling tower or powered spray
modules (PSM) emissions, and the highest concentration detected at the
closest Turkey Point site. The duration of exposure was that which
might be expected to occur when incremental drift was directed over the
Turkey Point plant sites by the prevailing wind within one month period.
The plants were routinely examined for growth effects. At termination
of exposure, foliar injury was estimated and the plants were prepared
for sodium and chloride analysis. Microscopic anatomical examinations
of leaf sections were also conducted. The toxicity of the salt aerosol
to three stages of growth of the bush bean plant was thereby determined,
as well as approximation of the threshold aerosol concentration that
would produce visible injury.
OBJECTIVES
Phase I
To acquire pre-activation baseline salt concentration data and
to provide for the assessment of incremental impact, if any, of salt
aerosol loading from test cooling devices on selected indigenous vegeta-
tion, soil and fresh water in proximity of the Turkey Point Site.
Phase II
To identify and characterize the influence of sea salt aerosol
drift on introduced cultivar plants sited at varying distances from the
test cooling devices.
Phase III
To define salt aerosol tolerance levels for bush bean by
examining full term growth effects on plants experimentally exposed to
aerosol concentrations representative of those from the Turkey Point
test cooling tower/PSM system.
14
-------
SECTION V
PHASE I, INCREMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SALT
AEROSOL LOADING ON INDIGENOUS ENVIRONMENT
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Indigenous Vegetation
To determine the extent of variations in the concentration of
sea salt aerosol deposition, baseline data were obtained prior to
activation of the new cooling devices. Phase I included sampling and
salt analysis of Mangrove leaves (Avicinna marina). This indigenous
plant species was sampled from Sites 2, 3, 4, and 7 (Figure 7). The
Mangrove leaves were collected routinely at weekly intervals beginning
three months prior to, during, and two months following operation at the
test cooling devices. Harvested leaves were all approximately the same
age and size, 2.5 cm x 10 cm. The samples were oven dried and shipped
to Corvallis, Oregon for sodium determination by flame spectrophotometry
(37).
Soil and Fresh Water
Native soil and water samples were collected near the Turkey
Point installation. The samples were gathered every three weeks for
four months prior to, during, and four months after activation of the
cooling devices. The four soil collection sites were located at Site 4
and three sites at .8 km increments due north of Site 4. The water
samples were collected from Site 2 and three locations at .8 km increments
north of Site 2. Native soil samples were analyzed for nitrogen, phosphate,
and potassium fertility as well as chloride. The local fresh water
samples were analyzed for chloride concentration and pH. The Florida
Cooperative Extension Service at Homestead, Florida performed the chemi-
cal analysis of the local soil and fresh water (38, 39, 40).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Indigenous Vegetation
The salt concentration, as measured by sodium flame spectro-
photometric analysis, of Mangrove leaves (Avicinna marina) was examined
to determine the relationship between natural salt levels and possible
elevated salt concentration in native vegetation attributed to the test
cooling devices. The leaf analysis data are presented in Figure 8
and Table 1. Average sodium concentration increased during and following
cooling tower/spray module operation. However, variance analysis showed
no significant differences among the three sampling periods. The leaf
15
-------
o.
Q.
16,000
14,000
12,000
< 10,000
o: '
H-
Z
UJ 8,000
o
z
8 6,000
4,000
2,000
SITE
TIME
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A)AFTER
I.76O
2,956
2,624
1,721
2,168
3,995
8.2O7
I6.49O
9,172
I KM
NORTH
SITE 3
7.1S6
2,803
1,815
H,
HYPOTHESIS
-No dlfftrcnc* In time
H0 -No dlff«r«nc« In tlte
P(TYPEI)
20 NS
00016 S
I
I
I
7 IKM N3 4
SITE
Figure 8.
No concentration (ppm) of Mangrove leaves
(Avicinnia marina] collected in the proximity
of the Turkey Point Cooling Tower three months
prior, during and two months after test activation
16
-------
TABLE 1. SODIUM (PPM) IN MANGROVE LEAVES PRIOR, DURING AND AFTER COOLING
TOWER/SPRAY MODULE ACTIVATION
Site
2
3
Prior
Range Average
950-4280 1760
316-10180 1721
During
Ranqe Average
1200-4340 2956
270-9910 2168
After
Range Average
1700-4000 2624
1420-4060 3995
1 km North
Site 3
7
4
3480-25500
1550-17000
1120-2980
12900
8207
1815
1790-12050
1990-48700
7156
16490
2160-3620
2010-27100
2803
9172
Sodium levels did not change significantly (P>0.05) in Mangrove
leaves with respect to time. However, sodium levels did vary
significantly (P<0.01) with respect to location, n = 7, for
each site period.
sodium concentration did not correlate with cooling device aerosol
exposure. Assuming relatively constant background concentrations of
salt, this lack of correlation implies that any incremental salt aerosol
loading from the operation of cooling tower/spray module complex was
minor compared to other natural salt loading factors in the sampled
mangrove leaves.
The statistical analysis did indicate a significant difference
in leaf sodium concentration among sampling sites during each sampling
period (Table 1). Because the sodium contribution of the cooling device
was insignificant, this intersite difference reflects the natural back-
ground distribution of salt loading among the sites. For example, the
average leaf sodium contribution was higher for the remote Site 7 than
for other sites closer to the cooling devices. Wind exposure might have
been relatively higher at Site 7 giving the site a comparatively higher
saline collection rate from equivalent aerosol concentrations. However,
the magnitude of the difference suggests soil salinity differences at
root levels as the most probably differentiating parameter among the
sites. Supporting this hypothesis is the fact that Site 7 was located
in an area closely surrounded by salt water interceptor and cooling
canals. Whatever the background causes of intersite differences, no
significant intrasite differences were detected over the full term of
Phase I.
Soil and Fresh Water
The native soil samples were analyzed for phosphate, calcium,
chloride and pH. Comparative Intersite comparisons of trend of pH
17
-------
(Figure 9 and Table 2) generally remained the same throughout the ten
months study period. The nitrate (Figure 10, Table 2) determination
showed no significant variation with time or sampling site.
With varying degrees of significance, the chloride, calcium
and phosphorus assays showed roughly the same intersite trend (Figures
10 and 11, Table 3) with respect to site concentrations and time varia-
tion. Concentration followed the same overall intersite pattern through-
out the sampling period, increasing for all three elements. Intrasite
soil concentrations markedly increased after the mid-January to mid-
March tower test. Any statistical relationship between tower operation
and an intersite concentration change of such magnitude and uniformity
probably is spurious, considering the very low phosphorus and calcium
content in sea salt aerosol, the sample site remoteness from the cooling
tower, and the short duration of the actual tower test.
The uniform overall intrasite increase reflects a normal
seasonal variation in mineral leaching near the sample sites. This
elevated concentration of salts in natural calcarious soil coincides
with soil moisture which also increased as the minimal winter rainfall
yielded to heavier spring and summer rains.
Both water pH and chloride concentration (Figure 12 and
Table 4) increased slightly, but these increases were statistically
insignificant with respect to sampling period and collection site.
18
-------
7-98
7-94
7-90
7-86
7-82
7-78
7-74
TIME
SITE
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A)AFTER
7-925
7-9OO
7-9OO
N -8KM
7-833
7-750
7-72O
N I-6KM
7-958
7-900
7-9OO
N 2-4KM
7-833
7-90O
7 84O
HYPOTHESIS
H0-No difference in time
H0-No difference in site
PCTYPEI)
97 NS
50 NS
Figure 9.
I N I-6KM
IM-8KM N2-4KM
SITE
pH of native soil samples collected at Site 4,
8KM North, I-6KM North, and 2-4KM North
of Site 4 prior, during and after Tower activation
19
-------
TABLE 2. SOIL pH AND NITRATE MEASUREMENTS AT TURKEY POINT SITES
Prior During After
Site/pH
4
N.8 Km
N1.6 Km
N2.4 Km
Site/N03
ppm
4
N.8 Km
NT. 6 Km
N2.4 Km
Range
7.8-8.2
7.5-8.2
7.8-8.25
7.7-8.3
.12-11
.2-15
.3-9
.1-16
Average
7.900
7.833
7.958
7.833
6.52
8.37
5.88
9.52
Range
7.9-7.9
7.6-7.95
7.8-8.1
7.8-8.0
.5-10
.3-18
.3-8
.1-10
Average
7.900
7.750
7.900
7.900
5.17
10.10
4.10
3.37
Range
7.8-8.0
7.5-7.8
7.7-8.0
7.7-8.0
1 -11
.4-15
.1-5
2-9
Average
7.900
7.720
7.840
7.840
5.80
10.28
2.21
5.60
pH or nitrate levels did not change significantly (P>0.05) in soil
collected during three time periods (i.e., before, during or after tower
operation), n = 5, for each site period.
20
-------
E
Q.
0.
o
I
h-
z
o
z
o
o
ii ro
O
10
8
6
4
2
ex
Q.
OC
LU
o
1600
1200
O 800
o
o
400
TIME
SITE
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A)AFTER
6-52
5-17
5-8O
N -8KM
8-37
IO-IO
10-28
N I-6KM
5-88
4-IO
2-21
N 2-4KM
9-52
3-37
5-60
HYPOTHESIS
HQ-NO difference in time
H0-No difference In site
P(TYPEI)
67 NS
23
FIGURE IDA.
TIME
SITE
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A) AFTER
370-O
686-7
980-O
N -8KM
441-7
53O-O
1546-0
N I-6KM
148-3
128-3
319-0
N 2-4KM
I4O-O
66-7
260-O
HYPOTHESIS
H0-No difference in time
HQ-No difference in site
P(TYPEI)
066 S
022 S
I
FIGURE 10 B.
4 I N I-6KM
N -8KM N 2-4KM
FIGURE 10. SITE
N03 and Cl concentration (ppm) of native soil
samples collected at Site 4, -8KM North, I-6KM
North, and 2-4KM North of Site 4 prior, during
and after Tower activation
21
-------
-
I 280
Q.
z 240
o
^^
6
£ 200
z
LJ
^ 160
o
o
5 120
o
< 80
o
p
Q.
Q.
*"""*
Z
o
p 50
tr
£ 40
UJ
0
A^9
0 30
o
en
g 20
o
X
Q_ ,n
cn IO
o
X
Q_
"Trj^-^J^ 4 N -8KM l\
A
- A\ ) PRIOR 95-8 112-5
//\ ) DURING 115-0 1 1 5-O
If \\ A) AFTER 200-0 29O-0
II \\
I I-6KM N 2-4KM
85-8 98-3
717 6O-0
I3O-0 176-0
n \\ HYPOTHESIS P(TYPEI)
n \\ H0 -No difference In time
"- ^ \\ Ho~No d'ff9rence ln slte
\\ A
\\ //
- \\ ^^
\*/s
A
- B^§
^^^ ^^0^^*
- B^^
^^B
1 1 1 1
'' 7^>^1TE ^ N -8KM N
TIME --v.^
() PRIOR 16-33 24-67
(B) DURING 20-67 26-00
A (A) AFTER 36-80 53-00
/jt \
052 S
5S NS
-
Figure 11A.
1 I-6KM N 2-4KM
18-67 18-17
I9-OO IO-33
24-6O I9-OO
>\ HYPOTHESIS P(TYPEI)
\\ H -No difference in time
\\ Hn-No difference in site
A' Vy °
u
- >\
^xBx. »A
.^yZs'^^^ ^^^
" n
-------
TABLE 3. SOIL CHLORIDE, CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS MEASUREMENTS AT TURKEY
POINT SITES
Prior
Durinc
After
Site
Chloride
ppm
N.
Nl
N2
4
8 Km
.6 Km
.4 Km
Range
20-700
20-800
20-290
20-250
Average
370
441.
148.
140.
7
3
0
Range
210-1400
490-600
50-250
50-80
Average
686.
530.
128.
66.
7
0
3
7
Range
500-1150
505-4500
65-700
100-490
Average
980.
1546.
319.
260.
0
0
0
0
Calcium
ppm
N.
Nl
4
8 Km
.6 Km
N2.4 Km
50-150
50-200
40-125
40-150
95.
112.
85.
98.
8
5
8
3
210-1400
70-150
40-100
40-100
115.
115.
71.
60.
0
0
7
0
500-1150
100-750
75-200
75-400
290.
290.
130.
176.
0
0
0
0
Phosphorous
ppm
N.
Nl
N2
4
8 Km
.6 Km
.4 Km
2-25
2-65
2-35
2-30
16.
24.
18.
18.
33
67
67
17
4-40
3-40
2-30
2-25
20.
26.
19.
10.
67
00
00
33
25-79
25-120
16-35
10-30
36.
53.
24.
19.
80
00
60
00
Chloride and phosphorous levels in soil collected during the three time
periods (i.e., before, during or after tower operation) did not change
increase significantly. n = 5, for each site period.
23
-------
a
a.
-£ 600
500
400
300
200
u
100
8-24
8-20
8-16
8-12
8-08
8-04
^^^SITE
TIMli^^
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A) AFTER
I
2
45O-0
259-5
37O-O
^^^^^B
2N -8KM
480-0
265-0
543-3
IM*""^^""^^
2N I-6KM
65-0
217-5
375-0
.
2N 2-4KM
55-0
59-0
165-0
HYPOTHESIS
Hg -No dlffirtnct In tlmt
He -No dlff«rtnc» In lit*
P(TYPEI)
71 NS
38 NS
Figure 12A.
1 1 1 1
f
"^****«N^ QIT P
TIME"^-^_
() PRIOR
() DURING
(A) AFTER
2
8-IO
8-05
8-15
2N -8KM
8-00
8-03
8-20
2N I-6KM
8- IO
8-13
8-23
2N 2-4KM
8-10
8-05
8-13
HYPOTHESIS P(TYPEI)
H6-Ne d!ffir«nc« In »lm« -93 NS
H0 -No dlffinnea In Hit -S98 NS
Figure 12B.
FIGURE 12.
2 ' 2N I-6KM
2N -8KM 2N 2-4KM
SITE
Cl concentration and pH of water samples
collected at Site 2, -8 KM North, 1-6 KM North,
and 2-4KM Nqrth of Site 4 prior, during and
after Tower activation
24
-------
TABLE 4. WATER pH AND CHLORIDE MEASUREMENTS AT TURKEY POINT SITE
Site/pH
2
2N.8 Km
2N1.6 Km
2N2.4 Km
Chloride
2
2N.8 Km
2N1.6 Km
2N2.4 Km
Prior
Range
8.10-8.10
8.00-8.00
8.10-8.10
8.10-8.10
ppm
450-450
480-480
65-65
55-55
Average
8.10
8.00
8.10
8.10
450
480
65
55
During
Range
7.9-8.2
7.80-8.25
8.00-8.25
7.90-8.2
219-300
230-300
60-375
48-70
Average
8.05
8.03
8.13
8.05
259.5
265.0
217.5
59
After
Range
7.90-8.40
8.20-8.20
8.20-8.30
7.90-8.30
260-440
270-1050
160-500
140-210
Average
8.15
8.20
8.23
8.13
370.0
543.3
375.0
165.0
Water pH or chloride levels did not change significantly (P >0.05) with
respect to sampling period or collection site, n = 3, for each site period.
25
-------
SECTION VI
PHASE II - INCREMENTAL IMPACT ANALYSIS OF SALT AEROSOL
LOADING ON INTRODUCED VEGETATION
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Cooling Device Operation
Phase II of the study involved the introduction and exposure
of two representative food crops at the Turkey Point test site. Work
was scheduled for the eight week period from January 15, 1974, to March
15, 1974, (Julian dates 15-74). During this test, the cooling tower and
powered spray modules (PSM) were operated alternately for varying periods
of time (Table 5). The cooling devices normally did not operate simul-
taneously except for one brief three hour period in January. Mechanical
difficulties prevented achieving the preplanned schedule of operation.
The cooling tower operated about 40% and the PSM only about 6% of the
time (Table 6), leaving approximately 54% of the total available time
free of any added salt aerosol loading.
Airborne Particle Sampler (APS) Network
APS equipment and support systems were placed at preselected
sites to monitor salt aerosol concentrations. Samples were taken daily
for five days each week throughout the test period. In addition, dew-
point temperature, ambient air temperature, wind speed and wind direction
were recorded at the initiation and termination of all APS sampling runs
by Environmental Systems Corporation (ESC) in accordance with contract
schedule (4l). Hourly weather observations were also rountinely recorded
at the main reactor site by Florida Power and Light.
Baseline ambient salt aerosol sampling prior to cooling device
testing was conducted between late August, 1973 and mid-January, 1974.
The six site, sampling network extended from 1,665 meters east to 770
meters west along a central transect through the cooling site. Four
supplemental APS sites were added to the network when plants were intro-
duced in Mid-January, 1974.
Vegetation Site Selection
The high seasonal frequency of salt-laden, easterly winds in
contrast to comparatively low ambient salt aerosol concentrations of
noneasterly winds served as the basis for quantatively describing the
relative contribution of natural and anthropogenic sources of salt
loading. The principal string of sites for assaying crop effects was
located along the same line as the preliminary APS transect. Marshy
26
-------
TABLE 5, COOLING TOWER AND POWERED SPRAY MODULES (PSM) OPERATION LOG
Date
Jan.
/
Feb.
Mar
Julian
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
1 (32)
2 (33)
3 (34)
4 (35)
5 (36)
6 (37)
7 (38)
to
16 (47)
18 (49)
19 (50)
20 (51)
21 (52)
to
. 15 (74)
Tower
0800-1000
0800-1000
0800-1000
0800-1000
0800-1000
0800-1000
0800-1400
1300-1630
1030-1500
.
1200-1730
1045-1730
0945-1915
Start 24 hour operation
0930
1100-1600
1000-1800
0900-1900
0830-1900
0830-1910
0900-1330
Start 24
1130
Off 1000
out)
1000-1900
PSM
, 1700-1800
hour operation
(transformer
27
-------
TABLE 6. SCHEDULE OF COOLING TOWER AND POWERED SPRAY MODULES OPERATION
Jan. 15-30
Feb. 1-28
March 1-15
Jan. 15-March 15
(full -time)
% Cooling Tower
Operational
8.2
31.0
100.0
42.0
% Spray Module
Operational
8.9
7.2
0
5.8
terrain and cooling canals complicated access and placement of sites
north and south of the central east-west tower transect. However,
acceptable locations were secured 2.5 km either side of this central
transect. This configuration was designed to provide a means of sepa-
rating the cooling tower/PSM contribution from the natural background
aerosol drift off Biscayne Bay.
The principal string of plant exposure sites were on the
central transect. These sites were located 215, 430, 736, 3200 meters
west of the cooling devices and numbered 1 through 4, respectively
(Figure 13). Two other sets on sites ran parallel at a distance of 2.5
km north and south of the central transect. The two displaced parallels
each had two sites. These locations were numbered as Sites 6 and 8 and
Sites 7 and 9, respectively. Site 5 was remote at a location 9.6 km
northwest of the Turkey Point cooling tower.
Within the first month of operation, flooding, accessing and
security problems necessitated abandonment of four sites. Sites 1, 2,
3, 7, and 9 remained operational for the entire eight weeks of Phase II.
Introduced Vegetation
Bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. Contender) and sweet
corn (Zea mays L. var. Golden Hybrid) were positioned at the above
selected sites. "The introduced plants had been grown from seeds planted
in six inch plastic pots filled with Jiffy Mix Plus. The pots were
maintained in an outdoor frame house through the first two weeks of
plant growth. Fifteen day old plants of each species were placed at
each site in sets of 15 at one week intervals throughout the eight week
test period. Plants were harvested at weekly intervals after one, two,
and three weeks of exposure. At each of Sites 3 and 7, an additional 12
28
-------
Prevailing Wind
Site I)
Site 2)
Site 3)
Site 4)
Site 5)
Site 6)
Site 7)
Site 8)
Site 9)
4
LEGEND
5 KM
|
J
1
1
1
1
1
i//
!//
u <
430 KM
736 KM
3-2 KM
9-6 KM northwest of Cooling Tower
2-5 KM north of Site 2
2-5 KM south of Site 2
2-5 KM north of Site 3
2-5 KM south of Site 3
I /I
HI
K
-------
bush bean and 12 sweet corn plants were grown in large tubs through the
entire test period. The harvested plants were oven dried, then shipped
to Con/all is for elemental sodium and chloride analysis (37).
Introduced Soil
Five months prior to activation of the cooling tower, unseeded
six-inch planting pots containing the same soil mix as the exposed bean
and corn pots were introduced at Sites 2 and 3. Pot samples were drawn
at monthly intervals until the field test period terminated in March.
The soil samples were placed in labeled plastic bags and sent to Corvallis
where the Oregon State University Soil Testing Laboratory determined the
pH and sodium concentrations of the introduced soil (42). Examination of
variations in the pH and sodium concentrations of the introduced soil
showed no statistically significant differences with respect to sampling
date or location (Table 7).
TABLE 7. INTRODUCED SOIL pH AND SODIUM MEASUREMENTS AT TURKEY POINT SITES
Prior Duri ng
Site/pH Range Average Range Average
2 6.6-7.5 7.15 7.5-7.9 7.70
3 7.0-7.3 7.13 8.0-8.0 8.00
Sodi urn
ppm
2 16.0-91.96 39.64 29.89-45.99 37.94
3 4.6-16.0 8.40 22.90-22.90 22.90
Introduced soil pH and Sodium levels did not change significantly in
soil collected during the two time periods (i.e., before and during
tower operation), rj = 3, for each site period.
30
-------
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Combined Effects of Cooling Tower and Powered Spray Modules (PSM)
Chemical analysis of bean and corn aerial tissue showed quite
pronounced differences in salt accumulation after three weeks of expo-
sure. The overall average salt concentrations were highest in plants
exposed closest to the cooling tower site, roughly decreasing exponen-
tially with increased distance from the source (Figure 14). Plants
exposed at Site 1 exhibited unusually high saTt accumulations, (P<0.01,
i.e. the probability (P) of rejecting the null hypothesis, "no difference",
commits a Type 1 error is less than the 99% level of significance).
Site 1 plants showed salt tissue concentrations nearly an order of
magnitude greater than those of the more distant Site 3, i.e., 3,560 vs
480 ppm sodium in bean; 3,800 vs 382 ppm sodium in corn. Intersite
chloride accumulation levels reflected much the same trend as sodium
with significantly higher (P<0.05) chloride levels at Site 1.
The lack of additional sites complicated the unequivocal
establishment of the extinction point for acute salt aerosol cooling
device impact. However, APS data gathered during the test period showed
that airborne salt concentrations at Site 3 were comparable to those of
more distance sites on other transects. The plant salt concentrations
from Site 9, due south of Site 3, also were comparable to those encounter-
ed at Site 3. Site 3, therefore, was judged to conservatively approximate
the minimum background salt concentration level of the central transect.
The plant salt concentrations measured at Site 2, were not
significantly higher than those at Site 3 during the period of test
(Figure 15). However, this does not preclude the possibility that the
salt concentrations may have been statistically different at these sites
if the plants had been exposed for longer periods.
Considering all the data gathered in Phase II, only Site 1
consistently reflected any real increase in plant salt accumulation as a
possible result of incremental aerosol loading from test cooling devices.
Plants at Site 1 also exhibited symptoms of salt toxicity (Figure 16,
17) whereas plants at other sites did not. Based on these observations
it is concluded that the distance to Site 1 (215 m) approximately delin-
eates the radial zone where cooling device aerosol had a possible detri-
mental impact on the introduced bean plants under the environmental
conditions that existed during the eight week test period of Phase II.
Quantitative delineation of the separate sea salt aerosol
contributions of the cooling tower and spray modules to the observed
plant salt accumulations have proven to be elusive. Environmental
variability appears to obscure any definitive correlation among tri-
weekly exposure sets of plants. However, plants of the same tri-weekly
31
-------
E
ex
o.
T 38>
O 36-
x 34
32
30
28
26
24
22-
20
18
16'
<
DC
Ill
o
§ 14
12
03
Z
CO
ro
10
8'
6
4'
2
SODIUM BEAN (Phaseolus vulgaris)
m
\
SITE 1
215
SITE 2
430
SITE 3
736
CM
O
O
^
cc
o
O
38
oc
36
34
32
30
28
26
24
14-
12-
ID-
S'
6-
4-
2-
SODIUM CORN (Zea mays L.)
»
\
\
SITE 1
215
SITE 2
430
SITE 3
736
DISTANCE (METERS)
Figure 14. Mean sodium concentration (ppm dry tissue) for all
bean and corn plants following one, two and three weeks exposure at
Sites I, 2 and 3 on the western radical transect of the Turkey Point
cooling tower illustrating increased proximity effect with longer ex-
posure periods.
-------
4CH
8: 30-1
"o 28-1
z
DC
H-
LU
O
o
o
26-
24-
22-
20-
18-
16-
14-
12-
10-
8-
6-
4-
2-
SITE 1
SITE 9
SITE 2
SITE 3
i
WEEK 2
WEEK 1
WEEK 3
WEEKS OF EXPOSURE
Figure 15. Mean sodium concentration for all bean plants at Sites 1, 2,
3, and 9 following one, two and three weeks ambient exposure. Shows signifi-
cantly higher concentrations at Site 1 in relation to the more distant Site 3 for all
weeks. (Site 1, .215 km; Site 2, .430 km; Site 3, .736 km; Site 9, 2.6 km). Vertical
bars denote 95% confidence limits for mean Site 1 and 3 values.
33
-------
!
Figure 16. Crinkling and yellowing on bush bean exposed at site 1 at
Turkey Point.
Figure 17. Marginal and spots of tissue injury on bush bean exposed at
site 1 at Turkey Point.
34
-------
exposure set can be meaningfully compared since they shared common
environmental conditions and differed only in drift exposure. The
number of meaningful drift exposure periods were reduced when maintenance
difficulties hampered continuous operation of the cooling devices early
in the test period. Furthermore, the frequency of easterly wind during
the test period was far less than climatologically expected. The combina-
tion of unpredictable winds and intermittent cooling device operations
precluded the consistent determination of incremental loading from the
cooling tower or powered spray modules. During most Qf the test period
additional loading was so brief or comparatively minor that it apparently
remained obscured in the natural background variation of salt aerosol
concentrations.
Conditions, however, were favorable for the exposure of the
plants to drift on the central transect during the latter portion of the
test period. After February 20, 1974 (Julian date 51), the cooling
tower operated 24 hours a day, while the winds generally blew from a
more typical easterly direction. These conditions directed the cooling
tower drift over the central transect for comparatively long periods of
time. The plants closest to the tower appeared to directly reflect an
increased salt aerosol loading during that period.
Cooling Tower Drift Contribution to Plant Salt Accumulation
Sodium and chloride concentrations of the plant tissue sampled
were plotted for each site on the central transect for periods of critical
wind (i.e., easterly winds coincident with tower operation). These plot's
show that plant sodium and chloride accumulations at Site 1 were directly
dependent on the amount of time the plants were exposed to cooling tower
and east wind drift during the February 20 to March 15, 1974 period
(Julian dates 51-74, Figures 18 and 19). In addition to higher salt
accumulations, bean plants at Site 1 were the only plants to exhibit any
salt toxicity symptoms (marginal leaf chlorosis and blade discoloration)
during this three week exposure period (Julian dates 51-74).
The sodium and chloride accumulation levels from the aboveground
portions of the bean and corn plants from Site 1 were markedly higher
(P<0.01) than the salt accumulations of plants from Sites 2 and 3 after
180 cumulative hours of tower drift exposure. The tri-weekly averages
of APS salt aerosol measurements, from ESC monitoring sites, showed
higher mean values at Site 1 during the period with predominantly easterly
component winds (Figure 20). The salt concentrations from Site 3 bean
plants demonstrated comparatively little change with time and probably
approximated the minimum ambient (natural) levels for the central transect.
Site 2 bean plants generally had higher terminal salt accumulations than
Site 3, but Site 2 apparently was so close to ambient levels that accumula-
tions there did not consistently differ significantly from Site 3. Salt
accumulation with corn plants reflected the same trend as the bush beans,
with higher salt concentrations near the cooling tower.
35
-------
BEAN (fhaseolus vulgaris L.)
6000-
_ 5000-
£
Q.
Q.
o
o
o
4000-
3000-
2000-
1000-
SODIUM
SITE 1 ----
= 23.29x + 33
SITE 2
= 2.30x
= .79
SITE 3
= .53x
= .66
E
Q.
a
30
25-
-2S 20-
o
CHLORIDE
SITE 1
y=111.86x + 3267
r=.91
SITE 2
y = 43.39x + 4384
r = .70
SITE 3
y = 35.32x + 4146
r=.66
'o
8
50
50
100
150
200
HOURS CRITICAL WIND
Figure 18. Plot and least squares linear regression of western transect
bean salt component (ppm dry tissue) against critical wind exposure (hours)
at Turkey Point, Florida for time period spanning Julian dates 52-74. Critical wind
is defined as wind which directed cooling device drift toward plant site
location. Parallel dashed line represents centroid-biased 95% confidence limits
for Site 3 regression ( o Site 1, A Site 2, nSite 3.)
-------
CORN (zea mays L)
3000-1
2500-
SODIUM
SITE 1
y = 12.08x + 248
r = .92
SITE 2
CHLORIDE
X103 SITE1
301
28-
E
CL
O.
2000
CO
<
cc
LU
o
O
o
+
CO
1000-
y = 73.58x
r = .89
10788
SITE 2
Y = 28.99x-l- 10450
r = .58
SITE 3 ---
Y = 11.17x + 12287
r = .23
50
100
150 200 50
HOURS CRITICAL WIND
100
150
200
Figure 19. Plot and least squares linear regression of western transect
corn salt components (ppm dry tissue) against critical wind exposure (hours)
at Turkey Point, Florida for time period spanning Julian dates 52-74, 1974.
Dashed line represents centroid-biased 95% confidence interval for site 3 re-
gression line. ( o site 1, n site 2, A site 3.)
-------
to
00
BISCAYNE BAY COAST
MECHANICAL
DRAFT
COOLING TOWER
SITE
/,*8-46
V~6-60
5-80 \ ^L^>7
X
J«6-4I
WIND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION (%)
LEGEND
PLANT
SITE
NUMBER
MEAN
AEROSOL SALT
CONCENTRATION
\ S06-79
SCALE (Km)
Figure 20
Isopleths of mean recorded aerosol salt concentrations (jULq/rn) for the
time period 52-74 '74 (Julian date) as measured by an APS Rotary
Impaction Sampler. Windrose winds were recorded at the Florida Light S
'Power Turkey Point weather observing site and are expressed as percent of
all hourly observations for the sample period that the wind was from a
particular sector (1-16).
-------
The highest natural aerosol background levels for Sites 1, 2,
and 3 occurred with easterly onshore winds (39). Consequently, some
correlation between easterly winds and salt accumulations would be
expected for the plants on the central transect. However, the Site 1
bean and corn plants salt accumulation correlations (r=.91) were signifi-
cantly higher (P <0.05) than the conservative background (Site 3). This
could indicate a sizeable incremental salt loading occurred above ambient
levels if this western transect lacked a detectable background gradient.
However, statistical analysis of the APS data collected during the
demonstration of cooling tower operation indicated cooling tower salt
aerosol increment to the ambient (background) salt aerosol Jevels was
less than the measurement accuracy of 3 to 5 pg/m (43). The exposed
cultivar plants registered cumulative and transient salt deposition over
the entire thre week period. The cumulative and transient effects could
have been minimized or misrepresented by the short period, daytime APS
aerosol sampling.
This sampling uncertainty and the inability to use the plant
sampling net to assess possible ambient gradient effects does not permit
eliminating the cooling tower as an incremental source at Site 1. The
apparent proximity effects shown by the plant salt accumulation must be
interpreted as indicating that if there was a significant cooling tower
increment to the plant salt accumulations, it was restricted to plants
at Site 1 and was masked by the ambient gradient.
Powered Spray Modules (PSM) Drift Contribution to Plant Site Accumulation
The relation between the spray module contribution and the
observed plant concentrations was as equally obscure as that observed
for the cooling tower. This was partially attributed to the failure in
adequately segregating the operation periods of the cooling tower and
the spray modules. Another factor was the relatively short duration of
critical east wind during spray module operations. The highest APS salt
aerosol concentrations, 30 and 112 yg/m , were recorded at Site 1 down-
wind from the operating spray modules (Table 8). As long as these peak
aerosol concentrations were not transient anomolies, the spray modules
should have had at least as much or more at impact at Site 1 under
equivalent conditions as the cooling tower. Unfortunately, such a
cooling device impact comparison was precluded because plants of different
tri-weekly sets did not even receive equivalent critical wind exposure,
much less share other environmental conditions during the eight week
test period.
Predictive models indicate that spray modules deposit a much
greater drift fraction and reach drift extinction considerably closer to
the source than cooling towers with similar cooling water circulation
rates. However, because of overlapping cooling device operation and
short duration of drift exposure, it was not possible to demonstrate a
39
-------
TABLE 8. PEAK SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATIONS OF SITE 1-3 DURING PHASE II
(BEAN AND CORN EXPOSURE) AT TURKEY POINT
Site
1
1
1
1
2
3
1
ug/m
29
14
14
17
18
12
112
.72
.04
.72
.43
.82
.43
.08
Month
& day
2/15
2/20
2/21
2/28
2/28
2/28
3/31*
Time
10:28-15:30
12:53-16.36
9:28-14:32
11:07-15:25
11:46-15;41
13:18-17:36
13:05-17:05
Time of
spray Module
Operation
24:00-24:00
0
0
0
0
0
12:10-17:50
Time of
Cooling Tower Wind
Operation Sector
9
24
24
24
24
0
:45-19
: 00-24
:00-24
:00-24
: 00-24
0
.15
:00
:00
:00
:00
5
5
4
4
6
- 6
- 6
6
- 5
4
- 5
- 8
Rh
63%
68%
85%
60%
61%
53%
59%
*after
plant
study
terminated
separate PSM contribution to the plant salt accumulation during Phase
II.
The plants on the central transect had the greatest PSM drift
exposure from January 30 to February 20, 1974 (Julian dates 30-51).
Figure 21 illustrates the elevated plant sodium level measured at Site 1
compared to other central transect sites for plants sampled during that
period. The plant chloride levels reflect the same trend (Table 9).
The tri-weekly averages of APS salt aerosol measurements also showed
higher mean values at Site 1 (Figure 22). While intersite salt accumula-
tion differences for the Julian date 30-51 exposure period were pronounced,
these differences did not become evident until some time after the first
two weeks of that period. The plants received a cumulative 12 hours of
critical wind exposure for that two weeks, yet the plant salt accumula-
tions remained constant. The plant salt accumulation difference appeared
during the last week of the three week exposure period, after the plants
were exposed to an additional 22 hours of cumulative critical wind.
However, the tower also operated during the last week for this particular
tri-weekly set; exposing the plants to 7 hours of cooling tower drift,
in addition to 15 hours of separate exposure to spray module drift.
It is concluded that the PSM had little influence on plant
salt accumulation during the first two weeks of the Julian date 30-51
exposure period. While there was a terminal salt accumulation difference
among the central transect sites, identification of the PSM contribution
40
-------
Q.
a.
O
\-
LU
O
6000-1
5000-
4000-
3000-
§ 2000
1000
500
250
SODIUM
SITE 1 ----
y-116.26x-395
r = .95
SITE 2 -
3EAN
SITE 3
y--7.0
r = -.73
SODIUM
SUE 1
y = 88.01x -2
r = .96
SITE 2
y = 9.52x + 219
r=.75
SITE 3
y = 5.81 x +328
n A
r ,84
CORN
2 4 6 8 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38
2 4 6 810 14 18 22 26 30 34 38
HOURS CRITICAL WIND
Figure 2 I. Plot and least squares linear regression of western tran-
sect bean and corn sodium concentrations (ppm dry tissue) against wind expo-
sure (hours) at Turkey Point, Florida for period spanning Julian dates 30-51.
Dashed line represents centroid-biased 95% confidence interval for site 3 re-
gression line. ( o site 1, a site 2, A site 3.)
-------
TABLE 9A. MEAN CHLORIDE ABOVEGROUND ACCUMULATION (PPM DRY WT.) OF
BEAN PLANTS FROM JULIAN DATE EXPOSURE GROUP 30-51 AFTER
RECEIVING 7, 12, 34 HOURS EXPOSURE TO COOLING DEVICE DRIFT
Site
7 hour
12 hour
34 hour
1
2
3
7970
6840
7130
8067
6723
5707
20500
9380
9043
TABLE 9B. MEAN CHLORIDE ABOVEGROUND ACCUMULATION (PPM DRY WT.) OF CORN
PLANTS FROM JULIAN DATE EXPOSURE GROUP 30-51, AFTER RECEIVING
7, 12, 34 HOURS EXPOSURE TO COOLING DEVICE DRIFT
Site
7 hour
12 hour
34 hour
1
2
3
14233
16700
16167
15033
12300
13500
17833
11053
12467
42
-------
BISCAYNE BAY COAST
4
POWERED SPRAY
MODULES (PSM)
15
12
GO
PLANT
SITE (
NUMBER
WIND FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION (%)
LEGEND
MEAN
AEROSOL SALT
CONCENTRATION
'4-72
9% 5-72
0
t
0-5
=d=
SCALE (Km)
1-0
d
Figure 22.
Isopleths of mean recorded aerosol salt concentrations (Ltg/m3) for the
time period 30-51 '74 (Julian date) as measured by an APS Rotary
Impaction Sampler. Windrose winds were recorded at the Florida Light 8t
Power Turkey Point weather observing site and are expressed as percent of
all hourly observations for the sample period that the wind was from a
particular sector (1-16).
-------
was obscured by ambient gradient effect and a possible cooling tower
contribution during the last week. Plants of the Julian date 30-51
exposure period along the central transect had roughly equivalent salt
accumulations compared to plants from the same sites exposed from Julian
dates 51-74. Yet these accumulations resulted from about one-fifth of
the critical wind exposure (only 34 hours as compared to 180 hours for
the latter period). The cooling tower operated exclusively during the
entire Julian date 51-75 period. Since the plant accumulations were
comparable for the two exposure periods, the shorter drift exposure time
in the earlier period might suggest a comparatively stronger spray
module than cooling tower effect at Site 1. However, differing environ-
mental conditions greatly confound the problem of comparing the plant
salt concentrations of different drift exposure periods, thus restricting
meaningful comparative conclusion. Perhaps reflecting these environmental
variables, the Site 1 plants of the Julian date 30-51 exposure period
did not exhibit symptoms of salt toxtcity, despite having comparable
salt accumulations as plants that were injured during earlier exposure
periods.
The powered spray modules (PSM) increment to introduced cultivar
plant salt accumulations can not be determined with certainty directly
from the plant site data. The statistical analysis of the APS data
indicated the PSM increased the ambient (background) concentration
approximately 3 pg/m at an APS sampling site 430 meters NW of the
tower site (43). The large APS sample variance at Site 1 (215 meters
west) and Site 2 (430 meters west), or a possible asymmetrical aerosol
dispersion, prevented identifying any PSM increment at those sites.
While the Site 2 plants did not show any significant difference from
the conservative background at Site 3, the Site 1 plant salt accumu-
lations were significantly higher. However, the paucity of sited
plant data prohibits separating the ambient gradient and cooling
device increment at Site 1. The lack of full-term aerosol sampling
and uncertain ambient gradient effects restrain assessment of the
cooling device aerosol increment to suggesting that if there was any
significant PSM increment to plant salt accumulations, it was confined
to Site 1 (215 meters downwind).
44
-------
SECTION VII
PHASE III, CONTROLLED EXPOSURE STUDY
DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Facilities Description and Exposure Sequence
The principal objective of this experiment was to determine
bush bean plant injury and yield reduction from simulated ambient salt
aerosol loading. Elemental sodium and chloride accumulations in plant
tissue were also measured after exposures to varying aerosol salt con-
centrations. Considerable caution should be exercised when translating
limited, controlled exposure results for application to field observations.
There are more possible combinations of variations in significant weather
events, temporal aerosol concentrations, and plant status than could ever
practically duplicated in exposure chambers. Phase III was not intended
to duplicate the temporal salt aerosol concentrations at Turkey Point,
but rather to investigate plant response at constant, representative
concentrations for a duration approximating possible cooling tower drift
exposure at Turkey Point. This is a standard approach which dictates,
by intent and necessity of design, a broad interpretation of plant dose-
response patterns.
Bush bean plants of the same variety exposed at Turkey Point
field sites in Phase II were grown in a greenhouse from seeds sown in
four-inch plastic pots filled with Jiffy Mix. The greenhouse temperature
was 20 +_ 5°C and RH 40 +_ 10% with unsupplemented natural light (about
700 fcps). Three groups of 100 plants were grown to ages of one, three,
and five weeks. Because all plants were harvested at maturity (nine
weeks), the groups are best identified by these respective ages at the
start of the exposure (see Table 10).
Plants were randomly selected from each of the three age
groups, assigned identification numbers, and randomly transferred to the
specially designed exposure chambers. All exposures began on the same
day.. Treatments consisted of three aerosol concentrations (5.25, 75
ug/m ) with seven plant replicates per age category for each treatment
a total of 63 plants. Growth conditions in the exposure room were 24 +_
2°C and 57% RH during the light photoperiod, 22 +_ 4°C and 45% RH during
the dark photoperiod, with 1700 fcps fluorescent-incandescent lights on
an 8-hour daily photoperiod. The plants were exposed five hours daily
from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. during the normal five-day work week, for
an accumulation of 100 hours of exposure over a four week period.
At the end of each exposure period, routine growth and chemical
composition information was gathered. Abnormal growth and development
or plant damage was quantitatively estimated and recorded as it occurred.
Additional anatomical examinations measured cell plasmolysis in leaf
sections.
45
-------
TABLE 10. SCHEDULE OF PLANT AND EXPOSURE DURING PHASE III. PLANTS
GROUPED BY AGE AT TIME OF EXPOSURE INITIATION
Plant Age Date Date Date
(weeks) Planted Exposed Harvested
One
Three
Five
11 725/74
11/11/74
10/28/74
12/2-30/74
12/2-30/74
12/2-30/74
1/28/75
1/13/75
1/02/75
Three exposure units, one for each aerosol concentration
consisted of rotating tables 1.8 meters in diameter that rotated 16
times per hour (Figures 23 thru 28). The potted plants were located
single file around the table perimeter where they revolved through a
spray booth (equipped with 81 x 46 cm openings on both sides) equipped
with an air atomized spray nozzle (Sonocord 035H) which generated the
sea salt aerosol (diluted 1:30). The sea water for the salt aerosol was
collected at the Oregon Pacific Coast. Net room air flow was positively
directed up the aerosol gradient and exhausted out a door, vent through a
filtered circulation fan.
During weekends and following full exposure, the plants were
placed in growth chambers with a temperature of 21 j^2°C, 47% RH, and
2100 fcps of fluorescent-incandescent light on a 12 hour photoperiod.
In both exposure and growth chambers, the plants received half-strength
Hoagland nutrient solution, at least once every two days. When the
plants reached nine weeks of age, they were removed from the growth
chambers, weighted, and then assayed for salt component concentra-
tion (34).
The plants shared common environmental conditions throughout
the salt spray exposure. Plants were then maintained in growth chambers
during the post-exposure period, which possessed relatively more light
and different nutrient schedule than the greenhouse. The plants remained
in the growth chamber until they reached maturity so that full term
effects of exposure could be determined. Since the plants were of three
ages, there were three harvest groups at different times as the plants
matured over a 9 week period. Each harvest group spent different amounts
46
-------
HUMIDIFIER NOZZLE
SONIC ATOMIZING NOZZLE
MICROMETER VALVE
SOLENOID VALVE
COOLING FAN
LIGHT BANK
DRIVE UNIT
SPRAY ENCLOSURE
Figure 23.
REVOLUTION
COUNTER
SAMPLING ARM
POLYESTER
SAMPLING MESHES
1/5 ftp AC-DC MOTOR
ROTATING PLATFORM EXPOSURE CHAMBER
-------
Figure 24. Saline aerosol exposure chamber with salt spray nozzle in
operation.
48
-------
PUMP STATION
SALT WATER PUMP ON-OFF
SWITCHES
SALT WATER MICROPUMP
HUMIDIFIER MICROPUMP
TO
CONTROL BOARD
TO HUMIDIFIER
INLET
BY-PASS
WATER FILTER
TIMER SOLENOIDS
(NON-FUNCTIONA L )
VALVE
BY-PASS
INLET
CONTROL BOARD
FIGURE 25A.
WATER PRESSURE
GAUGE
AIR PRESSURE
GAUGE
COMPRESSED AIR
LINE
FIGURE 25.
SOLENOID TIMER
DWYER FLOW METER
FLIP-COCK
FIGURE 25B.
-------
Figure 26. A control board of a phase 3 exposure chamber.
-------
Figure 27. Salt water pump station used in Phase 3 experiment.
51
-------
Figure 28. Bush bean plants on exposure chamber turn-table.
Figure 29. APS apparatus used to monitor salt aerosol concentrations during
plant exposure.
52
-------
of time in the growth chamber; 3 days, 16 days and 29 days for the
plants where exposure began at age 5 weeks, 3 weeks, and 1 week, respec-
tively. Consequently, the general increase in plant mass with decreasing
age at exposure reflected longer stays in the more favorable growth
conditions in the growth chamber, obscuring interage differences caused
by salt aerosol stress. Except for general trends, comparisons of
plants of different ages should not be attempted beyond termination of
salt aerosol exposure.
Aerosol Sampling
The same Airborne Particle Sampler (APS) that was employed in
the Turkey Point field studies was also used to sample sea salt aerosol
concentration in the controlled exposure chambers (Figure 29). The APS
employs inertia! impaction to collect aerosols on rotating pairs of
polyester meshes (44).
APS operation within the confines of a laboratory caused some
initial concern regarding validity of the measured aerosol concentrations.
Therefore, measurements with the APS method were compared with simultan-
eous measurements by the Isokinetic Sampling System (IK), also an Environ-
mental Systems Corp. product. The IK incorporates a heated sampling
tube filled with small glass beads. A pump-gas meter combination main-
tains an isokinetic airflow, drawing it over a heater wire that evaporates
the aerosol and deposits the salt in the interior of the tube. When the
exposure is terminated the tube is flushed with distilled water and
subsequently analyzed for Na+ by atomic absorption spectroscopy.
During a one week test period proceeding the plant exposure
study, ESC personnel conducted comparisons of these samplers in the
exposure chambers at the EPA facilities in Corvallis. Comparison of the
results of five simultaneous measurement pairs, shown on Table 11,
indicated no significant difference between the two techniques on the
revolving tables. The APS method was selected as the aerosol monitoring
method for Phase III because of continuity, convenience and cost.
Salt aerosol concentrations during plant exposure were monitored
with the APS/24 VDC battery pack in position near the perimeter of
revolving exposure tables. The concentration levels were calibrated
prior to plant exposure. The salt levels were monitored proceeding and
following each week the bean plants were exposed. APS sampling time
averaged at least 30 minutes for each spray chamber. The APS was mounted
at plant height with the sampling arm portion of the APS head directed
forward with respect to the direction of table revolution. The meshes
were removed from the APS sampling arm with plastic forceps and placed
in chemically sterile 150 ml beakers. The beaker mouths were then
covered with "parafilm" to minimize procedural Na+ background. The
53
-------
TABLE 11. WILCOX ON MATCHED-PAIR SIGNED-RANK TEST OF SALT AEROSOL
CONCENTRATIONS IN A EXPOSURE CHAMBER (OVER A RANGE OF
PERFORMANCE SETTINGS) DETERMINED BY SIMULTANEOUS MEASUREMENT
WITH AN AIRBORNE PARTICLE SAMPLER (APS) AND ISOKINETIC SAMPLER
(IK)
5
Salt Aerosol Concentration (yg/m ) Difference
Pair APS IK D Rank of IDI T
1
2
3
4
5
69
140
57
24
32
88
137
64
23
31
-19 5 5
3 3
-744
1 1.5
1 1.5
T - 9 NS
TABLE 12. RELATIVE PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF SEA SALT AEROSOL GENERATED
WITH A SONICORD 035H AT 10 PSI IN A ROTATING TABLE EXPOSURE
CHAMBER AS DETERMINED FROM MAGNESIUM OXIDE SLIDES PLACED AT PLANT
HEIGHT
Percent of particle diameter with impact crater (ym)
< 50 50-100 > 100-150 > 150
46% - 44% 7.4% 2.1
Average particle size: 58 ym
54
-------
meshes were eluted with 50 ml 10% HC1 solution, sonicated 30 seconds,
and allowed to stand 30 minutes before Na+ determination by atomic
absorption spectrophotometry. The sea salt aerosol concentration was
computed as:
*sea salt = 3'267 ^Na - MBNa) [yg/m3]
where:
MNa 1S the mass of soc|ium collected by the mesh pairs
N'sNa is the Na+ procedural background
V is the sampled air volume
Slides coated with magnesium oxide were used to estimate particle size
distribution (45). Each slide was prepared by passing a clean 7.5 cm x
2.5 cm glass microscope slide through a flame produced by igniting a
metal screen of about six magnesium turnings (Grignard reagent grade)
until a light coating of oxide was visible. For about 2-3 minutes the
slides, coated surface up, were placed above the turntable at the same
height as the plant, then removed and returned to the laboratory. Using
a microscope equipped with a calibrated ocular micrometer, ten fields of
each slide were examined to measure the diameter of all the impact
craters in each field (Table 12). Figure 30 gives a representative
illustration of the craters.
A 1.5 cm x 2.5 cm slide without a coating was placed at the
same height as the plant and exposed to salt spray. Microscopic examina-
tion showed droplets under high humidity and crystals under low humidity
(Figure 31). The crystals resembled those found under the epidermal
layer of the bush bean plant exposed to salt aerosol.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Plant Injury
DescriptionVisual examination of bush beans revealed chlorosis with
crinkling and yellowing in older leaves similar to that observed at
Turkey Point. Bleached spots caused by chlorophyll disintegration also
were noticed on the upper surface of the bean leaf (Figures 32 and 33).
Marginal wilting (Figure 34 and 35) not distinguishable from drought
injury, developed more on older than on younger leaves of plants during
exposure to salt aerosol in the controlled exposure experiment. After a
few days, the affected leaves showed curling on the margins and tips
(Figure 36). Chlorotic and necrotic areas developed unevenly over the
entire surface of the leaf. These symptoms suggest that salt deposition
on the leaves diffused throughout the epidermis causing chloroplasts to
55
-------
Figure 30. Aerosol impaction craters on Magnesium Oxide-coated slide, (x 450)
' ,
,
I
f
Figure 31. Salt crystals shown on the upper surface of bean leaf exposed to
75 yg/m3 salt spray, (x 450)
56
-------
Figure 32. Tip and marginal necrosis with spotting on bush bean leaf exposed
to salt aerosol.
Figure 33. Bleaching of tissue on upper surface of bush bean leaf exposed
to salt aerosol.
57
-------
Figure 34. Primary leaf of bush bean exhibiting marginal wilting and other
various degrees of injury by saline aerosol.
Figure 35. Marginal and intercostal tissue collapse on bush bean exposed to
a salt spray concentration of 75 yg/m3 for 100 hours.
58
-------
Figure 36. Seven week old bush bean exhibiting injury on trifoliate leaf
of plant exposed to 75 yg/m3 for about 50 hours.
Figure 37. Microscopic cross section of bush bean leaf shows salt aerosol
injury. The palisade cells have plastnolyzed and lost their
integrity, while the epidermis cells remained intact, (x 450)
59
-------
disintegrate. Occasionally water-logged areas on the leaf appeared
immediately after high salt deposition, but most of these symptoms did
not develop into chlorotic or necrotic lesions.
Microscopic examination of salt aerosol injured leaf tissues
revealed that the chloroplasts below the upper epidermis had disinte-
grated and lost their integrity. The injury extended in most cases to
the palisade cells (Figure 37). Under severe conditions, the damage
advanced to the adjacent spongy layer whereas the vascular bundles
remained intact. Crystals, probably sodium chloride, were clearly
observed beneath the epidermis layer between palisade cells and often
near the vascular bundles (Figure 38).
Aerosol Concentration and Foliar InjuryIncidence and severity of
foliar injury were the basic responses measured to determine bush bean
growth sensitivity to salt aerosol. There was a general increase in
foliar injury noted on the plants as exposure was initiated on later
stages of growth. For any particular treatment, the plants exposed
initially at 5 weeks after germination exhibited the most trifoliate
leaf injury, followed by the plants exposed initially at three weeks,
then those at one week. Due to the leafing sequence characteristic of
the bush bean, the upper canopy trifoliates were selected as more repre-
sentatively expressing area of foliar stress than the lower, younger
leaves.
The severity of injury on the canopy trifoliates appeared exponen-
tially related (r > .79 for all weeks, P < 0.01) to aerosol concentra-
tion over the range of exposures used (Figure 39). The severity of
injury for all three stages of growth exhibited similar response trends,
increasing with age for a given concentration and increasing abruptly
when the salt concentration exceeded 25 yg/m . The severity of injury
on the five week plants in contrast to other age groups was statisti-
cally significant (P < 0.05), though with never more than 7% average
area of trifoliate injury separating the three ages with any treatment.
The older canopy trifoliate leaves were effectively exposed for longer
periods with more impingement surface area. The trifoliates of the
younger, developing plants emerged during the exposure period and had
the opportunity to disperse at least some fraction of the surface
accumulation of sea salt through growth expansion while presenting an
overall smaller surface area.
The incidence of injury on all the trifoliate leaves showed a
more linear response across the salt aerosol exposure gradient than did
severity of injury (Figure 40). A leaf was classified as injured based
on visual symptoms. All the trifoliates for each plant were examined by
age group and aerosol treatment. Results indicated a strong correlation
60
-------
'
Figure 38. Microscopic cross-section of bush bean leaf shows salt aerosol
injury. The mesophyll cells have plazmolyzed and lost their
integrity, but the epidermal cells remained intact. Crystals,
probably sodium chloride, clearly shown below the epidermis
and adjacent to vascular bundles. (X 450)
61
-------
5 25 75
SEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION
Figure 39. Mean percentage foliar area injured on the first three sets of
trifoliate leaves of three ages of bush bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) after 100
hours exposure to various sea salt aerosol concentrations.
(Exposure initiated at: 5 weeks, - , 3 weeks, A-, 1
week.)
60-
5 25 75
SEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION (
Figure 40. Mean percent trifoliate leaves injured on three ages of bush
bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) after 100 hours exposure to different sea salt aero-
sol concentrations. (Exposure initiated at: 5 weeks, - 3
weeks, * ,1 week.)
62
-------
(r > .92 for all weeks, P < 0.01) between incidence of trifoliate injury
and salt aerosol concentration. As with severity of injury, the more
mature plants exhibited a higher incidence of trifoliate leaf injury for
a given salt aerosol concentration. The 5 week old plants had an inci-
dence of injury significantly higher (P < 0.01) at all treatments than
the other ages.
Table 13 shows the effects of 100 cumulative hours of simulated
sea salt aerosol exposure on the canopy trifoliate leaves. The five
week plants had a trace (0 -5%) injury threshold below 5 ug/m , the
lowest concentration used. The trace injury threshold of the uppeic
trifoliates for the three week and one week plants was near 5 yg/m and
25 pg/m , respectively. Examination of the injury incidence for all
trifoliates yielded the same trace injury threshold as severity of upper
trifoliate injury (Table 14). Evaluation of the injury incidence with
the log of treatment concentrations yielded a threshold distribution
that is generally more meaningful over a range of sensitivity than
simply focusing on a single threshold. The small number of treatments
did not warrant elaborate statistical analysis of a log dose-response
nature. However, a few general conclusions can be drawn from what data
was gathered. The dose-response (Figure 41) plots for the different
ages were closely parallel, with the plot for five week old plants
illustrating the increased sensitivity with age. The median effective
dose (ED 50) for the five week old plants is neac 70 ug/m While the
ED 50 for the other two ages is roughly 165 ug/m , better than a factor
of two higher than that of the five week old plants. Severity of
injury on most of the affected trifoliate leaves was from 5% to 10%,
though some of the canopy trifoliate leaves had 50% of their surface
injured.
FOLIAR SALT CONCENTRATION AND INJURY
Salt concentration of the unwashed trifoliate leaves closely
corresponded to the treatment concentrations. The five-week old plants
had the highest Na and Cl" leaf concentration at harvest, followed by the
three-week and one-week old plants (see Tables 15-17). Since the five-
week old plants had less post-exposure opportunity than the younger
plants for ion translocation and growth prior to harvest, their high leaf
concentration best reflected the relationship between treatment and leaf
concentration of the salt. Salt concentration in the five-week old tri-
foliates was directly proportional (r > .94, P < $.01) to the concentra-
tion of the salt aerosol (see Figure 42). The Na and Cl" concentrations .
in the younger plants showed a similar relationship (r > .89 Na , r = .80,
Cl", P < 0.01) between increased foliar concentration and salt aerosol con-
centration.
63
-------
TABLE 13. MEAN PERCENTAGE OF FOLIAR AREA INJURY ON UPPER TRIFOLIATES OF
THREE STAGES OF GROWTH OF BUSH BEANS EXPOSED 100 HOURS TO
THREE CONCENTRATIONS OF SALT AEROSOL
Age at Initiation
of Exposure
One Week
Three Week
Five Week
5 yg/m
Oac
7ac
3!6ad
25 yg/m3
3ac
1 7ac
5;9ad
75 y/m3
1ft 7bc
Ia*'bc
17'6bc
24.0DC
Percent area foliar injury followed by the same letter (a or b in row; c
or d in a column) do not differ significantly at the 5% level according
to the Duncan Multiple Range test.
TABLE 14. PROPORTION OF TRIFOLIATE LEAVES INJURED AFTER 100 HOURS
INTERMITTENT EXPOSURE TO A SALINE AEROSOL GENERATED BY A
SONICORD NOZZLE AT 5 vg/m6, 25 yg/nr3, 75 vg/m3 AT THREE
STAGES OF GROWTH
Concentration
^
5 yg/m
^
25 yg/nT
n
75 yg/m
Age
1 week
3 week
5 week
1 week
3 week
5 week
1 week
3 week
5 week
Leaves
Injured
0
1
6
3
5
19
15
23
49
Total
Leaves
54
81
130
50
78
90
60
84
90
Percent
Injury
oa
,a
h
4.6b
63a
W
21 b
25a
27b
55b
\
Percent Injury, within a specific concentration column, followed by the
same letter (a or b) do not differ significantly at the 1% (or 5%) level
according to the Duncan Multiple Range Test.
64
-------
7.0-
98
3.0
5 10 25 75 100
DOSESEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION
Figure 4 I. Log dose-response plot for bush bean Phaseolus vulgaris
L.) trifoliate leaves injured following exposure to three concentrations of sea
salt aerosol for 100 hours at different stages of growth. ED50represents the
concentration where 50% of all trifoliate leaves exhibit injury.
-------
TABLE 15. SUMMARY OF CONTROLLED EXPOSURE RESULTS FOR MATURE BUSH BEAN
INITIALLY EXPOSED AT FIVE WEEKS OLD FOR A CUMULATIVE 100 HOURS
TO SEA SALT AEROSOL DURING A FOUR WEEK PERIOD. SUMMARY LISTS
MEAN SEVERITY OF TRIFOLIATE INJURY (%), MASS (GREEN AND DRY
IN GRAMS), POD PRODUCTIVITY AND SALT CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR
PLANT SEGMENTS AND SOIL (PPM DRY WT.)
Average of 7 Plants
Average percent of 1st,
2nd, and 3rd set tri-
foliate injury
Weight of 1-3 set of
trifoliate leaves
Chemical analysis
Leaf weight
Chemical analysis
Stem weight
Chemical analysis
Pods and seed weight
Chemical analysis
Average number of
healthy pods
Average number of seeds
Roots chemical analysis
Soil Chemical Analysis
green
dry
C1i
Na
green
dry
cli
Na
green
dry
cl+
Na
green
dry
ci;
Na
C1i
Na+
cli
Na
5 yg/m
3.6
9.81 (+ 2.10)1
1.74 (+ 0.34)
2789
102
8.39 (+ 3.29)
1.17 (+0.66)
3770
158
9.89 (+ 2.12)
1.81 (+0.60)
3771
1119
24.36 (+ 9.51)
3.48 (+ 0.87)
1956
80
3.14 (+0.90)
10.43 (+3.31)
390
1114
202
548
25 yg/m3
5.9
8.3 (+ 1.34)
1.57 T+ 0.23)
6254
914
11.25 (+ 2.53)
1.86 (+_0.60)
5543
601
9.88 (+ 1.07)
2.06 (+0.46)
3786
1899
30.76 (+ 9.31)
3.86 (+ 1.20)
2134
244
3.71 (+ 1.11)
12.71 (+3.64)
309
710
257
705
75 yg/m
24.0**
5.10 (+ 1.44)**
1.21 (+ 0.22)**
40700
12143
8.23 (+ 3.42)
1.37 (+0.58)
20171
5089
1.42 (+ 2.25)
1.54 (+0.40)
7560
8581
19.31 (+ 7.48)
2.94 (+0.93)
2444
2634
2.94 (+0.79)
9.29 (+3.25)
434
1085
360
732
1
arithmetic mean (+_ 1 SD)
'indicates inter-row significant difference (P < 0.05)
indicates inter-row highly significant difference (P < 0.01)
**
66
-------
TABLE 16. SUMMARY OF CONTROLLED EXPOSURE RESULTS FOR MATURE BUSH BEAN INITIALLY
EXPOSED AT THREE WEEKS OLD FOR A CUMULATIVE 100 HOURS TO SEA SALT
AEROSOL DURING A FOUR WEEK PERIOD. SUMMARY LISTS MEAN SEVERITY OF
TRIFOLIATE INJURY (55), MASS (GREEN & DRY IN GRAMS) POD PRODUCTIVITY,
AND SALT CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR PLANT SEGMENTS AND SOIL (PPM DRY WT.)
^M^HMBBB^Maavh-ftH^MV^HAA^MiM^M^^AMBBBBBBBABB. ^WBBIHBIIIBBBBM-BBBBM
Average of 7 Plants
Average percent of 1st
2nd and 3rd set trifol
injury
Weight of 1-3 set of
trifoliate leaves
Chemical analysis
Leaf weight
Chemical analysis
Stem weight
Chemical analysis
Pods and seed weight
Chemical analysis
Average number of
healthy pods
iate
green
dry
ci;
Na
green
dry
ci;
Na
green
dry
cl+"
Na
green
dry
cl+"
Na
Average number of seeds
Roots chemical analysi
Soil chemical analysis
s CI"
C1I
Na
-^ -^^""^l*^-^^^ ^^WW^*.---------------!!^^^
5 yg/m
.7
6.8 (+ 2.65)1
0.94 (+0.33)
2014
204
10.42 (+ 5.11)
1.16 (+0.71)
2856
169
10.08 (+ 3.27)
1-44 (+ 1.17)
2600
776
23.80 (+ 5.16)
4.16 (+_1.36)
1357
70
4.0 (+0.82)
13.57 (+4.11)
485t
2157
753t
814
H«^BMHM«MVW«---H--1Mpq*MMl^«4V^^B^«M^^«
25 yg/m3
1.7
5.90 (+ 2.01)
0.93 (+0.24)
6717
496
7.32 (+ 2.51)
0.90 (+ 0.38)
5564
375
9.19 (+ 1.54)
1.68 (+0.48)
7033
1958
23.22 (+ 4.09)
4.16 (+ 1.37)
1260
no
3.57 (+ 1.28)
12.14 (+3.89)
465t
2673
1365t
1165
^^^^^^^^.^^^^^MIBVM^^Mrt^^^^B^^B^
75 yg/m
17.6**
6.51 (+ 2.38)
1.05 (+0.25)
32886
5820
11.43 (+ 8.93)
1.51 (+ 1.33)
17321
2243
11.08 (+ 4.39)
1.86 (+ 1.16)
6869
3036
22.14 (+ 8.89)
4.20 (+2.34)
1680
2257
3.86 (+2.34)
12.43 (+ 7.59)
656t
4411
840t
770
1
arithmetic mean (+_ 1 SD)
^actual value less than the number listed
"indicates inter-row significant difference (P < 0.05)
indicates inter-row highly significant difference (P < 0.01)
**
67
-------
TABLE 17. SUMMARY OF CONTROLLED EXPOSURE RESULTS FOR MATURE BUSH BEAN INITIALLY
EXPOSED AT ONE WEEK OLD FOR A CUMULATIVE 100 HOURS TO SEA SALT AEROSOL
DURING A FOUR WEEK PERIOD. SUMMARY LISTS MEAN SEVERITY OF TRIFOLIATE
INJURY (%), MASS (GREEN AND DRY IN GRAMS), POD PRODUCTIVITY AND SALT
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS FOR PLANT SEGMENTS AND SOIL (PPM DRY WT.)
Average of 7 Plants
25
75
Average percent of 1st
2nd and 3rd set tri-
foliate
Weight of 1-3 set green
of trifoliate leaves dry
Chemical analysis
Leaf weight
Chemical analysis
Stem weight
Chemical analysis
Number of healthy
pods
Number of seeds
Roots Chemical
Analysis
Soil chemical
analysis
Na+
green
dry
Na+
green
dry
ClT
Na
Na+
Na+
0
10.25 (+ 1.
1.59 (+ 0.
1148t
84
14.97 (+ 3.
2.12 (+ 0.
1450t
128
15.86 (+ 3.
3.77 (+ 1.
1035t
21
8.29 (+ 1.
33.71 (+ 6.
1272t
2386
166t
1682
90)1
28)
55)
74)
24)
12)
89)
8)
0.3
9.12 (+ 1.65)
1.42 (+0.04)
957
112
9.50 (+ 5.57)
1.36 (+0.78)
2159
208
11.60 (+ 3.91)
2.87 (+0.99)
729t
32
6.29 (+3.55)
23.86 (+ 16.92)
900t
2264
188t
1645
18.7**
10.34 (+ 2.38)
1.54 (+0.29)
8630
889
17.77 (+ 8.99)
2.56 (+ 1.19)
6106
180
17.22 (+ 4.78)
4.08 (+ 1.02)
1429t
283
6.57 (+4.36)
24.29 (+ 17.59)
1194t
1953
~~
1 arithmetic mean (+1 SD)
actual value less than the number listed
indicates inter-row significant difference (P < 0.05)
indicates inter-row highly significant difference (P < 0.01) from
non-asterick values
**
68
-------
a (x103)
>. SO-
TS
a.
O
111
O
E
45
? 40-
35-
§ 30-
O
O 25-
O
g 20-
DC
9 15-
10-
5-
1-
25 75
SEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION (yg/m3)
25 75
SEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION (yg/m3)
Figure 42. Foliar accumulation of sodium and chloride by bush bean
trifoliate leaves exposed 100 hours to various concentrations of saline mist at
age 5 weeks.
69
-------
The incidence and severity of injury on the trifoliate leaves
exhibited a corresponding increase with increases of trifoliate salt
concentration (Tables 15-18). The severity of injury in the trifoliates
increased rather uniformly as leaf Na and Cl~ concentration increased
(Figure 43). The five weeks old plants probably best typify the rela-
tionship between salt accumulation and injury. The five week plants
describe a near linear curve (r = .77 Na , r = .74 Cl~; n = 21, P < 0.05)
as severity of injury extends from the low levels encountered at the
5 yg/m and 25 yg/m treatments to the more extensive injury (average of
55% canopy trifoliate area injured) and higher accumulations (Na ,
8,614 ppm; Cl" 30,140 ppm) at 75 yg/m .
Injury incidence showed an apparent, proportional trend between
higher percentages of leaves injured with higher leaf salt concentrations.
The five we|k old plants best illustrate the curvilinear relationship
(r > .98 Na and Cl~, n = 21, P < 0.01) between incidence of trifoliate
injury and leaf salt component accumulation (Figure 44). The slightly
better correlation between incidence of injury and leaf salt accumula-
tion is probably in a large part, due to the fact that accuracy of
determining injury status is higher than estimating the areal extent of
that injury when it occurs.
The higher concentration levels of the younger plants have
probably shifted toward lower accumulations of Na and Cl~ as the ions
were translocated and dispersed during post-exposure growth. The surface
dispersion and translocation of ions would account for the relative
steepening of the injury curve (Figure 44A), as the upper points shifted
to the left. These particular curves for the one week and three week
plants are more representative of relative concentration shift with
injury than delineating a relationship between leaf salt concentration
and severity of injury.
The level of salt accumulation that produced trace (> 0.5%
upper trifoliate area) injury on the five week old plants was as low as
approximately 100 ppm sodium and 2,800 ppm chloride. However, evaluat-
ing such small amounts of injury approaches the limits of detection and
possible mimic effects were difficult to eliminate. For any detrimental
growth effects, leaf salt accumulation had to be high enough to produce
at least moderate amounts of foliar injury. The apparent toxicity
limits of salt accumulations associated with moderate amounts of trifol-
iate injury (5-25% area) on.the five week old plants ranged from approxi-
mately 900 to 12,000 ppm Na and 6300 to 41,000 ppm Cl~, for lower and
upper limits of injury, respectively (Table 18).
70
-------
TABLE 18. SHOWS PERCENT OF INJURED BUSH BEAN WITH RELATION TO TRIFOLIATE
SODIUM AND CHLORIDE ACCUMULATION
Plant
One week
Three weeks
Five weeks
ug/m
5
25
75
5
25
75
5
25
75
Percent
Trifoliate Injury
0
0.3
18.7**
0.7
1.7
17.6**
3.6
5.9
24.0**
Sodium
84.0
112.0
889.0
204.0
496.0
5820.0
102.0
914.0
12143.0
Chloride
1148.0
957.0
8630.0
2014.0
6717.0
32886.0
2789.0
6254.0
40700.0
Asterisks (**) indicate the injury column value within a particular weekly
group is significantly different at 1% level of probability. Post-exposure
conditions varied for the 3 ages of plants, do not directly compare the
3 ages of plants past the termination of exposure.
71
-------
25
10
12 x 103
TRIFOLIATE SODIUM CONCENTRATION (ppm dry wt.)
Figure 43 A Mean percent injured area of first three sets trifoliate leaves
of three ages of sea salt aerosol exposed plants plotted against mature trifoliate
Na+concentration.
Q
LU
DC
LU
<
_i
O
LU
DC
LU
DC
25-
20-
15"
10-
10 20 30 40 50 60 x 103
TRIFOLIATE CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION (ppm dry wt.)
Figure 43 B Mean percent injured area of the first three sets of trifoliate
leaves of three ages of sea salt aerosol exoosed plants plotted against the trifo-
liate CI-concentrations at maturity.
72
-------
2 4 6 8 10 12 x 10s
TRIFOLIATE SODIUM CONCENTRATION (ppm dry wt.)
Figure 44 a. Mean percent trifoliate leaves injured on three exposure
ages of bush bean with varying Nataccumulation in mature trifoliate leaves. (Ex-
posure initiated at: - 5 weeks, , 3 weeks, A, 1 week.)
10 20 30 40 50 60 xlO3
TRIFOLIATE CHLORIDE CONCENTRATION (ppm dry wt.)
Figure 44 b. Mean percent trifoliate leaves injured on three exposure
ages of bush beans with varying C (-accumulation in trifoliate leaves after ex-
posure to sea salt aerosol. (Exposure initiated: - 5 weeks,
3 weeks, *, 1 week.)
73
-------
Plant Growth Effects
DescriptionGrowth effects attributable to salt aerosol in the con-
trolled exposure studies were observed in the measurements of leaf
weight and pod yield. In plants of the same age some growth character-
istics, such as height and stem diameter, did not differ visually and
were not examined further. The comparison of the total mass of plants
of the same age showed no significant differences or trends.
Leaf WeightIn general, the growth effects of salt aerosol treatments
on leaves were rather restricted or undetectable. The only age group
which exhibited any vegetative response were the plants initially ex-
posed at five weeks of age. The green and dry weights of the canopy
trifoliates, the first trifoliates to emerge, showed a decreasing trend
with increases in the salt aerosol treatment and a significant mass
reduction (P < 0.01) at the 75 pg/m concentration (Table 15). The
green trifoliate mass decreased from 9.81 grams maximum average per 3
plant at the 5 pg/m concentration to only 5.10 grams at the 75 pg/m
treatment. In contrast, the younger plants did not show a similar
trend. Whether this lack of similarity between age group response
implied the absence of an exposure effect or represented a recovery
capacity remained uncertain as the terminal sacrifice of mature plants
prohibited simultaneous weight at exposure termination.
Pod Production and YieldWhile the five week and three week old plants
did not exhibit any detectable differences in productivity across the
aerosol treatment gradient, the one week old plants experienced a
pronounced reduction in pod weight and yield at the higher aerosol salt
concentrations. Measurements showed generally fewer pods at the highest
concentration treatment of 75 pg/m (Figure 45).
Pod productivity differed by a factor of approximately two
between the 5 pg/m and 75 pg/m treatments. The terminal pod pro-
ductivity at the high concentration treatment increased rather abruptly
while the other treatments changed little or declined slightly, with an
increase in sample variance. The canopy trifoliate leaves of these
plants had an average area injury of nearly 19% at termination of expo-
sure, but did not show any visible symptoms of salt toxicity 29 days
later at harvest. The 75 pg/m treatment terminal pod productivity
increase might represent a recooperative capacity similar to that shown
by the leaves.
While the difference in one week plant pod productivity less-
ened by harvest, pod weight per plant remained significantly different.
While the three and five week plants did not show any significant change
with treatment, the one week old plant pod yield had a sharn reduction
at even the intermediate treatment concentration of 25 pg/m (Figure 46A,
74
-------
cn
C/)
Q
a
CL
DC
LLJ
CD
12
11-
10-
9-
8-
7-
6-
5-
4-
3-
2-
1-
I 1 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I i I I I I I I I I I I I I T
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28
DAYS FOLLOWING TERMINATION OF EXPOSURE
Figure 45. Average number of seed pods per plant (exposure initiated
at age 1 week) exposed to three different airborne salt concentrations for 100
hours. Vertical lines indicate ± 1 least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level
of probability. ( D 5 ug/m^ A 25 ug/rn^ O 75 ug/m3;salt aerosol concentration.)
-------
ID^;
UJ h-
OC2
DC <
25-
0 -
-25 -
-50-
-75-
-100
5 25 75
SEA SALT AEROSOL CONCENTRATION (
Figure 46 A Percentage reduction of mean plant pod dry weight (with seeds) of
mature bush bean after exposure to three different sea salt aerosol concentra-
tions at three stages of growth (plant age at initiation of exposure:
5 weeks, 3 weeks, -A1 week.)
-75
-100
10 20 30 40 50
INCIDENCE OF TRIFOLIATE INJURY (%)
60
Figure 46 B. Percentage reduction of mean plant pod dry weight (with seeds) of
mature bush bean (9 weeks) after 100 hours exposure to varying sea salt aerosol
concentrations plotted against the percentage of leaves damaged on the plants.
(Age at initiation of exposure: 5 weeks,-*3 weeks,--A-1 week.)
76
-------
Table 19). The average plant pod dry weight from one week initial
exposure plant of the 5 yg/m treatment was 6.62 grams per plant at
harvest. This yield was reduced nearly fifty percent, to 4.16 and 3.65
grams per pod at the 25 and 75 yg/nr treatments respectively. Much the
same trend was preserved when pod yield was examined in relation to
incidence of trifoliate leaf injury (Figures 46B and 47; Table 19). The
older initially exposed plants had little change in pod yield, whereas
the one week plants showed a pronounced decline with less than 5% injury
incidence. Since leaf injury was strongly correlated to salt concentration,
it was difficult to determine whether the reduction was attributable
indirectly to leaf damage or a direct salt toxicity effect on the pods.
Ion TranslocationThe sequential salt assay of the plants allowed some
rather gross, comparative statements concerning direction and rates of
ion movement. Tables 20 and 21 show composite Na+/Cl- ratios using the
5 yg/m plants as background for the 3 and 5 week old plants. The
composite salt ratios should approach that of seawater if the accumulated
salts did not move differentially, i.e., the Na+/Cl- ratio should equal
.55. This analysis permitted determination of differential rates of Na+
and Cl- translocation.
Sodium and chloride accumulations were highest in the stems
and lowest in the leaves for both exposure ages at the 5 yg/m aerosol
concentration. The reverse was true of the other exposure concentrations
with the salt gradient directed downward, sometimes with an order of
magnitude difference (Tables 20 and 21). The sodium cation is in deficit
when the salt ratio is less than .55, since excess chloride anion would
have to be transported up a sizeable gradient for a considerable distance.
Successively comparing composite Na+/Cl- ratios among, the plant parts
for a given age and treatment indicated that sodium was the more mobile
salt ion in the bean plant when salt aerosol was deposited on the leaves.
The salt ratios were consistently less than .55 for leaves of all ages,
while the stems and pods accumulated sodium with ratios greater than
.55. The five week composite ratio of plant salt for the intact above-
ground plant was .52 for the 75 yg/m treatment. This suggested that the
Na+ ion had moved from the leaves, but had not moved past the stems and
pods. The 25 yg/m treatment had an aboveground salt ratio of .48.
While some sodium possibly moved to the roots, the ratio was too close
to separate from experimental error. Since the whole roots could not be
reclaimed for massing and chemical analysis, composite correlation was
unreliable between the upper portion and root salt ratios. However, the
average root salt ratios for all 5 weekly plants were nearly identical,
about 1000 sodium ppm to 400 chloride ppm (Table 15).
The three week old plants had a 16 day post-exposure period
and showed a more pronounced, but similar leaf sodium deficit as the
five week old plants. The salt ratio for the aboveground portion of
77
-------
TABLE 19. THREE STAGES OF BUSH BEAN EXPOSED TO THREE SALT DEPOSITIONS
WITH RELATION TO SEEDS AND PODS FORMATION
Plant
One week
Three weeks
\
Five weeks
yg/m
5
25
75
5
25
75
5
25
75
Percent
Leaf Injury
0
0.3
18.76**
0.7
1.7
17.6**
3.6
5.9
24.0**
Average
No Pods
8.29
6.29
6.57
4.0
3.57
3.86
3.14
3.71
2.43
Average
No Seeds
33.71
23.86
24.29
13.37
12.14
12.43
10.43
12.71
9.29
Pods.& Seeds
Green Weight
gr
70.37
33.05**
39.30**
23.80
23.22
22.14
24.36
19.31
19.31
Dry
Weight
gr
6.62
4.16*
3.65*
4.16
4.16
4.20
3.48
2.94
2.94
*
Asterisks in a column indicate significant difference from nonasterisk
values at * P < 0.005;** P < 0.01 for that weekly group indicated by analysis
of variance. Post-exposure conditions varied for the 3 ages of plants
exposed, do not directly compare the 3 ages of plants past the termi-
nation of exposure.
78
-------
CO
UJ
<
111
-I
UJ
<
0
LL
CO
h-
LU
CO
CO
Q
O
UJ
X
z
0
DC
20
15
10
1
5
25
75
SALT
DEPOSITION
ugjm^
5WK
A
3WK
B
1 WK
C
1 WK
C
3 WK
B
5WK
A
Figure 47. pQDS & SEEDS WEIGHT WITH RELATION
TO INJURY ON PLANTS
CO
70 ,_
60 g
50 JJJ
45
40 LU
LU
35 §
30 CO
>c Q
od
10 CO
Q
5 2
79
-------
TABLE 20. NORMALIZED Na /Cl" RATIO OF APPROXIMATE NET AEROSOL CONTRIBUTION
FOR COMPOSITE SEGMENTS OF BUSH BEAN PLANTS WHICH WERE EXPOSED AS
WHOLE PLANTS TO SEA SALT AEROSOL FOR 100 HOURS. PLANTS WERE 5.
WEEKS OLD AT INITIATION OF EXPOSURE. Na /Cl~ RATIO OF SEA WATER
TST55.
First three sets
of trifoliate leaves
Remaining trifoliate
1 eaves
Stem
Pod (with seeds)
Intact standard
portion of plant
(plant less roots)
25 yg/m
.23
.28
3.17
5.06
.48
Na*
J Status
-Na*
-Na*
+Na*
+Na*
+Na*
f
75 yg/mc
.32
.31
2.04
4.69
.52
. Na+
Status
-Na+
-Na+
+Na"
*Na*
+Na*
TABLE 21. NORMALIZED Na*/Cl" RATIO OF APPROXIMATE NET AEROSOL CONTRIBUTIONS
FOR COMPOSITE SEGMENTS OF BUSH BEAN PLANTS WHICH WERE EXPOSED AS
WHOLE PLANTS TO SEA SALT AEROSOL FOR 100. HOURS. PLANTS WERE 3
WEEKS OLD AT INITIATION OF EXPOSURE. Na /Cl" RATIO OR SEA SALT
ATROSOL IS .55
First three sets of
trifoliate leaves
Remaining trifoliate
leaves
Stem
Pod (with seeds)
Intact standing portion
of plant (plant less
roots)
25 yg/m3
.03
.08
7.25
2.10
.29
Na*
Status
-Na*
-Na*
+Na*
+Na*
-Na*
*
75 yg/nT
.17
.14
1.48
11.51
.44
Status
-Na*
X-Na*
+Na*
+Na*
+Na*
-------
3 3
the 75 yg/m treatment plants was .44. The 25 yg/m composite salt
ratio was .29 (Table 21) indicating the likelihood that some sodium had
been moved to the root system before the chloride anion. In general,
the roots had a net increase in sodium concentration across the aerosol
gradient for the three week old plants (Table 16). However, the lack of
a complete and representative root analysis precluded the determination
of the ultimate fate of excess salts. Although the soil analysis did
not show measurable increases across the aerosol gradient for any of the
age groups, the watering technique allowed ion loss to the plant contain-
ers. Considering experimental limitations, the major conclusion can
only be that the sodium cation was translocated at a comparatively
faster rate than the chloride anion in the aboveground portion of ex-
posed bean plants. This is in essentia^agreemegt with foliar applied
radioactive tracer studies done with Na and Cl on bush bean (30).
81
-------
SECTION VIII
REFERENCES
1. Junge, C. E. and D. E. Gustafson. On the Distribution of Sea Salt
Over the United States and Its Removal by Precipitation. Tellus,
Vol. 9, No. 2, p54-170, 1957.
2. Roffman, A., et al. The State of the Art of Saltwater Cooling
Towers for Steam Electric Generating Plants. USAEC AT(11-1)-2221,
February 1973.
3. Guyer, E. C. and M. W. Golay- A Model for Salt Drift Deposition
from Spray Ponds. Paper presented at Symposium on Physical and
Biological Effects on the Environment of Cooling Systems and Thermal
Discharges at Nuclear Power Stations. Oslo, IACA-SM-187/37, August
1974.
4. Moser, B. C. Airborne Sea Salt Techniques for Experimentation and
Its Effects on Vegetation. Department of Horticulture and Forestry,
Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N.J. August 1971.
5. Cassidy, N. G. The Effect of Cyclic Salt in a Maritime Environment:
II. The Absorption of Plants of Colloidal Atmospheric Salt. Plant
and Soil, Vol. 28, No. 3. p. 390, 1968.
6. Swain, R. L. Airborne Sea Salt: Some Aspects of the Uptake and
Effects on Vegetation. Masters Thesis, Dept. of Horticulture and
Forestry, College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Rutgers
University, 1973.
7. McCune, D. C., D. H. Silberman, R. H. Mandl, L. H. Weinstein, P. C.
Freudenthal, and P. A. Giardina. Studies on the Effects of Saline
Aerosols of Cooling Tower Origin on Plants. Boyce Thompson Institute
for Plant Research. Presented at the annual APCA meeting in Denver,
Colorado. 1974.
8. Water Quality Criteria. Report of the National Technical Advisory
Committee of the Secretary of the Interior. Washington, D.C.
April 1, 1968.
9. Batjer, D. and H. Kuntze. Investigations of Precipitation Waste in
Coastal Regions of East Frisia and Oldenbert (From the Grunlandle-
hranstalt u. Marchschversuchsstation Infeld). In press.
10. Hunger Signs in Crops. American Society of Agronomy and the National
Fertilizer Association, Washington, D.C. 1951. p. 1-18.
11. Thomas, L. K. Jr. Notes of Winter Road Salting (Sodium Chloride)
and Vegetation, Scientific Report No. 3. National Capital Region,
National Park Service, U. S. Department of the Interior March 31,
1965. 22p.
82
-------
12. Rudolph, W. Influence of Sodium Chloride Upon the Physiological
Changes of Living Trees. Soil Science 8:297-425. 1919.
13. Program to Investigate the Feasibility of Natural-Draft Salt Water
Cooling Towers. GPU Service Corporation, Parsippany, N.J., 1972.
14. Garber, K. On the Importance of Aerosol Salt for Plants. State
Institute of Applied Botany, Hamburg, Germany. 1964.
15. Kisser, J., J. Bergmann-Lehnert, and G. Halbwachs. Physiological
Causes of Characteristic Smoke Damage Symptoms. Wiss. Ztschr.
16. Miwa, T., K. Gomi and S. Y. Mamamoto. Studies on the Briny Wind
Injury of Fruit Trees. I. Spray Injury Caused by Sea Water to
Citrus Leaves. Bull. Agric. University. Miyazaki 2, 1957.
17. Effects of Aerosol Drift Produced by a Cooling Tower at the Indian
Point Generating Station on Native and Cultivated Flora in the
Area. Boyce Thompson Institute, Yonkers, New York, August 1974.
18. Curtis, C. R., H. G. Gauch, and R. Sik. Sodium and Chloride
Concentrations in Native Vegetation Near Chalk Point, Maryland,
p. 370-378. In: S.R. Hanne and J. Pell (eds), Cooling Tower
Environment. 1974. ERDA Conf. 740302
19. Eaton, F. M. Chlorine (H.D. Champan, ed.) In: Diagnotic Criteria
for Plants and Soil. University of California, Berkeley. 1966.
p. 98-135.
20. Hayward, H. E. and L. Bernstein. Plant growth Relationships on
Salt-affected Soils. Botan. Rev., V. 24, pp 584-635, 1958.
21. Hayward, H. E. and E. M. Long. Anatomical and Physiological Responses
of the Tomato to Varying Concentrations of Sodium Chloride, Sodium
Sulphate and Nutrient Solutions. Botan. Gaz. 102, 437-62, 1941.
22. Uphol, J.C. Halophytes, Botan. Rev-, 7:1-58, 1941.
23. Strogonov, B. P. Structure and Function of Plant Cells in Saline
Habitats, New Trends in the Study of Salt Tolerance, p 61, John Wiley
and Sons, New York, 1975.
24. Eaton, F. M. Water Uptake and Root Growth as influenced by Inequili-
ties in the Concentration of the Substrate Plant. Phyiol., 16:595-
64, 1941.
!
25. Gauch, H. G. and C. H. Wadleigh. Effects of High Salt Concentration
on Growth of Bean Plants. Botan. Gaz. 105, 379-87, 1944.
26. Hayward, H. E. and W. B. Spurr. Effort of Osmotic Concentration of
Substrate on the Entry of Water into Corn Roots. Botan. Gaz. 106,
131-39, 1944.
83
-------
27. Long, E. M. The Effect of Salt Additions to the Substrate on
intake of Water and Nutrients by Roots of Approach grated Tomato
Plants. Am. J. Botany, 30, 594-601, 1943.
28. Magistad, 0. C., A. D. Ayers, C. H. Wadleigh, and H. G. Gauch.
Effects of Salt Concentration, Kind of Salt and Climate on Plant
Growth in Sand Cultures. Plant Physiol., 18, 151-66, 1943.
29. Boyce, S. G. The Salt Spray Community. Ecol. Monog. 24:26-27,
1954.
30. Bukovac, M. J. and S. H. Wittwer. Absorption and Mobility of
Foliar Applied Nutrients. Plant Physiol., 32:428-435, 1957.
31. Sargent, J. A. and G. E. Blackman. Studies on Foliar Penetration,
VIII. Factors Controlling the Penetration of Chloride Ions into
the leaves of Phaseolus vulgar! s. J. of Exp. Bot. Vol. 21, No. 69,
pp. 933-42. November 1970.
32. Franke, W. Role of Guard Cells in Foliar Absorption. Nature,
202:1236, 1964.
33. Bernstein, L., L. E. Francois, and R. A. Clark. Salt Tolerance of
Ornamental Shrubs and Ground Covers. Journal of American Society
of Horticulture Science, Vol. 94#4, 1972.
34. Wittwer, S. H. and F. G. Teuber, Foliar Adsorption of Mineral
nutrients. Ann. Rev. of Plant Physiol. 10:13-32. 1959.
35. Franke, W. Mechanism of Foliar Penetration of Solutes. Ann. Rev.
of Plant Physiol. 18:281-300, 1967.
36. Boynton, D. Nutrition of Foliar Application. Ann. Rev. Plant
Physio!. 5:31-54, 1954.
37. Griffis, W. L. Extraction Technique for Sodium Chloride Analysis
on Plant Tissure. Unpublished, National Ecological Research Labora-
tory, Corvallis, Oregon. 1974.
38. Llewellyn, W. R., Soil Testing in Southern Dade County Florida
October 1963.
39. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 13th
p. 97. Method 112B, 1971.
40. ASTM Standards, Part 23, Water Atmospheric Analysis, p. 29.
Method 512-67, 1970.
84
-------
41. Schreckev, G. 0., R. 0. Webb, D. A. Rutherford, and P.M. Shofier.
Drift Data Acquired on Mechanical Salt Water Cooling Devices.
Environmental Protection Agency 650/2-75-060, 1975.
42. Roberts, S., R. A. Vodraska, M. D. Kauffman, and E. H. Gardner.
Methods of Soil Analysis Used in the Soil Testing Laboratory at
Oregon State University, Special Report 321, April 1971.
43. Hunter, H. E. Effect of Cooling Devices on Ambient Salt Concen-
trations. Environmental Protection Agency 600/3-76-034, 1976.
44. Wilber, K. R. An Experimental Approach to the Evaluation of the
Collection Efficiencies of Meshses using the Mechanism of Inertial
Impaction. M. S. Thesis, University of Tennessee, June 1974.
45. May, K. R. The Measurement of Airborne Droplets by the Magnesium
Oxide Method, Journal of Scientific Instruments. 27:128-130.
1950.
85
-------
SECTION IX
APPENDIX
SODIUM CONCENTRATION (PPM DRY WEIGHT) OF MANGROVE
LEAVES SAMPLED AT TURKEY POINT, FLORIDA
SITE 2
SITE 3
SITE 1 km NORTH OF 3
SITE 4
SITE 7
Period
Prior
Na+
1170
1672
1710
1230
950
1270
1341
2240
1180
4280
2320
316
1320
516
616
10180
451
395
1620
1380
' 22900
22500
3480
3360
moo
11100
1660
1499
1120
2980
3910
2780
1550
15100
17000
11700
5410
During
2180
2130
1200
2470
3780
4340
3870
3680
3640
375
439
396
3320
9910
810
570
270
1950
11200
10900
11400
12050
3870
2630
7060
3450
1790
10000
15500
36700
23000
5660
1990
2470
After
1820
1700
4000
3430
2170
4060
3850
1420
3620
2160
2630
27100
4140
3440
2010
86
-------
SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN FROM TURKEY POINT
Site Period pH
No. 4 Prior 7.8
7.9
8.2
7.9
7.75
8.0
During 7.9
7.9
7.9
After 7.9
7.8
7.9
7.9
8.0
N03
9
8
.12
8
11
3
10
.5
5
5
5
1
11
7
P
2
20
6
25
25
20
18
4
40
25
25
79
30
25
ppm
Ca
75
100
50
100
150
100
75
70
200
200
150
250
300
100
Cl
20
250
400
350
700
500
210
450
1400
1000
1150
1100
1150
500
Missing values are indicated by -1
87
-------
SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN FROM TURKEY POINT
Site Period
(1/2 mi. North Prior
of Site No. 4
.8 km)
During
After
pH
7.8
7.9
8.2
7.6
7.5
8.0
7.7
7.95
7.6
7.8
7.5
7.7
7.8
7.8
N03
9
8
.2
15
15
3
18
.3
12
12
15
.4
14
10
ppm
P
2
20
6
65
35
20
35
3
40
65
120
25
25
30
Ca
75
100
50
200
140
100
125
70
150
200
750
100
250
150
Cl
20
250
380
750
800
450
500
490
600
1075
4500
650
505
1000
-------
SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN FROM TURKEY POINT
Site Period
(1 mi. North Prior
of Site No. 4
1.6 km North of)
During
After
pH
7.8
8.0
8.25
7.9
7.9
7.9
7.8
8.1
7.8
7.9
7.7
8.0
7.9
8.0
N03
9
9
.3
6
9
2
8
.3
4
1
4
< .1
5
1
ppm
P
2
35
4
30
25
16
25
2
30
22
35
20
30
16
Ca
75
100
40
75
125
100
100
40
75
150
150
75
200
75
Cl
20
120
190
290
200
70
85
50
250
400
700
90
340
65
89
-------
SOIL SAMPLES TAKEN FROM TURKEY POINT
Site Period
(1 1/2 mi. Prior
North of Site
No. 4 2.4 km)
During
After
PH
7.8
7.8
8.3
7.7
7.7
7.7
7.8
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.8
8.0
7.7
7.9
N03
9
11
.1
16
14
7
10
< .1
< .1
9
8
2
2
7
ppm
P
2
25
2
30
30
20
25
2
4
25
30
10
14
16
Ca
75
100
40
125
150
100
100
40
40
400
155
75
175
75
Cl
20
150
130
210
250
80
80
50
70
490
300
100
310
100
90
-------
WATER SAMPLES TAKEN FROM TURKEY POINT
Site
No. 2 two miles down-
wind from the cooling
tower
2.4 km North of
Site No. 2
1.6 km North of
Site No. 2
No. 2 0.8 km North
of EPA Site
Period
Prior
During
After
Prior
During
After
Prior
During
After
Prior
During
After
PH
8.1
8.2
7.9
8.4
8.1
8.2
7.9
8.1
8.2
7.9
8.2
insufficient water
8.3
7.9
8.1
8.25
8.0
8.2
8.2
8.3
no water
8.0
8.25
7.8
8.2
8.2
8.2
no water
ppm Chloride
450
300
219
260
440
340
400
55
48
70
210
140
145
65
60
375
500
465
160
480
230
300
310
1050
270
91
-------
INTRODUCED SOIL SAMPLE PH AND SODIUM MEASUREMENTS AT TURKEY POINT SITES
Site Period pH Na ppm
No. 2 Prior 7.0 16.0
7.5 32.19
7.5 18.40
6.6 91.96
During 7.5 45.99
7.9 29.89
No. 3 Prior 7.0 16.0
7.1 4.6
7.3 4.6
During 8.0 22.9
92
-------
Sodium and Chloride Concentrations of Cultivar
Plants Exposed at Turkey Point, Florida, 15-74, 1974
Julian Date
Date set out -
date Collected
15-23
15-23
15-23
15-23
15-23
15-23
15-23
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-30
15-37
I %* \f 9
15-37
15-37
i ** *^ "
EPA Site
Number
1
2
3
5
7
8
9
1
2
3
9
1
2
3
BEAN
Sodium
(ppm)
1350
1630
1530
301
234
378
142
140
98
143
176
155
323
240
265
150
153
196
270
281
157
5360
4530
5910
759
509
741
205
319
212
434
505
521
2920
4480
3570
389
330
326
1100
1720
1100
Chloride
(ppm)
15400
15100
15100
11500
9260
9030
12900
11800
10300
21700
11100
7070
8750
9730
8460
9970
7310
9420
7880
10600
15300
45300
29400
35400
10000
8350
16900
11500
12200
13000
16100
16500
12400
25100
42400
21300
17000
10200
" 14300
20200
11300
14100
CORN
Sodium
(ppm)
1370
1500
1140
153
102
174
80
163
197
169
195
124
265
261
364
153
165
128
160
85
117
2850
2940
2570
545
431
846
150
119
145
380
507
545
3640
3530
3320
277
331
319
1080
982
614
Chloride
(ppm)
19600
22100
26200
14300
16500
17200
17900
21400
18200
11200
17600
17000
16300
18300
16500
15500
17500
18900
15300
15200
14700
27300
22600
21800
23600
19600
19100
10100
13600
19700
17700
27100
15000
28300
24100
24000
15100
18000
17700
16800
17300
11400
93
-------
Julian Date
Date set out -
Date collected
15-37
15-74
15-74
23-30
23-30
,
23-30
23-30
23-37
23-37
23-37
23-37
23-44
EPA Site
Number
9
3
7
1
2
3
9
1
2
3
9
1
Sodium
(ppm)
1370
1230
923
140
139
197
270
147
208
1870
1760
2210
1940
992
1130
4160
3170
3590
843
785
779
272
325
420
591
646
620
4960
4220
4710
428
352
454
1100
1000
993
1130
875
448
2890
4320
3230
BEAN
Chloride
(ppm)
16300
14800
14100
7300
14700
14300
7540
17200
15200
15900
10700
21100
12300
18300
17600
14300
13400
13200
11500
9160
8590
7340
4340
13TOO
10300
12100
12300
15500
15300
14600
9430
8500
12200
9500
9130
12100
11500
10600
8930
11700
17100
1000
Sodium
(ppm)
1220
994
920
224
170
368
334
264
186
1480
2070
1510
1420
939
2030
3350
1700
3090
557
598
384
242
270
260
383
339
313
3950
3700
3480
372
301
385
907
593
991
447
539
418
5440
3870
3930
CORN
Chloride
(ppm)
21600
21900
19700
14100
13900
6780
8830
7380
7860
13600
16600
14500
14000
10200
16300
16800
15600
15000
12200
14600
16200
10500
15500
15400
14600
13300
14300
19800
20400
20100
13200
11700
9590
11800
12900
7460
14300
13800
10900
16900
18200
17500
94
-------
Julian Date
Date set out -
Date collected
23-44
23-44
23-44
30-37
30-37
30-37
30-37
30-37
30-44
30-44
30-44
30-44
30-51
30-51
30-51
EPA Site
Number
2
3
9
1
2
3
8
9
1
2
3
9
1
2
3
BEAN
Sodium
(ppm)
1120
1130
1010
529
410
482
1250
1400
950
773
617
623
225
172
167
479
324
264
162
251
189
346
440
333
821
596
784
275
396
399
166
201
190
291
297
326
3180
4530
3180
358
643
522
' 119
111
132
Chloride
(ppm)
12700
4010
12100
8030
9440
12500
12100
14300
10600
7210
7670
9030
6530
7230
6760
7190
8540
5670
7590
7060
6450
6730
6440
7370
7180
8280
8740
6770
6610
6790
6260
6400
9460
7840
7640
8240
24000
20400
17100
9630
9500
9010
8200
8030
10900
CORN
Sodium
(ppm)
907
803
1310
610
483
545
783
716
706
523
1200
798
198
282
163
1080
982
614
203
212
158
283
293
206
672
918
840
333
472
468
217
223
265
277
222
522
2790
3410
2960
513
420
650
124
144
132
Chloride
(ppm)
8980
9030
17400
8190
12000
15100
12400
13900
14100
12500
15200
15500
14700
20800
14600
16800
17300
11400
10600
15100
9460
15900
15000
11800
14800
15300
15000
11200
10800
14900
15900
11600
13000
10100
8590
14700
13500
12900
14200
12600
9760
10800
11400
13100
12900
95
-------
Julian Date
DAte set out -
Date collected
30-51
37-44
37-44
37-44
37-44
37-51
37-51
37-51
37-51
37-58
37-58
37-58
37-58
52-58
EPA Site
Number
9
1
2
3
9
1
2
3
9
1
2
3
9
1
Sodium
(ppm)
291
365
324
696
1000
645
293
331
293
196
111
292
520
3200
1850
2050
552
371
136
152
109
431
300
301
1900
3080
2861
627
685
733
126
82
116
301
528
360
176
191
133
156
208
BEAN
Chloride
(ppm)
8370
7990
11200
12900
12600
13800
11800
9760
13600
12800
9900
11500
14900
12000
19400
29500
16700
16900
12000
15400
12000
12200
13700
12400
13200
20600
17600
21100
15500
13700
12700
14700
14900
14400
14800
14700
2740
2470
2690
2850
2880
3100
CORN
Sodium
(ppm)
411
406
301
558
600
687
665
837
665
425
262
368
531
364
312
2870
1430
2580
175
233
245
175
233
245
270
250
3710
3450
3110
627
695
733
197
337
211
599
581
562
255
277
233
272
135
Chloride
(ppm)
11200
16900
14200
12600
14700
21600
11800
9760
22500
22600
15300
21400
22100
18100
16100
20100
15200
19400
16500
20300
18000
16500
20300
18000
15700
16700
13700
16600
13200
15500
13700
12700
18500
15700
14700
14600
15000
11700
13500
9580
8170
10400
13800
96
-------
Julian Date
Date set out -
Date collected
52-58
52-58
52-58
52-65
52-65
52-65
52-65
52-65
52-74
52-74
EPA Site
Number
2
3
9
1
2
3
7
9
1
2
Sodium
(ppm)
179
191
161
174
210
194
161
129
66
267
152
137
2350
961
1680
2550
674
244
223
225
201
214
97
113
62
94
78
744
433
417
370
298
319
5910
3610
3390
3460
4060
463
453
514
356
428
BEAN
Chloride
(ppm)
2270
2460
2760
4630
2800
2540
1960
3130
1170
3260
3730
1890
16700
13700
15300
16700
12900
8010
15200
9010
1090
9940
7960
8980
10300
9080
10580
10900
9390
9970
12300
9950
220
26600
22300
21500
19700
21100
7480
6890
15400
14800
12200
Sodium
(ppm)
103
220
814
239
333
295
362
498
200
308
217
292
191
836
1560
1240
1140
1550
197
340
190
224
180
72
115
1070
80
582
424
729
277
429
358
177
201
2090
2450
2120
2380
2570
314
328
647
533
515
CORN
Chloride
(ppm)
10400
11500
11700
10000
4770
14800
12700
12900
5390
13100
13700
6460
10400
18200
14700
16300
13100
18100
16000
12200
18500
9740
12200
14800
16400
16300
17100
16700
20600
18600
17300
16400
18100
17900
15400
20700
27900
26400
19600
25200
12300
16200
15400
15100
16900
97
-------
Julian Date EPA Site
Date set out - Number Sodium
Date collected (ppm)
52-74 3 220
194
214
289
194
52-74 9 619
559
631
616
621
59-74 1 1210
1180
970
1200
1520
1700
974
1200
846
59-74 2 579
448
520
522
622
304
567
448
413
59-74 3 187
236
318
214
307
225
213
250
188
214
59-74 9 309
380
499
437
334
BEAN
Chloride
(ppm)
7610
7450
8820
7430
8820
20400
11600
12700
9390
12500
18300
14300
14700
20300
12600
16000
16300
13100
12700
17100
11900
16500
14500
15100
17600
15900
13600
16700
12400
9860
12800
11000
9460
9620
11000
9740
11900
13100
9030
10300
11700
9730
13800
CORN
Sodium
(ppm)
124
97
76
70
67
365
358
501
266
248
Chloride
(ppm)
11900
12500
14000
13700
15500
11200
15900
17500
15700
18200
98
-------
Julian Date EPA Site BEAN CORN
Date set out - Number SodiumChloride Sodium Chloride
Date collected (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm)
59-74 9 396 14000
426 10000
309 10300
494 10800
395 12100
99
-------
Cooling Tower and Powered Spray Module (PSM) Operations Log With Periods of Critical Wind for Introduced Plant
During Phase II
Sites
o
o
Date
Jan.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Feb.
Time & Hours
Cooling Tower
Operation
Time & Hours Time & Hours
Critical Wind Critical Wind
cat. 4,5 Sta. Cat. 1,2,3 Sta.
1,2,3 7
0800-1000 2 0
0800-1000 2 0800 1
0800-1000 2 o
0800-1000 2 o ~
0800-1000 2 0900 1
0800-1000 2 0800-1000 2
0800-1400 6
1300-1630 3.5
1030-1500 4.5
0
0
1200-1730 5.5
0
0
o
0
0
1(32) -- 0
2(33
3(34
4(35
5(36
6(37
0
0
0
) 0
) 0
7(38) -- 0
8(39) 0
9(40) 0
10(41
1 - 0
11(42) -- 0
i i y-r*. / v
12(43) 0
13(44) 0
+* \ * / ^
14(45) 0
1 T^ ^ T +f f ^f
15(46) 0
** \ ^ w j *
16(47) 0
17(48) 0
18(49) °
w \ ** /
19(50'
'20(51]
} 1045-1730 6.8
0945-1915 9.5
21(52) 0930-2400 14.5
22(53'
23(54
"** \ +r~ ,
24(55'
| 2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
1 2400-2400 24
25(56) 2400-2400 24
0
1300-1600 3.5
1000-1500 4.5
0
0
1200-1600 5 1700
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
o
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1200-1800 7 1100 & 1900
0900-1400 8.5
1900-2400
2400 1
2000-2400 4 1300-1900
2400-0100 2 1200-1300
0 2400
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1.25
0
0
7
2
1
Time & Hours Time & Hours
Critical Wind Spray Module
Cat. 2,3,4 Sta. Operation
9
_«
1300-1400
1600
1000
1200-1500
_-
-.
__
__
__
__
__
--
.*
__
__
__
__
1200-1900
0900
1600-2200
1300
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
.
0
7
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1100-1600 6
1700-1800
1700-1730 .5
0
0
0
0
0
1000-1800 8
0900-1900 10
0830-1900 10.5
0830-1910 10.6
0900-1330 4.5
0
0
0
0
1130-2400 12.5
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-2400 24
2400-1000 10
0
1000-1900 9
0
.25 -- 0
5 0
0
0
Time & Hours
Critical Qind
Cat. 4,5 Sta.
1,2,3
__
1100-1800
1700
__
-.
_.
._
__
__
1400-1800
1600-1700
1900
1500-1600
1900-2000
1200
1600-2200
0300
1400-1500
~
1400-1600
1800-1900
__
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
5
2.17
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
2
1
7
3
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
Time & Hours
Critical Wind
Cat. 1,2,3 Sta
7
__
-.
1200-1300
1100-1500
__
1100-1400
1200-1800
1100-1600
1100-1500
1100-1300
1100-1300
__
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
7
6
5
3
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
Time & Hours
Critical Wind
.Cat. 2, 3, 4 Sta
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1300-1400 2
1300-1500 3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1100-1500 5
1800-2000 3
1500-1700 3
1500-1700 3
1100-1200 3
1400 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
24 Hr.
Precip.
0.86
0
0
0
0.03
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.02
R.H.3!
0900
99
84
91
90
69
64
68
90
69
77
72
68
67
67
76
79
87
83
79
63
85
73
66
82
89
65
36
47
63
64
77
77
71
70
62
73
90
92
80
62
64
67
-------
Date
Jan.
26(57)
27(58)
28(59)
March
1(60)
2(61)
Time & Hours
Cooling Tower
Operation
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
24
24
24
24
24
Time & Hours
Critical Wind
cat. 4,5 Sta.
2,3
__
--
0900-1000
1200-1300
2400-0100
1300,1500
0
0
4
0
4
Time & Hours
Critical Wind
Cat. 1,2,3 Sta.
7
--
1500-2400
24-06, 08,
1100,14-23
1200-2400
0100-0700
0200-0500
0800-0500
0
9
19
19
17
1400,16-2300
3(62)
4(63)
5(64)
6(65)
7(66)
8(67)
9(68)
10(69)
11(70)
12(71)
13(72)
14(73)
15(74)
2400-2400
2400_2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2000-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2400
2400-2000
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
0100-0300
000-1800
0100-0600
0900-1300
2200-2400
2400-0200
0900-1500
0100-0200
0100-1200
2400-1500
2100-2400
2400-2300
0100-2400
0100-0400
1200-2400
0100
--
1800-2400
2000-2400
2000-0200
1100-2400
4
0200, 0500-
19
Time & Hours Time & Hours Time & Hours Time & Hours Time & Hours 24 Hr.
Critical Wind Spray Module Critical Qind Critical Wind Critical Wind Precip.
Cat. 2,3,4 Sta. Operation Cat. 4,5 Sta. Cat. 1 ,2,3 Sta. Cat. 2, 3,4 Sta.
9 1,2,3 7 9
2100
2300-2400
2400-0600
0800-2200
1300-1800
2200-2400
2400-0400
0800-1200
1400-2400
2400-2400
2
22
8
20
24
0
0
0
0
0
0
R.H.8
0900
59
82
75
77
66
65
1700 1900-2400
13
14
12
12
19
24
23
16
1
0
5
21
0200-0800
1400-2100
0800
1600-2400
0200-2400
2400
1300-2300
1600-2000
2400
1100
1000-1700
1900
10
9
22
12
5
0
1
1
0
0
9
0
2400-2400
2400-0400
0700-2400
2400-2400
2400-0500
07-2400
2400-2000
2400-2400
2400-0100
0800-1400
1600-2400
2400-0300
1100
1300-1400
1300-2400
1200-1500
24
22
24
23
24
24
17
7
11
4
0
0
0.03
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
65
80
76
75
71
67
59
76
82
92
87
75
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-76-078
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO,
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Ecological Effects of Aerosol Drift from a
Saltwater Cooling System
5. REPORT DATE
July 1976
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Ibrahim J. Hindawi, Lawrence C. Ram'ere, and
James A. Rea
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Terrestrial Ecology Branch
Ecological Effects Research Division
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1AA602
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Research and Development
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
final. ._
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
me local terrestrial effects or salt aerosol arirt: rrom powerea spray moaim
and a mechanical draft cooling tower at Turkey Point, Florida were evaluated through
field and controlled exposure studies. Indigenous vegetation, soil and fresh water
were sampled over a year long period to acquire pre-activation baseline data and to
provide for the assessment of possible environmental impact of salt aerosol loading
from the test cooling devices. No measurable effects attributable to salt;aerosol
emissions from test cooling devices were detected on indigenous plants, soil or fresh
water sampled during or following operation of the test cooling tower/spray modules.
The introduced cultivar plants showed visible foliar injury and elevated sal'
concentrations, correlated to the combined influences of cooling device and east wind
drift exposure, only at the exposure site closest (215M) to the cooling tower/spray
modules.
Full-term effects and salt aerosol tolerance levels of a cultivar plant, bus!
bean, were examined by controlled exposure to a simulated sea-salt aerosol at concen-
trations representative of the Turkey Point test site. The trace injury threshold of
the bush bean trifoliate leaf was at a salt aerosol concentration of 5 yg/m3 for 100
hours cumulative exposure over a four week period, while pod productivity was reduced
at salt aerosol concentrations of 25 yg/m3 and 75 yg/.m3 at the environmental condition
the exposure" study
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFlERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
salt aerosol drift
cooling tower
power spray modules
exposure chambers
paint dose-response
water cooling
salt aerosol threshold
cooling tower/power
spray module
terrestrial effects
salt aerosol vegetative
impact
02/A,D
07/C
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLA!
21.
PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
102
&GPO 697-678
------- |