Ecological Research Series
NON-POINT WATER QUALITY MODELING IN
WILDLAND MANAGEMENT:
A State-of-the-Art Assessment
(Volume l-Text)
Environmental Research Laboratt
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Athens, Georgia 30601
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-77-036
April 1977
NON-POINT WATER QUALITY MODELING
IN kvlLDLAND MANAGEMENT:
A STATE-OF-THE-ART ASSESSMENT
(VoIume I --Text)
by
Forest Servi ce
United States Department of Agriculture
Washington, D.C. 20250
Interagency Agreement No. EPA-IAG-D5-0660
Project Officer
Lee Mulkey
Environmental Research Laboratory
Athens, Georgia 30601
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
ATHENS, GEORGIA 30601
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DlSCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Research
Laboratory, Athens, Georgia, U.S. Environmental Protection
Apency, and approved for oublication. Approval does not sionify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Apency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation of use.
11
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FOREWORD
Environmental protection efforts are increasingly directed
toward preventing adverse health and ecology effects associated
with specific components of natural or human origin. As part of
this laboratory's research on the occurrence, movement, trans-
formation, impact, and control of environmental contaminants, the
Technology Development and Applications Branch develops manage-
ment or engineering tools for assessing and controlling adverse
environmental effects of non-irrigated agriculture and of
si Iviculture.
This report presents an assessment and review of: forestry
management activities which can increase the non-point pollutant
source potential; the effectiveness of demonstated control tech-
niques to reduce this potential; the usefulness and reliability
of existing non-point source loading models in planning effective
forestry non-point source controls.; and an evaluation of the
water quality data base available for model development and
test ing.
Davi d W, Outtwei Ier
D i rector
Environmental Research Lab
ill
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ABSTRACT
Predicting non-point pollution from wildland environments is
evaluated in three main areas: management activity/pol I utant
relationship, predictive model review and state-of-the-art as-
sessment, and an inventory of 176 wildland watersheds suitable
for model validation and development.
Non-point pollution is directly related to the time and
space variability of the hydrolopic cycle and existing terrain,
and the relationship is site dependent. Impact of sedimentation
from site disturbance is the most common.
Predictive models for non-point pollutant loading relating
spatial variability and diversity of terrain to management
activities are the most important in evaluating the potential
on-site impact of planned wildland management activities. Few
non-point loading models exist.
The state-of-the-art is represented by process simulation
models, not yet extensively used for field application. Their
use will require validation and simplification. Modular model
development will have the maximum utility in the decision
process. The state-of-the-art at the field level lags that of
research and is represented by regional rearession models and
analytical procedures.
Watersheds available for non-point model validation and
testing do not have long data records (less than 10 years) ex-
cept on streamflow and to a lesser extent suspended sediment.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Interagency
Agreement No. EPA-IAG-D5-0660 by the Forest Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with and under the
partial sponsorship of the U.S. Environmentation Protection
Agency. This report covers a period from January 24, 1975, to
September 30, 1975, and work was completed as of October 25,
1975.
i v
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CONTENTS
Foreword i ' i
Abstract ' iv
Figures vii
Tables.- viii
Acknowledgments » 'x
1. Introduction 1
Purpose
Scope
General methodology and procedures
ProbI em definition
2. Conclusions . 3
3. Recommendations 4
4. Assessment of non-point pollution as it relates
to wi Idland management ....... 6
Iviethodo I ogy , 6
Some potential effects of wi Idland management
activities on water quality. , . . , , 10
Mechanical manipulation of vegetation , . 10
Roads and trails 13
Fire 18
Grazing 23
Timber harvest 26
Application of pesticides 32
Recreation . ,...., 38
Forest ferti I Jzation 43
y»aste disposal 47
Low head impoundments and divisions , . . 50
Literature cited 53
5. Assessment of models for predicting non-point
pollution from wildlands 72
Introduction , . 72
Model review and summary , 73
Physical model review , 73
Streamflow ,....,. 75
Surface erosion, . , 76
Channel systems erosion 76
Mass movement 77
Total sediment output models 78
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Biological model review 79
Water temperature 79
M i cro-orqan i sms BO
Dissolved oxyqen (stream models) BO
Dissolved oxyqen (lake and impoundment models) . 81
Ground water 81
Chemical model review 81
State-of-the-art 82
Runoff models. . . 83
Sediment models 83
Chemical and biological models 84
Non-point water quality models 85
Model development and application approach 88
Conclusions and recommendations 91
Literature cited 94
6. Data base available for non-point pollution model
development and testing 100
Criteria for selectinq watersheds 100
Watershed inventory form 101
Survey techniques 104
Summary 105
Conclusions 107
7. Glossary of terms 118
8. Selected bibliography 123
VOLUME I I--Append!ces
A. Appendix A — Model evaluation sheets
B. Appendix SB — Watershed inventory forms
C. Appendix C —Mode I summary
VI
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Relative potential for water quality degradation
for individual parameter activity relationships. ... 9
2 Watershed inventory subdivisions 106
vii
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TABLES
Number Page
1 trosion and Sedimentation From Logging Roads 16
2 Soi I Disturbance From Logging 28
3 Pesticide Use in Forests, 1973 33
4 Estimated National Forest Recreation Use
Service-wide Summary, CY 1976, by Activities .... 39
5 Predictive Mo del Suitability Matrix 74
6 Numbers and Location of watersheds Having Data
Specifically Relating Water Quality to Wildland
management Activities 108
7 watershed Suitability Ranking — Northeast 109
8 watershed Suitability Ranking--Central 110
9 watershed Suitability Ranking—Lake States 111
10 watershed Suitability Ranking—Southeast 112
11 watershed Suitability Ranking—Northern Rockies. . . . 113
12 Watershed Suitability Ranking—Southwest 114
13 watershed Suitability Ranking — Northwest 116
14 watershed Suitability Ranking —California 117
vm
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following individuals participated
information contained in this document.
Henry W. Anderson
Michael A. Barton
James L. Boynton
D. Ross Carder
Boyd J. Christensen
John P. Crumr i ne
John B. Currier
A I fred G. Darrach
Norbert DeByIe
George 0 i ssmeyer
Davi d A. Fal letti
Ken Holtje
James Hornbeck
J . Sam Krammes
Walt Megahan
Mar v Me i er
Logan Norr i s
Adrian Pelzner
i n assembling the
John Rector
James Reid
Raymon d M. Rice
James J. Rogers
David Rosgen
Wayne Swank
Robert 8. Thomas
Arthur R. Tiedemann
Dona Id Wi I I en
In addition, many others provided information.
Service wishes to acknowledge their efforts.
The Forest
Ix
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SECTION 1
NTRODUCTION
PuRPOSt
The main objective of this report — a result of an inter-
agency agreement between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
and uSDA-Forest Service--is to define the relationship between
wildland management practices and•non-point sources of pollution.
Included are a discussion of predictive techniques related to
forest management activities and an inventory of monitored water-
sheds having data suitable for model development and testing.
SLOPE
The report is limited to non-point source pollution as it
relates to wildland environments and management activities, and
excludes the effects of urban, industrial, agricultural, and
mining activities on wildlands. It considers only the direct
effects on the physical, chemical, or microbiological portions of
the aquatic ecosystem and not the related effects on the higher
life torms. The report specifically covers work of the Forest
Service, but also that of others on non-point source predictive
mode Is.
GENERAL METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES
The report was compiled by a task force of 27 Forest Service
personnel. Task force members were chosen for their general
knowledge of water resources management and their specialized
expertise in the various areas addressed in the report.
The three main tasks undertaken were: (1) relating wildlano
management practices to non-point pollutants and water quality,
(2) identifying predictive models, and (3) identifying data bases
suitable for model development and testing. The specific method-
ology is discussed for each of these tasks.
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Management for water quality requires a knowledge of the
terrestrial and the aquatic ecosystems and the hydrologic cycle.
These systems are dynamic and are constantly undergoing change
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due to natural processes and the influence exerted by man. In
order to assure that these complex systems are maintained, it is
necessary to regulate the limits to which they can be altered'.
To carry out this protection, it is necessary to understand the
processes operating within the system and be able to predict the
conseguence of activities that will have potential impacts on it.
In order to deal with the potential impacts, it is loaical
to separate out those that originate from the introduction of
DO I lution by a single source (point source) and those that origi-
nate from diffuse sources (non-point source!. This distinction
(point vs. non-point) has many advantaaes from a regulatory and
predictive viewpoint. Point source poIlutants can be described
and controlled at the point of discharge into the receiving
waters. Non-point sources cannot usually be controlled in the
same way because of the multitude of individually small source
points and the inability to control the transport mechanism of
the pollutants (naturally occurrina tributary flows in the
hydrologic cycle). The regulatory and predictive techniques for
the non-point sources of pollution must therefore be related to
the condition of the tributary surfaces and how these surfaces
wi I I react to variable amounts of water flow.
The non-point source areas for polIutant loads are alI of
the surface and subsurface tributary areas; many are forest and
range lands (hereafter referred to as wildlands). The condition
of these lands and the changes introduced through wildland man-
agement activities are important factors in a program of water
Quality management.
The ability to recognize the inherent spatial and temporal
variabilities in this system and to predict what changes in the
natural system will result from implementation of various pat-
terns and seguences of management activities is the role that
process research and resultant non-point predictive models play
in the overal I management of the water resource.
Process research and model development reauire a uniaue data
base for the synthesis of the predictive model. Once the model
has been developed, it must be validated and tested to identify
its utility for use in a program of water guality management.
This report describes the three main areas identified above:
(1) activity/pollutant relationships, (2) predictive models, and
(3) data bases for model development and testing.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
The relative importance of any activity in generating
pollutant loads from wildlands Is site dependent- In general,
sedimentation is the most common form of pollution, and the
activity having the most widespread potential for sediment
production is road and trail construction. Streamflow aug-
mentation is important in areas of unstable channels.
The largest gap in sedimentation modeling is prediction of
the sediment contribution from unstable channel sources.
Non-point pollutant loading models (verses in-stream routing
models) are most useful in evaluating the potential effects of
wildland management on water guality. However, loading models
for most pollution parameters (an exception is sediment from
surface erosion) are not available.
Regional regression models and analytical procedures
represent the state-of-the-art for the prediction of non-ooint
pollutants by field personnel. However, simulation models
represent the state-of-the-art in predictive model development.
The validity and utility of any non-point pollution
predictive model cannot be determined without calibrating or
testing it in the environment for which it will be used.
The behavior of most of the major processes controlling
non-point source pollution from wildlands has been researched,
but this knowledge has not been integrated to define gaps where
additional research is needed.
There is a good distribution of wildland watersheds with
baseline water guality data, but most of the data has been
collected recently (past 5 to 8 years). Data reflecting the
impact of a specific management activity is site dependent, and
few watersheds exist where the data base encompasses all major
wildland management activities.
The suitability of1 a data base for use in model development
and testing is dependent upon the guality and precision of the
data, length of record, and the specific model being tested.
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SECTION 3
RECOMMENDATIONS
For maximum utility in wildland manaaement, a predictive
non-point water quality model should:
1. Be modular in structure within a comprehensive
framework .
2. Be able to predict poI Iutant parameter loadinp of al I
orders of streams, but particularly first order.
3. Facilitate comparative evaluation of control or
management alternatives (i.e., describe baseline and
changes thereto).
4. Represent time and probability variables.
5. Represent spatial variability of conditions and
activities within a diverse landscape.
6. Incorporate available knowledge in a form that utilizes
available input data, is available for use by field
level scientists, and is compatible with the decision-
making process.
A comprehensive mode I framework should be developed along
with core process simulation modules for runoff and sediment so
as to provide the central components for model ing other non-point
pollution processes.
Existing non-point pollutant predictive models and com-
ponents thereof need to be tested and comparatively evaluated to
determine their utility.
Tests of models intended for use by field personnel should
be conducted in a management context from the user's perspective,
independent of the model's developer and the data used in its
deveIopment.
Existing data bases should be examined, in light of data
requirements to test non-point predictive models, to determine if
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additional data are needed or if the existina data base can
reflect impacts of the major management alternatives.
A concerted effort is needed to integrate existing knowledae
of processes controlling non-point source pollution to identify
paps where additional process knowledge is needed.
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SECTION 4
ASSESSMENT OF NON-POINT POLLUTION AS IT
RELATES TO WILDLAND MANAGEMENT
METHODOLOGY
Identifying the relative importance of the various rela-
tionships between water Quality parameters and land management
activities as non-point sources of pollution reauired independent
evaluation of: (1) the water Quality parameter, and (2) the land
management activity. The establishment of the relative ranking
involved a three-step process.
The first step was the selection and definition of criteria
to be used in determining a parameter's importance. Six criteria
were selected and defined as follows:
1. Universali t y--E v a Iuates how widespread the water Quality
parameter is relative to non-point discharges.
2- Certa i nty--Judges the degree of understanding of the
impacts of the individual water Quality parameters with
respect to:
a. Biological systems (does the parameter definitely
affect the aguatic ecosystem?).
b. Man (how does the parameter affect man's social and
economic well-being as well as the potential health
hazard?).
3. Breadth of impact--RefIects the number and variety of
the beneficial uses affected by the water guality
parameter when in the stream and lake environment.
4. Persistence—Describes the persistence of the effects
following control of the activity causing the non-point
d i scharge .
5. Synergistic effects — Considers any interactions with
other water Quality parameters which may result in a
compounding of effects of the individual parameters.
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6. Tolerance--!ndicates the ability of the ecosystem to
accommodate a change in the water quality parameter
being evaIuated.
Once the criteria were selected and defined, each water
quality parameter was assessed as to the importance of each
criterion and then ranked in one, two, three order. The final
priority for a water quality parameter was determined by total inq
all the criteria rankings. Water quality parameters with equal
totals were given the same priority. The ranking of parameters,
in descending order of relative importance, resulted:
1 . Sediment
2. Heavy metals
3. Temperature
4. Pathogens
4. Nutrients
4 . Pest i c i des
7. Dissolved oxygen
8. Turb i d i ty
9. Dissolved solids
The list represents the task force's overall estimate of the
relative importance of these constituents, recognizing, of
course, that in individual cases any one may be more important.
The second step involved the ranking of the individual
activities or group of activities according to their importance
with respect to non-point source discharges. Four criteria were
used for the ranking:
1. How common is the implementation of the activity
nationally? Is it an activity which is utilized
throughout the United States or is it one that is
found only on a regional basis?
2. Does the activity influence a large acreaqe when it is
i mpIemented?
3. Does the activity influence a Iarqe number of water
quality parameters?
4. Does the activity have long lasting effects (after the
activity ceases does discharge of pollutants continue)?
These guestions were asked with respect to groups of forest
and range management activities. As a result, the relative
importance of wildland (forest and range) management activities
were ranked in descended order as follows:
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1. Road and trail construction and maintenance (site
disturbance as a result of road and trail construction,
reconstruction, and maintenance).
2. Vegetation manipulation by mechanical means (any
activity that uses mechanized eauipment to alter or
remove the vegetation, excepting timber harvest, e.g.,
site preparation, vegetative conversion).
3. Fire (wildfire and prescribed burns, recognizing that
wildfire usually has the greatest impact; excludes
effect of constructing fuel breaks, fire lines).
4. Grazing (the effects of grazing by domestic stock and
wildlife animals; excludes impacts of range improve-
ments ) .
5. Timber harvest (considers only the effect of removing
the timber; excludes road construction).
6. Application of pesticides (considers only direct effects
of the pesticide application).
7. Recreation (considers recreation as a use and its direct
effects; excludes facility construction and mainten-
ance) .
8. Fertilization (direct effects of fertilizer applica-
tion) .
9. Waste disposal (direct disposal of wastes by burying the
spreading waste).
10. Low-head impoundments and diversions (in-place effects
of the impoundments and diversions; does not consider
the effects of construction).
The final setup in establishing the relative importance of
relationships between parameters and land management activities
was to combine the independent rankings established for the
.pollutant and wildland management actvities (Figure 1). The
individual parameter/activity relationships were ranked relative
to their potential for water Quality degradation in four cate-
gories: high, medium, low, and negligible. By necessity this
ranking is general, and specific cases may have different poten-
tials. Figure 1 provides a point of reference, but the task
force recognizes that it is subject to debate and that the
importance of any activity/parameter relationship is site
dependent.
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Vegetation manipulation
by mechanical means
Roads and tra i Is
Fire
Graz i ng
Timber harvest
Application of pesticides
Recreati on
Pert iI i zat i on
Waste d i sposa I
Lowhead impoundments
and d i vers i ons
4-
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CD
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n: I- Q. o. z Q i-
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H = High
M = Med i urn
L = Low
Blank = Negligible
Figure 1. RELATIVE POTENTIAL FOR WATER QUALITY DEGRADATION FOR
INDIVIDUAL PARAMETER ACTIVITY RELATIONSHIPS.
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SOME POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF W I LDLAND MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES ON WATER
OUAL ITY
Mechan i caj Man i pu I at i on of Vegetation
Manipulation of vegetative cover by mechanical means is done
for a variety of purposes. Examples include: site preparation
following timber harvest; vegetal type conversions to increase
water yields, to convert hardwoods to pines, to construct fuel
breaks, to increase or modify range wildlife production; erosion
control practices; and clearing of vegetation for special proj-
ects such as fire lines, power lines, and pipelines. The work is
usually done with bulldozers alone or eguipped with various types
of plows, rippers, disk harrows, chains, rototillers, choppers,
rootrakes, and compactors (Burns and Hebb, 1972). Generally such
practices result in varying degrees of removal of the protective
cover on the soil surface.
Causes and Effects--
Four pollution parameters: sediment, turbidity, water temp-
erature, and, to a lesser extent, nutrients have been identified
as having a potential for increase in the tributary waters as a
result of the vegetal manipulation practices described above.
Potential changes in poIlution concentrations are caused by
disturbances to vegetation and soils. A variety of impacts are
created depending on the type of practice and eguipment used and
the objective of the treatment. Obviously the vegetation is
disturbed to some degree ranging from overstory removal with some
disturbance of underlying vegetation to complete removal of all
vegetal cover. Soil disturbance varies considerably as well.
Burns and Hebb (1972) describe the range in impacts caused by
various site preparation measures to reduce competition of scrub
oak and wire grass to pine on droughty, acid sand soils in
Florida.
One extreme is represented by the rotary ti I Ier that
thoroughly mixes existing vegetation and litter into the
topsoil and causes a temporary increase in the porportion
of large pores; the process "fluffs" the soil but leaves it
in place. A bulldozer [using a standard blade]* represents
the other extreme, wherein vegetation and topsoil are
removed and deposited in windrows, leaving soils compacted
and devoid of topsoil and organic matter.
The more severe soil disturbances tend to decrease infil-
tration porportionate to the degree of soil compaction caused by
the eguipment used and the amount of surface soil or protective
cover removed during the operation. Tackle (1962) reports
reductions in infiltration on a logged area in western Montana
^Inserted for clarification.
10
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where the site was scarified with a bulldozer equipped with a
brush buncher blade. Infiltration on the scarified area averaged
about 15 percent of that on nearby undisturbed areas. In
subsequent years, infiltration increased, but still was only
about 50 percent of that on undisturbed areas 5 years after
logging.. Tackle states,
Ordinarily, a partial removal of a plant cover and dis-
turbance to the soil surface by a tractor should not result
in excessive and prolonged infiltration reductions. The
reduction shown here most likely reflects the effect of
compaction rather than scarification per se.
Steibrenner and Gessel (1955) found infiltration rates
reduced by 80 percent followino four passes with an HD20 tractor
on soils of the Olympic series in Washington. Only one pass was
required to cause similar reductions under moist soil conditions.
Some vegetal manipulations by mechanical means may have
beneficial effects with respect to infiltration, runoff, and
erosion. Skau (1961) calculated that about 0.46 cm of water
storage was provided by pits left from a juniper chaining
operation in Arizona in which the tree cover was converted to
productive grassland by seeding. Gifford and others (1970), on
the other hand, found no consistent increase or decrease in
infiltration and sediment yield from areas cleared of pinyon-
juniper trees and seeded to grass in southern Utah. In a sub-
sequent study, Gifford (1973) reported that chaining, coupled
with windrowing, increased runoff and sediment yields on .04 ha
plots up to 5 to 6 times, as compared with nearby undisturbed
stands of pinyon-juniper. In contrast, chained areas with debris
left in place showed no increase in runoff or erosion.
Bulldozing and burning of juniper can cause nutrient losses
in the runoff. This loss is related directly to slope steepness,
with 6.7 kg/ha of M lost from moderate (19 percent) slopes with
22 to 67 kg/ha of N lost from steep (57 percent) slopes (Wright
and others, 1974). Removahof pinyon-juniper by cabling did not
alter the sediment concentration-discharge relationship or the
yields of bedload or suspended sediment on an Arizona watershed
(Brown, 1971). Clearcutting pinyon-juniper and leavina debris in
place on another watershed, thus avoiding soi I disturbance, pro-
duced similar results.
Conversion of deep-rooted veqetation to more shallow-rooted
vegetation decreases transpiration and thereby increases runoff
potential. Anderson and Gleason (1960) found so M moisture
increases of 7 to 15 cm depending on the soi I depth following
brush removal by bulldozing to mineral soil on a brushfield in
northern California. Similar effects followed chaparral removal
by burning and herbicide application in Arizona. Streamflow
1 1
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increases of 30 cm or more were obtained with this treatment
(Hibbert, 1971).
Watershed rehabilitation practices involving manipulation of
vegetation and soil disturbance have been designed specifically
to reduce runoff and erosion. Soil ripping, soil pitting, and
contour furrowing reduce erosion and the potential for eroded
soil to become sediment in streams. Such practices enhance in-
filtration of water and increase vegetative growth. Soil ripping
in New Mexico reduced surface runoff 96 percent and erosion 85
percent in the first year after treatment on rolling rangelands;
3 years later reductions were still 85 percent and 31 percent,
respectively, (Hickey and Dortignac, 1963). Contour trenching on
steeper, denuded and erodinq mountain watersheds reduced overland
flow and effectively stopped the washing of sediment from the
treated areas (Noble, 1963). Contour trenching on a Utah water-
shed reduced peak flows but not annual water yields (Doty, 1971).
For several years after treatment, the chemical, physical, and
bacteriological characteristics of streamflow from the treated
and adjacent untreated watersheds were essentially the same (Doty
and Hookano, 1974).
Buck (1959) described various treatments in northern Cali-
fornia to remove brush competition for ponderosa pine plantings.
In all cases, treatments were applied on slopes of less than 35
percent. The most extreme treatment reauired complete soil re-
moval to a depth of 46 to 61 cm (18 to 24 inches) along terraces
to el iminate competition of bear clover to planted ponderosa
pine. Terracing work of this type (also called contouring,
trenching, scalping, and stripping), common practice in many
areas, helps to assure successful establishment of plantations
(Curtis, 1964). Terraces are constructed on the contour with
strips of varying widths of undisturbed vegetation left between
terr aces.
Vegetation type conversions (of one type to another) may
involve riparian vegetation in or near intermittent to perennial
streams or springs. In such circumstances, increases in water
temperature may result if vegetation tall enough to shade the
stream is removed.
Magnitude of the Problem--
Opportunities for manipulation of vegetation are very
widespread throughout the United States. To illustrate, Evanko
(n.d.) reports that in northern California approximately 25,000
ha of the wood Iand-chapara I cover type in National Forests
(approximately 27,000 ha) could be treated to some degree to
increase productivity. And considerably more treatable area
undoubtedly occurs on the additional 7 million hectares (18
million acres) of similar lands in other Federal holdings,
State, and private ownership in that State.
1 2
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In the southeastern United States, Dissmeyer (unpublished)
estimated that in the Tar-Neuse watershed, 4 percent of the
forest land is undergoing erosion as a result of mechanical site
preparation. On those sites, Dissmeyer (unpublished) estimated
that suspended sediment carried by storm flow is 988 ma/I of
which 701 mg/l is contributed by areas subjected to mechanical
site preparation. In the Alabama River Basin, Dissmeyer (unpub-
lished) estimated that 80 percent of the erosion from forested
lands occurs on areas treated mechanically to prepare the site
for seeding or planting.
Duration of Effects--
Excluding landslides, adverse hydrologic effects of vegetal
manipulation by mechanical means are hinhest immediately after
disturbance and decrease over time as vegetation grows (Boster
and Davis, 1972). Tackle (1962) reports that infMtration on
scarified lands in Montana improved with time, increasino from 20
percent of the undisturbed value to 50 percent in a 5-year
period. Gifford (1973) found no time trend in runoff or erosion
following pinyon-juniper chainina in Utah, but the lack of ob-
served effect was undoubtedly caused by the sparsity of runoff-
prod uc i ng storms.
The speed of veaetation growth varies considerably depending
on site conditions. On seeded areas, a grass stand normally'is
we I I estabI ished within a year or two. Natural seeding and
sprouting of shrubs also varies considerably. In Florida, a
luxuriant growth of forbs invaded cleared areas foIlowina timber
site preparation with 1 year. In addition, oak sprouts were
numerous within a few years (Burns and Hebb, 1972). Sprouting of
shrubs on treated areas in California can provide a dense cover
within 1 or 2 years where scarification has not been deep enough
to control the brush (Buck, 1959). For the southeastern United
States, Dissmeyer (unpublished) reports that a recovery period of
2 to 4 years is the average for forested sites that were given
mechanical site preparation.
Mass erosion resulting from type conversion on steep areas
is time-dependent. A lag exists between the time vegetation is
removed and root decay has progressed to the point that soil
shear strength is reduced. Coupled with this is the need for a
storm event large enough to generate the hiah hazard conditions
conducive to mass erosion. Rice and Foggin (1971) reported
landslide occurrences in 1965, 1966, and 1969 on chaparral areas
converted to grass in 1960.
Roads and Trai Is
Road construction on forest lands can create a variety of
site disturbances that may accelerate erosion and resultant
sedimentation. Numerous researchers document the fact that road
1 3
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construction can lead to Increased sedimentation, especially in
mountainous terrain (Anderson, 1954; Packer and Haupt, 1965;
Colman, 1953; Frederiksen, 1970; Hauot and Kidd, 1965; Lieberman
and Hoover, 1948; Reinhart and others, 1963; Rice and Wallis,
1962; Megahan and Kidd, 1971). Most of this potental impact is in
terms of accelerated on-site erosion includinq both surface,
channel bank, and mass erosion. Eroded material that enters the
drainage system results in sediment and turbidity and often is
the transport mechanism for other pollution parameters. Although
other pollution may result from road construction, the road-
sediment relationship is of primary importance (Bullard, 1963;
Packer, 1967; Rice and others, 1972; U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, 1973, 1974).
Other practices including road reconstruction, road main-
tenance, and trail construction have the potential to create
pollution problems. Impacts will qenerally be less serious than
those caused by the construction of new roads, however. Recon-
stuction to improve standards on existing roads or to re-open
closed roads is a common practice in many areas. The magnitude
of the effects are comparable to new construction on those por-
tions of the road directly affected by reconstruction (Anderson,
1974). Area affected may vary from the entire road length in the
case of extensive road widening to isolated drainage crossings
when re-opening a road that has been "put to bed." Poor road
maintenance practices aggravate erosion problems, whereas good
practices can greatly reduce them. Trail construction involves
many of the principles of road construction but on a much reduced
scale with lessened erosional impacts. The impacts of trail
construction are primarily related to improper drainage (Scott
and Williams, 1975; Megahan, 1961, 1962).
Factors CausingPollution from Roads--
Site disturbances that contribute to accelerated erosion and
sedimentation following road construction include: (1) removal
or reduction in protective cover; (2) destruction or impairment
of natural soil structure and fertility; (3) increased slope
gradients on cut and fill slopes; (4) decreased infiltration
rates; (5) interception of sub-surface flow by the road cut
slope; and (6) decreased shear strength and/or increases shear
stress on cut and fill slopes. Poorly designed roads, particu-
larly location and drainage, can also result in erosion.
Erosion caused by road construction is not of concern re-
garding water pollution until the eroded material enters the
drainage system. Thus, proximity to a stream channel is an
important factor regulating the amount of pollution. In those
instances where roads are immediately adjacent to or encroach on
streams, eroded material enters directly into the drainage
system. Such close proximity is usually limited to channel
crossing sites. However, where stream-grade road locations are
1 4
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used, considerably longer stretches of road can be involved in
sediment production (Anderson, 1974). Where roads are located
away from stream channels, a number of factors regulate down-
slope sediment movement including side slope gradient; freauency
of cross drainage in the road; the type, freguency and continuity
of obstructions below the road; the nature of the soil material
eroded; road gradient, etc. (Trimble and Sartz, 1957; Hauot,
1959; Packer, 1967).
Channel encroachment can cause other pollution problems in
addition to sedimentation and turbidity. Encroachment both from
channel crossings and streamside location destroys streamside
vegetation which in turn tends to increase water temperatures
primarily because of greater solar radiation heat loads on the
streams (Krammes and Burns, 1973). In addition to increased
water temperatures, Krammes and Burns reported a decrease in
dissolved oxygen levels at isolated locations in a stream near
construction activities and in the vicinity of concentrations of
logging slash. Finally, applications of surface amendments
within the road prism have the potential for creating minor,
localized pollution problems. Such amendments include: ferti-
lizers to enhance revegetation of disturbed soils; pesticides to
control vegetation and insects; salt for de-icing; and various
chemicals for surface stabilization of the road trend and for
erosion control.
Magnitude and Duration of Effects--
The magnitude of the potential for road-related pollution
problems is illustrated by the extent of forest road systems.
Gardner (1967) estimated that there were at that time approxi-
mately 322,000 km (200,000 mi.) of maintained roads in existence
on National Forests. Additionally, there are probably as many
miles or more of forest roads located on other Federal, State,
and private lands.
Obviously not all roads create problems; increases in
sediment yields caused by road construction vary considerably,
depending on the properties of the site in Question and care
taken in the road development process (Table 1). Note how
increases in average sediment yields vary from essential ly zero
at locations in Colorado and Oregon to increases of 1 to 2 times
at other Oregon locations and in Idaho and California. Increased
sediment yields of 45 times were measured on steep slopes with
highly erodible granitic soils in Idaho.
The data on average sediment yield presented in Table 1 are
somewhat misleading because the occurrence of surface erosion and
mass failure varies considerably over time. Surface erosion is
most easily detected in terms of suspended sediment concentra-
tions; thus time trends in the concentrations following road
construction may be expected to be similar to those found for
1 5
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TABLE 1. EROSION AND SEDIMENTATION FROM LOGGING ROADS*
Loca-
tion
Soi 1
parent
material
Slope
(*)
Type of
vegetation
Average sediment
Years removed Ratio
Type of study sampled Undisturbed Disturbed disturbed/
(No.) (Metric tons/so km/yr) undisturbed
Idaho Granitic 70 Ponderosa pine Deposition in dams 6 9 397 45.2
in smalI ephemera I
drai napes
Oregon Sandstone 20-50 Douglas-fir Suspended sediment 1 42 approx. 94 2.2
from watersheds
Colo. Glaciated 30-40 Lodgepole pine, Deposition in dams 10-14 2t § 0
metamor- subalpine fir in perennial
phic drainages
Idaho Granitic 35-55 Ponderosa pine, Deposition in 4-5 0 1
sediment dams in
ephemeral and
perennial streams
Oregon Glaciated 20-30 Douglas-fir Suspended sediment 4 Ave. 10 ppm. #
basalts at gaging station
Oregon Tuffs and 55 Douglas-fir Suspended sediment 2 26 56 2.2
breccias and bed loads from
watersheds
Idaho Granitic 30-70 Ponderosa pine, Deposition in dams 7 6 11 1.7
Douglas-fir in perennial first
and second order
streams
Calif. Sandstone ** Douglas-fir, Deposition in debris 4 33t 64 1.9
redwood, and dams
associated
species
* Megahan, 1974.
t Assumed sediment volume weight of 1,122 kilograms per cubic meter (70 pounds per cubic foot).
§ Slight increases traced to roads but not significant.
# No change except slight increase during road construction.
** Streamside location.
-------
surface erosion. Such trends have, in fact, occurred at a number
of locations in the United States (Anderson, 1972; Frederiksen,
1970; Reinhart and others, 1963; Rice and others, 1969;
Dissmeyer, unpublished).
Mass failure is a natural slope sculpturina process which is
a function of climate, topography, soils and geology, and vege-
tation. Failures may occur when sheer strength of a slope is
exceeded by gravitational and other stresses. Road construction
can increase the tendency for mass failure by undercutting
upslope soils, altering the natural drainage pattern of the
slope, accelerating weathering of soil parent material, adding
weight to the soil mass underlying fill slopes, and by removing
deep-rooted veoetation that previously helped to stabilize soil
material underlying fill slopes. Numerous reports substantiate
the fact that road construction can cause mass failures in areas
of high erosion hazard such as in steep, mountainous terrain
(Dryness, 1967; Rothacher and Glazebrook, 1968; Gonsior and
Gardner, 1971; Brown and Krygier, 1971; Megahan and Kidd, 1972).
Mass failures following road construction may be somewhat time-
dependent in that they usually occur when Iarae rainstorms end/or
snowmelt cause large volume water inputs into the soil. However,
some recent unpublished data collected by the Forest Service on
the Clearwater National Forest in Idaho, suggest a more consis-
tent time trend where mass failure occurrence on 150 slides was
related to road age as follows:
Road Age Occurrence of Landslides
(years) ( percent)
0-5 5
6-10 50
11-15 34
16+ 11
By far the largest percentage of slides occurred on roads
from 6 to 15 years of age. Although not conclusive, these data
suggest that decay of organic material (primarily roots) contri-
butes to slope failure. Similar results were shown by data
col Iected on logged areas where si ide occurrence was related to
decay of roots 5 to 10 years after cutting (Swanston, 1969;
Bishop and Stevens, 1964).
Channel storage is one additional factor that helps make
sediment pollution from road construction time-dependent. This
effect is particularly important for bedload sediment where
downstream movement is limited by the streamflow energy available
for transport. Sediment in excess of the transport capacity of
the channel system. Krammes and Burns (1973) speculated that it
took 3 years for excessive bedload sediments to move over a 3.2
km stretch of channel at Caspar Creek in California. Similar
effects are reported by Platts and Megahan (1975) who found a
1 7
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marked time trend over a 9-year period in channel bottom
materials of the South Fork of the Salmon River.
Reduction of Pollution Problems from Roads--
The erosional and consequent sedimentation impacts of road
construction need not be passively accepted. There are a variety
of principles and procedures available to reduce impacts. These
can be summarized as four basic principles as follows:
1. Minimize the amount of disturbance caused by road
construction by:
a. Controlling the total mileaae of roads.
b. Reducing the area of disturbance on the roads that
are built.
c. Fitting the road to the landscape.
2. Avoid construction in high erosion hazard areas and
steep stream grades.
3. Reduce potential erosion on areas that are disturbed
by construction by using effective erosion control
practices.
4. Minimize the off-site impacts of sedimentation by use
of debris basins, sediment traps, etc.
To be effective, these principles must be considered
throughout the entire road development process proceeding from
broad land use planning through road location, design, con-
struction, maintenance, and closure.
Fire
Fire is a natural constituent of most forest ecosystems in
the United States. Consequently, even without human interven-
tion, water poI lution resulting from fire wi I I be observed from
time to time. The importance of fire as a cause of pollution
varies considerably among forest ecosystems, being least impor-
tant in the rain forests of the north Pacific Coast and deciduous
forests in the northeastern United States, and of extreme impor-
tance in the forests and semi-arid lands of the southwest.
The term "wildfire" is used to mean any fire which is not
purposely set to achieve some management objective. Fires set in
conjunction with a fire suppression activity and those fires
which are permitted to burn as part of a conscious "natural burn
policy" are also considered to be wildfires. In evaluating the
effects of both wild and prescribed fires, to the extent that
data permit, only the effects of burning are considered. The
disturbances resulting from the preparation of fire lines or use
1 8
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of chemicals to prepare the fuel for prescribed burns are not
con s i dered here.
Cause and Effect Relationships--
Increased sedimentation is the principal impact of forest
fires on water quality. In the immediate post-fire years, the
sediment increase is due to removal of the protective vegetative
and litter cover and an increase in surface runoff leading to
increased sheet, rill, gully, and stream-channel erosion. The
amount of sedimentation can be nil for prescribed burns or very
high from areas burned by hot fires that consume all protective
vegetative cover and litter. However, the effects vary from site
to site. In steep terrain prone to mass wastina, fire may lead
to increased sedimentation from landsl ide erosion four or more
years after the fire.
Eros ion--
Overland flow is unusual in undisturbed forested watersheds
because rainfall intensities in most storms fail to exceed the
infiltration capacity of the soil. During those rain periods
when the infiltration capacity is exceeded, the layer of forest
litter on the soil surface helps to mitigate the possible adverse
effects of overland flow. Litter provides storage capacity for
water in excess of the soil's infiltration rate, and in most
circumstances it creates surface rouahness which reduces the
velocity and subsequent eroding power of overland flow. It also
physically protects the soil surface from the eroding action of
flowing water. In addition to reducing erosion by retarding
runoff, storage of water in the litter layer tends to dampen
hydrologic responses, reducing runoff peaks and channel scour.
Thus, the damage which a fire does to a watershed can often be
measured by the extent to which the litter layer is destroyed.
On some sites where the channel systems are in equilibrium
with pre-fire runoff potential, the additional runoff in post-
fire situations can cause significant stream bank erosion and-
stream sedimentation.
Watersheds with coarse-textured, highly decomposed granitic
soils or soils which are very strongly aggregated may exhibit
accelerated post-fire runoff and erosion due to a creation of a
water-repellent layer (DeBano and Rice, 1973). In such circum-
stances, hydrophobic organic compounds accumulate in a layer a
few centimeters below the soil surface. In an unburned condi-
tion, the hydro IogicaI Iy active portion of the soil mantle may be
as much as a few meters thick. With the creation of a water re-
pellent layer, it is at most a few centimeters thick. Conse-
quently, even a modest size storm can saturate this thin layer
causing overland flow and severe erosion.
1 9
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Dry Ravel and Mass Wasting--
On steep watersheds in the western United States, fire can
also increase erosion and sedimentation by increasing dry ravel
(Krammes, 1965; Mersereau and Dyrness, 1972). This type of
accelerated erosion, the individual movement of soil particles
under the force of gravity, beains immediately with the fire's
passing. The soil particles will move downslope until encount-
ering terrain flatter than the soil's angle of repose. Often
this location will be in or adjacent to the stream channels.
These deposits are a readily available source of sediment which
can be transported by fire-induced hiah discharges or major storm
events. Transport of these deposits, and other deposits which
have accumulated in the channel over the years prior to the fire,
are an important source of post-fire sedimentation (Scott 1971;
Rice, 1974).
On sites prone to mass wasting where fire has created a
hydrophobic condition, fire tends to reduce landslide incidence
for a few years following the burn due to reduced infiltration.
Over time, however, as the roots of fire-killed vegetation decay,
increased susceptibility to landslides has been noted. With
remarkable consistency, regardless of whether the veaetation has
been destroyed by fire or logging and, seemingly, reaardless of
climate, accelerated landslide erosion beains about 5 years after
the vegetation is killed (Bishop and Stevens, 1964; Corbett and
Rice, 1966; Dyrness, 1967; Rice and others, 1969; Burgy and
Papazifiriou, 1971; Rice and Foggin, 1971).
Water Temperature and Chemical Pollution--
In all probability, wildfire removes less stream shade than
logging in the riparian zone. Fuel moisture is normally higher
adjacent to live streams and, therefore, burning conditions are
less severe. Thus, a fringe of unburned or partially burned
stands often remains adjacent to stream channels. The signifi-
cance of increases in water temperature depends, in part, upon
the cl imate of the area concerned. For example, Barnhart (per-
sonal communication) believes that in short coastal streams of
northwestern California, small temperature increases would have
an overall beneficial effect on anadromous fish because of the
increased growth of stream organisms in response to increased
I ight. In other cases, where high summer temperatures may be
limiting, similar increases would be detrimental.
The use of fire retardant chemicals during fire suppression
action is a possible source of water pollution related to wild-
fires. Nutrients released when fire destroys the forest floor
present another possible source. It is significant to note here
that the control of sedimentation provides an important key to
the control of water pollution by mineral nutrients. Fredriksen
(1971) found that 53 percent of the annual nitrogen loss follow-
20
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ing burning was incorporated in the sediment. Similarly, DeBano
and Conrad (unpublished) reported that nearly 80 percent of the
nutrient loss from their burned plots was incorporated into the
sed i ment .
Vegetative Recovery--
Sedimentation and other pollution usually decrease rapidly
following a fire. The duration of effect varies with the sever-
ity of the fire and climate, recovery being most rapid following
light burns in climates favoring rapid vegetative regrowth .
Fredriksen (1970) observed that understory vegetation on two
logged and burned areas in Oregon returned to near normal in 1 to
4 years. Brown and Kryaier (1971) reported that a 100 percent
clearcut and burned watershed which had a 5-fold increase in
sedimentation was revegetating at a rate that could be ex- pected
to return sediment yiefd to normal in about the 5th or 6th year
after burning. Sedimentation effects foI lowing chaparral fires
in southern California are thought to return to normal in about
10 years (Rowe and others, 1954). Orr (1971) has suggested that
watershed recovery coincides with vegetative recovery producing
50 percent ground cover. In the southeastern United States,
recovery time following prescribed burns averages 2 years
(Dissmeyer, unpublished).
Magnitude of the ProbIem--
As a result of the cumulative effect of the previously dis-
cussed processes, Iarae increases in sedimentation can follow
wildfires, particularly in mountainous lands of the West. Pre-
scribed fires are normally associated with lesser increases.
Reported increases range from 1.4x from a prescribed burn on
gentle topography in Mississippi (Ursic, 1970) to 120x as the
result of chaparral fire in California followed by a large storm
(Simpson, 1969). Quantitatively, these rates range from about 80
to 43,800 metric tons/km^ for the first runoff season following
the fire. Intermediate values of 3.5 tons/km^ for a 4-year
period following slash burning in western Montana (DeByIe and
Packer, 1972) and 5,250 tons/km? measured durinq the first summer
rain storms following a wildfire in a logged area in Arizona
(Rich, 1962) .
A slash fire in western Oregon resulted in measured dry
ravel at rates of from 66.5 to 1,050 tons/km^ during the 9th to
14th month after burning (Mersereau and Dryness, 1972). In
southern California 4,912 tons/km^ dry ravel was measured over a
3-year period followina a chaparral fire (Krammes, 1965).
Although delayed, the fire-related increase in landslide
erosion can be substantial. Dyrness (1967) reported a 10-fold
increase in the freauency of landslides attributable to clearcut
logging and slash burning. When comparing burned and unburned
21
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chaparral, Rice (1974) found an 18.6-fold increase in the volume
of landslide erosion following burning. While there have been no
comparable studies in forested areas, oresumably the increases
wou I d be similar.
The effect of fire on streamflow temperatures appears to be
no different than any other type of clearing of riparian vegeta-
tion. In a summary of stream temperature responses from six
different studies, Helvey (1973) found the elevation of stream
temperatures due to wildfire within the range established for the
effect of selective logging, clearcut blocks, clearcut, and
clearcut and burned.
Prel iminary results from a current study in several forest
ecosystems evaluating the possibility of pollution by fire r e-
tardants (Logan Norris, personal communication) indicate that
this activity is not likely to lead to significant water
pollution. Water Quality was monitored at points where the
retardant drops were simulated and at sites downstream. High
concentrations of retardants were found only in the treatment
zone shortly after application. Concentrations rapidly
attenuated downstream and over time. In no case have the
investigators observed fish mortality or change, in benthic
organisms. This, coupled with the fact that retardant drops
directly into streams are uncommon (firelines are usually on
ridges), leads to the conclusion that the potential for water
polution from fire retardant chemicals is slight.
There are numerous reports of flushes of mineral nutrients
in streamflow following prescribed fires and wildfires. Three
studies on the effects of wildfires indicated negligible in-
creases in mineral nutrients (Lotspeich, Mueller, and Frey, 1970;
Johnson and Needham, 1966; and Klock, 1971). However, Fredriksen
(1972) found that concentrations of nitroaen and manganese ex-
ceeded water Quality standards for a 12-day period following
slash burning. In other studies DeByle and Packer (1972) and
DeBano and Conrad (unpublished) reported very high concentrations
of nutrients in runoff water. The discrepancy between the con-
trol burns and the wildfires was possibly related to the volume
of material being burned. The wildfires were all in young or
sparse timber, whereas the control burns were in heavy slash or
chaparral .
More research is needed to accurately define the role of
fire in nutrient release and its significance to water Quality.
However, the general opinion of the Forest Service at this time
is that prescribed fire or wildfire appear to pose no significant
threat to water Quality from chemical pollution.
22
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Available Controls and Management Techniques to Reduce the
ProbI em--
To minimize the effect of fire on water Quality, it is
necessary to reduce the severity of the fire. For wildfires,
this requires a lona-range fuel management proaram designed to
minimize the quantity of fuel available. Fuel accumulation can
be minimized in various ways, such as reducing loaging debris by
closer utilization of slash material, yarding slash material and
heavy fuels to a central point for controlled burnina, and by
using prescribed burns to keep fuel accumulation to a minimum.
Post-fire techniques of erosion control are usually limited
to practices designed to enhance vegetative recovery. These
practices include seeding the area to qrasses, forbs, shrubs
(with or without fertilization), and planting the area to trees.
Surfactants can be used to promote infiltration to coun-
teract fire-induced water repellent layers. In plot studies
(Krammes and Osborn, 1968), erosion was reduced about 35 percent
for dry ravel and water borne sediment, but the only large-scale
test failed to show any treatment effect. Subsequent studies
have shown that heavier appl ication of different surfactants
should be effective (DeBano and Conrad, unpublished). However,
the treatment cost (about $4,000/km^) would be prohibitive under
most circumstances.
Grazing
Domestic livestock graze on approximately half of the 111 ha
(273 million acres) of public rangeland in the 11 western states
alone (Public Land Law Review Commission, 1970). In addition,
livestock graze on private lands in these states and on forests,
ranges, wild pastures in the East. Wild ungulate populations
exist in every state and where concentrated, they can impact
water quality similarly to domestic livestock. Therefore, water
pollution resulting from livestock or wildlife grazing on water-
sheds has the potential of affecting a large portion of our
Nat i on .
The pollution parameters resulting from grazing of forests,
rangelands, and wild pastures are: sediment, pathogens, nitrogen
and phosphorus (nutrients), biochemical oxygen demand, and tur-
bidity. Pollution from heavy metals, temperature chanqes, pesti-
cides, and other potential pollutants that might stem from graz-
ing are not considered to be sufficiently significant to warrant
d i scuss i on .
The production of sediment has long been a major problem
associated with grazing of wildlands, but only recently have
other types of pollution been recognized. A disproportionate
amount of the literature deals with erosion and resultinq
23
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sediment production with some data on turbidity and dissolved
solids. Documentation for other pollutants appears not at all or
only recently in the literature, and one could falsely conclude
that sediment is the only important pollution resulting from
grazing.
Cause and Effect Relationships--
Grazing may directly or indirectly cause pollution. Direct
pollution comes from urine and manure dropped directly into sur-
face waters or transported to them via overland flow. Dead
animals can directly pollute in the same manner as animal wastes.
Also, animals often wallow in shallow waters, and at least local-
ly, cause turbidity as well as streambank collapse and cutting.
Collapse of streambanks can be attributed also to trail crossings
or animals grazing on the banks.
Indirect pollution from intensive arazina comes from dis-
turbing the plant community, removing much of the vegetation, and
trampling the soil. This, in turn, may markedly increase over-
land flow, causing erosion of particulates and transport of dis-
solved solids into the streams. Excessive grazing sometimes
causes gullying of formerly stable meadows thus starting a new
cycle of erosion that can only be halted by mechanical struc-
tures .
Magnitude of Problem and Some Control Techniaues--
In the western United States, streamflow comes from the
forested mountains, while the sediment loads in these streams
come mainly from the rangelands (Branson and others, 1972).
These authors further state that sediment transported by runoff
water greatly exceeds, in volume, the combined total of alI other
substances that pollute our surface water.
On erodibIe marine shales, grazing was responsible for an
increase in sediment yields of approximately 45 percent in
western Colorado (Lusby, 1970). In contrast, Dunford (1949)
found that on permeable granitic soils of eastern Colorado,
moderate grazing resulted in almost no increase in erosion; heavy
grazing, however did cause substantial increases. Grazing, de-
pletion of plant cover, and trampling of the soil contributed the
most to erosion on the Boise River watershed (Renner, 1936).
Packer (1963) stated that ground cover densities of. at least 70
percent and soil bulk densities no greater than 1.04 were neces-
sary for restoring and maintaining soil stability on the Gallatin
elk winter range in Montana. Better grazing management over a
3-year period in New Mexico brought about improved watershed
conditions in which average ground cover doubled and bare ground
exposure decreased with marked reductions in sediment yields and
runoff (Aldon, 1964). ,
24
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The relation of prazina to density of plant cover, which, in
turn, is related to overland flow and soil erosion, has been ex-
plicitly and implicitly shown by many researchers (Rauzi, 1955;
Packer, 1953; Meeuwig, 1965; Rauzi and Hanson, 1966). The
Australian Commonwealth Bureau of Soils published a bibliography
in 1966 citing 120 references related to the effect of the craz-
ing animal on the soil. Much of this research was confined to
plot studies and sometimes to small watersheds. Only on water-
sheds with perennial streams can erosion be related directly to
sediment loads in the streams. However, in the opinion of Meiman
and Kunkle (1967), bacteria grouos and their ratios qive a better
measure of grazing impact on water Quality than suspended sedi-
ment or turbidity.
In contrast to the many reports on the effects of grazing
and range management on erosion and sedimentation, little infor-
mation exists on the effects of grazing on dissolved solid con-
tent or chemical duality of waters (Branson and others, 1972),
In the West, most of the water comes from the mountains, but, as
with sediment, most of the dissolved sol ids come from the lower
parts of the drainage area (Irons and others, 1965). Thus, the
rolling, mid-elevation, western rangelands contribute from
natural sources large amounts of both sediment and dissolved
solids to our river systems. However, this literature review
disclosed no clear relationship between dissolved solid content
of water and grazing.
If increased grazing pressure results in increased overland
flow, then it would seem that not only erosion and sediment but
also the chemical Duality of the streamflow would be altered, at
least during storm flows. No literature was found to support or
refute this hypothesis.
Grazing can increase the bacterial content of surface
waters. Kunkle (1970) found fecal coliform counts only slightly
higher than on unarazed areas when grazing cattle were located
away from the Vermont stream he was studying. The source of
pollution, he discovered, was the strip immediately adjacent to
the stream that yields storm overland flow.
Morrison and Fair (1966) pointed out that cattle grazing
adjacent to the Cache la Poudre River in Colorado caused
increas-es in coliform counts and total bacterial counts. They
believed that either wild or domestic animals on a watershed are
a source of potentially pathogenic enteric bacteria.
Grazing and irrigation of a mountain meadow, according to
Kunkle and Meiman (1967), resulted in higher coliform counts,
with fecal coliforms being most sensitive to this treatment.
They found that storms raised the natural levels of sediment,
turbidity, and organisms, and that the difference between the
natural and impacted streams were then magnified. Peterson and
25
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Boring (1960) also reported that flood irrigation and presence
of cattle in the stream increased coliform densities. Darling
(1973) showed significantly higher coliform, fecal coliform, and
fecal streptococci counts in Utah mountain streams just below
grazed areas than at other locations.
Walter and Bottman (1967) found that a watershed in Montana
closed to the public had hiqher streamwater bacterial counts than
one open to public recreation. This unusual relationship was
later attributed to efk on the closed, undisturbed watershed by
Goodrich and others (1970) and Bisso.nette and others (1970).
Coliform counts rose to 250 per 100 ml of water as the stream
flowed through a summer elk range on the closed watershed.
Average counts downstream were 160 per 100 ml.
Controls for Reducing Pollution Caused by Grazing--
Present technology and current practices offer means of con-
trolling water pollution from grazing activity. Livestock can be
fenced from stream and lake shores. Through proper development,
springs and water holes can be protected from wallowina stock.
Grazing systems that enhance and maintain good range cnditions
minimize or reduce sediment and turbidity in waters coming from
grazed lands. Control of wild ungulate numbers and concentra-
tions is possible through adeauate harvest of individual herds.
Timber Harvest
Timber harvest operations are extremely widespread through-
out the United States and play a very important role in wildland
management. Discussed here are only those aspects directly
associated with the cutting and removal of trees. Most of the
detrimental effects normally associated with logging result from
poor construction practices associated with some roads and skid
trails and the use of fire for slash disposal or site prepara-
tion. These activities (roads and fire) are discussed elsewhere
in this report. The effects of timber harvest considered here
approximate the minimum that can be expected if the timber re-
sources are to be managed.
Cause and Effect Relationships--
Of all the possible effects of a timber harvest, the one
that appears to be the most inescapable is the release of
nutrients (mainly forms of nitrogen) to streams. Opening of the
forest canopy accelerates decomposition of organic material and
the reduced biomass brings about a subsequent reduction in
nutrient uptake by the forest. When evaluating the effect of
timber harvest on nutrient release, many factors should,- be
considered. These include: forest soil exchange capacity,
microclimate following logging, hydrology of the logged slope,
rate of regrowth, character of the litter layer, and degree of
26
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surface disturbance. Usually losses to streamflow are i nverse I y
related to the exchange capacity of the soil mass and the litter
layer and d i rectIy related to dearee of disturbance.
Water Temperature and Oxygen Depletion--
Logging adjacent to stream channels opens the forest canopy,
thus increasing the solar energy reaching the water surface.
Longwave radiation from the stream environment and advection
energy from adjacent areas are usually increased, producing
higher water temperatures. The temperature increase is direct-
ly proportional to the increased exposure to radiation.
Oxygen depletion can then result from the combined effects
of biochemical oxygen demand of loagina debris in the stream and
the reduced oxygen solubility in the heated water. The Ieachate
from such debris also may have toxic effects. However, Ponce
(1974) bel ieves that oxygen depletion would occur before leachate
concentrations could reach a toxic level. In addition to its
chemical effects, logging debris may also present physical bar-
riers to fish movement and spawning which dearade the stream as a
fi sh hab itat.
So i I Eros i on--
Some soil surface disturbance is inherent in timber harvest,
the effect of which is dependent upon soi I type and other site
characteristics. Nevertheless erosion in these disturbed areas
is a potential source of stream sediment. The sediment also may
be the vehicle by which other pollutants are transported to the
stream.
The severity of soil disturbance and its extent is more
dependent upon the yarding method and road density than upon the
si IvicuItura I method (Table 2). Tractors usually yard in a
downhi I I direction creating a pattern of bare soi I which col lects
and concentrates overland flow. Cable systems, on the other
hand, most often yard uphill, creating a pattern of disturbance
which disperses surface water. Even when yardina downhill, cable
systems do not create a dendritic pattern; conseauentIy, overland
flow is only concentrated at the landing. Skyline, balloon, and
helicopter yarding cause random disturbances to the soil having
little effect on overland flow.
Mass Wast i ng--
When steep slopes are logged, they may become more vulner-
able to landslide erosion. With few exceptions (Ellison and
Coaldrake, 1954; Flaccus, 1959) investigators throughout the
world have reached similar conclusions. Equally accepted is that
5 years usually elapse following logging before appearance of
substantial landsliding (Bishop and Stevens, 1964; Rice, Corbett,
27
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TABLE 2. SOIL DISTURBANCE FROM LOGGING*
LoqpI no system
Percent
bare
so i I
Locat i on
Re ference
NJ
00
Tractor - selection 87.7
Tractor - clearcut 70.0
Tractor - clearcut 29.4
Tractor - clearcut 26.1
Cab Ie - seIection 20.9
High lead - clearcut 18.8
High lead - clearcut 15.8
Tractor - selection 15.5
Skyline - clearcut 12.1
Skyline - clearcut 11.1
Skyline - clearcut 6.4
Balloon - clearcut 6.0
N. California
N. Cat i forn i a
E. Wash i nqton
W. Wash i ngton
E. Wash, and Ore
W. Oregon
W. Oregon
E . Wash . and Ore,
W. Oregon
E . Wash i ngton
W. Oregon
W. Oregon
Bo e , N . 0 .
Boe, N.O.
Wooldridge, 1960
Steibrenner and Gessel, 1955
Garrison and Rummell, 1951
Dyrness, 1967a
Ruth, 1967
Garrison and Rummell, 1951
Dyrness, 1967a
Wooldridae, 1960
Ruth, 1967
Dyrness, N.D.
*Rice, Rothacher, and Megahan, 1972.
-------
and Bailey, 1969; Nakano, 1971). Rice and Krammes (1971) esti-
mate that landslides are triggered by storms with return periods
of about 7 years. There has been I ittle American research con-
cerning trends in slope strength to be fully restored. He also
noted that the freauency of landslidina tends to increase again
as decadent forests begin to deteriorate.
Magnitude of the Problem--
Nutrient losses were studied in Mew Hampshire on the Hubbard
Brook Experimental Forest. Here, in contrast with normal Ioa-
ging, Watershed 2 was totally devegetated by repeated appli-
cations of herbicides. This study showed that increased losses
of nutrient ions can be important in the nutrient capital of the
watershed. For example, Pierce and others (1970) reported in-
creased nitrogen losses for the first 3 years amounting to 9
percent of the original nitrogen capital of the site. Two
factors are thought to be the main causes of this high release.
First, herbicides were used for the 3-year period to prevent any
vegetative regrowth, and second, the soils here are strong
podzols which are especially vulnerable to the treatment applied
(Pierce, 1972). A subseguent study on a similar watershed in this
experimental forest, using a conventional harvesting method, a
strip cut, disclosed that the nitrogen losses were much less
dramatic, amounting to less than 1 percent of the nitrogen
capital of the site (Hornbeck and others, 1975). Studies in
other areas also show smalI nutrient releases from logged areas
(Aubertin and Patric, 1972; Fredriksen, 1971).
The implication of the 1975 study on Hubbard Brook and
others is that under most conventional logging methods the
nutrient loss will be a very small percentage of the nutrient
capital of the site. While it is recognized that the temporary
increase of nutrients in the receiving waters will occur, it is
not thought to present a major impact on the water guality of the
first order streams draining the cut areas. This conclusion is
tentative and subject to further examination.
In a summary of stream temperature responses in six dif-
ferent studies, Helvey (1973) found the elevation of stream
temperatures to be about 3° to 7° C. due to wildfire, selective
logging, clearcut blocks, clearcut, and clearcut and burned.
In the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, the effect of
total vegetation removal was to raise the maximum summer stream
temperature 6° C. (Pierce and others, 1970). The subseguent
strip cut of a similar watershed showed only about a 1° C.
increase in the maximum summer stream temperature (Hornbeck and
others, 1975).
29
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Stream temperature increases may have either a beneficial or
negative effect depending upon the desired condition of the
stream and the history of water temperature in the stream.
Froelich (1973) reported considerable variability in the
amount of organic debris in undisturbed forest streams. He has
also shown that with a modest amount of care, an area may be
logged without an appreciable increase in total organic debris in
the stream channel. After logging, only four of the nine study
channels that he studied had amounts of fine debris within the
range of natural variability, pointing out the difficulty in con-
trolling the accumulation of such material. Only in one channel
was the amount of fine debris below the average for natural water
courses. If this fine debris enters the stream during summer low
flows, it can present a serious threat to fish during the first 3
weeks following entry (Ponce and Brown, 1974).
Usually the surface erosion following logging is minor
compared to that resulting from landsl ides and the effects of
slash burning. Megahen (1972) found about 11 metric tons per
km^/yr of surface erosion from felI ing and skidding on a skyl ine
logging area in Idaho. In another skyline logging area in
Oregon, Fredriksen (1970) measured only 0.8 percent (4.9 metric
tons/km^) of the post-logging sedimentation output during the 3
seasons after logging but before slash burning or landslides.
Other studies indicate little or no sedimentation from lodging
(Meehan and others, 1969; LulI and Satterlund, 1963; Packer,
1967; Brown and Krygier, 1971). However, surface erosion can
sometimes be serious. For example, Kawaguchi and others (1959),
using 20x40 m plots in a 30-year-old pine forest, found surface
erosion to increase exponentially with the size of the area
cIearcut.
The amount of eroded material that will move off-site is
dependent on the trap efficiency of the site. The trap effi-
ciency is highly variable and can vary from nil to 100 percent.
The Quantification of the amount of erosion from channel sources
is difficult, and the literature is sketchy regarding this source
of sedimentation as a result of logging. The recent work by
Rosgen (1975) on the Idaho Panhandle National Forests shows that
channel erosion can account for as much as 90 percent of the
total sediment load for a channel system.
Increased stream channel erosion may occur where the harvest
of trees causes changes in the streamflow hydrograph. The mag-
nitude of this increase in channe.l erosion is dependent on the
pre-harvest stream channel stability and the magnitude and dura-
tion of the post-harvest streamflow increases.
Studies on the volume of landslide erosion on logging areas
are relatively rare. Nonetheless, many investigators have re-
ported it is an important erosicnal process in mountainous
30
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forested areas that are prone to mass movement, accounting for 25
to 50 percent of the total erosion. Characteristically, 10-fold
increases in landslide erosion are observed following clearcut
logging (Nakano, 1971; Dryness, 1967). Fredriksen (1970) meas-
ured 189 metric tons/km2 sedimentation (about a 2.3x increase)
from a recently clearcut watershed following a storm that re-
sulted in a landslide. The landslide occurred in 1964 and the
measurements wre made from 1964 to 1966. Later, after slash
burning had removed obstructions to sediment movement, an
additional 445 metric tons/km2 (1268.2 tons/sq.mi.) were
measured. These measurements were made from 1966-68.
Available Controls and Management Techniques to Reduce the
ProbIem--
Technology is currently available to reduce water pollution
from logging. Generally, the strategy is to adopt low impact
logging methods, to refrain from entering potentially unstable
areas, and to schedule logging activity so as to allow interim
recovery. To adopt a more sophisticated strategy permittina
greater utilization will reouire more information about processes
and a higher level of on-the-ground expertise than is currently
ava iIabIe .
It is doubtful that there is enough information to adequate-
ly model the nutrient outflow from logged sites. Only a few cli-
mate and soil types have been investigated. However, it does not
appear that carefully planned logging activity will have on-site
or in-stream nutrient impacts that are intolerable.
The effect of canopy removal on water temperature can be
predicted (Brown, 1969). Such predictions can be accurate for
stream reaches which are either fully sheltered or fully exposed.
Prediction of the effects of intermediate amounts of canopy re-
moval is more difficult and the results less precise (Brazier and
Brown, 1973). Under most circumstances, water quality problems
related to organic debris or stream temperature may be minimized
by the preservation of a buffer strip along water courses. Buf-
fer strips would also decrease the severity of oxygen depletion
resulting from the fine debris entering a stream. Ponce and
Brown (1974), observing a synergistic effect between fine organic
debris and sunlight, concluded that "cIearcutting Cof buffer
strips] may affect the rate at which oxygen is depleted as well
as the amount of depletion."
The widespread use of low impact logging methods to minimize
surface erosion may not be economically feasible under the pres-
ent timber market structure.
The levels of disturbance indicated for skyline and baloon
clearcutting (Table 2) probably represent the minimum for current
technology. On the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest, Fredriksen
31
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(1970) could detect no rise in sediment rate from watersheds
logged by these methods until several large landslides occurred
as a result of a major storm. In view of that observation and
the trends in disturbance shown in Table 2, it appears that
present technology should be able to reduce surface erosion from
logging disturbance to negligible levels. The effect of in-
creased water yields on channel stability and erosion is begin-
ning to be recognized in areas where it is a problem. The work
by Rosgen (1975) reflects the latest predictive methods to ana-
lyze the impact of stream channel erosion caused by increases in
water yields.
Although the general outline of the relationship between
timber harvest and landslide erosion (mass wasting) appears quite
clear, much needs to be learned before reasonably accurate
Quantitative estimates can be made of the landslide risks from
logging a particular site. Such estimates need to incorporate
trends in slope stability following logging by various silvi-
cultural systems, the probability distribution of storms of
varying sizes, and the rate of regrowth of vegetation. For the
present, the only available strategy is to avoid potentially
unstable land or at least to forego clearcutting such slopes.
There have been no Quantitative tests of the precision of land-
si ide prediction in forested areas, but in chaparral forecast
accuracy of 84 percent has been achieved (Koian, Foqgin, and
Rice, 1972).
Application of Pesticides
The word pesticide is a aeneral term applied to a wide
variety of chemicals (and to a lesser degree biological agents)
incuding insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides , etc.
Pesticides are defined as chemical or biological agents used to
control, mitigate, or modify pests, but this definition ignores
the fact that pesticides are used as a management tool to help
achieve some end. In forestry,'the end goal is seldom simply to
control or mitigate the pest but more likely to protect or en-
hance a forest value.
Pesticides play an important role in both modern American
agriculture and forestry, but the magnitude, intensity, and
pattern of pesticide use is vastly different. In intensive
agriculture, one or more pesticides may be applied one or more
times during a crop cycle. Crop cycles are short, and repeated
applications in agriculture are common. In forestry, most land
will not be treated with pesticides at any time during a crop
cycle. Lands that are treated seldom receive more than a single
application in 1 year or more than one treatment in a crop cycle
ranging from 20 to more than 100 years. A large number of com-
pounds are registered for use in agriculture, while in forestry,
the principal pesticides used number less than 10. Forestry
32
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accounts for only slightly more than 1 percent of the total
pesticide use in the United States.
Magnitude and Scope of Pesticide Use--The potential impact
of pesticides on forest water quality depends largely on the
chemical and its pattern of use. In 1973, more than 1 million
pounds of pesticides were applied to forest lands in the United
States. The figures in Table 3 represent chemicals used by the
Forest Service and also chemicals used on projects involving
Federal assistance provided by the Forest Service.
TABLE 3. PESTICIDE USE IN FORESTS, 1973
Use
Herb i c i de
I n sect i c i de
Fum i g an t
Vertebrate
contro I
Hectares
105,81 3
289,944
207
27,200
Percent
24.9
68. 7
0.6
6.4
K i I ograms
used*
310,
139,
52,
7,
802
455
079
1 46
Percent
57.
25.
9.
1 .
6
8
7
3
Funaicide 563 0.1 30,051 5.6
* Pounds of active ingredients.
Figures in Table 3 do not include use by other Federal land
management agencies or by various state and private groups. In
general, these figures underestimate the total use in forestry
except for insecticides. The vast majority of insecticides used
in forests in the United States are applied on Forest Service
lands or through Federal cooperative insect control projects for
which the Forest Service has responsibility. Thus, herbicide use
reflected in Table 3 probably approaches or exceeds insecticide
use in terms of acreaae treated annually.
,*
These data suggest that only 0.2 percent of forest land in
the United States receives pesticides in any given year. There-
fore, interaction between pesticides and water duality is not an
extensive problem. In those areas where pesticides ere used,
however, the interaction, though local, can be intense.
I nsect i c i des--
There are few insecticides which are registered for use on
forest lands. Insect damage problems in recent years have been
handled as special projects, usually with approval for a par-
33
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ticular compound granted by regulatory agencies on a case-by-case
basis.
The chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are not usually
selected for use in forestry when alternate chemicals are
available. Insecticides most likely to be used in forestry are
various organo-phosphates and carbamates. There is considerable
research currently being done to develop hormones and microbial
insecticides including bacteria and viruses.
Applications are almost exclusively by air. Large or con-
tiguous areas may be treated in an infestation zone. In any one
year, a large percentage of the total amount of given insect-
icide applied to forests in the United States may be applied in
only one region. Several to many years may elapse before appli-
cation of any magnitude may be made in that region again. The
potential for impact of insecticides on water duality may be
relatively widespread on a regional basis but is relatively
infreguent in occurrence. The gypsy moth control program is a
current exception to these generalizations.
Herb i c i des--
Herbicides are used for a wide variety of purposes in for-
estry, including fuel break management; veaetation control on
powerline, road, and railroad rights-of-way; conversion of hard-
wood brush to stands of conifers; release of established conifers
from competing hardwood brush; thinning; and cull tree removal in
established stands. The most commonly used herbicides are the
phenoxy herbicides (2,4-D,2,4,5-T, and Silvex), picloram, ami-
trole, atrazine, and the organic arsenicals (MSMA and cacodylic
acid).
Herbicides are applied by a vari'ety of means, including
rotary and fixed wing aircraft, through low pressure-high volume
ground spray eauipment, low volume ground-spray eauipment,
pellets and granules, and as undiluted concentrate in several
stem injection devices. Treatment areas are typically small (2
to 80 ha) and widely scattered. Large contiguous blocks are
seldom treated. The annual extent of herbicide use remains rea-
sonably constant on a regional basis, therefore, the potential
interaction between herbicides and streams occurs freouently but
is of limited scope in any one drainage system. •
Fungicides and Rodenticides--
Funqicides receive intensive use in forest tree nurseries
but are seldom used in forest land management. Nursery culture
is similar to agriculture and is not included in this discussion.
Use of rodenticides has dropped sharply in recent years. They
are relatively unimportant in terms of potential impact on water
quality and are not considered further. Avicides and piscicides
34
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receive little or
discussed here.
no significant use in forestry and are not
Causes and Effects--
There can be direct and indirect effects, as well as short-
and long-term effects on the aquatic environment associated with
the use of pesticides in forestry.
Indirect Effects--
Indirect effects do not reauire physical contact between
the pesticide and the aouatic system. Such effects would include
changes in temperature, pH, nutrient or light levels or other
changes in water quality, or energy transport to the water re-
sulting from vegetation management.
Herbicides are most likely to generate indirect effects
by changing the density or composition of streamside or upslope
vegetative communities (Gratkowski, 1967; Moore and Norris,
1974). Herbicide-treated areas usually have considerable
remaining vegetation biomass after application, and vacated
ecological niches are rapidly occupied. The resulting con-
servation and recycling of available nutrients limits their
movement to streams.
Insecticides can also have indirect effects. Some effects,
such as protection of foliage from defoliating insects is advan-
tageous to the aauatic environment whi le a sharp reduction in the
supply of terrestrial insects as food for aquatic organisms may
be a temporary disadvantage. Terrestrial insect populations,
however, are seldom completely destroyed by insecticide appli-
cations, and although species composition may be dramatically
changed, insect biomass changes are usually transitory (Macdonald
and Webb, 1963; Dixon, 1972; Thomas and McCluskey, 1974).
In general, forest ecosystems tend to be remarkably resil-
ient, and long-term indirect effects associated with pesticide
use will be transitory and likely pass unnoticed except under
cIose scrut i n y.
Direct Effects--
As opposed to indirect effects, direct effects require the
entry of the pesticide into the aquatic system. The nature of
the effect on the organisms depends on the chemical, the magni-
tude and duration of exposure, and a Iarqe number of biological
factors (Terriere, 1971). The magnitude and duration of exposure
of organisms in forest waters is largely determined by the route
of pesticide entry to the stream and the subsequent behavior of
the chem i caI .
35
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Chemicals can enter the aauatic environment by one or more
of the following routes: (1) direct application to surface
waters, (2) drift from nearby spray areas, (3) rain washing from
fol iage overhangina streams, (4) overland flow, (5) erosion, and
(6 ) I each ing.
The route most likely to introduce significant auantities of
pesticides into surface waters is direct application. Such ap-
plication has the potential to produce the hiohest concentrations
and therefore cause the most pronounced toxic effects, although
the duration of entry will be brief (Norris and Moore, 1971).
The resulting concentration depends on the rate of application
and the ratio of stream surface area to its volume. The resis-
tence of the chemicals in the application zone depends on the
length of stream treated, the velocity of stream flow, and the
nature of the water course. Pesticide concentrations normally
decrease markedly with downstream movement as dilution by
incoming uncontaminated water occurs; and as the chemical
interacts with the stream bottom, is decomposed by chemical,
physical, or biological means, or is taken up by various organ-
isms (Norris, 1971a; Lichtenstein and others, 1966; Guerrant and
others, 1970; Schwartz, 1967). Aauatic organisms' exposure will
typically be intense but brief when direct application to surface
water occurs. The pattern of direct impact will be most intense
in the application zone and will diminish with time and with
distance downstream. Direct application to stream surfaces can
usually be avo i ded.
A modification of direct application is the drift from
nearby spray areas to surface waters. The same characteristics
of direct application apply except that peak concentrations of
pesticide residues will be lower, and conseauently impacts on
stream organisms will be less. The accidental drift of chemical
from nearby spray areas to stream surfaces is the most likely
means of pesticide entry to surface waters.
Pesticides deposited on streamside veaetation either from
direct application of drift may be washed by rain into streams.
This is less important than either direct application or drift
because the amount of chemical involved is likely to be small,
and entry will occur only during rainy periods when stream levels
might be rising, thereby resulting in additional dilution (Norris
and others, 1967). The probability of occurrence diminishes
markedly with time after application because of the reduced
availability of residues for washing action. Volatilization,
uptake and metabolism by the plant, and photo and biological
degradation all combine to reduce pesticide residue levels on
vegetation surfaces with time (Wilcox, 1971; Back, 1965; Norris
and others, 1975) .
The possibility of pesticide pollution from overland flow is
not great as such flow occurs only infreguently on most forest
36
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lands. The infiltration capacity of the forest floor and soil is
usually far greater than rates of precipitation (Rothacher and
Lopushinsky, 1974). Areas of bare and compacted soil may yield
surface runoff but these are not widespread and would seldom be
treated with pesticides.
Pesticides absorbed on soil particles frequently enter the
aauatic environment from agricultural areas, but seldom from
forested areas (Barnett and others, 1967). Erosion is relatively
common in managed forests, but the principal sources are road
construction and landslides after site disturbance (Rice and
others, 1972). Pesticides will seldom be applied in such a
temporal and special relationship with either of these events to
result in the significant entry of chemicals to streams.
Leaching of pesticides through the soil profile is the
process of pesticide entry to streams most feared by the general
public but is the process least likely to occur. The pesticides
used in forestry are fairly immobile in soil (Harris, 1967,
1968). Heavier, intense leaching may cause movement from a few
centimeters to a meter in depth, but these distances are short in
comparison to distances to surface water (Norris, 1971a). Most
forest pesticides are also ouite transitory and do not persist
long enouah for significant movement to occur even if leachina
was an important process (Upchurch, 1972; Edwards, 1972).
The nature and intensity of the effects of pesticide
residues which enter streams wi I I vary with the organism, the
pesticide, a wide variety of physical and biological parameters,
and the magnitude and duration of exposure. Except for the
general izations which follow, this extensive topic is beyond the
scope of this document.
For a given organism in a particular environment, the nature
and intensity of its response to a given pesticide can be esti-
mated from studying established dose-response relationships de-
veloped in standard bioassay tests. Typically acute responses,
like death or the loss of locomotion or various senses, are the
result of relatively short-term exposure to relatively high
concentrations of pesticide (Norris, 1971b; Terriere, 1971; Thut
and Haydu, 1971). Chronic effects, such as reduced growth or
reproductive succ.ess or gradual shifts in species composition,
are more likely to result from long-term exposure to relatively
low concentrations of pesticide (Holden, 1973).
On forest land, direct application and drift are the prin-
cipal routes of pesticide entry to forest streams. These will
result in only short-term exposure. Therefore, probable effects
can be easily determined from the toxicoIogicaI literature on
acute effects. Forest chemicals in use today are sufficiently
immobile and of such short persistence that lona-term, low-level
entry to aquatic systems is unlikely. This largely precludes
37
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chronic exposure. These subjects are considered in detail in
several recent volumes (Gould, 1966 and 1971; Guenzi, 1974;
Goring and Hamaker, 1972; White-Stevens, 1971; House and others,
1967; Pimentel, 1971; Gunsalus and others, 1972).
Management TechniguesandAvai lable Controls—Pesticide use
is one of the most heavily regulated activities on forest land.
Regulation comes from Federal and state regulatory agencies, and
in the case of publ ic land management agencies, from agency pol i-
cies as well. EPA has a predominant role through their pesticide
registration and labeling process. Pesticides used in forestry
have been subjected to close scrutiny to determine their behavior
in the environment and their impact on a wide variety of aerial,
terrestial, and aauatic organisms. Those materials or patterns
of use which will impact significantly on the aauatic environment
are not registered. Only those chemicals which are registered,
may be used. Only patterns of use specifically mentioned on the
label may be used.
Despite regulatory efforts, however, pesticide labels are
the subject of considerable interpretation in the field, and
pesticide applicators have some latitude in actual practice. All
chemicals have some degree of toxicity, and it is possible
through the use of improper practices to cause serious impact on
stream organisms. Reconsideration of the processes involved in
pesticide entry to streams shows direct application to the stream
surface and accidental drift of spray materials from nearby
treatment units to be the principal processes involved. These
processes are not a property of the chemical in use, but rather
the technique of application.
It is easy to avoid direct appl ication to surface waters.
Morris (1971a) admonishes, "If you don't want chemicals in the
water, then don't put them there." Pre-project planning to
locate and mark Iive streams to be sure they are excluded from
the spray area is necessary. Pre-spray briefing and orientation
for the applicator is also necessary to insure streams are not
spr ayed.
Avoiding drift is more difficult, but is can be accom-
plished. Careful attention to atmospheric conditions, formu-
lation, and spray eguipment operation will help minimize the
formation and movement of small particles of spray material
(Maksymiuk, 1971a, 1971b; Witt, 1971).
Recreat i on
For some time recreational use of forested and associated
land has been on a steady increase (Hetherington, 1971). The
magnitude of various activities may be derived from the National
Forest summary report on recreation for 1974 (Table 4). Approx-
imately two-thirds of the recorded use for 1974 was associated
38
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TABLE 4. ESTIMATED NATIONAL FOREST RECREATION USE
SERVICE-WIDE SUMMARY, CY 1976, BY ACTIVITIES
Activity
Public use
Visitor-days* Percent
Campi ng
Picnicking
Recreation travel (mechanized)
Automob i Ie 37,385,200
Scooter & motorcycle 3,580,300
Ice & snowcraft 3,022,500
Other 344,900
Boat i ng
Powerboats 3,679,300
Self propelled boats 2,110,800
51,543,500
6,933,200
44,332,900
5,790,100
26. 7
3.6
23. 1
3.1
Games & team sports
Waterskiing & other water sports 1,
Swimming & scuba diving 3,
W i nter sports 8,
Ski i na 6 , 93 5 , 000
Other 1,442,800
Fishing 16,
Hunting 14,
Hiking & mountain climbing 8,
Hor seb ack r i d i ng 2,
Resort
Organ i
Gather
Nat ure
V i ew i n
env i
use
zat i on c
forest
st udy
g scener
ronment
amp
prod
y, s
V i s i tor i n format i o
use
ucts
ports, &
n ( ta I ks , etc . )
3,
4,
6,
1,
6,
3,
747,
1 54,
928,
377,
402,
422,
51 4,
81 5,
934,
232,
979,
01 1 ,
1 86,
420,
800
1 00
800
800
500
800
300
1 00
200
900
900
800
000
700
2
4
8
7
4
1
2
2
3
3
1
.4
.6
.0
.3
. 5
.5
.4
. 5
.0
.2
.6
.5
.2
.8
Service-wide Total
192,91 5,800
1 00.0
and and water which aggre-
person for 12 hours, 12
hour, or any equivalent combination of individual
either continuous or intermittent.
* Recreational use of National Forest
gates 12 person-hours. May entail 1
persons for 1 hour, or any
or group use
39
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with four major elements: camping, recreation travel, fishing,
and hunting, listed in order of importance. The remaining use is
scattered among many activities. This basic relationship seems
likely to hold, but there may be some shifting of use in the
future due to changes in the nation's economy.
Recreational use of wildlands is concentrated on or near
physical developments such as camping or picnic grounds, roads,
trails, and water. Fishing and hunting vary from this somewhat
but are usually closely associated with existing roads and
trai I s .
The centers of wildland recreation are the most likely
locations for water pollution problems to develop. It is here
that most of the past effort to provide sanitary facilities,
improved roads and trails, and other site improvements has been
concentr ated.
Cause and Effect Relationships--
Five pollution elements have been considered as problems
where recreation is concerned: sediment production, pathogens,
nutrients, dissolved oxygen levels, and turbidity.
The occasional hiker tramping the wooded hills leaves no
trace. A multitude over the same route often causes a problem.
Trampling of the existing ground vegetation usually is a major
cause of recreation site deterioration (Wagar, 1964; Orr, 1971;
and Frissell and Duncan, 1965). A freouent side effect of
trampling is soil compaction. In some cases this may actually be
an asset to a recreation site (Magill, 1970), for compaction of
trails is essential in providing strength to support traffic
loads. But compaction may cause considerable damage to the soil
structure. Lutz (1945) showed that soil density and field capa-
city are increased, while pore volume, air space, and infiltra-
tion are greatly reduced following compaction. Where infiltra-
tion has been reduced to the point that overland flow occurs,
there is a chance that erosion and sediment may result if proper
drain age i s absent.
Probably the most readily observed impact of tramplina on
recreation sites is the abrasive effect upon veaetation, often
with a pronounced deterioration of the vegetative cover during
the first 2 years (Magi I I , personal communication). The original
vegetation lost though trampling is usually partially replaced by
more resistant species in time. Site deterioration tends to
stabilize and a new balance of vegetative cover and use occurs
where proper management practices are followed (Magill, 1970;
LaPage, 1967).
If the pressure from recreationists becomes too great, areas
of concentrated use, such as unprotected hiking trails, may begin
40
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to erode and wash. The resulting sediment production is a source
of pollution as observed in the Adirondack Mountains by Ketch-
ledge (1971). He also noted erosion problems caused by heavy
hiking use on fragile alpine soil and plant communities.
In situations where site deterioration has none beyond
trampling and compaction, physical displacement of soil by the
traffic takes place. Hikers and animals cause this type of
damage and so do many sorts of recreation vehicles. Estimates
have placed the ratio of damage by vehicles to the landscape at
nearly 200 times that of a hiker (Hope, 1972).
Many factors affect the amount of erosion that may become
sediment from recreation facilities. The elements of Greatest
importance are the climate, soil or surface erodibility, slope,
and ground cover. The main factor in sediment del ivery is the
distance eroded material must travel to a stream course and
whether it passes through a buffer strip.
There are procedures available for application to inten-
sively managed recreation sites that help to control many of the
worst attributes of heavy use. Among these practices are im-
proved recreation layouts, surfacing traffic areas, and the sep-
aration of mechanized vehicles from foot traffic (Lime, 1971;
Magi I I , 1970).
Vectors of disease are always a threat when human waste and
refuse are present. This is particularly true in areas of con-
centrated use, such as campgrounds or alonq heavily used trails
and water courses. The potential for contamination becomes still
greater where recreation takes place near or on waters used for
municipal supply.
Recreational use of reservoirs has shown an increase of
coliform organisms with use. This has been observed at several
locations, including sites in California, Missouri, and New
Hampshire (Karalekas and Lynch, 1965; Minkus, 1965; Ongerth,
1964; and Rosebery, 1964).
The use of forested watersheds at locations other than
organized recreation sites sometimes poses a threat to public
health. Stream and lake-side fishinq sites and heavily used
trails that are near open water are usually the greatest problem
areas. Where this situation exists, the traffic should be re-
duced to safe levels or sanitary facilities provided.
Coliform count in some range and forested areas can be
attributed to wildlife or domestic livestock. In such cases it
may be difficult to distinguish the pollution effect from rec-
reation taking place on the same area.
-------
Nutrients from recreation sites may come from leached
material derived from human and other waste deposited on the
site. This problem has been reduced to a minimum on organized
recreation sites by providing proper sanitary facilities and
trash containers. In areas of shallow soils and soils of low
exchange capacity, nutrient loading may become a real problem
(Barton, 1969). The greatest hazard to water duality seems to
exist on bodies of water that are already naturally enriched and
need little additional nutrition to cause biological problems.
The most noticeable effects, however, accompany the additon of
small amounts of nutrients to relatively infertile bodies of
water.
In fast-flowing mountain streams dissolved oxygen concen-
tration is usually high. Recreation is not thought to reduce
oxygen levels at these sites, but where slow-moving waters occur,
the potential exists. Lakes and rivers in this category used by
recreationists can receive enough nutrition to cause excessive
plant growth and occasional algal blooms with associated effects
on oxygen levels. It should be noted that the Boundary Waters
Canoe Area in northern Minnesota has suffered some of these
effects (Barton, 1969).
Any action that places fine particulate matter in water will
increase turbidity and reduce light penetration in a lake or
stream. Plant life that is dependent upon the sunlight can be
reduced or killed by this pollutant. Recreation activity affects
turbidity primarily through sediment. Some disturbance of stream
and lake bottoms may occur because of contact sports such as
swimming, boating, or fishing, but these activities are consid-
ered of minor importance and only a local annoyance.
Magnitude of the Prob I em —
The potential pollution problem from forest recreation
naturally increases with site use (Annon, 1961). It is dimin-
ished by the degree of recreation dispersion and site distance
from functioning water courses. Some management practices
available to minimize pollution potential are: harden parking
lots and foot paths, provide improved sanitation facilities,
install various traffic barriers, and use plants resistant to
heavy use.
Recreation sites that are easily damanaged by trampling and
those exhibiting low levels of pollutants are of major concern in
evaluating the impact of recreationists on water guality. Some
of the lakes within the Boundary Waters Canoe Area are in this
category and many alpine meadows, small lakes, and bogs also have
similar problems. Efforts are being made to control the amount
of recreation in areas of this type through permit, closure, and
other administrative devices. On-site physical improvements are
also used to reduce site damage and lower pollution potential.
42
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Nutrition of waters associated with recreation is not con-
sidered to be a problem except in a few special cases. The
presence of adequate sanitary facilities reduces the chance for
nutritional loading, and proper sanitary conditions lessen the
opportunity of pathogens to enter the water. The sediment from
recreation areas is thought to be small compared with other wild-
land activities. Proper site management and initial layout can
reduce this pollutant. The greatest hazard usually presented by
recreation is the close proximity of much of the wildland
recreation to the water bodies themselves.
Forest Fertilization
Application of fertilizer to wildlands is currently being
practiced for a variety of reasons: to rehabilitate burns,
improve ranges, restore watersheds, but mostly to increase wood
prod uct i on .
Operational forest fertilization is a growing forest man-
agement practice in the United States. Bengston (1972) hails it
as a treatment to increase growth rate on designated lands prin-
cipally in the Pacific Northwest and the pine regions of the
southern and southeastern states (Groman, 1972; Morris and
others, 1971). Groman (1972) points out that other forested
sections of the United States may practice forest fertilization
to some degree in the future. For example, smal l-scale ferti-
lization appears imminent in the Lake States. Moore (1972)
explains that operational forest fertilization began in 1963 in
the Pacific Northwest and in the southeastern pine region in
1968. Bengston (1971) states that most of the fertilized forest
land in the United States before 1971 was treated after 1966.
Moore (1972) indicates that in the Pacific Northwest from 1963 to
1970, only 222,400 ha had been fertilized, while 247,100 ha were
fertilized each year in 1970 and 1971. He predicts that the
annual rate of fertilization will exceed 494,200 ha by the late
1970's. On a national basis, Groman (1972) notes that the total
fertilized area through 1971 was 741,300 ha.
Cause and Effect--
Both Moore (1972) and Groman (1972) stress the importance of
two characteristics of the forest environment that influence the
impact fertilization may have on water quality:
1. The first decimeter of a forest soil generally has a
high content of organic matter which provides a large
number of adsorption sites for applied chemicals.
2. Most well-established forest stands, including the
understory, have massive root systems that offer qreat
opportunity for interception and rapid uptake of
chemical fertilizer nutrients.
43
-------
On the basis of this knowledge of the forest ecosystem, and
assuming proper application, Moore (1972), Cooper (1969), and
Loehr (1974) are of the opinion that wildland fertilization will
probably not significantly affect water ouality.
Magnitude of Potential Water Quality Problem--
Nitrogen is the principal fertilizer used in the Northwest
(Groman, 1972; Moore, 1972; Klock, 1971; Malueg and others, 1972;
Fredricksen, 1972; and Norris and others, 1971).
In the Southeast, however, both phosphorus and nitrogen are
applied to forest stands, and in the Northeast and Lake States,
conifer plantations on sandy soils have responded to applications
of potassium (Moore, 1972; Beaton, 1972).
Aubertin and others (1973) discuss urea fertilization of
young hardwood stands in West Virginia. Hornbeck and Pierce
(1973) explain that of these three forms of fertilizers, phos-
phorus will be of least concern with respect to water Quality.
Taylor (1967) believes that almost all the phosphorus is con-
verted to water insoluble forms within a few hours. Phosphorus
fixation potential of the forest soils of the Northeast is so
great that the main problem is not with leaching, but the
unavailability of the phosphorus for plant use (Hornbeck and
Pierce, 1973).
Hornbeck and Pierce (1973) bel ieve that potassium has a
strong tendency to be tied up in certain clay minerals. However,
they explain that potassium may be leached from acid sandy soils,
but this can be control led to some degree by using a formulation
of potassium calcium pyrophosphate. The commonly used potassium
chloride is the most susceptible formulation to leaching loss.
Most research to date has dealt with nitrogen fertilizers in
the form of urea pellets and ammonium sulfate. These studies
yield some preliminary answers to Questions about the amount of
nitrogen entering surface streams after fertilizing watersheds
with n i trogen .
Consistently shown is a rapid increase in nitrogen forms in
surface waters shortly after fertilization (Klock, 1971; Malueg
and others, 1972; Norris and others, 1971; Moore, 1972;
Tiedemann, 1973). The first peak concentration in streams after
application is comprised of urea-N, ammonia-N, and nitrate-N.
Nitrite-N was not found in significant concentrations. Moore
(1972) and Norris and Moore (1971) report that: urea-N reached a
maximum concentration of 1.39 ppm 48 hours after application;
ammonia-N increased slightly above background but never exceeded
0.10 ppm; and nitrate-N reached a peak concentration of 0.168 ppm
72 hours after application and returned to pre-treament levels in
9 weeks. They estimated that this increase in stream nitrogen
44
-------
lasted 9 to 15 weeks and accounted for only 0.01 percent of all
the nitrogen applied to the watershed and only 7 percent of all
nitrogen lost to the stream the first year after application.
The above investigators found that about half of the
nitrogen lost to the streams during the first 15 weeks after
application resulted from direct application to the stream
surface and the other half entered the stream as nitrate-N.
Tiedemann (1973) recognized this same relationship but did not
believe the concentration of nitrate-N in urea pellets was
adecuate to account for the concentrations of nitrate-N observed
following direct application.
A second peak concentration in nitrate nitrogen was observed
in response to rainfall and increased streamflow (Malueg and
others, 1972; Moore, 1972; Morris and others, 1971; Fredriksen,
1972). Tiedeman (1973) also observed this second peak but prior
to the time of maximum discharge. He indicates that moisture
moving from the snowpack into and through the soil during the
winter carried soluble nitrate-N to the stream. All of these
investigators agreed that the nitrate-N resulted from the
conversion of urea to nitrate-N in the soil by hydrolysis and
nitrification. Moore (1972) reported that approximately 92
percent of the nitrogen loss for the first year after application
occurred in this second period. The concentrations of nitrate-N
were approximately the same for both periods; however, the high
flows in fall, winter, and spring resulted in a larger total loss
of nitrate-N during the second period. The total loss for the
watershed during this first year was 0.17 percent of the total
applied n i trogen .
Management Techniques and Available Controls--
Forest fertilizers are applied by conventional ground
methods and by air with both fixed winqed aircraft and helicopter
(Norris and Moore, 1971). Urea fertilizer, the most popular form
of nitrogen fertilizer being used in the Northwest, is applied at
the rate of 28 to 91 kilograms/ha.
The use of large, especially coated urea granules (forest
prills) has eliminated the problem of drifting dust experienced
in early applications (Norris and others, 1971). Klock (1971)
applied approximately 46 kilos/ha of ammonium sulphate to ac-
celerate vegetative establishment for erosion control following a
fire. He pointed out that those who made the application did not
avoid stream channels because they desired the establishment of
vegetation in the streamside zone for erosion control. He added
that when fertilizers are applied only to increase wood produc-
tion, the streamside zone can be avoided.
Direct application of fertilizers to the stream surface is
recognized as the principal source of nitrogen input following
45
-------
fertilization and should be minimized by marking and avoiding
larger streams (Morris and others, 1971; Malueg and others,
1972). In areas where channels are small and only partially
exposed, it is the common practice to fertilize without buffer
strips along stream channels. Norris (1975) suggests that
avoiding the streams and streamside zone may effectively reduce
the magnitude of the second peak discharge. He further suggests
that the majority of the nitrate-nitrogen comprising the second
peak is leached from the streamside zone and is not leached
uniformly from the entire area treated. He raises Questions
similar to those of Aubertin and others (1973). What is the
source of the nutrients? Did some areas of the watershed con-
tribute more than other areas? And what would have been the
results had an unfertilized buffer strip been provided along the
stream channel?
Recapitulation and Conclusions--
Application rates of 28 to 91 kg nitrogen per hectare have
not resulted in concentrations of urea-, ammonia-, nitrite-, or
nitrate-nitrogen in streams that are toxic to fish, wildlife,
aauatic organisms, or man. Losses to the streams occur twice
during the first year following application; once in response to
direct application to the stream (including some leaching of
nitrate to streams) and again, in response to soi I moisture
movement probably from the streamside-zone in the winter and
spring. The first loss amounts to 7 percent of total nitrogen
lost while the second loss amounts to 92 percent. The total
amount lost the first year after application is approximately
0.2 percent of the total nitroaen applied to the watershed.
Little is known about the short-term effects on water
guality of other fertilizer compounds that may be used in
wi Idland management activities. It is expected that phosphorus
would be readily tied up in soils. Potassium is also generally
immobile, being readily incorporated in weathered clay minerals
and organic compounds. However, some leaching has been observed
in ac i d soils.
Th
of nutr
ductivi
forest
Aerial
process
ecosyst
amounts
the acc
must be
ut and Haydu (1971) believed it unlikely that the addition
ients by forest fertilization would increase stream pro-
ty significantly. The long-term and repetitive effects of
and range fertilization on water Quality are not known.
forest fertilization with nitrogen and phosphorus is a
by which important nutrients can
em. It is recognized that, while
of nitrogen lost from fertilizer
umulative effects of nutrients on
considered.
be added to the aguatic
concentrations and
applications are small,
downstream impoundments
46
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WasteDisposal
Solid waste disposal on wildlands may be a potential pollu-
tant source to the ground water supply. The four types of sol id
waste disposal used most often that can pollute water are open
dumps, sanitary land fill, incineration materials, and on-site
disposal. From these types of disposal, leached substances may
reach surface or ground waters. Permeable areas with high water
tables are most likely to be polluted (Schneider, 1970). Little
of the total wildland area of the country is presently used for
these purposes either because access is difficult or suitable
sites are too distant from a population center where waste
material is generated.
At times, wildlands near towns are used by some individuals
to dispose of waste. In most cases this activity is not legal
and presents a regulatory problem. Seldom does this activity
become a hazard to water Quality unless the dumping takes place
within a flood plain. For the most part, solid waste disposal by
individuals in wildlands is thought to be nominal and it is not
considered further. Where dumps and land fills exist within
wildland areas, however, they are considered point sources of
pollution and fall under the regulation for point sources.
Of potential importance to the subject of non-point pollu-
tion is the disposal of municipal sewage upon forest land. This
practice is not widespread but has been encouraged as a tentative
treatment for sewage for some industrial units and towns. It may
well develop into a major wildland use near towns and villages of
moderate s i ze .
Cause and Effect Relationships--
In sewage disposal operations, primary treatment usually
eliminates over half of the suspended solids and most of the grit
and settleable solids. Sedimentation removes some of the bio-
chemical oxygen demand, organic nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy
metals (Metcalf and Eddy Inc., 1972). Pathogens, dissolved
solids, and colloidal matter are not readily removed (Sepo,
1971).
Secondary waste treatment oxidizes most of the dissolved and
colloidal organic material. In addition, natural settling of
colloidal meterial and treatment procedures help to trap some
pathogens. Various types of disinfection and extended holding
times for the treated effluent also provide control of pathogen?.
Where additional treatment is needed to meet water Quality
standards, tertiary processes are used. Spray irrigation can
accomplish this phase of the waste water renovation by stripping
the effluent of much of its nutrients and pathogens as it passes
through the so iI .
47
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Sopper and Karclos (1973), studying waste water renovation by
spray irrigation, found that most of the phosphorus in the ef-
fluent was removed as it percolated through the soil. Nitrate-
nitrogen was not removed as efficiently by forests as it was by
old-field herbaceous and grass cover. When spray volumes were
limited to 1 -inch per week, drinking water standards were met
(Sopper, 1973). These reports indicate that there is little
change in soiI water chemical guality for P, K, Ca, Na, H, and Mn
as a result of waste water application. Similar studies, in New
Hampshire, of effluent disposal on forest lands support the
Pennsylvania work (Frost, 1973). Here none of the water supplies
tested during the spray operation showed any discernible water
Quality changes.
Liguid wastes from municipal or individual sources have been
applied to wildlands by various irrigation methods, but usually
in the form of sprays. Potential pollution from the spray pro-
cess can result from overland flow with the effluent moving
directly into the surface water or with spray drift reaching
water through the air. A third pollution potential exists when
I iguid waste moves through the soiI into the ground water system
with little renovation.
Pore clogging appears to be one of the main causes of ef-
fluent overland flow. This happens when solids plug the soil
channels at or near the surface (Jones and Taylor, 1965; Thomas
and others, 1966). Usually the process is accompanied by flood-
ing in which case anaerobic conditions may prevail for a consid-
erable time. Fortunately this is not the general condition on
wi Idlands used for this purpose. Even under the heavier forest
soils the structure remains porous (Evans, 1970; Parizek, 1973).
Frost and icing of the surface have been a concern where
irrigation methods of waste disposal are used. Storey (1955)
recorded the types of frost most often found in forest soiI. In
nearly all cases the open honeycomb frost type prevailed in the
forest while the closed concrete type was found in plowed fields.
Exceptions have been noted by Bay (1960) where concrete frost
formed under some even-aged conifer stands--a condition thought
to be limited in extent. Bay (1958) recorded concrete frost for
20 percent of the sample points taken in a balsam fir stand, none
in aspen, white pine, or hardwood stands, and about 50 percent in
an open grazed area in Minnesota. Even where concrete frost does
occur, it is not usually a problem since some porous areas
rema i n .
Because forest soils are normally porous year long, it is
believed that there will be little clogging of forest soil by
irrigation of sewage waste as long as good management practices
are followed. This is verified by experience gained in 10 years
of spray irrigation of forest and cropland in Pennsylvania
(Sopper and Kardos, 1973).
48
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Overland flow can occur almost anywhere if too much irri-
gation waste water is applied. A moderate Iy-weI I -drained to
well-drained soil is recommended by Parizek (1973). Soil depth
recommended for use varies depending on location, seasonal ground
water changes, and climate. For humid regions, 3 to 4 feet of
soil is desirable with 20 or more feet of unconsoI idated deposits
below this level. Each site must be analyzed individually.
Proper management procedures can often overcome natural defi-
ciencies in a given site.
The last major pollution source to be considered occurs when
waste water moves through the soil too fast to be renovated.
When soils are in the very rapid infiltration class, there may
not be enough time for renovation. The process takes days, not
hours, and will vary with climate and season (Parizek, 1973;
Urie, 1973).
Another point must also be considered. Treated effluent
reduces the presence of pathooens in the waste, but it does not
eliminate the potential for a health hazard (Shuval, 1967).
There is evidence in this same work that viruses may survive the
chlorination applied in a secondary treatment process. Sproul
(1967) pointed out, however, that over 99 percent of the viruses
can be removed from waste waters by soil percolation. Knowledge
of virus survival after reaching the soil is not well documented
(Miller, 1973), and it is not understood, to date, what level of
viral removal is reouired to eliminate the public health hazard.
Magnitude of the ProbIem--
Bendixen and others (1969) found over 2,400 irrigation waste
water disposal systems in the United States. With today's eneray
shortage and high cost of tertiary treatment, the option for
irrigation may be valid (Seabrook, 1973), and in general it seems
plausible that spray irrigation will increase in the future. For
the most part this will probably be confined to relatively small
municipal or industrial units, but there is considerable effort
being made by some larger water treatment networks (Cleveland-
Akron Metropolitan and Three Rivers Watershed) to utilize spray
i rr i gat i on .
There has been no indication of irriaation failure where the
facility was properly maintained and operated. With an increase
in such treatment the pollution potential will increase, but
nearly all of the carefully planned and monitored spray irriaa-
tion projects have thus far shown little variation in the guality
of water renovated. This does not mean that problems are unlike-
ly. If waste waters from a highly variable source are utilized,
results may be uncertain. This could occur where industrial
waste is incorporated into sanitary sewage. Industrial accidents
may put surges of pollutants into the treatment system that would
-------
alter the effectiveness of the various staqes of treatment, in-
cluding the spray irrigation.
The effect of a catastrophic variation in renovated water
quality might well result in the contamination of a water supply.
Fortunately this has not happened in the more than 2,400 systems
now in operation. With reasonable care the problem should remain
nom i n a I .
Low-Head Impoundrngnts and D!vers i ons
SmalI, low-head impoundments (with a head of less than ap-
proximately 2.5 meters) have been developed on forest and range
lands for watering livestock, improving habitat for waterfowl and
fish, and for water chances. (Water chance is a term used here
for smalI impoundments in I ive streams from which water may be
pumped into tank trucks for use elsewhere.) While the size of
individual impoundments is usually not of major concern, the
large number of these developments reauires their consideration.
The fisheries and waterfowl habitat impoundments generally have
75 percent of their area covered by 0.4 to 0.6 meters of water.
Magnitude of the Problem--
While the construction of low-head impoundments is not
widespread, more and more of them are being built so their poten-
tial on-site and downstream affects on water guality may become
important. Verry (1975) reports that in Michigan 9,300 ha have
been developed within 60 major waterfowl habitat improvement
projects, and 1,600 ha within 450 smaller projects. These are
small, permanent developments with earth-filled dams 1.8m to 2.5m
high. The water level is regulated to control vegetation and
enhance the impoundments' productivity.
Impoundments for livestock are developed on intermittent
streams to provide a continuous, permanent water supply and, in
some cases, to increase forage and range use. Such developments
also create a useful habitat for waterfowl and fish (USDA, 1975).
Water chances, along roads, are somewhat different. Im-
poundments in this case raise the water level sufficiently to
form a pool from which water may be pumped into tank trucks. The
dam normally provides a head of water from 1 to 2 feet. The
water chance is usually used on an annual basis, being recon-
structed each year.
While little is known about the downstream effects of low-
head impoundments on perennial streams (Verry, 1975), there is
concern in the Lake States that such impoundments might raise
downstream water temperatures (Verry, 1975; Mathisen, 1975, and
Lee and others, 1975). This is particularly important where
stream temperatures are already critical for cold water fish.
50
-------
The increased exposure to solar radiation, due to slowed
velocities and increased surface area in the shallow impound-
ments, results in increased temperatures of impounded waters.
Thus, the temperature of the water being released from these
impoundments could create significant changes in the aquatic
ecosystem downstream.
Studies on the nutrient content of impoundments to provide
habitats for fish and waterfowl indicate that the water chemistry
can be regulated by drawing down the impoundment and allowing the
bottom sediments to dry (Cook and Powers, 1958; Kadlec, 1962;
Lathwell and others, 1969; and Linde, 1969). Drawing down im-
poundments to improve productivity not only stimulates plant
growth within the impoundments but affects the chemistry of the
water to be released downstream. Extensive and prolonged blooms
of blue-green algae after a drawn-down filling cycle have been
experienced (Verry, 1975).
Lee and others (1975) describe wetlands as a complex hydro-
logic, chemical, and biochemical system in which they found wide
diurnal fluctuations in dissolved oxygen, oH, and temperature.
In some cases in late summer, dissolved oxygen ranged from zero
in the early morning to over 8 ppm in late afternoon, rendering
this water unsuitable for fish habitat. Taste, odor,and color
problems developed in the falI where these impoundments were used
as water s upp I i es.
While recognizing some adverse effects of impoundments on
downstream water guality, Lee and others (1975) identified some
beneficial effects. They pointed out that denitrification re-
duced the concentration of nitate in waters being released from
wetlands and that nutrients are released from these impoundments
in the spring during periods of high discharae, thus minimizinq
algal blooms. Impoundments also serve as excellent traps for
sediment and usually reduce downstream streambank erosion.
Moreover, they reduce fluctuation of stream levels and peak
d i scharges .
Small multi-purpose impoundments (developed for the benefit
of waterfowl, fish, and livestock) on small intermittent streams
are common in some wildlands. Because of their streambottom
location they receive concentrated livestock use. As a result,
nutrient and bacterial contaminants may be concentrated in these
impoundments. Impounded waters may become highly enriched
through the combination of evaporation and pollutant input
(urinating and defecating by livestock and waterfowl). However,
this water is normally transported downstream only after it has
been diluted by intermittent runoff that causes the impoundment
to overflow. While presently not considered a problem, this
situation warrants consideration in forest and range management,
particularly when a number of these impoundments are located in
the upper reaches of a municipal water supply.
•51
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The potential water Quality problems associated with water
chances are sedimentation and temperature changes. The total
number of water chances on a single stream are normally few.
While this constitutes a consumptive use, the loss in flow is
generally not considered to be a major problem.
Sedimentation and erosion associated with water chances may
result from road drainage at the site or from erosion of the site
itself. Desian of water chances in some cases diverts surface
runoff from the access road, causing erosion and sedimentation.
Also, there is the annual washing away of the earthen structure.
Although temporary, not uncommonly the structure is left in place
where it, along with any impounded sediment, may subseouently be
washed out by peak flows.
52
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SECTION 5
ASSESSMENT OF MODELS FOR PREDICTING
NON-POINT POLLUTANTS FROM WILDLANDS
INTRODUCTION
A systematic effort was made to search out and subjectively
evaluate existing models dealing with non-point source pollution
resulting from wildland management activities. To accomplish
this objective, the predictive models were classified into three
categories: (1) physical, (2) chemical, and (3) biological.
Five principal sources were used in collecting information on
current water modeling technology: (1) National Technical
Information Service (NTIS) maintained by Lockheed; (2) the Water
Resources Abstracts (WRA) file located on RECON at Oak Ridge; (3)
the Smithsonian Scientific Information Exchange (SSIE); (4) the
personal FAMULUS file of hydrologic information maintained by
Henry Anderson at the Forest Service's Pacific Southwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station; and (5) personal knowledge and
contacts of those engaged in the project.
Of the models located, evaluation was undertaken for those
that were:
1. Related to wildlands.
2. Related to wildland resource management activities.
3. Related to non-point source pollutants.
4. Reflected spatial variability and diversity of landscape
and mananagement activities.
Appendix A contains a summary listing of all models located
that, in the judgment of the evaluators, met the above criteria.
Each model is numbered and the numbers are used in the "Predic-
tive Model Suitability Matrix" and evaluation forms. This matrix
shows the simulation type models that were believed to warrant
more intensive evaluation, and was used as a basis for making the
state-of-the-art assessment. It also shows gaps in technology
for simulation modeling.
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Two important points must be considered in reviewing this
report. Models developed outside the Forest Service were re-
viewed, but a totally exhaustive search was not attempted and
undoubtedly some models that should have been evaluated were
overlooked. The second point is that many of these evaluations
were made from the perspective of practicing field professionals
rather than from that of a research scientist.
MODEL REVIEW AND SUMMARY
Three basic types of models have been used to simulate the
effects of forest management on water resources. In this review,
models were typed as being rearession, simulation programming, or
process simulation. The classification was made on the basis of
dominant traits even though in a few cases the models are hybrids
of components that falI in two or alI three of these categories.
A regression model is a statistical procedure used to relate
measurable values of a set of variables to measurable values of
the variable to be predicted. The predictor variables are se-
lected, and often the structure of the model determined, by
considering the known or assumed relations among the variables.
Regression modeling is usually employed when dealing with a
poorly defined process, and the tendency is to focus on the
statistical relationships found to exist among the variables
based on a sample. These relationships are utilized to improve a
model's predictive capability by selecting or rejecting predictor
variables as well as by governing the form of the model itself.
In simulation programming, a model is developed which repre-
sents the general processes involved, but not the process mechan-
isms. These models require and often include features that allow
them to "calibrate" themselves using internal curve fitting pro-
cedures. Once "calibrated" the model is used to simulate the ef-
fects of the activities and processes for which it was designed.
In process simulation the model is developed to directly
represent the process mechanisms involved. In this approach the
components are designed to model the specific processes involved
without internal calibration.
The model review is summarized in Table 5.
Physical Model Review
Physical models include those models relatinq to the surface
runoff and erosion-sedimentation processes. Because of the
amount of past modelinq effort that has gone on in this area, the
models were subdivided into the following categories: stream-
flow, surface erosion, channel erosion, mass movement, and total
sediment output (sediment and runoff).
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TAbLE 5. PREDICTIVE MODEL SUITABILITY MATRIX^
Pollutant or index
Streamf1ow
or.
water yield
Dissolved
oxygen
Dissolved
solids
Total Surface
vegetative manipulation
by mechanical means
Road and trail construc-
tions and reconstruction
Timber harvest
Recreation
Fertilization
Waste disposal
Low head impoundments
Selection criteria: (1) upstream loading model, (2) not regression model, (3) distributed inputs, (4) documentation available.
bModels Nos. 83 and 84 suitable if no mass wasting.
cModel No. 86 simulates aggredation/degradation but not channel erosion for upland channel systems.
Model No. 49 represents Musgrave approach and its derivatives.
Model No. 48 represents Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) approach and derivations.
Model No. 136 represents the HSP-QUALITY model.
LEGEND: § - models in operational use by USFS water quality staff specialists ^"^ H1gh
(S) - models in active advanced development and testing CXJ Moderate
N - models available but not being widely used or tested by the USFS r~--~-J Low
Overall
activity/pollutant
impact rating
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Stream fIow--
Streamflow models are particularly important in evaluating
the effects of wildland management on all the aquatic ecosystem
processes that are flow dependent.
Streamflow, as the prime carrier of pollutants, often is
highly correlated with both the concentration of pollutants in a
particular system and with the total discharge of pollutants.
Moreover, streamflow often furnishes a basis for the time dis-
tribution of events which produce and transport pollution. As
such, streamflow can be used as the frequency base for predicting
long-term expectance o.f pollution and for putting particular
samples of pollution into a time frame perspective. The outputs
from streamflow models vary widely, from daily or peak flows to
single events .
Most of the regression models reviewed relate streamflow
parameters to meteorological variables, differences in site
variables, and land use activity variables. They are usually
developed for a specific area and are rarely considered to have
general applicability. In addition, these models are not nor-
mally tested widely as the data available in different areas
varies, and it is usually easier to develop new models than to
test old ones. A general weakness of regression models for use
in wildland management is that the variables reflecting land use
and conditions are not specific enough to reflect the effects of
many individual management activities. Further, they are not '
usually able to represent or predict time-dependent processes.
Most simulation programming models are based on the Stanford
model approach, such as HSP (Donigian and Waggy, 1974), and have
not generally been tested in wildland manaaement situations. In
most cases, their ability to reflect the effects of management
activities occurring on small complex upland watersheds has not
been determ i ned .
Process simulation techniques such as those of Rogers
(1975a), Leaf (1975), USDAHL (Holton and Lopez, 1971), and
others, utilize knowledge of the basic processes being modeled
and how these processes react on land areas under various man-
agement activities. Process simulation models have been de-
veloped to predict streamflow for short-term events as well as
daily and monthly flows. These models generally evaluate effects
over time, are tied to individual land units, and can yield in-
formation on the status of other components of the hydrologic
eye Ie.
The variable source area concept proposed by Hewlett and
Troendle (1975) presents a different conceptual basis for pre-
dicting streamflow and needs to be investigated further.
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A great deal of research has been conducted on the com-
ponents within the hydroloqic cycle. In many cases, this re-
search will provide the necessary ingredients for model building,
and many component models have been formulated (e.a., for pro-
cesses such as evapotranspiration , snowmelt, and interception).
In developing non-point pollution models, this body of informa-
tion provides an excellent resource. These component models may
not relate directly to activity evaluation and should be regarded
as pure hydrologic entities. The decision whether or not a com-
ponent is usable will depend upon the management objective and
need for a mode I .
Sur face Eros i on —
Although many surface erosion models exist today, most have
originated from the basic approaches used by Musgrave (1947) or
the Universal Soil Loss Eauation (Wischmeier and Smith, 1965)
developed for crop land. These basic eouations a.n d modifications
of them have been used to predict erosion on forest and range
lands (Anderson, 1969; and Dissmeyer, 1973). These approaches
appear to be most useful in the comparative analysis of before
and after predictions rather than in the absolute values ob-
tained. Other recent regression approaches to developing surface
erosion models for specific areas and conditions include those of
Leaf (1974) and Megahan (1974).
Simulation approaches to surface erosion (both sheet and
rill) are becoming available and rely upon fluid and erosion
mechanics. Foster and Meyer (1972) and Simons and others (1975)
have developed mathematical simulations of surface erosion which
use fundamental erosion mechanics. In these models, components
such as detachment, shear stress, and tran sport capacity are
described mathematically. The Foster model has been used to
predict erosion for small plots on agricultural land. The Simons
model has only recently become available and is currently being
tested on forested watersheds in the western United States to
determine its utility.
Channel System Erosion--
Predictive technigues for channel and gully erosion in small
stream systems have received very little attention in modeling
and basic research. No model reviewed indicated ouantitativeIy
the con tr i b ut i-on of channel material to total sediment produc-
tion.
Stream channel erosion and subseguent sedimentation over
time and space is great. Limited knowledge of the processes
involved restricts development of a model to adeguately guantify
changes in sediment production associated with particular re-
source management activities. One approach that can be used to
approximate sediment concentrations within stream reaches is the
76
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sediment rating curve approach. Workers who utilize this ap-
proach for sediment determinations include: Campbell and Bauder,
1949; Miller, 1951; Anderson, 1954; Leopold, 1954; Meaev, 1967;
Woolhiser and Todorovic, 1974; Bolton and others, 1972; Flaxman,
1972; Livesey, 1972; Strand, 1972; Thomas, 1974; and Rosaen ,
1975.
The widespread applicability of such an approach is shown by
Flaxman (1972). This procedure for estimating the amount of
sediment increase from the channel source can be readily adapted
to timber harvest or other activities where changes in the hydro-
araph can be predicted. Some sediment models (Thomas, 1974;
Negev, 1967) utilize this approach to determine changes in the
water-sediment mixture by various stream reaches.
There are several models available which route a water-
sediment mixture in stable channels and account for scour and
deposition. The primary value of these models in resource
management is to evaluate the relative conseouence to stream
systems and reservoirs of increases in sediment concentrations
from upper watersheds (Thomas, 1974; Simons and others, 1975).
The Thomas model was desianed to route sediment in a very Iarae
river system; the Simons model for ephemeral and first order
streams in small watersheds.
A great deal of research has been directed at transport and
deposition models involving bedload, tractive force, and dis-
charge formulas. Many of these models operate on the same basic
premises and a few minor modifications will create new models.
The Agricultural Research Service (USDA) in conjunction with
Pennsylvania State University reviewed over a dozen of these
models to determine major differences. Their work, as reported
by Morri I I and Van Dok (1974), indicated that there is no best
universal formula or method for the solution of bedload transport
and deposition problems.
Mass Movement--
Mass movement includes a number of processes of downslope
transfer of particuIates, such as soil creep, landslides, debris
flows, and mud flows. This contributes to sediment loading when
exposed to running water at stream channel or to raindrop splash
and/or surface runoff on slopes away from stream channel.
Many research studies have been made of mass movement proc-
esses and their short-term quantitative measurement. Some con-
ceptual models have been developed of such processes. However,
there is no model which will predict when a particular slope will
be subject to major mass movement such as landslides and mud
f I ows .
77
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Some models based on hydraulic and soil mechanics consid-
erations have been outlined by Jones and others, 1961; Bell,
1968; and Gray, 1969. However, the application of these models
require on-site measurements which may be difficult to obtain for
a forest activity under operatina conditions.
Total Sediment Output Models--
Total sediment output models are used to predict the physi-
cal streamflow parameters (notably sediment) from watersheds
associated with wildland management activities. The outputs are
in the form of suspended sediment concentration or discharge,
predicted total sediment discharge (suspended and bedload), and
predicted duration of various sediment conce n't rations.
Total output models of the regression type are similar to
the streamflow regression models but also include parameters
which represent sediment. Measured sediment output toaether with
measurements of suspended sediment concentration are the basic
output data normally used to develop total sediment regression
models by associating watershed attributes, climate, and land
use. For a specific land use, these models can relate sediment
yields to freauency and normalized expectancy of long-term
meteoroIoaicaI events.
For comparative analysis, simulation models and analytic
procedures that lead to predictions of total sediment outputs can
be useful in guantifying the relative effect of a wildland man-
agement activity on total sediment production. The analytic
procedures used to predict total sediment output are basically
allocation processes that distribute measured sediment among land
areas and disturbances above the point of measurement. The FASS
model (Dissmeyer, 1973) uses plot studies and the Universal Soil
Loss Eguation to distribute suspended sediment to source areas.
The Rosgen model (1975) uses sediment rating curves, channel
stability ratings and changes in streamflow, and on-site erosion
to determine total sediment output.
Some simulation models for predicting total sediment output
have been recently developed. Simulation programmina approaches,
such as those of Neciev (1967) and WHTM (Patterson and others,
1974), allow total sediment from surface and channel sources
other than mass wasting to be related to streamflow by manipu-
lating power function coefficients to produce the measured sedi-
ment from a watershed. These approaches have Generally not been
tested in wildland management situations. Methods emphasizing
process simulation of total output are also under development,
such as the current work of Rogers (1975b) and Simons and Li
(1975). At the present time predicting total sediment output
from wildland watersheds can best be done by regression models.
These models generally work when applied to the area on which
they were developed, although most cannot specifically represent
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changes in individual management practices. This makes them
difficult to use in evaluating land management alternatives.
Biological Mode I Rev 1ew
Bioloaical modelina for purposes of this effort includes
consideration of microoranisms that oriainate from non-point
sources and the effect of land management activities on dissolved
oxygen and temperature. Dissolved oxygen and temperature were
included as biological components because of the critical effects
of these two physical parameters on the aauatic habitat. Models
dealing with the effects of microoraanisms, temperature, and
dissolved oxygen on h.igher order aouatic life are beyond the
scope of this report. Estuary models are referenced but not
evaIuated .
Approximately 400 models were located for possible eval-
uation and then categorized into those dealing with micro-
organisms, dissolved oxygen, or temperature. Approximately 75
percent of the models were el iminated because the evaluators
felt they did not apply to the wildland situation. Models which
treated more than one parameter category were placed in the most
appropriate category. Comprehensive ecological models were
identified in the references but not evaluated since these models
reguired a high level of skill and complex data bases to operate.
Water Temperature--
Water temperature was found to be a we I l-studied topic.
Most of these models deal with basic thermodynamic processes
and physical water properties that affect water temperature.
The basic aim of several models was to predict water temperature
through the relationship of energy balance components, water
properties, flow rate, depth, and area of water exposed.
AM of the models rendered predict what happens in down-
stream reaches of a stream given the inputs to the reaches and
upstream or tributary inflows. None of the models evaluated
predicted water temperature of first order streams or the
temperature of water inputs to these streams from surface or
s ubs ur face flow.
Many of the models available were developed for predicting
the effects of point discharges of warm water into a larger body
of water or a stream. Such models should have applicability to
the wildland situation when a small stream affected by forest
cover manipulation is tributary to another stream.
The models presented by Brown (1969, 1970, and 1972),
DeWalle and Kapple (1975), and Pluhowski (1972) provide a means
of predicting the effects of forest cover manipulations in the
riparian zone on stream temperature in a downstream reach.
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Brown's model, developed in the Pacific Northwest, was subse-
auently tested for eastern forest conditions in the Southern
Appalachians. Resuts showed that it sianificant Iy overestimated
the actual temperatures (unpublished data, Coweeta Hydroloqic
Laboratory, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station, USDA--Forest
Service). Hence, these models should be applied to a variety of
wildland situations across the United States to test their gen-
eral validity.
Microorqan i sms--
Work by McSwain and Swank (n.d.), Lee (1970), Cunningham and
others (1974), and Buller (1974) were the only references found
on the effects of wildland management activities on microoraanism
pollution indicators and pollutants. Although potential sources
of microorganisms in the wildland environment are numerous, their
relationships to management activities are not well documented.
Some models were located which dealt with the survival of col i-
forms (Mattloch, 1974; Canale and others, 1973; and Canale,
1973). Again, these dealt only with downstream reaches, but may
be helpful in assessing the time factors associated with coliform
contamination of wildland surface waters. Buller (1974) was the
only reference located that treated the viral hazards associated
with land disposal of human wastes.
The HSP-QUALITY (Lombardo and Franz, 1972; Lombardo and Ott,
1974) and WHTM (Patterson and others, 1974) models may have util-
ity in predicting the movement of pathogens in a wildland envi-
ronment. However, both reauire Quantities and distributions of
coliform as inputs, and their applicability to wildland situa-
tions was not determined in this review.
Dissolved Oxygen (Stream Models)--
Models for dissolved oxygen in streams fall into two prin-
cipal categories: those that predict behavior of a single reach
of stream and those that model multiple reaches of a stream as
linked system. Multiple reach models can handle simple reaches
as a special case and hence are more general. They are generally
directed toward a more sophisticated user. Single reach models
are generally disregarded for use by the water resource pro-
fessional .
All models selected for evaluation have generally been de-
veloped and used to predict water guality in systems receiving
discharge from one or more point sources such as treatment plants
or tributary inflows. Most can also handle non-point sources
such as lateral inflow alona the reach provided as input. All
have utility for predicting the downstream effects of non-point
source pollution entering the system from upstream tributaries
which are normally considered to be just routine modes. This
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leaves the problem of predicting what is actually happenina in
the upstream tributaries, in particular, the first order streams.
Of those found, only the HSP-OUALITY model (Lombardo and
Franz, 1972; Lombardo and Ott, 1974) appears to have the capa-
bility for predictina non-point source pollution. However, this
review did not determine that the model can be applied in a
wildland situation. OUAL-II and DOSAG3 (Duke, 1974), and models
of Yao (1970), Butts (1973), Yeh (1973), Orsborne and others
(1973), Novotny and Krenkel (1975), Hoover (1970), and Lin (1973)
may be able to predict behavior of streams immediately downstream
from first order streams.
Dissolved Oxygen (Lake and Impoundment Models)--
The same models applied to streams are often applied to
smalI lakes and impoundments. In these cases each reservoir is
simply treated as another reach of the stream. However, dif-
ficulties are freauently encountered, particularly when the
reservoir or lake is deep and stratified.
Numerous models were found which dealt with lake water
duality. All of these were classified as lake ecosystem models
and hence were not evaluated. Only two were specific with regard
to dissolved oxygen (Newbold, 1974; Bella, 1970). Both basically
apply simple lake ecosystem models to the specific problem of
predicting dissoved oxygen profiles in lakes. These models do
not appear usable at present in operational wildland situations.
In order to estimate non-point source pollution impact on a
lake, one has to know the pollution load entering the lake from
all sources and how this loading is affected by various upland
activities. This problem is considered by Tenney (1971),
Lombardo and Ott (1974), and Chen (1972). Only the HSP-OUALITY
model (Lombardo and Ott, 1974) explicitly attempts to predict
pollutant loading from non-point sources. As mentioned earlier,
it remains to be determined if the model is applicable to the
wildland si tuat ion.
Ground Water--
Models for bioloaical aspects of groundwater were not found.
Work is needed in this area, particularly with regard to patho-
gens, and should be directed towards describing biological con-
tamination of ground water supplies by recharge with contaminated
water .
Chemical Model Review
Chemical models were considered to include those dealing
with pH, acidity, alkalinity, conductivity, and various other
chemical parameters. While many models were screened, only a few
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were selected for evaluation because most do not model the ef-
fects of land management on chemical parameters. The modeling
efforts reviewed fall into three general classes: (1) downstream
routine technicues for river systems, (2) empirical relationships
derived from data bases for specific streams or rivers, and (3)
forest ecosystem models based on abiotic and biotic processes,
including both terrestrial and aauatic ecosystems. The down-
streams routing techniaues have little utility in evaluating the
impact of forest activities on upstream characteristics. How-
ever, given upstream contributions these and other routing
techniaues will be useful in evaluatina the importance or impact
of these contributions on downstream reaches. Downstream routing
techn i cue's- i ncl ude HSP-QUALITY (Lombardo and Ott, 1974), QUAL-II
and DOSAG3 (Duke, 1974; Orsborne and others, 1973), and WHTM
(Patterson and others, 1974). These are generally simulation
programming models. HSP-OUALITY, PTR (Crawford and Donigian,
1973), and WHTM all appear to have capabilities for predicting
non-point source pollution, but their applicability to wildlands
was not determined. Existing regression models have limited
application for predicting chemical pollutant loads resulting
from forest activities. These models are generally derived for a
specific area of interest, and none appears to be broadly appli-
cable because of the limited data bases used in their develop-
ment. In addition, none of those reviewed is capable of predict-
ing changes in water chemistry characteristics resulting from
wildland management activities. Process simulation models are in
various stages of development, but none has been documented in
the open literature.
STATE-OF-THE-ART
The followina state-of-the-art assessment is based on a
literature review of the models inventoried and did not involve
actual model testing or in-depth comparative evaluation. The
models were evaluated and the state-of-the-art was assessed
subjectively from the perspective of the research or academic
community. A "state-of-the-art" model is defined as one that
incorporates advanced knowledge relevant to predicting a par-
ticular non-point source pollutant.
It is recognized that the state-of-the-art of models for use
by field personnel lags that for the research and academic com-
munity in terms of sophistication. With few exceptions, the
state-of-the-art for field-usable models is represented by local
or regional regression models and similar analytical procedures.
Because of the inherent limitations of regression models
vis-a-vis, the desirable characteristics for non-point models
(previously discussed) the task group did not believe there were
any that had widespread applicability. Thus this state-of-the-
art assessment focuses on those simulation (process and proaram-
ming) models that appear to represent the highest level of
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knowledge for each category of models (i.e., physical, chemical,
and biological).
The review did not determine the wildland applicability of a
number of the designated state-of-the-art models. The utility of
several models for predicting the effect of wildland manaaement
on pollutant loads to receiving waters needs to be established.
This, in the opinion of the reviewers, will reauire a program of
model testing and comparative evaluation. This is especially
true of the simulation programminci models that are derivatives of
the Stanford Model, such as HSP, HSP-OUALITY, and PTR.
Runoff Mode Is
The state-of-the-art for runoff models is represented by the
process simulation models—the most advanced of all the non-point
models. Models of this type that were developed for describing
forest environments are reoresented by the Leaf (1975) and Rogers
(1975a) models. For single storm events, the Simons and others
(1975) model is representative. These models are just becoming
available and have yet to be widely tested and refined for man-
agement use.
At the field professional level, the BURP (USDA, 1967) model
and the model developed by Douglass and Swank (1972) have been
used to predict changes in water yield from cover type manipu-
lations. The Northern Region water yield guide (Silvey, 1974) is
being used by non-water resource technicians for determining
water yields.
Process simulation models developed specifically for evalu-
ating management effects are represented by the USDAHL-70 (Molten
and Lopez, 1971) for agricultural land. The state-of-the-art in
simulation orogramming is represented by the HSP (Donigian and
Waggy, 1974) model which was developed for urban and general flow
determinations. It may be difficult to relate many of the input
parameters required by these models to management activities
occurring throughout the forest environment.
Sediment Mo dels
Surface Erosion--
For surface erosion, the state-of-the-art is represented by
process simulation models of which Simons and others (1975) is an
example. This model, newly available, has not been extensively
tested or used in management and is more sophisticated than the
models currently used.
Almost all surface erosion models that have been used
extensively in field applications for forest management were
developed from the models developed for agricultural lands by
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Musarave (1947) and the Universal Soil Loss Equation (Wischmeier
and Smith, 1965). The ONEROS model (USDA, 1972) and PASS model
(Dissmeyer, 1973) represent the best of these two basic ap-
proaches for wi Idland situations. The PASS model has been used
mainly in the southeast, and the ONEROS model (or variations of
it) mainly in the west. Both models require routine coefficients
and provide I ittle physical basis for determining them. Both
assume that all runoff occurs by overland flow, which is not a
val id assumption in many forest cover types.
Channel Erosion--
The state-of-the-art for channel erosion is simulation
programming represented by Neqev (1967) and WHTM (Patterson and
others, 1974). No process simulation models were reviewed which
simulate channel bank and/or bottom erosion. There are several
routing models that account for aqgradation and degradation in
stable channel systems. The Simons and others (1975) and Thomas
(1974) approaches are examples of process simulation models that
represent the state-of-the-art for stable channel systems. Nei-
ther has been used to predict the effects of management activi-
ties in upland watersheds as the Thomas model was not designed
for such use and the Simons model has only recently become
available. The state-of-the-art for modeling unstable channels
is represented by regression models and analytical techniques.
Mass Movement--
No process simulation models for the mass movement component
of erosion were reviewed. The state-of-the-art at present uses
analytical procedures that will lead to some prediction that an
area is unstable and has potential for failure (Dryness, 1967).
TotaI Eros i on--
A working process simulation model containing all components
of sediment output was not found. The only total sediment output
models are of the regression and simulation programming types.
Chem|cal and Biological Models
Tern per ature--
The process simulation models such as those of Brown (1972),
DeWalle and Kappel (1975), and Pluhowski (1972), represent the
state-of-the-art for predicting the effects of forest cover
manipulations on water temperature in the riparian zone of a
downstream reach, given the upstream or tributary inputs to the
reach. No temperature models were found which predict temoera-
ture of first-order stream or the temperature of water inputs to
these reaches from surface or subsurface flow.
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Dissolved Oxygen--
For predicting downstream effects on dissolved oxygen,
simulation programming models such as HSP-QUALITY (Lomhardo and
Ott, 1974) are potentially suitable; however, none has been
tested or evaluated for use in wildland situations. Only the
HSP-QUALITY model is potentially applicable for use on the
first-order streams.
Chemical and Dissolved Solids--
Simulation programming models represent the state-of-the-
art for nutrient and dissolved solids models. Examples are HSP-
QUALITY (Lombardo, 1973) and WHTM (Patterson and others, 1974).
In field use the state-of-the-art is represented by reoression
models that relate nutrient and dissolved solid parameters to
flow voIumes .
Pathogens, Heavy Metals, and Pesticides--
For pesticides the state-of-the-art is represented by the
Pesticide Transport and Runoff (PTR) model for agricultural lands
(Crawford and Donigian, 1973). The WHTM model was designed for
trace contaminants such as heavy metals and pesticides, so it may
also be suitable for simulating the effects of forest managment
activities on pathogens. The HSP-OUALITY model may also be
useful in simulating the effect of forest management situations
on heavy metals and pathogens. All of the above models (PTR,
WHTM, and HSP-OUALITY) are state-of-the-art models, but their
utility in modeling the effects of wildland manaaement activities
on the wildland environment has not been adeauately demonstrated.
Until they are further tested and evaluated for wildland appli-
cation, no conclusions can be drawn and little can be said re-
garding their potential utility for such purposes.
NON-POINT WATER QUALITY MODELS
To design and develop a useful model it is necessary to
understand the specific intended uses of the model and the
environments in which the model is going to be utilized. To
date, the specific environments in which non-point models will be
used in the manaaement of water Quality from wildlands have not
been defined in sufficient detail to adeauately guide model de-
velopment work. Nevertheless, some aspects of this environment
can be outlined along with some of the characteristics that the
task force believed non-point models needed so as to be useful in
forest land management.
Role in the Decision Process
Water auality is only one of the main factors in the natural
resource area that must be evaluated in making land manaaement
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decisions. Economic, social, political, and institutional, as
well as natural processes must all be effectively considered in
establishing water duality goals and criteria and in makina land
management decisions.
At least three roles need to be met by water auality models
in this decision makina process. Models need to:
1. Relate alternative land use allocation and activities to
water auality goals and criteria in a manner that can be
used by land managers.
2. Provide an insight and understanding of the effect of
various water auality levels on the aguatic environment
so that land managers will be able to identify the
trade-offs involved and effectively participate in the
process of establishing water guality goals.
3. Predict the water guality effects of the alternatives
under consideration in on-the-ground project planning
and design.
Perspective of the User
Water auality models will be used to help assess the effects
of proposed land management activities on selected water auality
parameters in both the land use planning and project desian
phases of forest management. The highest priority need will be
for models suitable for use by professional water resource per-
sonnel operating at the field level. In some cases achieving
this type of model may reauire the prior development of more
complex simulation models of basic ecosystem processes; but the
end results must be models or technigues that are operational and
usable in the field management environment. Thus the long-run
goal is to have models available that water guality professionals
at the field level can use in developing manaaement prescriptions
and guidelines for application by other professionals and techni-
cians involved in general land use planning and on-the-ground
project planning and design.
Desirable Model Characteristics
Based on the above discussion and the information obtained
in this review, some desirable characteristics for non-point
water auality models have been compiled. In trying to describe
desirable model characteristics, there is always the problem of
where to stop, considering the time available or the resources
that might be allocated to the actual model development. This
section cannot specifically deal with these auestions; instead
the attempt here is to highlight those characteristics that are
necessary for models to be useful to the land manager at the
field level. It may often be necessary first to develop detailed
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process models which can then be simplified, generalized, and
regionalized for field use. The necessary model characteristics
that can be specified at this stage are outlined below:
Loading vs. Routing--
To be useful in wildland management, non-point water duality
models must be able to predict parameter loads resulting from
specified (alternative) management activities. Once such loads
are determined, then routing becomes a desirable feature. More-
over, in some cases, prediction of loading reguires prediction of
routing. But routing models that do not include loading appear
to have little use in. wildland management.
Relative Differences vs. Total Amount--
Models suitable for predicting both relative differences and
total amounts of pollution loadinn resulting from management
alternatives are desirable. However, the accuracy of predicted
relative differences resulting from management alternatives is
more essential to effective decision-making than the accuracy
related to total amounts.
Time Effects--
Since the effects of most forest management activities can
be expected to change over time, it is important that time-
dependent phenomena be represented in the model. This is one of
the principal shortcomings of almost alI regression models and a
primary reason why process simulation and simulation programming
models are emphasized in the preceding state-of-the-art assess-
ments .
Spat i a I Ef fects--
The spatial distribution of management activities in a
watershed, vis-a-vis the location of the channel system, often
has enormous influence on the water guality effects of these
activities. Therefore, models must be able to accept inputs
which describe the spatial variability of the landscape itself,
and represent the effects of altering the locations and patterns
of activities being planned.
Data Ava iIab iIity--
The data reguired by non-point models must either be avail-
able in the area where such models are proposed for use or must
not be too difficult for typical water resource staffs to col-
lect. In many forested areas use of relatively extensive data
will be necessary. These data must represent the differences in
land and land activity combinations to the extent necessary to
evaluate water guality.
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Activity Oriented--
It must be possible to represent land manaaement activities
and evaluate their water Quality effects in any model proposed
for use. A management activity would be described in terms of
model input parameters. The model would then output the pre-
dicted water quality for the specified set of management activi-
ties and land and climatic conditions.
Another model ing approach would be to develop parameter-
oriented models. In this approach, a target or ceiling value for
a water duality parameter would be entered into the model, and
the model would output alI or selected management activity com-
binations that would meet the desired water oual ity level. In
the long run, both of these types of models may be helpful, but
to develop such a parameter-oriented model, the activity-oriented
process models must already be available for determining the
water Quality effects of specified management activities.
MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND APPLICATION APPROACH
Decision-Making Environment
Model development and appl ication must take place in I ight
of and in response to the decision-making processes and situa-
tions in which they are to be employed. The decision-making
activity determines on a continuing basis what information will
be needed, at what precision and cost, and when, where, how, and
by whom it will be provided. Managers must be able to select
specific tools and procedures in light of each decision need or
situation. The tools to be used will depend on:
1. The nature of the alternative actions being considered.
2. The characteristics of the resources and people to be
involved.
3. The possible effects of alternative actions on these
resources and people.
4. The values and risks involved.
5. Other planning constraints such as the time, funds, and
skills avail able.
Each land manager must be able to tailor organizational
arrangements, operating procedures, data bases, and analytical
systems to fit his own situation, in such a way that effective
decisions are reached.
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ModuIar i ty
In many field units, most planning activities are still
being done with the aid of common tools. For some units, these
methods will suffice for decision-making in most situations. But
other field-level managers now want and need to utilize informa-
tion that can be efficiently generated and communicated only by
using various computer-aided systems.
Some minimum standardization will be necessary among system
components for two major reasons: (1) to hold down development
and training costs; and (2) to improve the effectiveness of
communications between organizational levels. On the other hand,
it is clear that one standard, integrated system for planning and
decision-making for all units is not practical because of the
great variability in informational needs from location to loca-
tion and from situation to situation.
If computer hardware and software and related tools are to
become widely accessible and used cost-effectively and wisely in
planning and decision-makinq, what is needed is a ranae of
standarized (modular), mutually compatible component models
having common interfaces where necessary. A manager could then
choose from these modular components to assemble a plannina/
decision-making system tailored to his own particular information
needs and could easily adjust the mix of components from one
situation to the next. In non-point pollution studies, for
example, the tools needed would depend on the characteristics of
the particular land area being studied, as well as on the skills,
data, time, and funds available.
One of the primary needs in the non-point area is for a
coordinating mechanism for building a nucleus of standardized
system components. This nucleus would be made up of modules that
complement each other, offer alternative intensities of investi-
gation in problem solving, and provide common interfaces for nec-
essary information transfer between components, such as between
various modules for storaoe and retrieval, analysis, and display.
Once established, the nucleus would continue to grow over time,
gradually expanding into a full complement of standardized com-
ponents suitable and available for use as needed at all admini-
str at i ve levels.
Modularity also appears to be an important modeling concept
to the extent that models must be kept simple to be feasibly used
and gain acceptance. It appears that Generalized all-purpose
models are expensive to develop, difficult to use and control,
and have Iarae data reauirements--aI I of which tend to detract
from their field usability. Using a modular approach should help
overcome some of these I imitations.
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User Participation--
For usable models to be designed and implemented, decision
makers and modelers must be in effective communication throughout
the development process. They must develop a mutual understand-
ing of the problems the policy makers are facing so these prob-
lems can be highlighted and the model relegated to its proper
status—as an aid to the decision maker. User involvement in
model design also insures that the modeler has a ful I understand-
ing of the perception of the situations being modeled from the
user's view. Such interactions prove mutually beneficial and
educational. The model thus developed will tend to be more rele-
vant for the purpose for which it was devised, and the user will
have more trust in its validity and capabilities. Quite often
the ultimate user has very little involvement with the develop-
ment phase, and conseauently has to accept the final product on
faith. Thus, it is not surprising that decision-makers do not
rely heavily on models for evaluating alternatives.
Multi-Level Models--
To provide the fulI range of tools needed for non-point
management, models at several levels of accuracy and resolution
will undoubtedly be needed. As stated earlier, providing usable
models and guidelines for field managers may reouire that com-
prehensive process models be developed and tested and then be
regionalized and simplified.
Mu I t i-Stage--
Multi-stage development is one process used to develop
models. In this process the following steps are used:
1. Initial deveIopment--modeI ready for testing.
2. Development and parameter testing--modeI ready for
use in research environment.
3. Model simplification, region a Iization , and generaliza-
tion—model ready for testing by water resource
pro fess i onaIs.
4. Validation testing under operational field conditions--
models ready for operational use by water resource
profess i onaIs.
Modeling Approach--
Utilization of the process simulation approach to modeling,
supported as needed by simulation programming and regression
models, appears to provide the strongest foundation for non-
point model development. This approach represents the physical-
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chemical processes involved in the most straightforward manner,
and includes the time effects and spatial variability of forest
landscapes and activities.
Core Models
Core models for an operational set of non-point source
pollution module components are those that represent water and
sediment loadina processes, as water and sediment (alonq with
air) are the principal pollutant transport mechanisms.
An in-depth analysis of the impact of various pollutants
upon beneficial water, uses plus an area-by-area evaluation of
the associated socio-economic consequences should precede the
determination of specific priorities for developing operational
modules. However, it appears that in most areas, operation
modules for water yield, water routing, surface erosion, mass
wasting, channel erosion, and sediment routing are high priority
needs. Other module components, such as nutrient yield, pesti-
cides, pathogens, or heavy metals could be desicmed for coupling
to this basic set.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
StreamfIow Modej s
Steamflow predictive models have received the most intensive
study of all non-point loading predictive techniaues. The abil-
ity of the majority of available streamflow models to relate
wildland activities to their uniaue environment and to account
for spatial diversity is not well demonstrated, even for those
models that have been developed for that purpose.
An extensive program of testing, evaluating, refining, and
validating the more promising exisinp models is needed. The
possibilities of adapting and/or simplifying existina models for
operational use should be exhausted prior to initiating any major
new development in streamflow models. The program should eval-
uate abilities of the existing streamflow models to represent
wildland activities and environments in a way that accounts for
spatial diversity. Skills and data reguired to operate the
models should be reasonably accessible to wildland managers.
Sediment
Existing sediment models deal mainly with surface erosion.
While two models handle aggradation and degradation in stable
channels, no process models exist for in-channel erosion, nor are
any models available for predicting mass wasting.
Almost all existing surface erosion models are based on
either the Musgrave approach or the Universal Soil Loss Eouation,
-------
althouqh some recent work has been done on simulating the basic
physical processes involved.
Managers currently must rely on reaional regression models
to estimate on-site erosion and translate it to downstream
points. These models usually will not adeguately represent
specific management activities in terms of predicting their
effects on on-site and downstream sediment.
In many areas channel erosion and/or mass wasting, rather
than surface erosion, are the dominant sediment producing proc-
esses. Managers in such areas are very anxious to have better
methods for predicting the effects of their activities on sedi-
ment from these sources.
A comprehensive sediment loading model that is comparative
in nature and contains components representing surface, channel,
and mass wastina erosion processes should be developed and
tested. For wildland management, the model must provide a phys-
ical basis to evaluate the initial effects and trend in recovery
time for massive site disturbance (road and trail construction
and site preparation) as well as the direct and secondary effects
of vegetation removal. The component models (surface, channel,
and mass wasting) have provincial priorities; however, the
ability to model site disturbance within a comprehensive model
commands the highest priority.
Biological and Chemical
Water Temperature--
There are several process simulation models available for
predicting the effects of forest cover manipulation in downstream
riparian zones on stream temperature. These models should be
tested in a variety of wildland situations across the United
States to determine their potential for nation-wide application
and usability in an operational environment.
Dissolved Oxygen and Pathogens--
Loading models for dissolved oxygen and pathogens are vir-
tually non-existent. Available simulation programming models
need to be evaluated with respect to their ability to relate to
wildland activities, both upstream and downstream.
Chem i caIs--
Almost no chemical models applicable to wildland activities
were found. There is a need to examine existing simulation
programming models with respect to their capability to predict
movement of chemicals within and from wildlands.
92
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Heav y MetaIs--
Waste disposal is the most important wildland manaoement
activity that affects heavy metals. There are two models that
should be evaluated for applicability to a wildland environment.
Dissolved Solids--
There appears to be no presently available model for pre-
dicting the effects of wildland management activities upon con-
centrations of dissolved solids with the possible exception of
waste disposal. Waste disposal is unique as a wildland manage-
ment activity since the amounts of material being loaded into the
system are generally known. A model is available for routing
known concentrations but reauires field evaluation.
Pest i c i des--
No presently available model for predicting the effects of
using pesticides in a wildland environment has been developed or
tested in such an environment. The Pesticide Transport and
Runoff Model for Agricultural Lands may be suitable or provide
the basis for developing a wildland version. This model should
be modified as needed and tested for applicability.
Genera I--
Although some physical models may be adeauate to account for
sedimentation and water yield, there is a question as to how com-
patible they are with the processes that regulate chemical
fluxes, pathogens, and factors affecting dissolved oxygen and
temperature. For example, terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem
processes such as primary and secondary production, decomposi-
tion, and consumption are integral functions of wildland systems
that control the natural circulation of nutrients. Any attempt
to predict or model chemical response due to wildland activities
must couple biological and physical processes. Also, the time
base of physical models must be examined with respect to the time
resolution needed to model the biological and chemical consti-
tuent response .
93
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LITERATURE CITED, SECTION 5
Anderson, David 196Q. Guidelines for computino Quantified
soi I erosion hazard and on-site soi I erosion. USDA
Forest Service, Southwestern Repion, Albuquerque, N.M.
Anderson, Henry W. 1954. Suspended sediment discharqe as
related to streamflow, topography, soil, and lend use.
Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union 35(2): 268-281.
Bell, James M. 1968. General slope stability analysis. Proc.
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1253-1270.
Bella, D. A. 1970. Dissolved oxyaen variations in stratified
lakes. J. Sanitary Enq., Div. ASCE 96(SA5): 1129-1146.
Bolton, Wilson, and Bowie. 1972. Runoff and sediment in Iarqe
watersheds. USDA, ARS, Oxford, Miss.
Brown, G. W. 1972. An improved temperature prediction model
for smalI streams. Nat. Tech. Inform. Serv. PB-212 385,
Oregon Water Resources Res. Inst., Corvallis, Completion
Rpt. 20 p.
Brown, George W. 1969. Predictinq temperatures of smalI
streams. Water Resour. Res. 5(1): 68-75.
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25(1 ): 11-12.
Buller, Richard S. 1974. Potential viral hazards of land
disposal of human wastes. M.S. thesis, Michiqan
Techno logical Univ.
Butts, T. A., Kothandaraman, V., and Evans, R. L. 1973.
Practical considerations for assessing the waste
assimilative capacity of Illinois streams. Illinois State
Water Survey Circular 110.
Canale, R. P., Patterson, R. L., Gannon, J. J., and Powers, W. F
1973. Water quality models for total coliform. J. Water
Poll. Control Fed. 45: 325-336.
Canale, Raymond P. 1973. Model of coliform bacterial in grand
Traverse Bay. J. Water Poll. Control Fed. 45: 2358-2371.
Chen, C. W. and Orlob, G. T. 1972. Ecologic simulation for
aouatic environments, final report. OWRR Project No.
C-2044. Office of Water Resources Research, Dept. of
Interior. NT IS PB-218 828.
94
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Crawford, Norman H., and Donigian, Anthony S., Jr. 1973.
Pesticide transport and runoff model for agricultural lands.
Environmental Prot. Tech Series EPA-660/2-74-013 Office Res.
and Devel. Environmental Prot.
Cunningham, Robert, Tluczek, Louis, and Urie, Dean H. 1974.
Soil incorporation shows promise for low cost treatment of
sanitary vault wastes. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Mote MC-181,
3 p. North Central Exp. Sta., St. Paul, Minn.
Dewalle, David R., and Kappel, William M. 1975. Estimating
effects of clearcuttina on summer water temperatures of
small streams. Manuscript, School of Forest Resources,
Pennsylvania State Univ., University Park, Pa.
Dissmeyer, G. E. 1973. Evaluatina the impact of individual
forest manaaement practices on suspended sediment. Proc . of
Nat. Meet, of SCSA, Hot Sprinns, Arkansas.
Donigian, Anthony, Jr. and Wappy, W. Henry. 1974. Simulation--
a tool for water resource manaaement. Water Resource Bui I .
10(2): 229-244.
Douglass, J. E., and Swank, W. T. 1975. Effects of manaaement
practices on water Quality and ouantity. USDA Forest
Service Tech. Rept . SE-13. Southeastern Forest Exp. Sta.,
Ashev i I Ie, N.C.
Duke, James H., Jr. 1974. Practical application of water
Quality models. 1974 Summer Computer Simulation Conference,
pp. 606-617.
Dyrness, C. T. 1967. Mass soil movements in the H.J. Andrews
Experimental Forest. USDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. PNW-42,
12 po., Illus. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp.
Sta., Port land, Ore.
Flaxman, Elliott M. 1972. Predictinq sediment yield in
western United States. J. Hydraluics Div., ASCE 98(12):
2073-2085.
Foster, G. R. and Meyer, L. D. 1972. Mathematical simulation
of upland erosion usina fundamental erosion mechanics.
USDA, ARS, Sediment Yield Workshop, Oxford, Miss. Nov.
28-30, 1972.
Gray, Donald H. 1969. Effects of forest clear cuttina on the
stability of natural slopes. Proaress Rpt. Univ. of
Michigan, ORA Proj . 01939, 67 p.
Hewlett, John D. and Troendle, Charles A. 1975. Non-point and
diffused water sources: A variable source area problem
95
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proceedings of symposium conducted by the irriaation and
drainaae division of ASCE, p. 21-46, Logan, Utah.
Holtan, H. N. and Lopez, N. C. 1971. USDAHL 70 model of
watershed hydrology. Tech. Bull. No. 1435, 84 p.
Hoover, Thomas E. and Arnold!, Robert A. 1970. Computer
model of Connecticut river po I lution. J. Water Pol I . Cont.
Fed. 42(2), Part 2: R67-R75.
Jones, F. 0., Embody, D. R., Peterson, W. L., Hazlewood, R. M.
1961. Landslides along the Columbia River Valley,
northeastern Washington. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 367,
98 p.
Keller, Hans M. and G. E. Brink. 1975. Watershed simulation
model for selected ion concentrations. USDA, Rocky Mountain
Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Ft. Collins, Colorado.
Leaf, Charles. 1974. A model for predicting erosion and
sediment yield from secondary forest road construction.
USDA Forest Serv. Research Note RM-274. Rocky Mountain
Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Ft. Collins, Colo.
Leaf, Charles F., and Brink, Glen E. 1975. Land use
simulation model at the subalpine coniferous forest zone.
USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper RM-135, 15 p.
Leopold, L. and Maddock, T., Jr. 1953. The hydraulic geometry
of stream channels and some physiographic implications.
U.S. Geologic Survey Paper 252.
Lee, Roger D., Symons, James M., Roberts, Gordon G. 1970.
Watershed human use level and water duality. J. Amer. Water
Works Assoc. 62(7): 412-422.
Lin, S. H., Fan. L. T., and Hwang, C. L. 1973. Digital
simulation of the effect of thermal discharge on stream
water Quality. Water Res. Bull. 9(4): 689-702.
Livesey, R. H., Anuambhotia, V.S.S., and Sayre, W. W. 1972.
The statistical properties of Missouri River bedforms.
ASCE. Vol. 98, No. WW4, Paper 9358, pp. 489-510.
I
Lombardo, P. S., and Franz, D. D. 1972. Mathematical model of
water guality in rivers and impoundments. Hydrocomp, Inc.,
Palo Alto, California.
Lombardo, Pio S. 1973. Critical review of currently available
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96
-------
Lotnbardo, Pio S. and Ott, Ronald
simulation and application.
1-9.
E. 1974. Water qual ity
Water Resources Bull. 10(1)
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Ashevi Me, N.C.
Megahan, W. F
1974
granitic soils:
INT-1 56, 14 p . ,
Oqden, Utah .
Erosion over time on severely disturbed
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ntermountain Forest and Ranqe EXD. Sta.,
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76, 109 p., II I us.
a d i q i ta I computer.
Univ. Tech. Rot. No.
Newbold, J. D.
mode I for
100(EE1 ) :
and Li gqett,
Cayuga Lake.
41-59.
J. A. 1974. Oxygen depletion
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stream
Orsborne, John F., Mar, Brian W., Crosby, James W. Ill, and
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97
-------
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98
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USDA, Forest Service. 1972. ONEROS. Watershed Systems
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Yao, K. M. 1970. Generalized eauations for critical oxygen
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108-132.
99
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SECTION 6
DATA BASE AVAILABLE FOR NON-POINT POLLUTION
MODEL DEVELOPMENT AND TESTING
Part of the state-of-the-art documentation regarding non-
point pollution is the identifying and characterizing of selected
instrumented watersheds where a data base is available for pre-
dictive model development and testing.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING WATERSHEDS
Eight criteria were developed for selecting the watersheds
to be surveyed and documented. The restrictive criteria were a
combination of contractual direction, a search of published
methodology, and the subjective reasoning of the evaluators.
The criteria and a brief explanation of the reasoning behind
each follow:
1. The watershed must represent activities typical of
forest and range (wildland) areas.
2. The data must have been col Iected according to a plan
and collection accomplished on a routine basis. The
intent was to avoid the haphazard "nice to know" data
bases. This insured that the available data base was
collected in an orderly manner, was complete, and was
representative of standard analysis methodology.
3. The data must be available. If an organization or
agency had instrumented watersheds but was not prepared
to release the base data for model development and/or
testing, the watershed was not documented.
4. The available data must be reliable. To Qualify, the
data base must have potential usefulness for predictive
model development and testing; therefore, precision and
accuracy of the data was essential. The reliability of
data was a subjective decision of the task group member
based on his understanding of standard instrumentation,
acceptable procedures and methods of data collection,
and accepted analysis procedures.
1 00
-------
5. The time span of data col lection must be 1 year or
greater. In general, it was put that the longer the
period of record, the higher the probability of
developing realistic characterization of the entity
recorded. One year was selected as the minimum time
needed to characterize seasonal fluctuations and to
evaluate cyclic trends.
6. There must be a combination of several types of data;
i.e., water duality, hydrometeoroIogicaI, physical,
etc., collected over a similar time frame. The majority
of models reguire more than one type of data. To insure
comparative capabilities among data, a common time frame
is essential. Because a watershed did not have one of
the indicated types of data, it was not necessarily
eliminated from the survey. If sufficient types of data
were believed to be available to warrant further supple-
mental instrumentation or monitoring to meet the model
development or testing needs, it was included.
7. The watersheds should not have large-scale mining,
agriculture, or urbanization activities within them.
8. The watersheds inventoried must be representative of
accepted physiographic units.
It should be noted that it was not considered essential that
the watershed be currently operational. Thus certain watersheds
that were not operational but known to members of the task group
to have an existing and useful data base were listed.
WATERSHED INVENTORY FORM
After various methods of presentation were evaluated, the
conclusion was that identification and characterization could
best be accomplished through the use of a survey form (note
example). The form provided a uniform method of summarizing
descriptive watershed information from numerous and diverse areas
of the United States. Basically, the form was designed to answer
four questions: Where is the watershed? What is the watershed
like? Who is the administering agency? What type of data are
available? The form resembles that used in "International Hydro-
logic Decade Representative and Experimental Basins in the United
States." Although the form is essentially self-explanatory, the
following discussion of some of the terms will assist the user:
Type — There were two acceptable designations for the type of
watershed--either experimental or representative. An
experimental watershed is one that has been instrumented
to study hydrological phenomena; a representative water-
shed is one that has been instrumented to be indicative
of a broad, homogeneous area.
101
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WATERSHED INVENTORY FORM
Watershed
identification
Administering
organization
Location
Physiographic
description
Use
Purpose of
data
collection
Publications
Name: Thomas Creek Watersheds
Area: 421.9 ha (1,042 acres)
Type: Experimental
Name: Rocky Mountain Forest & Range Experiment Station
Address: Forest Hydrology Lab
Tempe, Arizorra 85281
State: Arizona
Latitude: 33°40'28"
Longitude: 109°16'08"
Geology: Basalt
Typography: Steep slopes near Weirs, relatively flat
at upper ends.
Vegetation: Mixed conifer
Soil: Fine, fine loamy, basalt rock
soil depth .9 to 1.83 m (3 to 6 feet)
Climate: 63.5 cm (25 in.) precipitation
Past: Virgin forest, grazing
Present: Virgin forest
The watersheds are under calibration for a multiple
use treatment on South Fork in 1976. Intent is to
monitor multiple use.
None
(EXAMPLE - SIDE 1)
102
-------
Data availability
To whom
When
Form
Date collection
initiated
Date collection
terminated
Collected data: All individuals as requested:
Daily summaries:
1. Runoff—computer printout
2. Precipitation—hand compilation
Supporting data: Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest,
reports, surveys, and written reports.
Runoff - August 1960
Precipitation - November 1962
Temperature - July 1973
Solar and Net Radiation - July 1974
Continuing
Types of Data Available (P = periodic; C
Collected Data
Runoff (C)
Precipitation (C)
Temperature (C)
Solar Radiation (P & C)
Sediment Sampling (P)
Relative Humidity (C)
Snow Survey (P)
Sol I Moisture (P)
(Iimited)
Transmissity (P)
Snow Density (P)
Water Qua Iity (P)
Si Iica
Sod i urn
Orthophosphate
I ron
Flouride
Sulphate
PH
Total Dissolved
Sol ids
Bicarbonate
Calcium
Chloride
Magnesium
Nitrate
Total Nitrogen
continuous)
Supporting Data
Timber inventory
Esthetic evaluation
SoiI inventory
Remarks: Paired watersheds control and treated:
North Fork 178.5 ha (441 acres)
South Fork 243.2 ha (601 acres)
(EXAMPLE - SIDE 2)
103
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Latitude/Longitude--UnI ess otherwise specified, the given
figures are those locating the most downstream portion
or mouth of the watershed.
Pub I ications--Up to three or four of the most prominent
publications will be listed, if any exist. The word
"other" at the end of the list indicates additional
documents to those I isted.
Data AvaiIabiIity--I dentifies constraints on obtaining
the data and establishes the status of the data. "Form"
is an indication of condition of the data; i.e., on
field form, edited, summarized, computer stored, etc.
Co I Iected/Supporting--I dentifies the two types of informa-
•Mnn + h a + m a v h p> available* Ml <~ n I I e> <- + p> H rt a + a h <=> i n n
tion that may
that which is
comp i I ed , and
be available: (1) collected
periodically or continuously
data being
coI Iected,
precipitation, etc.; and
static information which
generally only once; i .e
analyzed; i.e., water Quality, streamflow,
(2) supporting data being the
is obtained and summarized
, geologic surveys, soils
inventories, vegetative inventories, etc.
Continuous Data--CoI Iected essentially without interruption,
usually by some mechanical recording device placed
within the watershed.
Periodic Data — Co I I ected routinely or by plan (e.g., once
per month) but not "continuously" in the sense described
above. Data usually collected by hand as compared to
mechanical devices.
A completed set of the individual inventory forms appears in
Appendix B.
SURVEY TECHNIQUES
The initial intent was to contact agencies administering the
watersheds by telephone and verbally obtain the information
necessary to complete the forms. Travel, personal contacts, and
mailing of forms for completion were to be kept to a minimum.
The short-comings of this approach became rapidly apparent. The
individuals contacted generally did not have the necessary infor-
mation at hand, which reauired contacting them again at a later
date. Some persons had more than one or two instrumented water-
sheds and it involved an excessive investment of time to complete
the survey by telephone.
Upon recognizing this problem, the technigue was altered.
The individual was contacted by phone and made aware of the
intent of the survey. When it was ascertained that instrumented
watersheds were available and that they met the survey criteria,
1 04
-------
one of the following procedures was used, based on the preference
of the Individual.
1. The individual was sent an explanatory letter, a com-
pleted sample form, and a request to have the same type
of information available for a subseauent telephone
call.
2. The individual was sent a completed sample form, a
supply of blank forms, and reouested to complete the
forms and send them back to the team member.
Because some of the forms were filled out by different
persons, some heterogeneity in the format of information on the
forms was experienced.
The final survey method used to document instrumented
watersheds was a literature review of selected publications.
SUMMARY
A total of 176 watersheds or groups of watersheds were
inventoried that were judged to have data potentially useful for
model development and testing. The survey covered an estimated
95 to 100 percent of the college or university watersheds, and an
unknown percentage of other instrumented watersheds.
The purpose of this survey was to identify data bases suit-
able for model development and testing. Recognizing that any
predictive model will have to be adjusted for regional differ-
ences the inventoried watersheds were summarized by region. The
eight regions were selected based on similar physiographic and
climatic conditions within each region (Figure 2).
Many of the 176 watersheds inventoried contained only base-
line data on undisturbed areas. Overall, the general assessment
is that the data base available for model development and testing
is:
Good: for baseline conditions
Fair: for vegetative manipulation and timber harvest
Poor: for other forest management activities
It should be noted that one of the criteria for the inven-
tory was that it was an instrumented watershed. Special project,
well, and lake data were not included. There is considerable
lake data collected by the Forest Service in the Lake States
relating recreation to lake water Quality. Likewise there is
considerable data relating waste disposal to ground water oual-
ity.
105
-------
NORTHERN ROCKIES
Figure 2. Watershed inventory subdivisions.
-------
CONCLUSIONS
Table 6, derived from the inventory forms, presents those
watersheds with water quality data reported as the wildland
management activities shown. The watersheds are listed by
geographical area with no priority intended. This table is only
a summary of information provided by the various administering
organizations, and therefore should not be considered all in-
clusive. The user is cautioned riot to disregard any watersheds
wh ich are unI i sted .
The watersheds in each region were ranked in Tables 7-14
according to their overall suitability for modeling purposes--
best first (see Appendix B). The criteri* used to rank the
watersheds were :
1. Number of parameters—the more diverse the data base,
the more likelihood of having the input parameters
necessary to use various models.
na,
3.
4. Type of parameters--emphasis was given to sediment and
streamflow because of their relative importance to
forest management practices.
5- Quality of data — water sheds known to have highly
reliable sample analyses were ranked higher.
6. Supporting data--consideration was given to watersheds
with well documented supportive data such as soils,
geology, vegetation, aerial photos, topographic maps,
etc .
7. Number of water sheds—some single entries on the summary
forms are actually several watersheds combined under a
single project name. Multiple watersheds have some
obvious advantages to model ing and were considered for
higher ranking.
Freaue
the f
L en at
samp 1
mode 1
Type
i
h
i
i
o
ncy
n er
of
ng ,
ng .
f P
of samp 1
the mode
record--
it def i n
ar ameter s
i no — th
1 can b
coup 1 ed
es the
— empha
e
e
d
s
more freauen
tuned.
with the frea
ata base ava i
is was given
t the
uenc y
1 ab 1 e
to sed
sam
of
for
i me
107
-------
TABLE 6. NUMBERS AND LOCATION OF WATERSHEDS HAVING DATA SPECIFICALLY RELATING
WATER QUALITY TO WILDLAND MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES*
c
O
CD —
> 4- TD
* — (0 C
H ro
ro ^ in
4-0. cn —
CD ._ -o — 0
CD c ro ro L.
0 ro o i- —
> E OL h- li.
16 8 2
NE-2 NE-4 NW-4
SE-I SE-I SW-22
CE-7 SE-2
SE-20 SW-2
SE-21 SW-I 9
SE-22 NR- 1
SE-27 NW-5
NR-3 NW-9
SE-3
SW-IO
SW-I 2
SW-I 6
SW-23
SW-31
NW-5
C-9
c
O cn
— 4-
c 4- c cn
O ro 00
— N — TD E T3
o) 4- 4- •— ro ro ~o —
c L.W ro H w 0c u
•— 00 0 cn— 00 .c s •— _i
N & > L. 04- 4-CL O H-d
ro ES- u i_i_ men so. cnls
s- — ro 0 00 ro— OE 07;
CD i— ni ct LLM- :s~o _i— o_^5
2 22 4 2 1 57
NR-23 NE-I NR-4 NE-4 LS- 1 1
SW-I NE-4 NR-I 5 SE-5
NE-IO SW-28
SE-I SW-39
SE-2
SE-6
SE-22
SE-29
NR-I
NR-25
NR-26
SW-I
SW-2
SW-4
SW-I 8
SW-20
NW-8
NW-9
NW-I 1
C-17
C-18
The numbers are keyed to Tables 7-14.
108
-------
TABLE 7. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANKING--NORTHEAST
H
O
to
. en
o c
d T-
>>*v
fe1
° s.
5- O
a. H-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
aM
*M
W
Sediment
C I/) *O t
fc. ^o 3*0 i/i *o o> +J n
•i- 4-» o» -P "o 4-» oj c +•> o> "o
... ,. _ octscnj 01 «> •»- i= *o
Watershed State > u = « ° cci-7;cH1i UJ
CU "^ ^x<<^ ^^ ^j ^j ^^ ^) O> ^CT ^* ^ *^ ^^ ^ 2 ^^
I/1T3 WTST? (/>4->E W>,+J4-> I/JP— w
Hubbard Brook N.H. X X X XX
Leading Ridge Pa. X X X XX
Shale Hills Pa. X X XX XX
Fernow W.Va. X X XXX
Wild River Me. X XXXXX XX
Esophus Creek N.Y. X XXXXX X
McDonald's Branch N.J. X X X X X XX
Young Woman's Creek Pa. X XXXXX XX
Little Black Fort W.Va. X XX
E. Branch Saco N.H. X X X
Cranberry River W.Va. X XX
= Monthly
= Monthly with more frequent sampling of selected parameters
= Weekly
Climate -.1 B " 1
I 1 1 4-> (O -r- C i-
•r- i-~ E (/> C W QO O
§>,> (9 0)c£ O> O>>U
0)>> 4->i- U-OC4->^ S- •t-UOJ
. .^>4J .|-4-> >r- OJ>OI/>O 4~>Ct-
CL+JT-'r- -OO OTCCTI.CCO CUO)
.p-(D4^T3 S.'r>3 O— Ec»— s-c o>i+JO-pc:-t->i-.— o)(a
fc- 13 OJ3-I- O 3 O3C-I— X-r-^I rtj (1) O(O Ot- QJ
a.Q:a£jr2OI—O O-COO2:Q-OOD(— O<_>'f->-
XX X XX XX W20
X X X X X *M 18
X X XX XX *M13
XX XX X *M 20
XXXX XXX XX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXX M2
X XX XX M 8
XXXXXXX X *M7
-------
TABLE 8. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANK ING--CEN7RAL
o c
c •»-
.? >-
O- <»-
Watershed
State
Sediment
4.
•I- -4-»
O c:
^_ £
^ *^
l/> TJ
QI Qj
o; in
•o
V -M
•o c
C
0) £
W T3
13 O)
01
a o
c
ai
o
«
a.
V)
4J
C
OJ
•*->
3
Z
X)
a>
f""* ^t
o *o
•r- *O
O (/I
V)
-S
U
tn
a.
4-j
•^^
fO
^
1
u_
Climate
0)
3
m
s-
(U
if
^
o
f.—
0
^
T3
|
i—
•*->
U
3
•o
S
0
T
0.
-, "O
(O Ol
u-o
O) C
O OJ
•— Ol
0 >»
•r- X
OQ O
C
(U
O)
4J
z:
V)
0)
•*->
-------
TABLE 9. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANK ING--LAKE STATES
. 17
0 C
C 1-
*?*
c §
To
xl<"
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
aM
W
s
Sediment
W i— flj
. >- «/) A) &-
t- T3 3 "O tn ~O (U 4-> 2
... , , _ . . «i- 4"* 0) +•» "O 4-> 0) C: +> ,_«>,= >„ -G I «
&. E 0> E *— •«- i- 0) O OJ O ••- O -O -r- >> a o.
« T3 W *O -O t/)iA4^Evi>>4->4J y, ,_ M ^ g S- E
- - • - - — - ..
Cl i mate -o c u » ^ -r- O "O C •*•* "•*•. t- -i— W 4_> T- 4-> -r- (V O O> C O> JC C O C U 0)
01 -O •— E C t— "C C *O>>+J O-M C -M I- ^ O>
-------
TABLE 10. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANK ING--SOUTHEAST
. Ol
o c
C •»"
r" O
S- E
C 0
B. t-
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
b
b
aM
*M
w ••
Sediment
dj r— QJ
S* l/l fO t"
S- ^ 7 "O i/) "O QJ +•* 13
•r- -M Q) -4-» "O +•> QJ C +•* Q) "O QJ 4J
Watershed State o = -a = g g> 2>cg>S^«'G£ £
L. E Q) E i— •.- i- d) O 4J 0) 13. V) CT J= S- W) •!-•!-> > 5 Q.
at -a vt-a -a in on -i-> E 1/1 >> <-> -t-> in i— in «o s-E
Q) Ql 3 (0 4) IOK} tjd) •*— X fO 3 'r— O Q) .ncQS53:-i"3OOa.zainci-:nt*-«t-t->
Coweeta N.C. X XXXX
Davidson River N.C. X XXXX XX
Sopchoppey River Fla. X XXXXXX XX
Walker Branch Tenn. X XXXX
Bear Creek Basin Ala. X XXXX
Coffeeville Miss. X XXX
Cataloochee Creek N.C. X XXXXXX XX
Sipsey Fork Ala. X XXXXXXXX
Kiamichi River Okla. X XXXXXXXX
Holiday Creek Vir. X XXXXXXX
Cypress Creek Miss. X XXXXXX XX
Falling Creek Ga. X XXXXXXX
Buffalo River Tenn. X XXXXXXX
Little River Tenn. X XXXXXXX
N. Sylamore Ark. X XXXXXXX
Big Creek La. XXXXXXX
S. Fk. Rocky Creek Tex. X XXXX
Blue Beaver Okla. XXXX
Tallulah River Ga. XXXX
White Hollow Tenn. X XX
Oxford Exp. WS Miss. X X
Citico Creek Tenn. X X XXX
Cossatot River Ark. XXX
Upper Bear Creek Tenn. X X
Limpia Creek Tex. XX X
Boston Mt. Ark. XX XX
Alum Creek Ark. X XXXX
Koen Ark. X XXXX
Pine Tree Branch Tenn. X XXX
B.F. Grant Mem. Forest Ga. X X XX
Whitehall Ga. X XX
Climate "? j= .if 1
+? « ••- c >-
•I- r— E W»S ^ C(OO
S>>> too* oj^ cn o>>u
O>>, 4J'i- OT3C4J^ S- 'i-O(U
•^ fO ^^ ^3 ^ *^ 3 ^3 Q) O ^X O ^C f~ * O QJ 3 i/*
QJ-OI— Ect— i-c o>,-i->o+Jc:-»Ji-^-a>«-X'i-.c (O 0) O(0 Ol- h-o o.coo^o-c_)Qoi— UOM->-
XXXX X XXX *M42
XXXXXX XX M8
X XXXXXX M8
XX XXXX *M8
X XXXX W 6
X XXXX W 11
X X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
XXXXXX M8
XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXXX M8
X XXXXX M8
X XXX M 8
X XXXX M 8
XX M 40
X M 18
XXXXX X M3
X XXX M 6
X M 13
X XXXX M 8
XX XXXX W2
XX XXXX M2
XXX X XXX *M2
XX XXX M 34
X XXXXX W2
XX XX XXX M8
* Monthly ^Received too late to rate.
= Monthly with more frequent sampling of selected parameters
= Weekly
-
-------
TABLE 11. VvATERSHEO SUITABILITY R ANK I NG--NORTHERN ROCKIES
o c
C •r-
s-s
1!
(- 0
a. M-
Watershed
State
Sediment
^
Reservoi
sediment
•o
Suspende
sediment
•D
10
o
•O
CO
cr>
C
•r—
VI 4->
t/1 I/)
£ §
2
3
1 Water
1 temperat
T*U
Dissolve
oxygen
| Pathogen
•A
[Nutrient
•o
r- «
o -a
•12 "o
a tn
,
£ -5
Si
c
J_
"o
o
^^
•5
|
*>'
^
•^
(J
=3
O
Q.
"O
r-?
(O 0)
01 C
O &>
£ o
c
ai
O)
o
Si
V)
(I)
(O
a.
o
£
V)
c
Q
C
<
V)
c
o
o
Ul
o
c
u
c
en
i.
o
O 10
1- 0
§10
>,
•i- 0
u
^
o
u
e-
10
a>
CO
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
Silver Creek
Horse Creek
Stratton
Upper Salmon River
Cashe Creek
Encampment BW
Castle Creek
Hayden Creek
Beauvais Creek
Rock Creek
E.F. Smith's Fork BW
Wyman Creek
AI der Creek
Encampment River
Big Wood River
Grizzly Creek
Swift Current Creek
W. Br. Weiser
Rapid River
Bear Den Creek
Wickhoney Creek
Logan Creek
Ruby River
Worswick Creek
N.F. Fisk Creek
Zen a Creek
Ida. X
Ida.
Wyo.
Ida.
Wyo.
Wyo.
S.D.
Ida.
Mont.
Mont.
Wyo.
Mont.
Mont.
Wyo.
Ida.
Mont.
Mont.
Ida.
Ida.
N.D.
Ida.
Mont.
Mont.
Ida.
Wyo.
Ida. X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
XXX
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X XX
XX X
X
X X X X
X
X
XX X
X X X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
W
*M
*M
W
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
15
10
7
5
10
10
8
8
8
5
2
5
5
8
5
5
8
5
4
8
8
1
2
1
1
16
aM = Monthly
W = Weekly
*M - Monthly with more frequent sampling of selected parameters.
-------
TABLE 12. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANKING — SOUTHWEST
o c
c: T-
f~
C E
O
•i- i-
U 0
a. «*-
Watershed
State
Sediment
L.
•r- 4-»
EC
¥
85
£S
•a
•s«
s^
Q..I-
in -0
3 OJ
to
•o
10
O
•o
(U
CO
ai
c
in 4J
V> V)
10 (O
s: 2
S
3
•tJ
10
L.
S- OJ
OJ Q.
•U E
(O 01
3 •!->
•o
1 =
o a»
tn 01
« >»
•r- X
0 O
C
3.
O
.C
1o
0-
w
+J
5
•r-
&_
•M
3
z:
•o
$
i— W)
O "O
t/» -p-
tn f^
•r- O
a M
v>
*
•r~
u
>r.
4-*
V)
2
(/>
1X3
E
(O
0)
2:
u.
Climate
8!
2
•i- 0)
Q.
U
e
Q.
8
•r—
+J
(O
*t—
•a
ns
oc
§!>.
•*— *^
+J-O
«.E
«SJ
•o
c
•r"
3
s-
o
"o
U
S
•^
•a
•t—
J3
S_
3
|~
*r—
>
£
U
3
•o
5
*
•0
(0
s-s
o» c
o a>
i— O>
0 £>
•i- X
CO O
c
•r-
^
trt
0)
4->
(O
.c
o.
V)
o
,c
Q_
£
•r*
C
r_
4->
(O
o
I/I
O
JZ
•*-»
c
£
u
g
o
c
f— O
5-e
O ID
1— O
C<0
O >>
••- U
4-> C
o ai
^
•o
•s
(.
o
u
i-
10
-------
TABLE 12. Continued
• Ol
o c
C 1-
£i
*Z g
.2,.
I- O
a. <*-
Watershed
State
Sediment
eservoir
ediment
OL t/i
us pen dec
ediment
CO V)
•o
1
T>
+>
VI l/l
(O
m
(U
z
8
u.
Climate
2
ir
emperatu
eC +J
0.
•f~
u
o>
(-
0.
adiation
a:
.?.$
•ij-5
(O ••-
a; ^
0:^:
•a
c
3
&-
O
O
0
urbi di ty
i—
*.'
•^
onductiv
o
X
0.
•o
TO (V
U "O
•^
Ol C
O (U
r- CD
°s?
CD O
C
§>
e
4->
Z
•u i-
O (D
1— 0
c ta
ol lectio
requency
0 t-
•o
-
en
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
Pine Creek
Kingston
Mingus
Whipple Creek
Thomas Creek
San Luis
Watersheds A & B
Manmoth Creek
Antimony Creek
Blue Springs Creek
Coal Creek
White Rocks
Dry Fk. Ashley
Yellow Stone
Headwaters Uinta
Sowers
Rock Creek
Ashley
Utah
Nev.
Ariz.
Utah X
Ariz. X
N.M. X
Utah X X
Utah
Utah X
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
Utah
XXX
XXX
X
X
XXX
X X
XXX
XXX
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X X X X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
M
M
M
*M
M
*M
*M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
1
1
1
Z
1
23
63
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
= Weekly
M = Monthly
*M = Monthly with more frequent sampling of selected parameters.
-------
TABLE 13. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANKING--NORTHhEST
[Priority no.
1 for modeling
Watershed
State
Sediment
IReservoi r
sediment
1 Suspended
sediment
T>
c
>r.
l/> -M
in ui
2 5
1 Water
| temperature
Dissolved
oxygen
[ Pathogen |
[Nutrients j
Dissolved
solids
| Pesticides |
t/l
15
4J
i
&
1
1
Li-
di mate
[Air
1 temperature
Q.
•^
U
e
CL
| Radiation
Relative
humidity
T>
C
•^
3
l_
O
"3
0
[Turbidity |
[Conductivity |
i
1 Biological
oxygen demand |
| Nitrogen |
| Phosphates |
[Cations/Anions |
| Benthos j
u
c
(O
?
o
-§
5-e
o a
i— u
Collection
frequency8
| Years recorded]
CD
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
aM
*M
W
H.J. Andrews
Cedar River
Clack amas
Green River
Entlat
N. Fk. Quinault
Mlnam River
Coyote Creek
Alsea
HI-15 Basins
Fox Creek
Umatille Baro. WS
Tonal ite Creek
Kadashan
Hook Creek
Stequaleho Creek
Clearwater River
Christmas Creek
Upper Salleks
« Monthly
= Monthly with more
= Weekly
Ore. X
Wash.
Ore.
Wash.
Wash.
Wash.
Ore.
Ore. X
Ore.
Ore.
Ore.
Ore.
Alas.
Alas.
Alas.
Wash.
Wash.
Wash.
Wash.
frequent sampling
XXX
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
of selected
X X
XXX
XXX
XXX
X
XXX
XXX
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
parameters
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X X X
X X X X
X XX
X
XX X
XX X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
XX X
XXX
XXX
X XXX
X
X
X X
X X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
X
X
W
M
M
M
W
M
M
*M
M
*M
*M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
8
10
8
8
16
8
8
12
15
11
18
3
7
7
7
3
2
,2
2
-------
TABLE 14. WATERSHED SUITABILITY RANKING—CALIFORNIA
• er
1 =
^^
rl
o
..- i-
«- 0
Q. S-
Watershed
Sediment
t.
Reservoi
sediment
-o
Suspende
sediment
1
OJ
CO
O5
c
M •*-»
IA trt
rti
(Pesticid
m
*
(O
S
r—
LL.
Climate
S-
3
+J
(O
s_
OJ
•-&
52
CL
•r-
O
0_
C
j Radiatio
1^
-»-> t3
«-|
S^
"O
c
5
t-
o
s
•x
1 Turbidit
*>'
>
| Conduct!
CL
-o
^1
fO OJ
o-S
5i c
O 01
i— en
CO O
| Ni trogen
m
Of
| Phosphat
i
'r-
C
a-
\ Cations/
[Benthos
0
c
,
•r- t?
4-> C
U QJ
(U 3
rS
Si
•o
-------
SECTION 7
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Activity — an action or group of actions describing the kind of
work of which various mixtures are reauired when managing
forest and range lands.
Balloon Logging — a system of logging where logs are transported
from a stump to landing by means of a balloon.
Bed Ioad--the sediment in a stream channel that mainly moves
by jumping, sliding, or rolling on or very near the bottom
of the stream (American Geological Institute, 1962).
Beneficial Uses--incIudes those uses made of water by man.
These uses include, but are not limited to, domestic, muni-
cipal, agricultural, and industrial supply; power genera-
tion; recreation; aesthetic enjoyment; navigation; and
preservation and enhancement of fish, wildlife, and other
aguatic resources.
Bloom (Algal Bloom)—a readily visible, concentrated growth
or aggregation of plankton (plant and/or animal) (Geckler
and others, 1963).
Buffer Strip—an undisturbed strip of vegetation that retards
flow of runoff water, causing deposition of transported
material, thereby reducing sediment flow (EPA-R2-72-01 5.) .
Chaining—an operation where two bulldozers are teamed to drag
an anchor chain in order to knock down brush and smalI trees
(Duerr and others, 1974).
Contour Fur rowi ng/Trench i ng — a rangeland improvement technigue
whereby a tractor and plow construct trenches contouring
rolling terrain in order to reduce erosion and encourage
water i n f iItrat i on .
Debris Basins—basins or depressions within or near streams de-
signed to entrap material or organic origin such as slash,
slabs, bark, leaves, or sawdust.
1 18
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Dry Ravel—the downslope movement of rock and soil particles
resulting from gravitational force.
Enteric — of or from intestinal origin.
Fire Retardant—chemicals used in the suppression of wildfires.
First-Order Streams—the smallest fingertip tributaries within
a stream system (Chow, 1964).
Helicopter Logging — a system of logging where logs are trans-
ported from stump to landing by means of helicopter.
Impact—the effect, positive or negative, of land management
activities on the environment.
Litter — the uppermost (soil) layer of the organic debris, com-
posed of freshly fallen or si ightly decomposed organic
materials (Chow, 1964).
Loading (Loading Models)—the process where amounts of flow or
pollutants are transported from land surfaces and delivered
to streams or lakes.
Mass Movement--downsI ope, unit movement of a portion of the
land's surface--i .e . , a single landslide or the gradual
simultaneous, downhi I I movement of the whole mass of loose
earth material of a slope face (i.e., soil creep) (after
American Geological Institute, 1962).
Mineral Nutrients—those inorganic substances which stimulate
plant growth .
Modular Model Deve I opmen t —the development of a system of
mutually compatible models having common interfaces where
necessary.
Non-Point Source—genera I ized discharge of waste into a water
body which cannot be located as to specific source, as
outlined in Section 304(e) of the Act (PL 92-500).
Non-Point Source Pollution — a pollutant which enters a water
body from diffuse origins on the watershed and does not
result from discernible, confined, or discrete conveyances.
Nutrition—the nourishment of surface waters through nutrient
addition or loading.
Operational ModuIes—components of a group of models which
provide integral inputs to a final output.
1 19
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Operational Water sheds — water sheds which are currently instru-
mented or monitored to gather various hydrometeoroIogicaI
or water quality data.
Parameter — a measurement or more generally an index used to
evaluate water quality.
Point Source--"The term 'point source' means any discernible,
confined and discrete conveyance, including but not limited
to any pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, conduit, well, discrete
fissure, container, rolling stock, concentrated animal
feeding operation, or vessel or other floating craft, from
which pollutants are or can be discharged." (Act, sec.
502(14)).
Point Source PoI Iution--poI Iution whose source is specific
rather than general in location. For example, particulate
matter emanating from a specific smoke stack is point source
pollutant (Sesco and others, 1973).
PoI Iutant--any substance, natural or man-made, which upon entry
to a watercourse can degrade water quality.
Prescribed Fires (Burns)--those fires deliberately planned to
accomplish a management objective, e.g., burning for fuel
reduction.
Process — those continuing physical, chemical, and biological
functions which characterize a particular interaction or
operation, e.g., the "process" of sedimentation involves
erosion, soil particle transport, etc.
Range I mprovement — those management practices undertaken to
improve range condition for grazing animals, e.g., brush
control, grass seeding, fertilization.
Reach—an uninterrupted length of stream channel.
Routing (Routing Coefficients, Routing Models)—the procedure
whereby the timing and amount of water and its constituents
(sediment, dissolved solids, etc.) at a point in a stream is
determined from known or assumed data at one or more points
upstr earn.
Simulation Progr amm i nq — the development of a model which repre-
sents the general processes involved, but not the process
mechan i sms.
Site Preparation—those methods employed in order to prepare an
area for a subsequent treatment, e.g., chaining might be
used to prepare rangeland for grass seeding.
1 20
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Skyline Logging — a system of logging where logs are transported
from stump to landing by means of a cable stretched through
the air between two elevated points. The logs travel within
a sling and are raised entirely above the land surface
during tran sport.
Slash — the residue or debris remaining from logaing operations
such as limbs, tree tops, chips, and small branches.
Soil Pitting — a rangeland improvement techniciue where a tractor
pulling a toothed rotating drum (pitfer) creates numerous
shallow depressions in order to enhance infiltration and
increase vegetative growth.
Soil Rippinq--a rangeland improvement technigue where a tractor
pulling a toothed plow tears the soil up to a depth of 36"
in order to increase vegetative growth and enhance infil-
tration.
Spray Irrigation—the final step of a tertiary waste water
treatment process where the effluent is sprayed upon the
land surface and the soils serve as the ultimate treatment
mechanism removing nutrients and pathoaens.
Surfactant--chemica Is used to promote infiltration and counter-
act water repellent layers which sometimes develop within
upper soil layers following fires.
Terracing—the practice of constructing contour steps upon hill-
sides in order to encourage vegetation establishment and
retard surface runoff of water.
Tractive Force—the drag of shear that is develooed on the
wettable area of the stream channel bed and acts in the
direction of flow (Chow, 1964).
Tractor Logging—a system of logging where logs are transported
from stump to landing by means of a tractor, bulldozer, or
sk i dder .
Trade-offs—the combination of benefits and costs which are
gained and lost in switching between alternative courses of
action. "Trade-offs" include only those portions of bene-
fits and costs which are not common to all alternative
courses of action under consideration.
Trap Efficiency—a measure of the effectiveness of a buffer
strip or debris dam to retard runoff and cause deposition
of transported soil particles, e.g., a wide, we I I-vegetated
buffer strip may effectively "trap" 100 percent of the
transported soil while a narrower strip may only trap 80
percent.
1 21
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Upland Water sheds — those watersheds on the upper reaches of a
stream system, or those watersheds on first order streams.
Understory--lesser vegetation consistinq of small trees and
shrubs growina beneath the canopy of leaves created by
larger, mature trees.
Water Chances--smaI I diversions placed in live streams to impound
water so that it may be pumped to water trucks for use else-
where .
WiIdfire--any fire of either natural (lightning) or man-caused
origin burning uncontrolled across forest or range land.
Wi Id I and--forest and range lands specifically excluding land
encompassing urban, industrial, agricultural, and mining
act i v i t i es.
1 22
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1 45
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-77-036
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Non-Point Water Quality Modeling in Wildland
Management: A State-of-the-Art Assessment
(Volume I--Text)
5. REPORT DATE
April 1977 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
US Forest Service
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Forest Service
United States Department of Agriculture
Washington, DC 20250
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1HB617
Interagency Agreement
EPA-IAG-D5-0660
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory - Athens, GA
Office of Research and Development
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Athens, Georgia 30601
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/01
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
Predicting non-point pollution from wildland environments is evaluated in
three main areas: management activity/pollutant Relationship, predictive model review
and state-of-the-art assessment, and an inventory of 176 wildland watersheds suitable
for model validation and development.
Non-point pollution is directly related to the time and space variability of the
hydrologic cycle and existing terrain, and the relationship is site dependent. Impact
of sedimentation from site disturbance is the most common problem.
Predictive models for non-point pollutant loading relating spatial variability and
diversity of terrain to management activities are the most important in evaluating the
potential on-site impact of planned wildland management activities. Few non-point
loading models exist.
The state-of-the-art is represented by process similation models, not yet exten-
sively used for field application. Their use will require validation and simplifi-
cation. The state-of-the-art at the field level lags that of research and is
represented by regional regression models and analytical procedures.
Watersheds available for non-point model validation and testing do not have long
data records (less than 10 years) except on streamflow and to a lesser extend sediment
7.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
:. COS AT I Field/Group
Simulation, Runoff, Forestery, Water
Quality, Hydrology, Erosion, Planning
Nonpoint pollution,
forestry, runoff, model
studies, watershed
studies
02F/08H
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
156
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
146
AU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1977-757-056/5610
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