United States Office of Research and Development EPA 600/8-79-020
Environmental Protection Office of Water and Waste Management March 1979
Agency Washington DC 20460
vEPA Drinking Water
Research Strategy
1978 - 1980
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March 1979
DRINKING WATER
RESEARCH STRATEGY
1978 - 1980
OFFICE OF RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT
OFFICE OF WATER AND WASTE MANAGEMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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PREFACE
Beginning in 1977, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
undertook a comprehensive review of its research planning and
management and reported its findings to the Congress, submitting
The Planning and Management of Research and Development in June,
1978. To address some of the problems identified, a pilot project
was initiated to examine the feasibility of planning research and
development programs by committees representing the Agency's primary
organizational elements. This project was the first attempt with-
in EPA at a major joint planning effort between its research, re-
gulatory, and operational components. Research Committees were
formed to plan programs in five areas—drinking water, industrial
wastewater, pesticides, mobile source air pollution, and particu-
late air pollution. Each committee was co-chaired by the Office of
Research and Development (ORD) and the appropriate, corresponding
regulatory organization—the Office of Water and Waste Management;
the Office of Air, Noise and Radiation; or the Office of Toxic
Substances.
This document describes the research and development strategy
developed by the Drinking Water Research Committee. The strategy
reflects the current perspectives .of EPA's research needs and
research capabilities. The document will serve as the basis for
detailed planning in those ORD laboratories implementing research
on drinking water. To be properly responsive to evolving regula-
tory priorities and emerging scientific findings, however, the
strategy will be subject to at least one annual revision, in
concert with EPA's planning and budgeting cycle.
Assistant Administrate r for
Water and Waste Manaj ement
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT 1
INTRODUCTION 3
RESEARCH PLAN 7
Organics 7
Inorganics Including Asbestos 18
Microbiological Contaminants 28
Groundwater 38
SUMMARY OF RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION 42
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ABSTRACT
The Drinking Water Research Strategy represents a collaborative effort
among several Offices of EPA including Research and Development, Drinking
Water, and the Regions to develop a research plan which will help develop
information to support present and future regulations for the safety of
drinking water. The strategy contains general descriptions of both short
and long termed research for organic and inorganic chemicals, microbiolog-
ical contaminants, radionuclides, and for the protection of ground water
supplies* There is a discussion of analytical, health effects and treatment
studies planned including the distribution of resources for FY-79 and 80.
In response to the needs of the Office of Drinking Water, in the
Office of Water and Waste Management, this strategy addresses the
following specific categories where research is required:
1. The development of the efficacy of various disinfectants and
the health effects of their end and byproducts.
2. The determination of acute and chronic health effects of various
chemical (organic and inorganic), microbiological and radiological
contaminants in drinking water.
3. The design and conduct of epidemiological studies, including the
the development of data, to evaluate health effects of contaminants.
4. The development of new and improved analytical procedures and their
verification for surface and ground water contaminants presently
in regulations and those under consideration.
5. The development of new analytical indicators for organic contmi-
nants, such as organic chlorine and rapid methods for microorganisms.
6. The development of more efficient and efficacious treatment techniques
for removing contaminants including particulates from water serving
community and noncommunity supplies.
7. The development of a treatment criteria, source water quality stan-
dards and analytical capability to support development of Agency
policy on direct potable wastewater reuse.
8. The development of detection and monitoring methodology and treat-
ment technology for pipe corrosion control.
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9. The conduct of large-scale experimental treatment technology projects
for organics control.
10. The development of criteria for the land application of wastes in
order to specifically protect present and future underground sources
of drinking water.
11. The development of health effects information for water treatment
additives.
12. The development of design, performance, and operational criteria
for small system and home treatment units.
13. The development of emergency response procedures and data file.
14. The development of quality assurance and quality control programs
to support the implementation of the regulatory program*
15. The continued evaluation of efforts for radionuclide removal from
drinking water.
Research work has been in progress in many of these categories for
several years. This document describes how EPA's research program plans
to respond to meet these current and future needs of the Office of Drinking
Water in a timely manner.
The research plan is divided into four major categories: organics,
inorganics (including asbestos), microbiologic contaminants and ground water
protection. The plan addresses the research to be undertaken to determine
the occurrence, the health effects, monitoring requirements, control of treat-
ment by-products, and the effectiveness of treatment techniques.
Past and planned allocation of research resources are attached showing
both in-house and extramural levels-of-effort assigned to each contaminant
category.
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DRINKING WATER RESEARCH STRATEGY
INTRODUCTION .
The Environmental Protection Agency has an interest- and responsibility
in preserving the quality of water throughout the water cycle. Legislative
Acts have been passed in recent years directing the Agency to develop programs
to control water pollution and set National Drinking Water Regulations.
Various EPA organizations or Program Offices have been assigned specific Acts
to implement and thus a certain portion of the water cycle problems are
handled by each Office. In the case of the Safe Drinking Water Act (P.L.
93-523) the Office of Drinking Water (ODW) in the office of Water and Waste
Management is responsible for developing a Program Strategy that will
help implement this Act which is confined to the safety of Public Water
Systems. Another office is implementing the other major water oriented
Act, P.L. 92-500, pertaining to water pollution control. There is much
similarity and chance for overlap in the research programs associated with
these two Acts, but the Agency has appointed a Research Committee with
members from the operating and research offices to minimize possible
overlaps and gaps in research.
The Safe Drinking Water Act is reasonably specific in the responsibility
given to the Agency, so a "step-by-step" strategy has been developed to
explain the scheduling of future activities. One necessary major element
of this strategy includes doing research to improve the scientific and
technical basis for National Drinking Water Regulations (Maximum Contaminant
levels (MCL's)) and Regualtions to protect the quality of ground water.
This issue has been reviewed by a non-government advisory committee formed
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to update the 1962 U.S. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards, an
ad hoc group of the Agency's Science Advisory Board and the Nationsl Drink-
ing Water Advisory Council. These groups and others from within the Agency
Operating and Research Offices determined that research was necessary to
help answer the following primary questions:
1. What substances occur in drinking water supplies in a sufficient
number of locations to warrant regulation?
2. What are the effects of these substances on human health?
3. What analytical procedures should be used to monitor water to
assure that the Revised Primary Drinking Water Regulations are met?
4. Because some of these substances are formed during transport,
storage, treatment and distribution, what changes in treatment
practices are required to minimize the formation of these compounds
in water delivered at the consumer's tap?
5. What treatment technology must be applied to reduce contaminant
levels to the concentrations specified in the regulations?
Although broad and general, these questions are the ones the Agency
has decided to focus on to develop a defensible basis.for standards. In
fact, these same questions apply if wastewater is being considered as a
water source for drinking. Inherent in all this research is a quality
assurance effort that helps certify laboratories and create valid data.
In support of Part C, P.L. 93-523, Protection of Underground Sources of
Drinking Water, a separate research plan has been developed for ground water
and will be discussed later in this document.
The process for prioritizing of work areas involves mainly the Office
of Drinking Water from whence there has been an interpretation of the Safe
Drinking Water Act and the target dates therein. They are also most aware
of shortcomings iu cxi.5i.iug Inlurmation and the principal problems referred
to them from the Regions, the National Drinking Water Advisory Council, and
the National Academy of Sciences. The research staff, however, makes a major
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input to the selecting of priorities because of their experience on feasibility
of analytical measurements, the time it takes to conduct health effects and
engineering experiments, and cost of creating additional research data.
The consequence of this evaluation was to attempt a balanced research
program that had elements of short- and long-range health effects studies,
as well as efforts to improve analytic methods and treatment techniques*
For FY79 (See Table 4), this means approximately 41 percent of the 18
million dollar budget will go to Health Effects projects (many of which are
done jointly with Department of Health, Education and Welfare), 37 percent
to treatment, 11 percent to analytical improvement, and 11 percent to ground
water management•
The largest area of ignorance is with the measurement, long-range
potential harmful effects and treatment of trace organics, so approximately
43 percent of the funds will be directed toward that problem. The second
highest priority is the relationship of inorganic quality and asbestos
fibers on health, so a large effort will be made in this area, too. This
is especially true regarding the difference in the incidence of cardiovas-
cular disease for those consumers that drink hard, instead of soft water.
Microbiological contaminant occurrence, monitoring, effects and control
remain a relatively high public health priority because outbreaks of
waterborne disease still occur in the United States, especially in poorly
operated distribution systems. The distribution systems in general need
more study to understand and control corrosion. Finding cost-effective
treatment units to remove most any of these contaminants from small water
supplies that are in noncompliance is also an aspect that needs greater
»
attention.
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Work has been in progress in these areas for several years, but the
plans discussed within this docuemt will attempt, with the limited resources
available, to respond to the current and future needs of the Office of Drink-
ing Water and the Regions in a timely manner. They will be in general terms
and will parallel the five primary questions that need answers in each major
contaminant category. Further details regarding specific projects are avail-
able from the five EPA Laboratory Directors having some responsibility for
water research or the Drinking Water Research Coordinator. Written quarterly
reports are sent to all interested operating and research staff, but some
oral communication also is conducted almost daily with officials in the field
and at headquarters.
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Research Plan
A. Organics •
1. Occurrence
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
Occurrence data in finished drinking water - continuing
Variance guidance for organic regulations - January 1979
ORD RESPONSE
Determining the location, concentration and the .frequency of occurrence of
contaminants of toxicological significance in drinking water is a necessary first
step for evaluating their health effects and treatment requirements.. Consequently
major surveys of water quality have been, and are still being conducted to help
establish the extent of the problems.
Several surveys including sampling from over 100 locations (National Organics
Monitoring Survey) indicated the presence "of some trace organics in most drinking
waters, especially chloroform in those that are chlorinated. Seasonal samples have
been taken at 113 locations and an analysis has been made for about 20 specific
organic compounds that were selected because they were reported as having been
i •
found in some source or treated waters, they have a known or suspected toxicological.
importance, and they can be analytically quantified. The companion general indicators
were selected as possible surrogates that may simplify future monitoring for compliance
if a relationship can be found between one of these and several of the principal
specific contaminants that occur frequently in significant concentration.
The first three phases of this survey, conducted jointly by ODW, the Regions,
and ORD within EPA, was in 1977 and the principal findings released by the Administrator
in January 1978. Additional extensive analyses have been made on organic reverse
osmosis (RO) concentrates from a few representative treated drinking waters, so the
list of organics found in all waters analyzed now contains nearly 700 compounds.
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'["no most recent survey, conducted in eight locations, was an attempt to ap
a new purging technique developed in Switzerland to determine an organic profile
in raw and finished waters. In addition to this technique the other analyses
made were: trihalomethane and associated compounds by "conventional" purge-and-
trap, total organic carbon (TOC) , non-purgeable carbon adsorbable organic halogen
(NPCAOX), and polynuclear'aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH).
These past surveys, plus those currently going 'on should satisfy the ODW
needs. As needed future surveys will be conducted by both ORD and ODW after joint
consultation. For example, the "National Screening Program for Organics" is
currently (1978) being sponsored by ODW and will attempt to measure a wide variety
of organics in some 400 finished waters. The completion of the "Master Analytical
Scheme" (see below) in FY 1980 will allow even broader based surveys to seek the
occurrence of hitherto unanalyzable organic compounds. A continuing project will
annually compile and publish (and also make available in computerized information
systems) all reliable information generated throughout the world on the occurrence
of trace organics in drinking water. The first copy of this Distribution Register
of Organic Pollutants (Water DROP) will be published in 1979.
2. Health Effects
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
Organic MCL's for key compounds (frequently occurring carcinogens identified
by NAS) FY 1979
MCL for surrogates (e.g. organic halogen (OX)) FY 1979
Health effects of disinfectants and disinfection by-products
Direct and indirect additives
Detailed epidemiological studies
ORD RESPONSE
As the results from the previously mentioned and continuing surveys show
which contaminants occur in treated drinking water, the literature on the toxicity
of the most prevalent materials will be reexamined, and, if necessary data are
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lackin;;, selected toxicological studies will be conducted. Acceptable daily
intakes (ADI) will be developed for additional compounds to supplement the
National Academy of Sciences (N'AS) report. Other intakes will be reviewed to
allow for establishing maximum contaminant levels (MCL's) from the ADI's by the
FY 1979 target date.
•Additionally, within FY78 and FY79, the anticipated output of the organics program
of the Health Effects Research Laboratory (HERL) will consist of preliminary data on
the mutagenic and carcinogenic activity of organic mixtures from tap water.
Completed cpidemiological studies give only tentative suggestions to support
reducing organic exposure. In addition, most available data are drawn from onetime
measurements, and coverage of water supplies is not extensive. Specific well planned
studies starting from cancer cases in communities with high rates are now being conducted
and should be completed by FY79 and 80. The drinking water quality will be defined
by botli a chemical analysis and bioassay screening test. Health risk assessment
of these epidcmiological, chemical survey, and bioassay data can provide guideline
limits for several chemicals.
Even the nearly 700 compounds identified so far represent only a small
fraction of the organic chemicals in drinking water. Consequently, efforts are
being made to develop bioassay procedures that are indicative of specific health
effects risks that may be used for drinking water monitoring. Test systems that
currently exist (e.g., Ames test) may lack the necessary sensitivity to work with
unconcentrated waters and have questionable quantitative and qualitative relation-
ships to human health risk. Nevertheless, serious consideration must be given to
new or modified methods to characterize the hazards associated with drinking water
supplies. If such methods can be developed, standardized and practically applied,
they may be substituted for detailed chemical analyses that would arise from
establishing MCL's on individual compounds.
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Statistical analyses of data collected may provide estimates of the possible
occurrence of hazardous concentrations of specific chemicals in relation to
concentrations of some general organic parameter such as organic halogen by
November 1979, just past the target date.
Chemicals added for treatment purposes (direct additives) and chemicals arising
from the distribution system of public water supplies (indirect additives) have been
neglected areas in the past. HERL is currently working with the ODW in designing
protocols for the testing required as a prerequisite to approval of their use in
drinking water. Research is currently underway or planned or both to define
hazards associated with chemicals that have been generally accepted in the past
(e.g., polyphosphates, alternate disinfectants, and organic tin stabilizers of
PVC pipe) .
Reaction products of chlorination-and proposed alternate disinfectants will
be bioassayed by both in vitro and in vivo techniques. Long-term studies will be
conducted on the effects of disinfectants and supplemented with epidemiological
studies when possible by calendar year 1979. Such studies should provide data
useful in assessing alternate disinfection practices as called for by ODW.
In the meantime, other research groups, particularly within the Department
of Health, Education and Welfare, will continue studies on hundreds of organic
compounds many of which have been found in water or food. EPA maintains a ciost:
liaison with these groups by having a representative serve on an Interagency
lexicological Review Committee. Thus National Institutes of Health (NIH) planners
. C t.'T> A ' ,. 1-
3. Monitoring Requirements
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
The analytic needs submitted were in two categories, one related to existing
and proposed organic regulations and the other to longer range requirements. These
Needs and which laboratory is working on them are listed below.
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ORGANIC REGULATION
FUTURE
1) Total Organic Carbon (completed)
2) GAC Criteria 1 compounds (EMSL)
3) Trihalomethanes (EMSL)
4) Appendix A Compounds (62) (EMSL)
5) Disinfectant Residuals
a) Ozone (EMSL)
b) Chlorine Dioxide (Athens)
c) Chloramincs (Athens)
d) Chlorine (EMSL)
e) Iodine
6) Pesticides (6) (EMSL)
1) Non-GC able compounds* (Athens)
a) Disinfectant By-Products
b) GAC By-products
c) Occurrence
2) Identification of GC able Compounds
by non-MS* (Athens)
a) Disinfection By-Products
b) GAC By-Products
c) Occurrence
3) Organic halogen group parameter (OX)
(DWRD, EMSL, Athens)
4) Organic nitrogen group parameter (ON)
5) Specific Compounds (Athens)
6) Frequently occurring Carcinogens
(EMSL)
•7) Bioassay (HERL)
* Particularly those that occur frequently.
ORD RESPONSE
Analytical procedures will be needed in two categories depending on how a
Regulation is written. Research is being conducted to improve the methods for
these two needs:
(1) Monitoring Techniques for All Aspects of a Regulation
Methods write-ups have been provided for total organic carbon and trihalomethanes.
Extramural studies involving two grants should lead to improvements in the measure-
ment of volatile organics by purge/trap and the liquid-liquid extraction techniques
in FY79. Researcli studies have begun on the GAC Criteria 1 compounds with goals
of minimum detection limits (MDLs) of 0.5 to 1.0 Mg/1. A status report on methodology
for 62 Appendix "A" compounds has been provided to ODW. These methodology studies,
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involving methods validation, will be completed in FY79. Methods references or
writeups or both for chlorine dioxide and chlbramines will be available October
1979; methodology currently approved for chlorine, involving the use of DPD color-
imetric test kits, will be critically reviewed concurrently. Interim methods for
the measurement of the pesticides required in the NIPDW Regulations are available
and upper acceptance limits for these contaminants will be established in early
FY79.
(2) Monitoring Techniques for Specific Organics Found to be Widely Distributed
and of Health significance.
Instrumental methodology research will continue on improved techniques for the
measurement of total organic chlorine and total organic halogen, and for the
measurement of organics in drinking water by an automated low cost GC/MS system.
These extramural studies are scheduled for completion in FYs 79 and 80. Methods
research will also be continued on the carcinogens cited in the Federal Register as
recommendation by the NAS that occur frequently; validated methods should be avail-
able in FY79.
A protocol, referred to as the Master Analytical Scheme, will be developed
to permit qualitative and semiquantitative analysis of all organic compounds in
drinking water that will pass through a gas chromatograph (GC able). The scheme,
which can be usud for comprehensive surveys, will be available in Aptii 13SO. Con-
current with the completion of the Master Analytical Scheme will be a report on the
cost effectiveness of various alternatives for establishing the occurrence of
organics in drinking water through chemical analysis.
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Reports will be published in April 1980 and April 1981 summarizing the
development of techniques to identify and measure non-gas chromatographable
organics in drinking water. These compounds are currently ignored as individual
components. Also currently ignored are compounds that cannot be identified from
their mass spectra alone. Other techniques for identification of such compounds
will be evaluated, with the results and identification of the compounds studied
being reported in August-1979.
Results of investigations to improve surrogate methods for "total organic
chlorine" and "total organic nitrogen" will be reported in late 1979. Preliminary
assessment will also be made in late 1.979 of the feasibility of attempting to
•ir.iprove methods to measure disinfection residuals.
4. Control of By-Products from Treatment
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
Trihalomcthane and treatment requirement amendments - November 1978
Disinfection with chloramincs
By-products from GAG - September 1978
Treatment of water plant sludges
ORD RESPONSE
The various analytic surveys have demonstrated that certain organic compounds
persist through rivers, reservoirs, treatment, and distribution systems, while
others are formed during water treatment and occur on a widespread basis. Pilot
plant activities have provided data on the ability of changes in disinfection
(ozone, chlorine dioxide, or chloramines or change in chlorination practice)and
other changes in treatment practices to reduce considerably certain chlorination
by-products.
This work is currently studying the four trihalomethanes that have been shown
to occur widely where chlorination is practiced and are carcinogenic compounds or
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are of potential carcinogonicity and therefore arc in the proposed organic Regulation.
In addition to these smaller scale pilot plant studies, several extramural
large-scale pilot plant and full-plant scale research projects began in FY77.
These projects will help reinforce the findings already available and shed light
on the fate of various organics, not only in treatment, but throughout the entire
system — raw water reservoir to tap.
In summary, although all the daca will not be available by the ODW need date
of November 1978, sufficient information will be available to prepare a Treatment
Manual for the Control of Trihalomethanes. An Interim Guide has already been
written, June 1976. This Manual will help the EPA Regional Offices, the State
Regulatory Offices, and utilities with high trihalomethane concentrations obtain
compliance with the proposed regulation for trihalomethanes.
Treatment of water plant sludge is not currently being researched by the
Wastewater Research Division, MERL, Cincinnati, but they maintain a repository of
information from past studies to be used for guidance.
5. Treatment to Reduce Organic Contaminants
OFFICE OF DRINKING 'WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
i
Control technology regarding removal of organics by using biological activated
carbon
Full-scale demonstration projects to remove organic chemicals from drinking wat«
Emergency response treatment data
Update cost periodically
GRD RESPONSE
The lack of unequivocal health effects data related to organic contaminants
in drinking water will not relieve the Agency's responsibility to act in a prudent
manner to prescribe treatment when a reasonable doubt exists and monitoring is
not practical. Environmental contaminants have already been identified in specific
locations that pose questions related to their potential health effects. Field-
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.scale research projects in conjunction with utilities, and local and State
governments,, will be conducted to study the capability of certain treatment proces.ses
to remove environmental contaminants within reasonable economic limits. Although
Regulations are only proposed at this time, the results of these studies are
necessary to show what the existing technology will accomplish under actual operating
conditions.
The contaminants will be selected for study based on the existing data collected
in the various surveys and in consultation with ODW. This list will be expanded to
fclude additional compounds that may be discovered in additional surveys as
candidates for future control.
Extra-mural research, bench, pilot and full scale, is underway at this time,
awards were made during 1976, 1977 and 1978. Unit processes such as coagulation,
granu.l;ir activated carbon beds, powdered activated carbon, macroreticular resins,
ozonation, aeration, ozonation/ultraviolet (0-/UV), and chlorine dioxide are
being studied. Emphasis will be placed on_large scale experimental applications
of control technology in support of the proposed Regulation for organic chemicals.
Preliminary data on the ability to remove specific environmental contaminants
of concern have been generated. Additional work will refine this type of information.
In all cases, a careful evaluation will'be made on the effect of disinfection
alternatives. Pilot scale studies of ozone enhanced granular activated carbon
adsorption (BAG) have been started in Cincinnati, Philadelphia, Miami and .•••••
Shreveport to determine treatment efficiency as well as the determination of any
undesirable side-effects. Reprogramming of $0.5 million from ODW and $1.0M within
ORD will allow another major plant-scale evaluation to be made of GAC, plus
reactivation starting in 1979. Two to three years will be needed to determine design
criteria and total costs.
An Interim Guide developed from the on-going projects was published in January 1978
to support the Agency's proposed Treatment Regulation using granular activated carbon
adsorption. A Manual for the Control of Synthetic Organic Contaminants will be
prepared if the proposed Regulation is promulgated.
Extensive extra-mural research is being conducted to determine the cost of
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organic removal unit processes. The development and periodic updating of these unit
costs will help the ODW assess the national impact of any proposed regulation.
In-house capability is being developed that will allow the collection of activated
carbon treatability data for a wide variety of organic compounds. The compounds
for test will be selected in conjunction wich ODW. In addition, technical assistance
regarding pilot granular activated carbon column studies will be given jointly with
ODW to help utilities determine the type of carbon and contactor system that would
be most cost-effective for their water and location.
6. Wastewater Reuse
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL"NEEDS
Safety of Waste Water Reuse
Water Reuse Treatment Efficiency and Reliability
ORD RESPONSE
This research program will evaluate the potential health effects associated
with reuse of highly treated municipal wastewater for potable purposes, with the
ultimate objective being to develop the data base to set criteria for such use.
As bioassay techniques are developed in conventional drinking water research,
they can then be applied to the reuse situation. A coordinated effort will be
conducted with EPA's Wastewatcr Research Division, MERL, Cincinnati, in order to
evaluate treatment efficiency and cost in conjunction with the health effects
program. Over the next 5 to 10 years a new 1—mgd system will be constructed and
operated at Denver, Colorado to help implement a scale-up of previous studies
and provide feed stock from the final effluent for life-time animal feeding
experiments as well as other short-term bioassays. The emphasis will be on
testing organic residues.
Resource Distribution for Qrgnnics
A major portion of the drinking water resources are assigned to this category
of organics. Table 1 simply shows that most of the research effort is in the
health effects and treatment areas. At present, there is no intent to make sudden
changes in personnel or money assignments in FY79 or 80. Approximately $577K
of the health effort and $324K of analytic improvement budgets are devoted to
long-range or exploratory studies. On the other hand, the treatment and quality.
assurance projects are considered to be in direct support of regulatory needs.
A special .-illottment of funds ($8 million) for reuse studies was made by Congress
and these have been assigned to the Wactevatar Research Division of the Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory in Cincinnati for management purposes. Health
and water treatment experts of EPA will help in the planning and review of any
reuse project designed to investigate making potable water from wastewnter.
Seve'n million dollars will be given to Denver to help with their $21,000,000 reuse
project, and one million will be used to help a variety of other re-use projects "
in the United States.
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Table 1. RESEARCH RESOURCES
ORCANICS AND DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS
Athens
(Occurrence
& Monitoring)
EMSL
(Monitoring)
HERL
(Occurrence
FY-78
Extra-
In-Housc Mural
W-Y $K $K
1 30 468
0 0 200
25 1,000 1,774
& Health Effects) -. •
MERL
(By-product
& Treatment)
Reuse
Total
17 510 2,450
43 1,540 4,892
Total
$K
498
200
2,774
2,960
6,432
FY-79
In-House
W-Y $K
2 60
0 0
20 800 2
17 '510 4
39 1,370 8,
Extra-
Mural
$K
312
200
,841
,777
130
Total
$K
372
200
3,641
5,287
9,500
FY-80 (Estimate)
In-House
W-Y $R
2 60
0 0
20 900
17 510
- '
56 . 1,470
Extra-
Mural
$K
235
200
2,840
3,232
1,000
7,507
Total
$K
295
200
3,640**
3,742
1,000
8,877**
Note: The $425K planned for the research on the Health Effects of renovated wastewater reuse could be considered
to be largely devoted to organic problems, although it is not included in this table for organics.
Additionally, $7,000,000 will be given to Denver Water Department to help them with'their $21,000,000
wastewater reuse, 1 mgd pilot plant; and $1,000,000 will support a few other reuse projects at other
locations.
*These figures contain $1.5M reprogrammed to supplement large-scale treatment plant evaluations.
"'^'Approximately $5M will be added to this Health Effects work in FY-80 through a special Public Health Initiative.
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B. Inorganics Including Asbestos
1. Occurrence
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
The Office of Drinking Water (ODW) has expressed a need for data on the
occurrence of plutoniura, radon, radium 228 and metals from corrosive water
in drinking water. In addition, the National Drinking Water Requirements call for
a comprehensive review of a number of inorganic MCL's, including fluoride, nitrates,
selenium, lead, cadmium, arsenic, sodium in FY 1979 and national secondary
regulations for corrosion and hardness by January 1979.
ORD RESPONSES
Analysis has been made of water supplied to Interstate Carriers for many years.
Recently substances beyond those in the 1962 PHS Standards or current EPA Primary
Regulations such as socium and lithium hav ebeen measured. Additionally, 82
inorganic constituents have been determined in tap water from 35 areas of the U.S. chosen
to be representative of the U.S. population and surveys have been conducted in areas
where corrosive drinking water is distributed. A mobile laboratory will be stationed
in various utility distribution systems that have mixing problems to monitor for gradual
or sudden changes in 16 different parameters. Although these projects are of
a continuing nature, significant progress will be made by October 1978, and thus
some guidance can be given to ODW about possible needs for inclusion of more
constituents in the Regulations or what the cost to comply will be for
current as well as proposed MCL's. Existing
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data on the occurrence of radionuclides other than those for which standards
have been set will be gathered and supplemented by surveys to determine the
occurrence of plutonium, radon, and radium 228 in drinking water to provide ODW
with guidance about the possible needs for inclusion of these radionuclides in
the Regulations.
2. Health Effects
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
The Office of Drinking Water Operating Plan calls for a variance guidance
for fluorides in September 1978, the administrators recommended MCL's for lead,
arsenic, asbestos, cadmium, and selenium in August 1978, national secondary
drinking water regulations for corrosion and hardness in January 1979, comprehensive
revised primary drinking water regulations for fluoride, nitrates, selenium,
lead, cadmium, arsenic, and sodium in FY 1979, revision of radionuclides and
assessment of cardiovascular disease. In addition, ODW has expressed needs for
health effects data on molybdenium, uranium, chromium (6) versus chromium (3),
studies to evaluate the relative contributions of each contaminant from the
various environmental exposure to total human body burden, studies to determine
mechanisms of action along the dose response curve for each contaminant investigated,
and additional information concerning the antagonistic and synergistic effects
of combinations of waterborne contaminants.
ORD RESPONSES
Current and continuing epidemiology studies are being conducted,
with the cooperation of other Federal Agencies, to establish the relationship of
cardiovascular disease (particularly hypertension of 4200 individuals in 35
areas) and drinking water quality including sodium and 35 other parameters. A
19
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preliminary report will be available in 1978. Additional epidemiological studies
are underway to relate cardiovascular disease, especially hypertension, to
drinking water constituents such as barium, cadmium, calcium, sodium, magnesium,
lithium, iron, lead, zinc, 'and copper. The impact of various combinations and
concentrations of calcium, magnesium, lead, cadmium, and sodium in water on the
development of cardiovascular disease is also being studied in experimental
animals. The bioavailability of metals such as selenium, lead, and cadmium in
hard and soft waters and foods are being compared. Epidemiologic studies on the
relationship between hard and soft water and urolithiasis are also in progress.
These are all long-term studies which will be completed in the next several
years but some data will be available in FY 1979.
Intake and human body burden are being determined for corrosion products in
drinking water as well as arsenic and selenium. The epidemiology studies of
arsenic and selenium will include health effects parameters. Preliminary
reports on barium, arsenic, and selenium will be available by July 1978, but
most work will take another year or two to complete.
Toxicological studies are being conducted on lead to determine whether
central nervous system development is delayed at blood lead levels in the normal
human range. The effects of organotin compounds used as stabilizers in NSF
approved PVC pipe are being investigated and the effects of molybdenum on
exoerimental animals and humans are being studied in relationshio to gout. A
20
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report reviewing the possibility of recommending a drinking water standard for
molybdenum should be completed by December 1978. The relationship of abnormal
physiological behavior and water quality is also being studied with constituents
such as cadmium, lead, chromium, selenium, and manganese included. Additional
studies on nitrates in'drinking water are being conducted to determine the
relationship of various cancers to nitrate concentration and to determine if
methemoglobinemia still occurs in high nitrate areas of the U. S. These should
be completed in FY 79.
Asbestos animal feeding studies to determine if asbestos is a carcinogen
when ingested have been jointly designed with Department of Health, Education,
and Welfare and started in 1977. EPA will sponsor about 10 percent of this
contract research. Considerable time and effort went into selecting the research
objectives and test protocol so that both industry and regulatory officials were
satisfied. This work will, however, still take 3 to 4 years to complete, so
some small, short-time animal experiments are also being sponsored to develop
some insight as to the consequence of fiber length and mechanism of asbestos as
a co-carcinogen. Tritium tagged fibers will also be used to understand the
extent of adsorption and distribution in rats. Several epidemiological studies
are being conducted to determine if asbestos from natural erosion, mining
operations, and asbestos-cement pipe is a contributing factor in increased
cancer rates. Preliminary results were available in 1977 from Connecticut
where exposures are low (less than 1 million fibers per liter) and the final
21
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report will be completed in 1978. Reports from California and Florida where
exposures are in the 1-10 million fibers per liter range will be available in
early 1979. Updated reports on Duluth and new data from the Pacific Northwest
where exposures reach 100 million fibers per liter will be available in 1980.
Cell line testing of asbestos fibers used in the feeding study and other experiments
will provide some insight into the mechanism of action and carcinogenic potential.'
A cooperative study with the National Institute of Dental Health is now
underway to determine if increased fluoride levels from other environmental
sources has significantly affected fluoride intake to warrant a revision of the
current fluoride standard. Dental mottling will be studied and results are
expected in approximately two years.
One epidemiologic study of drinking water and cancer will include radionuclide.
data, however, this may not be sufficient to determine if a revision for radionuclide
regulations is necessary. Additional studies,must be carried out on specific
radionuclides, and it is expected that other agencies or groups within EPA that
have this expertise will conduct these studies.
All of these studies will aid in improving the basis for a factor of safety
associated with any standard which in turn will help point out the treatment
research studies that should be conducted to minimize the cost for implementing
the Regulations.
22
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3. Monitoring Requirements
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
ODW and the REgions expressed a need for research in the analytical
area including sample collection, precision, accuracy and methodology. WhSnever
standards are set appropriate research on sample collection, shipping and methodology
should be done.
ORD RESPONSES
Methods are available for measuring the inorganic constituents in the
Interim Primary Regulations, but many of these can be improved upon as to cost
or ease of use. Multi-element analysis, for example, is one approach that will
help Central Laboratories to handle many more samples in a given time. Some of
the methods being studied include spark source mass spectrometry, inductively
couple plasma emission spectrometry, and instrumental neutron activation analysis..
Within FY79 EMSL will provide precision, accuracy and sensitivity data for
the methods for analyzing the inorganics in the Interim Primary Drinking Water
Regulations.
Efforts are also being made to improve sample collection, shipping, storage,
and preparation for asbestos fiber counting. Although a committee review and
decision was made in July 1976 to accept a certain method for fiber counting
with the electron microscope, work will continue to improve the ease, accuracy,
and expense of rapid screening methods as well as electron microscopy.
4. Control of By-Products From Treatment
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
ODW expressed a need to understand and control the treatment of water so
as to minimize the deterioration of quality during distribution to the consumer's
tap. Lead and asbestos fibers from pipes are of particular concern.
23
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ORD RESPONSES
Many chemicals are involved in reducing the concentration of inorganics of
particulates such as asbestos. Careful review is being made as to shift in
valence state or organic coraplexing with inorganic ions during treatment so we
do not create a new problem while trying to solve the original one. Polymers
used to improve coagulation or filtration is one example being investigated.
Still another example is the reduction of radium, iron, manganese, and calcium
by zeolite softening, which in turn increases the concentration of undesirable
sodium. Sulfates are frequently added during treatment and many processes such
as ion-exchange or reverse osmosis create concentrated residues that have been
ignored in the past, as far as a water treatment cost. All of these possibili-
ties are now being considered as an integral part of any treatment system
designed to help meet regulations economically and not cause other adverse
environmental impact.
5. Treatment to Reduce Inorganic Contaminants
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
ODW requested that a cost effective method be developed to remove
several inorganic contaminants from drinking water, so as to enable small water
systems to meet the regulation; The more troublesome ones are nitrate, arsenic,
fluoride, radium and selenium. There is also a continuing need to understand
and control corrosion byproducts by applying appropriate chemicals and treatment
before distribution.
ORD RESPONSES
Bench- and pilot-scale studies are in progress or have been con-
cluded on the following inorganic contaminants: arsenic, cadmium.
chromium, barium, selenium, lead, mercury, and nitrate-nitrogen. The
24
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thrust of these studies is to determine the effectiveness of conven-
tional water treatment unit processes alum and iron coagulation, lime,
and excess lime softening, powdered and granular activated carbon and
ion-exchange—on the removal of these contaminants. While no one unit
process is effective for removing all contaminants, good success has
been obtained with one unit process or another for each of the con-
taminants studied with the exception of the oxidized form of selenium
which is poorly removed by any unit process thus far studied. Future
work will attempt to focus on treatment technology that small water
utilities could use, especially to reduce fluoride, arsenic, nitrate,
and selenium. These studies will not be completed in 1978, but they
should have progressed far enough to help support a revised treatment
manual for certain inorganics. Field testing and cost analysis are
still a necessary part of future work that will be reported after full-
scale evaluation.
In addition, research has started to determine if the degree and
type of treatment can be managed well enough to prevent deterioration of
inorganic quality during distribution and storage. This pertains to
asbestos-cement and plastic pipe as well as metal pipes. Reports are
out on the issue of vinyl chloride migrating from polyvinyl chloride
(PVC) pipe and work is continuing on A/C pipe and metal pipes such as
lead and galvanized iron.
One pilot-scale research project on asbestos removal is complete.
The extra-mural research conducted in Duluth, Minnesota during the late
winter and early spring of 1975 demonstrated the effectiveness of
25
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multiple media granular filtration for the removal of amosite-type
asbestos fibers provided that the proper combination of coagulants and
polyelectrolytes were used ahead of the filters. 'A demonstration grant
was awarded to Duluth to verify these findings on a full-plant scale
test and continue the research attempting to demonstrate even more
effective removal particularly of the chrysotile-type fibers. The plant
went into operation early in 1977. In addition, Seattle, Washington has
a research grant to study fiber removal in an area where the fibers are
almost exclusively chrysotile rather than the majority being in the
amphibole class as was the case in Duluth. It has already been demon-
strated that zeolite exchange, reverse osmosis, and conventional treat-
ment are successful in removing some radionuclides such as radium. ODW
expressed a need for evaluation of the health trade-off of removing
radium with a treatment technique that will increase sodium levels in
drinking water. This issue can be addressed as additional health ef-
fects data are accumulated for sodium.
Resource Distribution (see Table 2)
In FY-78, approximately 30 percent of the total funds were devoted
to this category of inorganics and asbescos with about 65 percent of
the inorganic portion assigned to health effects. There are-no long range
exploratory projects in the treatment and quality assurance areas. How-
ever, 23 percent of total funds involve exploratory studi.es in i.he health
and analytic improvement area.
26
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Table 2. RESEARCH RESOURCES
INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS INCLUDING ASBESTOS
Location
HERL-Cinti.
(Occurrence and
Health Effects)
MERL-Cinti.
(Treatment and
Distribution)
Athens
(Occurrence
and Monitoring)
Total
FY-78
Extra-
In-House Mural
W-Y $K $K
19 760 2,215
25 750 768
1 30 300
45 1,540 3,283
Total
$K
2,975
1,518
330
4,823
FY-79
In-House
W-Y $K
15 600
17 480
1 30
33 1,110
Extra-
Mural Total
$K $K
1,750 2,350
699 1,179
415 445
(7Y-80 (Estimate)
In-House
W-Y $K
14 560
13 510
1 30
2,864 3,974 28 1,100
1
Extra-
Mural Total
$K $K
1,790 2,350
1,025 1,535
390 520
3,305 4,405
Note: Cost analysis studies are also performed for all contaminants including inorganics, but they are not
included in this table.
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C. Microbiological Contaminants
OFFICE OF DRINKING WATER AND REGIONAL NEEDS
The proposed regulations for the Control of Organic Chemical Contami-
nants in Drinking Water address several issues that could have a direct
effect on the microbiological quality of drinking water. These include
a) the use of modified water treatment techniques including-activated carbon
and changing the point of disinfection, b) the use of alternate disinfectants
to chlorine such as chlorine dioxide, ozone, and chloramines, c) application
of the standard plate count as a means of evaluating changes in the sanitary
quality of water, and d) how all of these factors might be integrated to
effect the overall quality of water.
Based upon these issues, short term research needs have been identified
by the Office of Drinking Water and are being addressed in this research
strategy document. The needs include a health risk evaluation of proposed
treatment modifications to minimize organic content in water, the microbial
impact of alternative treatment methods to control organics, choice of
disinfectant, standard plate count as an indicator of water quality, and
the significance of microbial toxins. This research should be accomplished
within six months to one year.
Increased longer termed emphasis should be placed upon the environmental
factors, control through treatment, and identification of etiological agents
in waterborne outbreaks cf gastroenteritis.
ORD RESPONSE
1. Occurrence
Limited surveys conducted by the Agency, using the best avail-
able analytic procedures, have not recovered virus from water adequately
treated for drinking and cooking purposes. They have, however, shown that
28
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viruses are present at water plant intakes. A report on the variation
in viral numbers with seasons and on the ratio of coliform to virus in
source and in finished water will be available in 1979. Pending the
development of pilot' plants for the direct production of drinking water
from wastewater, studies will be initiated with the most sensitive methods
available to determine the presence of pathogenic microorganisms in these
waters. A two year project is being conducted to evaluate (in various
geographical locations) animal survey and filtration methods of identifying
water systems which contain Giardia cysts in the raw or treated water. This
study will be completed in 1980. Raw and treated waters from several sites
are being investigated for the occurrence of Yersinia. The potential for
drinking water to transmit drug resistant coliforms will be examined through
surveys of water supplies for these organisms.
Surveys are being made of distribution systems where biologic growths
may cause accelerated corrosion. Another field study involves investiga-
tion of the effectiveness of disinfection in cross-connection control.
Initial reports from grantees on these projects and from in-house work
will be available in 1979.
The measurement of endotoxin activity correlated with microbial and
chemical parameters in distribution systems, especially those with open
finished water reservoirs, is being investigated. Endotoxins from algae
will be biochemically characterized and compared with bacterial endotoxins.
The research project, which is to be completed in 1979, should yield
relationships describing limits for endotoxin activity and methods of
control.
29
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2. Health Effects
Waterborne outbreaks of infectious diseases are investigated in
cooperation with the Center for Disease Control with the objective of
identifying the etiological agents in water, determining the route of
entry and recommending corrective action to prevent reoccurrence. Results
of these investigations arc periodically reported in established CDC publi-
cations, ORD Quarterly Reports as well as the open scientific literature.
Improved surveillance and reporting of outbreaks can be achieved through
application of an existing State program grant mechanism promulgated under
the Safe Drinking Water Act. A pilot program, which includes assignment of
an investigative team to a State, is under consideration for 1979 to inves-
tigate consumer complaints, monitor bacteriological quality, and conduct
epidemiological studies. The pilot program may also include in-depth
surveillance of water quality and disease in community water systems that
are granted a variance from the turbidity MCL.
Clinical cases of yersiniosis are being epidemiologically investigated
to determine the significance of drinking water in transmission of the
causative organism. A finaL report will be available in 1980. Pending
development of suitable methodology, the occurrence and health effects of
enterotoxigenic E. coli in drinking water will be determined. Speciation
of organisms present in drinking water will be effected in order to deter-
mine the non-pathogen vs. pathogen populations and the potential risk to
health of these organisms.
The number of viral particles required to product an infection is
an important factor in evaluating the waterborne viral health risk. Studies
are ongoing in human and animal models to determine the minimum dose of
virus needed to produce infection. Final reports on two studies will be
available in 1979.
30
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3. Monitoring Requirements
The concept of using indicator organisms instead of measuring
for several or nearly all pathogens in water is frequently challenged, so
considerable effort is being directed to evaluate the efficacy of the coli-
form test. Exploratory research on a surrogate indicator for viruses in
water is needed. Several projects are on-going to determine under what
field conditions interfering organisms or turbidity can prevent coliform
growth and the significance that stressed organisms and regrowth potential
have for water supply. A low cost, simple methodology for turbidity
monitoring should be developed. Others are concerned with rapid bacterial
change during shipment of samples to the laboratory. A report on bacterial
quality changes during sample aging will be available in 1980.
Research is needed to develop a bacteriological sampling frequency
model that is more responsive to. types of treatment and distribution system
geometry. Several sampling frequency models will be available by FY-80
for field testing. The concept of a sample "presence-absence" test for
coliforms in potable water needs to be evaluated as an alternative to
quantitative coliform measurements. Additional research is required to
investigate the analysis.of large sample volumes (500 ml, one liter or
greater) for coliforms and to evaluate the effect of statistical variation
in coliform counting procedures upon the MCL from 0 and 5. An interim
report will be available within two years after funding.
The standard plate count procedure will be evaluated as a complement
to the coliform test. If and when chlorine or disinfectant residuals are
accepted as a substitute for some coliform determinations, field studies
will be necessary to evaluate this alternative. Alternative indicators
(acidfast bacteria and yeast) of disinfection efficiency that parallel viral
resistance are being explored through extramural research. A report on a
31
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feasibility study of these special indicators was completed in July 1978.
The regrowth potential of acid fast bacteria in water treatment, storage,
and distribution will be investigated in a field and laboratory study
scheduled for 1980 initiation.
A better test for fecal contamination is necessary- for ground waters
that are not disinfected. Other bacterial criteria, including fecal coli-
form, fecal streptococcus, and standard plate count, are being explored and
the rural water supply survey will be studied closely for clues. The national
statistical assessment of rural water conditions will be completed in 1978
and analysis of data for further studies will be completed in 1979.
Since excessive densities of non-coliform organisms in finished water
frequently interfere with coliforra detection by standard methods media,
research must be directed towards development of an improved, more selective
medium for total coliform analysis. An interim report on medium development
is scheduled for 1981. A quicker .response for bacterial results has been
a long-standing, high priority goal which is receiving continued research
attention. Two in-house approaches to rapid detection methods will be com-
pleted in 1978.
The quality assurance of microbiological methods is a continuing
research oriented program to support enforcement and monitoring requirements
of the Safe Drinking Water Act. These activities include development of
the EPA microbiological methods manual, creation of a laboratory certification
guide, production of reference samples for evaluation by 1980, and preparation
of a collaborative testing protocol for coliform procedures to be available
by 1981. An ongoing equivalency testing program for alternate procedures,
supplies and equipment will be carried out.
32
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A standardized method for the recovery of viruses from drinking water
has been included in the 14th edition of Standard Methods for the Examina-
tion of Water and Wastewater. Significant limitations in the method are
recognized and studies, are being conducted in an effort to improve the
efficiency, sensitivity, and viral spectrum of the recovery procedures. . Interim
reports of ongoing efforts will be available in 1979.
Major limitations of virus recovery procedures include the absence
of a cell culture system for isolating the viral agents of infectious hepatitis
and acute iirfectious, nonbacterial gastroenteritis. Studies are being conducted
in an effort to develop such cell systems as well as other methods that will
determine the presence of these disease agents in clinical specimens or water
samples. Interim reports of the results of these studies will be available
in 1979.
Methods for the concentration, detection, and identification of Giardia
cysts in water are a high priority research activity that has been the basis
for a tentative standard method to be included in the 15th edition of Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. A final report on the
evaluation of this procedure is due in 1979. The suitability of yeasts as
as a surrogate indicator for Giardia is being investigated in studies with
drinking water samples and wild animal fecal samples.
4. Control of By-Products from Treatment
Use of GAG filtration as a treatment technique for reduction
of organic chemicals may contribute to proliferation of microorganisms and
microbial by-products. Deep bed carbon filters (6 ft.) are being monitored
for identification of microbial populations, toxins and for toxicological
evaluation. In addition, filters are being dosed with anatoxins of known
33
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toxic algal cultures to determine treatment efficacy. This short-term
anticipatory research should indicate whether additional study is necessary.
Studies are also being done on household water treatment devices to identify
and characterize changes and persistance in microbial populations.
5. Treatment to Reduce Microbiological Contaminants
The effects of virus aggregation on disinfection by chlorine and
factors which influence virus aggregation -are being investigated. An EPA
final report on a project completed in December 1976 as well as several
subsequent publications on this subject in the technical literature are
available. The final report on the current project will be available in
November 1979. This report will also include the results of further study
on the chlorine resistance of polioviruses that have been isolated from drink-
ing water supply and found by others to possess a high degree of chlorine
resistance. A final report on another study of differences in chlorine
resistance of enteroviruses will be available in August 1978. Another project
on disinfection resistance of naturally occurring enteroviruses will be com-
pleted in October 1978. Disinfection studies on infectious hepatitis A
virus are being initiated in July 1978, and an interim report will be avail-
able in FY-79. Disinfection research on Yersinia enterocolitica amd gastro-
enteritis virus(es) also will be initiated in FY-79.
Extramural research is being conducted to evaluate UV, ozone, and
chlorine as disinfectants for small water systems. A final report on one
field study will be available in August 1978. A field evaluation of
disinfection efficacy and microbiological quality at package treatment
plants using chlorine and chlorine dioxide will begin in 1979. In 1978,
a study will be initiated to determine the efficacy of short term free
34
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residual chlorine and chlorine dioxide will begin in 1979. In 1978, a study
will be initiated to determine the efficacy of short term free residual
chlorine followed by chloramine for disinfection with reduced trihalomethane
formation. A field study of alternative disinfectants and other unit processes
using source water of barely acceptable bacteriological quality also is in
progress to fully evaluate the extremes of viral and bacterial pollution that
may be encountered. This project will be completed in December 1978. An
interim report is available to guide ODW regarding the effectiveness of
chlorine dioxide and ozone as well as the usual unit processes. In addition
to the alternative disinfectants currently being studied, others, including
iodine, bromine, silver, ionizing radiation, and natural U.V. radiation, are
being considered for further research but specific projects have not yet been
delineated.
Success in development of Giardia excystation methodology has made it
possible to conduct cyst disinfection studies on this organism. These studies
will be initiated in August 1978 and preliminary information will be available
in FY-79. Pilot plant filtration studies on Giardia cysts should be completed
by December 1978. Laboratory and field studies on cyst removal by other
water treatment processes were initiated in June 1978.
Disinfection research related to the turbidity MCL involving chlorine,
chlorine dioxide, and ozone is in progress. These studies are planned for
completion by December 1978, and an additional project involving chloramines
will be initiated in August 1978. The distribution system residual aspects
and coliform test problems related to the turbidity MCL are being studied
through a series of field studies in various geographical areas at locations
where such problems are likely to occur. Although the results of several of
these studies will be availabe in 1978, a realistic date for fulfilling program
requirements is December 1979.
35
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Resource Distribution (See Table 3)
In FY-78, about 12 percent of the total funds were assigned to
microbiological projects. Somewhat over a half of the $1,930 was spent on
treatment and analytic improvement, but the health effects resources were
greatly augmented by funds from the water pollution contro-1 research programs
because of the similar needs. A majority of the funds support extra-mural
projects. The personnel assignments have been the same for several years
and will remain so in the near future.
About 17 percent of the $1,930- is spent on long-range exploratory work,
essentially all in the health effects area.
36
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Table 3. RESEARCH RESOURCES
MICROBIOLOGICAL CONTAMINANTS
HERL
(Occurrence and
Health Effects)
MERL-DWRD
(Monitoring and
Treatment)
Total
FY-78
Extra-
In-House Mural Total
W-Y $K $K $K
15 600 150 750
12 360 820 1,180
27 960 970 1,930
FY-79
Extra-
In-House Mural Total
W-Y $K $K $K
12 480 420 900
12 . 360 820 1,180
24 840 1,340 2,080
FY-80
Extra-
In-House Mural Total
W-Y $K $K $K
13 520 380 900
12 360 820 1,180
25 880 1,200 2,080
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D. Groundwater Research Plan
Approximately 50 percent of the population of the U.S. depends on
underground sources for their drinking water. This constitutes a reliance on
ground water by 80 percent of all public water supply systems and over 95
percent of all rural domestic supplies.
The need for protecting this valuable source of drinking water is clear.
However, for much of the country only episodic information is available on the
extent of ground-water contamination. Ground water contamination comes in many
forms and from many sources. The severity of contamination from these sources varies
from source to source and from State to State. There is at the present time only
limited infqnXpation on which to rank these sources of contamination in order
of importance, evaluate their relative adverse impact on human health, or in many
instances to define feasible pollution prevention and control techniques.
It is against this background that EPA must publish sole source aquifer
guidelines, promulgate underground injection control regulation, describe
means for the States to assume primacy for the underground injection program, and
devise a ground-water protection program.
IN October 1977 a groundwater research plan was sent to the program
•
offices (including Office of Solid Waste Management), the Science Advisory Board,
and other groups. The plan described results to be expected at different resource
levels. At the present level with a program staff of 9 and approximately $1.5 million,
the research program would»joW»centrate on problem .identification and assessment;
methods applicable to a number of pollutant sources. With the increase in program
staff of 5 per year over 3 years for a total of 24 and an increase of $2.8 million
(the option chosen), the research program would develop scientific and
engineering guidelines on which to base source control criteria.
38
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1. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
In 1971 work was begun to assess the Nation's ground-water pollution
problems. Since that time, five reports have been completed in which
ground-water availability, use, and background quality are described for
areas comprising 34 States. In addition, the significant pollution problems
are discussed and placed in priority for each area and suggestions are
offered as to how these problems might be addressed.
Some problems indigenous to one area were found to be nonexistent
in others, but several sources of ground-water contamination are dominant
at a high or moderate degree of severity in each area studied. In all, 19
discrete sources of ground-water contamination have been identified.
2. ASSESSMENT METHODS
In order to provide background information, past as well as future,
milestones are listed. The research plan, "in terms of milestones, for the
development of sampling and analysis methods follows:
Sampling and Analysis Methods
Sampling Equipment for Groundwater April 1969
Investigations
Measuring Subsurface Spring Flows with Dec. 1969
Radiotracers
Ground-Water Reclamation by Selective Feb. 1970
Pumping
Ground-Water Monitoring to Verify Water Dec. 1972
Quality Objectives
Subsurface Biological Activity in Sept. 1973
Relation to Ground-Water Pollution
Investigation of a Technique to Identify Dec. 1977
Sources of Nitrate in Ground Water
39
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Handbook on Sampling Procedures for
Ground Water
Bio-Organic Indicators of Ground-Water
Pollution
The research plan, in terms of milestones, to develop
transformation evaluation methods follows:
Transport and Transformation Evaluation Methods
Fate of DDT and Nitrate in Groundwater
Movement of DDT and Nitrates During
Groundwater Recharge
Study of Reutilization of Wastewater
Recharge with Infiltration Basins
Nitrate in the Unsaturated Zone Under
Agricultural Lands
Groundwater Monitoring to Verify Water
Quality Objectives
Subsurface Biological Activity in Relation
to Groundwater Pollution
Organic Compounds Entering Groundwater
from a Landfill
Evaluation of Existing Groundwater
Basin Management Models
Procedure for Evaluation of Potential
Groundwater Contamination by Hazardous Chemicals
Develop and Test Barriers to Leachate Movement
(MERL-Solid and Hazardous Wastes Rssssrch Div.)
Migration and Attenuation of Leachate Pollutants
Through Soils (MERL-Solid and Hazardous Wastes Res.
Div.)
Pressure Increases Resulting from Well Injection
Oct. 1978
April 1980
transport and
Sept. 1968
Oct. 1969
March 1972
April 1972
Dec. 1972
Sept. 1973
Sept. 1974
Dec. 1977
April 1978
Sept. 1978
Sept. 1979
Sept. 1979
40
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SCIENTIFIC AND ENGINEERING BASIS FOR RECOMMENDED SOURCE CONTROL CRITERIA
WITH AN INCREASE IN PROGRAM STAFF OF 5 PER YEAR FOR A TOTAL OF 24 AND AN
INCREASE IN FUNDS OF $2.8 MILLION FOLLOWS:
Recommended Source Control Criteria
1. Septic Tanks
2. Petroleum Exploration and Development
3. Landfills and Dumps
4. Agricultural Practices
5. Pit, Ponds, and Lagoons
6. Natural Leaching
7. Land Application of Waste
8. Artificial Recharge
9. Water Well Construction
10. Ground Water Development
11. Waste Piles and Stock Piles'
12. Mining - Western
13. Mining - Eastern
14. Accidental Spills
15. Drainage Wells and Sumps
16. Surface Water
17. Highway Salting
18. Disposal Wells
19. Air Pollution
Oct. 1977
June 1982
Aug. 1983
Aug. 1983
Nov. 1980
No Criteria
Dec. 1979
Oct. 1979
Sept. 1979
No Criteria
No Criteria
Dec. 1978
No Criteria
July 1983
No Criteria
No Criteria
DOT
Dec. 1979
No Criteria
It is believed that natural leaching is outside the range of reasonable
and economical control criteria. Surface water and air pollution are
considered the responsibility of others in that they are diffuse sources
and would cease to be ground water problems if their sources of contamination
were controlled. Eastern mining is considered to be beyond the anticipated
41
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resources of this program is that past research in coal mining suggests that
controls to prevent groundwater pollution are not feasible. Criteria for
groundwater development, waste piles and stock piles, storage tanks and transmission
lines, and drainage wells and sumps would be postponed until after 1984.
The anticipatory research portion of the groundwater budget ($500K
and 4 positions) planned for FY79 will concentrate on the area of microbiology,
soil science, sampling and inorganic geochemistry.
Summary of Resource Distribution
The Table 4 shows the distribution of resources as to extra- and intra-mural
projects and principal areas in which ORD is structured to operate — health
effects (Health Effects Research Laboratory in Cincinnati), treatment (Municipal
Environmental Research Laboratory, Drinking Water Research Division, Cincinnati)
ground water management (Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory,
Ada, Oklahoma) and improvement of identification and measurement (Environmental
Research Laboratory - Athens and Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory -
Cincinnati). Health effects will receive about 40 percent of the funds.
Except for groundwater activities, the current plan is to carry out
FY79 and FY80 plans with approximately the same size staff that was available
in FY77 and 78. There are also 18 positions assigned to drinking water research
laboratories (MERL and HERL) by ODW to perform technical assistance for the
Regions and Headquarters. This arrangement plus the presence of a ODW Technical
Support Staff in Cincinnati makes it possible to conduct surveys or quick
process evaluations as needs may arise in the field.
42
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Approximately 28 percent ($1,944 K) of the Health Effects resources
($6,888 K ) and 67 percent of the analytic activities are assigned to long-range
or exploratory research. Virtually all the quality assurance and treatment
improvement projects are designed to respond directly to the immediate needs
of the Operating Program. Thus by adding in $500K exploratory work from ground
water there is a total of about 16 percent of the $15.6M budget devoted to
long range studies.
In addition to the drinking water research budget, $0.72M is allocated
from ORD for the development of a National quality assurance program. The goal
of this effort is to ensure that all potable water monitoring data are sufficiently
accurate, precise, and reliable to meet Agency needs at reasonable cost.
To achieve this goal the quality assurance must: standardize, validate, and
approve measurement methods for official use; develop and distribute reference
samples and quality control guidelines and procedures; conduct interlaboratory
performance tests; develop minimum acceptance criteria and procedures for
the on-site evaluation of laboratories; conduct on-site evaluations of
radiochemistry laboratories; and train and certify EPA Regional on-site evaluation
teams. These activities and outputs directly support implementation of the
National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations.
Late in the planning period for FY79, Congress allotted $8M for
wastewater renovation studies. The Wastewater Research Division of MERL-Cincinnati
will manage this program so it is only footnoted in Table 4, which is designed
to cover the normal drinking water research activities.
43
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TABLE 4. SUMMARY OF PAST AND PLANNED RESEARCH RESOURCES FOR IMPLEMENTING SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT FY78, 79, 80
FY-78
Laboratory
or Study Area W-Y
Health Effects (HERL-Cint.)
Organics 1.9
Inorganics and Asbestosl9
Microbiology 15
Alternate Disir.fect. 6
Re-Use 1
Public Health Initiative -
Sub-Total 58
Treatment & Systems Management
Organics 17
Particulates (lurb.,
Asbestos, etc.) 5
Inorganic 10
Distribution 10
Economic Analysis 6
Microbiology 12
Re-Use
Sub-Total 60
FY-79
In-House
$K
760
760
600
240
40
2,400
Extra-
Mural
$K
814
2,215
150
960
385
4,524
Total
$K
1,574
2,975
750
1,200
425
-
6,924
W-Y
15
15
12
5
1
48
Extra-
In-House Mural
$K $K
600
600
480
200
40
1,920
1551
1,750
420
1,290
385
5,396
Total
$K
2,151
2,350
900
1,490
425*
-
7,316
FY-80 (Estimate)
Extra-
In-House Mural
W-Y $K $K
14
14
13
6
1
6
54
560
560
520
240
40
240
2,160
1,590
1,790
380
1,250
385
4,686
10,081
Total
$K
2,150
2,350
900
1,490
425
4,926
12,241
(MERL-DWRD)
510
150
300
300
180
360
1,800
2,450
138
450
180
475
820
4,513
2,960
288
750
480
655
1,180
6,313
17
3
5
8
5
12
50
510
90
150
240
150
360
1,500
3,277**
249
165
285
355
820
_*
5,151
3,787**
339
315
525
505
1,180
6,651
17
1
5
8
4
12
0
47
510
30
150
240
120
360
. 0
1,410
3,232
200
620
205
200
820
1,000
6,277
3,742
230
770
445
320
1,180
1,000
7,687
Monitoring & Analytic Development
ERL-Athens 2
EMSL-Cinti. 0
Quality Assurance 8
Groundwater Quality
ERL-Ada 9
Headquarters-Management
Research Total 136
60
0
240
270
4,770
740
200
592
1,230
11,799
800
200
832
. 1,500
16,569
2
0
16
14
2
. 132
60
0
480
420
60
4,440
740
200
510
1,580
—
13,577
800
200
990
2,000
60
18,017
3
0
9
15
3
131
90
0
270
450
85
4,585
710
200
455
1,451
19,114
830
200
725
1,901
85
23,669
*In addition to this base of $425, $8 million has been allocated to Water Quality (Wastewater Research Division—MERL) i.
help various wastawater systems to construct and/or operate large pilot plants, so as to study the health effects
of renovated wast=water.
**§0.5 million additional funds were reprogrammed from ODW to supplement treatment studies for removal of trace
organics. 40ne additional million dollars was also reprogrammed within ORD to expand these studies. These are noc shown
in sub-totals. * ' "* "*•
March 1979
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Membership for the Drinking Water Research Committee 1979
Mr. Gordon G. Robeck, Chairman
Coordinator, EPA Drinking Water Research
Cincinnati, Ohio
Mr. Victor Kimm
Deputy Assistant Administrator
Office of Drinking Water
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Ed Hockman
Groundwater Protection Branch
Office of Drinking Water
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Tom Belk
Groundwater Protection Branch
Offfice of Drinking Water
Washington, D.C.
Dr. Joseph Cotruvo
Criteria and Standards Division
Office of Drinking Water
Washington, D.C.
Dr. Arnold Kuzmack
Office of Program Development
and Evaluation
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Patrick Tobin
Office of Drinking Water
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Donald Maddox
Regional Representative
Water Supply Branch, Reg. V
Chicago, Illinois
Mr. William Rosenberg
Office of Planning and Management
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Alvaro Yamhure
Office of Enforcement
Washington, D.C.
Dr. Thomas Murphy
Depty. Assist. Admn. for Air, Land
& Water Use ORD
Ms. Kathleen Conway
Health Effects Division, ORD, OHEE
Washington, D.C.
Mr..Thomas Stanley
Office of Monitoring & Technical
Support/ORD
Washington, D.C.
Mr. William Donaldson
Environmental Research Laboratory
Athens, Georgia
Mr. Jack Keeley
Chairman, Sub-committee for Groundwater
Robert S. Kerr Env. Research Lab
Ada, Oklahoma
Mr. William Galegar, Director
Robert S. Kerr Env. Research Lab.
Ada, Oklahoma
Ms. Jeanie Loving
Research Committee Coordinator
Office of Research Program Management/ORD
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Larry Gray, Alternate Chairman
Office of Air, Land & Water Use/ORD
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Leland McCabe
Health Effects Research Lab/ORD
Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. Richard Bull
Health Effects Research Lab/ORD
Cincinnati, Ohio
Mr. Edwin E. Geldreich, Sub-Committee
Chairman for Microbiology
Drinking Water Research Division
Cincinnati, Ohio
Dr. James M. Symons, Sub-Committee
Chairman for Organic Contaminants
Drinking Water Research Division
Cincinnati, Ohio
-------
Mr. Thomas Padden
Waste Management Div/ORD
Washington, D.C.
Mr. Gunther Craun, Sub-Committee
Chairman for Inorganic Contaminants
Health Effects Research Lab.
Cincinnati, Ohio
Mr. Robert Booth
Environmental Monitoring & Support Lab.
Cincinnati, Ohio
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
/Please read Instructions on tin: reverse before completing
1. REPORT NO.
600/8-79-020
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE
Marrh 1Q7Q
Drinking-Water Research Strategy
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
Office of Research and Development
Office of Water and Waste Management
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Planning 1978-1QKO
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA - 600/00
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This document outlines a broad strategy for research on drinking water, representir
the consensus of a Research Committee composed of representatives from EPA's research,
regulatory program, enforcement and Regional offices. The Drinking Water Research
Committee is one of five committees established as a pilot project to explore the plan-
ning of research and development activities in a committee process. The pilot project
addressed the major regulatory program areas: drinking water; industrial wastewater;
pesticides; mobile source air pollution; and inhalable particulate pollution. This
document is a product of the pilot project. The document outlines areas where research
and development are needed to help fulfill EPA's mission. It describes activities whic
are being or will be undertaken by the Office of Research and Development to meet those
needs. The program is presented in terms of organic contaminants, inorganic contamin-
ants, microbiologicals, and.groundwater protection. Research such as that on health
effects or treatment technology is covered under these four categories. The strategy
will serve as a major basis for detailed planning accomplished each year as part of
EPA's planning and budgeting process. To be responsive to emerging Agency priorities
and research results, this and the other committee documents will be revised at
least annually.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATi Field/Group
Drinking Water (DE)
Drinking Water
Research Planning
Drinking Water Health
Effects
Drinking Water Treatment
Technology
Ground Water Projection
13B
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (This Report/
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21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS /This page/
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22. PRICE
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