-------
ro
180-
150-
120-
Id
01
i-
OJ
« 90-
o
c:
E
r™
QJ
Q
C
•O
60'
30-
6 in.
o—o 18 in
a a 24 in
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
2468
August 1972
Figure 31. Delmhorst meter readings in thermal water irrigated block of filberts at three depths.
-------
•-J
CO
180-
150-
g> 120
90
in
O
01
O
10
O)
60
30
o—o 18 in
24 in
6
8 l6 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
August. 1972
Figure 32. Delmhorst meter readings in cold water irrigated block of filberts at three depths.
-------
U
K
o
o
t:
01
o
s_
o
c:
-a
(O
ce:
ai
+J
nj
u
o
550-
500"
450.
400-
350-
300-
250 _
•£ 200-
150_
100 _
50
Cold
Thermal
o—o Check
17 lb 2\ 2*4 26 2*8 si55 5 lb 11 14 h 18 2! 23 25 28'-. 30 1 4 6~
July August. 1972 " September
Seasonal curves of radial trunk growth of filbert trees (10-12 years old) grown on non-irrigated check
plots and on thermal and cold water irrigated plots.
Figure 33.
-------
Table 4. AVERAGE ACCUMULATIVE RADIAL TRUNK GROWTH MADE BY 10-12 YEAR
., - . t -r
OLD FILBERT TREES IRRIGATED WITH THERMAL AND COLD WAT&ER AS COMPARED TO
TRUNK GROWTH MADE BY NON-IRRIGATED TREES ": *
. !
Irrigation Average accumulative radial trunk
Treatment « growth - 1/5,000 inch2
Cold water 579.6 a •••
Thermal water 505.8 a
Non-irrigated check 169J6 b
z Means followed by different letters are significantly different at 1%
level - Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
75
-------
Table 5. YIELD OF FILBERT NUTS FROM COLD AND THERMAL WATER IRRIGATED BLOCKS COMPARED TO YIELDS FROM
NON-IRRIGATED CONTROLS
Irrigation
treatment
Thermal water
Check
Cold water
Avg. foliage
spread of trees,
diameter - ft
16.2
15.6
16.4
Nut yield/plot2
at harvest-! 0/1 9/72
No. Wt-g
132.2
120.7
96.0
556.2
556.2
461.2
Avg. dry wt (g) plot
January 3, 1973
Gross
452.8
430.0
378.3
Shell
279.9
277. 8
238.8
Kernel
168.0
146.5
134.0
Avg. number/plot
Shrivels Blanks
3.2
8.2
4.0
17.5
18.7
14.0
Plot size 5 X 5 ft.
-------
equal in all treatment blocks in October (Table 4). Average nut yield
was not significantly influenced by irrigation treatments. However,
there was a below average crop of nuts in 1972 because fruit buds were
damaged by an early freeze the previous fall. Perhaps irrigation would
have made a greater difference in production if a heavy nut crop had
existed. Individual nut kernel size was not influenced by irrigation
and the percentage of blank nuts was about the same for all treatments.
Tree trunk growth was increased by the irrigations (Table 4), and after
several seasons with irrigation, yields might be influenced by greater
tree vigor.
A severe cold period with -12°F,occurred in December 1972 and probably
eliminated or greatly reduced the chances for a good filbert crop in
1973. Thus, it will be difficult to judge if the irrigations and extra
growth made in 1972 will benefit the crop in 1973. It can be safely
said that thermal water, which is considered to be a pollutant to rivers,
was not harmful to filbert trees or crop in 1972.
PLANT COOLING
Crops are frequently injured by excessive transpiration during periods of
high temperature and low humidity. Associated high solar radiation re-
ceived directly by the plant as well as that reflected and reradiated
from the soil surface contributes to the high water loss. Even when
soil moisture is adequate, diurnal wilting of plant (caused by excessive
transpiration during hot dry weather) may cause permanent damage if the
condition persists.25 Plant growth rate decreases with increase in
temperature above approximately 88°F for a very wide range of crops
(Figure 34). Sprinkler applied water can be used to create a more
favorable microclimate for plants by lowering temperature through eva-
poration, increasing humidity, and minimizing plant water loss through
transpiration. The more favorable microclimate is induced by applying
light and sometimes intermittent applications of watir during periods
of high temperatures and low humidity.
77
-------
GROWTH CURVE
BASE
TEMPERATURE
OPTIMUM DAILY
MEAN TEMPERATURE
LINEAR RELATIONSHIP
40 50 60 70 80
TEMPERATURE °F
90
100
Figure 34: Plant Growth Rate as, Related to Atr Temperature
78
-------
During periods of high atmospheric stress, flowers and small pods of
snap beans drop from the vine. Applications of .04 to .06 in. of water
per hour from 10:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. during bloom and pod development,
when atmospheric stress was high, resulted in a 22 to 52 percent increase
in snap bean yields.26 Sprinkling reduced atmospheric stress by reducing
temperature and raising humidity and resulted in a greater yield.
Potatoes are benefited by cool temperatures which minimize their sugar
loss from high respiration, a well aerated soil to promote tuber develop-
ment, and conditions that favor low transpiration. In experiments on
muck soil in which light sprinkling was practiced during the growing
season when air temperatures were above 85°F and the relative humidity
below 50 to 60 percent, the yield of No. 1 tubers of the 'Sebago'
cultivar was increased by 44 percent.26
Misting or light irrigations may not be advisable for all crops. The
onion, a warm weather crop, was not benefited by a cooler microclimate
induced by misting. Misting reduced bulb yield by 50 percent.
In review of the possible deleterious effects of high temperatures and
subsequent low relative humidities, the initial plan of operation for
the project included plant cooling and relative-humidity control. By
applying light applications of water during high temperature periods,
relative humidity is increased and temperature decreased. The plant is
then able to maintain turgor, keep its stomates open for gas exchange,
and withdraw the needed water from the soil without undue stress.
Thermal water was used to cool pole snap beans, tomatoes, cabbage,
corn, apples, and peaches at various times during the operation of
this demonstration project.
Procedure
Thermal water was used for plant cooling of pole snap beans, sweet corn.
and a walnut orchard in 1969 and 1970. Over-crop sprinklers were used
79
-------
for vegetable crops and under-tree sprinklers were used in the walnut
orchard for plant cooling. Hygrothermographs and minimum and maximum
thermometers were placed in pole snap bean and sweet corn fields and in
the walnut orchard in 1970 to measure cooling effect of the water.
Temperature and humidity measurements were recorded inside a standard
U.S. Weather Bureau shelter at a height of about 5 ft.
The influence of cold and thermal irrigation water on temperatures
1, 5, 10, and 20 ft above the ground was recorded with the Delta-
temperature system on September 15, 1972. The irrigated blocks were
48 ft wide (east-west) and 218 ft long (north-south). Control, thermal,
and cold water irrigated blocks were separated by two rows of sweet corn
that were 7 to 9 ft tall. Temperatures were recorded by shielded
thermistors near the middle of each block. Non-irrigated check block
temperatures were recorded in an open area west of the irrigated blocks.
Thermal water temperature was 88 to 90°F and cold well water was 56°F
at the sprinkler head on September 15, 1972 (Figures 35 through 38).
Sprinkler heads were 18 in. above ground and water application rate
was about .25 in. per hr.
Some high variable clouds were present during the irrigation and did
influence air temperatures.
Results
Thermal water serves as a cooling agent in two respects: 1) it is
cooler than ambient air temperature on contact with the plants, and
2) it increases the wetted surface area and by so doing increases
evaporation in the plant environment. The heat necessary for evaporation
(539 cal/gm or 971 Btu/lb water vaporized) is drawn from the surrounding
air, plants, and soil.
In July 1969, 86°F was exceeded only 4 times and on these dates the
sprinklers over the pole bean fields designated for plant cooling
80
-------
00
o
VI
01
o
.a
o
0)
1 ft Check, No Irrigation
• 1 ft Cold Water Irrigation
o 1 ft Warm Water Irrigation
•<>-W1nd Speed, 12 ft height
& R. H. Check Area, No Irrigation
• R. H. Cold Hater Irrigation
o R. H. Warm Water Irrigation
Thsrmal Water Temperature - 88-90°F
Cold (well) Water Temperature - 56°F
Application Rate - .25 in/hr
2:00
3:00
4:00
5:00
6:00
7:00 P.M. - DST
September 15, 1972
Figure 35. (Upper) Temperatures one foot above the ground in cold and thermal water irrigated, and non-irrigated
blocks.
(Lower) Wind speed recorded adjacent to irrigated blocks and relative humidity in irrigated and control
blocks on September 15, 1972.
-------
00
ro
90 -
80 -
70
60
en
Oi
O
50 -
Irrigation On
2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30 5:00 5:30 6:00 6:30 7:00 7:30 8:00 8:30 9:00 P.M. - DST
&5 ft Check
•5 ft Cold Water Irrigation
o5 ft Warm Water Irrigation
September 15, 1972
Figure 36. Comparison of temperatures 5 ft above ground in cold water, thermal water, and non-irrigated blocks on
September 15, 1972.
-------
00
CO
TOO-
90-
80-
70-
en
0)
60-
50
A 10 ft Check
• 10 ft Cold Water Irrigation
o 10 ft Warm Water Irrigation
Irrigation On
:^0 3:60 3:30 4:bo 4:^0 5:6o 5:5fl 6:60 6:^0 7:00 7:^0 8:bo 8:30 9:bo P.M. - DST
September 15, 1972
Figure 37. Comparison of temperatures 10 ft above ground in cold water, thermal water, and non-irrigated blocks
on September 15, 1972.
-------
CD
-£»
O)
Ol
100
90-
80-
70-
60-
50
A 20 ft Check
• 20 ft Cold Water Irrigation
o 20 ft Warm Water Irrigation
Irrigation On
2:30 3:00 3:30 4:00 4:30 5:00 5:30 6:00 6:30 7:00 7:30 8:00 8:30 9:30 P.M. - DST
September 15, 1972
Figure 38. Comparison of temperatures 20 ft above ground in cold water, thermal water, and non-irrigated
blocks on September 15, 1972.
-------
demonstration were activated as were those in the designated orchards.
A temperature decrease of 4 to 6°F and a relative-humidity increase of
up to 20 percent were recorded in sprinkled areas.
August 1969 was a cool month and temperatures greater than 86°F occurred
only six times. On the last four of these occasions, the pole beans
were not sprinkled because harvest had been completed. The pears,
cherries, and early apples had also been harvested by this time. The
walnuts and filberts had reached full size and the shells were in the
hardening process. Therefore, no plant cooling was attemped in these
orchards.
The effect of thermal water on temperature in a pole bean field in 1970
is shown in Figure 39. Air temperature was reduced from 90 to 82°F
while the temperature in an adjacent field continued to climb to 92°F.
Immediately after activation of the sprinklers located above the bean
rows, the humidity rose from 40 to 65 percent. In the control areas,
the humidity fell to 32 percent.
Under-tree sprinklers located in the walnut orchard produced air tempera-
ture and humidity changes similar to those recorded in the bean field
(Table 6). No increase in fungus, mold, bacterial infestation, or any
other detrimental effects were noted in any of the crops that were
cooled by the application of thermal water.
The effect of thermal and cold water on air temperature was compared
with each other and with temperatures in a non-irrigated area on Septem-
ber 15, 1972. One-foot-level air temperature in the check block at
5:30 p.m. (Figure 35) was 82.5°F and at 6:00 p.m. had dropped to 68°F.
By 6:30 p.m., the temperature was back up to 75°F. This temperature
fluctuation was caused by a passing cloud. When the check temperatures
dropped, there was a corresponding rise in relative humidity.
Wind speed also contributed to some temperature fluctuations. Wind
speed was recorded 12 ft above the soil surface and ranged from about
85
-------
ioc ;-
CO
OT
0"00
- - - Te.-pera'.u-e of Cooled Field
1000 TOO 1200
"2 of Uncooked Field
0 '1400
Time of Day
July 1?, 1370
1 500
1600
7700
1803
Field
Humidity of Cooled Field
Figure 39: Plant Cooling with Thermal Water in Pole Bean Field.
-------
Table 6. PLANT COOLING WITH THERMAL WATER IN WALNUT ORCHARD
Date
August 10
August 12
August 14
August 15
Maximum Air Temperature
(F)
Minimum Relative Humidity
Normal
ambient
95
86
82
89
Cooled
orchard
85
80
76
80
Normal
R.H.
21
21
30
20
Cooled
orchard
48
47
53
47
87
-------
.5 to 2.5 mph. Wind was from the west and southwest during the irriga-
tion period. At 4:00 p.m. wind speed increased to an average of about
2.5 mph.
Temperatures in the irrigated block dropped relatively more than in the
control area at 4:00 p.m. The increased wind speed probably caused more
rapid evaporative cooling of the irrigation water and depressed tempera-
tures in irrigated blocks (Figure 35).
-i
Temperatures at the 1 ft level were near 90°F in all blocks before the
irrigation was started. Shortly after irrigation started (4:00 p.m.),
temperatures in the cold and thermal water blocks dropped 15 to 20°F
at the 1 ft level. Control temperatures dropped about 1°F. By 4:00 p.m.
relative humidity reached 20 to 25 percent higher than in the non-irri-
gated control block at the 5 ft level.
One foot level temperatures in the thermal water block tended to be
slightly cooler and humidity slightly higher than in the cold water
block.
Temperature fluctuations and differences between irrigated and non-irri-
gated blocks were not as great at the 5 ft level as at 1 ft (Figures 35
and 36). Temperatures in the thermal water block were about 11 to 12°F
cooler, and cold water block temperatures were 6 to 8°F cooler than in
the control block through most of the irrigation.
The influence of increased wind at 4:00 p.m. and the clouds about 6:00 p.m.
on 5 ft level temperatures can be seen in Figure 36, but the temperature
depressions are not as large as occurred at the 1 ft level.
The cloud influence on 10 ft level temperatures at 6:00 p.m. was not
detectable (Figure 37). Temperature differences among blocks were not
large or consistant at the 10 ft level. Temperatures at the 20 ft level
tended to be warmer above the irrigated plots than above the control
block (Figure 38).
88
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SECTION V
UNDERSOIL HEATING
Recent experimentation with undersoil heatinq has indicated that signi-
ficant increase in plant growth can be realized with relatively small
increases in soil temnerature. Boersma27 found that soil heatinq had
significant effects on the yield and maturity of several crons but
concluded that long-term studies must be made to determine the relation-
ship between soil temperature and other variables involved in nlant
production. Much of Boersma's work was carried out with heating cables
spaced 6 ft apart and 3 ft deep.
An underground thermal water pipe grid system was a logical combination
with warm water irrigation since the hot water would be available at
each distribution point where above ground irrigation lines are attached.
For this project, a pilot clot of aDoroximately two acres was chosen
to demonstrate the field use of thermal water. Figure 40 shows the
area in which an underground thermal water pipe grid system was in-
stalled. It was hoped that the effect of heated soil on extending the
growing season, accelerating germination of seedbeds, and increasing
yields could be demonstrated under field conditions. In addition, this
is an economically attractive method for utilizing another portion of
the warm water effluent that will become increasingly available as more
power plants are put on stream.
DESIGN INFORMATION AND ASSUMPTIONS*
1. Temperature--The following temoeratures were selected for heat
transfer calculations:
* This section is derived from sources listed in Soil Heatinq Literature
Survey on pages 102 and 103.
89
-------
IQ
O
*>•«
AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF THERMAL WATERS
Figure 40. Location plan
-------
a. Mean low air temnerature at Springfield, OR, during February
(the earliest one might expect to plant seed is 35°F).
b. Optimum seed germination temperature ranges from 53 to 59°F
with an average of 56°F.
c. Maximum soil temoerature at 18 in. below soil surface to be 84°F.
d. Soil surface temperatures will not vary more than 2°F at anv
point above the pipe grid system to obtain the best practical
uniform growth.
2. Soil—The soil in the 2-acre olot selected for the demonstation is
sandy loam.
3. Thermal conductivity of soil (kg) is 1 Btu ft/ft2 hr °F.
4. Hot water effluent temperature is 100°F ± 10°F.
5. Pipe grid system depth~24 in. below soil surface.
6. Water supply—Installation of tie-in to be located in the main
water supply header near the 2-acre plot where the pressure head
is approximately 100 psig.
Selection of Pipe Material
Aluminum, galvanized, and PVC pine were investigated as possible materials
for the piping grid system. PVC pine has some excellent nroperties
since it is corrosive resistant and lends itself to easy installation;
however, its heat transfer characteristics and strength are quite in-
ferior to that of any metal pipe.
At higher temperatures, PVC loses fiber strength and, therefore, the
equivalent amqtint of working pressure (Figure 41). Pipe fabricated of
PVC is not recommended for use at temperatures above 140°F.
91
-------
100-1
90 -
80 .
70 -
60 -
OJ
S-
a.
en
c
o
50 _
40 _
X
(O
30 H
TYPE I PVC PIPE
20 _
10
Too"
Tso
70
15"
120
LIQUID TEMPERATURE (°F)
Figure 41: Temperature of pipe as' related to working pressure.
92
-------
The thermal conductivity of PVC is approximately 0.08 Btu ft/hr ft2 °F
compared to 118 for aluminum and 30 for iron. Calculations indicate that
there should be a 26°F temperature drop across the wall of buried
Schedule 40 PVC pipe that carries water at 100°F. In comparison, there
is less than a 0.1°F drop across the wall of the aluminum or galvanized
steel pipe.
Aluminum suppliers recommend a soil analysis before considering the use
of aluminum pipe. Some types of soil (cinders, mine wastes, and others)
are specifically not suitable for the burial of bare aluminum pipe.
Cathodic protection may be required in soils that have a specific elec-
trical resistance lower than 1500 ohm cm. Alclad aluminum pipe does,
however, provide its own cathodic protection for soil burial conditions.
Alclad pipe is 6061 aluminum pipe with a 5 percent thick cladding of
high purity aluminum containing 1 percent zinc. Aluminum piping can be
either joined by Swage-Bond Process or welded.
Zinc-clad steel pipe is the only type extensively used for underground
applications. However, even galvanized pipe will deteriorate rapidly in
some soils and galvanic protection may be necessary for long service life.
Unit material and installation costs for 2-1/2 in. diameter pipe are
approximately $2.20, $1.80, and $0.68 per ft respectively for aluminum,
galvanized steel, and PVC used in an agricultural or farming type in-
stallation. Aluminum and galvanized pipe are most attractive from the
standpoint of heat transfer. However, the extreme differences in require-
ments for corrosion control in different soil areas is a problem for
standardizing a system. Therefore, in order to standardize on a workable
system for all soil conditions and to minimize the captial investment,
PVC was chosen for the demonstration plots.
Heat Transfer
The design basis giving no more than 2°F variation in soil surface
temperature required a grid system of pipes 24 in. below the surface and
93
-------
5 ft apart (Figures 42 and 43). The heat transfer from each pipe was
calculated from the following heat transfer equation for the steady trans-
fer of heat from buried isothermal heat sources to the air:
where:
D4-II
< = Heat Flow. (hr)(ft of p1-pe)
tw = Water Temp., (°F)
tA = Air Temp., (°F)
Rn = Heat Transfer Resistance, (nr)(ftH°F)
0 Btu
The overall heat transfer resistance (R ) can be subdivided into the
following individual resistances:
R = Pipe wall resistance
RS = Soil resistance
R = Soil -air interface resistance
The pipe wall resistance, R , is calculated from the equation:
pw
where:
X = Wall thickness, (ft)
AL = Log Mean Area of Pipe Wall, (ft2)
K = Thermal conductivity of pipe wall, (Btu)(ft)
(ft*)(hr)(°F)
94
-------
01
spacing between pipes
Figure 42. Undersoil pipe grid.
-------
90_
1C
s_
OJ
o
I/)
60-
50-
40
10 15 20
Soil Depth (inches)
Figure 43. Soil temperature vs. soil depth.
I
25
Air Tenperature - 35°F
Soil K = 1 Btu"ft
Hr-ftz°F
30
-------
The resistance of the soil, Rg, is calculated from the following equation
for a horizontal cylinder of length L (ft) and diameter D (ft) with axis
at distance Z (ft) below the surface:
R . _i_ ,„ ,_«_,
5 2irl_K D
k = Thermal conductivity of soil - Btu ft
ft2 hr °F
The soil-air heat transfer resistance is inversely related to the sum of
the natural convection film coefficient (h ) and the radiation coeffi-
cient (h ) multiplied by the Area (Acfl) of the soil-air interface.
i oA
R
K-n
hr> ASA
where:
°F hr-ft
RSA
Btu
Btu
r ^,
c r hr ft2 °F
A = ft2
ASA rt
The area (A-J 1s eclual to tne surface area of the heated plot, that is
the length (L) and width of the soil air interface.
The natural convection film coefficient (h ) is calculated from the fol-
L*
lowing relationship:
hr = 0.27 (t/L)°-25
L»
where:
t = differential temperature between soil and air - °F
97
-------
The radiation coefficient (h ) is calculated from the following rela-
tionship:
(T )** (T )4
0.173 el
100 100
\ r—f
'SA 'A
BI = Emmissivity of the soil surface at Tj
TS« = Absolute temperature of soil surface in °R
T. = Absolute temperature of air °R
Sizing of pipe within the grid must be determined within these para-
meters: seed germination occurring at 53 to 59°F, pipe carrying 100°F
water, and pipe burial 24 in. below soil surface.
Assuming a soil-air interface temperature (tSA), the heat flux was cal-
culated. The calculated heat flux was then substituted in the following
two equations to prove the assumption:
q , *SA q = *SA - 35
RS RSA
The temperature of the soil vs depth and their relationship to effluent
water temperature is shown on Figure 43.
Utilizing a 2-1/2 in. diameter pipe (Figure 44) grid system with parallel
pipes spaced at 5 ft centers (Figure 45) containing 100°F effluent water,
the soil-air interface temperature would be 45°F (Figure 46). The soil-
air interface temperature, however, between and above the pipes would be
44°F.
98
-------
:-
Figure 44. Grid layout for soil heating study
-------
Figure 45. Installation of underground pipe grid system for soil
warming study
-------
45°F Soil-Air Interface
j/ Temperature
>7///////yf//////
Figure 46. Soil-Air Interface Temperature Variation. 100°F effluent water in PVC pipe.
-------
Soil Heating Literature Survey
1. L. L. Boersma. "Nuclear Waste Heat Could Turn Fields into Hotbeds,"
Crops & Soils Magazine, Vol. 22, No. 7, pp. 15 and 16. April-May 1970.
2. A. S. King. "Irrigation-Nuclear Power-Partners in the Future?" Oregon
Farmer, Vol. 93, No. 2; pp. 7 and 8. January 15, 1970.
3. "New Sources of Heating for Agriculture," Canner/Packer, pp. 41 and
42. July 1969.
4. J. R. Barrett, Jr., et al. "Commercial Electric Turf Heating,"
(abstract), Agricultural Engineering, Vol. 50, p. 363. January 1969.
5. J. Bornstein, et al. "Insulated Soil-Heating System to Prevent Forest
Heaving of Field Instrumentation," Journal of Agricultural Engineer-
ing Research, Vol. 14, pp. 100-103. May 1969.
6. D. F. Greenland. "Soil Heat Flow Investigations at Cass, S. Island
High Country,11 New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 12,
pp. 352-66. May 1969.
7. J. M. Walker. "One Degree Increments in Soil Temperature Effects on
Maize Seedling Behavior," Proceedings of the Soil Science Society
Vol. 33, pp. 729-36. September 1969.
8. D. K. Cassel. "Soil-Water Movement in Response to Imposed Temperature
Gradients," Proceedings of the Soil Science Society, Vol. 33, pp. 493-
500. July 1969.
9. N. H. MacLeod and A. M. Decker. "Temperature Control of Soil in Field
Plots: Equipment Design," Agronomy Journal, Vol. 60, pp. 444-5.
July 1968.
102
-------
10. H. Robinette. "Electrically Heated Hotbed," Horticulture, Vol. 47,
pp. 26-7. March 1969.
11. J. R. Barrett and W. H. Daniel. "Turf Heating with Electrical Cables,"
Agricultural Engineering, Vol. 47, pp. 526-9. October 1966.
12. M. G. Cropsey. "Analysis of Soil as a Heat Source for a Heat Pump
Systern," Transactions of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Vol. 9, No. 6, pp. 846-8. 1966.
13. J. R. Gingrich. "Low Cost Method for Maintaining Constant Soil
Temperatures in the Greenhouse," Agronomy Journal. Vol. 57,
pp. 316-317. May 1965.,
14. A. R. Mack and W. A. Evans, "Soil Temperature Control Systems for
Field Plots," Canadian Journal of Soil Science, Vol. 45, pp. 105-7.
February 1965.
15. A. W. Dimock. "A Soil Temperature System Employing Air as the Heat-
Transfer Medium" Plant Disease Reporter. Vol. 51, No. 10, pp. 873-76.
103
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GENERAL PROCEDURE
The thermal water soil heating system was completed and installed in
early May 1971. Figure 47 is a schematic of the project site and shows
the locations of the two blocks of heated soil. The smaller heated
block was 510 ft x 60 ft. A small adjacent area served as a check block.
The large heated block was 120 ft x 470 ft with a 60 ft x 470 ft plot
on the north and south of the heated block reserved for control, plots.
The system consisted of a grid work of 2-1/2 in. diameter black poly-
vinylchloride (PVC) pipe buried about 26 in. deep and 60 in. centers
(Figure 47). The PVC pipes of the larger block were connected to a
6 in. diameter steel inlet and outlet manifold; PVC pipes of the smaller
heated block were connected to 4 in. diameter steel inlet and outlet
manifolds. About 350 and 100 gpm of thermal water were pumped through
the large and small blocks, respectively. All heater soil temperatures
referred to in this report were from the large heated block.
Although the soil heat grids were completed for the 1971 growing season,
there was no thermal water because of a labor strike at the Weyerhaeuser
plant that started in the spring and lasted through mid-summer. Thus,
the first data on soil temperatures and crop responses were collected in
1972.
Platinum bulb temperature sensors connected to chart-type recorders
were placed in tomato rows on black plastic mulched and non-mulched
plots split between heated and non-heated soil during the 1972 growing
season. Temperature sensors on heated soil were placed at 1, 6, 12, and
24 in. depths in a vertical line above and halfway between buried heat
pipes (Figure 48). Temperature probes were also placed in non-heated
control plots at 1, 6, 12, and 24 in. depths.
104
-------
I , pw,.,,.
U- *S .- -I
^- k-VHlSEHSfrJIJ.U^CIM^
Figure 47. Undersoil heating with greenhouse location — plot plan and details
-------
soil surface
Thermal Water
Pipe
O
1 inch •$-
6 inch -$-
12 inch -$-
Temperature Probes
24 inch •$- -$-
O< 2-1/2- H O
Figure 48. Placement of temperature sensors in relationship to buried thermal water heat lines and soil surface.
-------
RECORDED SOIL TEMPERATURES
Soil temperatures are influenced by changing solar load and related air
temperatures. Temperatures of non-heated soil at 6, 12, and 24 in. are
shown in Figure 49. As would be expected, 6 in. depth temperatures
averaged somewhat warmer than 12 and 24 in. depth temperatures during
mid-summer and averaged cooler than 12 and 24 in. depths during the
remainder of the year. Although it is not shown in Figure 49, the
diurnal temperature fluctuation at the 6 in. depth was greater than at
the deeper recorded levels.
•i.
During June, July, August, and the first part of September 1972, soil
temperatures at the 1 in. depth were not influenced by the thermal water
grid. During the spring, fall, and winter months, mean weekly 1 in.
depth soil temperatures of the heated area ranged from .5 to about 4°F
warmer than non-heated soil.
= ' .:• s
Temperatures at the 6, 12, and 24 in. depths,,were modified by the thermal
water circulated through the buried soil heat grid, but temperatures
were not uniform for any given depth in a horizontal line across the soil
heat grid. Soil farthest from the .pipes at any;given depth:was cooler
than soil closer to the heat lines. The coolest soil at any given depth
in the heated blocks was mid-way between the heat lines that were buried
on 5 ft centers (Figure 48). As was the case with non-heated soil,
temperatures of heated soil were warmer during mid-summer than during the
rest of the year.
The warmest 6nn. depth soil temperature, recorded in a vertical line
above the buried heat line, averaged 4.8°F warmer than unheated 6 in.
depth soil temperature for January 1972 through March 1973 (Figure 50).
The coolest 6 in. depth soil temperatures recorded mid-way between
buried heat lines in the heated area averaged 2.8°F warmer than the un-
j,'
heated 6 in. depth soil temperature for the same period of time (Fig-
ure 50). During the warmest part of the growing season from June 22
107
-------
75-
70
45-
6 Inch depth
12 inch depth
24 inr.h di;pth
. — -.^.u
35
—I—
3
Jan
7
Feb
—I—
1
Mar
—i :—r—
5 3
Apr 1972 May
7
Jun
5
Jul
2
AuS
6
Sep
Figure 49. Hem weekly 6, 12. and 24 Inch depth soil temperatures of non-heated control plots: January 1972 - March 1973.
4
Oct
1972
1
Nov
6
Dec
3
Jan
7
FeS
1973
1
Mar
-------
75-
70-
i5"1
60-
£ 55-
50-
Above burled heat pipes
Halfway between burled heat pipes
Control - no ^oll heat
Ho records
7 S 2
Jun Jul Aug
flow of thermal
ter Interrupted
1
Feb
1
Mar
5 3
Apr Hay
1972
6
Sep
1972
I i—
4 1
Oct Nov
6
Dec
—I—
3
Jan
1973
son
-------
through August 9, there was little temperature difference between
heated and non-heated soil at the 6 in. depth.
Temperatures of heated soil at the 12 in. depth were closer to those of
heat lines, and heated soil temperatures were modified relatively more
than 6 in. depth temperatures. The greatest temperature difference be-
tween 12 in. depth non-heated and heated soil averaged 7.8°F for the
recorded periods between January 1972 and March 1973 (Figure 51); the
least difference averaged 3.4°F. From June 28 through August 2, 1972,
there was little difference in non-heated soil and the coolest soil in
the heated block at the 12 in. depth (Figure 51). The warmest soil in
the heated block averaged 6.7°F warmer than non-heated soil during the
same June 28 through .August 2 period. '.-.
The greatest difference between heated and non-heated soil occurred at
the 24 in. depth, closest to the heat lines that were buried at about
26 in. The average temperature difference at 24 in. depth between the
coolest soil in the heated block at a 24 in. depth and the 24 in. depth
in the non-heated soil was 8.4°F (Figure 52).
v., 't.: I
*, •' '
THE INFLUENCE OF SOIL HEAT ON SELECTED PLANTS , '*
Although it is known that yields of rice and greenhouse,crops are
affected by low rootvzone temperature, little is known about the effect
?
of soil temperature: on production of most crops. Low temperature irri-
gation water that in'turn cools the soil is considered to be an important
limiting factor in Japanese rice production, and when cold water from
Shasta Dam was first used to irrigate rice in northern California, the
rice would not mature in time for harvest.28 When cold water irrigation
caused soil temperature to drop below 59°F, greenhouse cucumber plants
ceased to grow and were-damaged.29 Soil temperature lower than optimum
for crops of tropical origin may well occur in the field during the
growing season. '"
110
-------
804
75-
O Above burled heat pipes
^. HalftKy between burled heat nines
• Conti-ol - no sol! Nut
—-— No records
65
- 60-
55-
5 50
Figure 51.
1573
on of mean weekly 12 Inch depth soil temperatures recorded «t two locations In heated soil with non-heated tall: the heated sotl was wanned by circulattnp thcnral water th-o^-i
Z-l/2 Inch diameter plastic pipes burled 26 Inches and spaced 5 ft apart.
-------
100-
95-
90
85
* SC
u
c
•a- 75-
t
2 65
50-
4S-
40-
Directly above buried heat pipes
Halfway between burled heat pipes
Control - no soil heat
No records
—T—
4
Oct
3
Jan
>
Feb
1
Mar
Nov
—i—
6
Dec
3
Jan
7
Feb
1
S T 7 r 2 6
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
1972 . 1972
Ffojre 52. Comparison of mean weekly 24 Inch depth soil temperatures recorded at two locations In heated soil with non-heated soil: the heated soil was wanned by circulating thermal water through
2-1/2 Inch diameter plastic pipes burled 26 Inches and spaced 5 ft apart.
ro
-------
Small changes in soil temperature can cause large differences in growth
of many woody plants, and the roots of these plants may function only in
a narrow range of soil temperatures.30 For example, Lonicera cv. Zabel
and Wei gel a cv. Ferrie produce good root growth over a wide range of
temperature (54-90°F), while Physocarpus opulifolius v. nanus and Ribes
alpinum had narrower optimum soil temperature ranges, 62.5-79°F and
66-80.5°F, respectively.31 Although plant shoots depend upon roots for
water and nutrients, the same soil temperature may affect the develop-
ment of shoots and roots differently. Generally, soil temperatures
that produce the most shoot growth are higher than soil temperatures
needed to produce the greatest root growth.31 Roots produced at rela-
tively low soil temperatures were whiter, more succulent, thicker, and
had fewer lateral roots than roots produced at relatively higher tem-
peratures.
Water use by plants is also influenced by soil temperature. Generally,
the use of water increases as the soil temperature increases.31
The detailed effects of soil temperature on plant growth and development
probably can be determined only in controlled experiments where specific
plant shoot and root conditions are maintained. Any field studies with
soil heat are complicated by: 1) variable field conditions, 2) changing
environmental factors that influence soil temperature throughout a grow-
ing season, and 3) soil temperature variations through the root zone.
Another complicating factor is that crops in these studies had dif-
ferent genetic backgrounds and indigenous habitats and probably did not
require the same root temperature for optimum growth. Also, when a
commercial source of thermal water is used, the temperature will probably
fluctuate (Figure 3) and will not be under complete control of the
agriculturist.
Therefore, the results of these studies with the selected crops reflect
all of the above variables. When detailed information becomes available
113
-------
on optimum root zone temperature for different crops, some facet of
these studies might be changed to alter results for individual crops.
The greatest variation in soil temperature within the heated block it-
self also occurred at the 24 in. depth where the warmest soil averaged
17.4°F warmer than the coolest soil (Figure 52). At depths closer to
i
the soil surface and further from the heat lines, temperature variations
were less in a horizontal line than at the 24 in. depth. Temperature
differences between warmest and coolest heated soil at 12 and 6 in.
depth averaged 4.3 and 1.6°F, respectively (Figures 51 and 50). Gener-
ally, the greatest soil temperature variation at any given depth in the
heated block occurred during the cooler months and the least variation
occurred during the summer months.
The mean weekly temperatures depicted in Figures 50, 51, and 52 for
heated soil are the products of solar input, related ambient air tempera-
ture, other, less well defined environmental factors, and the temperature
of thermal water passed through the soil heat grid.
As can be seen in the various Figures, no constant soil or air tempera-
tures were maintained. The thermal water was used as it was supplied
and probably represents a realistic view of what might be expected with
a larger installation that relied on industrial waste thermal water.
Any crop responses to soil heat that are discussed later in this section
were modified or not modified by the sum total of heat differences
shown in Figures 50, 51, and 52.
Although no actual measurement of temperature drop across the wall of
buried PVC pipe were made, temperature sensors were placed about 1-1/2
to 2 in. directly above the heat lines. An average of 13.2°F tempera-
ture drop occurred between the thermal water as it entered the buried
pipes and the temperature recorded about 1-1/2 to 2 in. from the outside
of the pipe (Figure 53). This temperature drop was greater from July 12
through September 6 than during late September through November (Fig. 53).
114
-------
en
-------
The greater temperature drop during mid-summer probably was due to a
reduction in soil moisture around the pipes, resulting in reduced heat
transfer.
Tomatoes
Procedure—Ferti 1 izer (1000 Ib 10-20-20/acre) was broadcast and incor-
porated with a rototiller into the area for tomatoes on May 4, 1972.
Thermal water heated and non-heated soil were compared as main plots
and replicated twice. Sub-plots consisted of 4 mil black plastic film
mulched and non-mulched rows. Tomato cvs. Fire ball and Willamette
were transplanted into the field during May 9 through 11, 1972, on
2 x 4 ft spacings. Each plant received 1 pt of 9-45-15 fertilizer
mixed at the rate of 1 oz material per gal water.
Delmhorst soil moisture blocks were installed in black plastic mulched
and non-mulched plots on heated and non-heated soil during June 1972.
Moisture blocks on heated soil were placed in tomato rows at 6, 12, 24,
and 30 in. depths in a vertical line with and halfway between buried
heat pipes (Figure 54). Moisture blocks were placed at the same depths
in non-heated control plots. Thermal water applied through sprinklers
was used for all irrigations.
The first mature leaf down from the plant tip was taken for nutrient
analyses from 12 plants per plot on June 22, 1972. Tomato plants were
in early bloom. Chemical composition was determined by Oregon State
University Soil Analyses Laboratory.
The herbicide "Enide" was applied at the rate of 6 Ibs active per acre
on June 28. "Diazinon" insecticide was applied to tomato foliage at
.25 Ibs active per acre for aphid control. "Sevin" insecticide was
applied on July 25 and August 2 at rate of 1 Ib active per acre. The
fungicide "Maneb" at 3 Ibs per acre was applied on August 2 and 26, 1972,
to check Early Blight development.
116
-------
soil surface
6 inch -f +
12 inch -f -f
w -
Thermal Water
Pipe ,
^ 24 inch -<
0 C
Moisture Blocks
or
Tensiometer Placement ,
c -4-
<^ ?-!/?' ^^1 ^)
^ \if _., ^.j \^
30 inch + +
1 _^_ A c' ^^
I^-'V ' >
^T 5' thJ
^ 5 1^|
Figure 54. Placement of soil moisture sensors in relationship to buried thermal water heat lines and soil surface.
-------
The middle 20 ft of each plot were harvested four times between August 26
and October 20, 1972. Fruit from each plot were weighed, counted, and
classed as U.S. No. 1 and No. 2 canning32 and culls.
Results and Discussion—The nutrient level data for tomatoes were not
statistically analyzed, but plants from soil heated plots tended to have
more N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and Zn than plants from non-heated plots (Table 7).
Mn was the exception; plants from soil heated plots tended to have less
Mn than control plants. In general, these trends are in agreement with
other findings.33"37 The lower Mn in plants from soil heated plots is in
contrast to studies with strawberries38 where Mn was decreased by lower
soil temperature.
- r*-'' .•-; - '' -
Soil heat did not influence tomato yields in this study (Table 8).
Black plastic mulch increased yield of No. 1 'Fireball' fruit, but did
not significantly affect yield of 'Willamette.1 There was no inter-
action between the plastic mulch and soil heat or control plots.
Although soil heating has increased tomato yields by 50 percent,39
yield of 'Fireball' and 'Willamette' tomatoes was not increased by soil
heating during 1972 in this trial. Differences in location of test
sites, growing seasons, time of planting, and type and placement of soil
heating equipment probably contributed to lack of yield response at the
project site in 1972.
Sweet Corn
Procedure—The area for sweet corn was fertilized with 96 Ib N and
130 Ib P per acre in 1 ft wide bands spaced on 4 ft centers on June 1972.
The fertilizers were incorporated into the soil with a rototiller.
Sweet corn cv. Jubilee was seeded with a Planet Jr. planter into the
fertilized bands on June 13, 1972. In-row spacing of plants averaged
about 10 in. apart. Rows were 4 ft apart.
118
-------
Table 7. NUTRIENT LEVELS (DRY WT BASIS) IN TOMATO LEAVES OF 'FIREBALL'
AND 'WILLAMETTE' FROM SOIL HEATED AND CONTROL PLOTS
Nutrient Level - Dry Vit Basis
Total N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn,
Treatment % %_ %_ _%_ % ppm ppm
Fireball:
Soil heat 4.59 0.57 3.78 0.43 0.96 37.5 59.0
Control 4.56 0.51 3.62 0.41 0.94 33.0 75.7
Willamette:
Soil heat 4.70 0.65 4.13 0.39 0.82 42.0 55.5
Control 4.61 0.58 4,01 0.33 0.80 34.5 65.5
119
-------
ro
o
Table 8. EFFECTS OF SOIL HEAT AND BLACK PLASTIC 4-MIL FILM MULCH ON YIELD OF 'FIREBALL' AND
'WILLAMETTE' TOMATOES2
U.S. Canning Grades
Fireball
Soil heat
Control
Mulch
No-mulch
Willamette
Soil heat
Control
Mulch
No-mulch
No
Tons/Acre
39.7
42.3
46. 4a
35. 7b
57.5
55.2
52.9
59.8
. 1
Avg. fruit
wt, Ibs,
.22
,24
.23
.24
.33
.31
.32
.32
No. 2
Avg
Tons/Acre wt
13.7
13.7
13.9
13.6
12.5
10.4
11.2
11.7
. fruit
, Ibs
.21
.23
.21
.23
.32
.30
.32
.30
Cull and rotten
Avg.
Tons/Acre wt,
16.0
14.0
14.4
15.6
18.8
17.9
19.6
17.2
fruit
fruit
Ibs
20
21
20
21
27
24
26
24
zMeans within a column in each series followed by different letters differ significantly
at 5% level.
-------
'Jubilee' was planted in soil heated and non-heated blocks (2 rows per
plot, 30 ft long) and replicated four times. Thermal water applied
through sprinklers was used for all irrigations.
Leaf samples were taken from corn plants that had just started to pro-
duce tassels in each plot on August 16, 1972. Samples consisted of
leaf sections about 10 in. long taken from the mid-section of middle
aged leaves. The samples from Replications 1 and 2 were combined and
3 and 4 were combined before they were analyzed for P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn,
Mn, and total N by Oregon State University's soil testing laboratory.
The number of immature ears less than 3 in. in length and ears between
3 and 6 in. long were counted on August 21, 1972, to determine if soil
heat hastened early development.
Corn plots were harvested September 18 through 20, 1972. The fresh
weight and number of ungraded, graded, and immature ears were recorded.
Plant height and weight also were recorded.
A 20 ft section of row was harvested from the center of each plot
September 18 through 20, 1972. Fresh plant and ear weights were recorded
and ears were husked and graded (Table 9.)
Results and Discussion—Nutrient uptake trends for selected elements are
shown in Table 10. Only two samples were analyzed per treatment for each
element, so the data was not statistically analyzed. However, the re-
sults are similar to other findings. Less N was taken up by corn on
cooler control soil than on heated soil (Table 10). N levels in shoots
have been reported to decrease as root temperature decreases in chry-
santhemums33 and strawberries.40 The lower P levels associated with the
lower soil temperature control, plots parallel findings of Knoll35 on
corn. K and Ca uptake was not altered much by soil heat. Mg in corn
has been observed to increase with warmer soil temperatures37 and was
increased by soil heating. Zn uptake was not influenced by soil heat, but
Mn uptake was increased by soil heat as occurred with chrysanthemums.33
121
-------
Table 9. YIELD OF SWEET CORN, CV. JUBILEE, HARVESTED SEPTEMBER 18 THROUGH 20, 1972, FROM THERMAL
WATER HEATED AND NON-HEATED SOIL2
ro
Soil heat
Control
Ungraded ears
with husks
Doz./A Tons/A
l,859a 7.4a
l,368,b 5.8b
Graded ears
minus husks
Doz./A Tons /A
l,473a 5.0a
l,196b. 3.9b
Immature ears
Doz./A Tons /A
387 a 0.3 a
169b 0.2 a
Plant wt.
minus ears
Tons /A
3.4,a
3.5a
Average
plant
Heiqht-ft
8.8a
8.4a
Within one vertical column, values followed by different letters differ at the 5% level.
-------
Table 10. NUTRIENT LEVELS (DRY WT BASIS) IN LEAVES OF SWEET CORN
FROM SOIL HEATED AND CONTROL PLOTS
Nutrient Level -Dry Wt Basis
Total-N,
Treatment %
Soil heat 3.52
Control 3.33
P, K, Ca, Mg, Zn, Mn,
% % % % ppm ppm
0.42 2.68 0.08 0.33 41.5 77.5
0.32 2.57 0.07 0.25 42.0 61.5
123
-------
Sweet corn on heated soil was visually larger than on non-heated soil
on July 20, 1972 (Figure 55), and early ear development was stimulated
by soil heat (Table 11). The soil heated plots averaged 72 percent more
ears between 3 and 6 in. than control plots on August 21, 1972. There
was no difference in the number of ears less than 3 in. between soil
heated and control plots.
At harvest, the weight of ungraded, graded, and immature ears was in-
creased by 28, 35, and 50 percent, respectively, compared to production
from control plots (Table 9). On a number basis, ungraded, graded, and
immature ears were increased by 36, 23, and 129 percent by heated soil
when compared to control plot production.
Overall, soil heated plots produced more but slightly smaller ears
(.66 Ib per ear from soil heat vs .70 Ib per ear from control) than
the controls. There also was little difference in average ear weight
of graded ears from soil heated and control plots (.56 Ib per ear from
soil heat vs .54 Ib per ear from control).
More immature ears were formed on heated soil than on control plots but
the ears did not develop, and there was little difference in weight of
immature ears at harvest (Table 9).
Most of the difference in size of corn plants between soil heated and
control blocks that was noted in July (Figure 55) was not apparent at
harvest. There was little difference in average height and weight of
plants from heated and control plots on September 20, 1972 (Table 9).
Asparagus Crown Planting
Procedure—Fertilizer was broadcast at the rate of 300 Ib 16-20-0, 88 Ib
P, and 40 Ib K per acre on the area for asparagus crowns. "Diazinon"
insecticide was applied at the rate of 9.8 Ib active material per acre
for Symphlan and wire-worm control. Fertilizers and insecticide were
rototilled into the soil.
124
-------
Soil Heat
Control
Figure 55: Sweet corn 'Jubilee' growing on soil heated by thermal water and on
non-heated soil—July 20, 1972.
-------
Table 11. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON EARLY SWEET CORN EAR DEVELOPMENT, CV.
JUBILEE; SAMPLES TAKEN AUGUST 21, 1972
• ',
Average Number of Ears/Plant
Treatment
Soil Heat
Control
Total ears
per plant
1.09a
0.70b
Less than
3" length
0.26a
0.2Ta
Between 3" and
6" length
Q.83a
0.48b
Within one vertical column, values followed by different letters differ
at the 5% level.
126
-------
Asparagus crowns, cv. 500-W, were transplanted into single-row plots
4 ft apart and 40 ft long (4 replications) in blocks of heater and non-
heated soil on May 5, 1972. Crowns were placed 6 in. apart in furrows
8 in. deep and initially covered with about 4 in. of soil. By June 1,
a good stand of asparagus was established and the crowns were covered
with an additional 4 in. of soil.
Asparagus ferns were cut off at ground level on three random 10 ft row
sections from heated and non-heated soil blocks and weighed on Septem-
ber 27, 1972. The fern and stalks were brown and dry at time of cutting.
Although,asparagus spears are not usually cut the second season after
crown transplanting, a single harvest was made on April 12, 1973. The
new asparagus spears from the middle 10 ft of each plot were cut off at
ground level, counted, and weighed.
Two year old asparagus crowns from 10 ft row sections in each plot were
dug, counted, and weighed on April 30, 1973.
Results and Discussion—The first asparagus spears emerged May 10, 1972.
Initial spear emergence and subsequent growth appeared to be more rapid
on heated soil than on control blocks. By October 1972, crowns in
heated soil appeared to have produced about 50 percent more fern growth
than crowns in control soil (Figure 56). Asparagus fern on control plots
was about 2 ft in height while fern on heated soil was at least 3 ft
tall on October 4, 1972.
The weight of asparagus fern and stalks cut in September from soil
heated plots averaged 95 percent more than from the control blocks
(Table 12).
Early spring production of asparagus spears was stimulated by soil heat.
On the harvest of April 12, 1973, the soil heated plots yielded 44 and
127
-------
f 3
00
•1
,
I
SprfU
,
i.
Figure 56: Comparison of first year asparagus fern growth of '500-W on control soil (left) and
on heated soil (right); pictures taken October 4, 1972.
-------
Table 12. WEIGHT OF ASPARAGUS FERN AND STALKS PRODUCED ON SOIL HEATED
AND NON-HEATED PLOTS; SAMPLES CUT SEPTEMBER 27, 1972Z
Average no. crowns Avg. wt (g) of fern and
Treatment per 10 ft of row sampled stalks per 10 ft of row
Soil heat
Control
13.6
13.6
1,581
810
zMeans within columns followed by different letter differ significantly
at 5% level - Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
129
-------
98 percent more asparagus spears than control plots based on number and
weight, respectively (Table 13).
Two-year-old asparagus crowns were dug from heated and control plots in
April 1973. The greater asparagus fern growth produced during the 1972
growing season on heated soil plots apparently resulted in larger crowns,
Heated soil produced crowns that averaged about 40 percent larger than
crowns from control areas (Table 14). The larger crowns should even-
tually produce greater yields of asparagus, but only prolonged experi-
ments will determine the effect of heated soil on long-term asparagus
yields.
Asparagus Nursery
Procedure^--Fertilizer was broadcast at the rate of 300 Ib 16-20-0 and
88 Ib P per acre to the area for the asparagus nursery. 'Diazinon1 was
applied at the rate of 9.8 Ib active material per acre. Fertilizer
and insecticide were incorporated into the soil with a rototiller.
Asparagus seeds of cv. Mary Washington were planted about 2 in. apart
with a Planet-Jr. seeder in rows 4 ft apart in soil heated and non-
heated blocks on June 13, 1972. Each plot consisted of a single row
and was replicated four times.
The crowns were dug, counted, and weighed from the middle 10 ft of row
in each plot on April 5, 1973.
Results and Discussion—The production of 1 yr old asparagus crowns was
not influenced by soil heat (Table 15).
The roots of the 1 yr old crowns were relatively shallow. The soil heat
grid has least effect in the soil surface layers. Therefore, there may
not have been much difference in soil temperature between heated and
130
-------
Table 13. NUMBER AND WEIGHT OF FIRST HARVESTED ASPARAGUS SPEARS (APRIL
12, 1973) FROM 2 YEAR OLD CROWNS PLANTED IN HEATED AND NON-HEATED SOIL2
Avg. no. spears Avg. wt (g)
Treatment per 10 ft plot per 10 ft plot
Soil heat 41.2a 3,420a
Control 28.5b 17,206b
zMeans within columns followed by different letter differ significantly
at 5% level - Duncan's Multiple Range Test.
131
-------
Table 14. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON WEIGHT OF 2 YEAR OLD ASPARAGUS CROWNS2
APRIL 1973
Avg. wt/crown
Treatment -Ibs
Soil heat 0.69a
Control 0.49b
zMeans followed by different letters differ significantly at 5% level.
132
-------
Table 15. WEIGHT AND NUMBER OF ONE YEAR OLD ASPARAGUS CROWNS PRODUCED
ON HEATED AND NON-HEATED SOIL
Treatment
Soil heat
Control
1 year old asparagus crown/plot
Average Average
wt. g number
692
778
52
52
133
-------
non-heated soil in the root zone of the asparagus crowns. Crown produc-
tion might have been modified if different soil temperatures had been
maintained.
Rhododendrons
Procedure--The following six cultivars of rhododendrons were planted in
soil heated and non-heated control areas during the first two weeks of
July 1971: 'Vulcan,1 'Jean Marie,1 'Fastausum Plena,' 'Lord Roberts,1
'Anna Krusckka,1 and 'Old Port.1
Prior to transplanting, about 2 in. of sawdust and hemlock bark were in-
corporated 6 to 8 in.: into the soil. The sawdust and bark were used to
improve the water holding capacity of the soil and to form the lighter
root ball required for plants dug for shipment.
Measurements of plant growth were made about one year after transplanting
on July 19, 1972. Height was measured from soil surface to bud tips on
four axes per plant. The maximum and minimum plant spreads were measured
on the same plants that were used for height determinations. The cultivar
blocks of rhododendrons on heated and control soil were not replicated, so
height and spread measurements were made on 10 random plants per variety
from heated and control soil blocks. The average values are in Tables 16
and 17.
Height and spread measurements were taken again on November 14 at the end
of the 1972 growing season.
Results and Discussion—Plants of most cultivars from soil heated blocks
were generally larger than from control blocks on July 19, 1972. How-
ever, some varieties did not respond as much to soil heat as others.
'Old Port1 and 'Lord Roberts' responded least to heated soil (Table 16).
Height of 'Old Port' was not influenced by soil heat, but maximum and
134
-------
CO
Table 16. GROWTH, PLANT HEIGHT AND SPREAD, OF RHODODENDRONS PRODUCED ON HEATED AND NON-HEATED SOIL-
MEASUREMENTS MADE ON JULY 19, 1972
Average plant
height-inches2
Vulcan
Jean Marie
Fastousum Plena
Lord Roberts
Anna Krusckka
Old Port
Check
10.1
7.1
10.9
10.7
9.3
11.5
Soil
11
10
13
11
10
11
heat
.8
.1
.4
.2
.1
.5
% height
increase of
soil heated
plants
over checks
17
42
23
5
9
0
Average plant
Check
Max
11.
7.
10.
11.
10.
11.
•
4
7
5
8
6
4
Min.
8.7
5.6
6.5
8.4
8.2
9.5
spread- inches
Soil heat
Max.
13.6
10.6
12.6
12.0
12.5
12.8
Min.
11.3
7.9
9.7
8.9
9.8
10.0
% increase of soil
heated plants
over checks
In max.
Spread
19
38
20
2
18
12
In min.
Spread
30
41
49
6
19
5
zHeight measurements from 4 axes/plant (average of 10 plants) from which maximum and minimum measure-
ments were taken.
-------
co
Table 17. GROWTH, PLANT HEIGHT AND SPREAD, OF RHODODENDRONS PRODUCED ON HEATED AND NON-HEATED SOIL:
MEASUREMENTS MADE ON NOVEMBER 14, 1972
Average plant
heiqht-inches7
Vulcan
Jean Marie
Fastousum Plena
Lord Roberts
Anna Krusckka
Old Port
Check
14.8
9.3
12.8
12.5
11.8
13.4
Soil
14.
11.
14.
12.
12.
14.
heat
5
8
9
8
0
4
% height
increase of
soi 1 heated
plants
over checks
0
27
38
2
2
7
Average plant
Check
Max
16.
9.
13.
14.
12.
15.
a
2
3
9
1
8
0
Min.
11.3
7.1
8.8
10.4
9.6
11.0
spread-inches
Soil heat
Max.
17.3
11.4
14.7
13.5
14.8
17.0
Min.
13.7
8.5
11.9
10.3
10.3
12.9
% increase of soil
heated plants
over checks
In max.
spread
7
23
6
0
16
13
In min.
spread
21
20
35
0
7
17
zHeight measurements from 4 axes/plant (average of 10 plants) from which maximum and minimum measure-
ments were taken.
-------
minimum spread averaged 12 and 5 percent, respectively, greater than
'Old Port1 control plants. 'Lord Roberts' plant from heated soil aver-
aged only larger in spread and height than control plants.
On the other hand, maximum and minimum spread of 'Jean Marie' plants
on soil heat were increased 38 and 41 percent, respectively, and height
was increased by 42 percent compared to plant size on control soil blocks
(Table 16). The growth response of 'Vulcan,1 'Fastausum Plena,1 and
'Anna Krusckka' to soil heat was between that of 'Jean Marie1 and 'Old
Port.'
There was less difference in size between plants grown on heated and
control soil by the end of the 1972 growing season than in July. On
November 14, 1972, soil heated plants of 'Jean Marie' averaged 27 percent
taller, 23 percent greater maximum, and 20 percent greater minimum
spread than control plants (Table 17). By November, the small difference
that had existed in size of 'Lord Roberts' plants in July was not
apparent.
Although there was less difference in plant size between soil heated and
control plants in November, most cultivars on soil heat still appeared
more symmetrical and uniform in size. This is supported by the lower
coefficients of variation for maximum-minimum spread of plants grown on
heated soil compared to the controls (Table 18).
Generally, soil heated plants also had less variation in height than
plants from control soil. 'Jean Marie,' 'Fastausum Plena,1 'Lord Roberts,1
and 'Old Port' plants from control soil blocks had greater coefficients of
variation for height than plants in soil heated blocks (Table 18).
Cantaloupes
Procedure—Plots were fertilized with 800 Ib 16-20-0 per acre in a 1 ft
wide band on top of the beds. "Diazinon" insecticide also was applied in
137
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Table 18. COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION FOR PLANT HEIGHT AND SPREAD OF SIX
RHODODENDRON VARIETIES GROWN IN NON-HEATED SOIL AND SOIL HEATED
BY THERMAL WATER - NOVEMBER 14, 1972
Vulcan
Jean Marie
Fastausum Plena
Lord Roberts
Anna Krusckka
Old Port
Coefficient of Variation - %
Height
Check Soil heat
16.9 17.9
31.3 19.6
25.6 13.9
20.2 18.2
17.8 19.4
29.8 17.0
Max.-min. spread
Check Soil heat
22.8
29.5
28.8
20.6
20.0
24.6
14.9
18.9
15.9
20.9
20.2
19.3
138
-------
a wide band on top of the rows at the rate of 4 Ib active per acre on
May 26, 1972. The insecticide and fertilizer were incorporated into the
soil with a rototiller.
Black plastic film (4-mil) was put down in rows over the incorporated
fertilizer and insecticide on May 30* 1972. Rows were spaced 5 ft
apart. About 2 ft of plastic were exposed on top of each bed with 6 in.
buried on each side of the bed. Five inch diameter holes were punched
into the plastic ^every 4 ft; The plastic mulch was placed over heated
and non-heated soil. Two cantaloupe cultivars, 'Supermarket1 and.
'Harper's Hybrid,1 were seeded on June 2, 1972, in heated and non-heated
* *.
soil and replicated twice. Seeds were planted 1 in. deep in each hole
punched in the plastic mulch (4 ft x 5 ft plant spacing). Muskmelons
were harvested from 40 ft plots starting on September 5 and ending on
October 19, 1972. 'Fruit were separated into grades of U.S. No. 1,
Commercial, Unmarketable, and Immature.1*1 ,
Results and Discussion—Soil heat speeded early vine development of
muskmelons (Figure 57). The area in the foreground of Figure 57 is
non-heated soil and the area between rows is not covered with melon
vines. The melons in, the background of Figure 57 are on heated soil,
and the areas between rows were completely covered with vines by mid-July.
Although early vegetative growth of cantaloupes was stimulated by soil
heat, the yield of fruit was not. There was no significant difference
in yield of soil heated and control areas of 'Harper's Hybrid' and
'Supermarket' in this study (Tables 19 and 20). Soil heat appeared to
delay fruit maturity as indicated by the number of immature fruit at the
end of the harvest season (Tables 19 and 20), but this has to be confirmed
in other studies. Temperatures of heated soil at 6 and 12 in. depths
were generally warmer through June and into July than non-heated soil
(Figures 50 and 51), and this probably accounts for the early stimula-
tion of vegetative growth of cantaloupe plants. Perhaps a different
139
-------
Figure 57: Muskmelon vine development on non-heated soil (foreground 1/2 of melon block)
and heated soil (background 1/2 of block).
-------
Table 19. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON GRADE AND YIELD OF CANTALOUPE
'HARPER'S HYBRID1
Lbs/Acre
Soil heat
Control
U.S.
no.l
4215
8059
U.S.
commercial
523
1329
Unmarketable
(rots &
splits)
2780
1147
Immature
918
373
141
-------
Table 20. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON GRADE AND YIELD OF CANTALOUPE
'SUPERMARKET'
. , Lbs/Acre
Unmarketable
U.S. U.S. (rots &
no.1 commercial splits) Immature
Soil heat 3989 1220 1729 2301
Control 7498 2110 485 518
142
-------
growing season, planting date, or soil temperature range would have
altered the effect of soil heat on yields.
Squash
Procedure-'-'Table Queen1 squash was seeded through black plastic mulch
on heated and non-heated soil on June 24, 1972. Hill spacing was
4 ft x 6 ft. The planting was not replicated. Fertilizer and insecti-
cide quantity, type, and date of applications are the same as outlined
for cantaloupes. 'Table Queen1 squash was first harvested on October 4,
1972. Only good, mature fruit without cracks and free of disease were
counted on each harvest.
Results and Discussion—The soil heated block of squash produced 24 per-
cent more fruit by number and 13 percent more fruit by weight than the
non-heated control block (Table 21). In this case, early maturity of
squash appeared to be enhanced by the soil heat. At first harvest, the
yield from the soil heated block was 10.2 tons; control yielded only
3.5 tons (Figure 58). The 10.2 tons of fruit represented 36.2 percent
of the heated block's production, while the control had only produced
14.1 percent by October 4, 1972. Production from controTand heated
block was about the same on October 9 and 16. .On the last harvest,
November 6, the control block produced 4.6 more tons per acre than the
soil heated block.
143
-------
Table 21. YIELD OF 'TABLE QUEEN' SQUASH PRODUCED ON A CONTROL AND
SOIL HEATED BLOCK
Harvest
date
10/4/72
10/9/72
10/16/72
11/6/72
Number of fruit/A.2
Soil heat
10,010
4,368
2,548
14,560
31 ,486
Control
3,276
2,912
1,820
17,472
25,480
Tons fruit/A.z
Soil heat
10.2
3.9
2.0
12.0
28.1
Control
3.5
3.3
1.5
16.6
24.9
Plant spacing was 4 X 6 ft.
144
-------
16 -
14 -
12 -
10 -
o J
6 -
4 -
2 -
Soil Heated Block
Control Block
i i
10-4 10-9 10-16 11-6
Harvest Dates
Figure 58. Yield of Table Queen squash on four harvest dates during 1972.
145
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SECTION VI
SOIL HEATED GREENHOUSE
Initially, the idea was to keep greenhouse construction simple, rela-
tively inexpensive, and to use the structure to lengthen the time in
spring and fall that the undersoil heated block could be used for crop-
ping. However, because of the relatively mild climate in the Eugene
area, it was found that year-around cropping was possible with selected
crops in the simple greenhouse structure described below. The crops
grown and their production in the greenhouse will be covered in subse-
quent sections.
A 55 by 22 ft "Port-a-Green" plastic film greenhouse was constructed
over a portion of the large under-soil heated block in January 1972.
The soil underneath and surrounding the greenhouse was heated by thermal
water circulated through 2-1/2 in. diameter plastic pipe, buried about
26 in., and spaced 60 in. apart (for complete description, see Section V)
Ventilation fans were installed in the greenhouse, but no supplemental
heaters were added. The only heat in the greenhouse was that radiated
from the buried soil heat grid and the solar energy trapped in the
greenhouse during the day.
GREENHOUSE AIR TEMPERATURES
Maximum greenhouse temperatures were dependent to a large degree upon
daily solar energy, but greenhouse highs were modified by the thermostat
controlled ventilation fans. Even when the air temperature was cold,
greenhouse highs during the day were relatively warm if there was no cloud
cover. For example, December 8, 1972, was a clear day with a maximum
air temperature of only 15°F but maximum greenhouse temperature reached
55°F (Figure 59). December 20, 1972, was cloudy (not as cold) and
147
-------
00
s
80-
70-
60
50
o
— 40
R)
S.
ff.
30-
20-
10-
0-
10
Greenhouse Maximum Air Temperature
° Outside Maximum Air Temperature
* Greenhouse Minimum Air Temperature
* Outside Minimum Air Temperature
8
10 12
20
22
I
24
26
I
28
30
—T 1 r~
14 15 18
December 1972
Figure 59. Minimum and maximum air temperatures recorded inside and outside soil heated greenhouse during December 1972.
-------
maximum temperatures inside and outside the greenhouse were the same.
Another reason that greenhouse maximum temperatures were no higher than
outside the house was that thermal water flow was interrupted on this and
several other dates during December 1972. The temperature of thermal
water during December was also cooler than usual.
Only the minimum temperatures inside and outside of the greenhouse, 5 ft
above the ground, are included in Figure 60. Greenhouse minimums aver-
aged 8.2°F higher than ambient minimums for the March 1972 through March
1973 period. There was often less difference between minimum tempera-
ture inside and outside the greenhouse during the summer than during the
winter. This was because greenhouse doors were often left open during
the summer for added ventilation. The least difference between green-
house and outside minimums occurred during the week of August 9, 1972
(,2°F difference), and the largest difference occurred during the week
of December 6, 1972 (19°F difference). Greenhouse minimums may have
been somewhat warmer during December 1972 if thermal water temperatures
had been warmer.
GREENHOUSE SOIL TEMPERATURES
As already stated, greenhouse soils were heated by the buried thermal
water grid described in Section V. The soil heat grid by itself modified
soil temperatures, and the addition of a greenhouse further modified
temperatures of soil beneath the structure.
Platinum bulb temperature sensors connected to chart-type recorders
were placed at 6, 12, and 24 in. depths in a vertical line above and
halfway between buried heat pipes (Figure 48) within the greenhouse.
Greenhouse soil temperatures at 6, 12, and 24 in. depths were modified by
the thermal water circulated through the buried soil heat grid. As was
the case with the soil heated block outside the greenhouse, temperatures
were not uniform for any given depth in a horizontal line across the soil
149
-------
• Minimum Air Temperature Inside Greenhouse
o Minimum Atr Temperature Outside Greenhouse
Oi
O
60 -
50 -
£
3
t-
ftl
C*.
I
a> -i
10 -
1 I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—I—1—I—I—1—I—I—I
Figure 60. Comparison of mean weekly minimum temperatures Inside and outside the greenhouse at about 5 ft above the ground.
-------
profile. Soil farthest away from the buried heat pipes was cooler than
soil closer to the heat lines. However, the temperature difference
between soil temperature midway between and nearest to the pipes was
generally less in the heated greenhouse soil than in the heated soil out-
side the greenhouse. For example, the average temperature difference in
soil at points midway between (coolest heated soil) and nearest (warmest
heated soil) heat lines at 12 and 24 in. depths averaged 1.9°F (Fig-
ure 61) and 6.2°F (Figure 62) in the greenhouse and 4.3°F (Figure 51)
and 17.4°F (Figure 52) in heated soil outside the greenhouse, respec-
tively. The reduction of radiated heat loss from the soil by the green-
house structure apparently helped maintain more uniform temperatures in
a horizontal line across the soil profile.
The warmest areas of heated greenhouse soil at the 6 in. depth (recorded
in a vertical line above heat pipes) averaged 9.5°F warmer than unheated
control soil for the recorded periods from May 1972 through January 1973
(Figure 63). During the May through July period, greenhouse soil tempera-
tures were recorded beneath rows of trellised tomatoes. Soil temperatures
outside the greenhouse were recorded beneath low growing field tomatoes.
Greenhouse tomatoes were between 5 and 6 ft tall and formed a continuous
plant cover inside the greenhouse. With vegetation of such thickness,
the ground surface loses its function as a boundary surface with the
atmosphere and site of major heat exchange. The radiation received by
the greenhouse soil was not as great as if the ground were bare and pro-
bably not as great as received by soil outside the greenhouse with the
low growing, less dense field tomatoes. The difference in foliage cover
probably accounts for the lower 6 i,n. depth soil temperatures recorded
in the greenhouse during the May through July period.
Temperatures of heated greenhouse soil at the 12 in. depth were modified
relatively more than 6 in. depth temperatures. The warmest areas of
greenhouse soil at the 12 in. depth averaged 11.2°F higher than controls
for the recorded periods between May 1972 and January 1973 (Figure 61);
the coolest areas of greenhouse soil averaged 9.3°F warmer than control
151
-------
01
ro
Q_
-------
100-
95-
90-
85-
£ 80-
75-
70-
65-
£ 60-J
01
O-
01
. Halfway between buried heat pipes - greenhouse
• Control - no soil heat
—P—
2
Aug
T
1 1
641 63
Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan
1972 1973
Figure 62. Comparison of mean weekly 24 inch depth soil temperatures recorded at two locations in soil heated greenhouse
with non-heated soil outside greenhouse: greenhouse soil was heated with thermal water circulated through
plastic pipes buried 26 inches and spaced 5 ft apart.
—P_
7
Jun
—r~
5
Jul
-------
tn
-P.
75-
70-
65-
Cu
O)
60-
55-
.c
o
c
o
Q.
d)
45-
40-
flow of thermal
water interrupted
flow of thermal
water interrupted
o Above buried heat pipes- greenhouse
<>- Halfway between buried heat pipes - greenhouse
• Control - no soil heat
35'
Figure 63.
/
—I—
7
Jun
—r~
5
Jut
2
Aug
—i—
6
Sep
1972
Oct
r
1
Hov
6
Dec
3
Jan
1973
Comparison of mean weekly 6 inch depth soil temperatures recorded at two locations in soil heated greenhouse
with non-heated soil outside greenhouse: greenhouse soil was heated with thermal water circulated through
plastic pipes buried 26 inches and spaced 5 ft. apart.
-------
soil during the same period. The 12 in. depth greenhouse soils averaged
3.1 to 5.7°F warmer than the 12 in. depth in the heated soil block outside
the greenhouse.
The greatest temperature difference between greenhouse and control soil
occurred at the 24 in. depth. The warmest areas of greenhouse soils
averaged 20.7°F warmer than control soil, and the coolest greenhouse areas
of greenhouse soil averaged 14.2°F warmer than control soil at the 24 in.
depth (Figure 62).
GREENHOUSE CROP PRODUCTION
A variety of crops were grown in the greenhouse, some of which are not
normally considered to ba greenhouse crops. This was done to determine
if crops that are tolerant to cool temperatures could be produced through
the Winter in the greenhouse when low light intensity and coolest tempera-
tures prevail.
Interest was expressed in the value of these crops. In order to put an
economic value on the crops, Portland market wholesale prices42 were
assigned to the crops during the time they were harvested. Therefore,
some of the crops may have been worth more or less if harvested at other
times of the year than was done in these studies. The dollar value for
the crops is higher than received at the farm. No real attempt was made
to study market supplies and gear specific crop production to periods of
least supply and highest price. However, this would be an important
consideration if studies continued or a large scale project were under-
taken. The main emphasis in the following studies was to obtain approxi-
mate yield estimates for various crops grown in the simple greenhouse
constructed over a portion of the heated soil block.
Leaf Lettuce
Transplants of 'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids' leaf lettuce were obtained from
a local greenhouse nursery and transplanted into the project's greenhouse
155
-------
on March 8 and 9, 1972. Plant spacing was 6 by 6 and 8 by 8 in. for
'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids,1 respectively. The two leaf lettuce cultivars
were transplanted into 9 by 10 ft blocks of 4 mil black plastic and
aluminum foil mulches and in non-mulched control blocks.
The lettuce crop was harvested (Figure 64) on April 24, 1972; yield and
estimated crop values are given in Table 22. Dollar values in Table 22
are based on Portland wholesale market prices reported by USDA Agri-
cultural Marketing Service for April 24, 1972.^
If all 'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids' plants had been spaced on exactly 6 by
6 and 8 by 8 in. spacing, respectively, there would have been the equiva-
lent of about 174,240 'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids' plants per acre. The
primary reason that plant populations reported in Table 22 are lower than
the possible maximum is that transplants were placed slightly further
apart than the intended 6 by 6 and 8 by 8 in. spacings.
A few plants had to be discarded shortly before or at harvest because of
disease (appeared to be SjcJ^ejrotlnja, soft rot). Although there was very
little disease, more soft rot occurred in the check areas (about 3 percent
of plants) than in the black plastic and aluminum foil mulched plots (less
than 1 percent diseased plants). Although the greenhouse soil was not
sterilized before planting, disease contributed little to reducing
harvested plant number.
The black plastic and aluminum foil mulch materials were included to
determine if they would influence soil temperatures. Initially, when
lettuce plants were small, surface soil temperatures were slightly warmer
underneath the mulches than in check plots. As soon as the plant canopy
developed over the entire soil surface, temperatures underneath the mulches
were no different than in the check plots. The mulch materials did reduce
plant foliage contact with the bare soil and thus reduced the incidence
of disease.
156
-------
-
Figure 64: Greenhouse lettuce on April 24, 1972.
-------
Table 22. YIELD AND ESTIMATED VALUE OF BIBB AND GRAND RAPIDS LEAF LETTUCE GROWN IN THE PROJECT'S
GREENHOUSE ON CHECK, BLACK PLASTIC FILM, AND ALUMINUM FOIL MULCHES; HARVESTED ON APRIL 24, 1972.
No. of plants
harvested/acre
Pounds of
^ lettuce/acre
00
No. of 2 doz
crates/acre
Value/Acre: at
$1.60/2 doz era tea
$2.25/2 doz crate*
CHECK
Grand Rapids
81 ,556
65,701
3,398
$5,437
$7,645
BLACK PLASTIC
Bibb
127,188
60,089
5,299
$8,478
$11,923
Grand Rapids
81,556
63,672
3,398
$5,437
$7,645
Bibb
151,460
56,019
6,311
$10,098
$14,200
ALUMINUM
Grand Rapids
87,381
66,099
3,641
$5,826
$8,192
FOIL
Bibb
161,169
64,264
6,715
$10,744
$15,109
aValue based on wholesale price range received in Portland, on April 24, 1972, for California
butter and leaf lettuce.
-------
Forty to 50,000 Ibs 'Grand Rapids' and 20,000 to 25,000 Ibs 'Bibb' lettuce
per acre are considered to be good yields for greenhouse leaf lettuce.^
The yield of 'Grand Rapids' in the project greenhouse ranged from about
63,672 to 66,099 Ibs per acre and the yield of 'Bibb' lettuce ranged
from 56,019 to 64,264 Ibs per acre (Table 22). The yields of both leaf-
type lettuce compare very favorably with yields of leaf lettuce produced
in conventionally heated greenhouses. Because of the short time needed
to produce a greenhouse lettuce crop, multiple crops of lettuce could be
produced each year depending upon the marketing situation.
The wholesale value of the crop on April 24, 1972, ranged from about
$5,400 to $8,200 per acre for 'Grand Rapids' and $8,400 to $15,000 per
acre for 'Bibb1 (Table 22). The value of the crop could range higher
than reported here depending upon market supply and demand. For example,
the wholesale orice for Oregon grown butter and leaf lettuce at the Port-
land market was $3 per 2-dz crate on May 8, 1972, or about 33 percent
more than the top value used in Table 22.
A second planting of greenhouse lettuce was made in the fall of 1972.
'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids' lettuce were seeded in flats of vermiculite
and placed in the project's greenhouse on October 5, 1972, to germinate.
Small 'Bibb' and 'Grand Rapids' lettuce plants were transplanted on
6 by 6 and 8 by 8 in. spacings, respectively, on November 1, 1972.
Each cultivar was placed in a 5 x 14 ft ground bed.
Ambient air temperatures for December 4 through 12, 1972, averaged 10 to
26°F below normal .^ and the subzero lows in most of Oregon set many new
December and all-time records. A record low of -12°F was recorded at
the Eugene airport on December 8, 1972. At the project site, lows of
-5°F were recorded on December 8 and 10, 1972.
The delivery of thermal water to the project was interrupted several
times during December. The Weyerhaeuser plant had to stop pumping
thermal water on December 8 and 11 in order to make repairs. A joint
159
-------
in the 16 in. steel mainline developed a leak on December 12, but was
repaired by the evening of December 13. No thermal water was pumped to
the project from December 22, 1972, to January 2, 1973. The Weyerhaeuser
plant was down December 22 through 26 for the Christmas holidays. Thermal
water was delivered to the pumping pit from December 27, 1972, through
January 1, 1973, but the volume was not great enough to be pumped to the
project. This is why in Figure 3 thermal water temperature at the pump-
ing pit was going up while soil heat grid inlet and outlet temperatures
were going down.
The low ambient air temperature outside the greenhouse on December 7 was
near 0°F, and the low greenhouse temperature was 20°F at 5 ft above ground.
The following night, December 8, a low of -5°F was recorded outside the
greenhouse and a low of 17°F inside the house at the 5 ft height. 'Bibb'
and 'Grand Rapids' leaf lettuce were not frozen by low temperatures during
the coldest weather. Greenhouse air temperatures remained at 36°F at the
1 ft level and slightly warmer within the plant foliage on the coldest
nights. Apparently enough heat was radiated from the soil to keep tempera-
tures above freezing to a height of more than 1 ft in the greenhouse.
Temperatures outside the greenhouse were probably coldest near the ground
but greenhouse temperatures were warmest near the soil because of heat
radiated from the buried thermal water grid. Greenhouse soil and air
temperatures may have been somewhat warmer during this cold December
period if the thermal water supply had been warmer and had not been
interrupted.
The growth of the lettuce plants was slow because of relatively low
temperatures and the low light quality experienced during the winter
months. Disease was more of a problem in the second crop than in the
first, and 'Grand Rapids' was more susceptible than 'Bibb.1 By the end
of December, nearly 25 percent of the 'Grand Rapids' plants were removed
because of soft-rot-type decay, but only about 9 percent of the 'Bibb1
plants had to be removed for this reason.
160
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Tomatoes
Most greenhouse tomatoes are grown on a trellis system where the main
plant axis is trained to a string suspended from overhead wires. All
lateral plant branches are removed by hand from the main plant axis. The
labor requirement for this method is high but increased yields, less
disease, greater air circulation through the foliage, and ease of harvest
make the system economical.
At the time the first tomato crop was planted in the project's greenhouse,
no overhead trellis was available. Therefore, the tomatoes were either
trained to 5 ft stakes or allowed to grow on the ground. The stake
system kept fruits off the ground, helped air movement (in addition to the
removal of excess foliage), reduced disease, and made it possible to use
.more plants per acre than when plants were grown on the ground.
The first planting of tomatoes in the greenhouse was made in February 1972.
Cultivars 'H. 1439,' 'Fireball,1 and 'H. 1350' were seeded at a high rate
in short rows in the greenhouse soil on February 17, 1972. Soil tempera-
ture at the 6 in. depth was about 64°F at time of seeding.
'H. 1439' plants were transplanted from the closely spaced seedling rows
to double rows 1 ft apart with plants 1 ft apart in the row. Double rows
were on 4 ft centers. The 'H. 1439' yield record block contained
28 plants.
'H, 1350' and 'Fireball1 were transplanted from the short closely spaced
seedling rows into rows with about 1-1/2 in. between plants on March 16,
1972. They were transplanted again on May 2, 1972, to a 4 by 2 ft spacing.
The blocks of 'Fireball1 and 'H. 1350' contained 24 plants each.
On May 9, 1972, transplants of tomato cultivar 'Willamette' were obtained
from the McKenzie Nursery and transplanted to the greenhouse in a block of
24 plants on 2 by 4 ft spacings. 'Willamette1 plants were smaller and less
161
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mature than the other cultivars. These transplants were also placed out-
side the greenhouse in heated and non-heated soil on the same day.
Plant spacing of 'H. 1350,' 'Fireball,1 and 'Willamette1 was equivalent
to 5,445 plants per acre (8 ft*/plant); the spacing of 'H. 1439' was
equivalent to 14,520 plants per acre (3 ft2/plant). 'H. 1439' vines
were trained on stakes with two main branches per plant. 'Fireball,'
'H. 1350,' and 'Willamette5' were grown on the ground like normally grown
field tomatoes.
Pollination of greenhouse tomatoes was induced by the air blast from a
small engine-driven backpack sprayer-duster.
Prior to the time that tomato cultivars were transplanted, 625 Ibs of
16-20-20 fertilizer were incorporated into the greenhouse soil with a
rototiller on April 28, 1972. Periodic applications of 9-45-15 and/or
potassium nitrate fertilizer were applied to the plants as a liquid and
watered into the soil surrounding the tomato plants during the growing
season.
The first greenhouse tomato crop was planted relatively late, and fruit
matured when field-grown tomatoes from California were plentiful and
when some local tomatoes were available. Although greenhouse tomatoes
usually receive a premium price above field tomatoes, the Portland
market wholesale price for field tomatoes was assigned to the greenhouse
crop. Table 23 lists the wholesale price for field-grown tomatoes of
various sizes from July 13 through September 21, 1972. Greenhouse fruit
were not graded for size, but it was estimated that all marketable fruit
were at least grade size 6x7 (2-1/16 in. minimum to 2-10/16 maximum
diameter) or larger. The net weight of a 3-layered 6x7 tomato lug is
30 Ibs with about 126 fruit per lug46 and an average fruit weight of
about .23 Ib.
Tomato cultivars grown in the greenhouse produced 32 to 76 tons of
marketable fruit per acre (Table 24) during the harvest period of
162
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Table 23. WHOLESALE MARKET PRICE PER LUG BOX OF CALIFORNIA PINKS AND
RIPE TOMATOES ON PORTLAND MARKET DURING PERIOD OF JULY 13 THROUGH SEP-
TEMBER 21, 1972.a (FIELD GROWN TOMATOES)
1972
Date
Jul 13
17
20
24
27
31
Aug 3
7
10
14
17
21
24
28
31
Sep 5
7
11
. ;14
18
21
Mean
7/13-
9/21
2-Layer
5X6
$5.00 -
4.50
4.50
5.25
5.00
5.25
5.75
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.50
5.75
5.75
5.75
5.50
4.50
3.90
4.70
5.00
5.25
5.25
5.10
Lug
's
$5.75
5.00
5.00
5.50
5.50
5.75
6.25
6.25
5.50
5.50
6.50
6.00
6.00
6.00
5.90
4.70
4.75
5.00
5.50
5.70
6.00
5.62
3-Layer
6X6
$7.50 -
5.25
5.25
5.25
7,00
7.00
7.25
-
-
6.50
6.75
7.25
7.25
7.25
7.70
5.50
5.50
6.00
6.00
7.00
7.00
6.54
Lug
's
$8.20
6.00
6.00
6.00
7.25
7.25
8.20
-
-
7.50
7.50
8.20
8.20
8.20
8.20
6.70
6.70
6.70
7.70
7.70
8.20
7.39
3-Layer
6X7
$6.50 -
5.00
5.00
5.75
6.00
6.26
6.75
5.50
6.25
6.25
5.50
6.00
5.50
6.50
6.00
4.75
4.75
5.50
5.50
6.00
6.25
5.79
Lug
's
$7.25
5.50
5.50
6.00
6.75
6.75
7.25
6.50
6.50
7.70
7.70
6.75
6.50
7.70
7.20
5.25
5.25
5.75
5.75
7.20
7.25
6.57
3-Layer
7X7
$6.00 -
4.50
4.50
4.75
4.75
5.50
5.50
5.00
5.00
4.25
4.25
5.50
5.00
5.50
5.00
4.50
4.50
5.00
5.25
5.25
5.75
5.01
Lug
's
$6.75
5.00
5.00
5.50
5.50
6.00
6.00
5.50
5.50
5.00
5.75
5.75
5.50
6.70
6.20
5.20
5.20
5.25
6.20
6.20
6.75
5.74
a Prices from Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Market News - Portland Daily
Report - Vol. LXI. No's 4 through 16. USDA, Ag. Market Service.
163
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CT»
Table 24. WEIGHT, NUMBER OF 6 X 7 LUGS (126 FRUIT/LUG), AND ESTIMATED WHOLESALE VALUE OF TOMATOES PRO-
DUCED IN SOIL HEATED GREENHOUSE.
Tomato
Variety
H.I 439a
H.1350&
Fireball b
Willamette13
1972
Harvest
Period
Jul 14-
Sep 12
Jul 22-
Sep 12
Jul 14-
Sep 12
Jul 29-
Sep 12
-
Tons
Marketabl e
Fruit/ Acre
76.1
34.0
32.0
33.9
Aug
Fruit
Wt-Lbs
.25
.23
.23
.26
Number of
Marketable
3-layered
6X7 Lugs/Acre
4,783
2,299
2,174
2,036
Wholesale
$5.79/Lug
Mean Low
$27,693
$13,311
$12,587
$11,788
Value/ Acre
$6.57/Lug
Mean High
$37,424
$15,104
$14,283
$13,376
No. 816
Boxes/Acre
x 100
190
85
79
85
Market-
able
Fruit/
plant
Ibs
10.5
12.5
11.7
12.5
a Plants staked (14,500 plants/acre).
Plants grown on ground like most field-grown tomatoes (5,445 plants/acre).
-------
mid-July through mid-September. Tomato plants were removed from the
greenhouse on September 12, 1972, so that the soil could be prepared for
another planting of vegetables. There was the equivalent of 20, 10, and
4.8 tons green fruit per acre left of 'H. 1439,' 'Willamette,1 and
'H. 1350,' respectively, when plants were removed. Many of these fruit
would have been marketable if they had been allowed to mature. Cultivar
'H. 1439' produced more than twice the yield of other cultivars listed
in Table 24. The yield difference was primarily because of training
systems used with the different cultivars. Many fruits of cultivars grown
on the ground developed ground rot and had to be discarded; therefore,
their yields were reduced.
The value of the greenhouse crop was calculated in two ways. The first
was based on the Portland wholesale price received for field-grown toma-
toes during the period that the greenhouse crop was harvested. The second
was based on approximate prices received for greenhouse tomatoes on the
Chicago market.
Individual 'Fireball' and 'H. 1350' fruit averaged about .23 Ib and
'H. 1439' and 'Willamette1 were somewhat larger (Table 24). Therefore,
fruit of the latter two cultivars averaged somewhat larger than 6 x 7's
and would have been worth more than that indicated in Table 24. The
wholesale values per acre based on average low and high Portland market
tomato prices during the harvest period (Table 23) for production of
3-layered 6 x 7 lugs are included in Table 24. The value per acre ranged
from $11,788 for 'Willamette' to $37,424 for 'H. 1439.'
Greenhouse tomatoes sold on the Chicago market are usually sold in 8 Ib
cardboard baskets. Table 25 lists a production range of 8 Ib baskets and
prices received for greenhouse tomatoes in the Chicago area in 1965.47
Costs may have to be adjusted to bring them in line with present costs;
however, the prices are probably still within the range being paid for
greenhouse tomatoes. The.number of 8 Ib boxes produced by each variety
(Table 24) was assigned to the appropriate production level in Table 25,
and the values per acre estimates are as follows:
165
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Tabled 25. GROSS CASH RETURNS, LESS DIRECT MARKETING COSTS, AT FOUR
PRICE LEVELS FOR DIFFERENT VOLUMES OF PRODUCTION
Production
of 8-lb
baskets
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
18,000
20,000
22,000
24,000
26,000
Cost of
basket and
haulinga
$ 600
1,200
1,800
2,400
3,000
3,600
4,200
4,800
5,400
6,000
6,600
7,200
7,800
Averaae orices
$1.50
(1.35)b
Total
$ 2,100
4,200
6,300
8,400
10,500
12,600
14,700
16,800
18,900
21 ,000
23,100
25,200
27,300
$1,75
(1.57)
gross cash
marketing
$ 2,540
5,080
7,620
10,160
12,700
15,240
17,780
20,320
22,860
25,400
27,940
30,480
33,020
of 8-lb basket'
$2.00
(1.80)
returns less
costsc
$ 3,000
6,000
9,000
12,000
15,000
18,000
21 ,000
24,000
27,000
30,000
33,000
36,000
39,000
$2,25
(2.02)
direct
$ 3,440
6,880
10,320
13,760
17,200
20,640
24,080
,27,520
30,960
34,400
37,840
41 ,280
44,720
a Calculated at 30 cents per 8-lb basket (14 cents for basket, lid and
paper and 16 cents for hauling).
b Figures in parentheses are grower's returns per basket minus 10 per
cent commission.
c Direct marketing costs are cost of basket, hauling, and commission. '
Table from Courter, J. W. et al. 1965. The feasibility of growing
greenhouse tomatoes in Southern Illinois, University of Illinois.
Coop. Ext. Ser. Circular 914.
166
-------
Cultivar Val ues per acre
Willamette $ 8,906 to $14,589
H. 1439 19,993 to 32,750
H. 1350 8,929 to 14,626
Fireball , 8,376 to 13,725
By using Table 25 for value-per-acre estimates, the cost of baskets,
hauling, and a 10 percent commission were subtracted from the price per
basket before the above values were calculated. Therefore, the value per
acre is slightly lower than when calculated on just wholesale prices.
Tomato plants of cultivars 'Michigan-Ohio, Hybrid' and 'Veegan' were
seeded in flats about August 15, 1972, for the second greenhouse tomato
crop. One hundred pounds N, 125 Ib P205, and 100 Ib K20 were applied to
the greenhouse soil as 16-20-0 and KC1 and incorporated with a rototiller
on September 13 and 14, 1972. After the greenhouse ground bed was pre-
pared, it was covered with a plastic tarp and methyl bromide was injected
under the tarp at the rate of 1 Ib per 100 ft2 on September 19, 1972.
The tarp was removed on September 22. Trellis supports for tomatoes were
put in place on September 26. An additional ventilation fan and perfo-
rated plastic convection tube was installed inside the greenhouse on
November 3, 1972, to aid air circulation.
A drip irrigation system was installed in the greenhouse on November 15.
A "Twin-wall" hose from Chapin .Watermatics, Inc., with orifices 8 in. apart
was used. "Twin-wall" hose was placed beside each tomato row.
'Michigan-Ohio' and 'Veegan' were transplanted into the greenhouse on
October 2, 1972. Tomatoes were placed in double rows 1 ft apart, and
plants were 1 ft apart in the row. The double rows were on 5 ft centers.
Two sets of double rows (14 plants per row) of each variety were included
in half the greenhouse. Plant spacing was equivalent to about 15,000
plants per acre or about 2.9 ft2 per plant. Tomatoes were 10 to 14 in.
167
-------
tall when transplanted. One pint of 9-45-15 fertilizer mixed at the
rate of 28 grams per gallon was applied to each plant after transplant-
ing. Tomatoes were fertilized with KN03 and 9-45-15 in a liquid band
application at 76, 148, and 217 Ibs per acre of N, P205, and K20, re-
spectively, on October 30, 1972.
Foliage damage that appeared to be "Early Blight" was noted on Novem-
ber 2, and "Maneb" was applied at the rate of 3 Ibs per acre for control
Blossoms were open on both tomato cultivars by November 7, 1972.
Vegetative growth of tomato plants was good despite short days and low
solar energy during October and November. The cool temperatures pro-
duced plants with thick, sturdy stems. Most day temperatures were
adequate for growth and fruiting, but night temperatures during Novem-
ber" and December were not sufficient for fruit production. The flower
clusters were vibrated daily with an electrical vibrator to induce
pollen to shed, but very few fruit developed because of the low night
temperatures.
The record low temperatures in December 1972, described in the green-
house lettuce section, damaged the tomato plants; they were removed
from the greenhouse in December.
Japanese Salad and European Cucumber
Cucumbers are usually visualized as 8 to 9 in. long, about 2 in. in
diameter, and with a fairly tough skin and seeds. Nearly all outdoor-
grown cucumbers are of this type as are most of the greenhouse-grown
cucumbers in this country. However, there has been increasing interest
in production of seedless cucumbers in greenhouses. These cucumbers
have grown in Europe for many years and are often referred to as Euro-
pean or Dutch. They are 12 to 18 in. long, seedless, mild, non-bitter,
of high quality, and have a thin edible skin. Some Japanese cultivars
are very similar in quality but have a rough skin. Some varieties are
168
-------
referred to as "burpless" cucumbers. Although the total production of
the European types is not great, their production in Canada and the
United States has increased substantially during the last 5 years.
Because the European-type cucumbers are so tender and thin-skinned,
careful handling is essential. The fruits tend to wilt and break down
more quickly than the shorter American types unless proper handling
and storage conditions are provided. Some growers film-wrap each cucum-
ber to reduce wilting and increase storage life.
These type cucumbers are not common in all areas of the United States
and may not be immediately accepted on the local market until people
become familiar with the commodity. For example, it was reported that
European cucumbers produced in the Salt Lake area could not be marketed
there, but had to be air freighted to the Los Angeles area where they
were readily accepted.
The first cucumber type grown was a Japanese Salad type, 'Burpless FI
Hybrid,1 from the Robson Seed Company of Hall, New York. This variety
was seeded in the greenhouse on February 17, 1972, and seedlings were
transplanted to 12 x 40 in. spacings (3.3 ft2/plant) on March 9, 1972.
Cucumber harvest started May 12, and fruit were picked when they reached
10 to 12 in. in length and about 2 in. in diameter. Cucumber yields
reported in Table 26 are based on 13,200 plants per acre. About 30 per-
cent of the crop was not classed as Nos. 1 or 2 fruit because of non-
symmetrical shape or oversize. A regular picking schedule was not
maintained; this could have eliminated most fruit discarded because of
oversize. Greenhouse production of 'Burpless FI Hybrid1 cucumbers for
a 5 month harvest period is given in Table 26. Yields included Nos. 1
and 2 cucumbers.
The cucumber plant spacing used in the project's greenhouse was closer
than the 4 ft2 per plant (10,890 plants/acre) suggested in "Greenhouse
169
-------
Table 26. YIELD AND ESTIMATED VALUE OF JAPANESE SALAD CUCUMBERS (BURPLESS FI HYBRID) GROWN IN THE
PROJECT'S SOIL HEATED GREENHOUSE AND HARVESTED FROM MAY 12 THROUGH SEPTEMBER 11, 1972.
Yield/ Acre
Plant
Population
13,200a
o 10,000
8,000
Sq. Ft.
/Plant
3.3
4.3
5.4
Fruit
Number
643,950
489 ,402
392,809
Fruit
Wt-Tons
391
' 297
238
Avg No.
Fruit/
PI ant
48.7
48.7
48.7
Avg
Fruit
Wt-lbs
1.21
1.21
1.21
at avg
$156,400
$118,800
$ 95,200
Estimated
at avg
35<£/lb
$273,700
$207,900
$166,600
Value/Acre
Based on
$3.00/doz
$160,986
$122,349
$ 98,202
Based on
$4.00/doz
$214,648
$163,132
$130,936
apopulation used in greenhouse.
-------
Table 27. COMPARISON OF NO. 1 GREENHOUSE CUCUMBER FRUIT YIELDS PRODUCED IN ONTARIO, CANADA ON
STRAW BALES WITH CUCUMBER YIELD PRODUCED IN PROJECT'S GREENHOUSE.
Variety
Toskaa
Toska3
Toska3
Toska3
Burpless
Hybridb
Year
1970
1970
1970
1972
1972
Harvest Period
Mar
Mar
Mar
Feb
May
9-Jul 6
9-Jul 6
23-Jul 13
11-Jul 13
12-Jul 25
Sq Ft/
Plant
9.
7.
8.
9.
3.
2
5
5
6
3
Plants/
Acre
4,752
5,808
5,124
4,537
13,200
No. Fruit/
Plant
32.5
36.6
30.6
35.1
30.5
Avg Fruit/
Wt-Lbs
1
1
1
1
1
.36
.35
.30
.36
.20
Wt Fruit/
Plant-Lbs
44.1
49.4
39.7
47.7
36.9
Tons/
Acre
117.6
128.4
101.8
108.2
170.5
3Grown on straw bales in Ontario, Canada.
bQrown in soil heated ground bed in project's greenhouse.
-------
Vegetable Production in Ontario"48 and the 9.6 ft2 per plant (4,537
plants/acre) used in European cucumber trials in Harrow, Ontario, in
1972.49 Yields of European-type cucumbers ranged from 15 to 25 Ib per
plant50 to 49.4 Ib per plant.49 The high yield in Ontario's trials was
produced by cultivar 'Toska' with straw bale culture and 7.5 ft2 per
plant (Table 27). The average yield per plant of 'Burpless Fx Hybrid1
was 48.7 Ib (Table 26).
Cucumbers in the project's greenhouse were harvested longer than in
the Canadian trials and there were more plants per acre in the project
house. Therefore, the cucumber yields produced per acre were consider-
ably higher in the project greenhouse than in the Canadian trials.
Table 27 was included to show that yields of European cucumbers pro-
duced in the project's greenhouse were in line with yields obtained in
other areas when harvest period and plant populations are taken into
consideration.
The season in which cucumbers are planted will probably influence plant
populations that can be used. More plants per acre can be used in a
spring-summer crop than for a winter crop because of greater light
intensity in the spring months. Local environment will also influence
plant populations that can be used. The plant population used in this
first planting of cucumbers may have to be reduced in a large scale
planting. Reducing plant number per acre would probably reduce yields
and values indicated in Table 26 for the 13,200 plants per acre. Esti-
mated values for plant populations of 10,000 and 8,000 plants per acre
are also given in Table 26. It was assumed that the number of fruit
and fruit weight per plant would not be lower than was produced with
13,200 plants per acre.
Jensen51 reported wholesale prices ranging from 20£ to 40£ for European
cucumbers. European cucumbers grown in Washington State are sold in
boxes of 12, and the grower reportedly receives from about $4.00 to
$4.25 per box. These prices were taken into consideration in Table 26
172
-------
in estimating the value of the Japanese Salad cucumber crop. The value
of the crop could range from about $95 to $273 thousand per acre. These
cucumbers are still a specialty item and impact of large acreages could
affect prices received for the crop.
A second crop of European (cv. Toska) and Japanese (cv. Burpless F],
Hybrid) cucumbers was planted in the greenhouse on October 3, 1972, on
48 x 18 in. spacings. Plants emerged October 10. By November 2,
cucumber seedlings were 2 to 3 in. tall. Cool greenhouse temperatures
were not ideal for good cucumber growth, and the plants were removed
after the cold December period described in the lettuce section.
173
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SECTION VII
MOLD COUNT, BACTERIA, AND MYCOTOXIN STUDY
Studies were conducted in cooperation with Dr. George Pigott to determine
if crops grown under different irrigation and/or soil heatinq conditions
would influence levels of mold, bacteria, or mycotoxins.
The objective of the study was to compare safety of raw crops grown
under four different conditions on the thermal irrigation test farm.
The samples were picked 4:00 to 4:30 D.ID., August 15, 1972, at the Pro-
ject's test plots and delivered to Schick Laboratories at 9:30 p.m.
The samples were olaced in a refrigerator at 9:50 p.m. and analyses was
started the next morning at 8:00 a.m.
The following is a description of how the samples were grown:
Beets
Soil heat Cold water
Soil heat Warm water
No soil heat Cold water
No soil heat Warm water
Beans
Soil heat Cold water
Soil heat Warm water
No soil heat Cold water
No soil heat Warm water
175
-------
_'Willamette/ Tomatoes
Soil heat No mulch
No soil heat No mulch
Soil heat Black plastic mulch
No soil heat Black plastic mulch
'Fireball' Tomatoes
Soil heat No mulch
No soil heat No mulch
Soil heat Black plastic mulch
No soil heat Black plastic mulch
Each sample (200-300g) was homogenized in a high speed blender from
which aliquots were taken for analysis. Aliquots of each homogenate
were used for determination of aerobic plate count, most probably number
of coliforms and Escherichia Coli.* A second aliquot was used for cul-
ture of yeast and molds in Sabouraud's medium. A 100 gram aliquot was
extracted with a chloroform-methanol mixture for aflotoxin and ochra-
toxin assays.+
Samples of homogenate were frozen for moisture and protein nitrogen
determination.^ Initial results are outlined in Tables 28, 29, and 30.
*Microbiological Methods used are described in: Official Methods of
Analysis of the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC),
Eleventh Edition, 1970. pp. 839-852.
+Aflotoxin and Ochratoxins were determined by thin layer chromatography
of Chloroform-Methanol extracts: Fishbein, L. and Falk, H. L. 1970.
Chromatography of Mold Metabolites, I. Aflotoxins, Ochratoxins and
related compounds. Chromatog. Rev, 12: 42-87.
'Moisture and protein nitrogen. AOAC, llth ed., 1970, pages 272 and
16-17.
176
-------
Table 28. MICROBIOLOGICAL RESULTS OF AEROBIC PLATE COUNT, COLIFORMS, E. COLI, AND STAPHYLOCOCCUS
COUNTS MADE ON SELECTED VEGETABLES GROWN UNDER DIFFERENT IRRIGATION AND/OR SOIL HEATING CONDITIONS
Vegetable
Beets
Beans
Variety-
Willamette Tomatoes
Variety-
Fireball Tomatoes
Treatment
soil heat-cold water
soil heat-warm water
no soil heat-cold water
no soil heat-warm water
soil heat-cold water
soil heat-warm water
no soil heat-cold water
no soil heat-warm water
soil heat-no mulch
no soil heat-no mulch
soil heat-black plastic
mulch
no soil heat-black plastic
mulch
soil heat-no mulch
no soil heat-no mulch
soil heat-black plastic
Total Aerobic
Count/ gm
1200
800
500
700
700
500
600
900
600
900
400
600
600
500
700
Total
Col i forms
1
0
2
0
2
1
0
2
2
0
0
0
2
0
3
E.
Coll
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Staph.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
mulch
no soil heat-black plastic
mulch
600
-------
Table 29. MOLD COUNTS OBTAINED ON SABOURAUD'S MEDIUM FROM SELECTED VEGE-
TABLES GROWN UNDER DIFFERENT IRRIGATION AND/OR SOIL HEAT CONDITIONS.
Vegetable
Treatments
Colom'es/gm
Beets
Beans
Variety-
Willamette Tomatoes
Vari ety-
Firetail Tomatoes
soil heat-cold water 5
soil heat-warm water 10
no soil heat-cold water 4
no soil heat-warm water 6
soil heat-cold water 15
soil heat-warm water 4
no soil heat-cold water 8
no soil heat-warm water 10
soil heat-no mulch 10
no soil heat-no mulch 15
soil heat-black plastic mulch 10
no soil heat-black plastic mulch 4
soil heat-no mulch 16
no soil heat-no mulch 20
soil heat-black plastic mulch 20
no soil heat-black plastic mulch 14
178
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Table 30. PROTEIN AND MOISTURE ASSAYS OF VEGETABLES GROWN UNDER DIFFERENT IRRIGATION AND/OR SOIL
HEAT CONDITIONS
Vegetables
Treatment
vo
Moisture
Protein
Beets
Beans
Variety-
Uillamette Tomatoes
Variety-
Fireball Tomatoes
soil heat-cold water
soil heat-warm water
no soil heat-cold water
no soil heat-warm water
soil heat-cold water
soil heat-warm water
no soil heat-cold water
no soil heat-warm water-
soil heat- no mulch
no soil heat-no mulch
soil heat-black plastic mulch
no soil heat-black plastic mulch
soil heat-no mulch
no soil heat-no mulch
soil heat-black plastic mulch
no soil heat-black plastic mulch
85.5
84.2
86.3
84.8
90.1
38.9
89.5
89.2
94.2
95.1
95.0
93.7
95.4
95.2
94.6
95.6
1.56
1.48
1.57
1.58
2.20
2.15
2.14
2.10
0.91
0.92
0.90
0.93
0.95
0.94
0.89
0.96
-------
Gram stains were made of the principal colonies in order to identify
them. Principal organisms were aerobacter, aerogenes, and bacillus
subtilis. Examination of the molds showed that Aspergillus niger and
Rhizopus nigricans were the principal molds,
One hundred gram aliquots were used for aflotoxin and ochratoxin assays.
All 16 samples were negative for either aflotoxin, which are toxic
mold metabolites.
Regardless of the conditions under which the crop was grown, there was
no difference in the microbiological results, total mold counts, or the
general type of organism found under the four different conditions for
these particular vegetables. There was no toxic mold metabolites as
determined by the absence of aflotoxins and ochratoxins in all 16 samples.
The nutritive quality of the vegetables grown under four different
conditions are the same as reflected by the similarity of the protein
nitrogen values and total moisture in the four samples for each vegetable.
It appears that the vegetables are safe and wholesome as indicated by
the low bacteria and mold counts in addition to the absences of E. coli
and staphylococcal organisms. Further, the absence of mycotoxins
(aflotoxins and ochratoxins) confirm safety from mold contamination or
abnormal mold flora.
The protein nitrogen values and moisture content for each vegetable,
some grown under four different conditions, show no variations and are
in good agreement with published results.
Increased soil heat or the use of thermal water had absolutely no effect
v
on the mold or bacterial populations normally used as an indicator.
180
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SECTION VIII
SOIL HEAT/IRRIGATION
PLOT DESCRIPTION
An area 216 ft long by 218 ft wide was used for this experiment. An
area 120 ft by 216 ft was over the soil heating pipes. On each side
was an area with no soil heat, The total area was divided into 4 repli-
cations. Each replication was divided into 4 plots; each plot measured
about 2400 sq ft and had the same crops but with a different combination
of treatments. Treatments included soil heat vs no soil heat and cold
water irrigation vs thermal water irrigation. Each replication had
2 plots off soil heat and 2 plots on soil heat. Separating the plots
north and south (at right angles to the soil heat area) were 2 rows of
sweet corn cv. Jubilee. This served as a barrier between the cold water
irrigation and thermal water irrigation treatments.
Irrigation pipe was laid along each side of the plot beside and parallel
to the corn rows. Rain Bird 25A sprinklers with 3/32 in. nozzles were
spaced on 40 ft centers giving an overall, spacing of 40 ft x 40 ft.
Sprinklers were set for 180° rotation so only the plot area between corn
rows would be irrigated with a particular irrigation treatment, cold or
thermal water.
PROCEDURE
The following information applies to the entire area and any additional
details that apply to one particular crop will be covered in the discus-
sion of individual crops.
On May 20, 1972, fertilizer was applied in band form down the center of
each bed. Row centers were 4 ft apart. Fertilizers included 600 Ibs
181
-------
16-20-0 per acre, 400 Ibs treble super phosphate per acre, and 83 Ibs
muriate of potash per acre. Granular "Diazinon" insecticide was applied
in the same manner at the rate of 4 Ibs active material per acre. This
rate was used for control of wireworms as suggested in the 1971 Oregon
Insect Control Handbook. Following application of the fertilizer and
insecticide, it was incorporated into the soil by rototilling.
In each plot, there were 9 different crops planted. Each crop, except
tomatoes, was planted in three 20 ft long rows spaced 4 ft apart. *
There was only one row of each variety of tomato planted instead of
the 3 rows of each of the other crops. Two rows of variety 'C. 1327'
were planted in Reps II and IV instead of 1 row 'C, 1327' and 1 row
'H. 1350' due to short supply of variety 'H. 1350.'
Crops were:
bush beans Blue Lake 274
tomato New Yorker, C. 1327, & H. 1350
pepper Calwonder
cabbage Golden Acre
onion Yellow Globe Danvers
lima (baby) Thaxter
beets Detroit Dark Red
celery Utah #15
cucumber Pioneer
Bush beans, limas, onions, celery, cucumbers, peppers, and tomatoes were
planted with a Planet-Jr. on May 25.
On May 26, the red beets were planted; the cabbage was planted June 5.
A Panet-Jr. seeder was used for both crops.
The celery seed did not germinate properly so there was no celery crop
to harvest. Shortly after the other crops began to emerge, flea beetles
182
-------
and cucumber beetles began doing some damage to certain of the seedlings.
On June 21, all crops were sprayed with the insecticide Sevin 50 W at a
rate of 1 Ib active material per acre, mixed at rate of 100 gals water
per acre.
Tensiometers were placed at several locations in rows of peppers both
on and off soil heat. Each location included three tensiometers, at
depths of 6, 12, and 18 in. Readings were taken regularly (Figure 65)
and were used to aid in the scheduling of irrigations.
When irrigations were made, cold well water (50-55°F) and thermal water
(98-118°F) were applied at the same tiime and quantities (Table 31).
Tomatoes and cucumber seedlings were thinned on June 28. The tomatoes
were at approximately the 4th to 5th true leaf stage and were thinned to
a spacing of one to two plants per 12 in. of row.
The crops were again sprayed with Sevin 50 W at the rate of 1 Ib active
material per acre on July 4. Spraying was primarily for the control of
flea beetles and cucumber beetles. A few hornworms were noted on some
of the tomato plants but populations and damage were not great enough to
merit a special spray program for their control.
Weeding of the area was done by pulling or hoeing. No herbicides were
used due to the many varieties of crops grown in a small area.
On July 17, cabbage plants were thinned to 15 in. apart; they were 5 to
7 in. tall and had five to six true leaves at thinning. The peppers
were thinned the same day at the same spacing as the cabbage (15 in.
apart); they were 4 to 5 in. tall and at the four to five true leaf
stage.
Several root maggots were observed on some of the young cabbage plants;
however, the problem wasn't severe enough to warrant a special spray
program.
183
-------
Figure 65: Tensiometer
-------
Table 31. PRECIPITATION AND IRRIGATION, BOTH THERMAL AND COLD WATER,
APPLIED (INCHES) TO PLOTS DURING JUNE, JULY, AND AUGUST.
June 2
7
8
9
10
n
15
22
29
.55
.08a
.49a
.68a
.59a
.05a
.02a
1.00
1.20
July 8
8
14
29
August 9
14
16
20
29
.55
-06a
1.10
1.50
2.00
.02a
1.41a
.27a
1.50
Values followed by a were rainfall, others were irrigation applications,
185
-------
Two more sprayings of the crops with Sevin 50 W were carried out (July 7
and August 3) during the rest of the growing season. The insecticide
was applied at the rate of 1 Ib active material per acre, but instead of
mixing it with 100 gal water, it was concentrated to 1 Ib active material
per 20 gal water per acre.
On August 16 and 17, foliar samples were taken from several of the crops
and analyzed for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Zm, and Mn. Samples consisted of:
Table beets—Petiole of mature leaf, not from leaves that
were very old or showed signs of drying
Onions—Mature leaf but not those that were dried
i
i
Peppers—4th mature leaf down from tip of plant
Lima beans—4th trifoliate leaf
Cabbage—Mid-rib of wrapper leaf
Cucumbers
A 10 ft section of one row in each plot was harvested seven times during
the period July 26 to September 7. After each harvest, the cucumbers
from each plot were counted, weighed, and graded into six classes—
Nos. 1, 2, 3, over 3, crooks, and nubs and culls.
Snap Beans
Two harvests were made of a 5 ft section from one row in each plot.
The plants from the 5 ft section were pulled and all the beans were
taken at each harvest. This simulated a typical machine harvesting
operation. The beans were taken immediately to Oregon State University
and run through a commercial-type bean grader. Beans were graded out
into five classes and each was weighed separately. Classes (accord-
ing to seive size) were as follows: 1-2, 3, 4, 5, and 6-7. The harvest
dates were July 31 and August 2, 1972.
186
-------
Cabbage was harvested on two dates as the heads became mature—August 24
and September 11, 1972. The heads from a 15 ft section of one row in
each plot were harvested, counted, and weighed. A grading system was not
used.
Peppers
Peppers were harvested on September 18 and November 8, 1972; a 10 ft
section was taken from one row in each plot. Harvested fruit were weighed,
counted, and graded in classes of U.S. Fancy, No. 1, No. 2, and culls.
Tomatoes
On August 26 the tomatoes were sprayed with the fungicide Maneb. It
was applied at the rate of 3 Ib Maneb, mixed in 20 gal water per acre.
It was applied for the control of Early Blight. There were three harvests
of the variety 'New Yorker1—September 20, October 6, and October 27,
1972. Varieties 'H. 1350' and 'C. 1327' were harvested only two times,
October 6 and October 27, 1972. A 10 ft section of each variety in
each plot was harvested. Fruit from each plot were weighed, counted, and
classed as U.S. No. 1 and No. 2 canning and culls.
" ' -' •' ,i
Lima Beans
A 10 ft section from each plot was harvested on September 22, 1972.
The beans from each plot were shelled and weighed. Grading was not done.
'{'•
Onions
On October 4, 1972, a 10 ft section of one row of onions in each plot
was harvested, weighed, counted, and graded into three classes: U.S.
No. 1, No. 2, and culls.
187
-------
TABULAR DATA: SOIL HEAT/IRRIGATION
Table
32. Nutrient Levels (Dry wt Basis) of Selected Vegetable Crops
from Soil Heated and Control Blocks
33. Effect of Soil Heat on Yield of 'Thaxter1 Lima Beans
34. Effect of Heated Soil on Yield of Table Beet, cv. Detroit
Dark Red
35. Influence of Heated Soil and Thermal Irrigation on Yield of
Snap Beans, cv. Bush Blue Lake 274, on Two Harvest Dates
36 Effect of Soil Heat on Yield and Grade of Tomato cvs. H. 1350,
C. 1327, and New Yorker
37. Effect of Soil Heat on Yield and Grade of Pickling Cucumber,
cv. Pioneer Hybrid
38. Effect of Soil Heat on Grade and Yield of Onions, cv. Danvers
Yellow Globe
39. Effect of Soil Heat on Yield 'Golden Acre1 Cabbage
188
-------
00
Table 32. NUTRIENT LEVELS (DRY MT BASIS) OF SELECTED VEGETABLE CROPS FROM SOIL HEATED AND CONTROL BLOCKS.
(SAMPLES TAKEN AUGUST 16 and 17. 1972).
OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY
£EETS* ONIONS"
Soil heat Control
Total
N (%)
P W
K W
Ca (%)
Mg {»)
2n (ppat)
Mn (ppm)
2.77
0.49
5.66
0.07
U?
30
95
2.78
0.51
6.46
0.07
1.20
36
90
Soil heat Control
4.68
0.41
3.32
0.17
0.55
25
72
4.62
0.43
3.76
0.16
0.49
28
lOp
SNAPBEANSV
Soil heat
5.09
0.47
3.42
0.23
0.67
45
93
Control
5.06
0.44
3.42
0.19
0,62
39
90
PEPPERS*
Soil heal
5.79
0.46
4.99
0.19
1.00
112
263
t Control
5.69
0.42
4.89
0.19
0.97
105
242
LIMA
Soil heat
5.02
0.34
2.49
0.36
0,70
42
100
BEANS):
Control
4,21
0.33
2.42
0.30
0.63
75
144
CABBAGE*
Soil heat Control
4.11
0.68
4.12
0.23
0.49
42
70
4.23
0.69
4.66
0.22
0.49
39
69
SWEET CORN2
Soil heat Centre 1
3.52
.42
2.68
.08
.26
41
77
3.33
0.33
2.57
0.07
0.33
42
61
Samples consisted of:
t petiole of mature, but not old leaf
u mature leaf-taken before drying starts
v 4th trifoliate leaf
w 4th mature leaf down from tip
x 4th trifoliate leaf
y midrib of wrapper leaf
z midrib from center section of mature leaf
-------
Table 33. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON YIELD OF 'THAXTER1 LIMA BEANS.
Lbs/10 ft plot
Treatment
Soil heat
Control
Fresh plant
wt
10. 3a
7.4b
Fresh pod Ungraded shelled bean
and bean wt
10. 3a
8.9a
wt
4. la
3.2b
'-, ' V r- -,
Means within a column followed by different letter differ signifi-
cantly at 5% level; means followed by same letter are not signifi-
cantly different.
190
-------
Table 34. EFFECT OF HEATED SOIL ON YIELD OF TABLE BEET, CV. DETROIT
DARK RED2
Treatment
Lbs/acre
Larger than
1-1/2 in. dia
Smaller than
1-1/2 in. dia
Soil heat
Control
623a
431 b
8389a
9150a
zMeans followed by different letters significantly different at 1%
level.
191
-------
Table 35. INFLUENCE OF HEATED SOIL AND THERMAL IRRIGATION ON YIELD
OF SNAP BEANS, CV. BUSH BLUE LAKE 2/4, ON TWO HARVEST DATES
Treatments
July 31, 1972, Harvest
% seive size
Avg No. Yield distribution
plants/ft row tons/acre 1-4 5 6-7
Soil heat
Control
7.3
7.2
4,0 80 10 10
4.4 75 25 0
August 2, 1972, Harvest
Treatments
Avg No.
pi ants/ft row
Yield .
tons/acre^
% seive size
distribution
1-4 5 6-7
Soil heat
Control
7.2
6.6
8.7e. 45 40 15
4.8b 60 30 10
"Means followed by different letters significantly different at 1% level
192
-------
Table 36. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON YIELD AND GRADE OF TOMATO CVS. H 1350,
C. 1327, AND NEW YORKER2
H. 1350
Treatment
Soi 1 heat
Control
C. 1327
Soil heat
Control
New Yorker
Soil heat
Control
Fresh wt
No. 1 Mo. 2
5.5a 13.7
11. 7b 15.5
Fresh wt
No. 1 No. 2
7.6 13.7
7.2 15.1
Fresh wt
No. 1 No. 2
^17.3 24.5
16.3 20.8
in tons/ acre
Green Culls
21.7 20.3
20.6 36.8
in tons/acre
Green Culls
18.1 26.5
18.3 19.5
in tons/ acre
Green Culls
5.4 18.7
4.2 15.6
Total
61.7
34.6
Total
65.0
60.1
Total
66.0
57.4
zMeans within a column in each series followed by different letters dif-
fer significantly at 5% level; other means nonsignificantly different.
193
-------
Table 37. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON YIELD AND GRADEX OF PICKLING
.CUCUMBER, CV. PIONEER HYBRID.2
Tons Cucumbers/avfl
No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 d Nubs Culls
Soil heat 3.2a 12.la 9.la 10.9a 3.5a
Control 3.6b 15.2b 11.9b 10.3a 2.7a
^
Grades based on diameter: No. 1 (under 1 in. dia), No. 2 (1 to
1-1/2 in. dia), No. 3 (1-1/2 to 2 in. dia).
zMeans within a column followed by different letters differ sig-
nificantly at the 5% level.
194
-------
Table 38. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON GRADE AND YIELD OF ONIONS, CV.
DANVERS YELLOW GLOBE
Ibs/acre
U.S. U.S.
No. I No. 2 Culls
Soil heat 12660 1231 48
Control 12712 1343 464
195
-------
Table 39. EFFECT OF SOIL HEAT ON YIELD 'GOLDEN ACRE1 CABBAGE
cwt/acre
Soil heat 253
Control 284
196
-------
SECTION IX
REFERENCES
1. Technology Review (MIT), November 1971.
2. AEC Public Information Announcement No. 623, January 25, 1973.
3. J. K. Ballard. Frost and Frost Control in Washington Orchards.
Extension Bulletin 634. Washington State University, 1972.
4. J. K. Ballard. Tree Fruit Newsletter. Yakima County Extension
Service, Yakima, WA, January 1969.
5. C. B. Cordy. Frost Protection in Pear Orchards with Over-Tree
Sprinklers. Co-op Extension Service Special Report 196. Oregon
State University.
6. J. K. Ballard, E. L. Proebsting, and R. B. Tukey, Cherries—
Critical Temperatures for BTIossom Buds. Extension Circular 371.
Washington State University, 1971.
7. J. K. Ballard, E. L. Proebsting, and R. B..Tukey. Pears—Critical
Temperatures for Blossom Buds. Extension Circular 370. Washington
State University, 1971.
8. J. K. Ballard, E. L. Proebsting, and R. B. Tukey, .Apples—Criti-
cal Temperatures for Blossom Buds. Extension Circular 369. Wash-
ington State University, 1971.
9. J. K. Ballard, E. L. Proebsting, and R. B. Tukey. Peaches—Critical
Temperatures for Blossom Buds. Extension Circular 373. Washington
State University, 1971.
10. Oregon Crop-Weather Summary Report. U.S.D.A. Statistical Reporting
Service, Portland, OR, April 6, 1970.
197
-------
11. Oregon Crop-Weather Summary Report. U.S.D.A. Statistical Reporting
Service, Portland, OR, April 13, 1970.
' I '
12. Climatological Handb^^^ Vol. 1,
Part A. Pacific Northwest River Basins Commission, Vancouver, WA,
1968.
13. E. L. Proebsting and H. H. Mills. "A Comparison of Hardiness Re-
sponses in Fruit Buds of 'Bing1 Cherry and 'Elberta' Peach", Journal
of the Amejr^^ Vol. 97, No. 6,
1972, pp. 802-806.
14. H. B. Schultz and J. V. Lider. Frost Protection wHh Overhead
Sprinklers. Extension Leaflet 201. University of California, 1968.
15. J. W. Wolfe. Sprinkling[for^ Frosj: Prot^ection, Experiment Station
Special Report 280. Oregon State University, 1969.
16. C. B. Cordy. Frost Protectioni_J_n Pear^Orchards wjth Over-tree
Sprinklers, Experiment Station Special Report 196. Oregon State
University, 1965.
17. F. A. Brooks. Agrioilture Engineer's Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1961, pp. 532-534.
18. D. 6. Watts, C. R. Dehlinger, J. W. Wolfe, and M. N. Shearer.
Consumptive Use jaf New Irrigation A6^.^!^^^!!^^^?1,* Agri-
culture Experiment Station Circular of Information 628. Oregon
State University, 1968.
19. Soil Survey of tjie Eugene Area. Oregon, U.S.D.A. No. 33 Series, 1925.
20. LaneCountyjJSpij1j Survey Area, Form 0. R. 127. Lane County Soil
Conservation Service, Eugene, OR.
198
-------
21. K. R. Frost and H. C. Schwalen. "Sprinkler Evaporation Losses,"
Agricultural Engineer. Vol. 6, No. 8, 1955, pp. 526-528.
22. C. H. Pair, J. L. Wright, and M. E. Jensen. Sprinkler Irrigation
Spray Temperatures. Transactions of the ASAE, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1969,
pp. 314-315.
23. Leif Verner. A New Kind of Dendrometer. College of Agriculture
Experiment Station Bulletin 389. University of Idaho, 1962.
24. Leif Verner, et al. Trunk Growth as a Guide in Orchard Irrigation.
College of Agriculture Research Bulletin 52. University of Idaho,
1962.
25. Ceel Van Den Brink and Robert L. Carol us. Removal of, Atrnospher i c
Stresses from' PjAn_^^ Michigan
Agricultural Experiment Station Quarterly Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 3,
1965, pp. 358-363.
26. Claude H. Pair, et al. "Environmental Control," Sprinklejr inriCa-
tion. Sprinkler Irrigation Association, Washington, DC, 1969,
pp. 345-349.
27. L. Boersma. "Nuclear Waste Heat Could Turn Fields Into Hotbeds,"
Crops and Science. Vol. 22, No. 7, 1970, pp. 15-16.
28. F. C. Raney and Y. Mihara. "Water and Soil Temperature," Irriga-
tion of Agricultural Lands. R. M. Hayan, H. R. Haise, and T. W.
Edminster, ed., American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, 1967,
pp. 1024-1036.
29. R. A. Shroeder. The Effect of Root Temperature Upon the Absorp-
tion of Water by the Cucumber. PhD Thesis, University of Missouri,
1938.
199
-------
30. S. J. Richards, R. M. Hagan, and T. M. McCalla. Soil Temperature
and Plant Growth—Soil Physical Conditions and Plant Growth.
B. T. Shaw, ed., Academy Press, Inc., NY, 1952, pp. 303-480.
31. W. Barr and H. Pellett. "Effect of Soil Heat on Growth and Develop-
ment of Some Woody Plants," Journal of the American Society of
Horticultural Science, Vol. 97, No. 5, 1972, pp. 632-635.
32. 0. W. Carncross. American Tomato Yearbook> Vol. XXI. C. Stedman
MacFarland, Jr., Westfield, NJ, 1969.
33. R. N. Rosenthal, C. G. Woodbridge, and C. L. Pfeiffer. "Root
Temperature and Nutrient Levels of Chrysanthemum Shoots, " Horti-
cultural Science. Vol. 8, No. 1, 1973, pp. 26-27.
34. G. T. Nightingale. "Effects of Temperature on Metabolism in Tomato,"
Botanical Gazette. Vol. 95, 1933, pp. 35-38.
35. H. A. Knoll, N. C. Brady, and D. J. Lathwell. "Effect of Soil
Temperature and Phosphorus Fertilization on Growth and Phosphorus
Content of Corn," Agronomy Journal, Vol. 56, 1964, pp. 145-167.
36. R. L. Carol us. "Calcium and Potassium Relationships in Tomatoes
and Spinach," Proceedings of the American Society of Horticultural
Science, Vol. 54, 1949, pp. 281-285.
37. K. F. Nielsen, et al. "The Influence of Soil Temperature on Growth
and Mineral Composition of Corn, Bromegrass, and Potatoes," Pro-
ceedings of the Soil Science Society of America, Vol. 25, 1961,
pp. 369-372.
38. A. N. Roberts and A. L. Kenworthy. "Growth and Composition of
Strawberry Plant in Relation to Root Temperature and Intensity of
Nutrition," Proceedings of theAmerican Society of Horticultural ?
Science, Vol. 68, 1956, pp. 157-168.
200
-------
39. L. Boersma. "Warm Water Boosts Crop Yields," Oregon's Agricultural
Progress. Oregon State University, Fall 1970.
40. E. L. Probesting. "The Effect of Soil Temperature in Mineral
Nutrition of Strawberry," Proceedings of theAmericanSociety of
Horticu1tural Sci ence. Vol. 69, 1957, pp. 279-281.
41. E. W. Roberts. Cantaloupes, Fruit and VeqetablIe Facts and Pointers .
United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association, Washington, DC, 1959.
42. Portland Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Wholesale Market Prices. U.S.D.A
Consumer and Marketing Service, Fruit and Vegetable Division, Market
News Branch, Portland, OR, 1972.
43. "Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Market News," Port!and Daily Report.
U.S.D.A. Agriculture Marketing Service, Vol. LVV, No. 33.
44. S. H. Wittwer, S. Honma, and W. Robb. Practices for Increasing
Yields_Af1-xGr^j^_sje_j-_ettyc_e> Agricultural Experiment Station
Research Report 22. Michigan State University, East Lansing.
45. Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin. Lucius W. Dye, ed., U.S. Dept.
of Commerce—U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Vol, 59, 1972.
46. C. E. Magoon. Tomato—Fruit and Vegetable Facts and Pointers.
United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association, December 1969.
47. J. W. Courter, et al. The Feasibility of Growing Greenhouse Tomatoes
in Southern 111inois, Co-op Extension Service Circular 914. University
of Illinois, College of Agriculture, 1965.
48. John Wiebe. Greenhouse Vegetable Production in Ontario. Ontario
Ministry of Agriculture and Food Publication 526.
201
-------
49. Preliminary Greenhouse Cucumber Variety Trial Studies (Unpublished).
Horticulture Research Institute of Ontario, 1970-1972.
50. Hunter Johnson. Greenhouse Vegetable Production, One-Sheet Answer
Series, OSA #249. University of California, Riverside.
51. Merle H. Jensen. "Take a Look at Seedless Cukes," American Vegetable
Grower. Meister Publishing Co., Willoughby, OH, 1971, p. 20.
202
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SECTION X
APPENDICES
Page
A. Economics Data 204
B. Letters of Endorsement 211
C. Water Analyses 214
D. Soils Map 233
E. Technical Rationale 234
Area Water and Power Requirements 234
203
-------
o
TABLE A-l
ANNUAL COST/ACRE FOR CROP PROTECTION AND IRRIGATION
Total Annual
Frost Protection Irrigation Plant Cooling Fixed Cost
System (Per Acre Per Year) (Per Acre Per Year) (Per Acre Per Year) (Per Acre Per Year)
Multi-use $82.81
Solid Fuel Plus Irrigation $20.385^) Not Possible 20.385
Central Distribution $71.3470) 20.3850) Not Possible 91.732
(1) Based upon a capital recovery factor of 0.1359 (10-year amortization at 6% interest)
-------
rv>
o
01
TABLE A-2
ANNUAL OPERATIONAL COST FOR CROP PROTECTION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEM
Solid Fuel & Hand- Central Distribution
System Cost Moved Irrigation & Hand-Moved Irriga.
Factor/Acre Multi-use Cost per Acre Cost per Acre
Frost Protection $ 1.16 $250.00 $280.00
Power/Fuel 1.80 2.57 2.57
Irrigation & Plant Cooling
Pawer 4.64 3.48 3.48
Labor 3.60 9.00 9.00
TOTAL ANNUAL COST/ACRE $11.20 $265.00 $295.00
-------
TABLE A-3
TOTAL ANNUAL COST PER ACRE FOR THREE CROP PROTECTION AND IRRIGATION SYSTEMS
System
Annual Fixed
Cost
Annual Operational
Cost per Acre
Total Annual
Cost
Multi-Use
Solid Fuel & Hand-Move
Irrigation
Central Distribution
& Hand-Move Irrigation
$82.81
20.385
91.732
$ 11.20
265.05
295.05
$ 92.74
285.435
386.782
-------
TABLE A-4
Calculations for annual operational costs/acre for crop protection and irrigation.
A. Multi-use System
1. Frost Protection: Annual Pumping (Ibs H?0) x total head (ft) $
a) Power cost1 = 1,980,000 ft-lbs x 1.34~hp x efficiency X KWH
H KW
hp
75.751.200x170 m = $80 89/orchard
« 1,980,000 x 1.34 x .60 * '01 $80-8(9o/°rchard
80^80 = $1l6/acre
Annual pumping = 54 gpm/acre x 70 acres x 60 min/hr x 40 hrs x 8.35 Ibs/-
gal = 75,751,200 ibs water
Overall efficiency = 60%
Total head= 170ft
b) Labor cost = assuming time is equal to that required for one complete irri-
gation with a hand-move system as in Part 82 = 0.9 man hrs/acre x $2.00/man
hr = $1.80/acre
2. Irrigation and Plant Cooling:
a) Power cost — same formula as above
Assuming five 24 hr irrigation and ten 4 hr plant cooling periods during the
summer season at 54 gpm = $4.64/acre
b) Labor cost — assuming time is equal to that required for two complete irri-
fationswith a hand-move system as in Part B2 = 0.9 x $2.00 x 2 irrigations —
3.60
B. Soiid Fuei & Hand-Move irrigation System
1. Frost Protection:
a) Fuel - $50.00 worth of material/night x 5 nights = $250.002
b) Labor — assuming 6 men are needed for 3 hrs/night/70 acre orchard
6 men x 3 hrs/night x 5 nights x $2.00/man hr x 1/70 acres = $2.57/acre
2. Irrigation:
a) Power — same as for irrigation in Part A, rate of application of water only
differs = $3.48/acre
b) Labor1 - 0.9 man hrs/acre/irrigation
Assuming labor at $2.00/hr and 5 irrigations/season
0.9 man hrs/acre/irrigation x 5 irrigations/$2.00/man hr = $9.00/acre
C. Central Distribution & Hand-Move Irrigation System
1. Frost Protection:
a) Fuel3 - 40 heaters/acre x 1 gal/heater/hr x 40 hrs x 17.5«f/gal = $280.00/acre
b) Labor — assuming 6 men are required for 3 hrs each night for a 70 acre orchard4
6 men x 3 hrs x 5 nights x $2.00/man hr x 1 /70 acres = $2.57/acre
2. Irrigation
a) Power - same as Part B = $3.48/acre
b) Labor - same as Part B = $9.00/acre
1 Jensen (1966) listed in Reference Section
2 From information in advertisements and articles in February, 1963 and February, 1971 American Fruit Grower, Western Edition
3 Anon., 1968 - listed in Reference Section
4 Anon., 1968 - listed in Reference Section
207
-------
TABLE A-5
ro
o
oo
ITEM DOLLARS/SQ FT
Materials for framework
Labor to erect framework and attach film
Plastic film (UV "Poly")
Structure Sub-total
Thermal water heating & ventilation system
Electric Wiring
Environmental Control Sub-total
$0.222
0.082
0.029
0.492
0.038
$0.333
0.530
Bal. Fwd.
Irrigation System 0.078 0.078
Contingency Factor (20%) 0.188 0.188
TOTAL COST/SQ FT $1.129
-------
ro
o
10
TABLE A-6
CROP VALUE USING WHOLESALE PRICE IN PORTLAND, OR
Harvest Date
April 24, 1972
July 14-
Sept. 12, 1972
Type of Produce
Lettuce—Grand Rapids
Lettuce—Bibb
Tomatoes— H.I 439
— H.1350
Fireball
Willamette
Min/Price/Acre
$ 5,437
8,478
27,693
13,311
12,587
11,788
Max/Price/Acre
$ 8,192
15,109
37,424
15,104
14,283
13,376
May 12-
Sept. 11, 1972 Japanese Salad Cucumbers 156,400 273,700
-------
TABLE A-7
SELECTED CROPS—MINIMUM RETURN $ (1972)
Crop Price per Acre
Lettuce—Grand Rapids $ 5,437
Tomatoes—H.I439 (See comments on xxxii)
Japanese Salad Cucumbers 156,400
Gross Return $161,837
SELECTED CROPS—MAXIMUM RETURN $ (1972)
Crop Price per Acre
Lettuce—"Bibb" $15,109
Tomatoes—H.I439 (See comments on xxxii)
Japanese Salad Cucumbers 273,700
Gross Return $288,809
-------
i:<[ i
^ *. ' . a
73
OFFICE OF THE GOVERNOR
STATE CAPITOL
SALEM 973IO
TOM McCALL
GOVERNOR
June 7, 1973
Mr. Byron Price
General Manager
Eugene-Water & Electric Board
P. 0. Box 10148
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Dear Byron:
I take this opportunity to congratulate you and
the Eugene Water & Electric Board for a significant research
effort in your warm water studies.
The Springfield warm water demonstration project
pioneered by the Eugene Water & Electric Board has proved
the value of warm industrial waste water for agricultural
uses. ' ff-
This project utilizing warm water for frost protection,
soil heating and irrigation will have far-reaching effects on
future agri-nuclear projects.
The information gained by this endeavor will
encourage close cooperation between the power industry and
agriculture in developing nuclear thermal power plants
in conjunction with agricultural irrigation projects.
Your pioneering efforts in the field of warm
water utilization will have far-reaching benefits to the
economy of Oregon.
Sincerely,
Governor
TM:cs
211
-------
KM.P jV'
Fiinr. • .•,
CECIL D. ANDrtUS:
GOVERNOR
-8
IDAHO NUCLEAR ENERGY
DONALD J. MACKAY, CHAIRMAN -. IDAHO FALLS
ALBERT E. WILSON. VICE CHAIRMAN -• POCATELLO
EUGENE P. BERRY - BLACKFOOT
ROBERT M. BRUGGER - IDAHO FALLS
STATE OF IDAHO
OFFICE OF
NUCLEAR ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
May 21. 1973
GENE P. RUTLEDGE
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR
STATEHOUSE
BOISE, IDAHO 83707
P. O. BOX 2234
IDAHO FALLS, IDAHO 834OI
TELEPHONE 208.923.2886
Mr. Byron Price, General Manager
Eugene Nater and Electric Board
P. 0. Box 1112
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Dear Byron:
It certainly was a pleasure to see you in Boise a few days ago at the
Energy Symposium sponsored by our University of Idaho.
During this session it became more and more apparent that our energy
needs are going to climb swiftly in the near future and that the amount
of reject (or waste) heat will also get greater and greater.
I would like to commend you for your effort on the agricultural
utilization of hot water from the industrial plant near Springfield,
Oregon. Our office is trying to do something similar in Idaho, albeit
on a much more modest scale. Therefore, I plan to read the final
report of your thermal water demonstration project in detail.
I hope that more people will follow your lead in an effort to utilize
the potential energy that is tied up in our industrial and nuclear
thermal effluents.
Yours truly,
Gene P.'Rutledge
Executive Director
GPRem
212
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P.O. BOX 15038 • LAKEWOOD, COLORADO 80215 • (303) 238-8383
DR. ALFRED T. WHATLEY
Executive Director
May 9, 1973
Mr. Byron Price, General Manager
Eugene Water and Electric Board
P. 0. BOX 1112
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Dear Mr. Price:
Our Western Interstate Nuclear Board 1s very Interested In the
meaningful utilization of warm water from Industrial (especially
nuclear) plants. This Interest 1n our WINB has been so strong
that we formed a Thermal Effluents Application Committee which
Is addressing Itself to the utilization of these low grade BTU's.
As 1t now stands, our projects that are underway will utilize
the Information that you have gained during your Thermal Water
Demonstration Project near Springfield, Oregon.
Your 1nter1um progress reports have been very valuable to us,
and we are anxious to study your final report.
Our Western Interstate Nuclear Board appreciates the many con-
siderations that you have shown to our board representatives.
We also express our pleasure at the foresight that you and your
associates have shown.
Yourj truly,
Donal
Chairman
Western Interstate Nuclear Board
DCG/cm
213
-------
GENERAL LABORATORY REPORT
Sample Source: Weyerhaeuser Corporation No: A-105-1
Springfield, Oregon
Date: September 5, 1968
Material: Cooling Water By: Vitro Corporation
Physical Properties
General Appearance: Clear
Odor: None
Analysis
pH 6.8
P Alkalinity 0.0 ppm
M Alkalinity 37.0 ppm
Total Solids 86.0 ppm
Suspended Solids Trace
Dissolved Solids 86.0 ppm
Calcium as Ca 6.4 ppm
Magnesium as Mg 3.8 ppm
Sodium as Na 4.6 ppm
Iron as Fe 0.05 ppm
Phosphate as .PO^ 0.0 ppm
Chloride as Cl 3.6 ppm
Signature Lee Henry
Date 9-13-68
WATER TREATMENT CORP. OF AMERICA - 2852 N. W. 31st Ave., Portland, Ore. - Phone (503) 226-1451
214
-------
REPORT
ViTRO CORPORATION OF AMERICA
Sample Source: 22%k OaUont Way
Eugene. Oregon 97^02
ATTN: Mr. Col in Nilsson
Haterial: Weyerhaeuser Coo!ing Water
No: A-212-2
Date: 8-25-69
By: Vitro Corporation
Physical Properties
General Appearance: Clear
Odor:
None
Analysis
PH
P Alka!inity as CaCO,
M Alkalinity as CaCO,
!otal Sol ids
Suspended Sol ids
D is solved Sol ids
Calcium as Ca
Magnesium as Mg
Sodium as Na
Iron as Fe
Phosphate as PO,
Chloride as Cl
7-1
0.0
29.0
71.0
8.0
63.0.
4.0
2.2
3.8
0.1
0.0
1.6
NOTE: The above results are reported in
mg/1 (ppm) with the exception of pH
E-2
(215)
Signature
Oate
WATER TREATMENT COW, OF AMERICA - 2852 N.W. 31st Ave.. Portland. Ore. - Phone {503i 226-1^3!
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The
Corporation
EXECUTIVE OFFICES • 2O6OO CHAGRIN BLVD. • CLEVELAND, OHIO
June 15, 1970
Reply to:
Watcoa Division
2852 N. W. 31st Avenue
Portland, Oregon 87210
Mr. Dick Tipton
Vitro Hanford Engineering Services
2284 Oakmont Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
LABORATORY REFERENCE NO.
A-314-A, A-314-B
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the McKenzie River water and the pumping pit samples
we received in our laboratories on June 11, 1970.
MCKENZIE RIVER WATER ANALYSIS
pH 7.2
P Alkalinity as CaCO3 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO3 30.0
Total Solids 19.0
Suspended Solids 3.0
Dissolved Solids 16.0
Calcium as Ca 3.5
Magnesium as Mg 2.0
Sodium as Na 3.7
Iron as Fe 1.0
Phosphate as P0> 1.27
Chloride as Cl 0.9
216
Plants
Chagrin Falls. Ohio
Charlotte. North Carolina
Arlington, Texas
Phoenix, Arizona
Canada
Continental Chemicals. Ltd.
Winnipeg. Manitoba
Australia
The Nightingale Supply Co.. Ltd.
Sydney. N.S.W.
-------
Mr. Dick Tipton Page 2
Vitro Hanford Engineering Services June 15, 1970
PIMPING PIT ANALYSIS
pH 6.9
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 36.0
Total Solids 30.0
Suspended Solids 3.0
Dissolved Solids 27.0
Calcium as Ca 5.3
Magnesium as Mg 3.5
Sodium as Na 4.7
Iron as Fe 1.5
Phosphate as PO, 0.67
Chloride as Cl 1.7
NOTE: All above results are reported in milligrams per liter,
except pH.
If we can be of further assistance -to you concerning the
analyses or evaluation of the data, .please ask.
Sincerely,
Lee Henry
Director of Laboratories
LH/ejl
217
-------
22 1970
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The HMPUI" Corporation
EXECUTIVE OFFICES • aoSOO CHAGRIN BLVD. • CLEVELAND, OHIO. 4.4122
Reply to:
Northwest Division
2852 N. W. 31st Avenue
Portland, Oregon 97210
October 21, 1970
Vitro Hanford Engineering Services
2284 oakmond Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Dick Tipton
Laboratory Reference No.: A-401-1, A-401-2
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the McKenzie River water and the pumping pit samples
collected by you and received in our laboratories on October
16, 1970.
McKENZIE RIVER WATER ANALYSIS
pH 6.7
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO, 30.0
Total Solids 56.0
Suspended Solids 2.0
Dissolved Solids 54.0
Calcium as Ca - 4.0
Magnesium as Mg 3.0
Sodium as Na 5.0
Iron as Fe 1.2
Phosphate as PO, 2.4
Chloride as Cl 1.1
218
Executive Offices Plants: Chagrin Falls. Ohio Arlington, Texas Canada Australia
20600 Chagrin Blvd. Charlotte. North Carolina Phoenix, Arizona Continental Chemicals, Ltd. The Nightingale Supply Co.. Ltd.
Cleveland, Ohio Minneapolis. Minnesota Portland, Oregon Winnipeg, Manitoba Sydney, N.S.W.
-------
-2-
Vitro Hanford Engineering Services October 21, 1970
Attention: Mr. Dick Tipton
PUMPING PIT ANALYSIS
pH 6.7
P Alkalinity as CaCO, 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO., 40.0
Total Solids 56.0
Suspended Solids 4.0
Dissolved Solids 52.0
Calcium as Ca 5.0
Magnesium as Mg 4.0
Sodium as Na 5.5
Iron as Fe 1.0
Phosphate as PO^ 2.1
Chloride as Cl 1.8
NOTE: All of the above results are reported in milligrams
per liter, except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses or evaluation of the above data, please ask.
Sincerely,
THE MOGUL CORPORATION
Lee Henry,
Director of Laboratories
219
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The Htfip** Corporation
NORTHWiST DIVISION
2862 N. W. 31»t AVENUE • PORTLAND, OREGON 97210 • TELEPHONE (503) 226-1461
March 19, 1971
Vitro Hanford Engineering Services
2284 Oakmond Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Dick Tipton
Laboratory Reference No. s A-484-1, A-484-2, & A-484-3
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the McKenzie River water, pumping pit, and base sample
north. These samples were collected by you and received in
our laboratories on March 17, 1971.
MCKENZIE RIVER WATER ANALYSIS
pH 6.9
P Alkalinity as CaCO3 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO3 26.0
Total Solids 54.0
Suspended Solids 5*0
Dissolved Solids 49.0
Calcium as Ca 4.7
Magnesium as Mg 1.6
Sodium as Na 35.5
Iron as Fe 0.10
Phosphate as PO4 0.23
Chloride as Cl 0.8
220
Executive Offices Plants: Chagrin Falls, Ohio Arlington, Texas Canada Australia
20600 Chagrin Blvd. Charlotte, North Carolina Phoenix, Arizona Continental Chemicals, Ltd. The Nightingale Supply Co., Ltd.
Cleveland, Ohio Minneapolis. Minnesota Portland, Oregon Winnipeg, Manitoba Sydney, N.S.W.
-------
Vitro Hanford Engr. Services -2- March 19, 1971
PUMPING PIT ANALYSIS
PH 6.9
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 20.0
Total Solids 59.0
Suspended Solids 8.0
Dissolved Solids 51.0
Calcium as Ca 5.5
Magnesium as Mg 1.6
Sodium as Na ' 35.5
Iron as Pe 0.15
Phosphate as PO^ 0.20
Chloride as Cl 1.6
BASE SAMPLE NORTH ANALYSIS
pH 6.5
P Alkalinity as CaCO, 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 20.0
Total Solids 352.0
i
Suspended Solids 155.0
Calcium as' Ca 12,4
Magnesium as Mg 3.5
Sodium as Na 47.0
Iron as Fe 9.0
Phosphate as P04 2.45
Chloride as Cl 2.0
Dissolved Solids 197.0
Note: All of the above results are reported in milligrams
per liter, except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses or evaluation of the above data, please ask.
Sincerely,
THE MOGUL CORPORATION
Lee Henry,
Director of Laboratories £21
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The fft©©ftH>* Corporation
NORTHWEST DIVISION
2852 N. W. 31st AVENUE • PORTLAND, OREGON 97210 • TELEPHONE (503) 226-1451
June 23, 1971 ;
Vitro Corporation
204 Oakmont Building
2300 Oakmont Way !
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Richard B. Tipton
Laboratory Reference No's: A-613-1,2,3, & 4
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the North Drain Line, South Drain .Line, The.McKenzie
River, and Pumping Pit. These samples were collected by you
and were received in our laboratories on June 16, 1971.
NORTH DRAIN LINE
pH 7.1
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO3 24.0
Total Solids 176.0
Suspended Solids 21.0
Dissolved Solids 155.0
Calcium as Ca 20.0
Magnesium as Mg 10.0
Sodium as Na 19.0
Iron as Fe 2.0
Phosphorus as P 0.313
Chloride as Cl 1.4
Ammonia (as N) 2.48
222
Executive Offices Plants: Chagrin Falls, Ohio Arlington, Texas Canada Australia
20600 Chagrin Blvd. Charlotte. North Carolina Phoenix, Arizona Continental Chemicals, Ltd. The Nightingale Supply Co., Ltd.
Cleveland. Ohio Minneapolis. Minnesota Portland, Oregon Winnipeg. Manitoba Sydney, N.S.W.
-------
-2-
Vitro Corporation June 23, 1971
SOUTH DRAIN LINE
pH 7.4
P Alkalinity as CaCCU 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 24.0
Total Solids 164.0
Suspended Solids 16.0
Dissolved Solids 148.0
Calcium as Ca 15.0
Magnesium as Mg 10.0
Sodium as Na 14.5
Iron as Fe 2.0
Phosphorus as P 0.251
Chloride as Cl 1.5
Ammonia (as N) 3.10
THE MCKENZIE RIVER
pH 7.5
P Alkalinity as CaCO, 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO3 24.0
Total Solids 150.0
Suspended Solids 8.0
Dissolved Solids 142.0
Calcium as Ca 5.0
Magnesium as Mg 5.0
Sodium as Na 14.0
Iron as Pe <0.1
Phosphorus as P 0.020
Chloride as Cl 0.7
Ammonia (as N) 0.08
PUMPING PIT
pH 7.1
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
223
-------
-3-
Vitro Corporation June 23, 1971
M Alkalinity as CaCOj ,24. OT
Total Solids 46.0
Suspended Solids 6.0
Dissolved Solids 40.0
Calcium as Ca 5.0
Magnesium as Mg 5.0
Sodium as Na 13.0
i
Iron as Fe <0.1
Phosphorus as P . 0.020
Chloride as Cl 0.75
* "i • •
Ammonia (as N) 0.16
All of the above results are reported in milligrams per liter
(mg/1), except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses, please ask.
Sincerely, ,
THE MOGUL CORPORATION
/, >^{i''"i
Lee' flenry, y
Director of '"Laboratories
LH/kmc
224
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
JUl ,
The |ft©®Ot. Corporation
NORTHWEST DIVISION
2852 N. W. 31st AVENUE . PORTLAND, OREGON 97210 . TELEPHONE (503) 226-1451
July 28, 1971
Vitro Corporation
204 Oakmont Building
2300 Oakmont Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Richard B. Tipton
Laboratory Reference Number: A-675
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the McKenzie River, the North Drain Line, the South
Drain Line, and Pumping Pit. These samples were collected by
you and were received in our laboratories on July 8, 1971.
THE MCKENZIE RIVER
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
pH 6.9
P Alkalinity as CaCX>3 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC
-------
Vitro Corporation - 2 -
NORTH DRAIN LINE
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
pH 6.2
P Alkalinity as CaCOs 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCOs 24.0
Total Solids 242.0
Dissolved Solids 218.0
Suspended Solids 24.0
Calcium as Ca 16.5
Magnesium as Mg 5.5
Sodium as Na 5.5
Phosphorus as P 0.248
Chloride as Cl 0.8
Iron as Fe 1.2
SOUTH DRAIN LINE
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
pH 6.1
P Alkalinity as CaCQ3 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCOs 22.0
Total Solids 244.0
Dissolved Solids 240.0
Suspended Solids 4.0
Calcium as Ca 16.5
Magnesium as Mg 5.0
Sodium as Na 6.0
Phosphorus as P 0.294
Chloride as Cl 1.1
Iron as Fe '0.7
226
-------
Vitro Corporation - 3 -
PUMPING PIT
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
PH 6.9
P Alkalinity as CaCC>3 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaCO$ 28.0
Total Solids 188.0
Dissolved Solids 185.0
Suspended Solids 3.0
Calcium as Ca 4.5
Magnes ium as Mg 4.5
Sodium as Na 3.5
Phosphorus as P 0.016
Chloride as Cl 1.6
Iron as Fe <0.05
All of the above results are reported in milligrams per liter
(mg/1), except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses, please ask.
Sincerely,
THE MpGUL CORPORATION
Lee Henry,
Director of Laboratories
LH/nv
227
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The
2852 N. W. 31st AVENUE .
August 9, 1971
Corporation
NORTHWEST DIVISION
PORTLAND, OREGON 97210 • TELEPHONE (503) 226-1451
Vitro Corporation
204 Oakmont Building
2300 Oakmont Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Richard B. Tipton
Laboratory Reference Number: A-707
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the McKenzie River, the Irrigation Water, the North Drain
Line (Cold) , and the South Drain Line (Warm) . These samples
were collected by you and were received in our laboratories on
July 29, 1971.
THE MCKENZIE RIVER
PH
P Alkalinity as CaC03
M Alkalinity as CaCOs
Total Solids
Total Dissolved Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Chloride as Cl
Calcium as Ca
Magnesium as Mg
Sodium as Na
Phosphorus as P
Iron as Fe
Ammonia (as N)
7.3
0.0
30.0
54.0
51.8
2.2
1.5
2.0
2.0
3.0
0.03
0.15
<0.2
228
Executive Offices
20600 Chagrin Blvd.
Cleveland, Ohio
Plants: Chagrin Falls, Ohio
Charlotte, North Carolina
Minneapolis. Minnesota
Arlington, Texas
Phoenix, Arizona
Portland, Oregon
Canada
Continental Chemicals, Ltd.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Australia
The Nightingale Supply Co., Ltd.
Sydney, N.S.W.
-------
Vitro Corporation - 2 -
THE IRRIGATION WATER
PH 7.1
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 32.0
Total Solids 120.0
Total Dissolved Solids 119.0
Total Suspended Solids 1.0
Chloride as Cl 1.12
Calcium as Ca 2.5
Magnesium as Mg 2.0
Sodium as Na 3.5
Phosphorus as P 0.35
Iron as Fe 0.15
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
THE NORTH DRAIN LINE (COliD)
pH 6.2
P Alkalinity as CaCC>3 °-°
M Alkalinity as CaCOs 36.0
Total Solids 176.0
Total Dissolved Solids 170.2
Total Suspended Solids 5.8
Chloride as Cl 1.8
Calcium as Ca 7.5
Magnesium as Mg 5.0
Sodium as Na 6.25
Phosphorus as P 0.30
Iron as Fe 1.10
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
229
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Vitro Corporation - 3 -
THE SOUTH DRAIN LINE (WARM)
pH 5.9
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 28.0
Total Solids 174.0
Total Dissolved Solids 171.4
Total Suspended Solids 2.6
Chloride as Cl 1.35
Calcium as Ca 9.5
Magnesium as Mg 6.0
Sodium as Na 6.25
Phosphorus as P 0.42
Iron asFe 0.50
Ammonia (as N) <0.2
All of the above results are reported in milligrams per liter
(mg/i), except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses, please ask.
Sincerely,
THE MOGUL CORPORATION
boratories
230
-------
WATER TREATMENT PRODUCTS AND SERVICES SINCE 1915
The
Corporation
NORTHWEST DIVISION
2852 N. W. 31st AVENUE . PORTLAND, OREGON 97210 . TELEPHONE (503) 226-1451
August 25. 1971
Vitro Corporation
204 oakmont Building
2300 Oakmont Way
Eugene, Oregon 97401
Attention: Mr. Richard B. Tipton
Laboratory Reference Number: A-726
Dear Mr. Tipton:
The following information summarizes the results we obtained
from the Irrigation Line and the Filter Dam. These samples
were collected by you and were received in our laboratories on
August 12, 1971.
THE IRRIGATION LINE
pH 6.9
f P Alkalinity as CaCOs 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 36.0
Total Solids 42.0
Total Dissolved Solids 41.4
Total Suspended Solids 0.6
Phosphorus as P 0.06
Chloride as Cl 3.9
Calcium as Ca 2.8
Magnesium as Mg 2.5
Sodium as Na 4.0
Ammonia as N <0.2
Iron as Fe 0.10
231
Executive Offices
20600 Chagrin Blvd.
Cleveland. Ohio
Plants: Chagrin Falls, Ohio Arlington. Texas
Charlotte, North Carolina Phoenix, Arizona
Minneapolis. Minnesota Portland, Oregon
Canada
Continental Chemicals, Ltd.
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Australia
The Nightingale Supply Co., Ltd.
Sydney. N.S.W.
-------
Vitro Corporation - 2 - August 25, 1971
THE FILTER DAM
pH 7.1
P Alkalinity as CaC03 0.0
M Alkalinity as CaC03 32.0
Total Solids 56.0
Total Dissolved Solids 41.0
Total Suspended Solids 15.0
Phosphorus as P 0.07
Chloride as Cl 1.1
Calcium as Ca 3.0
Magnesium as Mg 2.5
Sodium as Na 4.1
Ammonia as N <0.2
Iron as Fe 0.55
All of the above results are reported in milligrams per liter
(mg/1), except pH.
If we can be of further assistance to you concerning the
analyses, please ask.
Sincerely,
THE MOGUL CORPORATION
H. McDonald
Manager - Water Quality Services
JMD/nv
232
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-:-, a--H=
sssss-'^Hs-T-j-"" -.- .".^--7;- I--T^:V^:. -v-~-.--.- =-^=
I 1 KtWBERS S. I.
CAMAS 6. S. L.
CLOOUATO SILT L
SIFTON G. L
CHEHAUS SILTY C. L.
SOUS MAP
233
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AREA WATER AND POWER REQUIREMENTS
The thermal power requirements of the region form the basis for the
thermal water demonstration project at Springfield, Oregon. Power plants
are designed to meet loads and conditions facing the power supply agen-
cies at the time the plant is designed. The one settled on was to be
rated at 1 million kW with a load factor of 80 percent. This plant
would require a flow of 1420 cfs.
A million kW plant would raise the river water's temperature .3°F if the
flow is 100,000 cfs. A detailed study would be required to estimate the
effect of a large number of such plants if located on the Columbia and
Willamette. For example, if one or two plants were built in Oregon using
Columbia and Willamette flows, the indicated temperature rise would be
3°F when the flow in the Columbia below Portland is 100,000 cfs.
Raising the temperature of the Willamette and Columbia by the amount
indicated is not permitted under current water-quality standards, and
a relaxation of these standards probably will not occur. The present
tendency is to make them more stringent. Three alternative solutions
are: 1) assume plants will have cooling towers with consequent losses
of water to evaporation; 2) assume plants will have a closed cooling
system similar to an automobile radiator with only a minor loss of a
makeup water; or 3) assume that heated water will be used for irrigation.
With induced-draft cooling towers, the cost of power will be increased
by 5 to 15 percent over the cost where once-through cooling is used.
No heat would be added to the stream. With a closed cooling system,
the amount of makeup water required has been estimated to be about 1/10
or less of cooling tower requirements.
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Use of heated water for irrigation would require application of effluent
for 160 hrs per week throughout the growing season. Bypassing this con-
tinuous flow back into the river would not be permitted if, for some
reason, the irrigation need fluctuated to a level considerably below the
scheduled output. The flow in a once-through basis has been estimated
to be 1300 cfs in the initial study of Washington's requirements, and the
Portland General Electric Company has estimated a once-through flow of
2000 cfs would be required for its Trojan plant (1050 kW).
In the Willamette basin, the diversion rate for irrigation is 4.3 acre-
ft per acre. Using a flow rate of 1600 cfs, one plant of 1 million kW
capacity would furnish the diversion requirements for more than
110,000 acres, assuming a constant rate of diversion over the irrigation
system. Some difficulties may be experienced in achieving a proper
balance between irrigation development and low "growth" in power plants.
Use of this solution also would unduly restrict the design of future
generating plants.
Estimates of the cooling water evaporation loss by several agencies and
authors cover a large range. They have been converted where necessary
here to Ibs of water per kW generation for ease of comparison. Burns
and Roe, designers of the Fort Martin West Virginia plant (1,080,000 kW)
state that 16 million gallons of water will be evaporated daily, equi-
valent to 5.6 Ibs of water per kilowatt hour.
I • v ' -
A joint power-planning council in April 1967 stated that the consumptive
use would be 22 million gallons per day or per 1000 megawatts of installed
capacity, and they also indicate that a plant factor is approximately
equivalent to load factor at 90 percent. The consumptive use per kilo-
watt hour would be 8.5 Ibs. Battelle Northwest indicates that the con-
sumptive use of a 1 million kW plant with 80 percent plant factor would
be 12,588 acre-ft, equivalent to 4.9 Ibs per kilowatt hour. The engineer-
ing text Water Demands for Steam Electric Generation by Kootner and Loth,
John Hopkins Press, 1965, states that minimal consumptive use requirements
235
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will decrease with the present .7 toward .5 gallons per kilowatt hour,
equivalent to 5.8 to 4.2 Ibs per kilowatt hour. From this stage 1n eva-
poration rates, a value of 5.6 Ibs per kilowatt hour of generation 1s
selected. This corresponds to an annual evaporation of 14,500 acre-ft
for each standard size plant.
An advisory committee study indicates that a total of 109 plants each
with a generating capacity of 1 million kW will be necessary to meet
Oregon's load, and these have been assigned to various river basins.
Generally in accord with projected 2070 population for the basin, the
committee suggested that the environment be considered when locating
thermal power plants; but no method of doing this by use of presently
available climatic factors is feasible. Also, the science of predicting
the effect that a cooling tower would have on the surrounding atmosphere,
particularly the prediction of whether or not a detrimental fog condi-
tion would be created, has not been advanced to a readily usable state.
Several sites should be investigated for each proposed plant and data
on climatological factors pertaining to each site are vital.
An adjustment was made in the basins along the eastern and southeastern
part of the state. These areas will be short of water when irrigable
areas are developed and transportation of large heavy units for the con-
struction of nuclear power plants will be difficult. All the required
generation for these basins was assigned to plants below the John Day
Basin. In July 1968, Eugene Water & Electric Board engaged Vitro Engineer-
ing to perform a feasibility study on the possibilities of utilizing water
from a thermal plant that would meet necessary requirements. This report
was completed and submitted to EWEB in September 1968.
Included in the feasibility study was the outlining of Vitro's capability
to establish a program which would accommodate the climatological fac-
tors of the south Willamette Valley and to establish advantageous agri-
cultural schemes to demonstrate the multi-use concept for eventual better-
ment of the 110,000 acres in the upper Willamette.
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EWEB's consultants established a mathematical projection of utilization
of cooling water and how it could be used for frost control, irrigation,
and plant cooling. In addition, they established a rationale of environ-
mental effect. The purpose of the atmospheric program is somewhat dif-
ferent than, but directly associated with, the demonstration farm and
agronomic program. The atmospheric measurement would concentrate on
micro-climatological effect rather than research or the development of
techniques to answer two questions:
• How does the irrigation with warm water differ from irrigation
with cold water with respect to influence on energy balance?
• If there is a significant difference between warm and cold water
irrigation, what is its significance in terms of large and small
scale climate modification?
. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 546-318/375 1-3
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
f. Repbtttfo.
3. Accession ?fc..
4. Title
A Demonstration of Thermal Water Utilization in Agriculture
rjaitt* 0rgaaf$aifDa ' •'
• - '"
7. . AuthoT(s)
Berry, James W. and Herman H. Miller, Jr.
10. Project No,
9. Organization
Eugene Water and Electric Board
with project management by
Vitro Engineering
11. Contract/Grant No.
S802032
13,
*«?
'
15. Supplementary Notes
Environmental Protection Agency report No. EPA-660/2-74-011, April 1974.
16. Abstract
A five-year demonstration project was conducted to determine benefits and identify
harmful effects of using waste heat in condenser cooling water (90°F-110°F) for
agricultural purposes.
Initial phases of the demonstration emphasized the use and evaluation of warm
water for spring frost protection, irrigation, and plant cooling during summer.
Various row crops and fruit and nut trees were included in the evaluation.
Undersoil heating was demonstrated on a 1.2 acre soil plot. Two and one half
inch plastic pipes were buried 26 inches deep and 5 feet on center, connecting to
6 "inch steel headers. >Warm water was circulated through the grid, heating soil ori
which row crops were grown.
A plastic greenhouse (22' x 55') was constructed on a portion of the undersoil
heat grid. Greenhouse crop production was thoroughly evaluated.
Conclusions indicate that the greatest potential benefit of waste heat use in
agriculture is in the area of greenhouse soil heating. Monetary benefits from industri
al waste heat appear achievable through proper management.
17a. Descriptors
*Beneficial use-Industrial water, *Thermal water, *Water utilization, Heated water,
Water pollution control, Thermal pollution, Agriculture, *Frost protection, Irrigation
water, *Soil-water-piant relationships, Soil temperature.
17b. Identifiers
Waste heat use in agriculture, Thermal pollution control, *Soil heating.
. 17c. CO WRR Field & Group Q5F
IS. Availability
' t9. -' Security.Vlass. '
(Report),* • '
•*• • * . *" . j • *
•20:.1~- Secuiity Class.
" : - . V * •» * •
•Z1.\ Ka<~o/»*.
Pases" ".
"22. Prite '',
'. -, " " **'
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF.THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. ZOZ4O
Abstractor Alden 6. Christiansen | institution Environmental Protection Aaencv
WRSIC 102 (REV. JUNE 1971)
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