EPA 440/1-74/025
          DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
   PROPOSED  EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
   AND NEW SOURCE  PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
                   FOR THE

         UNBLEACHED KRAFT AND
           SEMICHEMICAL  PULP

                 SEGMENT OF THE
          PULP, PAPER AND PAPERBOARD MILLS
              POINT SOURCE CATEGORY

          UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                   JANUARY 1974

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                 DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT

                         for

       PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                         and

           NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

                       for the

UNBLEACHED KRAFT AND SEMICHEMICAL PULP SEGMENT OF THE

           PULP, PAPER AND PAPERBOARD MILLS

                POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
                    Russell  Train
                    Administrator

                   Robert L.  Sansom
   Assistant Administrator for Air & Water Programs
                     Allen Cywin
        Director,  Effluent Guidelines  Division

                    George Webster
                   Project Officer
                    January,  1974

             Effluent Guidelines  Division
           Office of Air and  Water  Programs
         U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency
               Washington,  D.  C.  20460

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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

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                                Abstract

   •s document presents the findings of a study of the unbleached  kraft,
   ^-chemical  and paperboard segment of the pulp, paper, and paperboard
industry for the purpose of developing waste water  effluent  limitation
guidelines and Federal standards of performance for new sources in order
to  .implement  Section  304  (b)   and 306 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 (The "Act").    The  first  phase  of  the
study  is  limited  to  unbleached  kraft  mills,  neutral sulfite semi-
chemical (NSSC)  mills, unbleached kraft-NSCC (cross recovery)  mills, and
paperboard from waste paper mills.

Effluent limitations guidelines are set forth for the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of  the  "Best  Practicable
Control   Technology  Currently  Available",  and  the  "Best  Available
Technology Economically Achievable", which must be achieved by  existing
point  sources  by  July  1,  1977,  and  July  1,  1983,  respectively.
"Standards of Performance for New Sources" set forth the degree effluent
reduction which is  achievable  through  the  application  of  the  best
available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating methods,
or other alternatives.

The  proposed  regulations  for  July  1,  1977,  require in-plant waste
management and operating  methods,  together  with  the  best  secondary
biological  treatment  technology currently available for discharge into
navigable water bodies.  This technology is represented  by  preliminary
screening,  primary treatment and secondary biological treatment (one or
  o stage) .
  ± recommended  technology  for  July  1,  1983,  and  for  new  source
performance  standards,  is  in-plant  waste  management and preliminary
screening, primary sedimentation, and the two stage biological secondary
treatment.  In  addition  multi-media  filtration  with,  if  necessary,
chemical  addition  and  coagulation  is  recommended.  Color removal is
recommended in several cases.

Supportive data and rational for development of  the  proposed  effluent
limitations  guidelines  and  standards  of performance are contained in
this report.

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                                 CONTENTS
Section

                 Production Processes                                  37
                 Products Produced                                     37
                 Age and Size of Mills                                 38
                 Geographical Location                                 38

  V       Water Use and Waste Characterization                         39

             Wood Preparation                                          39
             Pulping Processes                                         *>6
                 Unbleached Kraft                                      1*6
                 Sodium Base NSSC                                      W
                 Ammonia Base NSSC                                     56
                 Kraft -NSSC  (Cross Recovery)                          62
                 Paperboard from Waste Paper                           63
             Paper Machines                                            69

 VI       Selection of Pollutant Parameters                            72

             Waste Water Parameters of Significance                    72
             Rationale for Selection of  Identified Parameters          72
                 Biochemical Oxygen Demand  (5 day-20  c)                72
                 Suspended Solids                                      72
                 pH                                                    73
                 Color                                                 73
                . Ammonia Nitrogen                                      73
             Rationale for Parameters Not Selected                     73
                 Settleable Solids                                     73
                 Turbidity                                             71*
                 Ccliform Organisms                                    71*
                 Resin Acids                                           7}i
                 Polychlorinated Biphenyls                             75

VII       control and Treatment Technologies                           76

             Unbleached Kraft                                          79
                 Internal Technologies                                 79
                 External Technologies                                 90
                    Removal of Suspended Solids                        90
                    BOD5 Reduction                                     °5
                    Two Stage Biological Treatment                     100
                    Temperature Effects                                101
                    Sludge Dewatering and Disposal                     103
                    By-product Usage                                   105
                    Color Removal                                      108
                                   iii

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                                 CONTENTS


Section

  I       Conclusions                                                  1

 II       Recommendations                                              3

             Best Practicable Control Technology                       3
               Currently Available
             Best Available Technology Economically                    '
               Achievable
             New Source Performance Standards                          ^

III       Introduction                                                 ?

             Purpose and Authority                                     q
             Summary of Methods Used for Development of the            10
               Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
               Standards of Performance
                 Summary Discussion of Data Sources                    ir)
                    Mill Records                                       10
                    NCASI Publications                                 n
                    Short Term Survey                                  };}-
                    RAPP Applications
                    Literature
                 Use of Data Sources
                    Data Analysis
                    Results of Data Analysis                           -"-£
             General Description of industry Segments                  ^
                 Products                                               p
                 Daily Production Capacity and Distribution            ^ '
                 Annual Production                                     1^
             Pulp and Papermaking Process                              10
                 Unbleached Kraft                                      lf)
                    Paper Production                                   ?3
                 NSSC Process                                          2£
                    Recovery or Burning of Cooking Chemicals           2^
                    Paper Production                                   2°
                 Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)                            30
                    Paper Production                                   3?
                 Paperboard from Waste Paper                           3?

 IV       Subcategorization of the Industry                            35

             Factors of consideration                                  35
             Rationale for Selection of Subcategories                  36
                 Raw Material                                          3f'
                                    _u_i_
                                    •
IV

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                                 CONTENTS
Section
                    Additional Reductions of Suspended Solids
                      and Refractory Organics
                 NSSC-Sodium Ease
                    Internal Technologies
                    External Technologies
                 NSSC-Ammonia Base                                    150
                    Internal Technologies                             15°
                    External Technologies                             15^
                 Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)                          151'
                 Paperboard from Waste Paper                          15]i
                    Internal Technologies                             1?°
                    External Technologies                             160
                 Irrigation and Land Disposal of Effluents
                    Unbleached Kraft
                    NSSC
                    Paperboard from Waste Paper
VIII      Costs, Energy, Non-Water Quality Aspects
          and Implementation Requirements

             Rationale for Development of Costs                       17**
             Development of Effluent Treatment Costs                  175
                    Pretreatment Technology                           176
                    BPCTCA Technology
                    BATEA Technology
                    NSPS Technology
             Energy Requirements
             Non-Water Quality Aspects of Control and                 l8fi
               Treatment Technologies
                 Air Pollution Potential
                 Noise Potential
                 Solid Wastes and Their Disposal
                 By-product Recovery
             Implementation Requirements
                 Availability of Equipment                            193
                 Availability of Construction Manpower                197
                 Construction Cost Index                              !?fi
                 Land Requirements                                    19^
                 Time Required to Construct Treatment Facilities      201

 IX       Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available

             Introduction

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                                 CONTENTS
Section
             Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the                 205
                 Application of Best Practicable Control
                   Technology Currently Available
                 Hydraulic Debarking Variance                          2<~>£
                 Temperature Variance                                  20^
             Identification of Best Practicable Control                206
               Technology Currently Available
                 Internal Controls                                     206
                 External Treatment                                    20°
             Rationale for Selection of Best Practicable Control       210
               Technology Currently Available
                 Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities              210
                 Process Changes                                       210
                 Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact                2.10
                 Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent           211
                   Reduction Benefits
                 Processes Employed                                    212
             Rationale for Selection of Effluent Limitation            212
               Guidelines
                 Unbleached Kraft                                      213
                 NSSC-Ammonia Ease                                     21'4
                 NSSC-Sodium Base
                 Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
                 Paperboard from Waste Paper                           21^
                 All Subcategories-pH Range                            217

          Best Available Technology Economically Achievable            218

             Introduction                                              213
             Effluent Reduction Attainable Through Application         21^
               of the Best Available Technology Economically
               Achievable
             Identification of the Best Available Technology           220
               Economically Achievable
                 Internal Controls                                     220
                 External Treatment                                    221
             Rational for Selection of the Best Available              222
               Technology Economically Achievable
                 Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities              222
                 Process Changes                                       222
                 Engineering Aspects of Control Technique              222
                   Applications
                 Non-water Quality Environmental Impact                222
                 Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent           223
                                    vi

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                                 CONTENTS
Section                                                              Page

                   Reduction Benefits
                 Processes Employed                                    22'
             Rationale for Development of EATEA Effluent
               Limitation Guidelines

 XI       New Source Performance Standards

             Introduction
             Effluent Reductions Attainable Through the
               Application of New Source Performance
               Standards
             Identification of Technology to Achieve the New           22°
               Source Performance Standards
                   External Controls                                   22°
             Rationale for Selection of Technology for New
               Source Performance Standards
                   Type of Process Employed and Process Changes
                   Operation Methods
                   Batch as Opposed to Continuous Operation
                   Use of Alternative Raw Materials and Mixes          22°
                     of Raw Materials
                   Use of Dry Rather Than Wet Processes (Including     22°
                     Substitution of Recoverable solvents for Water)
                   Recovery of Pollutants as By-products
                   Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent
                     Reduction Benefits

XII       Acknowledgements

XIII      References

XIV       Glossary                                                     2)|2

          Appendices
                                  vii

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                                 TABLES


 1.  Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.              '3
                                                                     M
 2.  Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.               4

 3.  Recommended NSPS.                                               6

 4.  Pulp and Paper Industry - Pulp Production.                      17

 5.  Analysis of Wet Drum Barking Effluents.                         40

 6.  Analysis of Hydraulic Barking Effluents.                        43

 7.  Sewer Losses from Wet Barking Operations.                       86

, 8.  Raw Waste Characteristics - Unbleached Kraft.                   52

 9.  Raw Waste Characteristics - NSSC - Sodium Base.                 55

10.  Evaporation Plant Waste Load Reduction and Secondary Conden-    60
     sate Discharge Loads - NSSC - Ammonia Base.

11.  Raw Waste Characterization -. NSSC - Ammonia Base.               61

12.  Raw Waste Characteristics - NSSC - Ammonia Base.                62

13.  Raw Waste Characteristics - Kraft - NSSC  (Cross Recovery).      63

14.  Raw Waste Characteristics - Paperboard from Waste Paper.        65

15.  Summary of Internal Technologies.                               77

16.  Summary of External Technologies.                               78

17.  Reuse of Effluent from Different Unit Operations.               83

18.  Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems          91
     at Unbleached Kraft Mills.

19.  Vacuum Filtration Rates of Sludges.                             103

20.  Sources of Color.                                               109

21.  Unit Process Flow and color Distribution in Individual          109
     Kraft Pulping Effluent.

22.  Color Reduction by Minimum Lime Treatment.                      113
                                 viii

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Cables  cont'd.

^3".   Color  Removal in  Biological  Oxidation - Carbon Adsorption         117
      Sequence.

 24*.   Color  Removal by  Primary Clarification - Carbon Adsorption        HQ
      Sequence.

 25.   Color  Removal by  Lime  Treatment  - Carbon Adsorption Sequence      120
      at Soluble  Calcium Range of  69-83 mg/L.

 26.   Removal  of  Color  and TOC by  FACET Carbon Adsorption Following     122
      Lime Treatment for 12  Day Period.

 27.   Waste  Water Renovation - Summary of  Results.                       123

 28.   Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Total Mill
      Effluent (Pilot Plant  Run No.  1).                                 124

 29.   Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Total      125
      Mill Effluent (Pilot Plant Run No. 2).

 30.   Results  cf  Granular Activated  Carbon Column Pilot Plant Treating
      Unbleached  Kraft  Mill  Waste.                                       131

 31.   Results  of  Activated Carbon  Pilot Plants Treating Unbleached      135
      Kraft  Mill  Effluents.

 32.   Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing Treatment Systems at NSSC -  145
      Sodium Base Mills.

 33.   Summary  of  Results of  Treatment  by Reverse Osmosis.               149

 34.   Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing Treatment Systems at NSSC -  151
      Ammonia  Base Mills.

 35.   Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing Treatment Systems at Kraft -
      NSSC  (Cross Recovery)  Mills.                                       158

 36.   Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing Treatment Systems at Paper-
      board  from  Waste  Paper Mills.                                      162

 37.   Summary  - Recommended  Internal Control Technologies.               167

 38.   Summary  - Recommended  External Control Technologies.               172

 39.   Effluent Treatment Cost and  Quality  for Unbleached Kraft Mill.    177

 40.   Effluent Treatment cost and  Quality  for NSSC  - Sodium Base Mill.  173
                                       IX

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Tables Cont'd.

41.  Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for NSSC  - Ammonia  Base
     Mill.

42.  Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for Kraft -  NSSC  (Cross      180
     Recovery Mill).

43.  Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for Paperboard  from Waste     181
     Paper Mill.

44.  Power Costs:                                                      186

45.  Energy Requirements                                               187

46.  Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines  .              205

47.  Cost of Application of BPCTCA.                                    211

48.  Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitations Guidelines.                219

49.  Cost cf Application of BATEA.                                     223

50.  Recommended NSPS.                                                 227

51.  Cost cf Application of NSPS.                                      230

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                                  Figures


     Distribution  of  Unbleached  Kraft,  NSSC,  and Unbleached Kraft -     21
     NSSC  Mills  in the  U.  S.  (1973)

  2." Distribution  of  Paperboard  from  Waste  Paper Mills in the U.  S.     22
      (1973)

  3.  Kraft Pulping Process Diagram                                       24

  4.  Kraft Pulping Recovery System  Process  Flow Diagram                 25

  5.  Fourdrinier Paper  Machine Process  Diagram                          27

  6.  Neutral  Sulfite  Semi-Chemical  Pulp Process diagram                 29

  7.  Process  Flow  Diagram  of  Spent  Liquor Recovery Systems              31
     at combined Unbleached Kraft - NSSC Mills

  8.  Paperboard  from  Waste Paper Mill Process Diagram                   34

  9.  Long  Term BOD of Barker  Effluent                                   44

10.  Settling Rate of Barker  Screening  Effluent                         45

_11.  Relationship  between  total  Soluble Solids, BOD,  Conductance         49
     & Light  Absorption in Kraft Pulping Decker Filtrate
     Effluent

12.  Process  Flow  and Materials  Diagram for A 907 Metric Ton-a-Day      51
     Kraft Linerboard Mill

13.  BOD load of NSSC Pulping                                           54

14.  Suspended Solids Losses  from NSSC  Pulping                          54a

15.  Process  Flow  and Materials  Diagram for A 227 metric ton per  day    58
     NSSC  Mill

16.  Process  Flow  and Materials  Diagram of  a Paperboard from Waste      71
     Paper Mill

17.  Process  Flow  Diagram  of  Mill Effluent  Treatment                     96

18.  Sludge Dewatering  and Disposal                                     107

19.  Massive  Lime  Process  for Color Removal
                                 xi

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20.  Minimum Lime Process for Color Removal

21.  Activated Carbon Pilot Plant

22.  Color Removal in Lime Treatment as a Function of Soluble         119
     ca in Water

23.  Economy in scale - Carbon Absorption Systems                     138

24.  Effects cf Tower Depth on Ammonia Removal at Various             155
     Depths

25.  Effects of Hydraulic Loading on Ammonia Removal at Various       156
     Depts

26.  Effects on Packing spacing on Ammonia Removal                    157

27.  Total Water Pollution Control Expenditures                       195

28.  Wastewater Treatment Equipment Sales                             196

29.  Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index                  199

30.  Land Required for Waste Water Treatment                          200

31.  Time Required to construct Waste Water Facilities con-           202
     ventional and Turnkey Contracts
                                 xii

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                                SECTION I

                               CONCLUSIONS


 For. the purpose of  establishing  effluent  limitations  guidelines  and
 standards  of  performance,  the  unbleached  kraft,  semi-chemical  and
 paperboard segments of the  pulp,  paper  and  paperboard  manufacturing
 industry have been subcategorized as follows:

     Unbleached Kraft
     Neutral Sodium Sulfite Semi-Chemical (NSSC) - Sodium Base
     NSSC - Amironia Base
     Unbleached Kraft - NSSC (Cross-Recovery)
     Paperboard from Waste Paper

 Within  each identified subcategory, factors such as age, size of plant,
 process  employed,  climate,  and   waste   treatability   confirm   and
 substantiate  this  subcategorization  for  the  purpose of establishing
 effluent limitations and performance standards to  be  achieved  through
 the application of recommended treatment and control technologies.

 At  this time, some mills within each subcategory are achieving the 1977
 requirement of best practicable control technology  currently  available
 (EPCTCA).  It is estimated that increases in production costs to achieve
 BPCTCA  will  range  from  less  than $1.00 per ton up to $14.00 per ton
Depending  upon  specific  mill   conditions   relating   to   available
technologies  at  that  location.   The BPCTCA suggests biological waste
treatment as the  basic  treatment  process  and  limitations  on  BOD5,
 suspended solids, and pH range are set forth.

 Best   available  technology  economically  achievable  (BATEA)   is  the
 requirement for 1983.  The estimated increases in  production  costs  of
 upgrading  existing  mills  from  the 1977 requirements to those of 1983
 range from less than $1.00 per ton up to $7.00  per  ton,  depending  on
 specific  mill  conditions.   The  BATEA  suggests  major  internal mill
 improvements, biological waste  treatment,  and  some  physical-chemical
 waste   treatment  technologies  as  the  basic  treatment  and  control
 technologies, and limitations on BOD5, suspended solids, pH range, color
 and, for one subcategory, ammonia nitrogen, are set forth.

 New source performance  standards  (NSPS)   are  proposed  which  reflect
 internal improvements which can be achieved through effective design and
 layout  of  mill operations.  Standards are set forth on BOD5, suspended
 solids, pH range, and color.  The basic treatment and control  processes
 which  are  suggested  as a means of meeting these performance standards
 are similar tc those proposed for existing mills by 1983.

 Remaining segments within the pulp, paper and  paperboard  manufacturing
 industry will be covered at a later date.

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                               SECTION II

                            RECOMMENDATIONS


Based  upon  the  information  in  this  report,  the following effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are recommended  for
the sufccategories studied.

Best Pracicable
The  recommended'  effluent  limitations  guidelines for best practicable
control technology currently available (EPCTCA) are shown in Table  1.
                                Table 1

           Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines

                       Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

                           EOD5                   TSS
                   30_Day, ___ 2§ily,_Max      30_Day.
Unbleached Kraft   2.2  (4.4)  4.0  (8.0)    4.6  (9.2)   11.1  (22.2)

  'sc-Ammonia       5.25(10.5) 8.75(17.5)   5.0  (10.0)  8.5  (17.0)

NSSC-Sodium        3.25  (6.5) 4.5   (9.0)   5.0(10.0)   8.5  (17.0)

Unbleached
   Kraft-NSSC      3.05  (6.1) 6.35  (12.7)  5.3  (10.6)  12.5  (25.0)

Paperboard from
Waste Paper        1.25  (2.5) 2.2  (4.4)    1.5  (3.0)   2.8  (5.6)

   pH for all subcategories shall be within the range  of 6.0 to  9.0


The maximum average of daily values for any 30  consecutive  day period
should  net  exceed  the  30  day  effluent limitations guidelines shown
above.  The maximum for any one day should not exceed  the daily  maximum
effluent  limitations  guidelines  as shown above.  The guidelines shown
above are in kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of  producticn (pounds
of pollutant per short ton of production) .  Effluents  should   always   be
within the pH range of 6.0 to 9.0.

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The  above  guidelines  for TSS are for TSS as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard_Methods
                °f WaJ:e_r_ and Was_tewater  (13th Edition)  (1) .
Best Ayailable^TechnolggY^ Economically Achievable

The  recommended  effluent  limitations  guidelines  for  best available
technology economically achievable  (BATEA) are shown in Table 2.

                                Table 2

            Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines

                       Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

                            BODS                        TSS
Unbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper
30
1.38
3.5
1.5
1.5
0.65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
Daily Max
2.5
5.87
2.1
2.95
1.25
(5.
(11
(*.
(5.
(2.
0)
.75)
2)
9)
5)
1
2
2
2
0
30 Day
.85
.0
.0
.1
.6
(3.7)
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
Daily Max
4
4
4
5
1
.45
.5
.5
.0
.1
(8.9)
(9.0)
(9.0)
(10. Oil
(2.2)
Unbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper
                                      	Color	
                                      30 Day   Daily Max
  10 (20)    15 (30)

75 % removal

75 % removal


  10 (20)    15 (30)
   pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of  6.0  to  9.0

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The maximum average of daily values for any 30  consecutive  day  period
  puld  not  exceed  the  30  day  effluent limitations guidelines shown
   ve.  The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily  maximum
  fluent  limitations  guidelines  shown  above.   The guidelines are in
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
per^short ton of production).

Effluent limitations guidelines are needed for nitrogen on NSSC  ammonia
base  mills  only.  However, no specific limitation has been established
because of the extreme lack of meaningful  data.   Currently,  only  two
such  mills exist and preliminary indications are that discharges in the
range of 7.5-10.0 kilograms per metric ton (15-20 pounds per short  ton)
can  occur.   No technology for the removal of nitrogen has been applied
within the pulp and paper industry, and only very limited technology has
been applied in  other  industries,  especially  at  the  concentrations
cited.   Extensive  studies  on  effective  methods  for  the removal of
nitrogen in these concentrations must be  carried  out  before  specific
effluent limitations guidelines can be established.

The  above  guidelines  for TSS are for TSS as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard Methods  for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (13th Edition) (1).
The  above limitations guidelines for color are for color as measured by
the NCASI testing method as described in NCASI_Technical	Bulletin	#253
(2).   The  above  color  limitations guidelines of 75% removal for both
 odium and ammonia base NSSC will be changed to kilograms of  color  per
  trie  ton  cf production (pounds of color per short ton of production)
   a later date when technology has provided additional data  from  more
installations.
  ^ —
•

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New Source Performance^standards


The  recommended  new  source  performance standards  (NSPS) are shown ^m
Table 3.
                                Table 3

              Recommended New Source Performance Standards

                       Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

                            EOD5                        TSS

Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
30
1.38
3.5
1.5
1.5
0.65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
Daily Max
2.5
5.87
2.1
2.95
1.25
(5.
(11
(0.
(5.
(2.
0)
.75)
2)
9)
5)
30 Day
1.85
2.0
2.0
2.1
0.6
(3.7)
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
Daily Max
4
4
4
5
1
.45
.5
.5
.0
.1
(8.9)
(9.0)
(9.0)
(10.0)
(2.2)
Unbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper
                                      	Color	
                                      30 Day   Daily Max
10 (20)    15 (30)
10 (20)    15 (30)
    pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
The maximurr average of daily values for any 30  consecutive  day  period
should  not  exceed  the  30  day  effluent limitations guidelines shown

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above.  The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily  maximum
 iffluent  limitations  guidelines  shown  above.   The guidelines are in
  .lograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
 Tef short ton of production).  The above TSS standards are  for  TSS  as
measured  by  the  technique  utilizing  glass  fiber  filter  disks  as
specified  in  Standard  Methods  for  the  Examination  of  Water   and
Wastewater (13th Edition) (1).  The above color standards  are for color
as measured by methods described in NCASI_Technical Bulletin #253  (2).

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                              SECTION III

                              INTRODUCTION

PU]RPOSE_ANE_AUTHORrrY
   •
Section 301(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in
1972,  requires  the  achievement  by  not  later  than July 1, 1977, of
effluent limitations  for  point  sources,  other  than  publicly  owned
treatment  works, which are based on the application of the best practi-
cable control technology currently available as defined by the  Adminis-
trator  pursuant  to  Section  304 (b)  of  the Act.  Section 301 (b)  also
requires the achievement by not later than July  1,  1983,  of  effluent
limitations  for  point  sources,  other  than  publicly owned treatment
works, which are based on the application of the  best  available  tech-
nology  economically  achievable which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the  discharge  of  all
pollutants,  as  determined in accordance with regulations issued by the
Administrator pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act.  Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new sources of  a  Federal  standard  of
performance  providing for the control of the discharge pollutants which
reflects  the  greatest  degree  of   effluent   reduction   which   the
Administrator determines to be achievable through the application of the
best  available  demonstrated  control  technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including, where practicable, a standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.

  Kction 304 (b) of the Act requires the Administrator to  publish  within
  e  year  of enactment of the Act, regulations providing guidelines for
effluent limitations setting forth  the  degree  of  effluent  reduction
attainable  through  the  application  of  the best control measures and
practices achievable, including treatment techniques,  process  and  pro-
cedure  innovations,  operation  methods,  and  other alternatives.  The
regulations proposed herein set forth  effluent  limitations  guidelines
pursuant  to Section 304 (b) of the Act for the unbleached kraft, neutral
sulfite semi-chemical  (NSSC), and paperboard from waste  paper  segments
of the pulp, paper, and paperboard point source categories.

Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one year after
a  category  of  sources  is  included  in  a list published pursuant to
Section 306(b)(1) (A) of the Act,  to  propose  regulations  establishing
Federal standards of performance for new sources within such categories.
The Administrator published in the Federal Register of January 16, 1973,
 (38  FR  1624), a list of 27 source categories.  Publication of the list
constituted   announcement   of   the   Administrator's   intention   of
establishing,  under Section 306, standards of performance applicable to
new sources within the pulp, paper, and paperboard  point  source  cate-
gories, which were included within the list published January  16, 1973.

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This  report  proposes  such standards for the unbleached kraft, neutral
sulfite semi-chemical, and paperboard from waste paper segments of
point source categories.

SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  EFFLUENT  LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES_AND_STANDARDS_gF_PERFORMANCE

The  basic  procedures  used  in  developing  the  effluent  limitations
guidelines and standards of performance are discussed below.

The unbleached pulping segments, exclusive of groundwood, acid  sulfite,
and  soda  pulping  segments,  of  the  pulp  and  paper  industry  were
subcategorized based on an evaluation of available data in terms of  raw
materials, process differences, waste loads, products produced, age size
of  mills,  geographical  locations,  and  consultations with recognized
authorities in the pulp and paper industry.  The resultant subcategories
include:
         1.  Unbleached kraft
         2.  Neutral sulfite semi-chemical (NSSC) - Sodium base
         3.  NSSC - Ammonia base
         <*.  Unbleached kraft - NSSC  (Cross Recovery)
         5.  Paperboard from Waste Paper

Summary Discussion of Data^Sources

The  extensive  data  and  information  base  which  was  used  in   the
development  of the effluent limitations guidelines was generated by thj
methods discussed below.  The sources of data and  information  include
the following:
     1.  Mill records of exemplary mills
     2.  National Council for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI)
         publications, specifically Special Reports 73-02 (3) and 73-03 (4)
     3.  Short term verification survey results of exemplary mills
     1.  EPA Refuse Act Permit Program (RAPP)  Applications
     5.  Literature

Tables  5  through  28 in Appendix IIIB show the available data from the
above data sources for each exemplary mill.

                              Mill Records

Data was accumulated from the exemplary mill records which covered 12-13
months operating time.  Most of the mill data  was  a  result  of  daily
sampling and analysis.  The mill data was carefully screened in order to
have  an  accurate  set  of  data for each mill.  In order to screen the
data, a survey of sampling and analytical  techniques  was  made.   Mill
waste  waters  were  sampled for a period of 3-7 days with samples being
split between the mill laboratory and contract laboratory.
                                  10

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                                 Publications

  AjSI Publications 73-02 3 and 73-03 H presented  suspended  solids  and
 OD5  data  for  mills  using  activated sludge or aerated stabilization
basins treatment systems, respectively.  The data was carefully screened
by JSICASI before inclusion in the publications.  The data was  from  mill
records  and  represented  an  average  of a year's operation.  Data for
several of the exemplary mills is also included in the publications.
                           Short .Term Survey

As mentioned previously, surveys were conducted of exemplary  mills  for
3-7 days with a basic objective of evaluation of mill data.  Twenty-four
hour  composites  of  hourly samples were taken of the mills waste water
during the surveys.  Sampling and analytical techniques  were  conducted
using  EPA  accepted  procedures.  It should be noted that the resulting
data cannot be directly related to the mill data because  of  the  short
duration of the survey.


                           RAPP Applications

Data  from  RAPP  applications represents an average operating condition
for the mills.  Unfortunately, the reliability of some of the  data  for
£he mills is questionable as it does net compare with data from reliable
 ources  for the same mills.  Possibly, the RAPP data does not represent
 he latest year's operation period.


                               Literature

Frequently, the data in published literature is not correlated with  the
particular  mill which it represents.  Also, the reliability of the data
is sometimes questionable since  sampling  and  analytical  methods  are
usually  not  presented  and the time frame which the data represents is
frequently omitted.


Use of Data_Sources

With a objective of determining  mills  which  could  be  considered  as
representing  the best existing control technology, a list of every mill
in each of the above subcategories was compiled and is shown in Appendix
I.  All available information regarding the internal processes employed,
types  of  products,  waste  treatment  facilities  in  operation,   and
quantity/quality  of  the  waste  water discharge was then tabulated for
each mill.
                                  11

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•uf •*•»

1
.no
The above information was evaluated to determine which mills  should  be
further  investigated by on-site surveys.  The main criteria used duri
the evaluation was the quantity of waste water discharge (liters/kkg
productions)  and  quality of the discharge as characterized by BOD5 an
suspended solids  (both in kg/kkg of production).  The former  tended  to
indicate  the  extent  of  in-plant control practices and the latter the
extent and performance capabilities of waste treatment facilities.  This
effort resulted in a list of mills which included  10  unbleached  kraft
mills,  6  NSSC mills, 7 combination kraft-NSSC mills, and 12 paperboard
from waste paper mills.

Other factors, such as production mix, age of mill, type of  wood  used,
type  of  digester  and  recovery  systems,  and  reliability  of  daily
treatment records were then weighed in making  the  selection  of  mills
that  should  qualify  for  on-site  surveys  and as candidates for best
demonstrated performance.  This procedure further reduced  the  list  of
potential  candidates  to  14 in the pulping subcategories and 10 in the
paperboard from waste paper subcategory.

Prior to sending a survey team to the above mills, a reconnaissance team
of two men was sent to the site of the mills  selected  from  the  above
list.  At that time the mill personnel were briefed on the objectives of
the  project,  the  information  that  was  necessary for the successful
completion of the project, and the work program to be carried out  by  a
survey   team.    A   copy   of   the  reconnaissance  and  mill  survey
questionnaires is shown in Appendix V.  At that time the availability of
laboratory facilities, and the  feasibility  of  obtaining  verification-
data  by  a  field  survey were determined.  A tour of the plant and ti»
treatment facilities, and a review of  the  available  mill  records  on'
waste  streams, both internal and external, were made.  The objective of
this effort was to verify that the mill was an exemplary mill  and  that
the mill records could be validated by a field survey team.  The type of
cost  records  and information required for the project was described at
this time so  that  the  mill  would  have  the  time  to  compile  this
information   which  was  then  collected  by  the  survey  team.   This
pre-survey visit eliminated three candidate mills from the survey effort
for the  following  reasons:  flood  conditions  at  one  mill  made  it
impossible to obtain good flow measurements of the waste stream; and two
mills  were engaged in major construction in the pulp mill which exerted
an abnormal influence on the waste water generated.

The field survey team consisted of three to seven men, depending on  the
particular  mill  studied.   The  goal was to obtain analytical and flow
data on various in-plant and out-of-plant  treatment  systems.   Samples
were  collected  every  hour  and composited every 24 hours for three to
seven days.  During the survey, composited samples  were  split  between
the  mill  laboratory  personnel  and  the  survey  team.   Samples were
analyzed on-site by the survey team or  by  an  independent  laboratory.
All  analyses  were  performed  following  methods described in Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.  (13th Edition)   or


                                  12

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 equivalent EPA accepted methods  (See  Appendix V,  Exhibit   2).  A typical
   ample   cf  the   results   is  tabulated  in  Appendix  IIIA,  Table 4.   One
   jective cf  this   effort   was   to  generate an   "analytical  procedure
 factor"   tc be applied  to  the  12 month data  collected by  the mill.   This
 attempted to  place  all data  from   all   surveyed mills  on  the   same
 analytical base.   The  biggest variation  and most difficulty experienced
 in this  procedure  was  in suspended solids since  some  mills  used  filter
 paper with  a funnel  and  others used asbestos or fiberglass pads with  a
 gouch crucible.   In almost all mills, the comparative BOD5  values   fell
 within the limits  of accuracy of the  test.

 The  12-month  mill  data,  subject   tc   any cautions indicated  from the
 testing  procedures, was used to  generate  a broad   based   data  bank   for
 each  of  the subcategories under study.   The tons per day  of  production
 for each mill was  corrected to air dry tons   (ADT)  as  required.    Some
 mill  data for  raw waste load  was found not to  include  all waste water
 discharges and corrections to the data were  made  where  necessary.    The
 data  was  generally developed from  12 months of  daily records from  each
 mill. The data presented  is believed to  be  in accordance with  accepted
 standards  of the  analytical procedures verified  by survey  programs  with
 an exception  for  total  suspended solids data which includes   some   mill
 data which was determined  by non-standard methods.


 In  addition   to   the   above accumulated data and information,  the  full
 range of  control  and treatment  technologies   existing  within   each
^ubcategory  was   identified.    This  included an identification of  each
Distinct control  and treatment technology, including  both   inplant   and
^nd-of-process technologies,  which  are existent  or capable  of being
 designed for  each  subcategory.   It also included   an  identification  in
 terms of  the amount   of  constituents  and the  chemical,  physical, and
 biological characteristics of   pollutants, of   the  effluent   level
 resulting  from  the  application of each  of the treatment and control
 technologies.  The  problems,   limitations, and  reliability  of   each
 treatment  and control technology and the  required  implementation  time
 were also identified.   In  addition, the non-water quality  environmental
 impact,  such  as the effects of the application of such technologies  upon
 other pollution   problems, including  air, solid  waste, noise,   and
 radiation was also identified.   The energy requirements of  each  of   the
 control   and   treatment technologies  were identified  as well as  the  cost
 of the application cf such technologies.

 The information,  as outlined above, was then evaluated in order  tc   de-
 termine   the   best  practicable   control  technology currently  available;
 best  available  technology economically achievable;  and   the    best
 available  demonstrated control  technology processes, operating  methods,
 cr  other  alternatives.   In  identifying  such   technologies,  various
 factors   were  considered.  These included the total  cost of application
 of technology in  relation  to  the effluent  reduction  benefits  to  be
 achieved  from such  application,  the   age of  equipment and  facilities


                                   13

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involved,  the  process  employed,  the  engineering  aspects   of   the
application  of  various types of control techniques or process change
non-water quality environmental impact  (including energy  requirements
and other factors.


All   of  the  above  sources  were  used  in  developing  the  effluent
limitations guidelines.  However, it should be pointed out that the data
sources are net equal  in  reliability  and  thus,  they  were  weighted
accordingly.   The  data  from  exemplary  mills records was used as the
major source in conjunction  with  data  from  the  NCASI  publications.
These  two  sources  were used as the basis for the effluent limitations
guidelines.  The data from other sources was used mainly as backup  data
from which to check the mill and NCASI data.  The short term survey data
represents essentially one data point over a year's time and thus should
be  within  the  range  of the year's operating data.  The RAPE data was
used as a comparison check.  Data from literature was used when the data
from mill records and NCASI publications had resulted in  only  a  small
data base for the specific subcategory.


                      Data_Anal¥Sis jMill^gecords^
After  carefully  screening  the  data from mill records, the daily data
 (when available) was entered into a computer and the following  analyses
were performed:

        Average (Annual average - An. Av.) of daily
            data over 12-13 months
        Standard deviation  (SD) of daily values from the
             above annual average
     -  Ratio of (two SD plus An. Av. )  to  (An. Av.)
        Average of monthly averages of daily values
        Determination of maximum monthly average
        Ratio of maximum monthly average to An. Av.
        Average of 30 consecutive day averages (M30CD)
        Standard deviation  (SD30) of 30 consecutive
              day averages  (30CD) from the M30CD
        Maximum 30CD
        Determination of M30CD plus SD30


Data  for many of the mills was not available for every day of the year.
Thus, a true M30CD value could not be obtained.  The days  without  data
were  dropped and thus, the M30CD value actually represents 30 data days
instead of 30 calendar days.  It should be noted that  the  M30CD  value
for each mill does not necessarily equal the annual average, because the
M30CD  value  was  obtained  by  not  closing the year's data loop.  For
example, a mill with 360 data days would have 330  30CD values.
                                  1U

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                        Results of Pata_Analysis

  bles 1-6r Appendix IIA, show results of the above data analysis.

The summary bloc of data shown in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1, 2, and  3  is
the  basis  of  the  recommendations made in this report for each of the
sutcategories under study.
                                  15

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GENERAL_DESCRIPTION_OF_INDUSTRY_SEGMENTS

Paper is made from raw  materials  which  contain  adequate  amounts
cellulose  fiber.   The  cellulose  fibers  must first be separated
other constituents of the fiber source and fiberized.  This function  is'
the  pulping process.  During the 19th century, the use of wood began^to
supplant cotton and linen rags, straw, and other  less  plentiful  fiber
sources.   Today,  wood  pulp accounts for over 98 percent of the virgin
fiber used in papermaking.

There are several methods used for pulping wood.  In some, it is  cocked
with  chemicals  under  controlled  conditions of temperature, pressure,
time, and pulping liquor composition  (5) .   The various processes utilize
different chemicals or ccmbinations of them.  In other methods, wood  is
reduced  to  a  fibrous  state  by  mechanical means or a combination of
chemical and mechanical action.  The  repulping  of  waste  paper  is  a
hydraulic and mechanical process.

The  early  use of kraft pulping, an alkaline chemical process, was con-
current with the ascendancy of wood as a papermaking raw material.   The
process  was  first patented in this country more than 100 years ago and
is currently the dominant pulping method accounting for  nearly  58%  of
the total industry production.  Table 4 shows production figures for the
segments  of the pulp and paper industry.   Kraft pulping is the dominant
pulping method largely for two reasons:  1)  Recovery,  because  of  the
cost  of the chemicals utilized, is an economic necessity to the process
and in the 1930's successful chemical recovery techniques were  applied;
2)  The process was found to be adaptable to nearly all wood species an
its application to southern yellow  pines,  which  were  unsuitable  fo
other processes, resulted in a rapid expansion of kraft pulping (6).

The  principles  basic  to the neutral sulfite semi-chemical process -1)
chemical treatment of chips followed by grinding cr  fiberizing  and  2)
cooking  with  a neutral or slightly alkaline sodium sulfite solution —
were also advanced in the 19th century.  However, it was not until their
advantages were demonstrated in the 1920's at the U.S.  Forest  Products
Laboratory  that  the  first  NSSC  mill began operation in 1925 for the
production of corrugating board  (6).  The process  gained  rapid  accep-
tance particularly because of its ability to utilize the vast quantities
of  inexpensive hardwoods previously considered unsuitable for producing
quality pulps (7).  Also, the quality of stiffness which  hardwood  NSSC
pulps  impart  to  corrugating  board  (6), and the large demand for this
material, have promoted a rapid expansion of the process.

The future of NSSC pulping is closely tied to the  development  of  eco-
nomic  systems for chemical recovery or non-polluting chemical disposal.
In the past, the small size of the mills,  the low  organic  content  and
heat  value  of  the spent liquor, and the low cost of cooking chemicals
provided little incentive for  large  capital  investment  for  recovery
plants  (6).


                                  16

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Waste  paper  has  been  recycled  in this country since the mid-1850's.
  fday, about 21 percent of the paper and paperboard produced  is  reused
   .a  raw material for new products.  In 1972, 11.4 million metric tons
  2.6 million short tons)  were reclaimed.  Paperboard from  waste  paper
mills consumed about 75 percent of this total  (8).


                                Table 4

                        Pulp and Paper Industry

               Pulp Production (excluding builders board)

Pulp & Paper Segments    Metric Tons/year   (Tons/Year)    X of Production
Groundwood pulp
NSSC
Unbleached kraft
Unbleached kraft-NSSC
Bleached kraft
Bleached sulfite
Unbleached sulfite
Soda pulp
Paperboard from waste paper
Pulp from waste paper (**)
4,188,000
3,449,000
15,677,000
(*)
11,220,000
1,629,000
302,000
127,000
6,670,000
3,507,000
(4,617,000)
(3,803,000)
(17,285,000)
(*)
(12,371,000)
(1,796,000)
(333,000)
(140,000)
(7,354,000)
(3,867,000)
8.9
7.4
33.6
(*)
24.0
3.5
0.6
0.2
14.3
7.5
              TOTALS          46,770,000     (51,566,000)          100.0

     Production figures for Unbleached kraft-NSSC are reported
     in the separate values for unbleached kraft and NSSC.
(**)   Used as furnish for the segments listed above
          (except paperboard from waste paper).

Sources of data:

     a.  Post's 1973 Pulp and Paper Directory.
     b.  API  (verbal discussions) .
     c •  State^of -the- Art_Review_of_Pulp._and
        _Paper_W§§te_Treatment-EPA
                                  17

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Products

Unbleached  kraft  pulps  are particularly suitable for producing liner-
board which is a paperboard that is  used  as   (1)  the  smooth  surface
facing  in  "corrugated"  boxes,   (2)  wrapping paper, and  (3) paper for
grocery bags and shipping sacks.  About 95 percent of NSSC pulp is  used
to manufacture the corrugated medium for corrugated boxes but it is also
a  component  of other products which do not require the maximum tearing
resistance or folding endurance such as white paper and  newsprint   (6).
Paperboard  made  from waste paper is most familiar in a wide variety of
commercial packaging which does require a folding  capability,  such  as
bottle carriers.
                 Capacity and_Distribution
The 1973 industry data show that there are approximately 27 mills in the
United States which produce nothing other than unbleached kraft pulp and
paper  and/or  paperboard.   Their  total daily capacity is abcut 18,140
metric tons  (20,000 short tons) for pulp and nearly 22,675  metric  tons
(25,000  short  tons)   for paper and board production.  Sixteen separate
NSSC mills with a total daily capacity  of 5455 metric tons  (6025  short
tons)   for  producing  pulp  and  6004 metric tons  (6620 short tons) for
paper  and  board  are  recorded.   The  total  daily  capacity  of  te
unbleached  kraft  and  NSSC  mills  operating with cross recovery is
follows:

    Kraft pulp — 8492 metric tons (9363 short tons)
    NSSC pulp — 1971  metric tons (2173 short tons)
    Paperboard — 9452 metric tons (10,421 short tons approx.)

One hundred thirty-six paperboard from waste paper having a  daily  pro-
duction  capacity  of   about  19,047 metric tons (21,000 short tons) are
also shown.

Mills which fall within  these  subcategories  of  the  pulp  and  paper
industry are listed in Appendix I.

The size range of these mills in terms of paper and board capacity is:

      Unbleached Kraft — 181-1701 metric tons (200-1875 short tons)
      NSSC-Sodium      — 91-635 metric tons (100-700 short tens)
      NSSC-Ammonia     — 453 metric tons (500 short tons)
      Unbleached Kraft-NSSC  — 604-1905 metric tons  (666-2100 short tons)
      Paperboard from
      Waste Paper      — 13.6-907 metric tons (15-1000 short tons)
                                  18

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  The geographic distribution of the kraft and NSSC mills, and that of the
          kraft-NSSC   operations,  are  shown  in  Figure  1.   Figure  2
              the distribution of the waste paperboard  from  waste  paper
  mills.
  A  total of over  15.U trillion metric tons  (17 million short tons) of un-
  bleached kraft pulp and nearly 3.6 metric  tons  (4 million short tons) of
  NSSC pulp were produced in  the  United  States  in  1972  according  to
  preliminary American Paper Institute (API) statistics.  Total unbleached
  kraft paper and paperboard production was  15.6 million metric tons  (17.2
  million  short  tons);  NSSC  paperboard,  3.6  million metric tons  (4.0
  million short tons); and paperboard from waste paper 6.9 million  metric
  tons  (7.6  million short tons)  (9).  These totals include production of
  mills which manufacture other products in  addition  to  those  to  which
  this report is addressed.


  PULP_AND_PAPE]RMAKING_PROCESSES

  Unbleached Kraft
  C"-
€
Wood,  the  fiber  raw material of unbleached kraft pulp, arrives at the
pulp mill as logs or as chips.  Barked logs can be chipped directly  for
 se.  Bark is removed from unbarked logs in a wet cr dry process and the
  gs  are  then  chipped  for  conveyance to the digester, a large steel
 ressure vessel heated with steam to about 150°c.  Here  the  chips  are
cooked  in either a batch or continuous operation to dissolve lignin and
separate the cellulosic fibers.  The cooking liquor contains  a  mixture
of  caustic  soda and sodium sulfide, which necessitate, because of high
chemical costs and high liquor concentrations, a chemical recovery  sys-
tem  which  is integral to the process.  This system and its role in the
preparation of cooking liqucr are described in ensuing paragraphs.

The unbleached kraft process is described as a "full-cook" process since
cooking is completed to the point at which the wood  will  be  fiberized
upon  being  blown  from  the digester.  In modern practice, the pulp is
ejected to a blowtank.

The pulp, along with the "spent cooking liquor" is then transferred to a
"brown-stock" chest, or tank, and  thence  to  vacuum  drum  washers  or
continuous  diffusers  where  the  spent  cooking liquor is separated by
counter-current washing.  In older mills, the pulp is  "blown"  directly
to the diffusers from the digester.

Chemical  recovery  necessitates a high degree of liquor separation with
as little dilution as is  possible  to  minimize  heat  requirements  of
evaporation  (6)(10).   Three  stages  of washing, which may employ blow


                                  19

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tank condensate reuse are common but, in some cases, four are used.   In
some  newer  installations a combination of vacuum washers and diffuses
is employed (11).  Some continuous digesters contain  liquor  separatif
and  diffusion washing zones within the digester body, and in some kraft
mills,, the pulp is screened and/or refined prior to trown-stock washing
                                                                     m
to effect certain economies in washing and improvements in pulp  quality
(6).

After  washing,  the  pulp is diluted and then screened to remove kncts,
uncooked chips, pitch particles, etc., and is ready  for  production  of
unbleached  paper and paperboard or thickening to a high consistency for
further processing, storage, or lapping for shipment.

The kraft pulping process is illustrated in Figure 3.

"Weak black liquor" comes from the washing operation and contains  about
10-16  percent  solids.  In addition to the inorganic cooking chemicals,
it contains organic wood constituents separated in the pulping  process.
The  weak  black liquor is concentrated to about 45 to 50 percent solids
in long-tube multiple-effect evaporators and the resulting viscous  mass
is called "strong black liquor."  This is then concentrated further to a
consistency  of  60 to 65 percent solids in the recovery furnace contact
evaporator or in a concentrator.
Cooking chemicals lost in pulping and washing are replaced with  make-up
chemical,  usually  sodium  sulfate, or a residue with a high content q
this salt (12).  Acid sludge from oil treatment, raffinate from  by-pr
duct  production,  NSSC  waste liquor, and ash from incineration of NSS<
liquor are examples of such residues.  Salts captured from the  recovery
furnace  stack  gases are also reintroduced into the system.  Sulfur and
caustic soda are sometimes used to adjust the sulfidity.
Uf
•
The strong black liquor is then burned and  the  heat  recovered  in  an
especially  designed  boiler.   During  burning, the organic scdiuir com-
pounds are converted to soda ash and sulfates reduced to sulfides on the
floor or reducing section of the furnace.  The molten smelt of salts  is
dissolved  in  water to form "green liquor."  This is clarified by sedi-
mentation and then causticized with lime to  convert  the  soda  ash  to
caustic  soda.  After causticizing, the combined Na2S - NaOH solution is
known as "white liquor."\ This is settled and sometimes filtered through
pressure filters, adjusted to the desired strength or concentration  for
cooking  with  weak black .liquor, and stored for use in the pulping pro-
cess.
                                  20

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                                                   Figure  1




               DISTRIBUTION OF UNRLEACHF.D KRAFT, NSSC, AND  KRAFT-I3FSC MILLS IN TIIF U.S.  (1973)
LJ  Unbleached Kraft




O  NSSC




    Kraft-NSSC

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NJ
                                                        Figure  2



                               DISTRIBUTION OF WASTE PAPERBOARD MILLS  IN  THE U.S. (1973)
                                                                                                                    C.

-------
 The  lime  mud (calcium carbonate)  obtained on  settling this  white  liquor
     washed  and  dewatered  on  rotary vacuum filters or  centrifuges  and
  Jrned  in rotary  or fluidized kilns tc form quick  lime.    This  is  hy-
 Trated  with  green liquor in slakers  for reintroduction  to the recovery
 cycle,
   *
 The  kraft chemical  recovery system is  shown in Figure 4  (5).


                             Pager^Production

 Paper is  made  by  depositing,  from a dilute water  suspension of   pulp,   a
 layer of  fiber on a fine  screen which  permits the water to  drain through
 but  which retains  the fiber  layer (6).   This layer is then removed from
 the  wire, pressed,  and dried.

 Two  general types  of  machines  and  variations   thereof  are   commcnly
 employed.   One  is  the  cylinder machine in  which the wire is  placed  on
 cylinders which rotate in the furnish,  and the other is the  fcurdrir.ier
 in which  the furnish is deposited upon an endless wire belt.

 Generally,  kraft  paper   is   manufactured on  tourdrinier machines  and
 paperboard on  either fourdrinier  or  cylinder  machines.   The  primary
 operational difference between the two is the flat sheet-forming surface
 of   the  fcurdrinier  and  the  cylindrical-shaped  meld  of the cylinder
 machine.   However,  the type of machine used has little bearing  on  the
_raw  waste load.
                                   23

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    FIGURE 3
KRAFT  PULPING  PROCESS DIAGRAM
       LEGEND

CHEM. 8 LIQUORS
PROCESS WATER
BACK  WATER
EFFLUENT
STEAM 8 GASES
REJECTS
BY-PRODUCTS
                                               EFFLUENT
                                             I

i
TURP
RECOVERY
                                                  OFF
                                                 GASES
                                        24

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                             FIGURE   4
                   KRAFT  PULPING CHEMICAL  RECOVERY
                        white liquor
                          storage
       WOOD
       CHIPS
          \
WATER
           digester
          blow  pit
       pulp washer
          weak  black
         liquor storage
               evaporator
                                             mud
                                            washer I
                     WATER

                    mud
                    thickener
                          LIME
                         STONE
       molten
      chemical
                           strong black
                           liquor storage
recovery
furnace
                                           NEW SALT
                                             CAKE
                          dregs
                         washer
                         weak liquor
                           storage
                                   25

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The water which drains through the paper machine is known as white water
and  contains  suspended  fiber,  pulp  fines,  and  chemicals  used
additives in the paper or  board.   In  the  case  of  unbleached  kra
products, few additives are required other than alum and starch, and, irT
some  bag  and  sack  stock,  wet-strength  resins.   The manufacture of
linerboard involves a minimum of additives.  It is, therefore, commoa to
reuse white water from these operations, first in the  paper  and  beard
making  operation  itself,  and  then  in the pulping process.  Fiber is
collected and returned to the system.

The continuous paper sheet is sent through  a  series  of  pressing  and
drying  machines  before emerging as the basic product.  A flow sheet of
the fourdrinier operation is presented in Figure 5.
tjSSC Process

There are three main features of the NSSC process (13):

    1.  Impregnation of hardwood chips with cooking liquor
    2.  Cooking at high temperature
    3.  Mechanical fiberizing

While some mills buy the cooking chemical, it is more commonly  prepared
on  the premises by burning sulfur and absorbing it in soda ash or
nia, depending on which base is utilized.  Newer mills employ
digesters although a large percentage of NSSC pulping  still  cccurs
batch digesters which have been converted from other processes.

Maximum  temperature  is  adjusted  according  to  retention time in the
digester (13).  A short cook, 10-20 minutes at approximately  200°C.  is
characteristic  of  screw  digesters.  In vertical or rotating spherical
digesters, a period of one to three hours at temperatures  ranging  from
160°-175°C. is typical.

In  some  mills,  the  softened chips as they come frcm the digester are
compressed in one or more stages of screw  pressing.   This  facilitates
maximum recovery of spent liquor and partial washing with minimum dilu
                                  26

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FIGURE  5
FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE
    PROCESS DIAGRAM


OVERFLOW





| -»•
1
1
1
I
u_. .








FILTERED
\A/LJI~TC 1A/AXCD
WHI 1 b WA 1 bn
TANK

1
SAVE-ALL
I
1
RICH WHITE
WATER TANK


COUCH PIT
WIRE PIT








~


1
J




— —







PULP
CHEST

•»•
REFINERS


MACHINE
CHEST
1
MACHINE
SCREENS
i
i
FOURDRINIER
SECTION
1
PRESS
SECTION
1
DRIER
SECTION
t
PRODUCT











_ PROCESS
WATER






                                               LEGEND

                                    PRODUCT and RAW ,MAT'L
                                    PROCESS WATER
                                    REFUSE WATER
                                    EFFLUENT
                                   27

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tion (6).  Either from this stage or directly from the digester they are
sent  to  a  disk mill for fiberizing.  The chips then undergo vacuum
pressure washing, screening, and/or centrifugal cleaning.  Digester
lief  and  blow gases are condensed, and in some mills the condensate"is
used in pulp washing.

The pulp is conveyed to an agitated chest where it is diluted with white
water from the paper mill to the desired consistency  for  feed  to  the
secondary  refiners servicing the papermaking operation.  In making cor-
rugating board, a small percentage of repulped waste paper is  added  to
give the product desired characteristics.

The NSSC pulping process is illustrated in Figure 6.


                Recovery__or_Burnin2_of_Cookin2_Chemicals

Chemical  recovery  in the sodium base NSSC process is considerably more
difficult than in the kraft process.  The spent liquor is low in  solids
with  a relatively high proportion of inorganic to organic constituents,
and, thus,  does  not  burn  easily.   Other  factors  which  complicate
recovery  are  a  relatively  high  liquor  viscosity and relatively low
sodium to sulfur ratio (5).

Because of these factors many mills simply evaporate and burn the  spent
liquor without recovery.   Evaporation is commonly accomplished in multi-
ple-effect  evaporators.   The concentrated liquor is burned for dispcsa
or recovery in a fluidized bed reactor or a specially designed  furnace
In  sodium base mills, the fluidized bed combustion units produce sodiu
sulfate which i§ suitable for use in kraft mill liquor systems.

Recovery of sodium base NSSC liquor alcne is presently limited to a  few
large mills.  Three of the 13 sodium base NSSC mills under consideration
in this report — i.e., those which employ no other pulping processes —
have  chemical recovery systems.  Three others incinerate the liquor and
two discharge to city sewers.  For these mills,  the  simplest  recovery
practice,  which  is called "cross recovery", is to send the liquor to a
nearby kraft recovery system.

No successful system has  been developed for chemical recovery in ammonia
base NSSC mills.  In the two mills utilizing this base, the spent liquor
is incinerated.  The combustion products are gaseous with  a  negligible
residue of inorganic ash (14) (15).


                                  Production

Production  of  paper  from  NSSC  pulp  is similar to the operations in
unbleached kraft mills as discussed previously.
                                  28

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                   FIGURE    6
        NEUTRAL SULFITE  SEMl- CHEMICAL
            PULP PROCESS  DIAGRAM
           CHIP
          STORAGE
  TO ATMOSPHERE
     •
        STEAM
        —|
COOKING
LIQUOR
                           •
                                      ABSORBER
  STACK
  GASES
  SOe-COe
r
            I-—.
          BLOW
           TANK
                        i
   SULFUR
   DIOXIDE
              I
                     REFINERS

                           SODIUM
                          CARBONATE

SEAL
PIT
J
EVAPORATOR
1
LIQUOR
RECOVERY OR
BURNING

FLOOR DRAINS
111 A OLJfM ITO
WASHOUTS
OVERFLOWS
«--

~l



{

—

[



L

WASHER
i
SHREDDER
*
PRODUCT

EFFLUENT

•-i









L
1
1
H





—
r
i-



STOCK
PREP.
i
WHITE
WATER TANK
	 1 J- 	
PAPER MACH.
SAVE -ALL

PROCESS
WATER
                                                    I
PRODUCT a RAW  MATL.	—
CHEM. a LIQUORS	
PROCESS WATER	
BACK WATER 	
STEAM a GASES	
EFFLUENT	
                         EVAP.   COND.
                         COOLING  Hj.0
                       29

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Kraft-NSSC^Cross^Recoveryj

A substantial number of kraft pulp mills have an accessary  sodium
neutral  sulfite  semi-cheirical  pulp mill.  In most instances these are
kraft linerbpard mills employing pine as  a  raw  material  frcm  forest
areas  where  appreciable  hardwood  species  grow as well.  These mixed
hardwoods are harvested separately but  simultaneously  with  the  pine,
cooked   by   the  sodium  base  NSSC  process,  and  manufactured  into
corrugating board.  This product is  compatible  with  linerboard  since
both  are  required  to  produce  container  board.   Such combined pulp
production also provides  the  simplest  and  most  economic  means  fcr
disposing  of  the  sodium base NSSC spent liquor since it can be intro-
duced into the kraft recovery system at one point or another tc  provide
make-up  chemicals  to  the  kraft  liquor  system.  The latter requires
elements present in the NSSC liquor, sodium and sulfur, to produce white
liquor, the kraft cooking agent.  Alternative  methods  for  introducing
the spent brown NSSC liquor into the system are illustrated in Figure 7.

Kraft  recovery  systems  can  absorb  spent  liquor  from  an NSSC ir.ill
producing about one-third the tonnage of the  kraft  operation  assuming
that  adequate  evaporator capacity is provided to accept the NSSC brown
liquor which is generally more dilute and lower in heat value  than  the
kraft  black  liquor.   One  mill  has  been able to increase this ratio
through a process employing crystalization of soda ash  from  the  green
liquor  for  use  in preparing NSSC cooking liquor.  This limitation has
also been overcome by cooking the hardwood with green  liquor,  although
the   pulp  produced  has  less  desirable  characteristics  than
Problems which have been encountered in handling NSSC  spent  liquor
kraft recovery plants are as follows:

    1.   Low  solids  content  of  NSSC liquor which dilutes kraft black
    liquor to a degree where considerable additional evaporator capacity
    and steam is required.  2.  Lower heat value of NSSC  liqucr  solids
    which   requires   evaporation  of  combined  liquors  to  a  higher
    consistency making forced feed necessary in  the  final  evaporation
    effects  due  to  higher liquor viscosity.  3.  Increased evaporator
    fouling and scaling problems  and the need  for  frequent  boil-cut.
    4.   Corrosion  problems  resulting frcm the presence of NSSC liquor
    components in the system.  5.  Interference with the  separation  of
    tall  oil  from the kraft black liquor.  6.  The release of hydrogen
    sulfide on combining the two liquors due to the lew pH of  the  NSSC
    liquor.
                                  30

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                        FIGURE  7

         METHODS EMPLOYED FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF
SPENT SODIUM BASE NSSC LIQUOR INTO THE KRAFT RECOVERY SYSTEM
         KRAFT
       DIGESTERS
  AIT.ll	,
   NSSC
  LIQUOR
         BLOW
         TANK
        PULP
       WASHERS
      EVAPORATORS
         STACK
      EVAPORATORS
          r
_, ALT.#4  I
   NSSC
EVAPORATOR
        STRONG
     BLACK LIQUOR
       RECOVERY
       FURNACES
                        DISSOLVING
                           TANK
        WHITE
       LIQUOR
                         CAUSTIC
                          SYSTEM
                             31

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These  problems  have  differed  in intensity from mill to mill and have
largely been overcome by various means depending upon individual  circ
stances.   Separate evaporation of the brown liquor is practiced at so
mills to overcome fouling and scaling as well  as  tall  oil  separaticr?
difficulties.   Introduction of the NSSC liquor as dilution in the kraft
digesters has been practiced to reduce evaporation problems.  Ihe use of
stainless steel evaporator tubes and pH control have been successful  in
arresting   corrosion  and  hydrogen  sulfide  release.   The  practices
employed for handling NSSC in kraft  systems  are  fully  documented  in
TAPPI  Monograph  |32  (16) .  Details of this practice are alsc reviewed
in standard textbooks on wood pulping (5) (13) (6) .

While limitation of 1:3 on the basis of NSSC to kraft pulping may appear
severe, this is not usually the case because the large  size  cf  modern
linerboard mills still allows an economic size NSSC operation.


                            Pager Production

Production  of paper in Kraft-NSSC mills is similar to the operations as
discussed previously for unbleached kraft mills.
To convert waste paper to secondary fiber waste paper, sufficient
to provide desired consistency of four to six percent, and chemicals
charged  at  a  controlled  rate  to a pulper along with steam.  In this
operation, the paper follows water circulating in a large open  vat  and
is  repeatedly  exposed  to  rotating impeller blades.  Over a period of
time it is ripped, shredded, and finally  defibered   (17).   The  pulper
operation  may be batch, continuous, or a combination of both.  A junker
is usually attached which,  through  centrifugal  action,   collects  and
removes extraneous solid materials and papers not suitable for use.

The  stock  is  then  passed  to  centrifugal cleaners, and finally to a
thickener which may be preceded by pressure screens.  Reject material is
dewatered for disposal, and the stock is stored for use or goes directly
to the refiners which serve the paper machines.

The removal of modern  contaminants  found  in  waste  paper,  including
plastic  containers,  polystyrene  packing  material,  and other plastic
coatings and laminants  (17)  has required some refinements to  the  basic
process.   Some  mills  also  have systems for dispersing the bituminous
asphalt found in some reclaimed laminated kraft bags.  This type  system
subjects  the  fiber  to  a heat and pressure environment in a press and
digester (12)
                                  32

-------
The paper forming section cf the board machine,  or  wet  end,  employed
 spends  on the type of product made.  Both fourdrinier and cylinder ma-
 Jiines and some special devices as well are used (18) .   Variations  and
 xceptions  occur  throughout the industry, although in general, a four-
drinier is used to make a single stock sheet and a  cylinder  machine  a
mu].ti-ply  sheet or heavy board.  During recent years, cylinder machines
have been replaced by variations of the so-called "dry-vat" principle in
order to produce a multi-stock sheet at higher speeds.

A process flow diagram of a typical paperboard from waste paper mills is
shown in Figure 8.
                                  33

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FIGURE 3
WASTE PAPER  BOARD MILL
     PROCESS  DIAGRAM
                MACHINE
                  PIT
                EFFLUENT
                            ...J
                         LEGEND
                  PROD. S RAWMAT'L
                       CHEMICALS
                    PROCESS WATER.
                      BACK WATER
                           STEAM
                         REJECTS
                       EFFLUENT-
                          34

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                               SECTION IV

                   SUBCATEGORIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY
FACTORS OF_ CONSIDERATION

This study is concerned with the unbleached kraft, neutral sulfite semi-
chemical, and paperboard from waste paper segments of the pulp and paper
industry.  In order to identify any relevant, discrete subcategories  of
these segments of the industry, the following factors were considered:

    1.  Raw materials
    2.  Production processes
    3.  Products produced
    U.  Size and age of mills
    5.  Waste water characteristics and treatability
    6.  Geographical location

After    analyzing   these   factors,   it   is   concluded   that   the
subcategorization is defined as follows:

    1.  UNBLEACHED KRAFT means the production of pulp without  bleaching
by  a  "full cook" process, utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide cooking liquor.  This pulp  is  used  principally  to
manufacture  linerboard,  the  smooth  facing of "corrugated boxes," but
-also utilized for ether products such as grocery sacks.

    2-  SODIUM BASE NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL means  the  production
of  pulp  without  bleaching  utilizing a neutral sulfite cooking liquor
having a sodium base.  Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking  stage,
and  the principal product made from this pulp is the corrugating medium
or inner layer in the corrugated box "sandwich."

    3.  AMMONIA BASE NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL means the  production
of pulp without bleaching, using a neutral sulfite cooking liquor having
an  ammonia  base.  Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage, and
the pulp is used to manufacture essentially  the  same  products  as  is
sodium base NSSC.

    4.   UNBLEACHED KRAFT--NSSC jCross Recovery^ means the production of
unbleached kraft and sodium base  NSSC  pulps  wherein  the  spent  NSSC
liquor  is  recovered within the unbleached kraft recovery process.  The
products made are the same as outlined above for  the  unbleached  kraft
and NSSC subcategories, respectively.
                                  35

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    5-   PAPEFBOARD  FROM WASTE PAPER means the production of paperboard
products from a wide variety of waste papers such as  corrugated
box  board,  and  newspapers without doing bleaching and/or wood
operations.  Mills which  produce  paperboard  products  principally  or
exclusively  from  bleached  virgin  fiber  are not included within this
subcategory which only covers those mills using waste paper for  Q0%-  or
more of their fibrous materials.
RATigNALE_FgR_SELECTigN_OF_SUECATEGORIES

The  rationale  discussed  below  is supported by raw waste loadings and
effluent data presented in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1-3.

B§w_Material

wood is the primary raw material of all pulping processes.  While  there
are  differences in types of wood utilized, such differences have only a
minor impact upon waste water  characteristics  and  treatability.   For
example,  assuming  normal unit operations, by-product recovery, and in-
plant controls, a surveyed mill using southern  pine  and  a  raw  waste
loading  BOD5  of  1U kilograms per metric ton (28 pounds per short ton)
while a similar surveyed mill using western pine had a raw waste loading
BOD5 value of 15.5 kilograms per metric ton (31 pounds per  shcrt  ton).
This  difference  is  not  significant  in  light  of other data from 35
similar mills using many different woods which had a typical range of 15
to 20 kilograms of BOD5 per metric ton (30 to  40  pounds  of  BOD5
short ton) .

Raw  materials  used  in  the  preparation  of cooking liquors, however,
differ widely among pulping processes.  The highly alkaline liquor  used
in  unbleached kraft produces waste water characteristics different from
the neutral NSSC  liquors,  for  example.   Sodium  base  NSSC  utilizes
neutral sodium sulfite cooking liquor as described in Section III.  This
produces  distinctly  different waste water characteristics, as shown in
Section V,  than  the  unbleached  kraft  process.   Ammonia  base  NSSC
utilizes  ammonia  as  a  principal  raw  material in the preparation of
cooking liquor.  This produces  a  waste  water  high  in  nitrogen,  in
contrast  to  other  pulping  wastes  which are very low in nitrogen, as
delineated in Section V.

Paperboard from waste paper does not utilize wood as a raw material  and
therefore no pulping chemicals are required.  Its principal rav; material
is  waste  paper.   Waste  water characteristics from the manufacture of
paperboard from waste paper differ widely from those which  result  from
any  of  the  pulping processes.  Within the paperboard from waste paper
subcategory, a mixed grade of paper is generally used as the raw fibrous
materials.  Several specific types of waste paper such as magazines  may
increase  the  mill  effluent suspended solids loads if used as the only
stock.  However, the raw stock is usually mixed grades  of  waste  paper


                                  36

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and  the  percentage  of  the specific types of waste paper is generally
   :nown.  Magazine stock is generally used up to a  maximum  of  15%  by
  ight  of  the  furnish,  and is used in the furnish from 25-75% of the
 ime.  From  available data, no direct detrimental effect from  the  use
of waste papers such as magazine stock has been shown.
   •

Thus,   raw   materials   produce   distinctly  difference  waste  water
characteristics and were a basis for subcategorizaticn.


Production_Prgce§ses

All chemical pulping processes are similar in that each utilizes  diges-
tion  of  wood  chips  with a chemical cooking liquor and removal of the
spent liqucr from the cellulose pulp.   Process  differences  among  the
various  pulp types relate primarily to the preparation, use, and recov-
ery of the cooking liquor.  In the case of paperboard from waste  paper,
no pulping is involved.

Pulp  or  waste paper furnish is used to manufacture paper or paperbcard
on papermaking equipment which has been described in Section  III.    The
papermaking  operation is similar for all products of the subject indus-
try segments.  Since the cooking liquors and pulping processes do result
in varying waste water characteristics, process differences were used as
a basis for subcategorization.
Products_Produced

Section III discusses the wide variety of  products  produced  by  these
segments  of the industry.  While the differences in characteristics and
end-use of the products are substantial, these  differences  dc  not  of
themselves produce significant variations in waste water characteristics
and  thus  have been considered but not used as a basis to sutcategorize
the industry segment under study.
Specifically within the paperboard from waste paper  subcategory,  mills
produce  both food grade and non-food grade products.  The production of
food grade products generates larger quantities of waste water  and  raw
waste  loads because health considerations preclude the reuse of certain
waste waters and reclaimed fiber.   The  exclusive  production  of  food
grade  products  occurs  in  very few mills with most mills that produce
food grade products  from  waste  paper  also  producing  nonfood  grade
products.  Mill "h" referred to in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1-3, produces
a  combination  of  grades  and  at any given time may be producing food


                                  37

-------
grade products on one or two of its machines while making nonfood  grade
on  the  other.   As  shown in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1 and 2, there
difference between the raw waste characteristics in terms  of  flow
suspended  solids between mill "k" and mills "j" and "1" which make
food grades exclusively.  However, Appendix IIIA, Table 2, reveals  that
there  is  little difference in the final effluent in terms of kilograms
per metric ton (pounds per ton) of  BOD5  and  suspended  solids.   This
indicates   that   both  are  treatable  by  primary  clarification  and
biological treatment.  Thus, since it is common practice to produce both
grades at the same  paper  mill,  this  precludes  subcategorization  by
product.

It   should   be  emphasized  that  mills  making  food  grade  products
principally or exclusively from bleach virgin fiber are not included  in
this  subcategory.  This subcategory covers only those mills using waste
paper for 80% or more of their fibrous raw material.


Age_and_Size_gf_Mills


There is a substantial variation in age as well as size of mills in  the
industry.  Mills built over 40 years ago are still operating, as well as
mills  built as recently as 1971.  Most, if not all, of the older mills,
however, have been substantially upgraded and expanded so that  most  of
them are not "old" in the production sense.  Waste water characteristics
from  the "old" mills therefore do not show significant differences fro
those of the "new" mills.  For example, a surveyed "old" mill  built
1955  but  expanded over several years through 1971, had 14 kilograms
BOD5 per metric ton  (28 pounds of BOD5 per short ten)  of  production  in
the  raw waste, whereas a "new" mill built in 1971 had an almost identi-
cal 14.5 kilograms of BOD5 per metric ton  (29 pounds of BOD5  per  ton).
In  the  case  of  ammonia base NSSC mills, age and size are net factors
since this is a relatively new process and only two mills are  currently
operating  in the United States.  One of these is scheduled for shutdown
in 1974.  Thus, the age  and  size  of  mills  do  not  justify  further
subcategorization of the industry segments under study.


Geggrap_hical_ Location

Waste water characteristics and treatability do not differ significantly
with  geographical  location, irrespective of the raw materials and pro-
cess employed and the products produced.  Climatic differences  have  an
effect   upon  treatability,  and  a  lesser  effect  upon  waste  water
characteristics.    The  industry   segments   under   study   were   not
subcategorized  based  upon  geographical  location,  but  a variance is
allowed for climatic conditions and is discussed in Sections IX.
                                  38

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                               SECTION V


                  WATER USE ANE WASTE CHARACTERIZATION


Usage of water and resultant waste water characteristics for the general
operations of (1) wood preparation,  (2) pulping processes, and   (3)  the
paper  machine  are  discussed  in  this  section.   Since  a relatively
thorough discussion of wood preparation is presented, it should be noted
that raw waste loads resulting from wood preparation are much less  than
loads  resulting  from  pulping process and paper production and usually
utilize waste water from another unit within the mill.
WOOD PREPARATION

Wood, the primary fiber raw  material  for  unbleached  kraft  and  NSSC
pulps,  is  received at the mills in various forms and consequently trust
be handled in a number of different ways (  2  ) .   Some  mills  receive
chips  from  saw mills or barked logs which can be chipped directly.  In
these instances, little, if any, water is employed in preparation of the
wood and no effluent is produced.  Most mills receive roundwood in short
lengths with the bark remaining on it, and, since  the  bark  interferes
with the pulping process and product quality, it must be removed.

  Kgs  are frequently washed before dry or wet barking in order to reircve
  It  ( 19 ).  In most installations a water shower is activated  by  the
  g  itself  while  on  the conveyer so that a minimum of water is used.
The actual quantity discharged per unit cf wood handled or pulp produced
is most difficult to ascertain because of the wide weight  variation  in
stick  size  and  the  fact that not all the wood barked at soire instal-
lations is pulped, a portion going to lumber.

It is established that this effluent is very low in color and EOD5  (20)
and  that  its  suspended  solids content is largely silt.  Hence, it is
generally disposed of on the land together with grits and dregs from the
pulp mill and/or ashes from the boiler  plants,  or  combined  with  the
general  flcwage  to  the treatment works.  Most of the pulpwccd used in
the United States is small in diameter  and  is  barked  dry  in  drums.
However,  when  large  diameter  or  long  wood  is used, wet barking is
commonly employed.  The latter  operation  is  pretty  much  limited  to
northern mills and its use is presently declining.

Wet  barking of logs is accomplished by one of three methods:  by drums,
pocket barkers, or  hydraulic  barkers  (6) (21).    Slabs  are  generally
handled by hydraulic units as is the larger diameter and long roundwood.

The  wet  drum  barker consists of a slotted drum equipped with internal
staves which knock the bark from the wood as the drum rotates in a  pool


                                  39

-------
of  water.   The  bark  falls  through the slots and is removed with the
overflow of water.  These units handle from seven to 45  cords  of
daily.   Frequently  the  water supplied to them is spent process
and recycling within the barking unit itself is often  practiced.   Bar-
kers  of  this  type contribute BOD5 from 7.5 to 10 kilograms per metric
ton (15-20 Ibs/short ten) cf wood barked, and from 15  to  20  kilograms
per  metric  ton  (30-40 Ibs/short ton) of suspended solids.  Examples of
the BOD5 and suspended solids concentration of this waste water with the
barkers using fresh process water are shown in Table 5.

wet pocket barkers are stationary machines which atrade bark from tirrber
by jostling and gradually rotating a confined wood stack against an end-
less chainbelt equipped with projections called "dogs" which  raise  the
wood  pile  allowing  bark to pass between the chains.  Water is sprayed
through apertures in the side of the pocket at rates of between 1254 and
2280 liters per minute (330 and 600 gpm) for  pockets  of  2.8  and  5.7
cords  per  hours, respectively.  The use of this process is rapidly de-
clining in the United States.  Hydraulic  barkers  employ  high-pressure
water  jets  to  blow  the bark from the timber which is either conveyed
past them or rotated under a rcoving jet which traverses  the  log.   The
volume of water employed is generally from 19,000 to 45,600 liters  (5000
to 12,000 gallons) per cord of wood barked depending upon leg diameter.

Water  discharged  from all three types of wet barking is generally com-
bined with log.wash water, and then coarse screens are  used  to  remove
the  large  pieces of bark and wood slivers which are conveyed away con-
tinuously.  The flowage then passes to fine screens.  These are  of  th,
drum,  fixed vertical, or horizontal vibrating type, having wire mesh
perforated plate media with openings in the  range  of  0.127  to   0.2
centimeters   (0.05  to  0.10  inches).  Screenings are removed and mixed
with the coarse materials from the initial screenings, the mixture being
dewatered in a press prior to burning in the bark boiler.  Press  water,
which  is  combined with the fine screen effluent, is very minor in vol-
ume.  The total waste flow, which amounts  to  about  19,000  to  26,600
liters   (5000  to  7000 gallons) a cord, generally carries from 0.454 to
4.54 kilograms  (one to 10 pounds) of EOD5 and 2.72 to 25 kilograms   (six
to 55 pounds) of suspended solids per ton of product.

                              TABLE_5_

                 BNALYSIS_CF_WET_DRUM_EAPKING_EFFLUENTS*

                         TOTAL SUSPENDED                           COLOR
                           SOLIDS             %ASE      BOD5        APHA
     MILL                _m.3/i	      23/1      jDs/i
     ~1                     2017               —       480         20
      2                     3171               21       605         50
      3                     2875               18       987         50
*The water source for wet drum barkers is frequently a waste water which


                                  40

-------
has been recycled from some ether source.

-------
The  combined discharge contains bark fines and silt, the latter varying
greatly in quantity since its presence is due mainly to soil adhering
the logs.  In. dry weather the percentage of silt  in  relation  to  b
fines  is  low  as is the case when legs are stored in or transported by
water.  However, attachment of mud in wet weather can make this material
a major percentage of  the  total  suspended  matter  passing  the  fine
screens.

Fine  screen  effluent  following hydraulic barkers has been analyzed by
several investigators ( 22 )  ( 23 ) ( 24 ), and examples  are  shown  in
Table  6.   It  can  be concluded from the data included in these publi-
cations that these effluents  have  a  total  suspended  solids  content
ranging from 521 to 2350 mg/1 with the ash content running from 11 tc 27
percent.  The latter is generally below 15 percent for clean logs.  EOD5
values  range  between 56 and 250 mg/1.  These low values are due to the
fact that the contact of the  water  with  the  bark  is  short  and  no
grinding  action  on  the wood takes place.  Hence, leaching of wood and
bark solubles is minimized.  The water originally employed is all  fresh
process  water,  since the close clearances of the high pressure pumping
systems supplying water to the jets will not tolerate  the  presence  of
suspended solids in the water.

Such  low  values  are  not the case with drum and pocket grinding where
attrition in contact with water over an appreciable period of time takes
place.  Also, spent pulping process waters  already  high  in  EOD5  and
color are sometimes used for these barking processes which raise further
the ultimate level of organics in the screened effluent.  While wet dru
and  pocket  barker  fine screen discharge is not greatly different fro
that of hydraulic barkers in suspended solids content, the EOE5  can  b
considerably higher ( 20 )  ( 22 ).
m^^
W
BOD5  values are also greatly affected by the species of wood barked and
the season in which the wood was cut since wood  juices  and  water  ex-
tractables  are  responsible  for  it.   The  BOD5  contributed  by  the
suspended matter present is a minor fraction of the  total  BCE5.    The
curves  presented in Figure 9, indicate that the 15-day values are about
twice those of the five day with little  further  demand  exerted  after
this  period.   Table  7  illustrates  sewer  losses  from  wet  barking
operations, while  Figure  10  shows  settleability  characteristics  of
barker screening effluent.

-------
MILL

 1

 2

 3

 4


 5

 6

 7

 8
                    TABLE_6

      ANALYSIS_OF_HYDRAULIC_BARKING_EFFLUENTS


TOTAL SUSPENDED                                COLOR
    SOLIDS           %  ASH                    APHA

	mg/1	      _E!3/1_       I°J?5         UNITS

     2362               27           585          50

      889               14           101          50

     1391               17            64          50

      550               11            99          50


      521               13           121          50

     2017               21            56          50

     2000               19            97

      600               10           250          35
                                   43

-------
  120
 100
  80
£60


 in
o
O
CD

  40
  20
                      FIGURE 9

       LONG  TERM BOD OF BARKER EFFLUENT

              ( AFTER FINE  SCREENS)


                   	RAW

              	FILTERED

         /

           /
        /
     •   y

     /
                      10       15

                    DAYS INCUBATION
20
25
                           44

-------
FIGURE  10
                    SETTLING RATE  OF

               BARKER SCREENING EFFLUENT
  100
   90
z
o

H
u
I>
o
UJ
tr
o
_i
o
o
UJ
o
z
UJ
   80
   70
   60
   50
              20
                      40       60       80


                  RETENTION  TIME  (MINUTES)
         100
                       I
                                1
I
I
             3240     1620      1000      810       648


            CLARIFIER  SURFACE  LOADING-GAL/FT.2/DAY
                            45

-------
                            TABLE_7

            SEWER LOSSES FROM WET BARKING OPERATIONS

            Effluent Volume           BOD5           TSS
         Kiloliter/metric ton    Kg/metric ton    Kg/metric ton
Mill.*    J!O.CO_gal/shgrt_ton)   iibs/short_ton)  Iifcs/short_tcni

  1         11.3   (2.7)            0.6   (1.2)       3.2   (6.4)

  2         10.0   (2.4)            0.9   (1.8)       3.8   (7.6)

  3         14.6   (3.5)            6.0  (12.0)       2.75  (5.5)

  4         25.0   (6.0)            3.0  ((6.0)       15.0  (30.0)

  5         12.5   (3.0)            1.25  (2.5)       11. 4  (22.8)

  6          4.2   (1.0)            1.0   (2.0)       5.0  (10.0)

  7         23.4   (5.6)            9.5  (19.0)       9.0  (18.0)

  8          4.2   (1.0)            5.75(11.5)       15.0  (30.0)

  9         31.3   (7.5)           11.05(20.1)       17.0  (34.0)

PULPING_PROCESS

Unt!§§£hed_Kraft

The  waste water resulting from unbleached kraft pumping comes primarily
from three areas of the process.  The effluent from pulp washing,  which
separates  the  spent liquor from the pulp, formerly consisted mainly of
decker filtrate water containing spent cooking  liquor  solids  and  ac-
counts  for  a high percentage of the total effluent.  Today, the use of
hot stock washing, as discussed in Section VII, has considerably reduced
the waste load generated in the washing operation.

Relationships between solids concentration of this waste water and BOD5,
light absorbence, and conductivity are shown in Figure 11  (   25  ).   It
should  be  noted  that  the  relationships shown in Figure 11 will vary
somewhat  depending  upon  the  specific  case.   The  relationship   of
dissolved  solids  to  the  three  other parameters of waste  strength is
linear and of very similar slope.  From this it can  be  concluded  that
effluent  strength  as measured by these parameters is a direct function
of pulp washing efficiency and that conductivity can be employed  as  an
accurate monitoring index for the pulp washing operation.  The magnitude
of  this relationship can be disturbed somewhat by loss of liquor to the
vacuum system or to floor drains due to foaming on the washers.
                                  46

-------
 The  second  area  of  waste  water  sources  is   condensate   streams.    Belief
 kondensate   from the   digesters   is  condensed   and   the   turpentine  is
 Recovered  from it by decantation.   The  residual  water  from   this   opera-
 tion  is   sewered.   Blow  and  evaporation condensates are contaminated
 mainly with methanol,  ethanol,  and acetone,  with  the   extent  of   their
 content a  function  of  the wood  species  pulped  (  26 ).   When surface con-
 densers are  employed on the  evaporators,  the  volume of this' stream  is
 low  and its BOD5 can be reduced by air  stripping in a  cooling  tower (27)
 or by  steam stripping  ( 28 ).   These  condensates are   frequently   reused
 for  pulp washing.

 All  chemical  recovery operations and  other minor losses constitute the
 last BOD5  source from  kraft pulping.

 Losses per  ton of product from  kraft  pulping  itself   are   difficult  to
 determine   because  of the common practice of  reusing water  from inte-
 grated papermaking  operations into the  pulp mill ( 29  ).

 A process  flow and  materials diagram  for a  907 metric   ton   (1000   short
 ton) a day  kraft linerboard mill  is shown in Figure 12.

 Total   BOD5 raw waste load from unbleached kraft mills, including both
 pulping and papermaking operations, is  typically in the 15  to  20   kilo-
 grams   per   metric  ton (30 to  40 pounds per short ten)  range.  The sur-
 veyed  mills were in the lower   region  of   this   range,  averaging  15.5
 kilograms   per  metric ton (31 pounds  per  short ton).  Suspended  solids
^ata for 35 mills were within a typical range  of 10 to 15 kilograms per
Jietric ton  (20 to 30 pounds  per short ton).   Surveyed mills, however,
 averaged 18 kilograms  per metric  ton  (36 pounds  per  short   ton).    This
 difference   is most probably explained  by the  fact that most mills use a
 filter paper  method   of  determining  suspended  solids   (non-standard
 methods -NSM)   whereas  "Standard Methods" ( SM )  (4)  were used  in the
 surveyed mills.  Specific relationships between  the   two   methods are
 difficult   to  establish  because  the  mills  using NSM have many different
 filter papers  presently in use  which  yield  large variations in  results.
 However,   SM generally yields higher  results than NSM  with  some reported
 relationships  of up to ten times  greater.

 Raw  waste  color  APHA color units  (CU)   are   typically   in   the  500-1500
 range, and one of the surveyed  mills  fell  in the lew end  of  this range
 at 567 units,  while a  second surveyed  mill,  on  a   short term   test,
 measured 286 color  units.

 The  impact  of  in-plant measures,  as described  in Section VII,  is evident
 in   the surveyed mills as compared with previous typical ranges of data.
 All  of the  surveyed mills had reduced  their  flows  to the  40,173  to
 54,249 liters  per metric ton (10,000 to  13,000 gallons per  short ton)
 range. In  contrast, an earlier report  on 35 mills indicated a range  of
 83,460 to   125,190 liters per metric  ton  (20,000 to  30,000 gallons per
 short  ton). It  was reported (29)  in  1966 on 19  unbleached   kraft   ir.ilIs


                                   47

-------
with  a  median  water  usage  of  121f017 liters per metric ton (29,000
gallons per short ton).   The details of methods utilized  to  accompli
this  flow reduction, with concomitant reductions in pollution
the raw waste, are described in Section VII.

Raw waste characteristics of unbleached   mill  effluent  are  shown .in
Table 8.


            Neutral_Sulfite_§emi-chemical

In most sodium base NSSC mills, liquor is prepared by burning sulfur and
absorbing  it  in soda ash or ammonia, depending on tase utilized.   This
part of the process produces cnly  small  quantities  of  liquid  wastes
other  than floor drainings, equipment wash-up, and cooling waters which
can frequently be used as process water.

Digester-relief and blow gases are condensed,  and  in  some  trills  the
condensate  is  used  for  pulp  washing.  Pulp wash water together with
drainings from the blow tank are delivered to  the  recovery  or  liquor
burning  system,  or in the case of some sodium base mills to an adjunct
kraft recovery system.

-------
UJ
o

!s
,<£ E
 O
 in
 ro
 1.6
    UJ
    O X
    3,000 j
2.500
                                FIGURE- 11
           600
0.8 4 1,500 4  400
0.44 1,0004  200
      10
      o
      O
      CD
      ipoo
            800
                  RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOTAL
                  SOLUBLE SOLIDS, BOD, CONDUCTANCE
                  a LIGHT ABSORPTION IN KRAFT

                  PULPING  DECKER FILTRATE EFFLUENT
                                          2pOO           3pOO

                             TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS,  ( mg / I)
                                                                    4POO

-------
From the washers the pulp is conveyed to an agitated chest where  it  is
diluted  with white water from the paper mill to the desired consisten
for feed to the secondary refiners serving  the  papermaking  cperati
Other  than  spent  liquor, the pulping and washing operations dischar
little waste water since the small  amount  of  residual  liquor  solids
present  in  pulp is carried through the machine system passing out %»ith
the overflow white water ( 21 ).

The final effluent from sodium base NSSC mills is low in volume  because
of the high degree of recycle commonly practiced in both the pulping and
papermaking  operations.   For  the  same  reason  it  is  high in BCD5.
Without recovery or incineration of the liquor,  effluents  would  range
from  1500  to  5000 mg/1 with a suspended solids content of from 400 to
600 mg/1.  The color and  chemical oxygen demand (COD)  content would  be
correspondingly  high   ( 22 ).  Overall process losses in EOD5 and total
suspended solids without recovery in relation to pulp yield are shown in
Figures 13 and 14, respectively.

Sodium base NSSC mills which practice  extensive  internal  recycle  and
other  in-plant measures, as described in Section VII,  have succeeded in
reducing raw waste pollutants to the lower levels shown in Table 9 (32).
For example, it has been reported ( 33 )   that  EOC5  loadings  of  28.5
kilograms  per  metric  ton  (57 pounds per short ton)  at a flow of 709U
liters per metric ton (1700 gallons per ton).  As flow is  progressively
reduced  through  more  extensive  in-plant measures, BOD5 is reduced to
14.5 kilograms per metric ton (29 pounds per short ten)  at  2921  liters
per  metric  ton  (700  gallons  per  ton).   The  lower value cannot b
sustained, however, because of operational problems ( 33 )  discussed
Section VII.  Also shown in Table 9 is data for the exemplary mill.  T
data  presented  is  for mill "f" and is an average of 6 months of daily
mill records.  It should be noted that mill "f" may also be included  in
mills 1-13 in Table 9.
                                  50

-------
       Wood 2190 Tons
       546,000 Gal.  Water
|" —
iL^
i






DRUM BARKERS
FINES
48 tons


BARK
BOILER
                                                                                BARK
                                                                             673 tons
                        Cooling Water  208,200  Gal.
                                                                                                                Wash Water
                                                                                                                250,000 Gal.
   NaOH       615 Tons
   Sulfur      58 Tons
   Water  1,000,000 Gal .
    I
           NaOH
           Sulfur
5.4 Tons
4.6 Tons
ESTERS
^

RPENTINE
STORAGE
. 14 Tons
r 1 .4 Ton
16,000 fi

-It
_rfc, 	
BLOW TANKS
it

M— TURPENTINE
J DECANTER


I-, \ CHEMICAL
3 | MAKE-UP
Na OH 33 Tons
Sulfur 13 Tons
J
*
^

FIBERIZER

\T~

«
TALL OIL
SOAP
T
STRONG


BLACK LIQUOR
1

IB L
OXIDATION
1 S

Dis.Org.
NaOH
Water 22
EWER
_t
HOT STOCK
REFINER

^
A*
T
HOT STOCK
SCREENS

Sulfur 4.3 Tons
Water 2,000,000 Gal .




100 Tons
600 Tons
50 Tons
D,000 Gal
Cool ing Water
11 MGD


IWEAK
BLACK
LIQUOR
^-




WASHERS |



1

HIGH DENSITY
STORAGE
NaOH 600 Tons
Sulfur 58 Tons
Ois.Org. 1150 Tons
Water 2,400,000 Gal .

              SEWER
    WHITE  LIQUOR
      STORAGE
Mud    500 Tons
NaOH   5.0 Tons
Sulfur 1.1 Tons
Water 76,000 Gal
                                                 NaOH   580 Tons
                                                 Sulfur  60 Tons
                                                 Inerts  10 Tons
                                                                                                                                  Make-Up Water 403,400 Gal.
                       Figure  12
             PROCESS FLOW AND MATERIALS  DIAGRAM
                 FOR A 1 ,000 TON A DAY KRAFT
                       I.INERBOARD MILL
                                                                                    Inerts 5 Tons
                                                                                    Water 24,100 Gal.
                                                                                                                     Dis.Org.      11  Tons
                                                                                                                     Fiber & Add.   9  Tons
                                                                                                                     NaOH        4.5  Tons
                                                                                                                     Sulfur      .46  Tons
                                                                                                                     Water 1,000,000 Gal.

-------
Ol
Si
    Mill



      a

      b

      c

      d
      1

      2

      3

      4

      5

      6

      7

      8

      9
                                          Table  8

                                Raw Waste  Characteristics

                                    Unbleached  Kraft
            Flow
kilolitersAkg  (1000  gal/ton)

    Mill          Survey

 43.9 (10.5)

 47.2 (11.3)

 39.5 (9.46)

 56.3 (13.5)


         Literature
  Million Liters/day  (MGD)

         98.3  (26)

         37.8  (10)

         71.8  (19)

         11.3  (3)

         45.4  (12)

        113    (30)

         56.7  (15)

         25.7  (6)

         45.4  (12)
         BOD  5
   kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                    TSS
            kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
   Mill

13.5  (27)

13.5  (27)

14    (28)

15.5  (31)
Survey      Mill

12    (24)  10.5  (21)

17    (34)  17    (34)

 9.5  (19)  28    (56)
  S urvey

 6.5   (13)

11     (22)

17     (34)
22.5  (45)  19.5  (39)   26.5   (53)
      Literature


      21    (42)

      11    (22)

      19    (38)

      17.5  (35)

      16.5  (33)

      45    (90)

       9    (18)

      15    (30)

      13    (26)
                 Literature


                 15   (30)

                 20   (40)

                  6   (12)

                  9.5 (19)

                 12.5 (25)

                 11.5 (23)

                 34.5 (69)

                  6   (12)

                 15   (30)

-------
Tafele 8
Raw Waste Characteristics  Chart (Contd.)


                 Literature                 Literature            Literature
          Million Liters/day  (MOD)

  10            102    (27)                  20.5  (41)             26.5 (53)

  11             45.4  (12)                  23.5  (27)             27.5 (55)

  12             37.8  (10)                  50.5  (101)            69.5 (139)

  13             60.5  (16)                  16.5  (33)              -    (-)

  14             34.0  (9)                   17    (34)             13.5 (27)

-------
FIGURE 13
                  BOD  LOAD OF  NSSC  PULPING



                         (WITHOUT RECOVERY)
     700
     600
ID

Q.
a:
o

ui
o



I

a:
UJ
a.
S3
     500
     400
     300
     200
     100
        55
                 60
65
70
75
80
                      PERCENT PULP YIELD
                              54

-------
FIGURE  14      SUSPENDED SOLIDS LOSSES FROM NSSC  PULPING


                             (WITHOUT RECOVERY)
 Q.
 _J
 u   no
 a.
 g
 Ul
ffi  100

I
o
v>
 z
 UJ
 Q.
 o
 
 O
 Z

 o
 Q.
     90
     80
     70

       60
                 \
                    \
                      \
                         \
                           \
                             \
                                \
                                  \
                                   \

                                        \
                                          \
                                           \
                                              \
                                                \
                                                 \
                65         70         75
                       PERCENT  YIELD
80
85
                                54a

-------
Literature
  Mill #
                 TAELE_9

              Raw Waste Load

            NSSC - Sodium Base
          (Liquor not included)

Effluent Volume           BOD5                TSS
kiloliters/metric ton   kg/metric ton   kg/metric ton
                        _(lbs/short_tonl _(lb/shgrt_tcn
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Exemplary
Mill
f*
f**
36.
20.
30.
25.
7.
47.
41.
43.
106.
83.
29.
43.
100.

44.

0
0
0
0
1
2
7
4
8
5
2
0
2

6

(9.
c»-
(7.
(6.
(1-
(11.
(10.
(10.
(25.
(20.
(7.
(10.
(24.

(10.

D
8)
2)
0)
7)
3)
0)
4)
6)
0)
0)
3)
0)

7)

1
3
2
1
2
3
4
2
2
2
2
1
7

8.
1
5.
2.
1.
3.
8.
0.
5.
1.
3.
9.
1.
1.
5.

5
3
0
0
5
5
5
5
0
0
5
5
5
0
0

(1
<''
(30)
(64)
(43)
(27)
(57)
(71)
(90)
(42)
(47)
(69)
(43)
(22)
(150)

17)
>6)
7
6
4
8
4
21
14
16
11
23
50
17
20

8.5 (
7.5 (
^ i;
.0
.5
.5
.0
. 5
.0
.5
.5
.0
.0
.5
.0

17)
15)
(15)
(12)
(9)
(17)
(8)
(43)
(28)
(33)
(23)
(46)
(100)
(37)
(40)



   *Mill Records
  **Short term survey data  (3-7 days)
                                  55

-------
Similarly, others  (33) have reported a short-term average of 5.5 kilo-
  rams per metric ton  (11 pounds per short ton) for BOC5.  Again, oper-
  ting difficulties are cited at this low level, and daily variations of
TODS range up to 25 kilograms per metric ton  (50 pounds per short ton)
and higher.  For the same mill, one researcher (33) reported a goal of abou-
50 .kilograms per metric ton (100 pounds per short ton) of BOD5 after
installation of liquor recovery.

The effluent of a surveyed sodium-base NSSC mill utilizing recycle con-
tained 13 kilograms per metric ton  (26 pounds per short ten)  of EOD5
during the survey period lasting several days.

Total dissolved solids is frequently measured in the raw waste from NSSC
mills, since it is a relatively rapid indicator of upsets.  As dissolved
solids exceed 1.5 percent due to increased recycle, reports of increased
operating problems have been reported  (33) .  A surveyed sodium base irill
reported no operating problems due to total dissolved solids at the much
lower  level  of  0.2  percent.   Others  (33)  reported difficulties in
meeting wet strength requirements of the product  when  total  dissolved
solids of the recirculated white water reached 3.7 percent.


A  process  flow and materials diagram for a 250 ton per day scdium base
NSSC corrugating board mill is shown in Figure 15.

Neutral_Sulfite_Senji^Chemical	(Ammonia_Base)

    ammonia base process is similar to the sodium base process described
       except that ammonia is utilized in  the  preparation  of  cooking
liquor  in  place  of  sodium.   Waste  water characteristics cf the two
processes are similar, as shown in Appendix  III  A,  Tables  1  and  2,
except  for  the  nitrogen  concentration  in the liquid wastes from the
ammonia base mills.

The wood preparation step does not generate a significant  waste  stream
since  it  is  essentially  a bark removal and chipping operation.  This
generates a small stream of approximately ten  to  fifteen  gallons  per
minute  emanating  from  the  chip washer which is directed to a holding
pond.

The initial phase of pulp preparation begins with heating the chips in a
steaming vessel.  The chips are then conveyed by a series of  horizontal
and  vertical  screw  feeders upward through the cooking liquor and into
the digester.  The cooking liquor consists of ammonium sulfite, produced
on site, and anhydrous ammonia.  The pressure  and  temperature  in  the
digestor  are controlled by injection of live steam.  The digested chips
are fed continuously to refiners where they pass between stationary  and
rotating  discs, after which the refined pulp passes into a blow tank to
be mixed and diluted to the proper consistency.   The  vapor  and  steam
from  the  blew  tank  are  condensed and used elsewhere.  From the blow


                                  56

-------
tank, the pulp goes into a two-stage, counter-current  washer  and  then
into  a high density storage chest.  From here the pulp is pumped to
secondary refiner and into the blend chest.  The weak black liquor
the washers, and any other wasted cooking liquor,

goes to the evaporators.  The vapor off the evaporators is condensed, and
goes to the sewer while the remaining black liquor is burned in a liquor
disposal unit.

The  paper  production  stage begins after the pulp has been washed, re-
fined and blended.  Pulp is removed from the blend chest  and  processed
through refiners, the third and last refining step.  Before going to the
paper  machine,  the  pulp  passes through cleaners and screens.  Excess
white water from the paper machine flows through  a  disc-type  saveall,
where wocd fiber is recovered.
There  are five sources of waste water in the manufacturing process:  1)
the evaporators, 2) the powerhouse and maintenance, 3) the pulp mill, 4)
the paper machine, and 5)  the waste paper plant.  The  latter,  however,
is an insignificant source.
                                                                      i
In the surveyed mill which produced 453 metric tons  (500 short tons) p
day,  all  chips  are washed before entering the digester for removal
sand and dirt.  Reuse-water from the hot water tank in the pulping  ar
is  used as wash water.  According to a mill study on July 17, 1972, the
chip washer contained the following effluent load:

     Flow                81.3 liters/min (21.5 gpm)
     SS                  78.8 mg/1
     Total Solids         98 mg/1
     Nonvolatiles        7.6% (of total solids)

The chips washer discharges directly to a drainage ditch leading to  the
holding  pond.   The  above  numbers refer to the raw solids lead before
discharge into the holding pond.

No raw water is used in the pulping area.  The  most  significant  point
for  water  usage is at the washers where reuse water from the paper ma-
chine vacuum system is used.
                                  57

-------
Figure 15
i 	 -r — ~, ~i
i i t
COOLING
WATER
1.61 MG
r~-
Z^T EVAPORATOR 1
U b CONDENSER |
1 10 MG 0.28 MG
t- 1 -1 _^_ t

AUXILIARY _ • ' CHEMICAL
EQUIPMENT 1 ' ASH
PROCESS J 0.32 MG 1

0.66 MG |_

WOOD fc
CHIPS 1 ^
200 CORDS j C
CHEMICALS

u«Tr otofo
AND BROKE

, L 	 1 - . LIQUOR
UUUtkS p T-11 -J (^ BURNING
0.14 MG | £ D.S. 155,000 1
\ *
r,--r-rrnc •> B|OW LIOUOR ,_ , , ^ I,,,,, II 	 feM
UIGtbltHb • T.NI, srRFFN LVACURAIORb ~
K D.S 500 i»
.S. 200,500 * 1 A 1 D.S. 155,500 .
I I 0.23 MG
RERNER |-*| WASHERS REJECTS '
D.S. 55,000 t I
prntiFp to
SCREENS
BREAKER ^ °4°MG
BEATER i p 	 A 	 1
II h-- SE -*t
If ,- •
GRIT ANH - t
JUNK ~~
PROCESS FLOW AND MATER I
FOR A 250 TON A DAY NSSC
BOARD MILL
LEGENDS
D.S.- Dissolved
STOCK ^rnri; 1 fc
CLEANING CHEST | •
I - NSSC PULP BLENDED
1 ^ STOCK
HA
CKEST |
50 Tons FIBER FILTER
CORRUGATING , , °-S' "°'000 *
f PAPERBOARD T^ PAPER SrHER
Solids || 250tons IT ™™m
                                          1.95 MG
     58

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Excepting floor drains, the water discharge into  the  pulp  mill  sewer
comes  from  the  screw feeder and the paper machine saveall.  To accomj|
plish sufficient high  dry  solids  content  in  the  chips  before  t«
digester,  water  is  pressed  out of the chips in the screwfeeder.  The
screwfeeder effluent is a low flow high BOD5 concentrated  stream  which
contributes  about  18-20 percent to the total raw BCD5 load of the mill
(Jan. 1972).  A study carried out by the mill in Nov. - Dec. 1971 showed
the following effluent load from the screw feeder:

     Flow         3UO liters/min (90 gpm)
     BOD5         4260 mg/1 (range 2180-6080)
     BOD5         2090 kg/day (4600 Ibs/day)

The saveall overflow is highly variable both in flow and  concentrations
depending  en the amount of clarified water taken for reuse.  It is also
high in BOD5 load since  it  contains  the  dry  solids  loss  from  the
washers.  This stream discharges to the pulp mill sewer.

The  weak  liguor recovered in the washing plant is evaporated in a qua-
druple evaporator unit to about 52 percent dryness.  The thick liquor is
burned in the recovery boiler, or disposed of  on  land  or  scld.   The
combustion  products are gaseous with a negligible redsidue of inorganic
ash.  The gaseous products contain significant sulfur dioxide emissions.

Fresh water is used in the evaporation plant vacuum system  and  in  the
boiler  area  as  makeup water to the boilers.  The cooling water to the
surface condenser may te recycled through a cooling tower.

The most significant effluent stream is the secondary  condensate.   Th3
condensate can be separated in three streams.

    - combined condensate from middle effects
    - condensate from the surface condenser
    - direct cooling water from the spray condenser and steam ejector.

The  combined  condensate  plus  the surface condenser condensate can be
diverted in one stream and discharged  through  a  boilout  tank.   This
stream contains a high BOD5 and ammonia load.

The waste loads to the evaporation plant and the effluent from the plant
are summarized below for two tests during 1972 and 1973 in Table 10.  As
can  be seen, the condensate BCD_ and NH3 concentrations experience wide
variations.
                                  59

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Effluent is discharged from the following points in  the  paper  machine
    - floor drains
    - gland water
  *  - felt conditioners
    - centri-cleaners

The effluent discharges to a separate sewer and is metered separately.

Table  11  shows  raw waste characteristics for the combined ccndensates
sewer, the papermill sewer, and the total mill sewer.   Table  12  shows
the   raw   waste   characteristics  of  the  exemplary  mill  for  this
subcategory.

                                             Table 10
                   Evaporation Plant Waste Load Reduction and
                        Secondary condensate Discharge Loads
low
                  (gpm)
      liters/min
      mg/1
      kg/day  (Ibs/day)
      % of Mill Load
      % Reduction:  Evap
      oration plant
NH3-N mg/1
      kg/day  (Ibs/day)
      % Reduction Evap-
      oration plant
Januarv_J97_3

Flow  liters/min  (gpm)
NH3-N mg/1
      kg/day  (Ibs/day)
                              Weak Black
                                Liguor
   983 (260)
37,900
49,900 (110,000)
                                81
                             7,000
                             9,260  (20,400)

                                69
                               680  (180)
                             9,600
                             9,400  (20,700)
                                                   Combined
                                                  Condensate
  839 (222)
7,520
8,540 (18,800)
60-75
                                               2,600
                                               2,910 (6,400)
                                               1,750  (3,860)
                                  60

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                                            Table 11

                                  Raw Waste Characterization
                                         NSSC - NH3-N


                                       Combined             Paper Mill             Total Mill
                                      Condensate              Sewer                  Sewer

Flow kiloliters/day (MGD)            1,020  (0.27)           7,180  (1.9)           12,470 (3.3)

BODS* mg/1                           6,120                    620                    630

BODS* kg/day (Ibs/day)               6,260  (13,800)         4,470  (9,840)          7,850 (17,300)

Suspended Solids mg/1                    5                    970                    620

Suspended Solids kg/day  (Ibs/day)        5  (11)             6,950  (15,300)         7,760 (17,100)

Kjeldahl Nitrogen mg/1               2,180                    285                    210

Kjeldahl Nitrogen kg/day (Ibs/day)   2,230  (4,910)          2,050  (4,520)          2,640 (5,810)

Ammonia Nitrogen mg/1                1,700                    100                    150

Ammonia Nitrogen kg/day  (Ibs/day)    1,740  (3,830)            750  (1,650)          1,880 (4,130)


* Soluble

-------
                                                Table 12

                                   Raw Waste Characteristics
                                            NSSC - NH3-N
                  Flow                     BODS               TSS
 ill Jsii2lii§rs/kkg_UOOO_2al/ton]_  ]£S/klS2__(lbI/tonl  ka/kkg_Jlbs/tonl


 e*            3U.8 (8.33)               335 (67)           17  (34)

 e**                                     305 (61)           16  (32)
 *    13 months of daily mill records
 **   Short term survey data  (3-7 days)
Kraft^- NSSC_JCrgs§_iRecgyeryl

Methods employed for introducing spant sodium base NSSC  liquor  into  a
kraft recovery system are illustrated in Figure 7 in Section III.  While
this is the simplest and most economic solution to the recovery problems
   §this process, it can create some operational difficulties in recovery
  ich must be overcome, as is discussed in Section III.

Assuming  solution of these problems, if the ratio of the NSSC operation
does not exceed 1:3 of the kraft production, the  waste  characteristics
are  not seriously altered.  At this ratio, the BOD5 and total suspended
solids losses are increased to  a  small  degree  over  those  of  kraft
recovery alone.  NSSC pulp does not wash as well as kraft and thus, more
fines  pass  off  in the effluent .  However, in modern operations these
increases are not anticipated to exceed  10  percent  of  an  equivalent
amount  of  kraft  pulp  alone on the basis of the 1:3 production ratio.
Treatability by biological oxidation processes is  not  altered  by  the
addition   of   NSSC   pulping   to  kraft  production  and  electrolyte
concentration of the effluent is not  altered  appreciably.   Paw  waste
characteristics  based  on  13  months of daily mill records for the two
exemplary mills are shown in Table 13.
                                  62

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                                                 Table  13

                                    Raw Waste Characteristics
                                 Kraft - NSSC  (Cross recovery)

Mill                Flow                       BOD5                 TSS
        kiloliters/kkg__(100_c[al/tonl    k.g/kkg_(lbs/tonl_
 g*              51.3 (12.3)                 17.5  (35)            16.5  (33)
 g**                 -                       14. 5  (29)            19.5  (39)
 h*              53.4 (12.8)                    -                 8.9  (17.8
 h**                 -                       13.5  (27)            5.5  (11)

      *Mill Records
      **Shcrt Term Survey Data (3-7 days)
                                                                      i
The  raw waste  load  of  paperboard  from waste paper mills is generated  in
the   stock   preparation  area  and  is  mainly a function of the type of raw
materials and  additives  used.   In general, the higher the percentage  of
kraft or neutral  sulfite waste  paper used in the furnish, the higher the
BOD5  value  per ton of product.   Mills whose wastes have the higher EOD5
value generally include  those that employ an asphalt  dispersion  syste
in   the  stock preparation   process  in   order to melt and disperse t
asphalt found  in  corrugated waste paper.   This system subjects the fibe1
to a heat and  pressure   environment  in   a  press  and  digester  which
contributes  to   the  higher  BOD5_  loads.  A process flow and materials
diagram of a typical paperboard from waste paper mill is shown in Figure
16.

Effluent volume,  BOD5, and total  suspended solids data for 42 irills have
been collected and  are presented  in  Table 14.    The  data  was  compiled
from data collected by the Michigan  Water Resources commission (30) , the
Wisconsin  Water  Resources   Commission  (31),  and the NCASI (32).   The
volume of effluent  ranged from  13,760 to  100,150 liters per  metric  ten
 (3.3  to 24.0  thousand gallons  per short  ton)  of product and it is known
that at three  mills the  effluent  has been virtually  eliminated  through
clarification  and water  reuse.  However,  these mills manufacture a sirall
number of products  of  coarse  grade which  makes this procedure possible.

Also shown in Table 14 is data for exemplary mills.   The  data  is  frorr  13
months  of  daily mill records.    It  should be  noted  that  mills  »i,"  "j,"
"k," and "1" 
-------
                            TAELE_14

                PAPEPBOARp_FROM_WASTE_PAPER_MILL_WASTE_LOApINGS

              lffluent_Volume         BOD5              TSS
Literature      Kiloliters/metric ton    kg/metric ton   kg/metric  ton
Mill_#     _11000_gal/short_ton    ilbs/short_ton]. llbs/shgrt_ton]_

  1              45.9 (11.0)          18.0  (36)       61.0  (122)
  2              61.9 (16.3)          21.0  (42)       61.5  (123)
  3              35.5 ((8.5)          7.5  (15)       43.5  (87)
  4              59.7 (14.3)          11.0  (22)       49.0  (98)
  5              16.7   (4.0)          8.0  (16)        4.0   (8)
  6              45.1 (10.8)          6.5  (13)       10.0  (20)
  7              90.1 (21.6)          7.0  (14)       20.0  (40)
  8              41.7 (10.0)          8.0  (16)       21.0  (42)
  9              83.5 (20.0)          18.0  (36)       14.0  (28)
 10              40.5   (9.7)          10.0  (20)       16.5  (33)
 11              39.6   (9.5)          9.0  (18)       14.0  (28)
 12              41.7 (10.0)          9.5  (19)        9.0  (18)
 13              39.6   (9.5)          37.5  (75)       33.5  (67)
 14              28.0   (6.7)          6.0  (12)        7.0  (14)
 15              62.6 (15.0)          32.5  (67)       53.0  (106)
 16              51.7 (12.4)          11.5  (23)       21.0  (42)
 17              43.0 (10.3)          12.0  (24)       29.5  (59)
 18              13.8   (3.3)          16.0  (32)       10.5  (21)
.19              48.0 (11.5)          6.0  (12)       10.5  (21)
§20              24.2   (5.8)          9.0  (18)       17.0  (34)
^21              65.9 (15.8)          8.0  (16)       13.5  (27)
 22              52.2 (12.5)          21.0  (42)       38.0  (76)
 23              38.8   (9.3)          11.0  (22)       15.0  (30)
 24              24.2   (5.8)           8.0  (16)        9.0  (18)
 25              55.9 (13.4)           5.0  (10)       10.5  (21)
 26              53.0 (12.7)          12.0  (24)       15.0  (30)
 27              31.3   (7.5)          17.5  (35)       16.5  (33)
 28              80.1 (19.2)          14.5  (29)       20.0  (40)
 29              25.1   (6.6)          23.0  (46)       14.5  (29)
 30              69.3 (16.6)           8.0  (16)       32.5  (65)
 31              54.2 (13.0)          18.0  (36)       20.0  (40)
 32              47.6 (11.4)          11.0  (22)       21.5  (43)
 33              25.0   (6.0)           8.5  (17)       34.0  (68)
 34              39.6   (9.5)           7.0  (14)       16.0  (32)
 35              41.7 (10.0)          12.5  (25)        8.0  (16)
 36              43.4 (10.4)          10.0  (20)        7.0  (14)
 37              35.9   (8.6)           6.0  (12)        7.0  (14)
 38              100.1  (24.0)          12.5  (25)      27.0 (54)
 39              41.7 (10.0)          12.5  (25)       35.0  (70)
 40              43.4 (10.4)          10.0  (20)        8.0  (16)
 41              35.9   (8.6)           6.0  (12)        7.0  (14)
 42              52.2 (12.5)          13.0  (26)        9.0  (18)


                                    65

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                            TABLED14 cent.

                PAPEPBOARD_FROM_WASTE_PAPlER_MILL_WASTE_LgADINGS

              lfflue£t_Volume          BOD5              TSS
Literature      Kilcliters/metric  ton   kg/metric ton   kg/metric ton
Mill_#      _JJOOO_gal/short_ton     j[lbs/short_tgnl llb§/short_tonl

Exemplary
Mills	

i*                   -
i**                  -                 0.80  (0.15)     0.08  (0.15)
j*               12.1  (2.9)               7  (14)       2.1  (4.1)
j**                  -                    9  (18)       1.2  (2.4)
k*               38.8  (9.3)            5.5  (11)         35  (70)
k**                  -                11.5  (23)         33  (66)
1*                9.6  (2.3)            9.5  (19)       2.8 (5.6)
1**                  -                 5.5  (11)       0.95  (1.9)

*Mill Records
*Short term survey data  (3-7 days)

The minimum quantity of water required  also  depends on whether   or   not
food  packaging   grades  of  board  are  produced.   If they are  not, a re-
duction of discharge to the three to four thousand gallon per  ton level
may be achieved.  If they are, reuse is somewhat  restricted  since taste-
and  odor-producing  substances tend to accumulate in the system and ad-|
versely affect the product.  Slimicides usage is  likewise limited since
some of these also impart odors.  Hence, the minimum practical discharge
for a mill producing foodboard is generally  considered to be about seven
to 10 thousand gallons per ton of product.   Practically all products can
be  produced  in  this effluent range.  As discussed in Section IV, mills
frequently produce food board in conjunction  with  non-food   board   and
therefore  minimum  practical  flows range  anywhere from 4000 to 10,000
gallons per ton.

Total suspended solids losses for the 42 mills listed range from 4.0 to
61.5  kilograms   per  metric  ton   (8  to  123  pounds per short ton) of
product;  27 containing 20 kilograms  per metric ton (40 pounds  per short
ton)   or  under.   This value depends upon the type of save-all  employed
for fiber recovery and the application of the more  effective  types is
contingent  upon  the  kinds  of  waste  paper  used  and the   products
manufactured.   All mills of this type can employ  a  cylinder-type save-
all  and, while it is not the most effective type,  it serves tc  separate
usable from unusable fiber and ordinarily restricts losses to  less   than
20  kilograms  per metric ton (40 pounds per short  ton) .  It also serves
to protect effluent treatment systems from slugs  of  fiber and clarifiers
from flotation problems.
                                  66

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BOD5 values ranged from 5 to 37.5 kilograms per metric  ton  (10  to  75
   «inds  per short ton) of product, 30 of the 42 being less than or equal
   12.5 kilograms per metric ton  (25 pounds per  short  ton).   Residual
   Lping  liquor,  starch,  and other adhesives, such as glutens, account
for most of the BOD5.  Reduction of suspended solids  is  the  only  in-
process control exercised which would reduce BOD5.

The  raw waste load discharged by the mills in this industry is a matter
of some interpretation as the tendency to  treat  waste  water  for  use
prior  to biological treatment has become more typical for the industry.
The practice has taken the form of the use of inplant treatment  facili-
ties  or  an cut of plant primary clarifier for the removal of suspended
solids from the process white water prior to reuse on the  wet  end  and
other selected areas in the mill.  The recovered solids are recycled for
reuse  in  the  stock  system  in  either  case and the excess water not
returned to the mill represents the waste volume discharge to biological
treatment or to municipal waste treatment  facilities.   The  raw  waste
load  attributable to the mills using the above systems is the volume of
waste water after reuse.  Those mills that practice only  nominal  reuse
of  process  water  but  provide primary biological and secondary solids
removal facilities generate a primary clarifier effluent waste load that
equate to  the  raw  waste  load  of  the  mills  practicing  reuse.   A
comparison  of  the  raw  waste load of mills using any one of the three
different systems described above in response to their pollution control
problem shews that the primary clarifier effluent of each  is  the  most
equatable  parameter.   That  this  is the most representative raw waste
     for a mill is supported by the nearly  industry  wide  practice  of
        g all primary clarifier sludge back to the process.  Under these
  mditions  the  clarifier  influent does not represent the actual waste
load leaving the mill.

The use of this criterion for defining raw waste loads for mills in this
category becomes more significant when considering the  fourth  response
to  pollution  abatement  which is receiving wider use in this industry.
This requires the recycle of process water to the extent that the  fresh
water  use  for  process  purposes  equals the evaporation rate frcm the
process system.  The waste water that is generated is both the raw waste
load and final discharge for these mills.  This waste is  generally  the
result  of  intermittent  discharges from holding basins used to contain
the many variables associated  with  production  requirements  including
excessive  stock dumps, grade changes, or mill wash ups.  Achievement of
this goal is made by differing routes.  One  approach  utilizes  a  well
designed  inplant  treatment  facility with safeguards designed into the
system to accommodate process variations and upsets.   Another  utilizes
the  outer plant primary clarifier effluent with surge storage tanks and
screening  equipment  on  the  water  return  to  the  mill  to   insure
reliability  of the quality of the recycle water.  There are a few mills
in this industry which have been built within the last  ten  years  that
have  designed  into  the  process  plans  at  the engineering stage the
concept of complete process water recycle.  This approach  utilizes  one


                                  67

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or the other cf bcth solids removal systems described above and includes
extensive  noncontact  cooling water collection and recycled fresh wat
systems used in noncontaminating areas and discharged separately to
environment without treatment,  in addition, selective process water "u
and  recycle  practices  are  designed into the plant at the engineering
phase.  One such mill was included in this  study  in  order  to  obtain
reliable  information regarding the waste loads generated in the process
water systems  and  the  final  effluent.   This  mill  did  net  employ
biological  treatment  on  the  final discharge, however, the waste load
discharged to the environment was significantly lower than the discharge
from mills with primary settling and biological treatment facilities.

Using data obtained at mills practicing all four  methods  of  treatment
and  recycle,  the  following  comparisons can be made.  The ECD5 cf the
discharge by mills with  secondary  treatment  facilities  averaged  0.5
pounds  per  ton  and that for the mill without biolcgical treatment but
with near complete recycle achieved 0.15 pounds per ton  BOD5   and  far
lower  waste  loads  than achieved by the other mills in total suspended
solids and total dissolved solids, i.e., 0.15 and  1.0  pounds  per  ton
versus  an  average  of  1.5 and 25.0 pounds per ton.  However, for this
mill the concentrations of contaminants was considerebly higher  in  the
final  discharge  to  the  environment.   Perhaps  more  importantly the
concentrations of dissolved solids attributable to the extensive recycle
of process water reached significantly high levels, 1800 mg/1  EOD5  and
7500   mg/1    total  dissolved  solids   (TDS),  which  this  particular
production process was able to tolerate.

Evaluation of the results obtained by the four basic approaches made
this industry to the pollution control effort supports the fact that
waste  waters generated respond well to the biological treatment process
for the reduction of BOD5 and to  a  lesser  extent,  except  with  near
complete recycle, dissolved solids.  The waste is generally deficient in
phosphorus  and  nitrogen  making necessary the addition of nutrients to
achieve good biological treatment performance and is low in heavy metals
concentration, rarely exceeding one mg/1.


These wastes are substantially neutral although  some  grades  of  paper
board  lean toward the acid side due to the large amount of alum used as
sizing.  They seldom, however, contain mineralacidity and can be treated
biologically without neutralization.  They generally contain  relatively
little  true  color unless such is imparted by the water supply, but can
be quite turbid due to the presence of clay or titanium dioxide used  in
the  process or entering the  system with the waste paper.  The turbidity
varies over a wide range depending depending  on  the  production  grade
being  run in the mill.  However, evaluation of the data obtained during
the survey program carried out at mills in this subcategory demonstrates
that  clarification  followed  by  biological  treatment   reduces   the
turbidity from 200 to 700 JTU  (Jackson Turbidity Units) to  15 to 35 JTU.
It  can  be  concluded that the installation of treatment facilities for


                                  68

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the reduction of BOD5 will successfully reduce turbidity  to  acceptable
  vels.
 astorically,  the  raw  waste water for mills in this industry has been
characterized in terms of a particular manufacturing process and by  the
raw, materials  used  in  the process.  The realization of near complete
reuse of process water by some mills indicates  that  the  reuse  factor
becomes  paramount when characterizing the waste loads discharged to the
environment on an industry-wide basis.

There are ether factors that exert an adverse influence en the  quantity
and  quality of the waste water generated by paperboard from waste paper
mills on an intermittent basis.  Virtually all  mills  change  from  one
grade of product to another during an operating cycle.  The frequency cf
this  occurrence varies frcm two or three changes in a 24-hour period to
only once in three  or  four  days.   The  effect  on  the  waste  water
generated   may  be  negligible  or  quite  obvious,  depending  on  the
difference in the grade change  being  made.   Generally  the  suspended
solids  increases  with  an attendant increase in BOD5.  The duration of
this import is from perhaps 15 minutes to one hour after which the waste
stream returns to normal conditions.   Production  scheduling  generally
avoids following a production grade with a completely different grade in
order  to  reduce  the  interim  period of production that meets neither
grade specification.  This, therefore, tends to minimize the  impact  of
grade change on waste water quality except where it is unavoidable.

 *" 11  washups  occur  perhaps once a week; however, in recent years irany
  11s have extended their operating period to  14  and  21  day  cycles.
  is extended period frequently coincides with a felt or wire life cycle
which  permits  a  felt  or  wire  to be changed during a scheduled irill
shutdown.  A mill shut down  largely  influences  the  suspended  solids
content  of  the waste stream.  These solids have accumulated in various
tanks and chests throughout the process system over the operating  cycle
and  are  generally  considered  to  be  undesirable  for  return to the
production process.  Some mills reuse a substantial amount of the solids
generated by a washup, others reuse virtually none.  In either case  the
primary  clarifier  removes  these  solids from the waste stream and the
excess is disposed of via  the  clarifier  underflow  system  to  sludge
dewatering ponds or vacuum filtration prior to land disposal.

EBPEE_MACHINES

The  manufacture  of  paper  involves  two  relatively  discrete process
systems in terms of quantity and quality of water  utilizations,  namely
the  wet  end  and  the  dry  end of the machine.  Refined pulp stcck is
discharged to the machine chest from which it enters the wet end of  the
paper  machine.    The  stock  is  pumped  to  a headbox which meters the
quantity of stock to the paper  machine.   Process  water  is  added  to
reduce  the  stock consistency to 0.25-0.5 percent either in the headbox
                                  69

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or the vat, depending on whether the forming section is  a  cylinder  or
fourdrinier machine.
The  stock deposits on a cylinder or fourdrinier wire and excess
white water passes through the wire.  A  large  portion  of  this  white
water is recycled back through the machine stock loop, and the excess is
pumped to a white water collection chest for reuse in the stock prepara-
tion area.  Any remaining excess goes to a save-all for fiber collection
and  white water clarification.  These showers clean areas which tend to
develop fiber buildup and represent the largest  portion  of  raw  waste
water generated by a paper machine.

The  sheet  is  carried by cloth felts to the forming and press sections
where additional quantities of water are removed.  Felt cleaning showers
which add more excess water are used.  They are  required,  however,  in
order  to  maintain  the  drainability  of  the  felt.  The sheet passes
through the drier section to the dry end where water  use  is  generally
low  in volume and consists principally of cooling water.  If en-machine
coating is practiced it involves a coating kitchen in which the  coating
is  made  up to specifications and applied in successive applications to
the sheet.  The presence of this operation generates a low volume  waste
water relatively high in BOD5 and dissolved solids.

Many  mills utilize a broke pulper on the dry end of this machine.  This
represents the largest single water use in this area  and  is  generally
recycled white water.  However, this system component is responsible for
creating  process  water  system  imbalances  of the greatest magnitude^.
Since a dry end break requires that the entire tonnage of the irachine^
reduced to pulp consistency the volume of  water  needed  to  accompli
this is very high.  The imbalance created depends on the duration of the
break  and  generally  is  reflected  by  an  increase of voluire with an
attendant increase in suspended solids and, to a lesser extent, EOE5 and
dissolved solids in the mill effluent.  During this period the treatment
facilities may be subject to two or three times the average  waste  load
generated  by the mill.  The subsequent impact on the performance of the
mill waste treatment  facilities  is  not  documented,  however.   Since
treatment   capabilities  are  a  function  of  time  and  kilograms  of
contaminant per unit of time, the impact must exert an  influence  which
is hidden in the 24-hour average waste load data reported by the mill.

Impact  of  this  system on a mill practicing near complete recycling of
process water is probably  more  critical.   Normal  operation  requires
facilities  for  recycling process water within the machine locp and the
stock preparation loop, and from one loop to the other.  To  accommodate
a  dry end or wet end break, the process water system must be capable of
responding quickly to the need for a large volume cf  process  water  at
either  the  wet  end  or dry end of the machine without utilizing fresh
water make-up.  This system must also have the capacity  to  bring  this
volume of water back into the process water system without losses to the
mill discharge sewer.


                                  70

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                                                  ' ~| 0.574 KG
                                                     I  1  Ton
                                                               	I   THICKENER
                                                           II.44 HG I   W.W.  TANK
                                                           4 Tons
	^	1   WHITEWATER
        0.5 Tons  |  1.181  MG         I      "**      I


                         I
                                                                                                                        Figure   16
                                                                                                                    PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM AIID MATERIALS
                                                                                                                                  OF A
                                                                                                                          WASTE PAPERBOARD HILL
                                                                                                                    PROCESS WATER         	
                                                                                                                    FRESHWATER           	
                                                                                                                    EXTENSIVE WATER RE-USE 	

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                               SECTION VI


                   SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS

WASTE_WATER_PARAMETERS_OF_SIGNIFICANCE

A thorough analysis of the literature, mill records, sampling data which
has  been  derived  from this study, and the RAPP data demonstrates that
the following constituents represent pollutants according to  the  Water
Pollution Control Act for the subcategories under study:

BOD5
Total Suspended Solids
PH
Color (Not including Paperboard from Waste Paper)
Ammonia Nitrogen  (NSSC-ammcnia base only)
                                                                      i
BiochemJ.cal_OxYgen_pemand	{5-day^

This parameter is a measure of the amount of biologically degradable or-
ganic  matter which is present in the waste stream.  Failure tc substan-
tially reduce the amount of BOD5 in the waste stream before discharge t
receiving waters would adversely affect water quality by consuming lar "
amounts of dissolved oxygen.  Although the amount of  BOD5  per  ten
product  in  the  discharge from an industrial process varies to a large
degree between subcategories, and even significantly from mill  to  irill
within  a  given subcategory, the wastewaters can essentially te treated
by the same treatment systems.

§li§E§2 de d_ So 1 i d s

This parameter is a measure of nondissolved solids in  the  waste  water
which  are  trapped  or  "suspended"  on  a  test  filter medium.  Total
suspended  solids,  also  called  Suspended  Solids  are  divided   into
settleable  and  nonsettleable  fractions, the former being these solids
which will settle in one hour  under  quiescent  conditions.   Pulp  and
paper mill effluents are normally analyzed for suspended solids.  If not
removed  from  waste  flows, the heavier and larger portion of suspended
solids  may  deposit  on  the  bottom  of  receiving   waters,   causing
interference  with  normal benthic growths.  Also, such deposits, due to
anaerobic biological action, may generate gasses which cause  clumps  of
solids  to  float, producing an unsightly condition en the water surface
together with offensive odors.  Most suspended solids of mill origin can
be removed by proper treatment, as described in Section VII.   Suspended
                                  72

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solids  of biological origin which are generated by biological treatment
are included in the test, but are generally more difficult to remove.


El

Thfe effluent from a typical biological treatment process  will  normally
have  a  pH in the range of 6.0 to 9.0, which is not detrimental to irost
receiving waters.  However, the application of some technologies for the
removal of color, solids, and nitrogen can result in  major  adjustments
in  pH.   The effluent limitations which are cited insure that these ad-
justments are compensated prior to final discharge of treated wastes  in
order to avoid harmful effects within the receiving waters.

Color

Color  is  defined  as  either  "true" or "apparent" color.  In Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and W§§tewater  (U) , the true  color
of  water is defined as "the color of water from which the turbidity has
been removed."  Apparent color includes  "not  only  the  color  due  to
substances  in  solution,  but  also  due  to suspended matter."  In the
various chemical pulping processes, lignin and  lignin  derivatives  are
solubilized  and  removed from the wood during the cooking process.  The
spent cooking liquors containing  these  highly  colored  compounds  are
removed  from  the pulp in a washing sequence following the cocking pro-
cess.  The wash water is highly colored, and large amounts of color  are
ultimately  discharged  to  the  receiving  stream despite some recovery
 perations.
r
Ammonia Nitrogen

Nitrogen is a nutrient which can contribute to excessive growth of algae
and other aquatic vegetation when discharged in significant  quantities.
Pulp  and  papermaking  waste  flows normally contain only miner concen-
trations of this nutrient, and nitrogen compounds must often be added to
provide desired biological waste treatment efficiencies.  As  a  result,
effluent  limitations on nitrogen are not considered necessary.  The one
exception  regarding  limitations  is  for   the   ammonia   base   NSSC
subcategory.   Large  quantities  of ammonia nitrogen can be released to
the  waste  water  from  the  industrial  process  itself.   Failure  to
substantially  reduce  this  pollutant  could  be  highly detrimental to
receiving waters.

RATIONALE_FOF_PARAMETERS_NgT_SELECTED

S§ttle_able_Solids

Settleable solids are a measure of that  fraction  of  suspended  solids
which  settles  after one hour in a quiescent vessel.  While a few mills
have measured settleable solids, reliable  data  are  not  generally  cr


                                  73

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 widely available.   Since settleable solids are measured as a part cf the
 suspended  solids,   settleable  solids  are  not  considered  a separata.
 pollutant.

 Turbidity

 Turbidity is  an expression  of  the  optical  property of  the fine suspended
 matter in a sample  of  water.   The  suspended matter  may  be  clay  silt,
 finely  divided organic and   inorganic  matter,   plankton,  and  other
 microscopic  organisms.   The   suspended  matter  causes   light  to   be
 scattered and absorbed rather  than transmitted in  straight lines through
 the   sample.    The   paperboard  from  waste   paper subcategory has been
 reported  having mill  effluents   which  may  have high   turbidities.
 However,  turbidity  is  not considered as  a  pollutant parameter because  an
 adequate data base  does  not exist  for turbidity in paperboard from  waste
 paper mill  effluents.

 Coliform_grganisms

 The   fecal  ccliform test is the most valid microbiological parameter for
 pulp  and paper effluents presently available.   The  excessive  densities
 of  fecal  coliforms  and  more specifically,  Klebsiella pneumoniae,  as
 measured by the fecal  colifcrm test,  in  pulp and  paper  mill  effluents
 are   significant.   Klebsiella  can  complicate E.  coli detection,  they can
 be pathogenic,  and  they   are   coliforms  by  definition.    In  addition,
 Klebsiella  are found  in  the intestinal tract of approximately 3051  of
 humans  and  H0% of animals.  Klebsiella reflect  the high nutrient levels
 in pulp and paper mill wastes.   With  adequate  treatment for  reduction
 nutrients,  densities  of   Klebsiella and  also  total coliforms  should
 significantly reduced.

 A geometric mean density of fecal  coliforms of  1000/100mls   or   less   is
 generally indicative of  adequate treatment.

 Coliforms are not included  as  a separate pollutant  parameter  because (1)
 an  adequate   data  base  is  lacking,  (2)  the exclusion of  domestic sewage
 from  mill  waste   waters   is   required,   and   (3)   adequate  biological
 treatment should reduce  fecal  coliform levels to less than  1000/100  iris.


 Regin Acids

 Soaps   of  resin  acids  (isopimaric, abietric, and  dehydroabietric) have
 been identified as  causing  80  percent of   the  biologically   deleterious
 effects  of unbleached kraft mill  effluent.  Studies in Canada indicates
 that these; compounds are contained mainly  in combined condensates rather
than black1, liquor.   The most recent studies  indicate they  can   increase
during  biological  treatment in aerated lagoons.  This parameter is not
considered  as  a   separate  pollutant  parameter   for   any   of   the

-------
 subcategories   because   adequate treatment  systems  are not  available  for
l^ts  reduction.

^glYchlgrinated_BiphenYl§

 Polychlorinated biphenyls  (PCB's)  are  chemically  and  thermally   stable
 compounds   found  in  paper   and paperboard manufacture  and are known to
 cause  deleterious  effects  upon biological   organisms.    They  have been
 shown  to   concentrate   in  food   chains  and   few  restrictions on thier
 control  exist at present.  Recycled  office  papers are the main source in
 the  paper  industry at present, although occasionally paperboard extracts
 show evidence of Monsanto1s  Aroclor  1254  (PCB)  from  environmental  and
 other  sources.    Quantities of PCB  in recycled paperboard  are generally
 between  1  and 10 mg/1,  but may be  more or less. Functional barriers   or
 lines  in   paperboard   are  seen   to provide food stuff  protection until
 PCB's  are  purged from the  system through process waters,  volatilization
 and  paper  destruction.   This parameter is not considered  as  a separate
 pollutant  parameter for any  of the  subcategories   because   an adequate
 data base  does  not exist.
                                   75

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                              SECTION VII

                   CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Waste  water  effluents discharged from the subject subcategories of "the
industry to receiving waters  can  be  reduced  to  required  levels  by
conscientious   application  of  established  in-plant  process  control
together with water recycle measures and by well designed  and  operated
external  treatment  facilities.    Present  technology  will  not  allow
achievement of zerc discharge.

This section describes both the in-plant and external technologies which
are either presently available or under intensive development to achieve
various levels of pollutant reduction for each of the sutcategcries.  In
some cases  the  "in-plant"  and  "external"  technologies  merge.   For
example,  a mill may employ extensive suspended solids removal equipment
internally, reusing both the clarified water  for  manufacture  and  the
recovered solids in the product,  whereas another similar mill may depend
to  a greater extent on "external" suspended solids removal tc arrive at
a similar end point.
Tables 15 and 16 summarize alternative technologies, both  internal  and
external, in present use and of the more advanced degree.
                                  76

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            Table 15

SUMMARY OF INTERNAL TECHNOLOGIES
                  Unbl.   NSSC
                  Kraft  Ammon.
      .Subcatecjcry	
                      Paperboar
       NSSC   Kraft-    from
      Sodium  _NSSC_ Waste_PajDe
                    X

                    X
                    X
                    X
                    X
                    X
                    X
                    X
X
X
X
X
                    X
                    X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I.   PULP_MILL

     A.  General

     Gland water reduction/reuse
     Vacuum pump seal water
       reduction/reuse
     Internal spill collection

     B.  Wood Handling

     Dry Handling
     Wet Handling with recycle

     c•  Digestion & Pulp Washing

     Hot stock screening
     Knot removal and/or reuse
     Wash water reuse

     D.  Spent_Cooking_Ligugrs

     Chemical recovery
     Land disposal or sale
     Condensate reuse
     Dregs recovery

II.  PAPER_MILL

     Reuse of white water
     Saveall system
     Shower water reduction/reuse
     Gland water reduction/reuse
     Vacuum pump seal water
       reduction/reuse
     Internal spill collection

Note:  Data was not available to determine the percentage use by mills
       in each subcategory of the internal technologies.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
              77

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                                Table  16

                    SUMMARY OF EXTERNAL TECHNOLOGIES
I  Technologies in general use.
IASIC_FUNCTION

Screening


Neutralization
Suspended Solids
Removal
BODS removal
Foam control
           ALTERNATIVE_TECHNgLOGIES

           Traveling, self-cleaning
           Fixed tars

           Automatic pH control
           Manual pH control

           (C)  Mechanical Clarifier
           (L)  Earthen Basin
           (DAF) Dissolved Air Flotation

           (ASE) Aerated Stabilization Basin
           (AS) Activated Sludge
           (SO) Storage oxidation

           Chemical
           Mechanical
Estimated percentage use  (Based upon RAPP data)
of above alternatives by subcategory:
TECHNOLOGY
UNBLEACHED
  KRAFT
(C)
(L)
(DAF)
(ASB)
(AS)
(SO)
    50
    30
   *10
    50
   *10
    20
                             PAPERECARD
 NSSC       NSSC     KRAFT      FRCM
AMMONIA    SODIUM    NSSC    VvASTE EAFEF

   50         20       80         80
  *10         10       10         15
   10         10       10        *10
   50         40       60         30
  *10        *10      *10         30
  *10        *10       10        *10
* means "less than"
Note:  Mills discharging into public sewers are excluded  from  abcve
       percentage estimates.
                                  78

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     Advanced technologies.

                              ALTERNATIVETECHNOLCGIES
 Color removal                 (Lime) Lime treatment
                               (Carbon)  Activated carbon
                               (Coag.)  Coagulation-alum
                               (R.O.) Reverse osmosis

 Suspended Solids Removal      (MMF)   Mixed (Multi)  Media Filtration
 III  Color Removal Technologies - Stage of Development

 Treatment              Subcategory.              Type of Installation

 Lime                   Unbleached Kraft           Full Scale
                        Kraft-NSSC                 Full Scale
 Carbon                 Unbleached Kraft           Pilot Scale
 Coag.
 R.o.                   NSSC-Sodium                Pilot Scale
I
NBLEACHED KRAFT
 Internal_Technologies^_

 Available  methods  for  reduction  of  pollutant discharges by internal
 measures include effective pulp washing, chemicals and  fiber  recovery,
 treatment  and  reuse of selected waste streams and collection of spills
 and  prevention  of  "accidental"  discharges.   Internal  measures  are
 essentially reduction of pollutant discharges at their origin and result
 in  recovery  of chemicals, by-products, and in conservation of heat and
 water.

 Generally, mills which reduce raw waste pollutant  loads  conccmmitantly
 reduce   effluent  flowage through recycle.  An example selected frcm two
 surveyed unbleached kraft mills will illustrate  this  point.   The  raw
 waste  lead of one such mill contained 22.5 kilograms of BOD5 per metric
 ton (45 pounds of BOD5 per short ton)  of production using 58,422  liters
 of  water  per  metric ton (14,000 gallons of water per short ton).  The
 effluent of the second mill contained only  17  kilograms  of  BOD5  per
 metric   ton (34 pounds of BOD5 per short ton)  at a 41,731 liter of water
 per metric ton (10,000 gallons of water per short ton) flow.
                                   79

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Barking of wood prior to pulping is most commonly performed by dry  pro-
cesses which require very little water.   This practice is preferred
wet  barking  from  the viewpoint of reducing raw waste load.  Where
barking is employed, the BOD5 and suspended  solids  losses  are  not  a
major  percentage  of  the  total  waste,  as  pointed out in Section V.
However,  as  mills  reduce  their  raw  waste  loads  through  internal
controls,  the  waste loads from wet barking may become more significant
as it will be a larger percentage of the total waste load.   Elimination
of  raw  waste  loads  from  wet  barking  can be achieved through total
recycle of the barking water.  A closed system for wet barking has  been
successfully demonstrated at a mill in California.

Treatment  of  wet  barking  effluents consists of screening followed by
settling to remove fine suspended solids (principally silt).  Heavy duty
mechanically-raked clarifiers are preferably  employed,  with  a  design
rise  rate  of  10,741-48,890 liters per square meter per day (1000-1200
gallons per square foot per day) and a retention time of two hcurs  (12).
Clarified effluent may be added to the mill biological treatment system.
settled solids are removed continuously and are  readily  dewatered  for
disposal.

In dry drum barking which is employed by many linerboard mills, the wood
is  sprayed  with  water  on  entering the drum to remove soil and loose
bark.  From 0.83 to 1.67 liters per metric ton  (0.2 to 0.4  gallons  per
short ton) of product is used and in some instances the water is settled
and  recycled.   Overflow from settling ponds is discharged to treatment
systems.

Many linerboard mills receive wood in the form of  chips  either  direct
from  the forest or, more generally, from saw mills.  In these cases, no
barking is required.  As the  forest  products  industry  continues  its
trend  toward  maximum  utilization  of the tree, it is likely that more
wood will be delivered as chips and less round wood will  be  barked  by
pulp  mills,  thus  reducing  or eliminating waste water discharges from
this source.

After cooking, pulp is washed to remove the  dissolved  wood  substances
and  spent  cooking chemicals,  older practice was to dilute the pulp to
about one percent consistency after washing in order to  promote  effec-
tive  screening  for  the  removal of knots and shives.  Thickening en a
decker was then required to raise the consistency for storage  purposes.
The  water removed by the decker typically accounted for about one-third
of the total BOD5 loss from the mill.

Modern  practice  reduces  this  loss   substantially   by   a   process
modification.   After  cooking,  the pulp is passed through  a fibrilizer
which fractionates the knots remaining with the  pulp.   The  pulp  then
passes  through  a specially designed hot stock screen which effectively
removes shives prior to washing.  This  sequence  avoids  the  need  for
dilution  of  the  pulp for screening after washing, so losses from this


                                  80

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source are reduced.  This practice is  preferred  for  unbleached  kraft
  e" ps from the waste water viewpoint.  Rejected knots and shives, if not
   poked,  are disposed of on the land and are not permitted in the mill
   er system.

In the kraft recovery process, inert materials originating in  the  wood
and  other  raw  materials  must be removed.  Inert grits from the lime-
slaking operation are generally removed for disposal on the land as  are
dregs  from  the  white  and  green  liquor  clarification  steps.  This
practice reduces the suspended solids loss to the sewer.

Kraft  mill  condensates  are  recognized  to  be  the   principal   EOD
contributor   to   the   effluent  load  from  unbleached  kraft  irills.
Consequently,  considerable  effort  has  been  spent  by   most   kraft
operations  tc  consume  internally  as  much  of  these  condensates as
possible  by  substituting  them  for   normal   fresh   water   make-up
applications.   Most  commonly the recycling of condensates has occurred
in brown stock washing and in causticizing make-up.  Use of  condensates
in  stack  scrubbers  for  lime kilns and disolving tank vents is also a
common practice.  Direct disposal of condensates has  been  successfully
accomplished by large scale spray irrigation.

Despite  the  extensive  condensate  recycling  practices,  these  waste
streams still constitute, collectively, a most serious source of air and
water pollution from unbleached kraft operations.

  Cny of the problems related to condensates evolve  from  the  recycling
  actices  themselves.  Ideally, recycling of waste streams assumes that
  e waste stream is totally consumed in the process - that the polluting
materials are destroyed by  incineration  or  homogeneously  assimilated
into  the  process streams.  This of course is not entirely correct when
speaking of condensates.  Since condensates in general are black  liquor
distillates,  a  large  fraction  of  the  offending chemical substances
involved are volatile substances which are not  amenable  to  the  basic
black  liquor  processing  scheme.   If  this were not so, the materials
would not have distilled during the formation of the condensate  stream.
Recycling  the  condensate  may  result  in  a  gradual  increase in the
concentration  of  the  volatiles  in  the  process   stream   involved.
Consequently,  distillate  slip  streams  from  the  process  may become
enriched with these volatiles to the extent that serious air  and  water
pollution  problems  occur  in  areas  where  no  serious problems exist
without  the  recycling  practices.   The  observed  increase   in   EOD
concentration  of  multi-effect  evaporator  condensate  with  extensive
recycling of condensates to brown stock washers may serve as an example.

Recycling cf condensates to the causticizing system may also  result  in
similar  problems.   Elevated  temperatures  at  the recovery dissolving
tank, slaking and causticizing area, and lime kiln area, may  provide  a
means for purging recycled volatiles from condensates to the atmosphere.
Since  many  of  these  volatiles are malodorous, it is obvious that the


                                  81

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kraft mill odor  problem  may  be  greatly  enhanced  by  the  recycling
practice.   Normally  innocuous emission sources, such as tank vents a
vacuum pump  exhausts,  may  also  become  fortified  through  extensi
condensate recycling.

Operational problems may also occur with extensive condensate recycling.
Increased   wet  strength  additive  usage  has  been  linked  with  the
application  of  multi  effect  evaporator  condensate  en  brcwn  stcck
washing.   Momentary  black  liquor  carry-over  in  condensate  streams
recycled to the causticizing  area  may  seriously  disrupt  the  noriral
liquor-making  process.  Unquestionably, many of the side effects of the
recycling practices have yet to be defined.

For a large part the condensate  streams  from  the  continuous  pulping
process  differs  markedly  from  the  batch  process.   The  continuous
digester blow generally occurs at a lower temperature and pressure  than
that  of  the batch cook.  The evolution of distillates in this function
is inconsequential in  comparison  to  the  batch  counterpart.   Relief
condensate,  characteristic of the batch cook, does net occur as such in
the continuous  cook.   However,  condensate  from  continuous  digester
steaming vessels may be compared with the batch relief condensate.

Condensates from the recovery system evaporators and from condensed blow
tank  vapors  account  for  about one-third of the total BODS.  Table 17
shows typical reuse points for these condensates.  Methanol accounts for
about 80 percent of their organic content and for most of the EOD5 (33).
Other alcohols, ketones, and small quantities  of  phenolic  substances,
sulfur  compounds,  and  terpenes account for the remainder.  Eecause
the odorous compounds, reuse of condensates has been restricted  by
pollution considerations.  This led, about 10 years ago, to the develop-
ment of technology to remove such compounds.  Steam stripping cf conden-
sates has been studied extensively for this purpose (34)(35)(36).  Steam
stripping  has  been successfully applied at least at one bleached kraft
mill, and another is planning to air strip condensates.   It  should  be
noted  that  this technology is transferable from bleached to unbleached
kraft mills.

A rule of thumb sometimes used in the industry is that one-third to cne-
half of the BOD5 and suspended solids  in  the  raw  waste  are  due  to
spills,  overflows, and wash-ups which occur when the production process
is not in equilibrium.  These losses occur due to a variety  cf  factors
including breakdown of equipment, routine maintenance, planned shutdowns
and  startups, power failures, and grade changes.  For economic reasons,
efforts are made to minimize these occurrences, but even under the  best
of circumstances, they occur regularly and therefore should be taken in-
to  consideration  in any waste management program.  An example occurred
during a survey of one mill  which  experienced  an  unusual  short-term
black liquor loss.  This caused raw waste BOD5 to increase frorr 17 tc 29
kilograms  per  metric  ton  (34 to 58 pounds per short ton).  Suspended
solids increased from 11 to 18.5 kilograms per  metric  ton  (22  to  29


                                  82

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pounds  per  short  ton).   Such shock loads can interfere with external
  teatment  operation,  reducing  its  removal  efficiency.     Short-term
   >logical  processes  are  particularly susceptible to upset  from  shock
[bads.
                                TABLE 17

            REUSE OF EFFLUENT FROM DIFFERENT UNIT OPERATIONS
        Ef fluent
Blow gas condensate,
direct
1000 liter/metric tons
	igal/ton]_	

  5.7 - 22.4
  (1500-5900)
  Average
  8.6  (2000)
  Place of Reuse

Brown stock washing
Screen room or decker operc
Hot water supply
Mud washing
Dissolving cf additives
Blow gas condensate,
indirect

Cooling-water for
blow-gas condenser,
indirect
  *rpentine-decanter
  derflow
  1133 - 1.52
  (350 - 400)

  (350 - 400)
  (1500 - 5900)
  Average:
  8.6  (2000)

  0.038 - 0.63
  (10 - 165)
  Average:
  0.19 (50)
None (Sewered)
Hot water supply
Brown stock washing
Bleached stock washing
Screen room or decker opera

Showers on knctter
Showers en hrcwn-stock wash
                                  83

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                            Table 17 (cont.)


Cooling water for            2.47 - 9.12           Hot water supply
turpentine condenser         (675 - 2440)          Screen room
                                                   Boiler make-up water
                                                   Direct blow-heat condense

Evaporator                   2.56 - 10.6           Brcwn stock washing
condensate                   (675 - 2800)          Lime kiln scrubber
                             Average:              Cooking liquor preparatiOi
                             about                 Mud-washing or dreg washi
                             5.7 - 7.6             Woodyard
                             (1500 - 2000)         Wash-ups
                                                   Sewer
                                                   Boiler make-up water

Evaporator                   30.4 - 57.0           Transport of bark-boiler
barometric                   (8000 - 15000)        Recycled through cooling-
effluent

Cooling water for                                  Hot water supply
evaporator surface                                 Machine showers in paper
condensers

Evaporator seal              1.52 - 5.89           Brown stock washing
pit, discharge               (400 - 1550)
from surface
condensers
                                  84

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i
  e following practices should be employed to eliminate or minimize non-
  uilibrium losses:

    1.  Evaporators should be periodically "boiled out" to remcve  scale
   , and  ether  substances  which interfere with efficient operation.  A
    storage tank should be provided to  contain  the  flushed  material,
    which can then be slowly returned to the process when it is again in
    operation.

    2.   Storage  facilities  should  be provided for weak black liquor,
    strong black liquor,  and  recovery  plant  chemicals  and  liquors.
    These should be adequately sized to avoid overflows in approximately
    90 percent of process upsets.  Provision can be made to return these
    stored materials to the originating subprocess at a later time.

    3.   If  overflows  would  cause  treatment plant upset or increased
    discharge of pollutants, production curtailments should be  made  as
    required  to avoid overflows if the overflows cannot be prevented by
    some other means.  Sewer segregation can be utilized, especially  in
    new  mills,  to  minimize these impacts, in conjuction with adequate
    storage.

    4.  Continuous monitoring within  mill  sewers  (especially  conduc-
    tivity)  should  be  employed  to  give immediate warning of unknown
    spills so that corrective action can be promptly taken.

    5.  Personnel should be trained to avoid such spills where possible,
    and to take immediate corrective action when they occur.

    6.  Storage lagoons located prior to  biological  treatment  may  be
    provided  to  accept longer term shock loads.  The contents can then
    be gradually returned to process or to treatment  without  detriment
    to treatment operations or to receiving waters.

In the stock preparation paper machine systems large quantities of water
are necessary to form a sheet of paper.  Typically, the fibrous stock is
diluted  to  about  0.5  percent  consistency  before entering the paper
machine itself.  Such  dilutions  are  necessary  in  order  tc  provide
uniformity of dispersion of the fibers in the sheet of paper, as well as
to  provide  other  desired  qualities such as smoothness.  Most of this
water must be removed in the papermaking process,  since  only  a  small
amount  of  moisture,  typically  five  to  eight  percent by weight, is
retained in the final sheet.

A high percentage of this water is removed in the forming section of the
machine.  In the case of a fourdrinier machine, the water is removed  by
rolls,  called  table  rolls,  or  foils  located under the endless-belt
screen or "wire" onto which the dilute stock is fed.   Additional  water
is removed by suction boxes and a suction couch roll which transfers the


                                  85

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sheet  from  the  wire  to  the  felt.  In a cylinder machine, the water
drains through the screen-covered drums which are immersed in vats  coj^j
taining the dilute stock.

After  leaving the forming section of the machine, the sheet of paper or
board contains about 80 percent moisture.   A  press  section  employing
squeeze  rolls,  sometimes  utilizing  vacuum, is used to further reduce
moisture to a level of about 60  percent.   The  remaining  moisture  is
removed by steam-heated drying rolls.

Water  leaving the forming and press sections is called white water, and
approximates 104,325 liters per metric ton  (25,000  gallons  per  short
ton)  of  paper  or  board.   Due  to recycling, only a relatively small
portion of the total is wasted.  Mills which utilize varying amounts  of
extensive  recycling discharge only 2087 to 20,865 liters of white water
per metric ton  (500 to 5000 gallons of white water per short  ton)  from
the system.

As  shown  in the process flow diagrams for each of the subcategories in
Section V, water is used in the manufacture of  pulp  and  paper  for  a
variety  of  purposes including washing, cooling, transporting, chemical
preparation, gland seals, vacuum pump seals, felt washing  and  washups.
In  addition,  water  is a necessary material in the chemical-mechanical
process of "hydrating" or "brushing" pulp fibers during  stock  prepara-
tion  in order to promote the bonding characteristics required tc forir a
sheet of paper or board.

These uses of water, and the technology available  to  reduce  polluta^M
loads in the raw waste water, are discussed below.

Recycling  of  this white water within the stock preparation/paperrraking
process has long been practiced in the industry, as discussed in Section
V.  In the last 10 years, further  strides  in  reuse  have  been  made.
Problems  associated with increased reuse usually manifest theirselves in
reduced machine speed and/cr product quality.  Slime growth due  to  in-
crease  of  BOD5 and temperature has been encountered.  This problem can
be reduced by the proper application of biocides, by  better  housekeep-
ing,  and  by  design for higher liquor velocities in pipelines, shorter
detention times in tanks, and avoidance of pockets in the system.  Scale
buildup is another problem which can be reduced, principally by chemical
and mechanical design techniques.  Buildup of dissolved solids can  also
cause  product  quality problems, but in the typical case, reuse is lim-
ited by slime growth and scale buildup.  In  addition,  corrosion  is  a
significant factor in increased recycling within the white water system.

Most  mills  employ  a  save-all  to recover fibrous and other suspended
material escaping from the paper machine.  This is  considered  by  many
mills to be a necessity for both economic and pollution control reasons,
although some mills can obtain equivalent results by other means.  Save-
alls  are  of  three  principal  types.   First  is  the older drum type


                                  86

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immersed in a vat containing the waste water.  The water passes  through
     «drum,  leaving  a  mat  cf  fiber which is removed continuously for
   se.  Second is the newer  disc  type,  which  utilizes  a  series  cf
   een-covered  discs  on  a  rotating  shaft  immersed in the vat.  The
action is similar to the drum  save-all,  but  the  disc  type  has  the
advantages  of  greater  filtering  area  per unit volume and the use of
vacuum, both of which reduce space requirements.  In both of these types
of save-alls a side-stream of "sweetener" fibrous stock is added to  the
influent  to  improve  the efficiency of suspended solids removal in the
main influent feed.  The recovered fiber is then removed from the  save-
all  for reuse directly in the manufacturing process.  The third type is
the dissolved air flotation save-all   (DAF).   In  this  type  unit  air
bubbles, formed on the addition of air under pressure, attach themselves
to  the fibers, causing them to float to the surface, where a continuous
mechanical rake recovers them for reuse.

The disc type has enjoyed recent popularity because of  its  flexibility
and  higher removal efficiencies in most cases.  In addition it provides
a positive barrier for fibers preventing  their  introduction  into  the
clarified  white  water.   DAF  units  are  still  popular,  however, in
paperboard from waste paper mills.

Clarified effluent from save-alls  is  on  the  order  of  10,433-25,038
liters  per  metric  ton  (2900-6000 gallons per short ton) (19), with a
suspended solids content of 120 milligrams or less per liter (one  pcuncS
or  less  per  1000  gallons),  whereas  the  influent  may contain 2398
 illigrams or more per liter (20 pounds or more per 1000 gallons).

  1 or a part of the clarified effluent may be discharged directly to  a
sewer,  but  most  mills reuse a significant portion of the effluent for
such services as  (19):


     1.     Vacuum pump seals
     2.     Machine showers
     3.     Stock cleaner elutriation
     4.     Cooling waters
     5.     Pulp washing
     6.     Wash-ups
     7.     Consistency regulation dilution
     8.     Barometric evaporator condensers (pulp mill)
     9.     Repulping of broke and purchased fiber

Vacuum pumps are utilized in paper mills to provide a vacuum  source  to
accelerate  the  removal  of  water  from fourdrinier machines, presses,
save-alls, and other devices and thus the vacuum pump demand  for  water
is  somewhat  product  dependent.    Most such pumps are of the ring seal
type,  which require large amounts of water.  This water provides a  seal
between the moving parts of the pump, and is necessary to avoid backflow
of  air  to  the  vacuum side.  Water used for this purpose approximates


                                  87

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10,433 to 16,692 liters per metric ton (2500 to 4000 gallons  per  short
ton).   It  must be sufficiently free of suspended solids to avoid
ging of the orifices or other control devices used to meter  it  to
pump.   The  formation  of  scale  inside of the pumps can be a prcble
Further, it must not be corrosive to the mechanical parts of  the  pump,
and  it  must  be  relatively  cool  (typically less than 32°C (90°F)J to
permit development of high vacuums of 0.67-0.74 atm. (20-22 in. Hg.) For
lower vacuum requirements 0.17-0.40 atm. (5-12 in. Hg.), somewhat higher
temperatures are permissible.

As more extensive recycling is employed in machine systems, the signifi-
cance of this volume of seal water increases.   The  use  of  irechanical
seals  has  reduced  the  volume of seal water, but they have so far not
p.roven satisfactory in many applications.  Reduction of seal water usage
is an area which requires more study and development.

Presently, several methods are used to minimize fresh water requirements
depending en product as well  as  mill  configuration.   Seal  water  is
collected  and passed through for reuse directly back to the pumps or to
another water-using system.  The use of excess white  water  fcr  vacuum
pump  sealing,  before  discharge  to  sewer or back to process, is also
practiced.  Another procedure is to utilize the discharged  vacuum  pump
water for cooling of heat exchangers.

Seal  water  is also used on packing glands of process pumps, agitators,
and other equipment employing rotating shafts.  It cools  bearings,  and
lubricates  the  packing,  and  minimizes  leakage of the process
Even though the amount of water used per packing is small  —
in  the  range  of 1.86 to 11.34 liters per minute  (0.5 to 3 gpm) —
total usage is quite extensive because of the large number  of  rotating
shafts required in the processes.  The total usage may approximate 4173-
8346 liters per metric ton  (1000-2000 gallons per short ton) of paper or
board.   Methods  used to control and reduce quantities required include
proper maintenance of packings and flow control of individual seal water
lines.  In some cases, seal water which leaks from the  packing  can  be
collected and reused, usually after filtering.

Water  showers  are  used  in  both the forming and pressing sections to
clean the wire, felts, and other machine  elements  subject  tc  contact
with  the  stock.   Formerly, large volumes of fresh water were used for
this purpose.  In recent years, attention has  focused  on  the  use  of
recycled  white  water on showers, and this trend has increased with the
development of self-cleaning showers.  Even with self-cleaning  showers,
however,  a  suspended  solids  content  of less than 120 milligrams per
liter  (one pound per thousand gallons) is  generally  desired  to  avoid
plugging.   Concurrently, the use of high pressure  (up to 52 atm. or 750
psig), low volume showers using fresh water has  increased.   These  are
employed  where  product,  operability,  cleanliness,  or  other factors
mitigate against the use of white water showers.  In many such cases, it
                                  88

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is possible tc operate these high pressure showers on a time  cycle,  so
  at flow occurs only a small percentage, 10 to 20 percent, of the time.
5h«
 howers  are  also used on grooved presses to keep the grooves clean and
operable.  Grooved presses were developed within the last 10  years  and
have  enjoyed increasing popularity because of their efficiency in water
removal, and lower capital and operating cost than  the  sucticn   (i.e.,
vacuum)  presses  which  they  replace.   Recycle  of this shower water,
usually after filtering to remove fibrous and other suspended solids, is
commonly employed.

Whether recycled water or lower volumes of  fresh  water  are  used  for
showers,  a  reduction  in  fresh  water usage and its concomitant waste
water flow results.  Significantly, this reduction  also  decreases  the
fiber losses to sewer.

Since the 1950's, free-discharge cleaners have been used increasingly to
remove  dirt and other undesirable materials from the dilute stock prior
to its application  to  the  paper  machine.   These  cleaners  are  the
cyclonic  type and operate on the centrifugal force principle, utilizing
hydraulic pressure drop as the source of energy.  They increase cleaning
efficiency through a continuous discharge of reject although significant
quantities of usable fiber are also rejected.  To  reduce  such  losses,
the  cleaners  are  usually  arranged  in  stages,  so that rejects from
previous stages are sent through subsequent stages of smaller size.  Re-
jects from the last stage have a consistency about three percent and are
usually sewered.  Well designed and operated cleaner systems reject cne-
«lf to one percent of production from the final stage.  To reduce  such
Tosses  further,  elutriation water is added or in seme cases, a closed-
discharge cleaner replaces the free-discharge unit in the  final  stage.
Either method reduces sewer losses.

Cooling  water  is  used for bearings, particularly in older mills using
sleeve bearings instead of the anti-friction bearings  used  in  new  or
rebuilt  mills.   Cooling water is not contaminated and can be collected
and reused either directly (after heat removal), or indirectly  by  dis-
charge  into  the  fresh water system, if heat buildup is not a problem.
Similarly, water used to cocl brake linings in paper rewind applications
may be reused.  Water used to cool condensate from the steam dryers  can
similarly  be  reused,  but  because of high heat loads, cooling of this
water by cooling towers or other means would usually be necessary.  None
of the mills surveyed in this study cooled  this  water.   However,  one
mill surveyed returned dryer condensate directly to the feed water heat-
er  at  the  boiler  plant under 1.20-1.34 atm pressure (three-five psig
pressure),  thereby  reducing  the  cooling  water  requirement.     This
approach  could  be  used  more  generally  where dryers are operated at
pressures above 1.34 atm. (five psig) .
                                  89

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External Technologies

External control technologies for  the  treatment  of  unbleached  kraHM
effluents  are discussed below.  Specifically these technologies include
technologies  for  reduction  cf  suspended  solids,  BODS,  and  color.
Effluent  levels  achieved  by  existing treatment systems of unbleached
kraft effluents are  shown  in  Table  18  for  exemplary  mills,  mills
surveyed by NCASI as representative of BPCTCA technology, and mills from
the literature (32).  It should be noted that some of the mills from the
literature  (mills 1-14)  may be included as NCASI or exemplary mills (no
decode list was available for the mills from the literature).
                      RemovalmQf^Suspended_Sglids

The physical process of removing suspended organic and  inorganic  mate-
rials,  commonly  termed  primary  treatment,  is accomplished either by
sedimentation or flotation, or a combination thereof.   Screening  ahead
of  treatment  units is particularly useful for barking and wocd washing
effluents and is necessary in all cases to remove trash materials  wfoich
could  seriously  damage  or  clog  succeeding equipment.  Automatic/ally
cleaned screens, operating in response to level  control,  are  commonly
employed and represent preferred practice.

Primary  treatment  can be accomplished in mechanical clarifiers, flota-
tion units, or sedimentation lagoons.  Although the latter enjoyed
spread use in  the  past,  the  large  land  requirement,  coupled
inefficient  performance  and high cost for cleaning, has made them
popular in recent years  (12).

Dissolved air flotation has been applied to  effluents  from  paperbcard
from   waste  paper mills and has achieved removal efficiencies of up to
98 percent of the suspended solids (37).  The relatively  high  cost  of
flotation  equipment,  its requirements for flocculating chemicals, high
power requirements, and  mechanical complexity make  it  unsuitable  for
application in other than the capacity of a save-all, except where space
is  at  a premium.  Also, its capacity to handle high concentrations and
shock loads of solids is somewhat limited.

The most widely used method for sedimentation of pulp and  paper  wastes
is  the  mechanically cleaned quiescent sedimentation basin (12).  Large
circular tanks of concrete construction are normally utilized  with  ro-
tating  sludge  scraper  mechanisms  mounted  in  the  center.  Effluent
usually enters the tank through a well which  is  located  on  a  center
pier.  Settled sludge is raked to a center sump or concentric hopper and
is  conveyed  to  further  concentration  or disposal by solids handling
pumps.  Floating material is collected by a surface skimmer attached  to
the rotating mechanism and discharged to a hopper.
                                  90

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                                             Table  18

                               Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing

                                       Treatment Systems at

                                      UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS


                              Flow
Exemplary                kiloliters/kkg
  Mills     Treatment     (1,000 gal/ton)                           kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
INF
a*
a**
b*
b**
c*
c**
d*
d**
C-ASB 43.8 (10.5)
C-ASB
C-ASB-SO 47.2 (11.3)
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-SO 39.6 (9.5)
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-SO 56.3 (13.5)
C-ASB-SO
13.
12
13.
17
14
9.
15.
22.
5

5


5
5
5
(27)
(24)
(27)
(34)
(28)
(19)
(31)
(45)
2.
1.
1.
0.
1.
2.
4.
1.
EFF
25
1
0
7
5
35
35
35
(4
(2
(2
(1
(3
(4
(8
(2
.5)
.2)
.0)
.4)
.0)
.7)
.7)
.7)
INF
10.5
6.5
17
11
28
17
19.5
26.5
(21)
(13)
(34)
(22)
(56)
(34)
(39)
(53)
                                                       BOD                             TSS
                                                                                               EFF

                                                                                          6.4  (12.8)

                                                                                            33 (6.6)

                                                                                          1.25 (2.5)

                                                                                          1.1  (2.11)

                                                                                          1.1  (2.2)

                                                                                          1.15 (2.2)

                                                                                          7.1  (14.2)

                                                                                          5.0  (10)

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Table 18
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT  MILLS  (contd.)


                                Flow
NCASI                     kiloliters/kkg
Mills        Treatment     (1,000  gal/ton)                     kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                                                   BOD                                 TSS

                                              INF         EFF                  INF           EFF
 22          C-ASB-SO             -             -      3.05 (6.1)                -         1.0   (2.0)

 33          C-ASB                -             -      4.35 (8.7)                -         4.7   (9.4)

 44          C-ASB-SO             -             -      0.8  (1.6)                -         0.85  (1.7)

 55          C-ASB                -             -      2.45 (4.9)                -         4.0   (8.0)

 66          C-ASB-SO             -             -      2.85 (5.7)                -         3.7   (7.4)

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Table 18
Effluent Levies Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS  (contd)
s from
ature Treatment
Flow
MLD
(MGD)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD
INF EFF
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB
C-TF-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB
AB-SO
C-SO-A
C-SO
AB-SO-L
C-ASB -L
98
37
71
11
45
113
56
22
45
102
45
.2
.8
.8
.3
.3

.7
.6
.4

.4
(26)
(10)
(19)
(3)
(12)
(30)
(15)
(6)
(12)
(27)
(12)
21
11
19
17.5
16.5
45
9
15
13
20.5
13.5
(42)
(22)
(38)
(35)
(33)
(90)
(18)
(30)
(26)
(41)
(27)
7
2
5
5.
1.
3
2.
1
3.
2.
3
(14)
(4)
(10)
5 (11)
5 (3)
(6)
5 (5)
(2)
5 (7)
5 (5)
(6)
TSS
INF EFF
15
20
6
9.5
12.5
11.5
34.5
6
15
26.5
27.5
(30)
(40)
(12)
(19)
(25)
(23)
(69)
(12)
(30)
(53)
(55)
5.5
2
3
10
0.5
2.5
3.5
0.2
1.5
2
2
(11)
(4)
(6)
(20)
(1)
(5)
(7)
(0.4)
(3)
(4)
(4)

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          Table  18
         Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment
         Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS  (contd.)
  Mills from
  Literature  Treatment
      12      C-ASB

      13      C-ASB

      14      C-ASB
                          Flow
                          MLD
                          (MGD)
                     37.8 (10)

                     60.5 (16)

                     34.0 (9)
                                                         BOD
   INF

50.5 (101)

16.5 (33)

17   (34)
     kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)


 EFF            INF

14 (28)      69.5  (139)

10.5 (21)

 1   (2)     13.5  (27)
                                                                                   TSS
   EFF

3.5 (7)



1.5 (3)
VO
 *Mill Records
**Short Term Survey Data (3-7 days)
       Notes-  Exemplary mill "a" is the same mill as NCASI mill  "55".
               Exemplary mill "b" is the same mill as NCASI mill  "44".

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At kraft (and NSSC) mills, clarifier diameters range from 9.14 to 106.68
  ters  (30 to 350 feet)  and overflow rates from 15,970 to 82,702 liters
  r square meter per day  (392 to 2030 gallons per square foot  per  day)
overflow.   A survey of 12 mills in the five subcategcries indicates that
the  majority  of the plants have primary clarifiers with overflow rates
ranging from approximately 8148-28,518 liters per square meter  per  day
(200-700 gallons per square foor per day).

A  properly  designed  and  installed mechanical clarifier is capable cf
removing over 95 percent of the settleable suspended solids frcm all the
effluents produced by the subcategories studied.  The removal efficiency
of this fraction of the total suspended solids is the  true  treasure  cf
performance  for  this  device  since  it cannot be expected to separate
those solids which will not settle under the most favorable  conditicns.
The  settleable  solids  content of linerbcard mill effluents average 85
percent of the total suspended solids.

Because of the biodegradable nature  of  a  portion  of  the  settleable
solids present in the effluents of these mills, clarification results in
some EOD5 reduction.  Tabulated data for a number of mills showed a BOD5
reduction  effected  by  settling is less than 20 percent for linerbcard
mills.
                             BOD5 Reduction

   5 reduction is generally accomplished by biological means, again  be-
  luse of the relative bicdegradability of most of the organic substances
   the waste.  Lignin is the one major exception.  Advances in reduction
of  internal  chemical  losses  and  recycling  have removed rr.cst of the
factors which interfere with biological activity.

While BOD5 reduction by biological methods  represents  common  practice
today, it should be understood that other methods discussed under "Color
Removal"  may, in the future, avoid the need fcr biological treatment to
reduce BOD5.

Common current biological treatment practice is the use  of  very  large
storage  oxidation  basins, aerated stabilization basins, or tc a lesser
extent, the activated sludge process  and  modifications  thereof.   The
storage oxidation basin is the most widely used method in kraft pulping,
followed closely by the aerated stabilization basin  (36).  The activated
sludge  process  is  not used by unbleached kraft mills, and a trickling
(roughing) filter is presently being employed by  two  kraft  mills  for
pretreatment  (36).  A process flow diagram showing alternate biological
effluent treatment systems is shown in Figure 17.
                                  95

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                                                                                         FIGURE  17
SPILLAGE &
WASH-OUTS
1
LOW SUSP. SOLIDS
.EFFLUENTS

HIGH SUSP. SOLIDS
EFFLUENTS









STRONG WASTE
HOLDING BASIN
I
DIVERSION
CHAMBER

BAR
SCREENS



—
-»
METERING
PUMP

COLLE
WE
1

:CTION
:LL

DECANTATION
EFFLUENTS


   CLEAN
COOLING WATER
  IN-STREAM
   DIFFUSER
                                                                                     PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
                                                                                         MILL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
                                                                         CLARIFIERS
                                                                         ALTERNATE
                                                                          SETTLING
                                                                           BASINS
WOOD
WASHINGS

INORGANIC
WASTES





ASH
BASIN

WOOD YARD
RUN OFF
1



                                                    FROM SLUDGE
                                                     HANDLING
 DISCHARGE
 REG.BASIN
                                                                          STORAGE
                                                                         OXIDATION
                                                              ALTERNATE
                                                 SETTLING
                                                  BASINS
                                                 AERATED
                                                OXIDATION
                                                             ALTERNATE
FLOW METER
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER


AERATION
TANKS
                                                               RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE
                                                                              TO  SLUDGE
                                                                            CONDITIONING
                                                                            AND DISPOSAL
                                                                                T
                                                                                                         WASTE
                                                                                                      ACT. SLUDGE
                                                                                 f

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Since the storage oxidation basin  is  a  relatively  low-rate  process,
       land areas are required, making it unsuitable for many locations.
        of the availability of land, and the warmer climate which  helps
to  maintain  consistent  biological  activity,  mcst  natural oxidation
basins are found in the  Southern  States   (12).   Ninety  percent  ECD5
removal  efficiency  for  an  82-day  detention time stabilization basin
treating unbleached kraft waste is reported  (36).  Design loading  rates
of  56  kilograms  BOD5 per hectare per day  (50 pounds BOD5 per acre per
day) for natural oxidation basins to achieve 85-90  percent  removal  in
warm  climates  were  also  reported  (38) .  A survey of four rrills with
loadings of 59.4 kilograms BOD5 per hectare per day (53 pounds BOD5  per
acre  per  day)  or less showed BOD5 removals ranging from 80-93 percent,
while basins averaging 112-336 kilograms BOD5 per hectare per day  (100-
300  pounds  BOD5  per  acre  per day)  had removals in the 23-55 percent
range.  For shallow basins an oxygenation rate of  67.3  kilograms  EOD5
per hectare per day (60 pounds BOD5 per acre per day)  was reported tc be
used for design purposes.

By  installing  aeration  equipment  in  a natural basin, its ability to
assimilate BOD5 per unit of surface  area  is  greatly  increased.   The
aerated  stabilization  basin,  as used by all subcategories, originally
evolved out of the  necessity  of  increasing  performance  of  existing
natural  basins  due  to increasing effluent flows and/or mere stringent
water quality standards.  It soon became apparent that the  process  had
many  applications in the pulp and paper industry and, as a consequence,
significant use of this waste treatment process began in  the  early  to
 idsixties.
I
TTu
 ue  to its inherent acceleration of the biological process, the aerated
stabilization basin requires much less land than the natural  stabiliza-
tion  basin  and  because  of  the  long  reaction  period less nutrient
addition than that  required  for  activated  sludge.   Typically,  0.21
hectares  per  million  liters   (two  acres  per  MGD)   of  the  aerated
stabilization basin compared with 4.8 hectares per  million  liters   (40
acres  per MGD)  for natural basins for equivalent treatment levels (36).
Detention times in the aerated stabilization basin normally  range  from
five  to  15 days, averaging less than 10 days.  Of the 12 mills studied
in these categories, nine mills employed aerated  stabilization  basins,
most with less than 10 days detention time.

Due  to  the relatively long aeration time, the buildup of sludge solids
is considerably less than for higher rate processes, particularly  where
primary clarification is employed.  Typical rates are 45.4 to 90.8 grams
(0.1  to  0.2 pounds)  of sludge generated for each 454 grams (one pound)
of BOD5 removed (12).   The sludge is removed  as  formed  by  endogenous
respiration,  sludge  loss in the effluent, and sedimentation within the
aeration basin.   However, discharge of untreated  waste  to  ar  aerated
stabilization  basin without prior clarification can result in a buildup
of sludge which after a period of time will impede its  efficiency.   An
unbleached  kraft mill in the study group reported a significant less in


                                  97

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operating efficiency after a  period  of  eight  years,  at  which  time
approximately  25  percent of the aerated lagoon was filled with sludg
After dredging the sludge, the process  returned  to  a  high  operat.i
efficiency.

Most  mill wastes are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus.  Many cf the
mills studied found it necessary to add these nutrients to the  aeration
basin.   Nitrogen, in particular, is added in almost every case fcy mills
in four of the subcategories.  Reported optimum ratios of EOD5 to nitro-
gen are 50:1 with four days aeration, and 100:1 with 10-15 days aeration
(38).

Aeration is normally accomplished using either gear driven  turbine-type
aerators,  direct-drive, axial  flow-pump aerators, and, in a few cases,
diffused aerators.  Oxygenation efficiencies under actual operating con-
ditions range from 0.61 to 1.52 kilograms of  oxygen  per  kilowatt  per
hour  (one to 2.5 pounds of oxygen per horsepower per hour), depending on
the type of equipment used, the amount of aeration power per unit lagocn
volume,  basin  configuration, and the biological characteristics of the
system.  A dissolved oxygen  (D.O.)  level of 0.5 mg/1  remaining  in  the
lagoon   liquid   is   required  to  sustain  aerobic  conditions  (39).
Generally, it was reported that 1.1  to  1.3  kilograms  of  oxygen  per
kilogram  EOD5 (1.1 to 1.3 pounds oxygen per pound BOE5) are required to
maintain adequate D.O. for waste oxidation and endogenous respiration of
the biological mass produced.

Although the activated sludge process has been employed for  many  yeara
to  treat  domestic  sewage,'it was first applied to pulp and paper milfl
waste in 1953 (38) .  The process is similar to the aerated stabilization^
basin except that it is much faster, usually designed for four to  eight
hours  of  total detention time.  The biolcgical mass grown in the aera-
tion tank is settled in  a  secondary  clarifier  and  returned  to  the
aeration  tank,   building  up a large concentration of active biological
material.  Since there is approximately 2000-4000 mg/1 of active  sludge
mass  in the aeration section of this process, as opposed to 50-200 mg/1
in the aerated stabilization basin, dissolved and suspended organic mat-
ter are removed much more rapidly,  greatly reducing necessary tank  vol-
ume  as well as required detention time.  Since biolcgical organisms are
in continuous circulation thrcug out the process,  complete  mixing  and
suspension  of  solids  in  the  aeration basin is required.  The active
microbial mass consists mainly of bacteria, protozoa,  rotifers,  fungi,
and  cyntomnemotodes.   Because the process involves intimate contact of
organic waste with biological organisms, followed  by  sedimentation,  a
high degree of BOD5 and solids removals is obtained.

The  contact  stabilization  process  is a variation of activated sludge
wherein two aeration steps are utilized rather  than  one.    First,  the
incoming  waste   is  contacted  for a short period with active organisms
prior to sedimentation.  Settled solids are then aerated  for  a  longer
period  to  complete waste assimilation.  Contact stabilization has been


                                  98

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applied successfully tc integrated kraft mill  effluent,  while  conven-
 ional activated sludge is used at most ether rrills.
AC-
 ctivated  sludge  plants treating pulp and paper waste have teen leaded
up to 2.41 kilograms of BOD5 per cubic meter (150  pcunds  cf  BOD5  per
1000  cubic feet) of aeration tank volume per day (12).  Of the 12 mills
studied  two  utilized  activated  sludge  treatment  with  primary  and
secondary  clarification.   In  both cases, tank leadings were less than
0.80 kilograms of EOD5 per cubic meter (50 pounds of EOD5 per 1000 cubic
feet) with one system operating at less than 0.24 kilograms of BOD5  per
cubic  meter  (15  pounds of BOD5 per 1000 cubic feet).  Detention tiires
ranging frcm 2.5 to 8.5 hours with loading rates  ranging  frorr  601  to
2084  kilograms  of BOD5 per cubic meter  (37.5 to 130 pounds of BODS per
1000 cubic feet)  have been reported (38) .  In  all  cases  nitrogen  and
phosphorus were added.

The  secondary  clarifier  performs the function of sedimentation of the
active micrcbial mass for return to the aeration tank.  Pates  of  about
211  liters  per  day  per  square merer  (600 gallcns per day per square
foot) have been reported (36).

Due to the fact that the volume of  bio-mass  in  the  activated  sludge
process  is  greatly  reduced  because  of hydraulic detention time, the
endogenous  respiration  of  the  concentrated  sludge  is  considerably
lessened.   Thus,  there are additional quantities of excess sludge, 3/U
kilogram cf excess sludge per kilogram of  BODJ3  (3/U  pound  cf  excess
sludge per pound of BOD5), which must be disposed.
    in  the  case  of  the  aerated stabilization basin, aeration can be
accomplished by mechanical or diffused aeration.  The more efficient and
more easily maintained mechanical method is preferred by  the  pulp  and
paper  industry.   Oxygen  requirements where activated sludge processes
are utilized were reported in the range of one kilogram  of  oxygen  per
kilogram of EOD5  (one pound of oxygen per pound of BOC5) removed.

Short  detention times and low volumes make the activated sludge process
more susceptible tc upset due to shock loads.  When the process is  dis-
rupted,  several  days  are  usually  required  to return the biological
activity and high BOD5 removal rates back to normal.   Thus,  particular
attention  is required to avoid such shock loads in mills utilizing this
process.  The greater -shock  load  tolerance  of  aerated  stabilization
basins,  lower  nutrient requirements, reduced sludge handling problems,
and lower cost, explains the general preference for this type of  treat-
ment.   Exceptions  occur  particularly where the high cost or unavaila-
bility of land dictates the use of the activated sludge process with its
much lower land requirement.  One such use is in paperboard  from  waste
paper  mills located in urban areas.  An effluent treatment flew diagram
appears in Figure 17.
                                  99

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Trickling filter usage in all subcategories is very  limited,  primarily
due  to the inability of such systems to accomplish high degrees of EOlQfc
removal at high loading levels (38).  A kraft mill  employing  trickli^
filters  with  artificial plastic media achieved 50 percent reduction or
BOD5 with 50 percent recycle at a loading rate  of  80.16  kilograms  of
BOD5  per cubic meter of media per day (500 pounds of BOD5 per 100 cubic
feet of media per day) (38).

                     TWO'Stage_Biological Treatment

Two-stage biological treatment is employed to enhance the  EOD5  removal
obtained  with  a single stage.  This concept consists of two biological
treatments systems, usually arranged in series.  In the literature  (40)
a  two-stage  system  is  described  which  employs the activated sludge
process in both stages in the treatment of municipal water.  The authors
note that sludge may be returned or wasted within each  stage,  or  that
excess  sludge from one stage may be recycled to the other.  A principal
advantage of this particular arrangement is that the sludge flews may be
utilized to maximize BOD5 removal.

Other combinations of biological treatment may be  employed  in  a  two-
stage  arrangment.   For  example,  a  trickling  filter  may precede an
aerated  stabilization  basin  or  an  activated  sludge  system.   This
arrangment may be employed where the second stage is required because of
insufficient  performance of the trickling filter alone.  It may also be
used in cases where cooling of the  waste  is  required  before  further
biological  treatment  may  proceed.   In the latter case, the tricklin
filter serves as a partial cooling tower,  and  also  accomplishes  s
BOD5 reduction.

Two-stage  aerated  stabilization  basins,  operated in series, may have
particular appeal for this industry.  This arrangement usually  requires
less  land  than  a  single  unit, and can be expected to provide tetter
treatment on an equal-volume basis.   For the first  stage,  a  detention
time up to two days or more is usually recommended, and up to 10 days or
more  for  the  second  stage.   If  sufficient  land  is  available  at
reasonable cost, this system is usually a less expensive approach than a
two-stage  system  involving  activated  sludge.   It  has  the  further
advantage  of providing more detention time which is helpful in treating
surges of flow or pollutant load.  In colder climates, however, arrange-
ments using aerated  stabilization  basins  are  more  susceptible  than
activated  sludge  to  decreased wintertime performance.  This, in turn,
relates to the greater heat loss of the aerated stabilization tasin  due
to  its  greater  detention time as compared to activated sludge.  Under
conditions of proper design and operation, including  nutrient  addition
and surge basins located prior to biological treatment, BODS removals of
90 percent can ultimately be expected to be achieved with this system.

A  two-stage  biological  system currently employed by some Southern un-
bleached kraft mills utilizes an aerated stabilization basin followed by


                                  100

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storage oxidation.  Typically, detention time of the former is eight  to
   days and for the latter is eight to 40 days.  In these installations,
  erall  BOD5  removal  (compared  to  raw waste) of 85 percent is being
achieved, with 70 percent removal after the first stage.  These data  do
not,  however,  reflect  usage  of  nutrients.   It is probable that the
addition  of  surge  basins,  coupled  with  nutrient  addition,  proper
aeration  and mixing capacity, will ultimately permit BOD5 reductions of
90 percent in this system.  For  mills  with  adequate  land  and  other
favorable factors, this system may be the most economical approach.

Other  combinations  of  two-stage  biological treatment are, of course,
possible.  These would include use of activated sludge  followed  by  an
aerated  stabilization  basin,  storage oxidation, or trickling filters.
Such combinations, with rare exceptions, would not usually be  the  more
economical or practicable solution, however.


                          Temperature_Effects

All  biological treatment systems are sensitive to temperature.  Optimum
temperature for these systems is generally in the 16° to  38°C  (60°  to
100°F)  range.   Impaired BOD5 removal efficiency is usually encountered
as temperature of the waste water drops  significantly  below  or  rises
significantly above this range.

Temperatures over 38°C may be encountered in warm climates where heat is
   o  added  to  the  waste stream during processing.  Cooling towers or
  rickling filters have been employed to reduce these higher teirperatures
    r  to  biological  treatment.   In  colder  climates,  waste   water
temperature  is  likely  to  drop below 16°C in the winter, particularly
where detention time of the biological unit  exceeds  12  to  2U  hours.
With greater detention times, heat loss to atmosphere from the treatment
unit  generally becomes significant.  Thus activated sludge units, which
are usually designed for two to 10 hours detention, are less susceptible
to reduction of BOD5  removal  efficiency  in  cold  climates  than  are
aerated stabilization basins or storage oxidation basins.

To  some  degree,  this  drop-off  of  BOD5  removal  efficiency  can be
mitigated in colder climates by improved design of aeration  and  mixing
factors.   Two-stage  aerated stabilization basins are likely to perform
better in cold  temperatures  than  a  single  stage  of  greater  total
detention time.

A  large  amount  of  precise  data  on  the  performance  of biological
treatment  systems  relative  to  temperature  are   lacking.    Studies
conducted   at  a  mill  in  Michigan  indicated  that  at  waste  water
temperatures of 35°F, BODS  levels  increased  by  over  100%  of  those
obtained  at  16°c (60°F)  (Ul).  dition, a research project operating on
pilot scale also indicated that BODS levels at waste water  teirperatures
of  2°C (35°F) increased to nearly 100X of those obtained at 16°C (60°F)


                                  101

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 (42).  More study is needed in this area, since other design  variables,
as  well  as  operating  variables,  affect  BOD5 removal.  For
mixing efficiency varies as temperature changes  in  the  basin.
design  parameters,  such  as  lagoon  geometry,  depth, detention time,
nutrient  addition,  BOD5  loading  rate,  and  aerator   spacing,   and
horsepower,  are  significant.   other factors which affect heat loss in
the basin are wind velocity, ambient air temperature and humidity, solar
radiation, aeration turbulence, and foam cover.
                                  102

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                     Sludge Devatering^and^Disposal

Due to their high  organic  content,  the  dewatering  and  disposal  of
sludges  resulting  from  the  treatment  of kraft linerfcoard can pose a
major problem and  cost  mere  than  the  treatment  itself.   In  early
practice,  these  sludges  were placed in holding basins from vhich free
water from natural compaction and rainfall was decanted.  When  a  basin
was  full,  it  was  abandoned, or, if sufficient drying took place, the
cake was excavated and dumped on waste land.  In this  case,  the  basin
was returned to service.

Odor  problems  from  drying, as well as land limitations, have demanded
the adoption of more advanced practices.  These are covered in detail in
NCASI Technical Bulletin No... 390 (43)  and are described briefly below.

Depending on the performance of dewatering equipment, in some  cases  it
is  either necessary or desirable to prethicken sludges.  This is accom-
plished by gravity thickeners of the "picket-fence" type or by providing
a high level of sludge storage capacity in mechanical clarifiers.  Small
mills sometimes employ high conical tanks which serve  as  both  storage
tanks  and thickeners.  These have side wall slopes in excess of 60° but
contain nc mechanism.


Vacuum filters are in common use for dewatering sludges from the pulping
  Kd papermaking processes considered in this report.  They produce cakes
  nging from 20 to 30 percent solids.   For comparison,  filtration  rate
  nges observed for each subcategory are as shown in Table 19.


                                   TABLE 19

                       Vacuum^Filtration Rates of_Sludges

             £l°.duct           2Ey,j£2/SL2/hr      Dry,_|/ft2/hr

             Unbleached Kraft    39 to 93          8 to 19

             Paperboard from     10 to 29          2 to 6
             Waste Paper

             NSSC                10 to 64          2 to 13


Observed  capacities  for the poorly filterable sludges can generally be
about doubled by chemical conditioning with ferric  chloride,  alum,  or
polyelectrolytes  at a cost of from $2.72 to $4.54 per metric ton ($3.00
to $5.00 per short ton) of dry  solids.   Such  treatment  is  generally
necessary  when  activated  sludge  is  included  in  the  sludge  to be


                                  103

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dewatered since the addition of 20 percent of this  material  en  a  dry
solids basis can reduce filtration rates as much as 50 percent.        ~

Complete  vacuum  filter installations, including all accessories, range
from $4306 to $5382 per square meter of filter area ($400  to  $500  per
square  foot  of  filter area).  Although a number of different types of
filters are in service, coil or belt types are the  most  popular  among
recent  installations.   At  one  mill  using coil filters, average cake
content  of  23  percent  was  reported,   with   an   influent   sludge
concentration  of  3.3  percent.  Loading rates averaged 27.37 kilograms
solids per square meter of filter area per day (5.6  pounds  sclids  per
square  foot  of  filter  area per day).  After initial problems, filter
availability exceeded 94 percent and cleaning problems were minor (46).

In practice, the higher the consistency of the feed, the more  effective
centrifuges are in terms of solids capture in relation tc through-put as
well  as  to reduced cake moisture.  Moisture is generally lower than in
cakes produced by vacuum filters.  Cakes range from 25 to 35 percent dry
solids content and are in  a  pelletized  easily  handleable  form.   To
operate effectively, centrifuges must capture in excess of 85 percent of
the solids in the feed stream.

Centrifuges  cost  from  $106 to $159 per liter per minute ($400 to $600
per gpm) of feed capacity.  At a two percent  solids  feed  consistency,
this  is  equivalent  to 97.6 kilograms of dry solids (215 pounds of dry
solids) daily at 90 percent capture.

The application of drying beds for  dewatering  sludges  is  limited
small  mills  and  they  are not constructed as elaborately as are
employed for sanitary sewage.  They generally consist only  of  multiple
beds of gravel or cinders without a complex underdrain system.

Detailed experiments on this method of dewatering paperboard mill sludge
set  forth  parameters of good practice and area requirements  (45) .  The
latter vary naturally with the climate, although adjustments as  to  the
depth  of  sludge  deposited  and  its initial moisture content are also
involved.  The most effective depth is less than one foot.

Sludge can be removed for disposal on the land as  soon  as  it  becomes
"spadeable"  or  handleable with earth moving equipment.  For paperboard
mill sludges, this condition is reached at about 25 percent solids  con-
tent.   Further  drying occurs upon the land if initial drying is suffi-
cient.

Some sludges, including those from linerboard mills, can be dewatered to
a solids content approaching 40  percent  by  pressing   (46) .   "V"-type
presses  are  most commonly used but others have proven suitable.  First
efforts to employ presses involved the handling of sludge cakes obtained
from vacuum filtration which  contained  on  the  crder  of  20  percent
                                  104

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solids.   Recent  efforts  have  been  toward  direct  use cf presses on
 hickened linerboard sludge, thus eliminating the first dewatering step.
I
  rrerally, pressing is followed by incineration in air-entrained incine-
rators which can burn the pressed sludge without supplemental  fuel since
little further drying is required (47).  Semi-chemical corrugating fccard
ope'rations and  paperboard  from  waste  paper  mills  of  noriral  size,
however,  do not supply enough sludge to support the operation of even a
small incinerator.   Future  developments  may  permit  incineration  of
sludges  from  such  operations  in  existing  fossil  fuel-fired  power
boilers.

Sludge is alsc incinerated at some linerboard mills in  boilers  burning
bark  or  hog  fuel.  In this case, the pressed sludge is mixed with the
bark or fuel before introduction into the furnace  (43).

Both types of operation are described by in the literature.   (47)   (48),
 (49)  and  cost  figures  are  presented.   The  cost  of  air-entrained
incineration was $14.33 per metric ton ($13 per short ton) and that  for
burning with hog fuel was $12.68 per metric ton  ($11.5 per short ton) of
dry solids.

Land  disposal,  via  dumping  or  lagooning, has been a common means of
disposing of waste sludges and other solid wastes  from  many  pulp  and
paper  mills.   Odors  formed upon decomposition of these materials, the
potential for pollution of nearby surface waters, and the elimination of
affected lands from potential future usages, have  made  such  practices
^nerally  undesirable.   If  disposed of using proper sanitary landfill
techniques however, most solids from the pulp and paper industry  should
create  no  environmental problems.  In the rare cases where  sludges may
contain leachable quantities of  taste  or  odor  imparting,   toxic,  or
otherwise undesirable substances, simple sanitary landfilling  may not be
sufficient to protect groundwater quality.

The  sludge  dewatering  and disposal operation is illustrated in Figure
18.
Interest has been stimulated in utilizing  sludge from kraft mills  in  low
grade products such as roofing felts, but  lack of  uniformity  mitigates
against  such  practice.  Several researchers  (47) experimented with  the
use  of  this  material  as  an  organic   soil   supplement    and   with
hydromulching.   Incorporation  of  high   sludge levels  into soil,  after
standing for a year, increased bean and corn crops   for  two   successive
plantings  as compared to control crops.   However, equivalent  amounts cf
sludge added to the soil each year caused  reduction  in crop yields  which
was apparently due to nitrogen  unavailability.   In the  hydromulching
tests  "which sludge was applied to a simulated highway  cut, sludge with


                                  105

-------
or withou-t the addition of bark dust was found to be competitive with
commercial prcduct for establishing a grass stand.

Several  mills  are  presently  experimenting with using the sludge a
soil supplement in reclaiming,land for growing pulp  wood.   Application
of  primary  sludge  to  the  land  at  loads  (dry  solids)  cf 22U-U48
kkg/hectare  (100-200 tons per acre) are  being  practiced.   Ccttonwcods
are  being  grown  with  planned  harvest and reapplication of sludge in
three to five years following planting.


Interest in production of  bacterial  protein  from  cellulosic  sludges
continues to attract the attention of researchers despite the failure to
date  of  similar  products  to  gain  a  foothold in the market in this
country.  A satisfactory product has been produced  by  growing  thermo-
mgnosgora	fusca,  a  strongly cellulolytic thermophylic organism en low
lignin pulp mill fines (52). This process is  attractive  in  that  acid
hydrolysis  of the cellulose prior to fermentation is not required.  The
observed substantial reduction of organic matter which is attained is of
considerable interest.
                                  106

-------
SLUDGE FROM
TREATMENT PLANT
1
WASTE SLUDGE
METER
!
GRAVITY
THICKENER
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
L.
'


— "j FILTERS
ALTERNATE




^M» ••

ALTERNATE
	 J DRYING BEDS





_l
1
	 1
1
, ±
	 1
1
1
*
— m»
^•M
	 *
FILTRATES TO
TREATMENT PLANT
STACK
(OFF-GASES)
•
1
•
1
INCINERATOR T
ALTERNATE
, LAND
DISPOSAL AREA
t
1
1
1
1
— J

                                                H
ASHES
SLUDGE DEWATERING AND DISPOSAL
           FIGURE
                   18

-------
For more than twenty years, the pulp and paper industry has been active'
ly engaged in research for the reduction of color,  primarily  in  kraft
mill  effluents.  These efforts have been directed particularly to those
cases where color discharge has created aesthetic problems  due  to  the
high  clarity  of  the particular receiving waters.  The bulk of the re-
search has concentrated on development of lime precipitation  techniques
because  of the relative economics of this compared to other techniques,
and the familiarity with and availability of lime  handling  systems  in
kraft  mills.   The  overriding initial problem with the lime approaches
was the generation of large volumes of gelatinous, difficult to  dewater
sludges.   Several  schemes  were developed to overcome this problem and
full-scale systems have been installed in recent years.   Colcr  removal
efficiencies  of 85 to 90 percent are being achieved.  In two unbleached
kraft mills, the lime sludge is recovered, dewatered, and incinerated in
the lime kiln.

Considerable research has been performed on other  color  removal  tech-
niques,  principally  activated carbon, reverse osmosis, and alum preci-
pitation.  Alum precipitation was found to be economical in one instance
where alum mud from the  nearby  manufacture  of  alum  is  the  primary
chemical source.  A full-scale installation of this system is planned.

Activated  carbon  and reverse osmosis have been considered as polishing
treatment in conjunction with ether processes, for  producing  a  highly
treated effluent for discharge.  Additionally, they have been considere^
as  a  treatment  process  producing an effluent suitable for recyclings
The latter concept appears promising.  However, full-scale  testing  has
not been tried to date.


                            Sources of Color

In the various chemical pulping processes, lignin and lignin derivatives
are  solubilized  and  removed from the wood during the cooking process.
The spent cooking liquors, containing these  highly  colored  compounds,
are  removed  from  the pulp in a washing sequence following the cooking
process.  The wash water is  highly  colored.   In  the  kraft  process,
however,  this  wash  water  is  sent  to  the  recovery  area, with the
exception of the stock decker discharge, where the cooking chemicals are
recovered and the organic materials are burned in the recovery  furnace.
The  washing  and  recovery operations are efficient; however, losses of
cooking liquor and the discharge of  evaporator  condensate  and  decker
filtrate  result  in  a reddish brown effluent.  Average values of color
discharged from unbleached kraft papermaking  operations  are  shown  in
Tables 20 and 21  (36) .
                                  108

-------
                           TABLE 20

                      SOURCES OF COLOR


        Effluent           kg/kkg  (Ib/ton)*

        Kraft Pulping       25-150   (50-300)
        Kraft Papermaking   1.5-4     (3-8)

              *Based on APHA color units
                                 TABLE 21
                 UNIT_PRQCESS_FLOW_AND_COLOR_DISTRIBUTION
                 I^INpIVIDyAL_KRAFT_PULPING_EFFLUENTS

                               kiloliters/kkg
    Unit_Process               J_1000_gal/ton)          Col or_ Units

    Paper Mill                  47.6  (11.4)               10
    Pulp Mill                    3.8   (0.9)              520
    Evaporators                  0.4   (0.1)             3760
    Recovery                     0.8   (0.2)               20
    Caustic House                3.3   (0.8)               20
                             Lime Treatment

The  development  of the lime color reduction process has been traced  by
several authors (51) (52) (36) (12).  Based on the results of  early  work,
research  was  directed  towards  development  of the lime precipitation
process with the overriding problem of the difficulty of dewatering  the
lime-organic  sludge.   Specific studies were conducted for resolving the
sludge problem with limited success   (53) (54).   Continuing  efforts   to
improve  the dewatering of the lime sludge led to consideration of using
large dosages of lime for color reduction.   In  this  process   (massive
lime  process), the mill's total process lime is slaked and reacted with
a highly colored effluent stream.  The  lime  sludge  is  then  settled,
dewatered,   and   used  for  causticizing  green  liquor.   During  the
causticizing process,  the color bodies are dissolved in the white liquor
and  eventually  burned  in   the   recovery   furnace.    Pilct   plant
demonstration  of the massive lime treatment system for unbleached kraft
waste waters has been conducted on a  2000  liters/min  (530  gpm)  basis


                                  109

-------
(55) .  Two phases of operation were conducted en unbleached kraft decker
effluent.   Over  91  percent  of the average 1,640 AFHA CU were remov
during operations which had very little white water reuse in the  deck
pulp  washing  operations.   When  nearly  all  of the water used in the
decker system was white water, the  removal  efficiency  dropped  to  74
percent  of  the  initial 900 APHA CU.  A flow diagram of the process "is
shown in Figure 19.


The massive lime process, as developed, relies on high concentrations cf
lime  (on the order of 20,000 mg/1).  Because of this, only a  relatively
small  effluent  stream  could be treated with the quantity of lime used
for causticizing green liquor.  Additionally, the use  of  this  process
required  modifications  to the recovery system.  These restrictions and
the need for color removal from total unbleached  kraft  mill  effluents
led to the independent development of three lime precipitation processes
employing a "minimum" lime dcsage for decolorizatien followed ty various
methods of sludge disposal or recovery.  Two of these systems are now in
full-scale  operation  on the total mill effluent from the production of
unbleached kraft pulp  (56) (57) .   The  results  of  cne  of  the  rrill's
operations show that color is removed from unbleached kraft waste waters
under  conditions of widely varying raw waste color loads.  A relatively
constant effluent color of 125-150 APHA CU was obtained  independent  of
raw  waste  loading.   The mill raw waste color levels were generally in
the range cf 1000-1400 APHA CU.   With  a  lime  dosage  of  1000  mg/1,
removal  efficiencies  were consistently well above 80 percent.  Results
of the color removal operations are shown in Table 22 and a flew diagram
is shown in Figure 20.

The other irdll which is a kraft-NSSC (cross recovery) operation has con-
tinuously achieved 70 percent color removal.   This  mill  dewaters  the
lime  sludge  by  centrifuge  and  recovers the lime in the process lime
kiln.

                      Other Color Removal Systems

Although lime treatment methods have been the only  color  removal  pro-
cesses  installed on a full scale basis to date, research is ongoing for
other processes.  These include activated carbon,  reverse  osmosis  and
other  membrane  techniques,  resin  separation, ion exchange, and other
coagulation systems.
                                  110

-------
                            Activated Carbon

Researchers (36)  have  reported  on  the  use  of  activated  carbon  in
combination  with  other  treatment  processes  on a pilot scale for the
treatment of unbleached kraft mill effluent.  The treatment sequences
were:

    1.  Primary clarification; activated carbon
    2.  Lime treatment; clarification; activated carton
    3.  Clarification; biological oxidation; activated carbon

The flow diagram of the pilot system is shown in Figure 21.  Two  carbon
systems  were evaluated.  The first used four standard down-flew columns
for series or parallel operation.  The second system is called the FACET
(Fine Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment)  system and is  a  multi-stage
countercurrent,  agitated system with continuous ccuntercurrent transfer
of both carbon and liquor from stage to stage.  It uses  a  carbon  size
between  standard  granular and powdered classifications.  The system is
the subject of a patent application.

In the lime-carbon system, lime dosages were from 318 to 980  mg/1  CaO,
and  is referred to by the authors as "micro" lime treatment as compared
to the "minimum" lime treatment  used  by  others,   (58) (56) (57) .   Kith
these  dosages,  the authors state that recarbonation of the effluent is
f  necessary for reuse of the treated effluent.  It should be ncted  that
  e  intent  of this investigation was to treat the effluent to a degree
  lowing reuse in the mill.  In this respect they were  not  necessarily
looking  for  a  ccmbination of systems capable of producing an effluent
suitable for discharge.
                         Coagulation Techniques

The effects of alum and ferric chloride for the removal  of  color  from
kraft  mill  effluents  was  investigated in the laboratory (59).  Tests
were run on both hard and softwoods.  The  optimum  dosage  of  alum  on
hardwood  wastes  was  found  to  be  150 mg/1.  A color reduction of 89
percent was achieved from an initial color of 710 units.  softwood kraft
effluent was fcund to require a dosage of  300  mg/1.   Ferric  chloride
coagulation of softwood waste required an optimum dosage of 286 mg/1 and
produced 87 percent removals.
                                  111

-------
  LIME
 MAKE-UP
           LIME
          STORAGE
          SLAKER
BLEACHERY EFFLUENT
    UNDERFLOW
        VACUUM
         FILTER
                                         KILN
                                    CLARIFIER
                           FILTRATE
                                                         Lj
                                               WHITE LIQUOR
                                                 CLARIFIER
                        CAUSTIC I ZING
  I LIME RECLAIMER
  l
  I

ititi   r
       DECOLORIZED
        EFFLUENT
          LIME MUD
           TO KILN
                                                                    MUD
                                                                  WASHER
                     MASSIVE LIME PROCESS FOR COLOR REMOVAL  (9)
                                  FIGURE -19

-------
Averages *
                                  TABLE  22



                  Color  Reduction  by  Minimum Lime  Treatment
APHA Color Uni ts
Month
lovember 1968
December 1968
January 1969
February 1969
March 1969
April 1969
May 1969
June 1969
July 1969
/^Ist 1969
September 1969
October 1969
November 1969
December 1969
Data Points
7
1
3
8
12
8
10
11
13
12
7
12
9
3
Influent
1060
1500
2100
2470
1230
1300
690
1230
1430
1150
1450
1750
1690
1800
Effluent
110
150
160
170
105
110
83
95
110
110
140
135
150
170
% Reduction
88
90
91
91
91
84
84
90
91
90
90
92
91
90
1360
120
89.5
* Weighted averages by number of data points per month.
                                    113

-------
(10 MOD MAX)
9 MOD
14000* BOD/DAY
                                                                                          LIME STORAGE TANK
                                                                                          VARIABLE SPEED
                                                                                          SCREW CONVEYOR
EMERGENCY
DIVERSION BOX
        GATES
                                                                                          2000 CLARIFIES
                                                                                          12 HOUR RETENTION
                                                                                               A
4.9 MOD
• 8200» BOD/DAY






FLOAT
MOUNTED
AERATOR
s-



                                                                                                                                     BIOCHEMICAL TREATMENT LAKE
                                                                                                                                     650 ACRES - 900 MG
                                                                                                                                     (180 DAYS RETENTION)
                                                                                                                                   MOTORIZED SLUICE GATE
                                                                                                                    -eoo» BOD/DAY
                EFFLUENT LIFT PUMPS
                3500 GPM 50' TDM
                                                                       HOLDING LAGOON 48 MG
                                                                   Figure   .   20

                                                  Minimum  Lime  Process  for  Color  Removal   (55)

-------
i4





> ;. i i
t !, i *•
t tr,n'i
. ,; '1
i i! n
i " 1 1
1 M ' !








• ;
•' . *rs
i1
ii
"r-
1'
                       KrvA
                       **  * '
                      e^stit -
            SLUDGE

 LIME TREATER    CARBONATOR  pH
                            ADJUST-
                              MENT
                                     FILTER  ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMNS
                                                                       STORAGE
                                                                         TANK
                                                             r ACTIVATED CARBON
No. Z MILL
EFFLUENT
                 CLARIFICATION
EQUILIBRATION OR
BIO-OXIDATION BASIN
   V
SPENT
CARBON
 FACET
CONTACTORS
                                                                FILTER
                                                                       STORAGE
                                                                         TANK
                FIGURE
                21
                               Actived  Carbon Pilot Plant

-------
Laboratory   investigation   was  conducted  of  aluir  and  six  organic
polyelectrolytes for the removal of color from kraft  mill  waste  wat^B
(60) .   Little  difference  was  reported  in the performance cf the -sH
polyelectrolytes was reported.  Alum produced good results, but resulted
in approximately three times  the  volume  of  sludge.   Color  removals
averaged 95 percent.


                   Comparison of System Efficiencies

It  was reported that the biological-carbon treatment sequence utilizing
four columns in series reduced color of  total  kraft  effluent  to  212
units  which  they state is too high for reuse in some areas of the irill
(36).  This is shown in Table  23.  It is estimated that  an  additional
three columns would be required to produce the goal of 100 colcr units.

The primary clarification-carbon system tested used four columns,  color
was  reduced to 185-202 units.  This is shown in Table  24.  As with the
biological-caibon system, it was  estimated  that  an  additional  three
columns would be required to reach 100 color units.
                                  116

-------
                                TABLE 23


     CARBON ADSORPTION SEQUENCE AT 57 l/min. _.J15 gpiru 2^ 3 gpm/f12)^


                                          Range               Average

    Feed to bio-oxidation,  APHA CU         430-2500            1100
    Feed tc carbon, APHA CU                460-1100             740
    Product from carbon, APHA CU            42-400              212
    Removal by bio-oxidation plus filter,%    -                  33
    Removal by carbon, % of feed to carbon    -                  71
    Total removal % feed to bio-oxidation     -                  81
    Rate of removal by carbon, CU/g hr    0.51-1.00            0.77

Note:  Color measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.
                                  117

-------
                                TABLE 24


       COLOR REMOVAL BY PRIMARY CLARIFICATION - CARBON ADSORPTION


                                          Trial 1             Trial_2

     Flow rate, liters/min(gpm)           37.8(10)            18.9(5)
     Flow rate, Iiters/min/ft2(gpm/ft2)    5.4(1.42)           2.7(0.71)
     Feed to Carbon, APHA CU               925               11160
     Product from Carbon, APHA CU          185                 202
     Removal by Carbon                      80                  83
     Rate of Removal by Carbon CU/g hr    0.69                0.46

Note:  Colcr measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.

The  clarification-lime-carbon  system  produced the best results of the
three systems.  In the lime treatment system,  the  investigators  found
that  color  removal increased from 70 percent at a dissolved Ca concen-
tration of 80 mg/1 to 86 percent at a  Ca  concentration  of  400  mg/1.
Lime  dosages  ranged  from  318  to  980 mg/1.  This reduction is shewn
graphically in Figure 22.   Color  removal  in  the  carbon  columns   (2
columns  in  series) was also  found to be dependent on Ca concentration.
Color  in  the  effluent  remained  at  about  60   units   at   calcium
concentrations  above  80  mg/1.  TOC levels after carbon treatment
varied with Ca concentration,  remaining fairly  constant  with  Ca
centrations  above  80  mg/1.   TOC  levels  after carbon treatment also
varied with Ca concentration,  remaining fairly constant with Ca  concen-
trations above 40 mg/1.  Color removal through the carbon columns in the
soluble  calcium  range of 69-83 mg/1 averaged an additional 21 percent,
to give an overall reduction of 90 percent.  This is shown in Table  25.
Water of this quality was considered suitable for reuse.
                                   118

-------
 .  100
CO
:E
Q.
of
o
o
o
3:
Q.
o
§'
LLJ
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
 0
          I	I
I
I    I   I    I
I
         40     120    200    280    360
      0      80    160   240   320   400
  SOLUBLE CALCIUM FROM LIME TREATER, MG/L
     FIGURE 22  COLOR REMOVAL IN LIME TREATMENT AS A
             FUNCTION OF SOLUBLE Ca IN WATER (74)

-------
                             Table  25


        COLOR REMOVAL BY LIME TREATMENT - CARBON ADSORPTION
     SEQUENCE AT SOLUBLE CALCIUM RANGE OF 69 - 83 rog/1 (29)
lime dosage, CaO, mg/1                                      523
pH of feed to carbon adsorption                            11.3
flow rate to carbon adsorption, gpm                          10
No. of carbon columns                                         2
                                   Color,                  TOG,
Concentrations:                 APHA pH. 7.6                mg/1

to lime treatment                   852                     272
to carbon columns                   252                     177
from carbon columns                  76                     100
% removals from feed to lime treatment:

in lime treatment                    70                      35
in carbon adsorption                 21                      28
total                                91                      63
                             120

-------
Operation  of the FACET system following lime treatment produced similar
»  suits to the two carfcon columns after filtration.  This  is  shown  in
  ble 26.

A  total color removal in the four stage (lime - carbonation - oxidation
- carbon) system of 99.5 percent was reported  (61).    In  the  three
stage  system  (no  oxidation) the total removal was  again 99.5 percent.
This is shown in Table 27.

As shown in Tables 28 and 29, the color of unbleached kraft effluent was
reduced to 10 and 15 units in two separate pilot runs using the  massive
lime-biological-carbon  system.   Raw  effluent  color was 4800 and 3000
units respectively.

                        Operation Considerations

It was concluded that the use of a  sand  filter  ahead  of  the  carbon
system  did  not  provide  enough  benefit to warrant consideration in a
full-scale installation (62).  The investigators also noted concentrated
bioactivity in the top one- or two-foot layer of  the  first  column  in
series which caused plugging.  Backwashing was required every cne cr two
days.   It  was  also  noted  that mechanisms other than adsorption con-
tributed substantially  to  color  removal.   This  mechanism  has  been
referred  to  as  a  coagulation  of  the  colloidal  color bodies at the
surface  of  the  carbon  particle.    In   the   section   on   "System
Efficiencies,"  it  was  explained  that in the lime-carbon system, lime
 osages were recommended to control the dissolved calcium  concentration
   about 80 mg/1.  A benefit of this, as reported, is the elimination of
     necessity  tc carbonate the effluent to remove the calciuir.  Higher
dosages could make carbcnation required prior to reuse of the  effluent.
The  lime treatment system also produced a sludge that dewatered readily
to 70 percent solids.  The authors also state  that  lime  treatment  to
higher  dissolved calcium levels of 400 mg/1 followed by carbonation and
carbon treatment did not improve color reductions.

The authors are  enthusiastic  about  the  possibilities  of  the  FACET
system.   They state that the rate of TOC removal was 4.7 times the rate
of removal in columns.  Also, the degree of color removal was  the  same
as  in  the columns, but with one-fifth the amount of carbon.  More work
is planned.  The work performed has been directed towards reuse  of  the
treated  effluent.   As  such,  the degree of treatment obtained is less
than typical discharge standards.  At this time, the  effect of  recycled
effluent  on mill processes has not been tested.  They are confident the
kraft  process  contains  unit  processes  by  which   any   buildup   in
contaminants due to recycling can be purged from the  system  (63).
                                  121

-------
                              Table  26
                     REMOVAL OF COLOR AND TOC BY
 FACET CARBON ADSORPTION FOLLOWING LIME TREATMENT FOR 12-DAY PERIOD
                       10/20 THROUGH 11/6  (29)
    Conditions:

      Water feed rate          10 gpm
      Carbon feed rate         2.7 l.b/hr = 4.5 lb/1000 gal
      Carbon in system         605 Ib
      Carbon slurry density    14.3 g/100 ml slurry
      Stages                   3
                            Color, C.U.
Removals:                    APHA pH 7.6

      Feed                      157
      Product                    73
      Percent removal            54
      Removed, mg/g carbon      214
      Removal rate, mg/g x hr  0.71
                                 122

-------
                                          Table  27
                            WASTE WATER RENOVATION—SUMMARY OF RESULTS  (25)
                                  5-DAY BOD
COLOR
Treatment
Step
Raw


Lime


Biolo


Carbon


Total
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.

Four-stage process
mg/liter . % Removal
1A30 .
225
723
740
170
395 45.5
135
21
48 88
80
0
23 53
23 97
Three-stage process
mK/liter % Removal
265
206
221
144
69
102 54



84
15
32 68.5
32 85.5
Four-stage process
Units % Removal
12,000
1,000
5,200
1,000
90
358 93
1,000
200
365 0
15
10
13 96.5
13 99.5
Three-stage process
Units % Removal
5250
240
3558
450
10
185 95



55
0
23 87.5
23 99.5
Tests Conducted on Bleached and Unbleached Kraft Effluents.

-------
                                                              Table 28
                                                     RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS  (26)

                                             UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD TOTAL MILL EFFLUENT
                                            PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 1  50 GALLON BATCH OPERATION
N)
Constituent

Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
pH
Hardness, ppm
Dissolved solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm--
Desired Range

  5-25
  0-80
6.5-7.7
  5-200
 50-500
 10-150
  0-12
  0-5
                                                                     Effluent
4800
 8.7
 107
3380
 110

 818
1400
                       Obtained by Treatment
                           Bio**'Carbon *>c'
 140
11.5
 7.1
2510
 140

 460
1130
65
200
9.1
86
2650
36
201
8
1600 (d)
10
10
8.7
61
2500
36
1
2
1400
                        Notes:   (a)   8.40  Ibs,  reburned  lime slaked and added  to raw effluent  (equivalent to
                                     20,000 ppm Ca(OE}2).

                                (b)   Extended aeration for  10  days.  One gallon fertile lake water added as seed
                                     material.   NH^OH, HN03 and H3P04 added as nutrient.  ^80$ added to neutralize.

                                (c)   Carbon columns  containing 12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
                                     Carbon.  Contact time  in  the  carbon bed was 8.2 minutes.
                                (d)   Possible NBA   interference.

-------
                                Table  29
                         RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS   (26)

                UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD TOTAL MILL EFFLUENT
               PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 2  50 GALLON BATCE OPERATION
                                                        Obtained by Treatment
Desired Range
Effluent
                                                     Lime
                                                         (a)
Bio
   (b)
Carbon
      (c)
Constituent

Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
pH
Hardness, ppm
Dissolved Solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm

Notes;  (a)  2.87 Ibs. reburned lime slaked and added to  raw  effluent  (equivalent to 7500 ppm
             Ca (OH)2).

        (b)  Extended aeration for 8 days.   One gallon fertile  lake water added as seed
             material.  HNO^, H^PO^ added as nutrient.  I^SO^ added- to neutralize.
5-25
0-80
6.5-7.7
5-200
50-500
10-150
0-12
0-5
-
.
3000
7.5
-
4190
160
_
1430
320
_
100
12.1
964
2610
200
—
740
230
.
200
8.2
1000
30.70
130
_
(135)(d)
230
_
15
8.5
866
2800
130
_
(80) (d
230
(c)   Carbon columns  containing  12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
     Carbon.   Contact  time  in carbon bed was 1.6 minutes.
(d)   Estimate,  incubator  problems.

-------
I
Others  (6i4) found that elimination of biological oxidation in the lime -
carbonation  -  biological   -  carbon  sequence  did  not  affect  col
reduction, and BOD5 reduction remained about 85  percent  when  treat!
effluents with a moderate raw BODS.  They point towards further resea'rc
toward  improved  BOD5  reduction  in  the  lime  stage  and use of more
effective  carbons.   They   also  look  to  requirements  for   advanced
treatments  leading  to  recycle  of  waste  waters and see the possible
elimination of biological systems as recycle becomes more important.

  Treatment^Systems for Additional Reductions of Suspended Solids and
                          Refractory Organics


Treatment technologies for additional reductions (over those  previously
discussed)  of  suspended  solids  and refractory organics are discussed
below.


                             Suspended Solids

Flocculation, Coagulation, and Sedimentation for Suspended Solids Removal


To avoid rapid plugging of final filters, an additional step  to  reirove
suspended  solids  contained in  biological  treatment effluents may be
required.

Traditional treatment systems have utilized rapid-mix  and  flocculati
basins  ahead  of  sedimentation  tanks for chemical clarification.
rapid mix is designed to provide a thorough and  complete  dispersal  of
chemical  throughout the waste water being treated to insure uniform ex-
posure to pollutants which are to be removed.  In-line blenders  can  be
used as well as the traditional high-powered mixers which may require as
much  as  0.35  kilowatts/MLD  (1 horsepower/MGD).  In essence, the rapid
mix performs two functions,  the one  previously  noted  (mixing)  and  a
rapid   coagulation.    These   functions   are  enhanced  by  increased
turbulence.

Flocculaticn promotes the contact,  coalescence  and  size  increase  of
coagulated particles.  Flocculation devices vary in form, but are gener-
ally  divided  into  two  categories.   These are mechanically mixed and
baffled  flocculators.   Baffled  basins  have  the  advantage  of   low
operating  and maintenance costs, but they are not normally used because
of their space requirement,  inability to be easily modified for changing
conditions and high head losses.  Most installations utilize  horizontal
or  vertical  shaft mechanical flocculators which are easily adjusted to
changing requirements.

Solids-contact clarifiers have become popular for advanced  waste  water
treatment  in recent years because of their inherent size reduction when


                                  126

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compared to separate mixing„ flocculation and  sedimentation  fcasins  in
  Pries.,  Their use in water clarification and softening was carried over
     waste  treatment  when  chemical  treatment  of  waste  waters  was
initiated.,  Theoretically„ the advantage  of  reduced  size  accrues  to
their  ability  to  maintain  a  high concentration of previously-formed
chemical sclids for enhanced orthokinetic flocculaticn or  precipitation
and  their physical design, whereby three unit processes are combined in
one unito  In practice„ this amounts to savings in  equipment  size  and
capital costs,,

Problems  have  occurred  with the sludge-blanket clarifiers for reasons
which include possible anaerobic  conditions  in  the  slurry5  lack  of
individual   process   control   for   the   mixing,   flocculation  and
sedimentaiton steps5  and  uncontrolled  blanket  upsets  under  varying
hydraulic  and  organic loading conditions„  The major allegation is the
instability of the blanket,, which has presented operational problems  in
the  chemical  treatment  of  waste waters=  Possibly the most effective
method of control to date, other than close manual control, has been  to
mimimize  the  blanket  height  to  allow for upsets„  The advantages of
higher flow rates and solids-contacting are maintained„  but  the  added
advantage  of  the  blanket is minimized«,  Another possibility which has
not been fully evaluated  is  the  use  of  sludge-blanket  sensors  for
automatic control of solids wasting,,

Solids-contact  clarifiers have been used for the treatment of secondary
and primary effluents, as well as for the treatment  of  raw,  degritted
jjjaste water.,  Lime as the treatment chemical has been used with overflow
Iptes  from  20,400  to  40,700 liters per day per square meter  (1200 to
^700 gpd/sq ft) in solids-contact units, while iron compounds  and  alum
have  been used at lower values,, usually between 480900 to 69,300 liters
per day per square meter  ([500 and 1000 gpd/sq ft) =  All of  these  rates
come  from pilot studies of less than 3078 MLD  (1 MGD) capacity„ and may
be subject to change at a larger scale due to differences in hydraulics=
Polymer treatment can also influence the choice of  overflow  rates  for
design  if their cost can be economically justified when compared to the
cost of lower overflow rates0  Detention times in  these  solids-contact
basins  have  ranged  frdm  just  over one to almost five hours»  Sludge
removal rate is dependent on the solids concentration of the  underflow,
which is a function of the unit design as well as the chemical employed.,
These  pilot  plants  have reported lime sludge drawoffs frcm 0<,5 to 1»5
percent of the waste water flow  at  concentrations 'of  from  3  to  H7
percent   solids <=   -Alum  and  iron  sludges  have  not  been  monitored
extensivelyp fonat drawoffs have been reported to be 1 to 6 percent of the
flow with Oo2 to 1<,5 percent solids0

Much of the design information necessary for  solids-contact  clarifiers
has  been  obtained  from  water treatment experience.  This is not sur-
prising in that the principles of treatment are identical,,  The  charac-
teristics  of the solids that are formed and separated are the source of
differenceSo  The organic matter contained  in  the  chemically  created


                                  127

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sludges causes the sludge to become lighter and also more susceptible to
septicity  due  to  the action of micro-organisms.   The former conditi
suggests lower hydraulic loadings,  while  the  latter  suggests  big
ones,  given  a  set physical design.  Since sludge septicity is neith
universal nor uncontrollable, a lower design overflow rate may  comprise
much  of  the  necessary  adjustment  to waste treatment conditions irom
those of water treatment.   As  indicated  previously,  design  overflow
rates  from  48,900  to  69,300 liters per day per  square meter (1200 to
1700 gpd/sq ft)  for lime treatment and from 20,400  to 40,700 liters  per
day  per square meter  (500 to 1000 gpd/sq ft)  for alum or iron treatment
have been successful at less than  3.78  MLD  (1  MGD)  capacity.    Cold
weather  peak  flow  conditions  will  probably  constitute the limiting
condition, as water treatment practice has shown that overflow rates are
reduced  by  as  much  as  50  percent  at  near-freezing   temperature.
wastewater  will probably not reach such low temperatures in most areas,
but the effects are significant.

                         Mixed-Media Filtration

Mixed  (multi) media filters are similar  to  conventional  single  media
deep-bed  sand  filters, but employ more than one filter media.  Typical
arrangements employ garnet, sand, or anthracite.

Conventional sand filters have the finer mesh material  on  top  of  the
bed,  with  courser  grades  below.  Flow is downward.  Thus most of the
suspended solids are trapped in the top inch or two of the bed.  Certain
types of suspended solids, such  as  those  from  biological  treatment
rapidly plug the top of the bed, requiring very frequent backwashes.
Multi-media  filters have been designed with the objective of overcoming
this disadvantage of single-media filters.  Large size media is employed
on the  top  layer,  over  a  second  layer  of  finer  media.   Usually
anthracite  coal  is used in the top layer, and sand in the lower layer.
Thus larger particles of suspended solids are trapped in the top  layer,
and  finer  particles  in  the lower layer.  The result is to extend the
filter "run" before backwashing  is  required.   An  extension  of  this
principle  is  to  add  a  third,  finer, layer of garnet below the sand
layer.  Since some intermixing of layers occurs, there  tends  to  be  a
continuously  decreasing particle size of media as depth increases.  The
different media are selected so that the top bed has the lowest specific
gravity, and successively lower beds have successively  higher  specific
gravities.  With this arrangemnet, the bed layers tend to maintain their
respective physical locations during and after the turbulence created by
backwashing.  Typical arrangements for dual media filters are anthracite
(specific  gravity  1.6)  over sand  (specific gravity 2.65).  A layer of
garnet  (specific gravity 4.2) is imposed below the  sand  for  a  three-
media filter.

Studies  on  municipal  wastes  have  indicated that multi-media filters
outperform single-media  sand  filters.   Better  removal  of  suspended


                                  128

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 solids  was   obtained  with  longer  runs and at higher flow rates per unit
^rea  of filter foedo

                          Refractory Organics

 Th® advanced  waste treatment systems studied for the  removal   of  trace
 refractory  organics   include   the  following^   1J  activated  carbon ,  2)
 cblorination, and  3)   ozonation=    The  activated   carbon  process  has
 demonstrated  its applicability to  the treatment of  municipal waste water
 at full plant scale=   Pilot plants and laboratory studies have shown the
 potential  for  treatment   of   pulp and paper mill  wastes with activated
 carbon0  However,, the  potential of the other processes is not  well docu-
 mented and there are no plant   scale  operations  utilizing them.   The
 removal  of   cne specific refractory organic, color, is discussed in de-
 tail  in a separate subsection.,

 Activated carbon has been used at  water treatment plants to remove  or-
 ganics  that  caused taste  and odor problems in drinking water supplies„
 The use of activated carbon as a step in the physical-chemical treatment
 process for domestic waste  waters  or as an add-on to an existing  biolo-
 gical treatment  system is well documented (81)„  Many researchers have
 studied the use of activated carbon as a tertiary process for  the treat-
 ment  of pulp  and paper mill wastes (65)  (66)  (67) (68)  (69)   (70) .   One
 of  the studies  (69) found  that activated carbon was capable cf reducing
 coloro COD,   BOD50  and odor   in   kraft  mill  effluents  to   very  low
 concentration s„

 Ipne   of  the  highest concentrations of BOD5 in the  whole kraft pulp irill
 TOaste discharge is contained in the evaporator condensate (65)„  Most of
 the BOD5 and  COD of the condensate waste is exerted by dissolved organic
 materialo  Several researchers (65)  found that 75 percent of  the  ECC5,
 CODa  and  TOE could te removed from the condensates ty activated carbon
 adsorptiono

 Activated carbon is characterized  by an extremely large surface area per
 unit  weight  (450-1800  sq0 m/g)  (62).,   This large  surface  area  is  one
 feature  of   activated  carbon  which  results  in   its large  adsorption
 capacity,,   It  can  be separated  into  two  general  classifications?
 powdered  and granular„    The  ultimate  adsorption  capacities of both
 powdered and  granular   carbons  are  essentially  equal  (73) ;   however,
 powdered  carbon  has   faster   adsorption rates than granular  (71)  (69).
 The number of carbon manufacturers and their  particular  specifications
 is  very  large  The   selection of  a  specific  carbon cannot be made,
 however, without first testing the carbon under consideration   with  the
 particular effluent to be treated  (72)„

 The   activated  carbon process has various configurations which includes
 use of granular or powdered carbon,  contact in a column or slurry, fixed
 or moving beds, upflow or   downflow  of  influent,   series  or  parallel
 arrangement,  and  continuous   or   periodic  wasting and regeneration of


                                   129

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spent carbon.  Treatability of a particular waste by activated carbon is
described by various analytical adsorption isotherm equations which  are-
covered in depth in the literature.  The Freundlich equation is probabl^
the  most  frequently  used  to determine adsorption isotherm.  However,
poor correlation between isotherm results  and  column  tests  has  been
reported.   This is partially due to the fact that adsorption is not the
only mechanism responsible for the removals of organics  through  carbon
columns.  Three functions describe the operation of carbcn columns (73);
adsorption, biological degradation, and filtration.

Most  of  the researchers studying activated carbon have made cne common
assumption — i.e., that the effluent from the carbon system  should  be
of  a sufficient quality to permit reuse as process water.  According to
one study  (67), renovated waste water suitable for reuse can be obtained
without a biological oxidation  step,  particularly  if  the  renovation
process  starts with a moderate BOD5 to 200-300 mg/1.  Table 30 presents
the pilot plant results obtained by this study.

Other researchers  (70) found that adsorption equilibrium increased  with
a  decrease in pH.  The effect on the rate of adsorption with changes in
temperature is not well defined.

Activated carbon will not remove certain low  molecular  weight  organic
substances,  particularly  methanol,  a  common  constituent  of pulping
effluents  (74).  Also, carbon  columns  do  a  relatively  pocr  jcb  of
removing  turbidity  and  associated  organic  matter (72).  Seme highly
polar organic molecules  such  as  carbohydrates  will  not  b€  removed
through  carbon columns  (72)  (65).  However, most of these materials a
biodegradable and would not be present in appreciable  quantities  in
well bio-oxidized secondary effluent  (72).

Results  of laboratory rate studies  (71) using powdered activated carbon
to treat municipal  secondary  effluents,  showed  that  90  percent  of
equilibrium  adsorption  capacity  could  be  obtained in less than five
minutes  using  turbulent  mixing.   The  researchers  considered   five
different  contact  systems  during their laboratory investigation.  The
systems considered were:
    1.  countercurrent agitated tank adsorption
    2.  Flotation adsorption
    3.  Diffusion adsorption
    H.  Packed bed columnar adsorption
    5.  Upflow column adsorption
                                   130

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                                              table  30
                                 RESULTS OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMN
                            PILOT PLANT TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL WASTE





BOD, mg/1
COD, mg/1
SS, mg/1
Turbidity, J.U.
Color, Units
Odor
PH
T.S. mg/1
Columns*
Preceded by Lime
Precipitation and
Biological Oxidation
Influent
48
—
—
—
—
365
—

-------
Based on their investigation, the countercurrent  agitated  tank  system
was  considered  as  the  most  promising  of  the  five systems for thm
following reasons:

    1.  The secondary effluent did not have to be filtered prior
        to contact.

    2.  Variable secondary effluent flow rates and effluent COE
        concentrations could be readily handled.

    3.  Maintenance costs were low.

    4.  Design and operation was simple.

    5.  The system was truly continuous.

    6.  COD removals to approximately 5 mg/1 could be achieved.

    7.  The potential existed for treating primary treatment
        plant effluent.

    8.  Beth suspended solids and colloidal material were brought
        down with the carbon due to flocculation.

They  reported  that  the  processes  investigated  fcr  separating  the
powdered  carbon  from  the  treated  waste  water  were not 100 percent
effective and filtration of the waste water was necessary to remove  the
carbon.  In a full scale operation, the necessity to filter the effluent
might  make  the use of powdered carbon economically impractical.  Other
research (65) has showed that 70-75 percent of the organic  matter  from
kraft  evaporator  condensate  could  be  removed with 0.46 kilograms of
carbon per kiloliter  (3.8 pounds of carbon per 1000  gallons)   of  waste
water.   It  was  also  determined that an extended contact time (over 1
hour) showed insignificant additional COD removal.  However, even  after
six  hours  of  contact  there  was an effect on the removal of toxicity
which was attributed to other various constituents.  The results of  the
work  conflict  with  those  reported by others.  Other researchers have
reported  that  activated  carbon  is  not  effective  in  removing  low
molecular  weight organics such as methanol and other major constituents
of  evaporator  condensates  from  the  kraft  pulping  operation.    The
condensate  used  by  this  study  may have been contaminated with black
liquor carry over.
                                  132

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One research program (62)  ran extensive pilot plant tests  for  treating
E  bleached  kraft  mill effluent with activated carbon.  Their 114 liter
  r minute (30 gpm) pilot plant utilized four different  treatment  pre-
  sses.  They were as follows:

    1.  Clarification followed by downflow granular carbon columns.

    2.  Lime treatment and clarification followed by granular carbon
        columns.

    3.  Biological oxidation and clarification followed by granular
        carbon columns.

    4.  Lime treatment and clarification followed by FACET (Fine
        Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment).  (Subject of a
        patent application.)

All treatment processes were operated in the attempt to obtain a treated
effluent  with less than 100 APHA color units and less than 100 mg/1 TOC
which would be suitable for reuse.  The lime-carbon  treatment  achieved
the  desired effluent criteria and was considered the most economical of
three processes utilizing carbon columns.  A relatively small lime  dos-
age  of  320-600  mg/1 CaO without carbonation prior tc carbon treatment
was reported to be the optimum operating condition for  the  lime-carbon
process.   It  should  be  emphasized that the lack of carbonation was a
criterion for optimum treatment.  It was determined  that  the  effluent
should   contain  about  80  mg/1  Ca  for  successful  optimization  of
 ^rea^ent.  The required fresh  carbon  dosage  was  0.30  kilograms  of
 arbon per kiloliter (2.5 pounds of carbon per 1000 gallons)  treated.

With  biological oxidation and clarification followed by carbon columns,
the fresh carbon dosage was 0.96 kilograms of carbon per 1000 gallons (8
pounds of carbon per 1000 liters)  treated.

It was found that non-adsorptive mechanisms accounted for a  significant
amount of color and TOC removal in the clarification-carbon process.  It
was  felt  that  the removals were not due to any biological degradation
which might have occurred within the carbon columns.  It was  determined
that  the color in colloidal form coagulated on the carbon surface.  The
color colloids were subsequently  removed  as  large  settleable  solids
during  the backwashing process (62).  The method of disposal or recycle
of the backwash water was not discussed.  The disposal of backwash water
is a major item and cannot be ignored on full scale designs.

The FACET system is the subject of a patent application (62).  It  is  a
multi-stage,   countercurrent, agitated system with a continuous transfer
of both carbon and liquid.  One of the major aspects of the FACET system
is the use of an intermediate size carbon  endeavoring  to  combine  the
advantages  of  both powdered and granular carbon while minimizing their
limitations.   Equipment size and carbon inventory are decreased  due  to


                                  133

-------
the  increased  adsorption  rate  of the intermediate carbon.  The FACET
system showed distinct advantages  over  the  column  adsorption  syste
(62).    Table  31  tabulates  the  pilot plant results obtained from t "
above investigation.

The use of granular activated carbon for the removal cf trace refractory
organics is technically sound.  However, when this degree  of  treatment
is  obtained,  the  ability  to  reuse the effluent fcr process water is
desirable.  Powdered activated carbon has not been widely  utilized  be-
cause  of difficult handling problems encountered in carbon recovery and
regeneration  (71).  It has been reported  that  the  control  cf  pH  or
temperature,  though advantageous to the operation of the process, would
be economically impractical (33).

Several ethers (74) utilized a carbon slurry to treat municipal  wastes.
They  reported  a  tendency  of  the  compacted  slurry in the quiescent
concentrator to form a gelatinous mass.  It became necessary to  agitate
the gel to reliquefy it for easy removal.

The  use  of  powdered  carbon  columns  was  also  studied  (71).   The
researchers fcund that the columns became clogged with colloidal  matter
within  a  few  hours of operaton and pressure drops became prohibitive.
They tried the  upflow  contact  process,  but  the  bed  could  not  be
stabilized and serious channeling occurred resulting in poor CCD removal
efficiencies.   Polyelectrolyte  flocculation  was  determined to be the
most economical method of recovering spent powdered carbon.  It was also
determined that a suspended solids concentration of  500  mg/1  or  more
must   be  maintained  in  the  carbon  slurry  to  assure  flccculatio^
efficiency.

Pilot plant tests on domestic secondary effluent were conducted (72) and
results showed that organic matter which was adsorbed on the carbon went
septic and produced a breakthrough of turbidity and organic matter.   An
H2S  odor  in  the  treated  effluent  was observed which indicated some
biological activity within the first two feet of the carbon column which
caused some plugging problems if the columns were not  backwashed  every
day or two.  They felt because of the low dissolved oxygen concentration
that  the  biological  activity  was  anaerobic.   Chlorinaticn  of  the
influent to the carbon columns appears  to  eliminate  sliming  problems
caused by biological activity within the columns.

Lower  rates  of  adsorption,  were  reported   (62), resulting in larger
projected capital and operating costs,  for  the  biological-carbon  and
primary-carbon  processes  for  treating unbleached kraft mill effluent.
The lower rates of adsorption were believed to be caused by  coagulation
of  colloidal  color bodies on the carbon surface.  They also determined
that the use of sand filters prior  to  the  activated  carbon  was  not
necessary.   The carbon columns operated with a suspended solids concen-
tration of 200 mg/1 without problems when backwashed every day  or  two.
Filtration  or  coagulation  of  the effluent from the FACET process was


                                  134

-------
necessary in order to remove that formed on the cuter  surfaces  of  the
 »ctivated carbon granules.

 igure 23 (75)  indicates the estimated cost per pound of COD removed for
various  influent  and  effluent  COD  concentrations and various design
fIpws.
                                  135

-------
                                                                   Table  31
                                                      RESULTS OF ACTIVATED CARBON PILOT PLANTS
                                                     TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL EFFLUENT
Description Of
Carbon Process
Hydraulic
Load, gpm/ft
Carbon
Contact Time, Mia.
BOD, mg/1
TOC, og/1
Turbidity, J.U.-
Color, Units
Fresh Carbon
Dosage
Ib. carbon/
1000 gal.
PH

Columns
Preceded By
Biological
Oxidation &
Clarification
Inf.
2
Gran
Eff.
.13
ular
140

148

740





57

212

a


Removal




611

71Z




Columns
Preceded By
Priuary
Clarification
Inf.
1.
Eff.
,2
Granular


220

925

2




83

185

3.5


Renoval




62Z

80Z




Columns
Preceded By
Prinary
Clarification
Inf.
0
.Eff. i Removal
71
Granular


310

1160






121

202

18






61Z

83Z




Columns
Preceded By
Liir.e Treatment
6c Clarification
Inf.
1.;
Gran
Eff. I Removal
2
ular
108
26% Renoval
177

252

2
11.3

100
5-15
76

.5






44Z

70%




FACET Systaa
Ir.f. Eff. I Ra=oval
X.
A.
i
Intermediate


153

157

•




101

73*

.9






36Z

s;%




CO
            *Piltered

-------
Chemical oxidation using chlorine or hypochlorite is an  accepted  means
   disinfection for water supplies and waste water effluents.  Chlorina-
 Jon  has also been found useful for the removal of ammonia nitrogen and
 loirs from waste water.   However,  the  use  of  chlcrination  for  the
removal  of  trace refractory organics is not a well-documented process.
Several researchers (76)  report that the costs  indicate  that  chlorine
oxidation  is  not  competitive  with  activated  carbon  adsorption fcr
removal of relatively large quantities of COD from municipal wastes.  It
may offer an alternate for the  removal  of  very  small  quantities  of
organics  which  have  not  been  removed  by  activated  cartcn or as a
temporary  means  of  reducing  the  soluble  BOD5  in  the  absence  of
adsorption  equipment.   No  literature  has been found that directs its
attention specifically to the applicability of chlorination to the  pulp
and  paper industry.  However, a demonstration project has recently teen
completed on the chlorination of pulp and paper mill effluents  and  the
results should soon be available.

A  seven-month study of chlorination was conducted (77) of approximately
303 million liters per day (80 mgd)  of  effluent  from  a  conventional
activated  sludge  process  treating  municipal  waste  water.   It  was
determined that chlorination caused a substantial reduction in the BCD5.
The BODS decreased an average of 34.5 percent.  Very  good  effluent  or
effluent  from a bulking plant was not significantly improved.  Effluent
of 12 to 30 mg/1 of BOD5 was noticeably improved.  The  researcher  also
monitored  the  suspended  solids,  PO4,  and  TCD.   He  found that the
suspended solids concentration increased about 20 percent.  He theorized
  «at some of the soluble compounds were "precipitated" into a  suspended
  ate  by the chlorine.  The PO4 and TOD were not significantly affected
    chlorination.   Chlorine  oxidation,  catalyzed   with   ultraviolet
radiation,  was  studied for the treatment of domestic waste water  (78).
They found that chlorine will slowly oxidize only a  small  fraction  of
dissolved  organic  material  in  the  dark,  but  in  the  presence  of
ultraviolet radiation, rapid elimination of large amounts of CCD and TOC
is possible.
                                  137

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                                   FIGURE 23
                      ECONOMY IN SCALE - CARBON ADSORPTION SYSTEMS
CO
00
                                         INFLUENT COD    200mq/l
                                        (EFFLUENT COD     50mq/l)
                                         INFLUENT COD = 500-700mq/l
                                         (EFFLUENT COD   150 mq/l)
                         '20        40       60        80        MOD
                                          PLANT  DESIGN CAPACITY
                   1. Costs based on ENR = 1400.

                   2. Unit costs assume an annual capital recovery
                      factor of 0.0877.

                   3. Costs include Initial carbon inventory, carbon
                      handling system, and regeneration facilities.

-------
The most irrportant factor involved in the process was the  selection  of
  15 source of radiant energy.  Short-wavelength radiation (below 300 mu)
   _more  effective  than  long-wavelength  radiation  in  promoting The
  Lorine oxidation process.  Radiation of 254 mu  was  about  six  times
more  effective  than  polychromatic  radiation between 300-370 mu.  The
rate  of  organic  oxidation  was  increased  by   increased   radiation
intensity;  however,  lower  intensities  produce  more  overall organic
oxidation for a specific amount  of  absorbed  radiant  energy  than  do
higher   intensities.    It  was  also  established  that  the  chlorine
consumption was directly proportional to the amount  of  radiant  energy
absorbed,  regardless  of  intensity.  The effectiveness of treatment is
dependent on the penetration  achieved  by  the  ultraviolet  radiation.
However,  the  correlation of treatment efficiencies with influent cclor
and turbidity concentrations was not reported.

Quantum efficiency is the amount of organic oxidation  obtained  from  a
given  amount  of  absorbed  radiant  energy.   Meiners  observed higher
quantum efficiencies at low  intensities  and  an  increase  in  quantum
efficiency as the oxidation proceeded has been observed.

Mercury-arc  lamps  are  the  most  practical  source of radiant energy.
However, the  ideal  mercury-arc  lamp  is  presently  not  ccrrmercialiy
available.   Of  those presently available, the low pressure mercury-arc
is probably the most practical.

The most rapid rate of oxidation and the most efficient use of  chlorine
P     obtained  at  pH 5.  However, the most economic operation may be at
   ient pH values without the addition of caustic for pH control.

Chlorine concentrations above 5 mg/1 produced no significant increase in
the oxidation rate.  High concentrations of chlorine  were  wasteful  of
chlorine  and  wasteful  of  radiant  energy.   It was concluded that an
optimum chlorine concentration below 5 mg/1 might be  established  where
oxidation rates could be maximized and chlorine consumption minimized.

Ozone has been used for a number of years at water treatment plants as a
deodorant  and disinfectant.  It has recently been utilized at municipal
waste water treatment plants to deodorize gases which are emitted and to
disinfect the effluent.  Ozone is  a  very  effective  disinfectant  and
oxidizing  agent.  It is about thirteen times more soluble in water than
oxygen  (79).  Others  (79) have determined that ozone effectively reduces
the COD  and  TOC  content  of  effluents  from  municipal  waste  water
treatment plants, as well as odors, color, and pathogenic organisms.

Residual  ozone decomposes very rapidly.  It has a half-life in drinking
water of about 20 minutes  (79).  Because of the instability of ozone, it
must be produced at its point  of  use.   The  most  common  methods  of
producing ozone are  (79):

    1.  Silent electric discharge in air or oxygen


                                  139

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    2.  Photochemical conversion of air or oxygen

    3.  Electrolysis of sulfuric acid

Photochemical conversion is used only where small quantities in very lew
concentrations  are  required.   Silent  electric  discharge is the only
practical and economical method for large-scale production of ozone.  In
general, for large ozone usage, use of oxygen with  recycle  is  a  ircre
economical system than using air  (79) .

Because  of  the  expense  involved,  the  use  of  ozonation to oxidize
organics has not in  the  past  been  considered  a  practical  form  of
tertiary  treatment.   No investigation of its applicability to the pulp
and paper industry has been found.

Laboratory scale tests were conducted (79) with about 37.85  liters  per
hour   (10  gallons  per  hour)  on  the use of ozone to oxidize organics
remaining in effluent from municipal  secondary  waste  water  treatment
plants.   Effluent  from  a  treatment plant using trickling filters was
treated with czone and virtually all the color, odor, and turbidity were
removed.  No living organisms remained, and the COD was below  15  mg/1.
Ozone  concentrations  from  11 mg/1 to 48 mg/1 as oxygen proved equally
effective.
Rates of CCD and TOC removal were very  dependent  on  agitation  rates.
Removals   were    increased    approximately   twofold  using  high-shear
contacting rather  than  low-shear countercurrent  contacting.   Cccurre
contacting,  mixing  effluent  and  ozone  in  an  injector, proved mo
desirable than the use  of a turbine agitator.  For effective  czonatic
good  agitation  must   be  considered  the prime objective in contractor
design  (79).
aj_
1
Low pH resulted in  lower  reaction  rates, but  higher  ozone  utilization
efficiencies.

Ozone   oxidizes  many  compounds  which  resist  biological  cxidaticn.
However, the most readily bio-oxidizable organics also consume ozone the
most efficiently  (79) .  Chemical clarification prior to  ozonation  will
remove  a  portion   of  the   TOC that is resistant to oxidation by ozone
resulting  in  lower final   TOC   level  and  less  ozone   consumption.
Ozonation  efficiency was  high when COD and TOC concentrations were high.
However,   the effluent  had an unacceptably high COD and TOC content.  It
was concluded that  effluents  having  high organic content  (COD  above  40
mg/1)  are more  economically  treated  by  a  combination  of chemical
clarification and ozonation.    Effluents  with  a  low  organic  content
require only ozonation.

Because  of  the  short  life of  ozone and the slow reaction of czone with
many organics, it   was  concluded  that  the  best  treatment  would  be
achieved with multi-stage, high-shear, gas-liquid contacting.  The half-


                                   1UO

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life  of  ozone  is  approximately  twenty  minutes.   From  this,  they
|tetermined  that  a  residence  time  of  ten  minutes  per  stage   was
^reasonable.   One hour was needed for a COD reduction frcm 35-40 mg/1 to
15 mg/1.  Therefore, six  stages  were  necessary.   With  the  required
amount  of  ozone being added to each stage as it was needed, an overall
ozdne efficiency as high as  90 percent was obtained.

It has been reported   (68)   that  ozonation,  catalyzed  with  activated
Raney-Nickel  removed  85  percent  of the COD and 60 percent of the TOC
from secondary treatment effluents in two hours under  favorable  condi-
tions.

Also,  it has been concluded  (79) that tertiary treatment with ozone has
potential of an automated, trouble-free operation with low  maintenance.
Initially,  they  thought that the ammonia in the waste would react with
the ozone but found that this was not the case.

The reduction of TOC is caused  by  organic  molecules  decomposing  and
giving  off carbon dioxide  (79) .  This rate of decomposition was reduced
only at a pH below 7.  A Icwer pH resulted in lower rates of COD removal
because the activity of dissolved ozone was enhanced by higher pH.  Lime
dosage resulted in high pH,  while alum-acid coagulants gave  the  lowest
pH.   A  pH  from  6.0  to   7.0  seemed  to  be  optimum for multistage,
concurrent ozonation.
 EUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL-SODIUM EASE
Water reuse and upset control in this subcategory  of  mills  have  been
described  in detail in the literature  (30)  (33)  (80).  The practices cf
one tightly closed NSSC mill  (i.e., with maximum reuse) are illustrative
of possible internal modifications to maximize reuse and  upset  control
 (33).

The  principal direct uses of water in this operation, which consists of
an NSSC pulp mill and a closely integrated paper  mill,  are  identified
as:

    1.  Chip cooking
    2.  certain fourdrinier showers
    3.  Pump shaft seals
                                   141

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Indirect uses of fresh water include:

    1.  Vacuum pump seal coater
    2.  Losses from indirect steam heating
    3.  Cooling and condensing systems

Excess white water is used, without treatment, for dilution injection in
the  digesters  and  in  the screw presses used for separation of strong
cooking 'liquor prior to evaporation and burning.

During daily wood pulp production of 181.4 metric tons (200 shcrt tons),
some 90,800 kilograms  (200,000 pounds)  of dissolved solids are produced.
Approximately, 68,100 kilograms  (150,000  pounds)   of  this  amount  are
removed  in  the  combined  screw  pressate  and  digester blow liqucrs,
reduced to 21 percent solids by indirect evaporation,  and  supplied  to
the  fluidized bed reactor.  Additional solubles are introduced into the
overall system via the 86.2 metric tons (95 short tons)  of  waste  paper
utilized daily.

The  remaining soluble solids remain with the pulp as it proceeds to the
stock preparation/papermaking system.  Routinely a  high  percentage  of
these  solubles  remains  with  the  paperboard as manufactured, but two
principal sewer losses occur.  One is "carryover" into the  vacuum  pump
seal  water.   The  other represents non-equilibrium losses due to shut-
downs, equipment failures, and other factors mentioned in the above sub-
section on unbleached kraft mills.

Emphasis is placed on controlling the effects of  these  non-equilibriWP
upsets.  These efforts include:

    1.  Prevention of spills by process control modifications.

    2.   Redirection  of  overflow  pipes  to  trenches leading to "con-
    taminated" surge vessels for ultimate reuse.

    3.  Individual revisions cf level  controls  and  storage  tanks  to
    minimize overflows and spills.

    4.  Redundant installation of key pumps and other equipment to avoid
    losses due to equipment failure and routine maintenance.

    5.  Monitoring systems to alert operating personnel of potential and
    actual spills so that corrective action can be promptly initiated.

    6.   Storage  lagocns  located  prior to biological treatment may be
    provided to accept longer term shock loads.

    7.  Personnel should be trained to avoid such spills where possible,
    and to take immediate corrective action when they occur.


                                  142

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It will be recognized that most of these  techniques  are  the  same  in
 Principle,  if  not  in detail, as those in-plant measures applicable to
 n£leached kraft mills.

From the engineering viewpoint, it is readily evident that none  of  the
above  measures  represent novel technology.  What is novel, however, is
the "systeirs approach"  to  a  complex  manufacturing  operation  having
variables  and  potential  loss  points measured in the hundreds or even
thousands.  This kind of effort, however, is necessary  and  recommended
to  effect  a  significant  reduction in raw waste loads -- particularly
surge loads — with their adverse impact upon external treatment facili-
ties and final effluent quality.

One mill may soon install a reverse osmosis system to handle unavoidable
final spills (81) .  For  this  system  to  operate  economically  it  is
imperative  to  reduce  the  volume of waste water to be treated.  VOhile
this program will not result in zero  discharge  of  pollutants,  it  is
expected that very significant reductions, over and above those itemized
above, will occur.

Another  mill   (30)  has  applied  similar  techniques in reuse of white
water, but has taken a different approach  in  disposal  of  spent  NSSC
liquor.   As  in  the above case, intensive reuse results in white water
characteristics approaching these of the spent liquor itself.   For  ex-
ample, white water solubles approach the three to four percent figure in
both mills.  Since both mills make corrugating medium, the corresponding
 evels  of solubles  (primarily spent cooking liquor) can be tolerated in
  e end product.  This is net true of many other subcategory grades.
Problems occur with increased  reuse  as  discussed  in  the  subsection
above.  An NSSC mill (30) has delineated these problems as process water
usage  approached  6260  liters  per  metric ton  (1500 gallons per short
ton) :

    1.  Variable paper quality due to wet streaks in wet felts

    2.  Decreased wet felt life due to plugging from fines

    3.  Increased slime deposits

    4.  Higher maintenance costs due to increased cleaning of
        machine elements

    5.  Higher corrosion rates

    6.  Increased calcium scaling

    7.  Greater chemical demands for sized and wet strength grades

    8.  Buildup of contaminants from waste paper


                                  143

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    9.  Increased incidence of sheet breaks, particularly at the
        presses, due to "stickiness" caused by solubles buildup
        and to apparent reduction in wet web strength


To minimize the above problems, fresh water usage was increased to  8346
liters  per metric ton  (2000 gallons per short ton) from 6260 liters per
metric ton  (1500 gallons per short ton).

The  techniques  and  methods  of  internal  controls  for   the   stock
preparation  and  paper  machine  operations as described for unbleached
kraft mills are equally applicable to this sutcategory.


External_Technoloc[ies

Although there are  variations  in  concentrations  and  specific  waste
constituents,  the  general  classes  of  compounds which occur in these
wastes are similar to those occurring in unbleached kraft wastes.  Thus,
treatability and treatment systems for NSSC-sodium are  similar  to  the
systems  discussed  previously  in  unbleached kraft.  Specifically, the
discussions of suspended solids removal and BOD5 removal apply to  NSSC-
sodium   mills  also.   Effluent  levels  presently  being  achieved  by
exemplary mill "f" by its external treatment are shown in Table 32.
                                                                      I
As shown in Table 16, color removal  techniques  on  NSSC  waste  water
primarily include reverse osmosis.  Reverse osmosis has been extensive
investigated   for  possible  application  within  the  pulp  and  pap
industry.  All of the work, however, has  been  undertaken  on  a  pilot
plant  basis.  The progress made with reverse osmosis systems within the
past five years suggests that it could in the future be a very  valuable
tool  in  waste  treatment  for removal of color and suspended and tctal
dissolved solids.  At present this method seems particularly  applicable
to  NSSC mills.  While many of the mechanical problems have been solved,
membrane life and flux rates have not progressed  to  the  extent  where
large  scale  applications  can  be considered.  If membrane life can be
improved and flux  rates  increased,  then  the  total  costs  could  be
lowered.

The  initial  work with membranes was in conjunction with an electrodia-
lysis system   (82) .   Electrodialysis  investigations  of  pulp  liquors
provided  important  background on new membrane processes such as ultra-
filtration and reverse osmosis.   The  application  of  reverse  osmosis
membranes  has  been centered en concentrations of dilute streams in the
range of one-half to one percent suspended solids  (83) (84).

The Pulp Manufacturers  Research  League  and  The  Institute  of  Paper
Chemistry have investigated the reverse osmosis process for treatment of
pulp  and paper mill waste waters under a project partially sponsored by


                                  144

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the Office of Research and Monitoring of  the  Environmental  Protection
Agency  (83).  Their studies led to confirming trials conducted in field
 =monstrations ranging from 18,900 to 189,300 liters  per  day  (500  to
>0^000  gallons  per day)  on five different waste flows.  The five field
demonstrations were undertaken on:
  •
     1.  Ca Base Pulp Washing and Cooling Waters
     2.  NSSC White Water
     3.  NH3 Ease Pulp Wash Water (also Calcium Hypochlorite
         Bleach Effluent)
     4.  Kraft Bleach Effluent (also Kraft Rewash Water)
     5.  Chemi-mechanical Pulping Wash Water

Their study concluded that the reverse osmosis process is an important
new tool for concentrating and recovering solutes in dilute pulp and
papermaking effluents (83).  They obtained membrane rejections of 90
to 99 percent for most components in the feed with the exception of
low molecular weight salts and volatiles which were less well rejected.
                                  1U5

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                                             Table 32.

                                Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing

                                        Treatment Systems  at

                                        NSSC-SODIUM  BASE MILLS
 Exemplary
   Mill
Treatment
    f*

    f**
ASB-SO

ASB-SO
ON
     Flow
kilolites/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)
 44.6 (10.7)
   NCASI Mills

    1        ASB

   *  Mill Records
  **  Short term survey data  (3-7 days)
    INF

 8.5 (17)

13   (26)
                      kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                                                        BOD  5
                                                                 EFF
                                    2.05  (4.1)
  INF

8.5 (17)

7.5 (15)
                                                 2.5  (5.0)
                                                                           TSS
                                                                                  EFF
6.5  (13)
                                                                   5.9  (11.8)

-------
 ne mill has also undertaken detailed studies for the use of  reverse
 sjmosis as a unit operation for producing water  suitable for  process
reuse under a program also partially funded by the Office of  Research
and Monitoring of the Environmental Protection Agency  (84).   This  study
included the operation of proprietary osmosis equipment
on a pilot basis by vendors simultaneously and continuously on the
same feed.  This allowed the development of operating techniques
applicable to the
particular feed and development of design criteria for the design  cf a
full scale production facility.  This study also concluded that the
reverse osmosis process is effective in concentrating the dilute waste
stream while producing a clarified water flow that can be recycled for
process purposes  (81).  The concentrated stream  would be directed  to
the fluidized bed reactor operating as part of their chemical recovery
system.  Three basic types of  reverse osmosis irembrane surfaces are
available:
    1.  Capillary fiber

    2.  Sheet membrane  (spiral round)

    3.  Tubular

Tubular membranes have been found to be the most suitable  in the work
that  has  been  undertaken  because capillary fiber and sheet membranes
were more subject to clogging  problems  (82).   Most  cf  the   work with
reverse  osmosis  has  been  concerned with the  use cf cellulose acetate
•nembranes, but some work with  dynamic  membranes,  or  replaceable mem-
branes, is receiving more attention as it could  substantially reduce the
cost of reverse osmosis systems  (85) (83) .

The  reverse  osmosis  process would  best  fit into a treatment  scheme
following primary treatment, prior to activated  carbcn polishing if  the
benefits derived from the improved solids removal and the elimination of
pretreatment  with  massive  lime  and  large scale activated carbon are
greater than the incurred less of membrane capacity resulting frcm lower
flux rates  (86).  While hyperfiltration  is very  effective   in  removing
color   and  iracromolecular  organic  compounds, certain  lower   weight
molecular organic compounds are not  rejected  by  the  reverse  osmosis
process.

If  color removal only is necessary, the ultrafiltration which is  not as
effective as hyperfiltraticn in removal of organic matters   and  solids,
but is very effective in color removal, would be satisfactory (83).

The  efficiency  of   the  reverse  osmosis  process  for  NSSC  pulp and
papermaking waste waters is presented in Table 33  (82).
                                   147

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The waste flows had to be pretreated by passage through a 40 mesh screen
and the temperature adjusted to a safe operating range  to  protect  thj|
cellulose acetate membranes  (below 40°C)  (82) .                         ^

The extensive pilot testing undertaken by a sodium base NSSC mill showed
general rejections by the reverse osmosis process as follows (85):

      Total Solids                    99.7%
      BOD5                            98.6%
      Color-Optical Comparator        99.6%
      Colcr-Spectrophotometer         99.8%

The work by the Institute of Paper Chemistry indicated that fouling of
reverse osmosis membranes by suspended particles, colloidal suspensoids
of  large molecular weight organics, etc., could be partially controlled
by pretreatment, by periodic pressure pulsations, and by periodic  wash-
ing  of  the  membrane surfaces (81).  Self-cleaning, high velocities of
flow were found to be the most likely means  of  maintaining  high  flux
rates  through the membrane, especially with the newer high performance,
tight surface membranes that became available in 1971.  It was  reported
that  minimum  velocities  of 0.61 meters per second  (2 feet per second)
overcame ccncentrative polarization, but 0.91  meters  per  second  (3.0
feet  per second) were required to maintain adequate mass transfer rates
(39) .  It was also stated that concentration pclarization did not appear
to seriously affect performance at operating pressures below  55.4  atm.
(800 psig) .
Present  commercial hyperf iltration membranes cannot be operated at
peratures much above ambient, and cooling of many pulping  effluents
therefore  necessary.   Dynamically formed membranes, however, have been
shown to suffer less from these disadvantages and may be preferable when
a high degree of salt  removal  is  not  required   (83) .   In  addition,
ultraf iltraticn  membranes  are  more  open  than the more tight reverse
osmosis  (hyperf iltraticn) membranes  and  while  rejection  fcr  colored
ligonsulf onates  is  high,  other components are rejected to a much less
satisfactory degree.  Research is being carried out to develop  improved
rejection  with  ultraf iltration membranes because they have higher flux
rates than hyperf iltration and the advantages  of  simplified  equipment
design   (85) .  In addition, a major roadblock delaying the practical use
of reverse osmosis in waste treatment lies  in  the  several  causes  of
short  life  expectancy  in the membrane system.  Membrane manufacturers
should be encouraged to  obtain  goals  of  a  minimum  three-year  life
expectancy  for these membranes (82).  In addition, membrane development
should include a capability for operating at  wider  ranges  of  pH  and
temperature (82) and higher flux rates.

Dynamic  membrane studies should be advanced to achieve higher levels of
solid rejection without serious reduction in  permeate  rates  and  flux
rates.   The  development of these membranes could substantially improve
performance and cost parameters (83) (87) (88) .


                                  148

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                       TABLE  33
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF TREATMENT BY REVERSE OSMOSIS (77)
                           REPORTED REJECTION - %
WASTE
FLOW
Calcium Sulflte
NSSC
Ammonium Sulfite
Kraft Bleach
TOTAL
SOLIDS
87-98
96-98
93-96
91-99
BOD
69-89
87-95
77-94
85-97
COD
87-95
96-98
92-97
97-99
BASE
95-99Ca
82-95Na
92-98NH3
83-95Na
COLOR
99
99+
99
99+
WATER RECOVERY
80-90
72-92
65
                       149

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N§§C-AMMONIA_EASE

Internal_Technologies

Ammonia base and sodium base NSSC pulping are separate subcategories  in
that  the  two  bases produce different waste characteristics.  However,
they are essentially the same process in terms of equipment used and the
manufacturing steps involved, with the exception of spent  liquor  hand-
ling  in some cases.  Therefore, the sources of waste water would gener-
ally vary only as they typically vary from mill to mill without  a  sub-
category,  and,  thus, offer a potential for water reuse similar to that
described above for sodium base mills.   Ammonia  base  mills,  however,
have  experienced  somewhat  more  difficulty in reduction of waste flow
volume through reuse because of the buildup of ammonia within  the  pro-
cess system.

The  techniques  and methods for reducing upset and spills described for
both  the  unbleached  kraft  and  sodium  base  NSSC  mills,  or   some
modification  of  them,  are equally applicable to this subcategory.  In
the newest mill of this type -- there are only two in operation  -design
efforts are underway to eliminate a waste stream which contributes about
18-20  percent Of the total raw BOD5 load of the mill.  This is from the
screwfeeder utilized to press water from the chips before  the  digester
to achieve a sufficiently high dry solids content.

The additional internal control needed in this type of mill is one which
will reduce ammonia concentrations in the waste stream.  One proposal is
to  channel  the  primary cooling water into the weak black liquor as iiA
enters the evaporators (84), thus lowering the pH  and  inhibiting  con-*
version  of ammonium to ammonia.  The techniques and methods of internal
controls for the stock  preparation  and  paper  machine  operations  as
described  for  unbleached  kraft  mills  are equally applicable to this
subcategory.

External_Technolocjies

Although there are  variations  in  concentrations  and  specific  waste
constituents,  the  general  classes  of  compounds which occur in these
wastes are similar to those occurring in unbleached kraft wastes.  Thus,
treatability and treatment systems for NSSC- ammonia are similar to  the
systems  discussed  previously  in  unbleached kraft.  Specifically, the
discussions of suspended solids removal and BOD5 removal apply to  NSSC-
ammonia  mills  also.   Effluent  levels presently being achieved by the
existing treatment systems at exemplary mill "e" are shown in Table  34.
As discussed for NSSC - sodium base, removal of color by reverse osmosis
is  equally  applicable  to  NSSC  -  ammonia  base mills.  As mentioned
previously, ammonia base NSSC mill effluents contain high concentrations
of ammonia for which removal technologies have not yet been demonstrated
for the pulp and paper industry.   A  discussion  cf  potential  ammonia
removal technologies follows.


                                  150

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                                             Table 34

                               Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing

                                            Treatment at

                                       NSSC-Ammonia Base Mills
                              Flow
Exemplary                kiloliters/kkg
   Mill     Treatment    (1,000 gal/ton)
    e*        C-ASB-SO    34.8  (8.3)
M
H-   e**       C-ASB-SO


*  Mill Records

** Short Term survey data (3-7 days)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
                                                       BOD 5
                    TSS
INF
33.5 (67)
30.5 (61)
EFF
5.25(10.5)
2.9 (58)
INF
17 (34)
16 (32)
EFF
9.45(18.9)
8.0 (16)

-------
A  selective ion exchange system for the removal of ammonia nitrogen has
been developed  (76)  (89)  (90) but has not been applied to  ammonia
NSSC mills.  The process uses a natural zeolite, clinoptilolite which,
selective  for ammonium ions.  Regeneration of the clinoptilolite can
accomplished with a lime slurry which yields an alkaline aqueous ammoni-
ous solution.  The spent regenerate can then be processed through an air
stripping tower to remove the ammonia, with recycle  of  the  regenerate
(76)   (89)   (90).   Work  showed  that  the  ammonia can be destroyed by
electrolysis of the regenerant,  which  results  in  the  production  of
chlorine  that  reacts with the ammonia to produce nitrogen gas  (90).  A
preliminary design report was prepared for the design of a 28.39 million
liter per day  (97.5 mgd) ammonia ion exchange system to serve the  South
Tahoe Water Reclamation Plant  (76)  (91).

In  the work undertaken by Battelle-Northwest and the South Tahoe Public
Utility District  (90) , ammonia removal of 93 to 97 percent was  reported
with a clarified and carbon treated secondary effluent and clarified raw
sewage  with  a 378,500 liters per day (100,000 gpd) mobile pilot plant.
Ninety-four percent ammonia removal was obtained  with  a  single  29.26
meter   (96 foot) deep bed at 150-bed volumes of Tahoe tertiary effluent,
while with a two-column semi-countercurrent operation  with  1.43  meter
(4.7  foot)  deep  beds  operating  at an average of 250-bed volumes, 97
percent ammonia removal  was  obtained.   Ammonia  removal  averaged  93
percent  at  an  average  of  232-bed  volumes with clarified raw sewage
treated by the two-column, semi-countercurrent operation.

In the work undertaken by  the  University  of  California,  an  average
ammonia removal of 95.7 percent was obtained in demonstration studies om
three  municipal wastes having an NH3-N content of about 20 mg/1.  It is*
stated that ammonia removal to less than 0.5 mg/1 NH3-N  is  technically
feasible,   but   only   with   shorter   runs  and  greater  regenerate
requirements.

When using selective ion exchange for ammonia removal, the processing of
waste waters with high Mg+2 concentrations may require clarification  of
the  regenerate  to  avoid  plugging  of the bed with Mg (OH)2  (90).  In
addition, it has been stated that secondary effluents may require clari-
fication by plain filtration to prevent  fouling  of  the  zeolite  beds
(76).

Ammonia  removal  by  selective  ion exchange is probably best suited to
areas where prolonged periods of freezing weather  are  encountered  and
where  very  high  degrees  of ammonia removal must be maintained.  Air-
stripping and  biological nitrification-denitrificaticn may  be  used  in
the warmer climates at a lower cost, but at a somewhat lower efficiency.

Nitrification-denitrification refers to the biological treatment process
utilized  to   convert nitrogen compounds  (generally ammonia) tc nitrates
and nitrates to nitrogen gas.  The  biological nitrification-denitrifica-
                                   152

-------
tion process has been extensively investigated and  reported   (76)   (91)
  2) (93)  (94).
I
  e"  nitrifying  bacteria are very sensitive to poiscning by simple sub-
stances, including heavy metals and free ammonia.  Before  this  process
can-  be  used with industrial wastes, therefore, careful testing must be
conducted under realistic conditions.

The following factors will influence nitrification (75):

    1.  Dissolved oxygen level should be above 1.0 mg/1.

    2,  pH of activated sludge system should be in the range of 7.5-8.5.

    3.  The growth  rate  of  the  nitrifiers  is  temperature  related.
         Nitrification below 5°C is minimum, while optimuir tempera
    ture is about 32°C.

    U.   Growth  rate  of  nitrifiers is reduced by chlorates, cyanides,
    alkaloids,  mercaptans,  urethanes,  guanidines,   methylamine,   and
    nitrourea.

The  denitrifying  bacteria  convert  the  nitrite  and nitrate nitrogen
resulting from the nitrification reaction to nitrogen gas.

The three basic requirements for  denitrification  tc  proceed  are  the
following (95):

    1.   An  organic  carbon  source  which  can  be  utilized  by   the
         dentrifying bacteria.

    2.   An anaerobic environment.

    3.   A pH of about 6=5.

The ammonia stripping process can be generally summarized as follows:

    1.  Raising the pH of the water to 10.5-11.5;

    2.  Formation and reformation  of  water  droplets  (can  be  easily
    accomplished in a stripping tower);

    3.  Circulation of large quantities of air.

Items  1  and  2 above are the same requirements applied to conventional
cooling towers and explains the adaptability  of  these  towers  to  the
removal of ammonia.

Discussion of two stripping towers that have been designed for treatment
of  waste waters is given below.  The most well known work done with air


                                  153

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stripping of ammonia has been done on municipal  wastes  at  Lake  Tahoe
(75) .   A  countercurrent  stripping  tower, 7.62 meters (25 feet) hi
1.83 meters  (6 feet) wide, and 1.22 meters  (4 feet) in depth was used
investigate the various parameters affecting air stripping  of  ammon'ia
The  results  of  these  are  shown  in  Figures  24, 25, and 26.  It is
apparent from these figures that the design of air stripping tcwers  -can
be  such  as  to  accommodate  any  desired  ammonia removal up to 90-95
percent removal when  ambient  air  temperatures  are  above  20°C.   As
reported   (76),  the  efficiency  of the tower was substantially reduced
below 20°C.  Data obtained with operation of  the  tower  during  winter
conditions  at  Lake Tahoe indicated that the average lower limit of the
process will be in the range  of  50-60  percent  ammonia  removal.   In
addition, a stripping tower has been used in conjunction with barometric
type   evaporator   condensers  for  treatment  of  final  and  combined
condensates in at least one pulp and paper mill.  The mill at 771 metric
tons (850 short tons)  removed about  6 kg/metric ton  (12  Ibs/ton)  and
reduced raw water intake by 30,200-37,800 kiloiters/day  (8-10mgd).

The  limitations  of  the  use  of  ammonia  stripping towers were first
realized with the winter operations at Lake  Tahoe.   These  limitations
are outlined as follows (94):

    1.    Vvhen  the  air  temperatures  are  at  9°C,  or below, freezing
    problems can occur which will restrict air flow.

    2.   Ammonia solubility increases at the  lower  temperatures,  which
    results in higher treatment costs.
    3.  A calcium carbonate scale formation results on the tower becau
    the  lime  treated wastes are saturated with CaC03.  The scale cculd
    be flushed from the Lake Tahoe Tower, but at the EPA's  Blue  Plains
    Pilot Plant it was hard and adhered to the tower packing.

Based  on  the current status of ammonia stripping towers, they probably
will only be used in warm climates.  In addition, the hard  scale  prob-
lems have to be solved.
KRAFT-NSSC  (CROSS RECOVERY)^

As shown in Tables 15 and  16, internal and external control technologies
applicable to unbleached kraft mills also apply to kraft-NSSC rrills with
cross  recovery  and  have  been  discussed  previously.  Table 35 shows
effluents levels presently being achieved by existing treatment  systems
at exemplary trills "g" and "h" and for NCASI selected mills.
                                   154

-------
                   FIGURE 24
         EFFECT OF TOWER DEPTH ON AMMONIA REMOVAL
o

LU

-------
                                         FIGURE 25
                          OF HYDRAULIC LOADING ON AMMONIA REMOVAL AT VARIOUS DEPTHS
Ul
                  -J

                  Si
                  O
                  s
                  UJ
                  cr
-
0
0
CO
0
<  60
2
O
S
S
<
PERCENT
&
0
K>
0
                                                      12' Depth
                                1.0
                    2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
                             SURFACE  LOADING  RATE  (GPM/FT^)

-------
               FIGURE  26
  EFFECTS ON PACKING SPACING ON AMMONIA REMOVAL
                       i

                 x 2 In. Packing (redwood  slats)
                  4x4In. Packing (plastic truss bars)
                     Note :24 Ft. Packing Depth
500     1,000   1,500   2,000   2,500   3,000  4POO
  CUBIC  FEET AIR/GALLON  TREATED

-------
                                            Table 35

                              Effluent Levels Achieved  By  Existing

                                      Treatment  Systems  at

                          UNBLEACHED KRAFT-NSSC  (Cross  Recovery)  Mills
Exemplary
  Mills     Treatment
8*
g**
h*
£ h**
NCASI Mills
1
2
3
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB

C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
     Flow
kiloliters/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)
                          51.3  (12.3)
                          53.4  (12.8)
      kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
                                                       BOD  5
                     INF

                   17.5 (35)

                   14.5 (29)



                   13.5 (27)
*   Mill Records
**  Short term survey data (3-7days)
Note- Mill "h" and Mill "2" are the same mill.
  EFF

5   (10)

1.5 (3)

4   (8)

1.5 (3)
                                                             4.9  (9.9)
                                                             4.5  (9.0)
                                                             3.0  (6.0)
                                                              TSS
  INF

16.5 (33)

19.5 (39)

 8.9 (17.8)

 5.5 (11)
  EFF

4.5 (9)

2.8 (5.6)

1.5 (3)

3.05 (6.1)
                                                                   4.4   (8.8)
                                                                   1.75  (3.5)
                                                                   5.75  (11.5)

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PAPERBOARD FROM, WASTE.,PAPER

  ternal Technologies
  ————————————— -*———

A  paperbcard  from  waste  paper  mill  utilizes  water  in its process
exclusive of steam generation for the following purposes:
    1.  Water used for the preparation and transport  of  fiber  through
the  papermaking  process.   This  is generally recycled water; however,
process water that escapes from one stock system to another represents a
contribution to the mill effluent to the extent  that  this  intersystem
loss  occurs.   Reduction  of  the  less of process water from one stock
system to another is one type of in-plant control that can  be  utilized
to reduce the raw waste load generated by many mills in this category.

    2.   Shower water used principally to remove the build-up of fibrous
materials on the wet end of the machine  which  is  detrimental  to  the
formation  of  the  product.   This  water  enters the system via shower
nozzles and accounts for the largest contribution to the volume  of  raw
waste  water  generated.   The  use of recycled process water instead of
fresh water for this purpose is essential if major reductions  in  waste
loads generated are to be realized.

    3.   Water  used  to  permit process equipment to perform its design
function.  Typical applications are the seal and cooling waters used  on
pumps,  agitators, drives, bearings, vacuum pumps, and process controls.
This represents a significant contribution to the volume of waste  water
 generated  by the process.  In-plant control systems have been developed
   many mills that minimize or eliminate  this  source  of  waste  water
 feneration.   The  introduction  of  this source of water tc the process
system is generally under automatic control and will, in  the  event  of
undetected  control  malfunction,  contribute substantially tc the waste
water volume generated by a mill.  Reliable control of these sources  of
waste  water  must  be  included  in  any  in-plant water control system
designed to minimize the waste load generated by a mill.

    4.  Water utilized as ncn-contact cooling  water.   The  segregation
and  discharge of this water without treatment has been achieved by irany
mills and represents in-plant control technology which is  essential  if
near total recycle of process water is a goal.

The  water utilization and control technologies described if implemented
would make possible very significant reductions in waste loads generated
by mills in this category.  There  are  a  number  of  mills  that  have
achieved  near  total recycle of process water using these or variations
of these control technologies.  However, for many mills in the  industry
near  total  recycle  could  present  a  number  of  production  related
problems.  Those mills that use predominately corrugated waste paper  in
their furnish could experience excessive dissolved solids buildup in the
process water systems which may not be the case for those mills that use
predominantly  news, mixed, and magazine waste papers.  Corrugated waste


                                   159

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paper contains adhesives that are relatively  high  in  starch  content.
This  adhesive is dissolved during the stock preparation process and
to its solubility becomes part of the process water system.
The presence of these dissolved solids has no significance  for  a
discharging  10,000  gallons  of waste water per ton of product or more.
However, for a mill  practicing  near  complete  recycle  the  attending
dissolved   sclids   buildup   could   create   production  problems  of
considerable magnitude.  Similar problems could be experienced by  those
mills  that  employ  on machine coating when near complete process water
recycle systems are implemented.  Mills that produce food board  from  a
waste  paper  furnish  may  experience  increasing  problems  in meeting
regulations  established  by  government  health  authorities   due   to
objectionable   odors   or  other  considerations  attributable  to  the
implementation of extensive process water recycle concepts.

These are a few of the product grades that have increasing  significance
as near complete recycle of process water is considered by many mills in
this  subcategory.   Mills  that  produce a similar grade of product for
most  of  their  production  time  will  experience  fewer  problems  if
extensive  recycle  of process water is implemented.  However a majority
of mills in this subcategory produce these  and  many  other  production
grades,  including food board, all of which can be affected to a greater
or lesser extent if a near total recycle of  process  water  system  has
been implemented.

As  shown  in  Table 15, only a few of the internal control technologies
(as discussed for unbleached kraft) for  the  pulping  operation
However,  all  of the control technologies for the stcck preparation
paper  machine  operations  apply  as  were  discussed  previously   for
unbleached kraft.

Extern al_Technglogieg

Since  waste  paper is fiberized by hydraulic and mechanical means there
are no comparable chemical constituents in the  mill  effluents  to  the
other  subcategories  resulting  from  pulping  processes.  However, the
waste treatability is similar to that of the  other  subcategories,  and
the  external  technologies  for  primary  and  secondary  treatment  as
discussed previously also apply to paperboard from  waste  paper  mills.
Effluent  levels  achieved  by  existing  treatment systems at exemplary
mills "i," "j," "k," and "1," NCASI Selected mills, and mills  from  the
literature are shown in Table 36.

In  the  case  of many paperboard from waste paper mills which discharge
into public sewerage systems, effluent  treatment  sludges  are  handled
with  those  contributed  by  sanitary sewage.  Methods are set forth in
FWPCA Manual of Practice No. 20  (96) and their effects  on  the  overall
process are described in the literature  (97) .
                                   160

-------
 Sludges  from  paperboard  from  waste  paper  mills  can  generally  te
Chickened to a consistency in excess   of  four  percent  dry  solids  by
Brethickening.  If activated sludge from secondary treatment is included
 this figure can be somewhat lower.


 IEEIGATigN_AND_LANp_pISPgSAL_gF_EFFLUENTS

 Total  mill  effluents  of pulp and  paper mills, as well as  specific ones
 having particularly undesirable properties,  have  been  disposed  of  by
 means  of  irrigation and land disposal.  Examples of specific effluents
 handled in this  manner  are  cooking  liquors,  foul  ccndensates,  and
 turpentine decanter water.

 The  advantage of land  disposal,  when properly practiced, is that a very
 high degree of purification is obtained on passage through  the  soil  so
 that  the  water  finally  reaching either the adjacent stream or ground
 water is practically devoid of suspended matter, BODS, and   color.    The
 disadvantages are 1)  the relatively small volume that can be disposed of
 per  acre  per day - 37,850 -to 113,550 liters  (10,000 to 30,000 gallons)
 under most soil conditions, and 2)  freezing problems during  the  winter
 months,  and  (3)   the   potential  for  imparting taste, odors, or ether
 undesirable characteristics to groundwaters.     In some instances,   this
 process is applied only during the  critical months when temperatures are
 high,  stream  flowages  low,  and   crops,  which increase  the allowable
 application rate appreciably, can be  grown.
I
 he use of land for the disposal of pulp and paper  mill  effluents  has
 een applied in the following forms:
    1.   Seepage ponds 2.  Direct application to fallow soil with a wide
    range of textures by both spray and ridge-and-furrow distribution 3.
    Application by similar means to soils whose absorption capacity  has
    been  modified  by  development  of  suitable  cover  vegetation  4.
    Controlled effluent application designed to produce crops by use  of
    suitable irrigation practices.

Since  these effluents contain little in the way of the basic fertilizer
elements, any value they add to the soil  other  than  their  irrigating
effect is the increased water-holding capacity and friability induced by
the stable organic matter present.  The use of land disposal and irriga-
tion  for  disposing  of these wastes has been described in detail (98).
An assessment of the effectiveness of irrigation on crop growth and  the
parameters  for  application  of  water, BODS, cellulose, and sodium for
soils of different character and textures are set forth.
                                   161

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                                              Table 36

                                Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing

                                        Treatment  Systems at

                                  PAPERBOARD FROM  WASTEPAPER MILLS


                              Flow
Exemplary               kiloliters/kkg
  Mills     Treatment    (1,000 gal/ton)                           kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)

                                                      BOD 5                          TSS
                                               INF              EFF           INF             EFF

    i*        C               -                -                -

    i**       C               -           0.08  (0.15)      0.045 (0.09)    0.08 (0.15)     0.02  (0.04)

g   j*        C-ASB-C     12.1  (2.9)      7     (14)        0.25  (0.5)     2.1  (4.1)      1.3   (2.6)

    j**       C-ASB-C         -           9     (18)        0.11 (0.22)     1.2 (2.4)       0.45  (0.9)

    k*        C-AS        38.8  (9.3)      5.5   (11)        0.14 (0.28)    35   (70)        0.95  (1.9)

    k**       C-AS            -          11.5   (23)        0.28 (0.57)    33   (66)        0.6   (1.2)

    1*        ASB          9.6  (2.3)      9.5   (19)        0.32 (0.65)     2.8 (5.6)       0.55  (1.1)

    1**       ASB             -           5.5   (11)        0.21 (0.42)     0.95 (1.9)      0.5 (1.0)

-------
  Table  36  contd.
Effluent Levels Achieved by  Existing Treatment
Systems at  PAPERBOARD  FROM WASTEPAPER MILLS (Contd.)

                               Flow
NCASI
Mills Treatment
1 C-AS
2 C-AS
3 C-ASB-L
4 C-ASB
5
ON 6
Mills
1
2
3
4
5
6
C-ASB -SO
C-ASB-L
from Literature
AB-ASB-I
C-ASB
AB-ASB-A
C-ASB
C-AS -AS
C-ASB
kiloliters/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)


MLD -
2.6
7.6
10.2
7.6
12.5
1.1
-
-
(MGD)
(0.7)
(2.0)
(2.7)
(2.0)
(3.3)
(0.3)
INF
-
-
22.5(45)
13 (26)
11.5 (23)
15 (30)
7.5 (15)
4 (8)
                                                                  kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                                                        BOD 5
                                                                EFF

                                                             0.15  (0.3)

                                                             0.1   (0.2)

                                                             1.1   (2.2)

                                                             5.2   (10.3)

                                                             0.55  (1.1)

                                                             5.3   (10.7)
                                                            2     (4)

                                                             1.5   (3)

                                                             1.0   (2)

                                                             3.5   (7)

                                                             0.1   (0.2)

                                                             0.5   (1)
    INF
            TSS
23    (46)

 25.5  (51)

 40.5  (81)

 43.5  (87)

  3.5  (7)

 28    (56)
    EFF

 0.95 (1.9)

 1.0  (2.0)

 1.4  (2.8)

 9.6  (19.3)

 0.8  (1.6)

11.2  (22.5)
1   (2)

 2.0 (4)

 4.5 (9)

 4.0 (8)

 0.25  (0.5)

 1.5   (3)

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   Table 36 contd.
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at PAPERBOARD FROM WASTEPAPER MILLS (Contd.)
Is from
erature

7
8
9
10
Treatment

AB-ASB
C-AS
C-AS
C-ASB
Flow
MLD
(MGD)

1.1
10.2
2.3


(0.3)
(2.7)
(0.6)
—
INF
7.5 (15)
7 (14)
9.5 (19)
-
kg/kkg
BOD 5
EFF
1.0 (2)
0.35 (0.7)
1.0 (2)
0.75 (1.5)
(Ibs/ton)

30
28
36

INF
(60)
(56)
.5 (73)
—
TSS
2
1
3
0
EFF
.0
.0
.0
.9
(4)
(2)
(6)
(1.8)
    * Mill Records
   ** Short term survey data (3-7 days)

   Notes-  NCASI Mill "1" is the same mill as exemplary mill "k".
        -  Mills from literature may be the same mills as in the
           exemplary mills and/or the NCASI mills.

-------
Blt-hough considerable demonstration work has been done  on  the  use  of
Kraft  mill effluents for irrigating fodder crops, corn, vegetables, and
pine trees, there are at present no linerboard mills making large  scale
use of this means of disposal.  Detailed studies of the effects of kraft
mill effluents on the soil and its productivity have been published  (99)
which  indicate  the  suitability  of  such  effluents  for  irrigation.
However, after applications and trials made to date, this technique  has
received only minimal acceptance by these mills en a full scale (12) .

The  major  problem  is the large volume of effluent produced due to the
high production capacity of the mills now operating and the  correspond-
ingly  large  land areas needed.  For example, at an application rate of
8,346 liters per metric ton (20,000 gallons per short ton)  of  product,
2025  hectares  (5000  acres)  of land would be required for a 970 metric
tons per day  (1000 short tons per day)  linerboard operation.  Viith large
land areas, transporting the effluent incurs both extensive capital  and
operating  costs,  exceeding  those for the common types of waste treat-
ment.  This procedure would also necessitate  the  mill  engaging  in  a
business  sideline unless there was a neighboring agricultural operation
to contract for the  waste  water.   The  possibility  of  spraying  the
effluent  in  woodlands  to  enhance  tree  growth has been explored but
appears unattractive both from the standpoint of its cost and the  value
received in terms of increased wood yield.

   the present time only one unbleached kraft mill uses land disposal to
     extent.   It  employs  seepage ponds seasonally following secondary
 reatment of the effluent.  The major purpose  of  this  is  tc  prevent
direct  discharge of the treated effluent to the receiving stream during
the summer months.


NSSC

Land disposal of both spent cooking liquor and wash and  machine  waters
from NSSC mills has been described (100).  Such disposal was at one time
practiced  by a number of mills, although only two continue the practice
today.  This is primarily due to the increasing  popularity  of  cooking
liquor  disposal  by  pyroprocesses  and  treating  the  remaining waste
streams by the treatment methods common to the industry.  Thus, only the
two most successful of the land disposal systems  remain  in  operation,
one  of which uses land disposal for spent cooking liquor, and the other
employs seepage drains for the entire effluent.

Paperboard from Waste Paper

There has been no use of irrigation for the disposal of paperboard  from
waste  paper  mill effluents.   Two mills, both located on small streams,
have, however, irrigated fields growing fodder crops during  the  sumir.er


                                  165

-------
months  with treated effluent.  This procedure proved very effective for
one mill because of its small size and correspondingly small  land
requirements.
                                   166

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 RECOMMENDED INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONTROLS
I
 Iables  37  and  38  summarize recommended internal and external control
 echnologies for all subcategories for BPCTCA, BATEA and NSPS.

                                Table 37
                      Summary Recommended Internal
            Control Technologies for Specific Sufccategories

Unbleached Kraft
 EPCTCA
 EATEA
 NSPS
          addition of spill collection provisions for chemicals and fibers
          installation of lew volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
          all paper machines
          filtering and reuse of press waters
          pressure screening  (hot-stock)
          segregation and reuse of white waters
          collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
          installation of savealls, and
          gland water reduction
          expanded process water reuse
          separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
          reuse of fresh water filter backwash
          control of spills whereby major pollutional loads bypass
          the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
          are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
          treatment system, or treated separately; and
          reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
          expanded process water reuse
          separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
          reuse of fresh water filter backwash
          control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
          the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
          are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
          treatment system, or treated separately; and
          reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
                                   167

-------
NSSC-Sodium
EPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
         addition of liquor recovery system
         installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning
         showers on paper machines
         filtering and reuse of press water
         segregation and reuse of white waters
         collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
         installation of savealls, and
         gland water reduction
         expanded process water reuse
         separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
         reuse of fresh water filter backwash
         control of spills whereby major pollutional loads bypass
         the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
         are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
         treatment system, or treated separately; and
         reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
         expanded process water reuse
         separation of  cooling water and recovery of heat
         reuse of fresh water filter backwash
         control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
         the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
         are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
         treatment system, or treated separately; and
         reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
                                   168

-------
  
-------
NSSC-Kraft
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
         addition of spill collection provisions for chemicals and fibers
         installation of lew volume, high pressure self cleaning showers <
         all paper machines
         filtering and  reuse of press waters
         pressure screening  (hot-stock)
         collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
         installation of saveallsr and
         gland water reduction
         expanded process water reuse
         separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
         reuse of fresh water filter backwash
         control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
         the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
         are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
         treatment system, or treated separately; and
         reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
         expanded process water reuse
         separation of  cooling water and recovery cf heat
         reuse of fresh water filter backwash
         control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
         the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
         are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
         treatment system, or treated separately; and
         reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
                                   170

-------
BATEA
Paperbgard from Waste Paper
         land disposal of junk materials
         installation of low volume,  high pressure self cleaning
         showers  on paper machines
         filtering and reuse cf press water
         segregation and reuse of white waters
         collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
         installation of savealls, and
         gland water reduction
         land disposal of junk materials
         installation cf low volume,  high pressure self cleaning
         showers on paper machines
         filtering and reuse of press water
         segregation and reuse of white waters
         collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
         installation of savealls, and
         gland water reduction
         land disposal of junk materials
         installation of low volume,  high pressure self cleaning showers on
         paper machines
         filtering and reuse of press water
         segregation and reuse of white waters
         collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
         installation of savealls, and
         gland water reduction
NSPS
                                  171

-------
                                Table 38

                          Recommended External
                          Control Technologies
EPCTCA
Screening, primary, and secondary treatment are provided to  tctal  mill
effluents  for  all sutcategories,  where the screening is ty tar screens
and primary sedimentation in mechanical clarifiers.

Secondary treatment is provided by nutrient  addition  and  one  or  two
stage biological treatment.  An emergency spill basin is installed prior
to the secondary treatment step.

Foam  control,  flow  monitoring  and  automatic  sampling  and  outfall
diffuser system are recommended.

The sludge is dewatered by vacuum filter and sludge press  and  sanitary
landfilled  for  kraft   and  Kraft-NSSC  mills,  while  the  sludge  is
dewatered by vacuum filters and sanitary landfilled for paperbcard  from
waste paper mills, and NSSC-Sodium mills.

The  screenings  are  burned  in  bark  burners  in case of kraft mills,
kraft-NSSC mills, and the  NSSC  mills.   The  screenings  are  sanitary
landfilled in case of paperboard from waste paper mills.              (

EATEA

All  mill  effluents  are  screened by bar screens, and are subjected to
primary  solids  separation  in  mechanical  clarifiers  and   secondary
treatment  by nutrient addition and two stage biological treatment.  All
mill effluents have mixed-media filtration with, if necessary,  chemical
addition  and  coagulation.   Unbleached  kraft  and  kraft-NSSC   (cross
recovery) mills have color removal by lime treatment.  NSSC-sodium  base
and NSSC-airmonia base mills have color removal by reverse osmosis.

All  mill  effluents  receive  foam  control  treatment,  monitoring and
automatic sampling  prior  to  entering  the  receiving  waters  through
diffusers.

Screenings  from  the kraft mill and the kraft - NSSC mill effluents are
burned in sludge incinerators, and screenings from the NSSC - Sodium and
NSSC - Ammonia base mills are burned in existing bark boilers.

Primary sludges and waste activated  sludge  are  thickened  in  gravity
sludge  thickeners,  and  dewatered  mechanically  by vacuum filters and
presses prior to ultimate disposal.


                                  172

-------
Ultimate sludge disposal fcr kraft mills  and  kraft-NSSC  mills  is  by
fcncineration, and for other sutcategories by sanitary landfilling.

NSPS

All  mill  effluents  are screened, receive primary solids separation in
mechanical clarifiers, and secondary treatment by nutrient addition, and
two stage biological treatment.

All sutcategory effluents receive  further  solids  reduction  by  mixed
media filtration with , if necessary, chemical addition and coagulation.
Unbleached  kraft  and  kraft  -  NSSC  (cross recovery) mills have cclor
removal  by  lime  treatment.   All  effluents  receive  foam   control,
monitoring and automatic sairpling prior to outfall by diffusers.

Screenings  from the kraft  mill, the Kraft-NSSC mill, the NSSC - Sodium
and NSSC - Ammonia mills are  burned  in  existing  bark  burners.   The
screenings  from   paperboard  from waste paper mills are disposed of by
sanitary landfilling.

Primary sludge and wasted activated  sludge  are  thickened  in  gravity
thickeners prior to mechanical dewatering by vacuum filters and presses.

Sludges   from    unbleached  kraft  mills  and   Kraft-NSSC  mills  are
incinerated, while  all  other  sludges  are  disposed  of  by  sanitary
landfilling.
                                   173

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                              SECTION VIII


                COSTS, ENERGY, NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
                    AND IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS


RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF_COSTg


This section of -the report, summarizes the costs of internal and external
effluent  treatment  associated  with technology levels of BPTCA, EATEA,
and New Source Standards of Performance.  The cost  functions  used  are
for  conventional  treatment  methods  based on industry experience with
full scale installations and equipment suppliers' estimates.   For  more
advanced   processes,   where   full  scale  installations  are  few  or
nonexistent, the cost estimates are largely  based  on  experience  with
pilot installations and on estimates from and discussions with equipment
suppliers.
                                                                      1
It  should  be  recognized that actual treatment costs vary largely from
mill to mill depending upon the design and operation of  the  productiq
facilities  and local conditions.  Furthermore, effluent treatment cos'
reported by the industry vary greatly from one installation to  anothe
depending  upon  bookkeeping  procedures.   The  estimates  of  effluent
volumes and treatment methods described in this section are intended  to
be  descriptive  of  the  segments  of  the  industry  that  they cover.
However, the industry is extremely heterogeneous in  that  almost  every
installation  has  some uniqueness which could be of critical importance
in assessing effluent treatment problems and their associated costs.

For each technology level, the  cost  of  effluent  treatment  has  been
summarized  for  six  case studies with regard to type and size of trill.
The case situations studied are as follows:

    Type of Mill               Production Capacity metric tons/day (tons/d

    Unbleached kraft (linerboard)              907 (1000)
    Kraft - NSSC                              907 (1000)
    NSSC - Sodium base                         227 (250)  *
    NSSC - Ammonia base                        227 (250)  *
    Paperboard from Wastepaper                  91 (100)

    *  includes use of 50 tpd waste paper
                                  174

-------
Development of Effluent Treatment Costs

  ts£s of effluent treatment  are  presented  as  investment  and  annual
  sts.   The annual costs are further broken down intc capital costs and
depreciation.  Investment costs are defined as the capital  expenditures
required  to  bring  the treatment or control technology into operation.
These include the traditional expenditures such as design,  purchase  of
land  and all mechanical and electrical equipment, instrumentation, site
preparation, plant  sewers,  all  construction  work,  installation  and
testing, etc.

The  capital costs are the financial charges on the capital expenditures
for pollution control.

The  depreciation  is  the  accounting   charges   which   reflect   the
deterioration  of  a  capital asset over its useful life.  Straight line
depreciation has been used in all case study cost calculations.

Operation and maintenance costs are those costs required to operate  and
maintain  the pollution abatement equipment.  They include labor, parts,
chemicals, energy,  insurance,  taxes,  solid  waste  disposal,  quality
control,  monitoring and administration, etc.  Productivity increases or
by-product revenues  as  a  result  of  improved  effluent  control  are
subtracted  so that the operation and maintenance costs reported are the
net costs.

 ^11 costs in this report are expressed in terms of August  1971  prices.
  ^is is comparable to the following cost indexes:

    Indexes                                   Index a August 1971

    EPA Treatment Plant Construction Cost            164.5
         Index (1957-59 = 100)

    EPA Sewer Line Construction Cost                 166.8
         Index (1957-59 = 100)

    Engineering News Record (ENR)
    Construction Cost Index (1913 = 100) (1)         1614

    ENR Labor Cost Index (1949 = 100)  (1)             420

Effluent  treatment  or  control technology is grouped into internal and
external measures.  The internal  and  external  treatment  technologies
which  were  used to develop treatment costs are shown below.  It should
be noted that  the  treatment  systems  that  are  shown  below  may  be
different  than the recommended treatment systems in Sections IX, X, and
XI.  The reason for these differences is that costs were  developed  for
the  most expensive case (within practical limits) in order to determine
the impact upon the industry.


                                  175

-------
Available methods for reduction  of  pollutant  discharges  by  internal
measures  include  effective pulp washing, chemicals and fiber recovery
treatment and reuse of selected waste streams and collection  cf  spi!
and  prevention  cf  "accidental11  discharges.   Internal  measures  ai
essentially reduction of pollutant discharges at their origin and result
in recovery of chemicals, by-products, and in conservation of  heat -and
water.
1
The  treatment  unit  operation which is discussed is grouped into pre-,
primary, secondary and tertiary   treatment  and  sludge  dewatering  and
disposal.

Pretreatment  includes   those  processes  which  are used as required to
prepare the effluent  for the subsequent treatment steps.

Primary treatment is  designed  to  remove suspended solids and is  usually
the first major external treatment  step.

The primary purpose of secondary  treatment is to remove soluble EOE5.

The tertiary treatment steps are  designed to remove suspended solids and
BOD5  to  degrees which  are not obtainable through primary and secondary
treatment processes,  or  to remove substances which are refractory to the
primary and secondary treatment steps.

The costs of the effluent treatment and resulting  pollutant  reductions
are  shown  in Tables 39, 40,  41, 42, and 43 for unbleached kraft, NSS
sodium base, NSSC-ammonia base, unbleached kraft-NSSC  (cross  recover
and paperboard from waste paper subcategories , respectively.


                                     T§£ i>Q glogy
                            Internal  Measures

The  internal  measures  can  be summarized  as  follows:

     907  metric  tons/day (mtpd)  (1000 short  tons  per day-tpd) unbleached
     kraft  linerboard mill  and 907  mtpd kraft  - NSSC mill
     -addition of  spill collection  provisions  for chemicals and  fibers
     -installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
      all paper  machines
     -filtering  and reuse of press  waters

     907  mtpd  (1000 tpd)  paperboard from  waste paper mill
     -land  disposal of  junk materials
     -installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
      paper machines
     -filtering  and reuse of press  water
                                   176

-------
                                                Table 39

                             Effluent Treatment Cost  and  Effluent  Quality
                      for 907 mtpd  (1000  tpd) Unbleached  Kraft  (linerboard  Mill)
a
b
c ,
d
None
I
0.
0.
0.
E
0.
0.
0.
T
0.
0.
0.
                               Pre
                        BPCTCA
                         BATEA
                                         NSPS
0.

0.
0.
2160
394
324
70
1820
480
254
226
3980
874
578
296
5397
1542
810
732
4873
1133
630
503
     kg/kkg (Pounds Per Ton)
TSS    35  (70)
BODS   25  (50)
Color
 3  (6)
12  (24)
     kiloliters/kkg (1000 gal/ton)

 ^    104  (25)            50   (12)

Data re in $1000's unless otherwise indicated.

I = Costs for Internal controls
E = Costs for External Controls
T = Sum of costs I and E.
                                 10270  6197
                                  2675  1739
                                  1440  1079
                                  1235   660
3.75
2.2
                                                46
(7.5)
(4.4)
                            (11)
8536
2437
1277
1160
14733
4176
2356
1820
NA
NA
NA
NA
10652
2892
1588
1304
10652
2892
1588
1304
                                                                         1.5   (3.0)
                                                                         1.37  (2.75)
                                                                        10     (20)
                      37.5  (9)
 1.5
 1.37
10
(3.0)
(2.75)
(20)
                                      37.5  (9)
                                                       a =  Investment  cost
                                                       b =  Total annual  cost  (sum  of  c  and  d)
                                                       c =  Interest  cost  plus  Depreciation  cost
                                                            at  15% per  year.
                                                       d =  Operating and  Maintenance  cost  (including
                                                            energy and  power)  per year.

-------
                                                 Table
                                   Effluent Treatment  Cost  and Quality
                                  for 227 mtpd  (250  tpd)  NSSC  - NA Mill
00
None
I
a 0.
b 0.
c 0.
d 0.
kg/kkg
TSS
BODS
Color
E
0.
0.
0.
0.
T
0.
0.
0.
0.
I
1785
744
268
476
Pre
E
602
171
81
90

T I
2387 2350
915 869
349 352
566 517
BPCTCA
E T I
1138 3488 2670
325 1194 964
145 497 401
180 697 563
BATEA
E
2038
409
306
103

T
4708
1372
706
666
(Ibs/ton)
37
175
kiloliters/kkg
.5
(75)
(350)

20 (40)
45 (90)
5.0 (10)
3.25(6.5)
2
1
75%
(4)
.5(3)
Removal
(1000 gal/ ton)
NSPS
I
NA
NA
NA
NA

E
1592
413
239
174
2 (4)
1.5(3)
T
1592
413
239
174

               62.5  (15)
50 (12)
41.7 (10)
20.8(5)
20.8(5)

-------
                                            Table

                               Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality
                               for 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC NH3 Mill
None
I E T I
a -
b -
c - - - ,
d - -
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
TSS
BODS
Color
Pre
E T I
0
0
0
0

5
5.25
BPCTCA
E
1406
375
184
191

(10)
(10.5)
T
1406
375
184
191



I
221
95
49
46

2 (4)
3.5 (7)
BATEA
E
1975
561
280
281



T
2196
656
329
327



75% removal
I
NA
NA
NA
NA
E
1954
528
284
244
T
1954
528
284
244
                                                                                 2    (4)
                                                                                 3.5  (7)
   kiloliters/kkg  (1000 gal/ton)
V£>
                                     33
(8)
25
(6)
25   (6)

-------
                                 Table  42
              Effluent Treatment Cost and Effluent  Quality
                for 907 mtpd  (1000 tpd) Kraft  - NSSC  Mill

I
a 0.
b 0.
c 0.
d 0.

TSS
BODS
Color
None
E
0.
0.
0.
0.
kg/kkg




T

I
0. 2501
0.
0.
0.
440
360
80
Pre
E

T I
1460 3961 5229
400
190
210
880 1888
550 1193
290 695
BPCTCA
E T I
3668 8897 6269
934 2822 2067
504 1697 1432
430 1125 635
BATEA
E
8232
2401
1263
1138
T
14501
4468
2695
1773
(Ibs/ton)
35 (70)
30 (60)
—
kiloliters/kkg



(1000
3.5
24.5

gal/ton)
(7)
(49)
—

5.3 (10.6)
3.05(6.1)
—

2
1
10

.1 (4.2)
.5 (3.0)
(20)

NSPS
I
NA
NA
NA
NA



E
9864
2848
1514
1334
2.1
1.5
10
T
9864
2848
1514
1334
(4.2)
(3.0)
(20)
92 (22)           75  (18)
54  (13)
33 (8)
33 (8)

-------
                                                 Table 43
oo
                                  Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality
                            for 91 mtpd (100 tpd)  Paperboard from Waste Paper
None
I E
a 0. 0.
b 0. 0.
c 0. 0.
d 0. 0.

T
0.
0.
0.
0.

I
105
29
15
14
Pre
E
314
76
42
34

T I
419 422
105 104
57 63
48 41
BPCTCA
E T I
561 983 422
155 259 104
74 137 63
81 122 41
BATEA
E T I
801 1223 NA
190 294 NA
115 173 NA
75 116 NA
NSPS
E
415
103
57
46

T
415
103
57
46
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
TSS
BODS
40 (80)
35 (70)
kiloliters/kkg (1000




4 (8)
15 (30)
1.5 (3.0)
1.25 (2.5)
0.6 (1.2)
0.65 (1.3)
0.6
0.65
(1.2)
(1.3)
gal/ton)
                50 (12)
25 (6)
12.5  (3)
8.3  (2)
8.3  (2)
   Note:   In going from *)  to **)  practical considerations dictate that the internal
          investment be made at BPCTCA.   Therefore although a decrease in internal water
          use is expected between  BPCTCA and BATEA, the total required investment is given
          in BPCTCA.

-------
    227 mtpd  (250 tpd) NSSC - Na mill

    -addition of liquor recovery system
    -installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
     paper machines
    -filtering and reuse of press water

                           External Treatment

For  all  case mills the liquid external treatment consists of raw waste
screening ty tar screens, primary treatment  by  mechanical  clarifiers,
foam  control,  effluent  monitoring  and automatic sampling and outfall
system by diffuser.

The screenings are assumed burned in bark burners in case of  the  kraft
linerboard  mill,  the  kraft  -  NSSC mill and the NSSC - Na nd.11.  The
screenings are assumed sanitary landfilled in case of  the  waste  paper
and the building paper mills.

The  sludge  is dewatered by vacuum filter and sludge press and sanitary
landfilled for kraft linerboard and kraft - NSSC mills, while the sludge
is dewatered by vacuum filters and sanitary  landfilled  for  the  waste
paper board mill and the NSSC - Na mill.

EPCTCA_Technglogy__

Internal Measures

The  internal  measures  to bring the base mills up to BPCTCA technology
consist of the additions already made plus the following:

    907 mtpd  (1000 tpd) unbleached kraft linerboard mill  and  907  mtpd
    (1000 tpd) kraft - NSSC mill

    -pressure screening  (hot-stock)
    -segregation and reuse of white waters
    -collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
    -installation of savealls, and
    -gland water reduction

    907  mtpd (1000 tpd) waste paper board mill, 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC
    - Na base mill and 227 mtpd  (250 tpd) NSSC - NH3 base mill

    -segregation and reuse of white waters
    -collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
    -installation of savealls, and
    -gland water reduction
                                  182

-------
                           External Measures

 Screening, primary, and secondary treatment are  provided  to   tctal   ir.ill
 efifluents  for all case mills, where  the  screening  is  by  bar  screens and
 primary sedimentation  in mechanical clarifiers   as   was   used  when  the
 upgrading was done in  the  previous upgrading  step.

 Secondary  treatment   is   provided  by nutrient  addition,  aerated lagoon
 treatment and biological solids  separation in mechanical  clarifiers.  An
 emergency spill basin  is installed  prior to the   secondary  treatment
 step.

 Foam   control,  flow   monitoring  and sampling and  outfall system are as
 used under previous upgrading  step.

 The solids dewatering  and  disposal process is the same as the  one   used
 in the previous upgrading  step.


                             BATE A_Tecbno logy.

 Internal Measures

 The  internal  measures  to  bring the base mills up to EATEA consist of
 BPCTCA installations plus  the  following additions:
W07
mtpd (1000 tpd) unbleached kraft linerboard  mill,  907  mtpd   (1000
tpd)   kraft  - NSSC 227 mtpd  (250 tpd) NSSC - Na base mill, and 227
tpd (250 tpd)  NSSC - NH3 base mill
     -expanded  process  water  reuse

     -separation  of  cooling water and  recovery of  heat

 91  mtpd  (1000  tpd)  paperboard  from wastepaper mill

     -no  additional  installations beyond  those selected  to  bring these
      mills  up  to EPCTCA.


                           External Measures

 All mill effluents  are screened by bar   screens   and are   subjected  to
 primary    solids  separation  in  mechanical   clarifiers   and  secondary
 treatment by nutrient  addition, activated  sludge  treatment and secondary
 solids separation in mechanical clarifiers.   Emergency  spill  basin  is
 provided prior to the  secondary treatment  step.
                                   183

-------
The  907  mtpd   (1000 tpd) kraft linerboard mill, and the 907 mtpd (1000
tpd)   kraft  -  NSSC  mill  effluents  receive  color  removal  by
treatment.   The  227 mtpd  (250 tpd) NSSC - sodium base and amironia
mills have reverse osmosis systems for color removal.

All mill effluents receive  further  solids  reduction  by  mixed  media
filtration.

All  mill  effluents  receive  foam  control  treatment,  monitoring and
automatic sampling  prior  to  entering  the  receiving  waters  through
diffusers.

Screenings  from the linerboard mill and the kraft - NSSC mill effluents
are assumed burned in sludge incinerators, and screenings from the  NSSC
   Na  and  NSSC  -  NH3  base mills are assumed burned in existing bark
boilers.

Primary sludges and waste activated  sludge  are  thickened  in  gravity
sludge  thickeners,  and  dewatered  mechanically  by vacuum filters and
presses prior to ultimate disposal.

Ultimate sludge disposal is for the kraft linerboard nrdll and the  kraft
   NSSC  mill  by  incineration,  and  for  the  other mills by sanitary
landfilling.


                            NSPS Technology
                           Internal Measures


Internal measures are not costed because such measures are  included  in
the design of new mills.


                           External Measures

All  mill  effluents  are screened, receive primary solids separation in
mechanical clarifiers, and secondary   treatment  by  nutrient  addition,
activated sludge treatment and secondary solids separation by mechanical
clarifiers.   Emergency  spill basins  are provided ahead of the secondary
treatment step.

All effluents receive foam control, monitoring  and  automatic  sampling
prior to outfall by diffusers.
                                   184

-------
The  907  MTPD  (1000  tpd)   unbleached  kraft  and  kraft - NSSC  (cross
 ecovery)  mill effluents receive color removal by lime treatment.
i
 l"l mill effluents receive  further  solids  reduction  by  mixed  media
filtration.
  *
Screenings  from  the  kraft linerboard mill, the kraft - NSSC mill, the
NSSC - Na and the NSSC - NH3 mills are assumed burned in  existing  bark
burners.   The  screenings  from  the  other  mills  are  disposed of by
sanitary landfilling.

Primary sludge and wasted activated  sludge  are  thickened  in  gravity
thickeners prior to mechanical dewatering by vacuum filters and presses.

Sludges  frcm  the  kraft  linerboard mill and the kraft - NSSC mill are
incinerated, while all other sludges are disposed of by  sanitary  land-
filling.


ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

As previously stated, the costs shown above do not include energy costs.
Specific  energy  and  power  prices  have  been  developed based on the
following:

    External treatment

        power cost = 1.12/KWH
        fuel price = $0.2U/million Kg Cal  ($0.95/million BTU)

    Internal treatment

        steam = $1.86/metric ton  ($2.05/short ton)
        power = 0.62/KWH

The lower power unit price used for internal treatment takes  into  con-
sideration  the  lower  cost cf power generated by the mill, while pcwer
from external sources is assumed for external treatment.

Power costs are reported on Table 4U as annual expenditures.

Energy requirements for application of BPCTCA, BATEA, and NSPS are shewn
in Table 45.
                                  185

-------
Type of Mill
     TABLE 44

POWER COSTS, $1000
    Technology Level
Unbleached Kraft
907 mtpd  (1000 tpd)

NSSC-Sodiuir Base
227 mtpd  (250 tpd)

NSSC-Ammonia Ease
227 mtpd  (250 tpd)

Kraft-NSSC
907 mtpd  (1000)

Paperboard from waste  paper
91 mtpd  (100 tpd)
    BPCTCA

      248


      121


       73.


      232
BATEA

 499
NSPS (2)

 609
147
88(1)
503
42
65
91(1)
509
27
(1) Costs for removal  of nitrogen are not included because of lack cf
    sufficient data.

(2) Costs for NSPS treatment and control technology do not include
    expenditures necessary  for  internal mill improvements.  Sufficient
    data was not available  to establish this portion of the costs.
                                   186

-------
Unbleached  Kraft
907 mtpd  (1000 :tpd)

NSSC-Sodium Base
117 mtpd  (250 tpd)

NSSC-Airanonia Base
117 mtpd  (250 tpd)

Kraft-NSSC
907 mtpd  (1000  tpd)

Paperboard
91 mtpd  (100 tpd)
                                 TABLE  45

                           ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

                                    BPCTCA
                                  kwh   Jkwhl
                                  kkg    (ton)
                  EATEA
 75
(68)
 87
                         NSPS
kwh
kkg
127
(ton)
(115)
kwh
kkg
153
(ton)
(139)
146   (132)    171    (155)     74     (67)
(79)    104     (94)    104     (94)
 69     (63)    128    (116)    125    (113)
154   (140)    148    (134)     92
                             (83)
                                    187

-------
NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Air gollution_Potential

There are several potential air pollution problems associated  with  the
external treatment of effluents from mills in each of the subcategories.

When properly designed and operated, primary and biological treatment do
not  produce  odors  associated  with anaerobic decomposition.  However,
biological treatment of unbleached kraft  and  NSSC  waste  waters  does
result  in  very localized odors, especially when mechanical aeration is
employed.  The odor is characterized as wood extractives.

There are air pollution problems associated with the treatment of wastes
in the ammonia base NSSC subcategory.  These take twc forms.   First  is
the odor of ammonia arising from the treatment itself.  While ammonia is
not present in high concentrations, the odors can te objectionable under
low-wind   conditions  close  to  the  treatment  site.   Secondly,  the
synergistic combination of gaseous ammonia with other  elements  in  the
atmosphere,  such as sulfur dioxide, is believed to te responsible fcr a
localized  atmospheric   haze   under   certain   conditions.    Similar
combinations  may  be responsible for observed damage to new growth ends
of pine trees.

Odors can arise from improper land  disposal  of  liquid  sludges  as
result  of  their  anaerobic decomposition.  These derive primarily frc
organic acids and hydrogen sulfide produced  on  reduction  of  sulfatel
dissolved  in  the  water  content  of the sludges.  Dewatering prior to
disposal on the land inhibits such decomposition, thus  reducing  odors.
The use of sanitary landfill practices will also mitigate odor probleirs.

Presently  sludge lagooning is largely limited to unbleached kraft mills
on large sites.  The low level of odor produced is generally ccnfined to
company property.  The practice of decanting free water from lagoons and
returning it to the treatment system has  noticeably  reduced  the  odor
level in their immediate environs.

Incineration  of  sludges  produced  in the effluent treatment processes
can, without appropriate control equipment, result in the  discharge  of
particulates  to  the atmosphere.  However, emission control devices are
available tc meet state regulatory requirements in most instances.   In-
cinerators  are either sold with integral emission ccntrol appliances or
are equipped with them on  installation.   Gaseous  pollutant  emissions
from such incinerators are negligible.

In-mill  controls which effect a reduction in fiber and additive losses,
such as save-alls, recycling of process waters, and removal of dregs and
grits in the unbleached kraft recovery process, are not producers of air


                                  188

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 pollution.   On  the  other  hand,  recovery   of  cooking  chemicals   in   the
   Kaft   process, which,  in addition  to  its principal  function  cf  conserv-
   g  expensive raw materials,  also  serves  to reduce chemical waste  lead,
   oduces  odorous sulfur  compounds.  When these escape the recovery  fur-
 nace to the  atmosphere, they  become the major air pollution problems  cf
 the  mill.  These emissions and  measures to control them are described in
 a  report  prepared  for   an  EPA predecessor agency  entitled  "Ccntrol of
 Atmospheric  Emissions in  the  Wood  Pulping Industry11  (101).


       Potential
 There  are  no  official  records  of  public  noise  problems  arising  from  the
 operation   of  effluent   treatment  works by the subject subcategcries of
 mills.   However,  based on many years  of  contractor  association  with  in-
 dustry  operations,  it  can be  stated that public complaints  engendered by
 such   noise  are  very  infrequent.   This  is due in all probability  to  the
 remote  location of  most  large  treatment  works  or to their   confinement,
 in  some  instances, to  manufacturing or utility areas.   Also,  the noise
 level  of most of  the devices  employed for treatment is   generally   lower
 than that  cf  some manufacturing machinery.

 The sources of noise are for  the  most part air compressors  or irechanical
 surface aerators supplying air to  treatment processes,  vacuum  pumps  and
 centrifuges involved in   sludge  dewatering,  and   fans  serving   sludge
 incinerators.   With the  exception of  surface aerators,  these devices  are
 most frequently operated in buildings which serve to muffle their  noise.
I
 mall surface aerators are generally found in small mills which,are more
likely to be located closer to habitation.  Units of this size, particu-
larly  those  not  driven through gear boxes, produce little noise.  The
problem of noise  emanating  from  gear  boxes  is  the  subject  of  an
extensive   investigation   by   the  Philadelphia  Gear  Company  which
manufactures many of these units.  It is  anticipated  that  this  study
will lead to a reduction in noise from these sources.  Noise produced by
the  large  aerator  units which are usually operated away froir built-up
areas is neither high-level nor far-carrying.

It can be concluded that noise produced by equipment used  for  treating
pulp  and  paper mill effluent is not a major public problem at present.
Efforts underway to reduce the noise level of  mechanical  equipment  in
general,  stimulated  by  industrial  health  protection  programs, will
assist in preventing it from becoming one.
                                   189

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      Wast €s_and_Their_Dis]gc sal

In addition to sludges produced by  effluent  treatment,  the  following
wastes  are  or can be produced at mills in the sutcategories covered 'by'
this survey:

UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS
(and Kraft-NSSC)

  Bark
  Rejects and Screenings
  Grits and Dregs
  Log wash Water
  Ash
  Waste Paper
  Garbage
  Trash


NSSC_MILLS

  Bark
  Rejects and Screenings
  Chemical Ash
  Ash
  Waste Paper
  Garbage
  Trash


PAPERBOARE^FROM^WASTE PAPER MILLS

  Trash
  Waste Paper
  Fly Ash
  Garbage


Linerboard mills which bark rcundwood on the premises produce sufficient
bark to fire a boiler for steam generation so the necessity for its dis-
posal is eliminated.  Others receive their wood supply in  the  form  of
chips  which  are  a  byproduct  of lumbering operations, and no bark is
involved.

Rejects and screenings from linerboard  mills  are  either  reprocessed,
burned  in  incinerators  or in the bark-fired bcilers or disposed of by
land fill.  The latter procedure represents no problem for most of these
mills because of the large mill  sites  containing  considerable  usable
land.   Grits  and  dregs  from  the causticizing system of the recovery
plant are inorganic solids which are generally water carried tc  a  land


                                  190

-------
disposal  site.   This  is  facilitated  by  their  small quantity which
  Pounts to about 22.5 kilograms per metric ton (45 pcunds per short ten)
   pulp produced.

Ash from bark- and coal-fired boilers and screening  rejects  are  as  a
rule discharged hydraulically to ash ponds.  There the solids settle and
compact and the clear supernatant water is discharged to the itiill efflu-
ent system.  In some instances, ash and rejects are hauled to a disposal
area  away  from  the mill site.  Viet handling of these materials avoids
their being blown into the atmosphere.

Overflow from log washing operations which contains silt and  fine  bark
particles generally joins the stream carrying ash from the irill.

Waste  paper,  garbage,  and  trash attendant to production or accessory
operations and activities are either incinerated on the site  cr  hauled
away for disposal by contractors engaged in this business.

NSSC  corrugating board mills generate most of the kinds of solid wastes
created at linerboard mills and handle them in a  similar  manner.   One
exception  is  that  most of these mills are relatively small operations
which do not produce enough bark  to  justify  a  steam-generating  bark
boiler.   The  bark  is usually disposed of in incinerators designed for
this purpose.

At NSSC mills where spent liquor is burned in fluidized bed  units,  ash
consisting  of  a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate is pro-
  kced.  This is usually sold to kraft mills to  be  used  as  a  make-up
  emical replacing salt cake in the recovery system.

At  paperboard  from  waste  paper  mills, trash, such as rags, wire and
other metals, glass, and plastics, is removed in the breaker beater  and
stock  cleaning  operations.  This material, and grit from the rifflers,
is disposed of by land fill on the mill premises or hauled to a suitable
location for disposal in this manner.

The remaining solids wastes such as ash, waste paper, etc., are  handled
as described above.

Particulate  emissions  from incineration of bark and other solid wastes
must  be  controlled  by  effective  devices  such  as  bag  filters  or
scrubbers.

Research  has  recently  been conducted on solid wastes generated in the
pulp and paper industry and their disposal for  EPA1s  Office  of  Solid
Waste Management Programs  (EPA Contract No. 68-03-0207).
                                  191

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By-product^gecoyery

The  unbleached  kraft  process is the only subject subcategory in
significant quantities of byproducts are recovered.  The two major
able byproducts of this process are turpentine and tall oil, both  in  a
crude form which is usually refined elsewhere.

Digester  relief  gases are the source of crude sulfate turpentine.  The
gases are condensed and the crude oil fractions decanted from the  water
fraction.  The turpentine requires distillation to remove the objection-
able  odcr  of the sulfur compounds present.  Generally crude turpentine
is shipped from the mills fcr rectification by chemical plants.

Turpentine yields vary with wood specie  (102)  and cooking variables.   A
1969 study (103) reported yields ranging from 6.3-17.9 liters per metric
ton  (1.5-4.3 gallons per short ton) of pulp;  its market value was esti-
mated at 180-362/metric ton  (202-40tf/short ton); and  its  recovery  was
calculated  to  represent  approximately  one  percent diminution of the
pollution lead in terms of BOD5.  Its removal from the mill effluent  is
actually cf much greater significance since it has a high tcxicity level
for  aquatic life.  It is used primarily in paint thinners and the manu-
facture of insecticides.

A light fraction of the distilled turpentine contains  dimethyl  sulfide
which  can  be removed and converted to dimethyl sulfoxide, an excellent
industrial solvent (13).

Tall oil components are recovered from kraft  black  liquor  at  varioud
points  in the chemical recovery system in the form of sodium soap skim"
mings.  These are acidified with sulfuric acid to produce tall  oil  and
the spent acid which consists primarily of sodium sulfate is returned to
the black liquor as chemical make-up.  Tall oil consists of a mixture of
resin  and  fatty acids, and its derivatives are used to make adhesives,
emulsions, paints, disinfectants, and soaps (103).

Tall oil yield per metric ton of kraft peaked  in  1968  at  about  47.5
kilograms  per  metric ton  (95 pounds per short ton)  and has declined to
about 34 kilograms per metric ton  (78 pounds per  short  ton)  in  1973.
(104).   Normal  variations  occur depending on the fatty content of the
wood, skimmer efficiency, and other factors.  Efficiency of recovery now
averages about 75-80 percent  (105).

Fluctuations  in  price  also  occur  due  to  market  factors   and   a
considerable  range  may  be  found  in the literature.  The most recent
price quoted is $72.56 per metric ton ($80 per short ton), a 25  percent
increase  ever  the  past  five years (104).  The economic incentive for
increased soap recovery may expand the corollary  benefits  of  recovery
which have a direct bearing on raw waste load.
                                   192

-------
The presence cf soap in black liquor accelerates fouling of the evapcra-
      which in turn affects required heat differences.  This creates the
   essity for more frequent bcil-out during which liquor losses inevita-
    occur.  Frequent skimming of the weak liquor storage tanks is needed
in addition to evaporator skimming to prevent soap being pulled into the
evaporator feed during low liquor inventory.  The resultant foaming  can
create evaporator upset which will require boil-out to restore stability
(105).

Mill  practices  which  will permit more complete recovery cf turpentine
and tall oil are forecast.  For example, shorter  storage  of  chips  or
precooking  extraction would prevent the loss of turpentine and tall cil
by oxygenation prior to pulping.  Solvent extraction of  the  soap  from
black liqucr could improve recovery efficiencies.

On the other hand there are factors which will inhibit recovery of these
byproducts.  Increased use of continuous digesters will reduce the yield
of  turpentine thus creating a need for an economic method of turpentine
recovery from the black liquor in continuous processes.  Mixing pine and
hardwood black liquors reduces the recovery of  tall  oil  and  separate
liquor  tanks  will  be  required  (105) .  Use of more hardwood, sawirill
wastes, immature wood, and outside chip storage are other  adverse  fac-
tors  (10U) .

Production  of  other  byproducts,  such as methanol, acetic acid, tars,
etc., on a commercial scale is not yet economically feasible.   Effluent
limitations  and  standards are expected to stimulate increased research
   byproduct recovery in the next decade.
AvailabilitY_of_Egui,pjnent

Since 1966, when Federal water pollution control expenditures began,
various Federal and private organizations have  analyzed  the  projected
levels  of water pollution control activity and their economic impact on
the construction and equipment industries.  As a result, a  plethora  of
studies  has  been developed which is related to the levels of municipal
and industrial water pollution control construction and  the  respective
markets for waste water treatment equipment.  Less information is avail-
able  concerning the actual and anticipated levels of expenditure by any
specific industry.

In recent years, the trend in the waste  water  equipment  industry  has
seen  the  larger  firms acquiring smaller companies in order to broaden
their market coverage.

Figure 27 shows graphically past expenditures and projected future  out-
lays   for   the   construction  of  industrial  waste  water  treatment


                                  193

-------
facilities, as well  as  total  water  pollution  control  expenditures.
Obviously,  the  level  of  expenditures  by  industry is related to the-
Federal compliance schedule.  This will increase until  industry  is  ifl
compliance  with  Federal  standards.   Once  that  occurs, the level "o?
spending will return to a level commensurate with  the  construction  of
new facilities, replacement of existing facilities, and the construction
of advanced waste treatment facilities.

Figure  28  shows  past  expenditures for and projected future trends in
total sales of waste water treatment equipment and  the  dollar  amounts
attributable  to  industrial  and  municipal  sales.  This curve closely
follows the trend shown in Figure 28.
                                  194

-------
VO
Ln
                                                                                                           1*5 SO
                                                                                                           FIGURE 27

                                                                                                    TOTAL WATER POL

                                                                                                       CONTROL  £XPENDlTUeeS

-------
           900
VO
                                                                                                                  ISSO
                                                                                                                 FIGURE
                                                                                                        WASTEWAT&CZ. .
                                                                                                             EQUIPMENT

-------
The data in Figures 27 and 28  related  to  industrial  water  pollution
 xpenditures  include only those costs external to the industrial activ-
   .,  Internal  process  changes  made  to  accomplish  water  pollution
control are not included.

Recent  market  studies  have  projected  the total available production
capacity for water and waste water treatment equipment.   Most  of  them
have  indicated  that the level of sales is currently only 30-40 percent
of the total available plant capacity.  Several major manufacturers were
contacted to verify these figures and  indications  are  that  they  are
still  accurate.  A partial reason for this overcapacity is that the de-
mand for equipment has been lower than anticipated.  Production capacity
was increased assuming Federal expenditures in accord with funds author-
ized by Congress and conformance to compliance schedules.

For the immediate future, increased demands for  waste  water  treatment
equipment  can  be  absorbed  by  the  existing overcapacity.  Long term
requirements will probably necessitate expansion of production  capacity
in  various  product lines where the demand is expected to increase dra-
matically — specifically, advanced treatment systems and  waste  solids
handling equipment.

It  should also be noted that the capacity to produce waste water treat-
ment equipirent could be expanded significantly through the use of  inde-
pendent  metal  fabricators as subcontractors.  Even at the present time
independent fabricators are used by some  equipment  manufacturers  when
A?ork  loads  are heavy and excessive shipping costs make it desirable to
•se a fabricator close to the delivery site.

There appear to  be  no  substantial  geographical  limitations  to  the
distribution of waste water treatment equipment to industry.  In various
areas,  certain  suppliers  may be more successful than others; however,
this seems to  be  related  more  to  the  effectiveness  of  the  sales
activities  than  to as geographical limitation.  The use of independent
metal fabricators as subcontractors to  manufacture  certain  pieces  of
equipment further reduces geographical limitations.

Equipment  delivery  schedules may vary substantially depending upon the
manufacturer,  the  current  demand,  and  the  specific  equipment   in
question.  Obviously, the greater the demand or the more specialized the
equipment, the greater the delivery time.


Availabilityof^Cgnstructign^Mangower

After  consultation  with  the Associated General contractors of America
and other industry groups, it  is  concluded  that  sufficient  manpower
exists to construct any required treatment facilities.
                                  197

-------
This  conclusion has reportedly been substantiated by EPA in an indepen-
dent  study  although  there  is  still  seme  concern  about
problems.   The Bureau of Labor Statistics has been requested to
another study.


Constructicn_Cost_Index

The most detailed study and careful analysis of  cost  trends  in  prior
years  still  leave  much to te desired in predicting construction costs
through the next ten years.

During the years 1955 through 1965 there was  a  very  consistent  price
rise.   The  Engineering  News  Record  (ENR) Construction Cost Index in
January 1955 was 644.  With slight  deviations  from  a  straight  line,
costs  rose  at a steady rate to an index of 988 in December 1965.  This
represented an increased cost of 53.4 percent over an 11 year period  of
approximately five percent per year.

The first six months of 1966 saw an increase of 6.6 percent then leveled
off  abruptly  only  to  rise  sharply  again  in  1967 at a rate of 6.2
percent, then increasing to 9.4 percent in 1968.

The increase in costs continued to rise at about 10.5 percent  per  year
through 1970.  During 1971, construction costs rose at the unprecedented
rate of 15.7 percent primarily due to larger increases in labor rates.

With  the  application  of  Federal wage and price controls in 1972,
rate of increase dropped to 8.7 percent.  The first three months of
saw some escalation of costs due to  allowable  materials  price  gains.
(106)  EPA  determined the increase in Treatment Plant Construction Cost
during this period to be 3.1 percent.  This compares v;ith a rise of only
0.9 percent during the previous three months.

The opinion of some officials of the Associated General  Contractors  is
that  the rate of cost increase for general construction work, including
waste water treatment and industrial  construction,  should  average  no
more  than  five  to  six percent over the next several years.  This is,
therefore, the basis used for extension of the ENR  Index  curve  at  an
annual  six  percent  increase  for  construction costs through the year
1983.  This is shown in Figure  29.


£and_Rec[uirements

Land requirements for a number of external treatment systems  have  been
evaluated  and  are  shown in Figure 30 for a range of plant sizes.  In-
cineration or off-site disposal of dewatered sludge  has  been  assumed.
Should  sludge  lagoons  be  used  on  site,  additional  land  would be
required.


                                  198

-------
vo
       X
       lU
       o
       s
       u
            5000	
            ZUOO
ZiOO
                                                                                                                             \983

                                                                     X" JUL.Y i«5-73
                                                                    /    1^00 ±
            1800
            I40O
            IOOO
                I9S5
                                  I960
                                                                                                        weo
                                                                                                        1983
                                                               YEAR
                                                                                                                      PldURE  29

                                                                                                             ENGINEERING, Nt^S  RECORD

                                                                                                             CONSTRUCTION COST INDfcX

-------
(f)
ID
tt
U
4
in
tt
    IOOO
     500
  NATURAL
  STABILIZATION
 STABILIZATION
                                        ACTIVATED  SLU DG»&
                            200
       FIGUR6   30
LAND  REQUIRED  FOR
'WASTEWATER, TREATMENT

-------
Time_Reguired_tQ_Cgnstruct^Treatment Facilities

  te time required to construct treatment facilities has been  determined
  r a range of plant sizes and for two different project contract possi-
bilities.    The treatment sizes evaluated were under 18.9 million liters
per day - MLD (5 MGD) ,  18.9 - 37.8 MLD (5-10 MGD) , and over 37.8 iMLD  (10
MGD).  The contract bases evaluated were  1)  separate  engineering  and
construction  and 2) turnkey performance.  The components considered for
both  approaches  included   preliminary   engineering,   final   design
engineering, bid and construction award, and construction.

It  is  concluded  from  reviewing  the  data shown in Figure 31 that it
should be possible in all cases to meet the implementation  requirements
of the July 1977 deadlines.
                                  201

-------
O
NJ


MGO
UMDER 5
CONV.
UNDER 5
TURNKEY
5-10
CONV
5-10
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OVER IO
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PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING
FINAL DESIGN ENGINEERING FIGURE 31
BID AND CONSTRUCTION AWARD
TIME REQUIRED TO
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCT WASTEWATER £AC»V.rt\e^
CONVEMTIOWAL < TURKJKEY COKJTI^fci


-------
                               SECTION IX

                        BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
                     TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE


INTRODUCTION

The  effluent  limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977 are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through  the  appli-
cation  of  the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available.
Best Practicable Control Technology  Currently  Available  is  generally
based  upon  the  average  of the best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages, and unit processes within the  industrial  subcate-
gory.

Consideration must also be given to:

    a.  the total cost of application of technology in relation to the
        effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such applica-
         tion;

    b.  the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;

    c.  the process employed;

    d.  the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
        control techniques;

    e.  process changes;

    f.  non-water quality environmental impact (including energy re-
        quirements) .

Also, Best Practicable control Technology Currently Available emphasizes
treatment  facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technologies within the process itself when the  latter  are
considered to be normal practice within an industry.

A  further consideration is the degree of economic feasibility and engi-
neering reliability which must be established for the technology  to  be
"currently  available."   As  a  result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering and economic practicability of  the  technology  at  the
time  of commencement of construction or installation of the control fa-
cilities.
                                  204

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EFFLUENT FEDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE  APPLICATION_OF  BEST
  RACTIABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE

  sed upon the information contained in Sections III  through VIII and in
the Appendices in this report, a determination  has  been   made  that  the
point  source  discharge  guidelines  for   each identified  pollutant, as
shown in Table 46, can be obtained through the  application  of  the  best
practicable pollution control technology currently  available.


                                Table 46

           Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations  Guidelines

                       Values in kg/kkg  (1bs/ton)

                           EOD5                   TSS
                   30_Day.	Daily._Max       30_Day.	Daily Max
Unbleached Kraft    2.2  (4.4)   4.0  (8.0)     4.6  (9.2)   11.1  (22.2)

NSSC-Ammonia        5.25(10.5)  8.75(17.5)    5.0  (10.0)   8.5  (17.0)

NSSC-Sodium         3.25  (6.5)  4.5   (9.0)    5.0(10.0)    8.5  (17.0)

Unbleached
   Kraft-NSSC       3.05  (6.1)  6.35  (12.7)   5.3  (10.6)  12.5  (25.0)
I
  perboard from
Waste Paper        1.25  (2.5) 2.2  (4.4)    1.5  (3.0)   2.8  (5.6)

   pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0


The  maximum  average  of  daily  values  for any thirty consecutive  day
period should not exceed the  30  day  effluent  limitations  guidelines
shown  above.   The  maximum for any one day should net exceed the daily
maximum effluent limitations guidelines as shown above.  The  guidelines
shown  above  are in kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production
(pounds of pollutant per short ton  of  production).   Effluents  shculd
always be within the pH range of 6.0 to 9.0.

The  above  TSS  guidelines  are  for  TSS  as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard Methods   for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (13th Edition) (1).


Production,  in air-dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production (off-the-machine) sustained for seven  consecutive  operating
days of normal production.


                                  205

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Hydraulic^Debarking Variance

A  variance  is  allowed  for mills practicing hydraulic debarking,  Tfl
guidelines for these mills may  be  up  to  0.05  kg/kkg  (0.1  Ibs/ton)
greater than the above guidelines for BOD5 and TSS.

Temperature Variance

Additional  allocations  equal  to the above guidelines, (excluding pH) ,
are allowed during periods when the waste water temperature  within  the
treatment  system  is  35  degrees  F  or lower.  If 35 degrees F is the
maximum temperature which occurs in the waste water within the treatment
system for one day or for 30 consecutive days,  the  allocation  may  be
applied   to   the   daily   maximum  and  30  day  maximum  guidelines,
respectively.


IDENTIFICATION  OF  BEST  PRACTICABLE   CONTROL   TECHNOLOGY   CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE

Best practicable pollution control technology currently available is the
same  for all subject subcategories with regard to external treatment of
industrial  wastes.   However,  currently   available   and   applicable
technology  varies  between subcategories for internal control measures.
The following is a  discussion  of  both  these  internal  and  external
controls.
Internal_Contrgl

                            Unbleached_Kraft

    a.  Hot Stock Screening

         As explained in Section VII, this is a process modification in
        which the pulp is passed through a fibrilizer to fractionate
        knots and then through a hot stock screen to remove shives.
        This sequence avoids the need for dilution of the pulp for
        screening and subsequent decker sewer losses.
        This should be accomplished without increasing black
        liquor concentrations in the white water system.

    b.  Spill and Evaporator Boil-Out Storage

        Evaporators are periodically "boiled out" to restore efficient
        operation.  The material flushed can be stored in a tark to be
        slowly returned to the process upon resumption of operation.
        Storage facilities can also be supplied to contain weak black
        liquor, strong black liquor, and recovery plant chemicals and
        liquors during process upsets for similar return to the system.
                                   206

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                       NSSC - Sodium Base
a.  Spent Liquor Disposal

    Spent liquor disposal can be accomplished ty partial evaporation fol
    lowed by incineration in a fluidized bed reactor or other coin-
    parable unit.

                      IJSi^C-,;- Ammonia=Base


a.  Non-Polluting Liquor Disposal

    If there are operating problems in ammonia liquor incineration,
    alternate methods for non-polluting disposal such as
    sale as a byproduct must be employed.

                 Kraft^-_NSSC (grosser ecoyervi

a.  Hot Stock Screening

    As explained in Section VII, this is a process modification in
    which the pulp is passed through a fibrilizer to fractionate
    knots and then through a hot stock screen to remove shives.
    This sequence avoids the need for dilution of the pulp for
    screening and subsequent decker sewer losses.
    This should be accomplished without increasing black liquor
    concentrations in the white water system.

b.  Spill and Evaporator Boil-Out Storage

    Evaporators are periodically "boiled out" to restore efficient
    operation.  The material flushed can be stored in a tank to be
    slowly returned to the process upon resumption of operation.
    Storage facilities can also be supplied to contain weak black
    liquor, strong black liquor, and recovery plant chemicals and
    liquors during process upsets for similar return to the system.


                  Paperbgard from Waste Paper

a.  Land Disposal of Junk Materials

    Extraneous matter found in waste paper, such as metals, plas-
    tics, and rags, should be efficiently removed from the process
    and disposed of on the land.
                              207

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               Pager_Machines	(All sufccateggries^

a.  Water Showers

    Fresh water showers used to clean wire, felt, and other machine
    elements (of both fourdrinier and cylinder machines)  should be
    low-volume and high-pressure; white water showers should be low
    pressure, high-volume, and self-cleaning.

b.  Segregation of White Water Systems

    The segregation of white water systems should be designed to per
    mit maximum reuse within the stock preparation/machine systems
    and in the pulp mill and to permit only low fiber content white
    water to enter the sewer.

c.  Press Water Filtering

    A vibrating or centrifugal screen should be employed tc remove
    felt hairs prior to press water reuse.

d.  Collection System for Vacuum Pulp Seal Water

    Seal water should be collected for partial reuse and/or cascade
    to or from other water users.

e.  Save-all with Associated Equipment

    An effective save-all should be employed to recover fibrous and
    other suspended material which escapes from the paper machine.

f.  Gland Water Reduction

    Flow control of individual seal water lines tc equipment packing
    glands, or equivalent measures, should be exercised.
                              208

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eternal^ Treatment

   a.   Suspended solids  Reduction

       This  step involves  removal  of  suspended  solids from the
       raw waste stream.   It  can incorporate  1) an  earthen
       stilling basin;   2)  mechanical  clarification and  sludge removal;
       3)  and/or  dissolved air flotation.  Solids  dewatering screens
       can also be incorporated prior to  solids settling  as  a means  of
       removing coarse  solids.


   b.   BOD5  Reduction

       The treatment system for reduction of  BOD5 may be  either
       one or  two  stage  biological treatment.   The  treatment system
       may consist of the  activated sludge  process  (AS) ,  aerated
       basins  (ASB), and/or storage oxidation ponds (SO).

   c.   Biological  Solids Removal

       The treatment system should provide  for  removal  of biological
       solids  by either  mechanical clarifiers,  stilling ponds  (or a
       SO following ASB  or AS), or a  quiescent  zone in  an ASE which  is
       beyond  the  influence of the aeration equipment.

   d.   Sludge  Disposal

       When  compatible  with ether  unit  processes, sludge  disposal can
       often be carried  out in a stilling pond. However, this neces-
       sitates periodic  dredging,  removal,  and  disposal of  solids.
       Where activated  sludge and  mechanical  clarification  are utilized,
       ultimate sludge  disposal can be  accomplished through  sludge
       thickening  by vacuum filtration  or centrifugation, followed by
       sludge  dewatering and  ultimate solids  disposal.   Disposal  can be
       accomplished by  either sanitary  landfilling  or incineration.
       Combustion  can be carried either in  a  sludge incinerator,  the
       power boiler, or  the bark boiler in  unbleached kraft  pulp  mill
       operations.
                                 209

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RATIONALE  FOR  THE  SELECTION  OF  BEST  PRACTICABLE  POLLUTICN CONTRO
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE

Age_and Size of Equipment and Facilities

There is a wide range,  in both size and age, among mills in the subcate-
gories studied.  However, internal operations of most older  mills  have
been  upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very efficient
ly.  The technology for upgrading of older mills  is  well  established,
and  does  not  vary significantly from mill to mill within a given sub-
category.  Studies have also shown that waste  treatment  plant  perfor-
mance does not relate to mill size.  Most mills within a subcategory are
constructed  on  a  "modular"  concept,  where  key process elements are
duplicated as mill size expands,  consequently, there is no  significant
variation  in  either   the  waste  water characteristics or in the waste
water loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in  pounds  per  short
ton of product), between mills of varying sizes.


Process Change

Application  of  best   technology  currently  available does net require
major changes in existing industrial  processes  for  the  subcategories
studied.   Incorporation of additional systems, treatment processes, and
control measures can be accomplished in most cases  through  changes  in
piping,  and  through   design modifications to existing equipment.  Such
alterations can be carried out on all mills within a given subcategory.

The technology to achieve these effluent limitations is practiced within
the subcategories under study.  The concepts are proven,  available  for
implementation,  and  applicable  to  the wastes in question.  The waste
treatment techniques are also broadly applied within many  other  indus-
tries.   The technology required will necessitate improved monitoring of
waste discharges and of waste treatment components on the part  of  ir.any
mills,  as well as more extensive training of personnel in operation and
maintenance of waste treatment facilities.   However,  these  procedures
are  currently  practiced  in some mills and are common practice in many
other industries.


Ngprwater Quality^Environmental Impact

Application of the activated sludge waste  treatment  process  offers  a
potential  for  adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated.  However,  proper selection  and  operation  of  particulate
emission  control  equipment can minimize this impact.  Dredged or dewa-
tered sludges disposed  of on land can present  an  odor  problem  unless
sanitary landfilling techniques are properly instituted.
                                   210

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The  technology  cited will not create any significant increase in noise
 Revels beyond those  observed  in  well  designed  municipal  wastewater
 reatment  systems  which  currently  are  being approved by the Federal
government for construction in populated areas.  Further,  no  hazardous
chemicals are required as part of this technology.

The  greatest  proportion of energy consumed will be for pumping and for
biological treatment.  The total energy requirements for  implementation
of best available technology for the categories under study are not sub-
stantial  and  should not be great enough to warrant concern on either a
national or regional basis.  However, it should  be  cautioned  that  no
investigation  has been made in this study into the cumulative effect of
energy   requirements   when   all   industries   within   the   country
simultaneously implement best available technology levels.
C.2§t of AEfilication in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits

Based  upon the information contained in Section VIII and the Appendices
of this report, the total project costs of BPCTCA reflects  an  increase
of production expenses as shown in Table 47.

                                Table 47

            Cost of Application of BPCTCA  (1971 Cost Index)

                          Size           Total Annual    Increase in
                     metric tons/day      Cost, Inc1.     Costs $/metric ton
 ubcategory.          Jshort_tons/day-]_    	Energy	    	t*/short_ton)	
Unbleached Kraft       907  (1000)         $2,675,000      8.43   (7.65)

NSSC-Sodium Base       227   (250)         $1,194,000     15.04  (13.65)

NSSC-Ammonia Ease      227   (250)           $375,000*     4.74   (4.30)*

Kraft-NSSC
(Cross Recovery)      907 (1000)         $2,922,000      8.60   (7.80)

Paperboard from
Waste Paper             91  (100)            $259,000      9.53   (8.64)

   *Cost data for internal mill improvements was not available.
    Thus, these costs reflect only the external treatment reccnrmended.

These increases reflect both all internal mill and external waste treat-
ment improvements.  They are based on 350 days of production/year except
for  the paperboard from waste paper subcategory which is based upon 300
days/year.  It should be  emphasized,  however,  that  most  mills  have
already  carried  out  many  of these improvements.  Consequently, their
increased costs would be less than those shown above.


                                  211

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Processes Employed

All mills within each subcategory studied utilize the same basic produc^j
tion processes.  Although there are deviations in equipment and  produc-
tion  procedures, these deviations do not significantly alter either the
characteristics or the treatability of the wastewater generated.

RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

The rationale used in developing the effluent guidelines limitations for
BOD5, TSS, and pH is discussed below  for  each  of  the  subcategories.
Specifically,   methods  which  were  used  for  selecting  the  30  day
limitation and r the  daily  maximum  are  discussed.   Calculations  and
assumptions  used  in determining the effluent limitation guidelines are
included in Appendix IIB.

Where data was available,  the  30  day  limitation  was  determined  by
averaging  the  mean  30  consecutive  days  plus cne standard deviation
(M30CD+SD) value for  the  exemplary  mills  in  the  sutcategcry.   The
M30CD+SD  was  used  as  a basis for the 30 day limitation guidelines to
allow for the natural variability cf mill and treatment plant operations
over a year's time.  Addition of the  standard  deviation  (SD)  to  the
M30CD  value  allows  the  exemplary  mills  to be within the limitation
guidelines 83.556 of the time.  (67% for one SD plus 16.5% - derived from
3356/2 =16.5%).  Tighter controls by the  mills  to  eliminate  unnatural
variations  in  mill  and treatment system operations, such as spills or
human errors, should allow the exemplary mills tc be within the effluent,
limitations all of the time.

When an adequate amount of data was  not  available  for  the  exemplary
mills  to  determine  the  average M30CD+SD value, the annual average of
daily values or monthly means were used as  a  basis  in  selecting  the
limitations.   The  daily  maximum  limitation  was determined using the
annual  average  plus  two  standard   deviations   (AA+2SD)    for   all
subcategories.   Tables 3 and 6 in Appendix IIA shows for each exemplary
mill for which an adequate amount of data was available,  the  ratio  of
the AA+2SE to the annual average for both BOD5 and TSS.  This ratic is a
measure  of the daily variability of the treatment systems at the rrills.
The average ratio for BOD5 was 2.5 (AR-BOD5) and for TSS  was  2.8  (AR-
TSS) .   Also  shown  is  the  ratio  of  the maximum month to the annual
average as this  is  also  considered  indicative  of  treatment  system
variability.   The  average  ratios  were  2.0 and 2.1 for BOD5 and 1SS,
respectively.  The AA+2SD  is  a  more  realistic  indication "of  daily
variations than the maximum month as the AA+2SE allows for the exemplary
mills to be within the limitation guidelines at least 97.5% of the time.
(95%  for  two  SD plus 2.5% - derived from 5%/2 = 2.5%).  Values of 2.5
(AR-BOD5) and 2.8  (AR-TSS) for BOD5 and  TSS,  respectively,  times  the
annual   average   were  used  to  determine  daily  maximum  limitation
guidelines for all subcategories.
                                  212

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                       ~_3O^Dav_Lirnitation Guidelines

The 30 day limitation guidelines for BOD5 were determined  by  averaging
the  M30CE+SD  values  for exemplary mills "a", "b", and "c" as shewn in
Table 1, Appendix IIA.  Exemplary mill "d" was not used because  of  the
relatively  inefficient  BOD5  removal  being  achieved  by  the  rrill's
treatment system.  The average M30CD+SD  value  was  2.17  kg/kkg   (4.34
Ibs/ton)  and  thus, 2.2 kg/kkg (4.4 Ibs/ton) was chosen as the effluent
limitation guidelines.

               BOD5 - Daily Maximu^Limitation^Guidelines

The daily maximum  limitation  guideline  for  BOD.5  was  determined  by
averaging  the annual average values for mills exemplary mills "a", "b11,
and "c" and multiplying by 2.5  (AR-BODjj) .  The  average  annual  average
was  1.6  kg/kkg  (3.21 Ibs/ton).  Thus, 4.0 kg/kkg  (8.0 Ibs/ton) is the
daily maximum.

   1.6 kg/kkg  (3.2 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 4.0 kg/kkg  (8.0 Ibs/ton)

                   TSS -^30 Day Limitation Guidelines

The entire data base which  was  accumulated  could  not  be  completely
utilized in developing the guidelines limitations, because a majority of
the  mills  use  non-standard methods (NSM) where analyzing for effluent
 kuspended solids as discussed previously.  Since NSM cannot be  directly
 orrelated  with  standard  methods   (SM) by application of a conversion
factor,  data  for  mills  using  NSM  or  data  for  literature    mills
(unidentified  mills  -  thus, methods unknown) was not directly used in
determining the limitation guidelines.  Thus,  as  shewn  in  Table  18,
Section  VII,  data  for  exemplary mills "a" and "b", NCASI mills  "22",
"33", "44", and  "55",  and  Literature  mills  1=10  was  not  directly
considered.   Mills  for  which  data  was available that use SM include
exemplary irills "c" and "d" and NCASI mill "66".

The M30CD+SD for mills "c", "d", and "66" were averaged to determine the
limitation guideline.  The average M30CD+SD for mills "c", "d", and "66"
was 4.6 kg/kkg  (9.2 Ibs/ton).  Thus, an effluent limitation guideline of
4.6 kg/kkg (9.2 Ibs/ton) was chosen.

                 TSS-DailY^Maximum Limitation Guideline

The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.8
(AR-TSS) times the average annual average of mills "c",  "d",  and   "66".
The  average  annual average was 3.96 kg/kkg  (7.93 Ibs/ton) and thus the
daily maximum is 11.1 kg/kkg  (22.2 Ibs/ton).

 3.96 kg/kkg  (7.93 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS) =  11.1 kg/kkg  (22.2 Ibs/ton)


                                  213

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NSSC-Anunonia^gase

                   BOD5-30 Day Limitation Guidelines

The available data for the exemplary mill in this sutcategory  was  only
available on a monthly basis.  The monthly average was 5.25 kg/kkg  (19.5
Ibs/ton)  as  shown  in  Table 1, Appendix IIA.  Data from other sources
were nonexistent.  The data shows this mill as achieving 84.3% reduction
using monthly averages.  This level is very similar to  exemplary  mills
performance  in  other  subcategories.  Thus, 5.25 kg/kkg  (10.5 Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the 30 day limitation guidelines.

                BOD5-Daily Maximum Limitation Guidelines

To determine the daily  maximum  limitation  guidelines,  a  theoretical
annual average was first calculated for the mill since only monthly data
was  available.  The resulting theoretical annual average was 3.5 kg/kkg
(7.0 Ibs/ton).  Multiplication of the theoretical annual average by  2.5
(AR-BOD5) resulted in the daily maximum of 8.75 kg/kkg  (17.5 Its/ton).

  3.5 kg/kkg  (7.0 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 3.5 kg/kkg  (17.5 Its/ten).


                    TSS^3_0_Dav._Limitation_ Guideline

To  determine  the  limitations  guideline for TSS, the subcategories of
NSSC-ammonia base and NSSC-sodium base were considered together for  the
following  reasons:    (1)  the  processes  are  similar  with comparafclJ|
resultant raw waste loads except for the high levels of ammonia nitrcge™
in ammonia base NSSC mill waste waters  and   (2)  the  small  amount  of
available data in each subcategory.

Even  though  the  data  for  mill "e" is based on NSM, there was a high
degree of correlation between the short term survey results (SM) and the
mill records.  It appeared that the  short  term  survey  was  conducted
during  an  "average  raw  waste load period as the short term raw waste
data is nearly equal to the average of the year's data.  Therefore  irill
"e"  data  was  considered  along  with  mill  "f" data to determine the
limitation guidelines.

Since both mills were only achieving less than SOX reduction of TSS when
a level of at least 75-80% reduction is  desirable,  15%  reduction  was
applied to the mills raw wastes to determine the desired effluent level.
The  M30CD+SD  values were then calculated and averaged to determine the
limitation guideline.  The  average  M30CD+SD  was  5.06  kg/kkg  (10.12
Ibs/ton).   Thus,  5.0  kg/kkg (10.0 Ibs/ton) was chosen as the effluent
limitation guideline.
                                  214

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                 T S S - Da i 1 y__ Ma x imu m_L imit a t ion_ Guideline

The daily iraximuin limitation guideline was determined by multiplying  2.8
times the average of the calculated annual averages.  The daily  maximum
limitation is thus 8.5 kg/kkg (17.0 Ibs/ton) .

 3.06 kg/kkg (6.12 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS)  = 8.56 kg/kkg  (17.13 Ibs/tcn)
                   BOD 5 __ 30 Day Limitation^Guideline

The  data for exemplary mill "f" as shown in Table  1, Appendix  IIA,  does
not include the entire waste leading from the mill.  A  portion of   the
mill's  waste  water  is discharged untreated.  Thus, the available  rrill
data can only be used to determine the total  raw  waste  load  and   the
treatment  system  removal  efficiencies  for a portion of the  total raw
waste load.  The total raw waste load is 7.3 kg/kkg  (14.6  Ibs/ton)   and
treatment  efficiencies are 88.7%.  Application of 88.7% BOD5 removal to
the total raw waste load yields a theoretical 0.8 kg/kkg   (1.6  Ibs/ton)
in the final effluent.

Reviewing  data  from  the  literature as shown in Table 10 of  Section V
suggests that the raw waste load from mill "f" is a relatively  low   raw
waste load.  Using the three lowest raw waste loads as shown in Table 10
    Section  V and assuming that mill "f" is the same mill as the lowest
Loading, the average raw waste load  was  calculated.   Using   85%   BOD5
removal,  the annual average and M30CD+SD were calculated.  The M30CD+SD
value was 3.15 kg/kkg (6.3 Ibs/ton) and thus 3.25 kg/kkg   (6.5  Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the effluent guideline limitation.

                BOD 5- Daily Maximum^ Limit at ion Guidelines

The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.5
times the annual average effluent level.  Thus, 4.5 kg/kkg (9,0 Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the daily maximum.

   1.8 kg/kkg (3.6 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) =4.5 kg/kkg (9.0 Iks/ton)


           TSS-3 0 DaY_and_Daily Maximum Limitation Guidelines


The  limitation  guidelines were determined previously in the discussion
under NSSC-ammonia base.
                                  215

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Kraft-NSSC __ (cross ^recovery).

                BODS-paily^Maximuin^Limitation Guideline

The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.5
times the annual average as calculated above.  Thus, 6.35  kg/kkg   (12.7
Ibs/ton) is the daily maximum.

 2.53 kg/kkg  (5.07 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 6.35 kg/kkg (12.7 Ibs/ton)

                    TSS-SO^Day^Limitation^Guideline

The  30  day limitation guideline was determined by averageing exemplary
mill "g" and NCASI mill "1"  effluent  levels  by  determining  M30CC+SD
values  for  exemplary mill "g" and NCASI mill "1".  Eata available from
other mills was not acceptable due to NSM.  The M30CD+SD value for NCASI
mill "1" was calculated and the average of the two mills M30CC+SD values
was determined.  The limitation guideline  was  thus  5.3  kg/kkg   (10.6
Ibs/ton) .

                 TSS-DailY_Maximum Limit at ion^Guideline

The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.8
times  the  average annual average for the two mills.  The daily maximum
is therefore  12.5 kg/kkg  (25.0 Ibs/ton).

 4.47 kg/kkg  (8.95 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS) = 12.5 kg/kkg  (25.0 Ibs/ton)
                    BOD5-3 C Day Limitation Guideline

The 30 day limitation  guideline  was  determined  by  averaging  ar.nual
averages  and  calculating  the M30CD+SD value.  Mill data that was used
included exemplary mills ,"j", "k" , and "1" NCASI mills "2", "3", and "5"
(NCASI mill "1" is the same as exemplary mill  "k"; NCASI mills  "4"  and
"6"  were  excluded  because  their effluent levels were relatively high
compared to all of the other mills), and Literature mills  f1-10.   Data
for these mills is shown in Table 36, Section  VII.  The average M30CE+SD
value  for the above mills was 1.14 kg/kkg  (2.29 Ibs/ton).  Allowing for
variability in effluent levels due to the raw  materials  and  processes
used  within  this  subcategory,  the  30  day limitations guideline was
chosen as 1.25 kg/kkg  (2.50 Ibs/ton).
                                   216

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                                   Limitation Guideline

    daily rraximum limitation guideline is 2.8(AR-TSS) times the  average
annual average for the above mills.  The daily maximum is therefore  2.20
kg/*kkg (4.40 Ibs/ton) .

0.88 kg/kkg  (1.76 Ibs/ton) X 2.5  (AR-EOD5) = 2.20 kg/kkg  (4.40 Ibs/ton).


                    TSSr30_Day^Limitation_Guideline

The 30 day limitation guideline was determined using data from exemplary
mills  "j",  "k", and "1" and NCASI mills "2", "3", and "5" all of which
used SM.   The M30CD_SD values for the NCASI mills was calculated and the
average of the M30CD+SD values for all of the mills was determined.  The
average M30CD+SD was 1.50 kg/kkg  (3.00 Ibs/ton) and was chosen as the  30
day limitation guideline.

                 TSS-Daily^Maximum Limitation Guideline

The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying the
average annual average for the above mills which was 1.00  kg/kkg   (2.00
Ibs/ton)   by  2.8   (AR-TSS).   The daily maximum is thus 2.8  kg/kkg  (5.6
Ibs/ton) .

  1.00 kg/kkg  (2.00 Ibs/ton) X 2.8  (AR-TSS) = 2.8 kg/kkg  (5.6  Its/ton).

^.1 Subcateggries pH^Range

The pH range of 6.0-9.0 in receiving waters is satisfactory for  aquatic
life  as  specified  in   the  draft  document by the National Academy  of
Sciences  (NAS) on Water_2ualitXJCx!£§£i!•  Thus, the effluent limitation
of pH range  6.0-9.0 was chosen for all subcategories.
                                   217

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                               SECTION X
                       BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
                        ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
INTRODUCTION


Best available technology economically achievable is to be achieved  not
later  than  July  1,  1983.  It is not based upon an average of the best
performance within  a  given  subcategory  under  study,  but  has  been
determined by identifying the very best control and treatment technology
employed  by  a  specific point source within a given subcategory, or by
applying technology from other industry areas where it is transferrable.

Consideration was also given to:

     a.  the age of equipment and facilities involved;

     b.  the process employed;

     c.  the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
          control techniques:

     d.  process changes;

     e.  cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting frcm
         application of the technology;

     f.  non-water quality environmental impact, including energy
         requirements.

This level  of  technology  emphasizes  both  process  improvements  and
external  treatment  of  waste  waters.   It  will,  therefore,  require
existing mills to implement significant internal changes on water  reuse
and  chemical  recovery  and  recycle  as well as to apply more advanced
waste treatment processes  and  other  improved  internal  and  external
controls  in  order  to meet the suggested effluent guidelines.  In some
cases, the industry may be required  to  conduct  applied  research  and
demonstration  studies  in order to firmly establish the most economical
approach toward meeting the guidelines.  Such studies on the removal  of
color and nitrogen, where applicable, will undoubtedly be desirable.
                                  218

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EFFLUENT_PEDUCTION_ATTAINABLE_THROUGH_APPLICAT10N_OF_THE_BEST_AVAILAEL. E
 TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
Based  upon  the  information contained in Sections  III  through  VIII  and
the appendices of this repcrt, a determination has been  made  that   the
point   source  discharge  guidelines  for  each identified  pollutant as
shown in Table 48 can  be  obtained  through  the  application   of  best
available technology.

                                Table 48

            Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines

                       Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

                            ECE5                         TSS
Unbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper

1.
3.
1.
1.
0.
30
38
5
5
5
65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
Daily Max
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
2.
5.
2.
2.
1.
5
87
1
95
25
(5.0)
(11.75)
(4.2)
(5.9)
(2.5)
1
2
2
2
0
30
Day
.85 (3.7)
.0
.0
.1
.6
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
                         Daily Max

                         4.45  (8.9)

                         4.5  (9.0)

                         4.5  (9.0)


                         5.0  (10.0)


                         1.1  (2.2)
Unbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper

   pH for all subcategories shall be within  the  range  of  6.0  tc 9.0
  	Color	
  30 Day   Daily Max


  10 (20)   15 (30)

75 % removal

75 % removal


  10 (20)   15 (30)
                                   219

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Effluent limitations guidelines are needed for nitrogen for NSEC ammonia
base  mills  only.  However, no specific limitation has been establish
because of the extreme  lack of meaningful  data.   Currently,  only
such  mills exist and preliminary indications are that discharges in the
range of 7.5-10.0 kilograms per metric ton (15-20 pounds per short  ton)
can  occur.   No technology for the removal of nitrogen has been applied
within the pulp and paper industry, and only very limited technology has
been applied in  other  industries,  especially  at  the  concentrations
cited.   Extensive  studies  on  effective  methods  for  the removal of
nitrogen in these concentrations must be  carried  out  before  specific
effluent limitations guidelines can be established.

The  above  guidelines  for  TSS are measured by the technique utilizing
glass fiber filter disks  as  specified  in  Standard  Methods  f_or  the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, (13th Edition) (1) .

The  above limitations  guidelines for color are for color as measured ty
the NCASI testing method as described in NCASI Technical  Bulletin  #2.53
(2) .   The  above  color  limitations guidelines of 75% removal for both
sodium and ammonia base NSSC will be changed to kilograms of  color  per
metric  ton  of production  (pounds of color per short ton of production)
at  a  later  date  when  technology  has   been   confirmed   by   mere
installations.
The  maximum  average  of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
should not exceed the  30  day  effluent  limitations  guidelines  shown
above.   The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximu
effluent limitations guidelines shewn  above.   The  guidelines  are
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production  (pounds of pollutan1
per short ton of production).
urn
I
Production,  in air-dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production  (off the machine)  sustained for seven  consecutive  operating
days of normal production.


!I!LINTIFICATION_gF_TJIE_EEST_AVAJLABLE

The  best  available  technology economically achievable consists of the
best practicable control technology currently available  as  defined  in
Section  IX  of  this report.  It also includes the following additional
internal mill improvements  and external advanced waste  water  treatment
practices.


Internal_Ccntrols

Pulping  operations  of  all  applicable  subcategories  will be able to
implement modifications and operating procedures fcr:
                                   220

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     a.  reuse of fresh water filter backwash;

     b.  control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass the
         waste water treatment system to a retention basin and are ulti-
         mately either reused, gradually discharged into the treatment
         system, or treated separately;

     c.  reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
         without decreasing washing efficiencies;

     d.  extensive internal reuse of process waters;

     e.  separation of cooling waters from other waste water streams, and
         subsequent heat removal and reuse;

     f.  extensive reduction cf gland water spillage.

With the exception of the procedures pertaining to reuse of fresh  water
filter  backwash  (a.)  and  reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
(c.), the same  modifications  and  procedures  are  applicable  to  and
capable  of  implementation  by  all  paper  machine  systems, including
paperboard from waste paper mills.

External_Treatment

Section IX of the report describes  best  practicable  external  control
  schnology  currently  available.   Application  of  that  technology in
  injunction   with   several   additional   recognized   and   potential
Technologies   described  in  Section  VII  constitutes  best  available
technology economically achievable.  The additional  external  processes
applicable to this more advanced technology are as follows:

    a.   BCD5 Reduction
         The treatment system for reduction of BOD5 should
         consist of two stage biological treatment.

    b.   Suspended Solids Reduction
         In addition to the technologies identified
         in Section IX, suspended solids shall be
         further reduced by mixed media filtration
         with, if necessary, chemical addition and coagulation.

    c.   color Reduction
         Color reduction should be achieved by lime treatment for unbleached
         kraft and kraft - NSSC  (cross recovery) mills, and by
         reverse osmosis for NSSC - sodium base and NSSC-
         ammonia base mills.
                                  221

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RATIONALE TOR THE SELECTION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE

Age and Sizg gf_EguiBinent and_gacilities

There  is  a  wide  range,  in  both  size  and  age, among mills in the
subcategories studied.  However, internal operations of most older mills
have been upgraded, and some  of  these  mills  currently  operate  very
efficiently.   The  technology  for  updating  of  older  mills  is well
established, and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within  a
given  subcategory.   Studies have also shown that waste treatment plant
performance  does  not  relate  to  mill  size.   Most  mills  within  a
subcategory  are  constructed  on a "modular" concept, where key process
elements are duplicated as mill size expands.  Consequently, there is no
significant variation in either the waste water  characteristics  or  in
the  waste  water  loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton  (in pounds
per short ton of product) , between mills of varying sizes.
Application of best available technology  economically  achievable  does
not  require major changes in existing industrial processes for the sub-
categories studied.   Incorporation  of  additional  systems,  treatment
processes,  and  control  measures  can  be  accomplished  in most cases
through changes in piping, and through design modifications to  existing
equipment.   Such  alternations can be carried out on all mills within a
given subcategory.

Engineering A spec ts_of Con trgl Technigue_AEpli cations

The technology to achieve most of these effluent limitations  is  either
practiced within the pulp and paper industry by an outstanding mill in a
given   subcategory,   or   is  demonstrated  in  other  industries  and
transferable.  However, sufficient research  and  pilot  work  has  been
carried  cut  on  both  parameters  to  demonstrate  the  feasibility of
achieving the guidelines after completion of additional study.  In fact,
several  full  scale  color  removal  systems  currently   exist.    The
technology required for all best available treatment and control systems
will   necessitate   sophisticated  monitoring,  sampling,  and  control
programs, as well as properly trained personnel.

Ngn-water_guality_EnvirQnmental_Imgact

Application of the activated sludge waste  treatment  process  offers  a
potential  for  adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated.  However, proper selection  and  operation  of  particulate
emission  control  equipment  can  minimize  this  impact.   Dredged  or
dewatered sludges disposed of on land can present an odor problem unless
sanitary landfilling techniques are properly instituted.
                                   222

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The technology cited will not create any significant increase  in  noise
   |els  beyond  those  observed  in  well  designed municipal wastewater
   fatment systems which currently are  being  approved  by  the  Federal
government  for  construction in populated areas.  Further, no hazardous
chemicals are required as part of this technology.

The greatest proportion of energy consumed will be fcr pumping  and  for
biological  treatment.  The total energy requirements for implementation
of best available technology for the  categories  under  study  are  not
substantial  and should not be great enough to warrant concern on either
a national or regional basis.  However, it should be cautioned  that  no
investigation  has  been  made in this study on the cumulative effect of
energy   requirements   when   all   industries   within   the   country
simultaneously implement best available technology levels.

Cost^of Application in Relation tg^Ef fluent Rgduct ion gene f it g

Based  upon the information contained in Section VIII and the Appendices
of this report, total projected cost of upgrading a  mill  incorporating
best  practicable control technology currently available to the level of
best achievable technology economically feasible reflects an increase in
production expenses as shown in Table 49,  (1971 price index).


                                Table 49

                      Cost af Application of BATEA


                        Size           Total Annual          Increase in
                    metric tons/day     Cost Inc1.            Costs iretric ton
                    .i§h2£t_tons/dayj_   __ Energy __          ___ ($/shgrt_tgn],
Unbleached Kraft      907  (1000)        $1,505,000            4.74   (4.30)

NSSC-Soduim Base      227   (250)          $465,000            5.85   (5.31)

NSSC-Ammonia Ease     227   (250)          $383,000            4.83   (4.38)

Kraft-NSSC
(With Cross Recovery) 907  (1000)        $1,645,000            5.18   (4.70)

Paperboard from
Waste Paper            91   (100)          $35,000             1.29   (1.17)

These increases reflect  both  all  internal  mill  and  external  waste
treatment  improvements, with the exception of nitrogen removal for NSSC
ammonia  base  mills.   Sufficient  data  was  not  available  on   this
parameter.   The  increases are based on 350 days of production per year
                                  223

-------
except for the paperboard from waste paper subcategory  which  is  based^
upon 300 days per year.

Processes Employed

There  is  a  wide  range,  in  both  size  and  age, among mills in the
subcategories studied.  However, internal operations of mcst older mills
have been upgraded, and some  of  these  mills  currently  operate  very
efficiently.   The  technology  for  upgrading  cf  elder  mills is well
established, and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within  a
given  subcategory.   Studies have also shewn that waste treatment plant
performance  does  not  relate  to  mill  size.   Most  mills  within  a
subcategory  are  constructed  on a "modular" concept, where key process
elements are duplicated as mill size expands.  Consequently, there is no
significant variation in either the waste water  characteristics  or  in
the  waste  water  loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in pounds
per short ton of product) , between mills of varying sizes.

Rationale_for_DevelQgment_gf^BATEA^Ef fluent Limitations Guidelines

The  rationale  used  in  developing  the  BATEA   effluent   limitation
guidelines   for   BOD5,   TSS,  pH,  and  Color  are  discussed  below.
Calculaticns and assumptions used are shown in Appendix IIC.

BOD5_-_30_DaY_Limitatign_Guideline

As in BPCTCA guidelines development, the M30CD+SD was used as the  basjj|
for   the  BATEA  guidelines  as  was  discussed  in  Section  IX.   Tlfl
recommended treatment system for BATEA should remove at least 90-9 5%  o?
BODj>.   Thus,  the  30  day  limitation  guidelines  were  determined by
applying 93% reduction to the raw waste load for  each  subcategory  and
calculating the M30CD+SD.

BOD5 - DailY^Maximum_Limitatign Guideline

The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined in the same manner
as the BPCTCA daily maximum guidelines as discussed in Section IX.

TSS - 30^ DaY^Limi tat. ion Guideline
The  30 day limitation guidelines were determined by reducing the EPCTCA
30 day limitation guidelines by 60%.   This  reflects  the  addition  of
mixed  media  filtration  to  the recommended treatment system for BATEA
Mixed media filtration can  reduce  well  flocculated  suspended  solids
levels by at least 90%.   Suspended solids which are relatively dispersed
which  are  common to pulp and paper mill effluents can be reduced up to
80-85% by mixed media filtration with chemical addition and  coagulation
prior  to  the  mixed media filtration units.  Thus, a very conservative
reduction  of  60%  was   applied  to  the  BPCTCA  effluent ^  limitation
guidelines.


                                  22U

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TSS^- Dai ly_Maximum_L imitation Guideline
     daily  maximum  limitation guideline  was  determined  by  applying  60%
reduction to the BPCTCA daily maximum  guidelines.
The pH range of 6.0-9.0 in receiving waters  is  satisfactory  for   aquatic
life  as   specified  in  the  draft  document by  the  National  Academy  of
Sciences  (NAS) on Vvater Quality_Criteria .  Thus,  the  effluent  limitation
of pH range 6.0-9.0 was chosen for all  subcategories .

Color

              Unbleached_Kraft -  30 Day^LimitationmGuideline

Minimum   lime  treatment  systems  have  demonstrated  that    consistent
effluent   levels  of   125-150  APHA  CU  can be  attained independent  of
influent  color levels.  Massisve  lime treatment  systems   have,  achieved
effluent   levels  of 200-250 APHA CU.   At the BATEA water usage  of  37560
liters/kkg (9000 gal/ton) and at  250 APHA CU, the effluent  color  level
would  be 9.35  kg/kkg   (18.7  Ibs/ton) .    Thus, an effluent  limitation
guideline for color of  10 kg/kkg  (20 Ibs/ton) was chosen.


                   Daily Maximum^Limit at ion  Guideline

m. daily maximum of 50% greater than the 30 day  limitation was  chosen  as
^;he  demonstrated  processes  had daily  variations of approximately 50%
from the  long term average.


                                   (Cross_RecoveryJ__
 Efficiencies  of  the demonstrated  lime treatment systems for  removal  of
 color   from  Kraft  -   NSSC waste waters are generally 15% less than for
 unbleached  kraft waste waters.    Thus,  12.5  kg/kkg  (25  Ibs/ton)   was
 chosen   as  the  30 day effluent limitation guideline.  The daily maximum
 is  50%  greater and thus is 18.75  kg/kkg (37.5 Ibs/ton).


                     NSSC^-^Ammonia Base, Sodium^ Ease

 Reverse osmosis  has not  yet  been  demonstrated  at  full  mill  scale.
 However,   pilot  scale  studies have indicated that at least 75% reduction
 of  color should  be achievable.   Thus, the effluent limitation  guideline
 was chosen  as 75% removal cf color.
                                   225

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                               SECTION XI


                    NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

INTRODUCTION

This  level  of  technology  is to be achieved by new sources.  The term
"new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction
of which is commenced after the publication of proposed regulaticns pre-
scribing a standard of performance."  Such commencement of  construction
can  occur  within  the near future, certainly before either the 1977 or
1983 compliance dates for either best  practicable  or  best  achievable
technolog ies.

Consideration has also been given to:

    a.  The type of process employed and process changes;
    b.  Operating methods;
    c.  Batch as opposed to continuous operations;
    d.  Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;
    e.  Use of dry rather than wet processes (including substitution
        of recoverable solvents for water);
    f.  Recovery of pollutants as by-products;


EFFLUENT  REDUCTIONS  ATTAINABLE  THROU  THE  APPLICATION  OF NEW SOURCjl
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII and in
the appendices of this report, a determination has been  made  that  the
point  source discharge standards for each identified pollutant shown in
Table 50 can be obtained through the application of proper technology.
                                  226

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Subcateqory
Unbleached
   Kraft
                    Table 50

Recommended NSPS Effluent Limitation Guidelines

           Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

            BOD5                         TSS

        30~DayDaily Max       30  Day
NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium
1.38 (2.75)   2.5  (5.0)

3.5  (7.0)    5.87 (11.75)

1.5  (3.0)    2.1  (4.2)
Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC   1.5   (3.0)   2.95  (5.9)

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper     0.65  (1.3)   1.25  (2.5)
                                    1.85  (3.7)

                                    2.0  (4.0)

                                    2.0  (4.0)


                                    2.1  (4.2)


                                    0.6  (1.2)
Daily Max


4.45 (8.9)

4.5 (9.0)

4.5 (9.0)


5.0 (10.0)


1.1 (2.2)
                                            Color
 Jnbleached
   Kraft

NSSC - Ammonia

NSSC - Sodium

Unbleached
   Kraft - NSSC

Paperboard from
  Waste Paper
                           30  Day    Daily Max


                           10  (20)    15 (30)
                           10  (20)    15 (30)
    pH for all subcategories  shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0


The maximum average of daily  values  for  any 30  consecutive  day  period
should  not  exceed  the   30   day  effluent limitations guidelines shown
above.  The maximum for any one day  should not exceed the daily  maximum
effluent  limitations  guidelines  shown  above.   The guidelines are in
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
per short ton of production).  The above TSS guidelines are for  TSS  as
measured  by  the  technique   utilizing   glass  fiber  filter  disks  as
                                   227

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specified  in  Standard  Methods  for  the  Examination  of  Water   and
Wastewater,   (13th Edition)  (1).  The above color limitations guidelines
are for color as  measured  by  methods  described  in  NCASI  TechnicjJ
Bulletin #253   (2) .

Production,  in air dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production   (off  the machine) sustained for seven consecutive operating
days of normal production.
IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY  TO  ACHIEVE  THE  NEW  SOURCE  PERFOPMANCE
STANDARDS ~                                       ~


The  technology  to  achieve the new source performance standards shculd
consist of the best available pollution control technology  economically
achievable as described in Section X with the following changes:

External^Ccntrgls

Color  reduction for NSSC - sodium base and NSSC - ammonia base mills is
not required.

RATIONALE	FOR	SELECTION	OF	TECHNOLOGY	FOR	NEW	SOURCE	PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS

Tvj3e_Qf^Prgcess_Employed and^Process Changes

No  radical  new in-plant processes are proposed as a means of achieving
new source performance standards for  the  sutcategories  studied.   The
internal   control  technologies  which  are  recommended  have  all  be
demonstrated in mills within the subcategories under study or  in  ether
segments of the pulp and paper industry.


Qperating_Methods

Significant  revisions  in  operating  methods, both in-plant and at the
waste water treatment facility, will be necessary.  However,  these  im-
provements  are  not beyond the scope of well-trained personnel, and are
currently being practiced in ether industries.   The  primary  areas  of
operational  change will pertain to required activities for recycle, re-
use, and spill control, as well as  for  optimal  performance  cf  waste
water treatment facilities.
                                  228

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 Batch  as^Opposed  to Continuous^O^erations

•or  the   subcategories  studied, it was  determined  that batch as  opposed
^o" continuous  operations are  not a  significant  factor  in  waste  load
 characteristics   and   no  additional   control   of  pollutants  could  be
 achieved  through  the  use of one type process over the other.


 Use^of_Alternatiye_gaw__Materialsraand_Mixes  of  Raw Materials

 The  raw materials requirements for a given  mill in  each of the  subcate-
 gories studied   do   vary, depending upon  supply and demand,  desired end
 product,  and ether conditions.  However, alteration of raw materials  as
 a means  of reducing  pollutants is not considered feasible over the long
 term even though  such a  change could possibly  realize benefits of  short
 duration   in a given  instance.  The one  possible exception to this cculd
 be alternatives for the  NSSC-ammonia   base  mill if  an  effective  and
 economical method for   removal  of   nitrogen does not become available
 through further study.


 Use  of  Dry.	Rather	than	Wet	Processes	LSDSilJdiSS	Substitution	of
 B§coverab1e_Solvents_for_Water)

 For  the subcategories studied, it was  determined that technology for dry
 pulping  or papermaking  processes does not  exist nor is it in a suffici-
 ently  viable experimental stage to be  considered here.


 PecoverY_of Pollutants as Byproducts

 As  discussed  in Section VIII  of   this  report,  recovery  of   seme
 potentially  polluting  materials as byproducts is  economically feasible
 and  commonly practiced in unbleached kraft  mills.  In addition, ash from
 incineration of sodium base NSSC spent liquor  is sold to kraft mills  to
 be used as make-up chemical which avoids the necessity for its disposal.
 It  is anticipated   that these  performance   standards  will  motivate
 increased research on recovering other materials for byproduct sale  the
 recovery  of which is  not presently economically feasible.
                                   229

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Cost_of^Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction  Benefits

Based  upon the information contained in Section VIII  and  the
of this report, the total projected cost of NSPS technology  reflects *
increase  in  production  expenses  as  shown  in  Table 51,  (1971  price
index) .
Subcategory

Unfcleacned Kraft

NSSC-Sodium

NSSC-Ammonia

Kraft-NSSC

Paperboard from
Waste Paper
                                Table 51
                      Cost of Application of NSPS
   Size
metric tons/day
-ishort_tons/day_l_

 907 (1000)

 227  (250)

 227  (250)

 907 (1000)


  91  (100)
Total Annual
 Cost Inc1.
	Energy	

$2,198,000

  $402,000

  $526,000

$2,264,000


  $103,000
Increase in
Costs per metric
	(£ e r _ s ho r t_ t on ]__

 $6.92  (6.28)

 $5.06  (4.59)

 $6.63  (6.01)

 $7.13  (6.47)


 $3.78  (3.43)
These increases reflect  both  all  internal   and   external   recommended
control technologies.  The  increases are based on  350  days of production
per  year  except  for paperboard from waste paper which  is  based  on  30J1
days per year.
                                   230

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                              SECTION XII
                            ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The  Environmental  Protection  Agency   wishes   to   acknowledge   the
contributions  of WAPORA, Inc., and its subcontractors, E.  C. Jordan Co.
and EKONO, who prepared  the  original  draft  of  this  document.   The
efforts of Mr. E. N. Ross, Dr. Harry Gehm, Mr.  William Groff, Er. Howard
Eddy, and Mr. James Vamvakias are appreciated.

The  cooperation  of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement
in providing liaison with the industry was an invaluable asset, and this
service is  greatly  appreciated.   Thanks  are  also  extended  to  the
American Paper Institute for its continued assistance.

Appreciation  is  expressed for the contributions of several individuals
within the Environmental Protection  Agency:   Kirk  Willard  and  Ralph
Scott,  National Environmental Research Center  at Corvallis, Oregon, and
Richard Williams, Ernst Hall, and Allen Cywin of the Effluent Guidelines
Division.

Special thanks are due Craig Vogt, Effluent Guidelines Division, who has
made an invaluable  contribution  to  the  preparation  of   this  report
through  his  assistance,  guidance,  and  reviews.  The efforts of Gary
Fisher and Taffy Neuburg in data  handling  and  computer  analysis  are
appreciated.   Thanks are also due to the many  secretaries  who typed and
retyped this document:  Jan Beale, Pearl Smith,  Acqua  McNeal,  Vanessa
Batcher,  Karen  Thompson,  Cnythia Wright, Jane Mitchell,  and Georgette
Web.

Appreciation is also extended to companies who  granted access  to  their
mills and treatment works from field surveys and for the assistance lent
by  mill  personnel  to field crews.  The operation records furnished by
these manufacturers and information supplied by other individuals in the
industry contributed significantly to the project.
                                  232

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                              SECTION  XIII

                              REFERENCES


 1. American  Public  Health Assn.,  (APHA),  AWWA,  WPCF,  Standard_Methcds
    fgr^the_Exarninatign_of_Water  and_Wastewater, New York  1971.

 2. National  Council for Air  and  Stream  Improvement, Inc.  Technical
	Bulletin^253, December 1971.

 3. Buckley,  D.  B. and  McKeown, J. J.r An  Analysis of the  Performance
    of Activated Sludge and Aerated Stabilization Basin Systems  in
    Controlling the  Release of Suspended Solids  in Treated Mill  Effluents
    to Receiving Waters, NCASI_Sp.ecial_Re£ort_Nc_.._73-02f April 1973.

 4. Buckley,  D.  B. and  McKeown J. J., An Analysis of the Performance
    of activated Sludge and Aerated Stabilization Basin Systems  in
    Controlling the  Release of Suspended Solids  in Treated Mill  Effluents
    to Receiving Waters, NCASI_Sp_ecial_Re2ort_Noi_73^03_, August  1973.

 5. Casey, J. P., Pulp_and_Pa2er^	Chemistry_and^Chemical^Techriology,
    Voli_I_Pu^p_ing_and_Bleaching, 2nd Ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc.
    New  York  (1960) .

 6- Pl^E_^D
-------
 14.  Bryan,  W.  P.,  "Inland's Tennessee Mill Was First Designed for
     Ammonia Base NSSC,"  Paper Trade^Journal ,  September 25, (1972)

 15.  Moor, J. L. , "Ammonia Base Sulphite  Pulping at Inland Container,"
     £§Eer_Tr ade_ Jour nal , November 20, (1972) .

 16.  Whitney, TAPPI Monograph #32.

 17.  Britt,  K.  W. ,  Handbook_of_Pulp_and_Pa2er_Technology_,2nd Ed., Van
     Nostrand Reinhold Cc. , New York (1970) .

1 8 .   Pulg and Paper^Manufacture, _
     Making,  2nd Ed.,  McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1970

 19.  Kleppe,  P.  J., and Rogers, C.  N. , Suryey^of Water Utilization and
     Waste CgntrolmPracticgs_in_the_Southern Pulp and^Pager^Industry; ,
     Water Resources Research Institute of the University of N.C.,
     OWRR Project No.  A-036-NC, June (1970).

 20.  Private Communication (1970) .

 21.  Kronis,  H. , and Holder,  D. A., "Drum Barker Effluent," Pulp and
                    of _Canada , 69,  62  February (1968) .
 22.  Draper, R.  E., and Mercier,  F.  S., "Hydraulic Barker. Effluent
     Clarifier at Woods Products  Division, Weyerhaeuser Co.," Proceed-
     ings llth Pacific Northwest  Industrial Waste Conf . (1962) .

 23.  Blosser, R.  O., "Practice in Handling Barker Effluents in Mills in
     the United States," NCASI_Technical, Bulletin No. 194 (1966) .

 24 .  Pollutignal^Effects_of_Pulg-_and Paper mi 11 Waste s_in_Puget_Sgund ,
     FWQA, U.S.~Dept. of the interior  (1967).

 25.  South, W. D. , "New Approaches to In-Plant Land Control and Monitoring,"
     NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_Noi_248, Part II, 2 (1971) .

 26.  Wilson, D.  F. Johanson, L. N. ,  and Hrutfiord, B. F. , "Methanal,
     Ethanal, and Acetone in Kraft Pulp Mill condensate Streams,"
     JAPPI_55, 8 (1972) .

 27.  Estridge, R. B. , Thibodeaux, L. J., et. Al. , "Treatment of Selected
     Kraft Mill Wastes in a Cooling Tower," TAPPI 7th Water and Air
     Conf.  (1970)

 28.  Bergkvist, S., and Foss, E. , "Treatment of Contaminated Ccndensates
     in Kraft Pulp Mills, "International Congress on Industrial Waste
     Water, Stockholm  (1970) .
                                  235

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29. Haynes, D. C.r "Water Reuse -- A Survey of Pulp and Paper Indust
    TAPPIX_49, 9  (1966).

30. Lowe, K. E., "Control of Effluent at a NSSC Mill by Reuse of White
    Water," TAPPI 7th Water and Air Conf.  (1970).

31. Vilbrant, F., "Report on Semi-Chemical Wastes," NCASI^Technical
    Bulletin_Noi_28  (1949).

32. Bishop, F. W., et al., "Biological Waste Treatment case Histories
    in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI_Technical_Bul^etin No.__220
    (1968).

33. Hrutfiord, B.F., el al. , Steam^StripBing^Ordorous^Substances^frcrri
    ISElfi_Ef flU§St_Streams, EPA-R2-73-164  (1973) .

34. Matteson, M.J., et al., "SEKOR II:  Steam Stripping of Volatile
    Organic Substances from Kraft Pulp Mill Effluent Streams,"
    TAPPI_50, 2 (1967).

35. Maahs, H.G., et al.,  "SEKOR III:  Preliminary Engineering Design
    and Cost Estimates for Steam Stripping Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents,"
    TAPPI_50, 6 (1967).

36. Timpe, W.G., Lang, E., and Miller, R.L., KraftjFulEing_Effluent
    Treatment_and_Reuse_-_State_of_the_Art, Environmental Protection
    Technology Series EPA-R2-73-164 (1973).

37. Gould, M., and Walzer, J., "Mill Waste Treatment by Flotation."

38. Edde, H., "A Manual of Practice for Biological Waste Treatment
    in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical^Bulletin Ng^ 214
    (1968).

39. Gellman, I., "Aerated Stabilization Basin Treatment of Mill
    Effluents," NCASl_Technical_Bulletin_No._185 (1965).

40. Fair, Geyer, Okun, Water^and^Wastewater Engineering,
    John Wiley 6 Sons, 1968.

41. The Mead company, Escanaba, Michigan.

42. WAPORA, Inc., Washington, D. C.

43. Follett, R., and Gehm, H. W., "Manual of Practice for Sludge
    Handling in the Pulp  and Paper Industry," NCASI^Technical
    Bulletin_Noi_190  (1966).

44. Lindsey, A. M., "Dewatering Paper Mill Sludges by Vaccum Filtration


                                 236

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     Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference XXIII (1968) .

 45.  Voegler, J.,  "Drainability and Dewaterihg of White Water Sludges,"
     NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_Noi_35 (1950).

 46.  Stovall, J.  H.,  and Berry, D. A.,  "Pressing and Incineration of
     Kraft Mill Primary Clarification Sludge," TAPPI 6th Water and Air
     Conf. (1969) .

 47.  Aspitrate, T.  R., et. al., "Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge Utilization
     and Disposal," TAPPI Environmental Conf.  (1973).

 48.  Coogan, F. J., and Stovall, J. H., "Incineration of Sludge from
     Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents," NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_No.._185 (1965)

 49.  Bishop, F. W., and Drew, A. E., "Disposal of Hydrous Sludges frcm
     a Paper Mill," TAPPI Water and Air Conf.  (1971)

 50.  Harkin, J. M., and Crawford, D. L.,  "Bacterial Protein frcm Paper
     Mill Sludges," TAPPI Environmental Conf.  (1973) .

 51.  Berger, H. F., "Development of an Effective Technology for Pulp
     and Bleaching Effluent Color Reduction," NCASI Technical_Bulletin
     No. 228 (1969).

 52.  Spruill, E.  L.,  Draft of final report.  Color Removal and Sludge
     Disposal Process_for_Kraft_Mill_Effluents, EPA Project f12040
     DRY  (1973)

 53.  "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges Obtained From Lime Treatment
     of Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents - Part I,"  NCASI Technical^Eulletin
     No_.._62  (1955) .

 54.  "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges from Lime Treatment of Kraft
Pulp Mill Effluents -  Part KK," NCASI Technical Bulletin * 75,
     (1955).

 55.  Interstate Paper  Corp., Color^Remgval^from Kraft Pulping Effluent
     feY_Lime_Addition, EPA Grant # WPRD 183-01-68, December 1971.

56.  Davis, C. L.,  Color^Remgyal^frgm Kraft^Pulpinq Effluent by^Lime
     Addition, Interstate Paper Corporation,  EPA Project 12040 ENC
     (1971)".

57.  Spruill, E.  L.,  CQlor_Removal ancLSludge Recovery from Total_Mill
     Effluent, Paper presented at TAPPI Environmental Conference,
     Houston, Texas (1972).
                                  237

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58.  Oswalt, J. L. , and Lund, J. G., Jr., Colgr^Remoyal frgm_Kraft
     Pulp Mill Effluents_by Massive Lime^Treatment, EFA Project 12040
     DYD  (1973) .

 59. Smith, S. E., and Christman, R. F., "Coagulation of Pulping
     Wastes for the Removal of Color," Journal of^thg^Water Pollution
     Centrol_Federation, V. 41, No. 2, Part I (1969f.

 60. Middlebrcoks, E. J., et. al, "Chemical Coagulation of Kraft Mill
     Wastewater," Water and Sewage Works. V. 116, No. 3 (1967).

 61. Berger, H.: F., and Thibodeaux, L. J., "Laboratory and Pilot Plant
     Studies of water Reclamation," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 203
     (1967).

 62. Timpe, W. G., and Lange, E. W., "Activated Carbon Treatment of
     Unbleached Kraft Effluent for Reuse, Pilot Plant Studies," TAPPI
     Environmental Conference  (1973).

 63. Private Communication, St. Regis Paper Company, 1973.

 64. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F., "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI
     51  (1968).

 65. Hansen, s. P., and Burgess, F. J., "Carbon Treatment of Kraft
     Condensate Wastes," TAPPI^_51, 6 (1968).

 66. Rimer, A. E., et. al., "Activated Carbon System for Treatment of
     Combined Municipal and Paper Mill Waste Waters in Fitchburg,
     Mass., TAPPIa_54, 9  (1971).

 67. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F., "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI,
     51, 10 (1968) .

 68. Chen, J.  W., and Smith, G. V., Feasibility Studies^of Applications
     of_Catalv^ic_Oxidation_in_Wastewaterr Environmental Protection
     Agency, Southern Illinois University, for EPA, Nov.  (1971).

 69. Coates, J., and McGlasson, W. G., "Treatment of Pulp Mill
     Effluents With Activitated Carbon," NCASI Technical Bulletin No.
     1JJ  (1967) .

 70. Weber, W. J., Jr., and Morris, J. C., "Kinetics of Adsorption in
     Columns of Fluidized Media," Journa1_WPCF, 37, 4 (1965).

 71. Davies, D. S., and Kaplan, R. A., "Activated Carbon Eliminates
     Organics," Chemical_Engineering^Progress, 60, 12 (1964).
                                  238

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 72.  Bishop,  D.  F., et al. , "Studies on Activated Carton Treatment,"
          iI_WPCF , 39, 2 (1967).
 73.  Vanier,  C. ,  et al..  Carbon^ Column,. Operation in Waste rWater^Treatment
     Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, Nov. (1970) .

 74.  Beebe, R. L. ,  and Stevens, J. I., "Activated Carbon System for
     Wastewater Renovation," Water and Wastes Engineering, Jan. (1967)

 75.  Eckenf elder,  W. W.,  Jr., Krenkel, P. A., and Adams, C. A.,
     B^vanced_Waste_Water_Treatmentr American Institute of Chemical
     Engineers, New York  (1972) .

 76.  Gulp, R. L. ,  and Gulp, G.  L. , Advanced Waste Treatment, Van
     Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1971).

 77.  Holm, J. D. ,  "A Study of Treated Wastewater Chlorination," Water
     12
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 84. Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., Waste
     Characterization^and^Treatment Eyaluation_of^an_Amrnonia-Laden
     Pulp_and.rPaper Mill_Waste, Prepared for Inland Container Corp.
     Dec.  (1971).

 85. Leitner, Gordon F., "Reverse Osmosis For Waste Water Treatment
     What: When?, TAPPI 8th Water 6 Air Conference (1971).

 86. Beder, H., and Gillespie, W. J., "The Removal of Solutes From
     Pulp Mill Effluents by Reverse Osmosis," TAPPI_53, 5  (1970).

 87. Bishop, H. K., Use of^lnEroved^Membranes in Tertiary Treatment by
     E®verse_Osmosis, McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company for EPA,
     Program #17020 DHR, Dec.  (1970).

 88. McGlasson, W. G., et. al., "Treatment of Pulp Mill Effluents With
     Activated Carbon," NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_No._199  (1967).

 89. Optiinization_of_Ammonia_Rernoyali_bY_lQn Exchange Using_Clinaptilo-
     lite. University of California for EPA, Project"#17080 DAtT
     Sept.  (1971) .

90.  Wastewater_Amm2nia_Removal_by__lon_Exchan2e, Battelle-Northwest
     for EPA, Project #17010 EEZ, Feb.  (1971)."
 91. Johnson, Walter K., and Vania, George B., Nitrificatipn^and
     Denitrification_of_Waste_Waterr University of Minnesota fcr
     EPA, Research Grant Number WP~01028, January  (1971).

 92. Nitrogen_Removal_From_wastewaters, Federal Water Quality Research
     Laboratory, Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory,
     Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct.  (1970).

 93. Shindala, Adnan, "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal From Waste-
     waters - Part I," Wat er_and_Sewacie_ Works, June  (1971).

 94. Shindala, Adnan, "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal From Waste-
     waters - Part II," Water_and_Sewage_Works, July  (1971).
                                   240

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     Young, James C., AdYaSS§^-.Waste_Water_Treatnient_Cgncegts, General
     Filter Co.

 96..  Sludge_Dewatering, Manual of Practice No. 20, FWPCA  (1969) =

 97.  Gehm, H. W., "Effects of Paper Mill Wastes on Sewage Treatment
     Plant Operation," sewage_Works_Journa 1, 17, 510  (1945) .

 98.  Gellman, I., "Reduction of Paper, Paperboard and Weak  Pulping
     Wastes by Irrigation," Pulp and^Paper Magazine^of __Canada,, T-221,
     March (1960) .

 99.  Vercher, B. D., et. al., "Paper Mill Waste Water for Crop
     Irrigation and Its Effects on the Soil," Louisiana State Univo,
     Agri cultural _Exp_eriment_S ta ti on_ Bui letin_No_._ 6^ 4,  (1965).

100.  Voights, D., "Lagooning and Spray Disposal of NSSC Pulp Mill
     Liquors," Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference X (1955) „

101.  Hendrickson, E. R., et al.. Control of Atmospheric Emissigns^in
     £h§_W°2d_Pulp,ing_Industrv., DHEW, NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-18,
     March (1970)".

102.  Drew, J., and Pyland, G. D., Jr., "Turpentine from the Pulpwoods
     of the United States and Canada," TAPPI_49, 10 (1966).

  3.  Resource Engineering Associates, "State of the Art Review on
     Product Recovery," FWPCA Contract No. 14-12-495, Nov.  (1969).

104.  Ellente, R. W., "Why, Where, and How U.S. Mills Recover Tall Oil
     Soap," Pap.e r_Tr ad e_ Journal, June 25  (1973).

105.  Barton,  J. S., "Future Technical Needs and Trends of the Paper
     Industry, By-Products Usages," TAPPI_56, 6 (1973).

106.  "Availability of Construction Manpower," Engineerinc;_News Record,
     June 7  (1973) .
                                  241

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                              SECTION XIV

                                GLOSS AKY


Act

Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in 1972.

Air_Dry_Tgn

Measurement of production  including  moisture  content,   which  usually
varies between four and ten percent.

Bark

The protective covering of a tree.

Barking^

Removal of bark from logs in a wet or dry process.
Spent  liguor  recovered  from  a  kraft digester up to the point of the
liquor being incinerated in the recovery plant.
The brightening and delignification of pulp  by  addition  of  chemicals
such as chlorine.

Boil-Out

A  procedure,  usually  utilizing  heat  and chemicals, to clean process
equipment such as evaporators, heat-exchangers and pipelines.

Broke

Partly "or completely manufactured paper that does not leave the  machine
room  as  salable paper or board; also paper damaged in finishing opera-
tions such as rewinding rolls, cutting, and trimming.

Cellulose

The fibrous constituent of trees which is the principal raw material  of
paper and paperboard.
                                  242

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     zMechanica1_P ulp_

       produced  mechanically  by grinding  or refining  after  presoaking of
wood with caustic soda/sodium sulfite  solution.   Chest
   *
A  tank used  for storage of wet fiber or  furnish.

Chj-]3S

Small  pieces cf wood used to  make  pulp.

Coatings

Materials such as clay, starch, alum,  synthetic  adhesives,  etc.,  applied
to the surface of paper or paperboard  to  impart  special  characteristics.

Color_Unit

A  measure of color  concentration in water using  NCASI methods.

Consistency

A  weight percent of solids   in  a solids-water   mixture  used  in  the
manufacture  of pulp or paper.

Cooking

Keating  of  wood, water, and  chemicals in a closed vessel under pressure
to a temperature sufficient tc separate  fibrous  portion  of  wood by  dis-
solving lignin and  other nonfibrous constituents.

Cgoking_Liguor

The mixture cf  chemicals   and   water   used to  dissolve lignin in wood
chips.

Countercurrent Washing

Pulp washing in which fresh water  is added only  at the   last  stage  and
the effluent from this stage  is then used as  wash water  for the previous
stages.

Decker

A   mechanical  device  used to remove  water or spent  cooking liquor from
pulp.
                                   243

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Digester

A pressure vessel used tc cock wood chips in  the  presence  of   cooking
liquor and heat.

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 Eenitrif icaticn
           mediated reduction of nitrate  to  nitrite.   Other  bacteria  may
 act on the nitrite reducing it to  ammonia and   finally   N2   gas.   This
 reduction  of  nitrate   occurs  under  anaerobic  conditions.   The nitrate
 replaces oxygen as an election acceptor during the  metabolism of   carbon
 compounds  under  anaerobic  conditions.   A  pressure  vessel  used to cook
 wood chips in the presence of cooking  liquor and heat.
 The  inert  rejects  from the  green  liquor  clarifier  of  a  pulp mill.

 External_Treatment

 Technology applied to raw waste streams  to  reduce  pollutant levels

 F.xtraction_Water

 Water removed  during a pulp manufacturing process.
 An  endless  belt  of  wool  or  plastic  used  to  convey  and dewater  the  sheet
 during the  papermaking process.
 Fiber
I
 'he  cellulosic  portion of the tree used to make pulp, paper and paper-
board.

Furnish

The mixture of fibers and chemicals used to manufacture paper.

Gland

A device utilizing a  soft  wear-resistant  material  used  to  iriniir.ize
leakage  between a rotating shaft and the stationary portion of a vessel
such as a pump.
 Water  used to lubricate  a  gland.   Sometimes called "packing water."
                                   2U5

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Grade

The type of pulp or paper product manufactured
Liquor made by dissolving chemicals recovered from the kraft process  in
water and weak liqucr preparatory to causticizing.  In Plan t^Mea sure s

Technology  applied  within  the  manufacturing  process  to  reduce  or
eliminate pollutants in the raw waste water.  Sometimes called "internal
measures. "

Nitrification

Bacterial mediated oxidation of ammonia  to  nitrite.   Nitrite  can  be
further  oxidized to nitrate.  These reactions are brought about by cnly
a few specialized bacterial species.  Nitrosomonias sp. and  Nitrococcus
sp. oxidize ammonia to nitrite which is species.  Nitrosomon oxidized to
nitrate by Nitrobacter sp.

Nitrogen^ fixation

Biological nitrogen fixation is carried on by a select group of bacteria
which  take  up atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and convert it tc amine groups
or for amino acid synthesis.

£§.£ ki G3_ Water

See Gland water.
Cellulosic fibers after conversion frcm wood chips.

Pulp,er

A mechanical device resembling a large-scale  kitchen  blender  used  to
separate fiber bundles in the presence of water prior to papermaking.

Rejects

Material  unsuitable for pulp or papermaking which has been separated in
the manufacturing process.
                                  246

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Sanitary Landfill

  •sanitary landfill is a land  disposal  site  employing  an  engineered
method  of  disposing of solid wastes on land in a manner that minimizes
environmental hazards by spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes to the smallest practical volume,  and  applying  ccver
material at the end of each operating day.
                                  247

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Save-all

A  mechanical  device  used  to  recover  papermaking  fibers  and
suspended solids from a waste water or process stream.

Screenings

Rejects from a pulp mill separating device such as a screen.
Cooking liquor after the digesting operation, containing  lignaceous  as
well as chemical materials.

Stock

Wet pulp with or without chemical additions.

Suction Bex

A  rectangular  box with holes or slots on its top surface, used to suck
water out of a felt or paper sheet by the application of vacuuir.

Suction Couch Roll

A rotating roll containing holes through which water is sucked out of  a
paper sheet on a fourdrinier machine, by the application of vacuum.

Sulfidity

Sulfidity  is a measure of the amount of sulfur in kraft cooking liquor.
It is the percentage ratio of NaS, expressed as NaO, to active alkali.

Virgin_Wood_Pulg  (or fiber)

Pulp made from wood, as contrasted to waste paper sources of fiber.

White^Ligugr

Liquors made by causticizing green liquors; cooking liquor.
                                   248

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White Water

Water which drains through the wire of a paper  machine  which  contains
fdber, filler, and chemicals.

Wire

An  endless  moving  belt  made of metal or plastic, resembling a window
screen, upon which a sheet of paper is formed on a fourdrinier machine.
                                  249

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 APPENDICES
 IIA. Table 1

            2

            3

            4

            5

            6

 IIB.


 IIC.
IIIA.
IIIB.
Table 1

      2

      3

      4


      5

      6

      7

      8

      9

     10

     11

     12

     13
List of Mills per Subcategory with Sources cf
Data per Mill Identified.

Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills.         26

Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills.         26!

Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills.         27t

Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills.          271

Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills.          27?

Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills.          272

Calculations and Assumptions Used in Determining      27/-
BPCTCA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.

Calculations and Assumptions Used in Determining      283
BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.

 Exemplary Mill Data - Flow, Production, Treatment    287

 Exemplary Mill Data - Data from Mill Records.        288

 Exemplary Mill Data - Short Term Survey Results.    ^Pl

 Split Sample Comparison: Mill Results vs. Survey     290
 Results.

 Mill "a" BODS Data                                   291

 Mill,"a" TSS Data                                    292

 Mill "b" BODS Data                                   293

 Mill "b" TSS Data                                    294

 Mill "c" EOD5 Data                                   295

 Mill "c" TSS Data                                    296

 Mill "d" BODS Data                                   297

 Mill "d" TSS Data                                    298

 Mill "e" BODS Data                                   299
                                   250

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14      Mill "e" TSS  Data                                 300



15      Mill "f" EOD5 Data                                301



16      Mill "f" Tss  Data                                 302



17      Mill "g" ECD5 Data                                303



18      Mill "g" TSS  Data                                 304



19      Mill "h» EOD5 Data                                305



20      Mill "h" TSS  Data                                 306



21      Mill "i" BODS Data                                307



22      Mill "i" TSS  Data                                 308



23      Mill "j" EOD5 Data                                309



24      Mill "j" TSS  Data                                 310



25      Mill "k" EOD5 Data                                311



26      Mill "k" TSS  Data                                 312



27      Mill "1" BODS Data                                313



28      Mill "1" TSS  Data                                 314
                       251

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inc.

 IV.

      Figure 1

             2

             3

             4

             5

             6

             7

  V. Exhibit 1

     Exhibit 2


 VI.
RAPP Data

Development of costs

Spill Control Installations

Spill Easin and Controls

Capital and Operation Cost for Raw Waste Screening

Construction Cost of Earthern Settling Ponds

Capital and Operating Cost for Mechanical Clarifiers

Aerated Lagoon Treatment Plant

Completely Mixed Activated Sludge

Preliminary Mill Survey Format

Verification Program - Detailed Instructions
for Field Survey Teams.

Abreviations
                                  252

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                                APPENDIX I

                       MILLS LISTED BY SUECATEGORY*
 UNBLEACHED KRAFT
 Georgia Kraft Co.  (R) (L)
 Mahrt,  Alabama

 Union  Camp Corp (R)
 Montgomery, Alabama

 MacMillan Eloedel  United, Inc. (R)
 Pine Hill, Alabama

 Gulf States Paper  Corp.
 Tuscaloosa, Alabama

 International Paper Co.  (R)
 Camden , Arkansas

 Arkansas Kraft Corp. (R)
 Morrilton, Arkansas

 Weyerhaeuser Co.  (R) (L)
|Pine Bluff, Arkansas

 Alton  Box Board Co.
 Jacksonville, Florida

 St. Regis Paper Co. (R) (L)
 Jacksonville, Florida

 Georgia Kraft Co.  (R)
 Krannert, Georgia

 Georgia Kraft Co.  (R)
 Macon,  Georgia

 Continental Can Co., Inc. (R)
 Port wentworth, Georgia

 Interstate Paper Corp. (R) (L)
 Riceboro, Georgia
                                   254

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Owens-Illinois, Inc.  (R)(L)
Valdosta, Georgia

Unijax, Inc.
Elizabeth, Louisiana

Pineville Kraft Corp.  (R) (L)
Pineville, Louisiana

St. Regis Paper Co.  (R)
Monticello, Mississippi

International Paper Co.  (R)
Vicksburg, Mississippi

Albemarle Paper Co.
Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina

International Paper Co.  (R)
Gardiner, Oregon

Weyerhaeuser Co.  (R)(L)
Springfield, Oregon

Georgia-Pacific Corp.  (R)
Toledo, Oregon

Westvaco Corp.
Charleston, South Carolina

South Carolina Industries, Inc. (R)
Florence, South Carolina

Tennessee River Pulp & Paper Co.  (R) (L)
Counce, Tennessee

Owens-Illinois, Inc.  (R)(L)
Orange, Texas

Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Port Townsend, Washington
                                  255

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KAFT-NSSCMILLS
      Northern Paper Co.  (R)
Cedar Springs, Georgia

Union Camp Corp.
Savannah, Georgia

International Paper Co.  (R)
Bastrop, Louisiana

Continental Can Co. (R) (L)
Hodge, Louisiana

Continental Can Co. (R)
Hopewell, Virginia

Weyerhaeuser Co.  (R)
Plymouth, N.C.

Olinkraft, Inc.  (R)
West Monroe, Louisiana

Weyerhaeuser Co.  (R) (L)
Valliant, Oklahoma
 estern Kraft Corp.  (R)(L)
  bany, Oregon
Boise Cascade Corp.  (R)
Wallula, Washington
                                   256

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NSSC MILLS JSODIUM BASE)
Weston Paper and Mfg. Co.  (R) (L)
Terre Haute, Indiana

Celotex Corp.
Dutuque, Iowa

Consolidated Packaging Corp.
Fort Madison, Iowa

Wescor Corp. (R)
Hawesville, Kentucky

Hoerner Waldorf Corp.  (R)
Ontonagon, Michigan

Menasha Corp. (R) (L)
Otsego, Michigan

Hoerner Waldorf Corp.  (R)
St. Paul, Minnesota

Container Corp. of America  (R)
Circleville, Ohio

Stone Container Corp.  (R)
Coschocton, Ohio

Celotex Corp.
Sunbury, Pennsylvania

Mead Corp.  (R)
Harriman, Tennessee

Mead Corp.
Lynchburg, Virginia

Green Bay Packaging, Inc.  (R) (L)
Green Bay, Wisconsin

Menasha Corp. (R)
North Bend, Oregon
                                  257

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 N§SC_MILLS__(AMMONIA_BASE).
t
  'ad Corp.
 ylva, North Carolina

Inland Container Corp.  (R) (L)
New Johnsonville,  Tennessee
                                    258

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PAPERBOARC FROM WASTE PAPER MILLS IN THE U.S.
National Gypsum Co. (R)
Annas-ton, Alabama

Stone Container Corp.   (R)
Mobile, Alabama

Sonoco Products Co.
City of industry, California

Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.  (M)
Los Angeles, California

L.A. Paper Box & Board Mills
Los Angeles, California

Sonoco Products Co.
Richmond, California

Kaiser Gypsum Co.
San Leandro, California

Container Corp. of America
Santa Clara, California

Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Santa Clara, California

U.S. Gypsum Co.
South Gate, California

Fibreboard Corp.
Stockton, California

Fibreboard Corp.
Vernon, California

Packaging Corp. of America
Denver, Colorado

Colonial Board Co.
Manchester, Connecticut

Robertson Paper Box Co.  (M)
Montville, Connecticut

Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
New Haven, Connecticut
                                  259

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 Simkins  Industries,  Inc.
 ew Haven, Connecticut
i
  ederal  Paper  Board  Co.,  Inc.
 Versailles,  Connecticut

 Container  Corp. of America
 Wilmington,  Delaware

 U.S.  Gypsum  Co.  (M)
 Jacksonville,  Florida

 Simkins  Industries,  Inc.
 Miami, Florida

 Sonoco Products Co.  (M)
 Atlanta, Georgia

 Austell  Box  Board Corp.  (R)
 Austell, Georgia

 Alton Box  Board Co.
 Cedartown, Georgia

 Alton Box  Board Co.
 Alton, Illinois

^Container  Corp. of America  (M)
Rhicago, Illinois

 Prairie  State  Paper  Mills (M)
 Joliet,  Illinois

 Nabisco,  Inc.  (M)
 Marseilles,  Illinois

 Federal  Paper  Board  Co.,  Inc.  (M)
 Morris,  Illinois

 Quaker Oats  Co.   (R)
 Pekin,  Illinois

 Packaging  Corp.  of America
 Quincy,  Illinois

 Sonoco Products  Co.  (R)
 Rockton, Illinois

 Kieffer  Paper  Mills, Inc.
 Brownstown,  Indiana
                                   260

-------
Container Corp. of America
Carthage, Indiana

Eeveridge Paper Co. (M)
Indianapolis, Indiana

Alton Box Board Co.
Lafayette, Indiana

Vincennes Paper Mills Inc.
Vincennes, Indiana

Container Corp. of America
Wabash, Indiana

Packaging Corp. of America
Tama, Iowa

Packaging Corp. of America
Hutchinson, Kansas

Lawrence Paper Co.
Lawrence, Kansas

Ycrktowne Paper Mills of Maine, Inc.
Gardiner, Maine

Keys Fibre Co,
Waterville, Maine

Chesapeake Paper Board Co. (M)
Baltimore, Maryland

Simkins Industries, Inc.  (M)
Catonsville, Maryland

Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Whitehall, Maryland

Bird and Son, Inc.
East Wapole, Massachusetts

Haverhill Paperboard Corp.
Haverhill, Massachusetts

Sonoco Products Co.
Holyoke, Massachusetts

Perket Folding Box Corp.
Hyde Park, Massachusetts
                                  261

-------
 Lawrence  Paperboard Corp.
   wrence,  Massachusetts
^e
 ewark Boxboard Co.
Natick, Massachusetts
  •

Michigan Cartcn Co. (M)
Battle Creek, Michigan

Simplex Industries
Constantine, Michigan

Packaging Corp. of America
Grand Rapids, Michigan

Brown Co.  (M)
Kalamazoo, Michigan

National Gypsum Co. (M)
Kalamazoo, Michigan

Time Container Corp.  (M)
Monroe, Michigan

Union Camp Corp.
Monroe, Michigan
I
 ead Corp.
 tsego, Michigan
 Rockford Paper Mills, Inc.
 Rockford,  Michigan

 Weyerhaeuser Co.
 White Pigeon, Michigan

 U.S.  Gypsum Co.
 N. Kansas City, Missouri

 Groveton Paper Board, Inc.
 Groveton,  New Hampshire

 Hoague Sprague Div., USM Corp.
 West  Hopkinton, New Hampshire

 MacAndrews 6 Forbes Co. (M)
 Camden, New Jersey

 U.S.  Gypsum Co. (M)
 Clark, New Jersey
                                   262

-------
Whippany Paper Board Co.
Clifton, New Jersey

Georgia-Pacific Corp.  (R)
Delair, New Jersey

National Gypsum Co.  (M)
Garwood, New Jersey

Eoyle Co.  (M)
Jersey City, New Jersey

Davey Co.  (M)
Jersey City, New Jersey

National Gypsum Co.
Millington, New Jersey

Newark Boxboard Co.  (M)
Newark, New Jersey

Morris Paper Eoard Co.  (M)
Paterson, New Jersey

Lincoln Paper Mills, Inc.
Ridgefield Park, New Jersey

Whippany Paper Board Co.  (R)
Whippany, New Jersey

Sonoco Products Co.
Amsterdam, New York

Climax Mfg. Co.
Carthage, New York

Brown Co.
Castleton-on-Hudson, New York

Columbia Corp.  (R)
Chatham, New York

Cornwall Paper Mills Co.
Cornwall, New York

3eaverboard Cc., Inc.
Lcckport, New York

Martisco Paper Co.,  Inc.
Marcellus, New York
                                  263

-------
 Columbia Ccrp.
•North Hocsick,  New York

 Boundary Paper  Mills,  Inc.
 North Tonawanda,  New York

 U.S.  Gypsum Co.
 Oakfield, New York

 Federal Paper Board Co.,  Inc.
 Piermont, New York

 Warrensburg Board 6 Paper Corp.
 Warrensburg, New York

 Carolina Paper  Board Corp.
 Charlotte, North Carolina

 Crown Zellerbach Corp. (R)
 Baltimore, Ohio

 Tecumseh Corrugated Box Co.  (R)
 Brecksville, Ohio

 Container Corp. of America (M)
 Cincinnati, Ohio

 lyiead Corp.  (M)
 Cincinnati, Ohio

 St. Regis Paper Co.
 Coschocton, Ohio

 Stone Container Corp.  (R)
 Franklin, Chic

 U.S.  Gypsum Co.  (M)
 Gypsum, Ohio

 Loroco Industries, Inc.
 Lancaster, Ohio

 Diamond International Corp.
 Lockland, Chic

 Massillon Paper Co.
 Massillon, Ohio

 Diamond international Corp.
 Middletown, Ohio
                                   26U

-------
Middle-town Paperbcard Co.
Middle-town, Ohio

Sonoco Products Co.
Munroe Falls, Ohio

Packaging Corp. of America
Rittman, Ohio

Federal Paperfcoard Co., Inc.  (M)
Steubenville, Ohio

Packaging Corp. of America
Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania

Brandywine Paper Corp.
Dcwingtown, Pennsylvania

Sonoco Products Co. (R) (L)
Downingtown, Pennsylvania

American Paper Products Co.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania

National Gypsum Co. (R) (L)
Milton, Pennsylvania

Container Corp. of America  (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Crown Paper Board Co.   (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Newman 6 Co., Inc.  (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Reading, Pennsylvania

Tim-Bar Paper Co.
Reading, Pennsylvania

Vvhippany Paper Board Co.
Riegelsville, Pennsylvania

Westvaco Ccrp.
Williamsburg, Pennsylvania

St. Regis Paper Co. (M)
York, Pennsylvania
                                  265

-------
Yorktovme Paper Mills, Inc.  (M)
York, Pennsylvania

Carotell Paper Board Corp.  (R) (L)
Taylors, South Carolina

Sonoco Products Co. (R)
Hartsville, S. C.

Container Corp. of America
Chattanooga, Tennessee

Tennessee Paper Mills, Inc.
Chattanooga, Tennessee

Sonoco Products Co.
Newport, Tennessee

TXI Paper Products, Inc.
Dallas, Texas

U.S. Gypsum Co.  (R)(L)
Galena Park, Texas

Container Corp. of America
Tacoma, Washington

Banner Fibrebcard Co.
Wellsburg, West Virginia

Eeloit Box Board Co.
Beloit, Wisconsin

Menasha Ccrp.
Menasha, Wisconsin

St. Regis Paper Co.
MiIwaukee, Wi scon sin

D.S. Paper Mills ccrp.
west De Pere, Wisconsin

Fibreboard Corp.
Sumner, Washington
*Key:  (R) = RAPP  (Refuse Act Permit Program) Data Available
       (M) = Discharge into public sewer system
       (L) = Literature Data Available

Note:  Information was not available for mills without  (R),  (L),  and (M)


                                  266

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                               APPENDIX IIA
                                 TABLE 1
              Final  Effluent EOD5 Data for Exemplary Mills
                        Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)

            Annual                  Monthly        Max
Mill        Average      SD          Mean          Month
Note - Numbers following parenthesis indicate the f cf data points

Unbleached Kraft

a    2.2(4.5)-68       1.4(2.8)     2.2(4.5)-15   4.3(8.6)

b    1.0(2.0)-348      0.7(1.5)     1.0(2.0)-13   2.4(4.8)

c    1.5(3.0)-229      1.5(3.1)     1.4(2.9)-14   2.9(5.8)

d    4.3(8.7)-73       2.5(5.0)     4.2(8.5)-13   8.0(16)

NSSC-Ammonia Ease

e                        -         5.2(10.5)-12  8.0(16.1)

NSSC-Sodium Base

f*    0.5(1.0)-179      0.34(0.68)   0.5(1.0)-6    1.4(2.8)

Kraft-NSSC  (Cross Recovery)

g    5.0(10.1)-319     3.4(6.8)     4.6(9.2)-13   8.6(17.2)

h    4.0(8.0)-104      1.8(3.6)     3.8(7.7)-7    5.5(11.0)

Paperboard  from Waste  Paper

j    0.26 (0.52)-355    0.28(0.56)   0. 26 (0 . 53) - 1 3 0.69(1.38)
k    0.14 (0.28)-218    0.13(0.27)   0. 1 4 (0 . 28)-1 4 0.33(0.66)
1    0.32 (0.65)-106    0.27(0.54)   0. 31 (0. 63)-1 4 0.70(1.41)

*This data includes  only treated wastes - not the total waste  load
                                   268

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                                 TABLE 2
              Final Effluent  BOD5  Data for Exemplary Mills
                       Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill   M30CJD
Unbleached Kraft

a    1.8(3.5)

b    0.9(1.8)

c    1.3(2.7)

d    3.9(7.8)

NSSC -Ammonia Ease

e

NSSC-Sodium Base

f*   0.49(0.99)

Kraft-NSSC  (Cress  Recovery)

     4.8(9.6)        8.9(17.8)

h    4.1 (8.2)        5.0(10.1)

Paperboard  from Waste  Paper
Maximum
M3CCD
2.8(5.6)
2.5(4.95)
2.8(5.6)
5.3(10.6)
	 	 SD30
1. 15(2.3)
0.37(0.75)
0.99(1 .98)
0.87(1.75)
	 CV
0.66
0.42
0.73
0.22
0.92(1.84)
j    0.27(0.54)
k    0.13(0.27)
1    0.31(0.63)
0.63(1.26)
0.32(0.65)
0.47(0.95)
0.26(0.52)   0.52
2.5(5.05)

0.7(1.40)
                           0.28

                           0.14
0.12(0.24)  0.19
0.06(0.13)  0.20
0.07(0.15)  0.16
*This data includes  only treated wastes - not the total waste  load
                                   269

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                                TABLE  3
              Final Effluent  BOD5  Data for  Exemplary Mills
                       Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Annual
2.
1.
1.
4.
2
0
5
3
(4
(2
(3
(8
.5)
.0)
.0)
•7)
An
5
2
4
9
. Av.
2SD
• 0(
.52
.6(
• 3(
10
(5
9.
18
Plus
•1)
.04)
2)
-7)
Ratio
2.
2.
3.
2.
24
47
07
15
Max Month
to An. Av
1
2
1
1
.91
.35
.93
.83
Unbleached Kraft

    a

    b

    c

    d

NSSC -Ammonia Base

    e                      -

NSSC-Sodium Base

    f*                 0.5(1.0)       1.18(2.36)     2.36        1.78

Kraft-NSSC  (Cross Recovery)

    g                  5.0(10.1)     11.8(23.7)     2.35         1.70

    h                  4.0(8.0)       7.6(15.2)     1.90         1.37

Paperboard from Waste  Paper

    j                  0.26(0.52)    0.82(1.64)     3.15         2.65

    k                  0.14(0.28)    0.41(0.82)     2.93         2.35

    1                  0.32(0.65)    0.86(1.73)     2.66         2.17

Averages                                          2.55         2.03
Averages                             2.55         2.03

*This data includes only treated wastes-not the  total waste  load
                                   270

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                                 TABLE 4
               Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills
                        Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

           Annual                    Monthly        Maximum
Mill       Average        SD          Mean           Month     Methods
Unbleached  Kraft

a       6.4(12.8)-66  2.9(5.9)      6.4 (12.8)-16     11.1(22.2)   NSM

b       1 = 2(2.5)-353  1.5(3.1)      1.07 (2. 14)-13     4,2(8.5)    NSM

c       1.1(2.2)-206  0.7(1.4)      1. 17 (2.35)-14     1.6(3.3)    SM

d       7. 1 (14.2)-249 7.6(15.2)     6. 25 (1 2. 5)-1 3     8.8(17.7)   SM

NSSC-Ammonia Ease

e         -             -         4.2(8.5)-13       9.4(18.9)   NSM

NSSC-Sodium Base

f*      1.71 (3.43)-178 1.51(3.02)   1.61(3.23)-6      3.18(6.37)  SM

J^raft-NSSC  (Cross Recovery)

*       4.55(9.1)-321  2.10(4.2)   4.55 (9. 1)-13      6.1(12.2)   SM

h       1.57(3.15)-104 1.25(2.5)   1.55(3.1)-?       3.2(6.5)    KSM

Paperboard  from Waste Paper

j       1.29(2.58)-356 1.27(2.55)   1.13 (2.26)-13     3.64(7.28)  SM

k       0.95(1.91-278  0.60(1.19)   0.96 (1 .93)-14     1.56(3.13)  SM

1       0.56(1.12)-105 0.60(1.19)   0. 55 (1 .11) - 1 4     1.77(3.54)  SM

*This  data  includes only treated wastes -  not the  total  waste  load
Note - Numbers  following parenthesis indicate #  of data  points
                                   271

-------
                                 TABLE 5
              Final  Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills
                        Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)

                     Maximum
Mill   M30CD          M30CD         SD30       CV       Methods
Unbleached Kraft

a    5.7(11.4)     7.55(15.1)    0.68(1.36)    0.09      NSM

b    1.12(2.25)    4.55(9.1)     1.02(2.05)    0.22      NSM

c    1.05(2.10)    1.55(3.1)     0.23(0.46)    0.15      SM

d    7.05(14.1)    9.55(19.1)    1.25(2.50)    0.13      SM

NSSC-Ammonia  Ease

e                     -            -           -       NSM

NSSC-Sodium Base

f*   1.71(3.43)    3.50(7.00)    0.98(1.96)    0.57     SM

Kraft-NSSC  (Cross  Recovery)

g    4.6(9.2)      6.4(12.8)     1.2(2.4)      0.19     SM

h    1.6(3.2)      2.6(5.3)      0.5(1.0)      0.19    NSM

Paperboard from Waste Paper

j    1.33(2.67)    3.76(7.52)    0.89(1.79)    0.67    SM

k    0.90(1.81)    1.63(3.'37)    0.27(0.55)    0.31    SM

1    0.51/1.03)    1.11(2.23)    0.27(0.54)    0.52    SM

*This data includes  only treated wastes - not the total waste load.
                                   272

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                                TABLE 6
              Final Effluent  TSS  Data for Exemplary Mills
                       Values in  kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Annual

Average
An. Av.
plus
2SD
                                                Ratio
  Max Month
    to
Annual Average
Unbleached Kraft

a        6.4(12.8)

b        1.2(2.5)

c        1.1(2.2)

d        7.1(14.2)

NSSC-Ammonia Base

e

NSSC-Sodium Base

f*       1.71(3.343)
         13.15(26.3)

          6.05(12.1)

          2.50(5.0)

         22.9(45.8)
          2.06

          4.84

          2.27

          3.23
                            2.76
                                           1.92

                                           2.59



                                           2.97

                                           2.25

                                           3.12

                                           2.81
                                                               1.73

                                                               3.40

                                                               1 .50

                                                               1.25
                              1.85
                           4.73 (9.47)

•Craft-NSSC  (Cross Recovery)

 g        4.55(9.1)        8.75(17.5)

 h        1.57(3.15)       4.07(8.15)

 Paperboard  from Waste  Paper

 j        1.29(2.58)       3.84(7.68)

 k        0.95(1.91)       2.14(4.29)

 1        0.56(1.12)       1.75(3.50)

 averages

 *This data  includes only  treated wastes - not the total waste load
                                               1.00

                                               2.06



                                               2.82

                                               1.64

                                               3.16

                                               1 .48
                                   273

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                              APPENDIX IIB

            CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DETERMINING
                  BPCTCA EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES

                    Values are expressed as kg/kkg(lbs/ton)

UNBLEACHED KRAFT
BODS - 3(
Mill
a
b
c
Averages
) Ca^ Guideline
Data Annual
£2iD^§ Average
68
348
229

2.21 (4.54)
1.02 (2.04)
1.51(3.02)
IT? 011720)
                                 M30CD+SD     SD3_0

                                2.90(5.80)  1.15(2.3)

                                1.27(2.55)  0.37(0.75)

                                2.34(4.68)  0.99(1.98)

                                2~7lT(4734)

BOD5_-^DailY_Maxirnuin_-Guideline

     Annual Average x 2.5
     1.60(3.20)  x  2.5 = 4.0(8.0)

TSS_-_30_Day_Guideline
Mill
c
d
66

1
7
3
Annual
Average
.1(2.2)
.1 (14.2)
.7(7.40)

0
0
0
CV
.1
.1
.1

5
3
4

0.
1.
0.
SD30
23(0.
25(2.
51 (1.
M3OCD+SD
46)
50)
30)
1.
8.
4.
28(2
3 (1
21 (8
.56)
6.6)
.43)
averages 3.96(7.93)                           4.9(9.2)

Notes:

     1.  CV  for  mill "66" is average of "c" and "d»
     2.  SD30  for  mill "66" calculated from
           SD = CV(M30CD)

TSS-Daily._Maximum

     2.8 x 3.96  (7.93)   =  11.1  (22.2)
                                   274

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NS.SC-AMMONIA BASE

BOp5-Daily Maximum

     1.  Assume CV = 0.50  (from NSSC-sodium)

     2.  M30CD * SD = 30 Day Limitation
         M30CD + SD = 5.25(10.5)
          SD = CV(M30CD)
         M30CD + CV(M30CD)  = 5.25(10.5)
         M30CD(1 + 0.5) =  5.25(10.5)
         M30CD = 3.5(7)

     3.  Annual Average =  M30CD
         Annual Average =  3.5(7)

     4.  2.5 x 3. 5(7) = 8.75(17.5)

TSS-30_Day._Limitation

Mill      Eaw Waste    Final Effluent     Reduction

  e       3.1 (6.2)     8(16)                 50.0

  f*      3.1(6.2)     1.6(3.3)              46.8

Average                                      18.4

*This raw waste load does  not  include  approximately
5.4(10.8) in the main sewer which  is discharged
without treatment.  The total  raw  waste  for mill
"f" is thus 8.5(17).

Desired effluent levels:

     753S of mill »e" = 4.0(8.0)
     75% of mill «f" = 2.22(4.25)

     CV for mill f = 0.57  from Table 5,  Appendix IIA,
     Use CV for mill e of  0.57

     Mill e
                                   275

-------
M30CD+SD=mean  SD  =  4.0(8.0)  + 4. 0 (8. 0) (0 . 57)

          M30CD + SD = 4.0(8.0)  x 1.57
                      = 6.28(12.56)

     Mill f

          M30CD+SD= 2.22(4.25)  x 1.57
                    = 3.33(6.67)

Mill     An.Av.  (Mean)         CV       M30CD+SD

 e       4.0(8.0)             0.57      6.28(12.56)

 f       2.2(4.25)            0.57      3.33(6.67)

Averages  3.06(6.12)                   5.06(10.12)

TSS-Daily._Maximum

     2.8 x 3.06(6.12)  = 8.56(17.13)

NSSC^SODIUM_BASE

     1QD5-3^_DaY_ Limitation

Mill       Raw Waste

 f         7.3(14.6)

Literature

 4         13.5(27)

 1         15J30).	
Average    11.9(23.8)  at 85% = 1.8(3.6)

     assume CV =  0.75
            SD =  CV(mean)
            M30CD(1 + CV)  = M30CD+SD
            1.8(3.6)  x 1.75 = 3.15 (6.3)

BOD5-Dailv._Maximum

     2.5 x 1.8 (3. 6)  = 4.5(9.0)
                                   276

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KRAFT-NSSC_ICRgSS_RECgVERY]_

BC5D5-30 Day Limitation

                    Raw_Waste

                  mill g        mill h

mill records     17.5(35)
survey data      14.5(29)      13.5(27)

Calculate annual average  for mill  h

     1.  Assume ratio of  raw wastes is relatively constant,

     2.  Then 11^5^27)  x 17.5(35)  = 16.25(32.5)
              14.5(29)

     3.  Average of mill  g and h
              17.5(35) + 16.25(32.5) = 16.9(33.8)

     4.  85%  BODS removal
              0.15 x  16.9(33.8)  = 2.53(5.07)

     5.  CV = average of  mill  g and h
         CV = (0.28 + 0.14)/2  = 0.21

     6.  M30CD+SD
          M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
         2.53(5.07) + 0.21 x  2.53(5.07)  = M30CD+SD
          2.53(5.07) x  1.21 =  3.06(6.13)
                                   277

-------
BOD5-Daily_Maximum

     2.5  x  2.53(5.07)  = 6.3(12.7)

TSS-30 Day_Liniitation

Mill            Annual Average

    g           4.55(9.2)

NCASI 1         4.4(8.8)

Average         4.5(9.0)

     Mill g and h, CV = 0.19

     M30CD+SD  = M30CD + CV(M30CD)
               = 4.5(9. 0)  x 1.19
               = 5.35(10.7

TSS-3_0_Day._Limitation

   Mill_     Annual_Average_   CV_     M30CD4;SD_

     g       4.55(9.1)         0.19     5.4(10.8)

NCASI 1      iLtiiS^Jl         0.19     5^25^10^51

Average      4.47(8.95)                 5.32(10.65)

TSS-Daily Maximum

          2.8  x 4.47(8.95)  = 12.5(25.0)
                                   278

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'APERBOARC FROM WASTE PAPER
r.
BOD5-30 Day.
"Mill
j
k
1
Average
NCASI
2
3
5
Literature
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Limitation
Annual
0.26(0
0.14(0
0.32(0


0.1
1.1
0.55

2
1.5
1.0
3.5
0.1
0.5
1.0
0.35
1.0
0.75
Average SD
.52) 0.12(0.24)
.28) 0.06(0.13)
.65) 0.07(0.15)


(0.2)
(2.2)
(1.1)

CO
(3)
(2)
(7)
(0.2)
(1.0)
(2)
(0.70)
(2.0)
(1.5)
CV
0.19
0.20
0^6
0.183















Average     0.88    (1.76)

     Assume CV =  0.30  for  all mills

     M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
     M30CD + CV(M30CD)  = M30CD+SD
     M30CD(1 + CV)  = M30CD+SD
     0.88(1.76) x 1.30 =  1.14(2.29)
                                                   M30CD+SD

                                                   0.39(0.78)

                                                   0.20(0.40)

                                                   0.39(0.78)
                                   279

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BQD5-DailY^Maximurn



     2.5 x  0.88(1.76)  = 2.2(4.4)
                                    280

-------
^TSS-30 Day Limitation
*



^ Mill  Annual Average       SD         CV   M30CD+SD




   •j     1.29(2.58)      0..89(1.79)    0.67  2.23(4.46)




    k     0.95(1.91)      0.27(0.55)    0.30  1.18(2.36)




    1     0.56(1.12)      0.27(0.54)    0.52  0.78(1.57)




 NCASI




    2     1.0(2.0)         0.50(1.00)    0.50  1.50(3.00)




    3     1.4(2.8)         0.70(1.40)    0.50  2.10(4.20)




    5     1.3(1.6)         0.40(0.80)    0.50  1.20(2.40)




 Average 1.00(2.00)                          1.50(3.00)
                                    281

-------
                              APPENDIX  IIC

   CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED^IN^DETERMINING^EATEA^GUIDELINES

                Values are expressed  in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)



UNBLEACHED KRAFT

BOD5-30 Day Limitation

    Use 93% Reduction

    Average raw waste = 14.12(28.25)  Annual   Average  =  14.12(28.25)  x
    0.07 = 0.99(1 .98)

    Use  mill  b  SD30  since  mill   b   is   achieving  1.0(2.0)  in final
    effluent.  SD30 = 0.37(0.75)

    M30CD + SD = 0.99(1.98) + 0.37(0.75)  M30CD  +  SD = 1.36(2.73)

BOD5^Daily Maximum

    2.5 x 0.99(1.98) = 2.47(4.95)

TSS-30 Day Limitation

    Use 60% reduction by mixed media  filtration  0.40  x  4.6  (9.2)   =
    1.85  (3.7)

TSS-Daily._Maximum

    0.40 x 11.1  (22.2) = 4.45  (8.9)
NSSC-AMMONIA EASE

BOD5-30 Day Limitation

    Raw  Waste  = 33.5(67) Use 9356 reduction  Eff  =  0.07 x 33.5(67)  Eff
    2.35(4.7) = annual average

    Assume CV = 0.50  (from BPCTCA)

    M30CD = SD = M30 CD+SD Def.: M30CD   =   Annual  Average  2.35(4.7)
    CV(M30CD) = M30CD = SD 2.35(4.7)  x  1.5 =  3.5(7.05)
                                   283

-------
BOD 5 -Daily_Maximuni

    2.5 x  2.35(4.7)  = 5.87(11.75)

TSS-30 Day^Limitation

    0.40 x 5.0(10.0)  = 2.0(4.0)

TSS-Daij-Y^Maxirnum

    0.40 x 8.5(17.0)  = 3.4(6.8)




N S SC_ - _ SO D I UM_BAS E

1Q2 $~ 3.P__ Da v_L j.rni t a ti on

    Raw  Waste =  11.9(23.8)  Use 93% reduction Annual Average = 0.07 x
    11.9(23.8)  =  0.83(1.66) = M30CD

    Assume CV = 0.80  (from BPCTCA)  (Note  -  Conservative assumption)

    M30CD  + SD =  M30CD+SD  (0.83) (1.66) x  1.8  = 1.49(2,98)
    2.5 x  0.83(1.66)  = 2.07(4.15)

5SS-30_Dav._Liinitation

    0.40 x 5.0(10.0)  = 2.0(4.0)

TSS-DailY_Maximum

    0.40 x 8.5(17.0)  = 3.4(6.8)
                                   284

-------
KRAFT-NSSC  (CROSS RECOVERY^

  )D5-30_Day-i_ Limitation

    Raw Waste =  16.9(33.8)  Use 9356 Reduction M30CD  =   Annual  Average
    0.07 x  16.9(33.8) M30CD = 1.18(2.37)

    Assume CV =  0.21  (from BPCTCA)

    M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD 1.18(2.37) x  1.21 =  1.43(2.86)

B OD 5_^Dai 1 y_Ma ximum

    2.5 x 1.18*2.37)  =  2.96(5.92)

TSS-30 Day Limitation

    0.40 x  5.3(10.6)  =  2.1(4.2)

TSS-Dail^_Maximum_

    0.40 x  12.5(25)  = 5.0(10.0)
PAPERBOARD FROM  WASTE PAPER
  ^DS - 3 0_D a^_Li mi t at ion

Mill               Raw Waste

j                  7(14)
k                  5.5(11)
1                  9.5(19)

Literature

1                  22.5(45)
2                  13(26)
3                  11.5(23)
4                  15(30)
5                  7.5(15)
6                  4(8)
7                  7.5(15)
8                  7(14)
9                  9.5(19)

Average            9.95(19.9)
                                   285

-------
BPCTCA represents 91.2% reduction

Use 95% Reduction for  BATEA
Annual Average = 0.05  x 9.95(19.9)  =  0.49(0.99)

    M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
    Assume CV = 0.30  (from BPCTCA)
    0.49(0.99) x 1.3 = 0.64(1.29)

BQD5-Daily Maximum

    2.5 x 0.49(0.99) = 1.24(2.49)

TSS-3C Day Limitation

    0.40 x 1.5(3. 0) =  0.6(1.2)

TSS-DailY_Maximum

    0.40 x 2.8(5.6) =  1.1 (2.2)
                                   286

-------
                                       Appendix  IIIA
                                            Table  1

                                     Exemplary  Mill  Data-
                                 Flow, Production, Treatment
K3
00
Mill

Unbleached Kraft

 a
 b
 c
 d

NSSC-Ammonia Base

 e

NSSC-Sodium Base

 f
                             Flow
                       kiloliters/kkg
                        (IQOOgal/ton)
                         43.8  (10.5)
                         47.1  (11.3)
                         39.5  (9.46)
                         56.3  (13.5)
34.7 (8.33)
                         44.6  (10.7)
      Kraft-NSSC  (Cross Recovery)
       g
       h
                   51.3  (12.3)
                   53.4  (12.8)
      Paperboard From Wastepaper
       j
       k
       1
                   12.1  (2.91)
                   38.8  (9.30)
                   9.43  (2.26)
                           Production
                           kkg/Day
                           (tons/Day)
                           1025  (1130)
                            839  (925)
                            794  (875)
                            753  (830)
390 (430)
                            336  (370)
                           1261  (1390)
                            694  (765)
                            272  (300)
                            245  (270)
                            145  (160)
                             Type
                              of
                           Treatment
                           C-ASB
                           C-ASB-SO-HP
                           C-ASB-SO
                           C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-HP
                           C-ASB-HP
                           C-ASB
                           C-ASB
                           C*
                           C-ASB-C
                           C-AS
                           ASB
      *Clarifies for reuse of water and  solids.

-------
                                         Table  2

                              Data From Exemplary Mill Records

                                 Values in kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Raw
BODS
Waste
TSS
Final Effluent
BODS TSS
TSS
Methods
Unbleached Kraft
a
b
c
d
13
13
14
15
.5
.5
.0
.5
(27)
(27)
(28)
(31)
10.5
17.0
28.0
19.5
(21)
(34)
(56)
(39)
2.
1.
1.
4.
25(4.
0 (2.
5 (3.
3 (8.
5)
0)
0)
7)
6.4(12
1.2 (2
1.1 (2
7.1(14
.8)
.5)
.2)
.2)
NSM
NSM
SM
SM
    NSSC-Ammonia Base

     e               33.5  (67)      17  (34)         5.25(10.5)     4.2  (8.5)            NSM
NJ
g   NSSC-Sodium Base

     f                8.5  (17)     8.5  (17)         0.5  (1.0)*     1.7  (3.4)*           SM

    Kraft-NSSC  (Cross-Recovery)
g
h
Paperboard
i
j
k
1
17.5 (35)
— —
From Wastepaper
__
7.0 (14)
5.5 (11)
9.5 (19)
16.5 (33)
9.0 (18)

__
2.05 (4.1)
35 (70)
2.8 (5.6)
5.05(10.1)
4.0 (8.0)

__
0.26 (0.52)
0.14 (0.28)
0.32 (0.65)
4.5 (9.1)
1.6 (3.2)

__
1.3 (2.6)
0.95(1.9)
0.56(1.12)
SM
SM

_—
SM
SM
SM
        is data includes only treated wastes-no^^he  total load.

-------
to
oo
                   Raw Waste
Mill        BODS      TSS     pH

UNBLEACHED KRAFT

  a    12   (24)   6.5 (13)  7.4

  b    17   (34)  11   (22)

  c     9.5 (19)  17   (34)

  d    22.5 (45)  26.5 (53) 11

NSSC - AMMONIA BASE

  e    30.5 (61)  16   (32)  6.1

NSSC - SODIUM BASE

  f    13   (26)   7.5 (15)  7.4

KRAFT - NSSC (Cross Recovery)

  g    14.6 (29)  19.5 (39) 10.6

  h    13.5 (27)   5.5 (11)  7.8

PAPERBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER

  i     0.07(0.15) 0.07(0.15)5.!

  H     9   (18)   1.2 (2.4) 6.3

  k    11.5 (23)  33   (66)  6.4

  1     5.5 (11)   0.95(1.9)  -
                                                               Table 3

                                               SHORT TERM SURVEY RESULTS EXEMPLARY MILLS

                                          Values for BODS, TSS, and Color in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
                                            Values for Total K^eldahl Nitrogen (TKN) in mg/L
                                             Primary Effluent
                                            BODS          TSS
                            Secondary Effluent
                            BODS           TSS
                                         11   (22)   2.2  (4.4)  0.85 (1.7)

                                         17.5 (35)   3.6  (7.2)  4.7  (9.4)

                                         11   (22)   4.45 (8.9)  7.55 (5.1)
                                         19
     (3R)  30.5  (71)   8.5  (17)
30   (60)
(18)    3.15  (6.3)
                                          7.5 (15)   3.0  (6.1)

                                         13.4 (27)   3.4  (6.8)



                                                   Near Comolete Recycle

                                          8.5 (17)   1.15 (2.3)  2.3  (4.6)

                                          8.5 (17)   3.5  (7)   18    (36)
                                    BODS
                          Final Effluent
                       TSS        Color
TKN
pH
                       2.4   (4.8)  1.1  (2.2)   3.3  (6.6)

                       4.3   (8.6)  0.7  (1.4)   1.0  (2.1)   21

                       3.2   (6.4)  2.3  (4.7)   1.1  (2.2)   18

                       6.5   (13)   1.3  (2.7)   5    (10)    30
                                              0.7  7.4

                                        (42)  -    7.7

                                        (36)  -    8.0

                                        (61)  4.9  8.8
14.5  (29)  2.9 (5.8)  8   (16)   68   (137)   190  7.2
                                                                                            2.0 (4.1)  6.5 (13)
                                                                                          7.9
                                        6

                                       90
                                  1.5  (3.0)   2.8  (5.6)   21.5   (43)   -     7.4

                                  1.5  (3.0)   3.0  (6.1)   17     (35)   4.22  7.1



                                 0.045(0.09)  0.02(0.04)   0.16  (0.32)8.6   4.5

                            (12)   0.11(0.22)  0.45(0.9)    3.1   (6.2)  12    7.4

                            (180)  0.28(0.57)  0.6  (1.2)   '2.15  (4.3)  3.6   7.6

                                  0.21(0.42)  0.5  (1.0)       -

-------
                                                Table
                   ^Sample Comparison of  Mill Data and Short  Tarm Survey Data
            from Split Samples  Taken at Various  Points in the Process  (for mill d)








ro
vo
o
Date:
Hay 1973
7

8

9

10
Analysis
BY
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
BOD5
330
265
400
280
NA
232
260
268
Raw
TSS
NA
NA
547
270
632
637
384
534
Waste
PH
10.5
NA
8.7 .
NA
.8 8.3
NA
10.4
NA
Primary Effluent
Color
NA
NA
290
680
220
130
330
220
BOD5
430
331
430
302
240
282
250
299
TSS
NA
NA
478
66
151
332
144
476
PH
9.5
NA
9.7
10.2
9.8
9.3
9.3
9.6
Color
NA
NA
540
400
290
230
220
560
Secondary
BOD5
130
104
130
118
110
115
130
112
TSS
NO
NA
109
34
115
91
120
125
Effluent
PH
8.0
NA
8.0
8.4
9.1
8.4
8.0
8.0
Color
NA
NA
360
270
470
340
440
560
Final Effluent
BOD5
34
30.5
33
36
21
24.7
22
26
TSS
NA
NA
83
64
77
66
163
89
PH
7.4
NA
7.9
8.2
8.4
7.8
7.6
8.0
Cole
NA
NA
400
230
400
448
400
700
Units: Color -  APHA Color units
      pH - pH values
      TSS, BOD 5- milligrams per liter

-------
                               Appendix HIE
                                      Table 5
                                         "   "
                                    Mill " a
                              BODS  kg/ kkg (Ibs/toQ

nual Ave.
d. Dev.
mthly Ave.
Mill Data
2.27(4.54)-68
1.39(2.79)
2.26(4.53)-15
Contractor
1.1(2.2)


NCASI
2.45(4.9)-80
1.15(2.3)

RAPP
1.15(2.3)






t A .  n u u i. 11
ean 30CD


aj. Mean
 30CD


td. Dev.
            4.28(8.57)
1.74(3.49)
2.78(5.56)
1.14(2.29)
                                          I
                               2.7(5.4)
5.0(10.0^-5
                                            Max  Mean
                                            20CD
            Note-Numbers  following parenthesis indicate # of data  points.
                                      291

-------
                                       Table 6

                                      Mill  " a "

                                TSS   kp,/kkg (Ibs/ton)

\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
6.4(l2.8)-66
2.93(5.86)
6.4(12.8)-16
Con tractor
3.3(6.6)


NCASI
4.0(8.0)-37
1.5(3.0)

RAPP
2.9(5.8)






Max. Month    11.1(22.2)
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev.
5.7(11.4)
7.55(15.1)
0.68(1.36)
               Note-Numbers following parenthesis  indicate  #  of data points
                                       292

-------
       Table  7




      Mill  "  b "




BODS  kg/.kkg (Ibs/ton)

tnual Ave.
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
a. A . ri u 11 1. 11
[can 30CD
lax Mean
30CD
td. Dev.



Mill Data
1.02(2.04)-348
0.73(1.47)
1.0(2.0)-13
2.42(4.84)
0.92(1.84)
2.97(4.95)
0.37(0.75)

Note-Numbers

Contractor
0.7(1.4)







following parei
NCASI
0.8(1.6)-300
0.65(1.3)

•1.75(3.5)

2.05(4.lJ-17

*
Max Mean
20CD
ithesis indica
i
1
293
i
RAPP
0.75 (1.5)







te * of data










points.


-------
                                        Table  8

                                       Mill  "  b "

                                 TSS   kR/-kkB (Its/ton)
                Mill  Data
                 Cont ra c tor
                 NCASI
                  RAPP
\nnual  Ave.
1.25  (2.5) -  353
1.05 (2.1)
0.85 (1.7)-300
0.6  (1.2)
Std. Dev.
1.53  (3.07)
               0.75 (1.5)
Monthly  Ave,
1.07  (2.14)  -  13
Max. Month   4.26 (8.53)      '
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
1.12  (2.25)


4.56  (9.13)

1.02  (2.05)
               15 (3.0)*-19
                                              *Max Mean
                                               20CD
               Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points.
                                         294

-------
       Table  9




      Mill " <&  "




BODS kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)


anual Ave .
td. Dev.
lonthly Ave.
..
4 a A . n u u c u
*Iean 30CD
*lax Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.




	 !
Mill Data
1.51(3.Q2)-229
1.53(3.07)
1.45(2.90)-14
2.88(5.77)
1.35(2.70)
2.79(5.59)
0.99(1.98)
Note-Numbers :




Contractor
2.35(4.70)




ollowing paren

295


NCASI





thesis indical




RAPP
2.60(5.20)




-e # of data









points
!

i

-------
                                        Table 10

                                        Mill  " C  "

                                 TSS   kr,/kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                Mill Data
                 Cont r actor
                  NCASI
    RAPP
Xnnual  Ave.
1.09  (2.19) - 206
1.1  (2.2)
ltd. Dev.
0.68  (1.36)
2.95  (5.90)
Monthly  Ave
1.17  (2.35) - 11
Max.  Month    l>64 (3.28)
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
1.05  (2.11)
1.53  (3.06)
               0.23 (0.46)
               Note-Numbers  following parenthesis indicat
                                          296
                                              2 # of data joints

-------
                                      Table  11

                                     Mill  "  d  "

                               BODS kg/ kkg  (lbs/t«.-:i)
               Mill Data
                 Contractor
                 NCASI
  RAPP
 nnual Ave.
4.36(8.72)-73
1.35(2.7)
1.85(3.7).
 td. Dev.
2.5(5.tn
•lonthly Ave.
4.26(8.53)-13
• la A. 1-Iuin.ii   1.52(3.04)
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev.
3.91(7.83)
5.32(10.64)
0.87(1.75)
             Note-Numbers  following parenthesis  indicate # of data points
                                       297

-------
       Table 12




       Mill " H  "




TSS  k-K/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

\nnual Ave .
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Max. Month
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.


Mill Data
7.11 (14.22)-249
7.58 (15.16)
6.25 (12.5) - 13
8.83 (17.66)
7.05 (14.10)
9.56 (19.13)
1.26 (2.52)
Note- Mumbers j

Contractor
5.0 (10.0)






:ollowina Daren
298
NCASI







:hesis indicat

RAPP
2.5 (5.0)






e # of data ]









•oints .


-------
                                     Table 13

                                    Mill  "  e "

                              BOD5  kg/.kkg  (Ibs/ton)
               Mill  Data
                Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
      Ave.
                  2.9(5.8)
             9.0(18.0)
 Cd. Dev.
 onthly  Ave.
5.25(10.5)-12
let A .  null u u   8.05(16.1)
lean  30CD


•lax Mean
  30CD


^td.  Dev.
             following parenthesis indicate # of data po
                                            ints,
                                      299

-------
                                      Table 14

                                     Mill  "  e  "

                               TSS   kR/ kkg  (Ibs/ton)
                Mill  Data
                Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
\nnual Ave.
                 8.0(16)
            3.25(6.5)
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
4.25 (8.5)-I3
Max. Month    9,45(18.9)
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
               Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data noints
                                       300

-------
                                      Table  15
                                     Mill
                                          II c II
                              BODS  kg/ kkg (Ibs/tcx )

nual Ave.
d. Dev.
nthly Ave.
Mill Data



Contractor
2.05(4.1)


NCASI



RAPP
9.05(18.1)






a A . nun i. u
ean  30CD


""a>; Mean
  30CD


• td.  Dev.
             Note-Numbers  following parenthesis  indicate # of data  joints.
                                      301

-------
                                        Table 16

                                      Mill  "  f "

                                TSS  kP,/kk P.  (Ibs/ton)
                Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
 6.5 (13)
            8.75 (17.5)
Monthly  Ave,
Max. Month
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
               Note-Numbers  following parenthesis indicate  #  of data points
                                        302

-------
                                      Table 17

                                     Mill " g  "

                               BODS kg/kkq,  (Ibs/ton)

nnual Ave.
td. Dev.
[onthly Ave.
Mill Data
5.02(10.05)-319
3.38(6.76)
4. 60(9.20)-13
Contractor
1.5(3.0)


NCASI
3.0(6.0)-159
1.25(2.5)

RAPP
3.65(7.3).






1'iei A. .  i-iu n i_ ii   8.59(17.19)
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev.
4.82(9.64)
 .91(17.82)
2.52(5.05)
                              '3.35(6.7)    '             '
4.2(8.45-18
                                             Max Mean
                                             20CD
             Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data .points
                                       303

-------
                                         Table 18

                                        Mill " g "


                                  TSS  yc/kkg (Ibs/ton)

\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
4.54 (9.09) -321
2.09 (4.18)
4.56 (9.12)
Contractor
2.8 (5.6)


NCASI
5.75 (11.5)-171
2.9 (5.8)

RAPP
3.7 (7.4)






Max. Month    6.09 (12.18)
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
4.58 (9.17)



6.40 (12.80)


1.19 (2.39)
8.25  (16.5)*-20
                                                * max mean
                                                   20CD
               Note-Numbersfollowinq parent
                                          304
                                lesis indicate # of data DC
                            ints.

-------
       Table  19




      Mill "  h "




BQD5 kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

mual Ave .
d. Dev.
onthly Ave.
ct A. . I'lO 11 L 11
can 30CD
ax Mean
30CD
td . Dev.



Mill Data*
3.98(7. 97)-104
1.82(3. 64)
3.85 (7. 71)-9
5.48(10. 97)
4.08(8. 16)
5. 02 (10. 05)
0. 70(1.41)
A
Nov-May
Note-Numbers f<

Con tractor
1.5(3.0)







>llowing parent
305
NCASI
4.5(9.0)-75
1.25(2.5)

5.4(10. 8)

5.85(11.7)-8'

**Max Mean
20CD
hesis indicate

RAPP
1.55(3.10)




*


. # of data p<










>ints.


-------
                                       Table 20

                                     Mill  "  h  "

                               TSS  kr./kkS  (Ibs/ton)

•Xnnual Ave .
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data**
1.57(3.15)-104
1.24(2.48)
1.54(3.09)-9
Contractor
3.05(6.10)


NCASI
1.75(3.5)-75
1.35(2.7)
-
RAPP
0.74(1.49)






Max. Month    3.25(6.50)
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev .
1.59(3.19)
2.64(5.28)
0.51(1.03)
              **
3.95(7.9)-8
                                             Max Mean
                                             20CD
                Nov-May
              No to-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data joints.,
                                       306

-------
                                    Table  21

                                   Mill "  i "

                             BODS 'kg/ kkg  (Ibs/ton)
              Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
 nual Ave.
:d.  Dev.
0.045(0.09)
            0.2(0.4)
mthly Ave.
ean 30CD


ax Mean
 30CD


td. Dev.
            Note-Numbers  following parenthesis  indicate # of data p
                                    307
                                        oints

-------
                                      Table 22

                                     Mill  "  j "

                               TSS  ks/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data



Con tractor
0.018 (0.036)


NCASI



RAPP
0.035 (0.07)






Max. Month
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev.
              Note-Numbers   following  parenthesis  indicate  #  of  data
                                       308
Doints

-------
                                      Table 23

                                     Mill " j
                             11  j  it
                               BODS  kg/ kkg (Ibs/ton)

mual Ave.
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
Mill Data
0.26(0.52)-355
0.28(0.56)
0.26(0.53)-13
Contractor
0.11(0.22)


NCASI



RAPP
0.5(1.0)






             0.69(1.38)
Mean 30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std. Dev.
0.27(0.54)
0.63(1.26)
0.12(0.24)
              Note-Number  following parenthesis indicate # of data p
                                      309
                                                        oints.

-------
                                         Table 24

                                       Mill  "  j "

                                 TSS  k p./kk ?,  (Ibs/ton)

\nnual Ave.
3td . Dev .
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
1.29(2.58)-356
1.27 (2.55)
1.13 (2.26) - 13
Contractor
0.45 (0.90)


t'JCASI



RAPP
1.25 (2.5)






Max. Month   3,54 (7.28)
Mean  30CD
Max Mean
  30CD
Std.  Dev.
1.33  (2.67)
3.76  (7.52)
0.89  (1.79)
               Note-Numbers  following parenthesis indicate # of data points
                                         310

-------
                                     Table 25

                                    Mill  " k  "

                              BODS .kg/ kkg  (Ibs/tc.Q

nual Ave.
d. Dev.
mthly Ave.
Mill Data
0.14(0.28)-218
0.13(0.27)
0.14(0.28)-14
Contractor
0.28(0.57)


NCASI
0.15(0.30)-18:
0.15(0.30)

RAPP
1.35(2.7)






  . . nuu L. 11
             0.33(0.66)
lean  30CD


lax Mean
  30CD


 td.  Dev.
0.13(0.27)
0.32(0.65)
0.06(0.13)
                              0.30(0.60)
0.36(0.735-7
                                            Max Mean
                                            20CD
             Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate  # of  data  points
                                      311

-------
                                         Table 26


                                        Mill " k "


                                 TSS   kG/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

Xnnual Ave .
^td . Dev.
^ton thly Ave .
Mill Data
0.95 (1.91) - 278
0.59 (1.19)
0.96 (1.93) - 14
Contractor
0.60 (1.2)


NCASI
0.85 (1.9) - 237
0.75 (1.5)

RAPP
2.50 (5.1)






Max. Month
                < 5g (3J3)
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std.  Dev.
0.90  (1.81)



1.68  (3.37)



0.27  (0.55)
2.6  (5.2) - 10
                                               * max mean
                                                   20CD
               Note-Numbers following parenthesis  indicate # of data p
                                         312
                                                           Dints,

-------
       Table 27




      Mill  " I "




BODS kg/kkg  (Ibs/ton)

inual Ave .
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
d A • riu 11 L. 11
can 30CD
ax Mean
30CD
td . Dev .
_

Mill Data
0.32(0.65)-106
0.27(0.54)
0.31(0.63)-14
0.70 (1.41)
0.31(0.63)
0.47(0.95)
0.07(0.15)
Note-Numbers f

Contractor
0.21(0.42)






ol lowing paren
313
NCASI



.



bhesis indicat

RAPP
0.001(0.003)






e # of data









joints.


-------
                                        Table 28

                                       Mill  " 1
                              111  tf
                                 TSS  kr./kkG  (ibs/ton)

Xnnual Ave .
3td. Dev.
Monthly Ave .
Mill Data
).56 (1.12) - 105
J.59 (1.19)
0.55 (1.11) - 14
Contractor
0.5 (1.0)


NCASI



RAPP
0.0 (0.00)






Max. Month
               1.77 (3.54)
Mean  30CD


Max Mean
  30CD


Std .  Dev.
0.51  (1.03)
1.11  (2.23)
              0.27 (0.54)
               Note-Numbers following parenthesis  indicate # of data noints
                                        314

-------
                      Appendix III C



                      RAPP   DATA




               UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD MILLS
Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
650 X
450 X
900 X X
940 X X
1000 X x X
1000 X x
900 X X
206 X X
1150 X x
1670 XX L
1200 X X L X
1585 X X
850 X x L
600
1000 X
750 X X
625 X
650 X x
1670 X x
1000 X
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
16.7
21.0
10.0
21.0
17.0
11.75
23.0
17.5
14.7
10.1
7.1
10.4
13.7
23.3
14.5
11.2
9.1
29.5
10.1
13.0
Discharge
TSS
///Ton
1.1
1.0
1.67
2.8
1.2
5.0
3.4
7.6
10.0*
5.8
36.0
0.56
16.8
5.9
34.2
24.1
10.3
35.5
34.8
3.7
20.8
BOD
///Ton
0.4
0.9
1.25
1.3
1.5
3.7
4.0
11.5
4.0*
2.3
6.5
3.2
10.1
5.2
42.5
27.2
19.6
56.1
9.4
6.5
36.3
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
                                315

-------
Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Mills - Cont'd.
Mill
No.
21
22
23

Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS
410 X
1450 X L
1250

Flow
G/Ton
CD xlOOO
75.8
6.3
30.4
40.0*
Discharge
TSS
it /Ton
48.5
2.9
328

BOD
I? /Ton
56.6
8.0
368

''Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72

Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL MILLS
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS
335 X
150
240
550
525 X X

625 X X

? SO — — — •— - — Nnf- AvA-f 1 rtKI a _ _ _ .

285
300
250 X X
NSSC 250?
Paper 145 j X
(SODIUM BASE)
Flow
G/Ton
CD xlOOO
12.9
14.9

5.0
24.4

8.1
. _ _ inn
. — — 99 n
25.0*
3.5

7.1
3.5


Discharge
TSS
#/Ton
8.3
61.6
N/A
N/A
33.5

20.5
20.0*
58.3
22.7
8.9
N/A
9.1
17.5
BOD
#/Ton
15.5
90.0
N/A
N/A
30.7
15.0*
15.7
21.0*
163.0
52.0
71.0
N/A
10.7
18.1
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
                                 316

-------
         NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL MILLS (AMMONIA BASE)
Mill
No.
1

Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*Councll

Mill
No.
1
2
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
500 X X X
COMBINATION KRAFT AND NSSC MILLS
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
1320 X
1600 X X
2100 XX X
1955 X
666 X
1030 X
820 X X
770 X X
1680 X X
1464 XX L x
of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
PAPERBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
125 X X L
115 * 1
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
8.6

Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
19.1
10.6
20.0
7.7
10.5
20.3
16.6
8.0
27.9
25.3

Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
16.0
0.01
Discharge
TSS
If/Ton
6.5

BOD
#/Ton
18.0

Discharge
TSS
///Ton
4.7
7.4
12.7
10.3
10.0*
25.4
35.0*
26.8
42.0*
5.3
1.5
320.0
5.4

BOD
if/Ton
2.0
7.3
6.0
13.0
12.0*
33.9
26.0
40.0
41.0*
8.8
3.1
132.0
9.4

Discharge
TSS
tf/Ton
0.34
.07
BOD
I/Ton
0.4
0.4
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/J2
                                 317

-------
Paperboard from Waste^ Paper Mills-  cont* d.

Mill
No.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1 o
J.Z
13
14
15
16

Tons/
Day
240
804
80
59.1
165
122
90
275
320
OTC
f. 1 j
250
850
150
80

Treatment
C L ASB AS SO SS CD
X L
X X C
X X
X X
XX L
X
x x c
XX L
X X
X X
X XX
X
X X
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
8.4
7.6
12.5
11.9
4.6
5.7
10.0
2.3
8.4
Uc
. J
1.2
3.5
0.18

Disch
TSS
tf/Ton
0.5
5.1
10.6
0.25
5.6
14.2
4.6
2.5
6.0
nc
.0
0.7
0.5
o.oo

arge
BOD
9 /Ton
21.1
2.7
0.3
0.17
7.4
15.3
3.0
1.0
1.4
1 /. C
14 . J
0.1
0.4
.003

                             318

-------
                              Appendix IV

    Development of Cost Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Standards


INTERNAL TREATMENT

The following unit prices have been used for the internal measures:

    Power 0.60 2/kwh
    Heat 3.50 $/10« cal
    Maintenance:   2.5% of capital cost, annually

Costs  of  heat exchangers, storage tanks, pumps and pipes are estimated
according to Chemical Engineering, March 24, 1969, issue and updated  to
August 1971 price levels.

It should be recognized that costs of internal process modifications may
vary  greatly  from mill to mill, and that cost of internal improvements
should be evaluated upon consideration of local conditions.

Sp_ill and Eva£orator Boilout Storage

Chemical spills are collected, pumped to storage and fed into the  black
liquor  evaporator  plant.  Fiber spills from floor drains are recovered
in a save-all and returned to the pulp line.

    Investment costs for 1000 TPKD Kraft -Mill are:
                                                 $1000
    Overdesign of evaporation plant  (installation
         of one additional effect)               $1150
    Chemicals storage tank  (260000 gal)            100
    Fiber storage tank  (8000 gal)                    5
    Saveall                                        150
    Pumps, pipes, valves                           450
    Instrumentation                               ^JOO
    Total                                        $2000
    Operating costs will be zero since value of recovered chemicals and
    fibers will cover operating expenses.  However, value of recovered
    fibers and chemicals will not cover capital expenses.
                                  319

-------
    -Na Cgpel and

Assumed process parameters and operating conditions of the Copeland instal

    Pulping Process                                   NSSC
    Pulp Production, ADTPD                             200
    Yield, %                                             75
    Washing efficiency, %                                90
    Chemical Requirements, LB/ton
                        Na2G03                         440
                        Sulfur                           95
    Weak liqucr concentration, % solids                  10
    Heat value on weak red liquor BTU/lb              5600
    Waste liquor feed  (1)     263 GPM                  70.4 t/hour
    Cone, liquor product  (2)   91 GPM                 27.3 t/hour
    Evaporation capacity 1  H20/hr                       50
    Steam requirements, TGPS/hr  (3)                     20
    Air blower horsepower, HP
                        Connected                      900
                        Operating                      675
    Process power requirements, kw
                        Connected                      350
                        Operating                      275

    (1)  Sp. Gr. :  1.07, 1016  solids
    (2)  Sp. Gr.:  1.20, 35%  solids
    (3)  Triple-effect evaporation

    Operational utilities required for application of Container -
    Copeland Process:

Low pressure steam, ton/hr                               20
High pressure steam, ton/hr                              5
Electric Power, kw                                     780


Qp_eratin
-------
     Buildings (27 US DOL/cu ft)                280
     Planning, Design, Etc.                  	10
                         TOTAL               2,060

     (The cost does not include compressor station, electrical
     supply station, outside piping, and turbines.)

L and_Disgosa1_of_Jun k_Materials

     The cost has been calculated on the basis of an external trans-
     portation contract, and no capital cost has been assumed,  The
     cost of transportation has been estimated to 20 cent/ton-inile,
     and cost of disposal to $1.5/ton.  Transportation distance has
     been taken to 10 miles.  Amounts of junk materials are as shown
     in flow diagrams, or:

          For the paperboard from waste paper mill:
             3 ton junk materials a day
             3 ton/day  (20 cent x 10 miles + 150 cent/ton)  =
             1050 cent/d

PaBer_Machine_Contrgls

    High pressure self cleaning,  low volume showers for paper machine
    and press water filter for removing felt hairs.


     The following paper machine widths have been assumed:

          -1000 tpd liner board machine         28 feet
          -750 tpd liner board machine          21 feet
          -250 tpd corrugated board machine     14 feet
          -100 tpd wastepaper board machine     14 feet

     Capital cost has been calculated to 14 feet width and then
     converted to other widths by using a liner factor.

          Cost for each unit:

             -4 shower pipes        14 feet       12,000
             -2 pumps (10 kw)                      2,000
             -1 smith screens                      1,000
             -4 water saveall pans                 3,000
             -2 hair screens, smith                1,000
             -tank, piping, hoses                  4,000
             -spares                               1,000
             -design, instrumentation,
              electricity, installation, etc.     ll^CKO
                 TOTAL                           $35,000
                                  321

-------
     The cost of this item for a 14 foot corrugated board machine:

             Wire part                            35,000
             Press part                           35,000
             Cylinder forms                       35j.OJDO
                                                 105,000

     For kraft liner machines:
                              1000 tpd            750 tpd

          Wire part            55,000              45,000
          Press part           55A0_0^              45,000
                              110,000              90,000
Spi11^Control
     By spills are meant releases of wood fibers and/or process
     additions to those which are "normal" for the process. The
     release of the "normal" pollutant load for a process de-
     pends upon the process design and equipment used, and
     is therefore reasonably well defined or deterministic
     in nature.  The spills are caused by "accidents" or
     mechanical failures in the production facilities and
     are as such probabilistic in nature.

     The accidental spills are in general of short duration and
     usually have a fiber and/or concentration of chemical sub-
     stances which are several times those of the normal mill
     effluents (1). Another undesirable property associated with
     accidental spills is that they might not be intercepted
     by the waste water collection system that finds its way into
     the storm sewers and therefore bypasses all treatment waters.

     The main sources of accidental losses are:

          a) leaks and overflows from storage tanks
          b) leaks and spills resulting from repairs, system
             changes and mistakes in departments handling
             strong liquor, and
          c) overflows from screens and filters in departments
             handling fiber

     Controls of spills can be done by connecting overflow lines
     to holding tanks equipped with pumps, a procedure which returns chemi<
     to storage or to the recovery system, and fibers to the stock
     chest.

     Cost of spill control is based on systems shown schematically
     in Figure 1, Appendix IV.


                                  322

-------



.

V
Storage
Tank



J



Ji
To  Recovery
I
                                                    Holding Tank
                             a)  Control Of  Chemical Spills  And  Losses
                    Stock
                    Storage
                                                         Filter/ Screen
                                                       Holding  Tank
                              b)   Control  Of Fiber Containing  Spills
To Process

Emergency  Overflow  To
Treatment  Plant
                                                                                 To  Process

                                                                                 Emergency  overflow  to
                                                                                 treatment plant
        Figure   1
            Spill  Control  Installations
                                              323

-------
Process  Effluent
Sewer
                                                        To  Treatmenl^
                                                         Process
                                        Snill Basin
   Figure      2
Spill Basin and Controls
                                        324

-------
     Costs of spill controls are lump sums as shown in the cost
     summary.  These costs include construction costs and mechan-
     ical and electrical equipment as shown in Figure 1, Appendix IV.
Lar g e_ §Ei 1 is
     Large accidental losses caused by mechanical failures can
     be prevented by an effective control system, e.g., conduc-
     tivity measurements in the waste water lines.  As these losses
     might render the effluent unsuitable for treatment, an
     emergency spill basin is constructed to intercept these
     wastes.  The spill basin content is pumped back to the treatment
     process at a rate which does not "upset" the treatment process.

     Construction cost of the spill basin is based on a system
     which is shown schematically in Figure 2, Appendix IV.

     Design Criteria for Spill Basin:

          Volume:  12 hours of average flow
          Pump Capacity:  Basin volume returned to treatment
          process in 12 hours at 30 feet head.
          Easin:  Earthen construction with 12 foot depth

Sewers

                                Plant Sewers

Plant sewers are defined as the gravity flow type conveyance  facilities
within  the boundaries of the treatment plant.  These may be both closed
conduits and open channels.   The  capital  costs  of  these  items  are
included under the respective treatment plant components.

Annual  operation  and  maintenance  costs  of in-plant sewers have been
taken at a flat  0.50%  of  the  estimated  construction  cost  with  no
differentiation  between  materials of construction, except as reflected
in the construction cost.
                                  325

-------
                             Interceptor Sewers

Interceptor sewers  are  defined  as  the  conveyance  facilities  whlcTP
connect  the  mill to the treatment plant and the treatment plant to the
outfall system.  Thus, they may  vary  from  being  insignificant  in"  a
situation where land is available adjacent to the mill, whereas they may
amount  to  a  large  percentage  of the treatment plant cost where long
interceptor sewers are required.  For this reason no interceptor  sewers
are included in this study.

                             Submarine Outfalls

The   costs   of   these  facilities  are  based  on  moderately  severe
oceanographic conditions.  Costs include pipe,  excavation,  laying  and
jointing,  backfill  where  necessary,  provision  of protection against
scour, a straight diffuser section at outlet and with  multiple  outlets
for efficient initial dilution, testing, and cleanup.

Annual  operation  and  maintenance  costs  of outfall systems have been
taken at a flat 0.50% of the estimated construction cost.

                  and Costs
Land Requirements
 A site suitable for an effluent  treatment  facility  should  have  the
following properties:

     - should be within a reasonable distance from the production
       facilities so that long and expensive interceptor sewers
       are eliminated.

     - should be far enough from the production facilities so that
       their expansion possibilities are not hampered.

     - should be at a suitable elevation relative to the production
       facilities so that pumping costs are minimized, and ideally
       allow for gravity flow through all treatment units.

     - should allow for orderly future treatment plant expansion on land
       which can be purchased at a reasonable price and with adequate
       soil properties.
                                  326

-------
    two major factors affecting the area requirements for external waste
       treatment  are  the  type  of secondary treatment and the type of
sludge  disposal.    The  approximate  land  requirements  for  the  most
commonly  used  secondary  treatment  methods used in the pulp and paper
industry are shown below..

      Land Requirement for different secondary treatment
     methods

          Treatment Method             Land Requirements - Acre/MGD

          Natural Stabilization                    40.0
          Aerated Stabilization                     2.0
          Activated Sludge                         0.04

     Land required for ultimate solids disposal depends on the
     sludge quantities generated, moisture content, ash content
     and method of placement.

               Land requirement for different ultimate sludge
               disposal methods  (Disposed effluent at 12 feet
               depth)

          Disposal Condition         Land Requirements
                                  sq ft / ton dry solids

          Thickened clarifier underflow,  5% solids  53.0
          Centrifuge cake, 20% solids                16.5
          Pressed cake, 35% solids                   11.6
          Incineration, 3% ash                        0.15
          Incineration, 12% ash                       0.60

     Land Costs

The value of land is often difficult to establish.  Depending upon  land
availability and alternate land use, the land cost might vary from $1.00
per  square  foot or more down to only a few cents per square foot.  For
the purpose of this study a land cost selected was $4,000 per acre.
                                  327

-------
EXTERNAL TREATMENT

Pretreatment

Pre-treatment consists  of  screening only for all alternatives
in this report.
                                considered
Total  effluents   from  all  mills considered in this study usually lose
coarse material in the  form of  chips, bark, wet strength paper, etc., in
quantities that require screening to avoid plugging of sludge lines  and
escape of floating objects over overflow weirs.

Although  vibrating   screens have proven satisfactory when the flows are
small  (2-4 MGD) , travelling screens with one  inch  openings  have  been
recommended  (2) and are used for all mills included in this study.
Design Criteria:
                  where:
Type:  Travelling bar screens
Design Flow:  Average daily
Bar Spacing:  1 inch
Capital Cost in $1,000 =
   11 + .27 x Q + 7.64 X Q**.625
Q = average daily flow in MGD
(cost information from numerous individual
installations was also considered in all case
Capital  cost  and  annual operation and maintenance costs for raw waste
screening are shown graphically  in Figure  3, Appendix IV.

        Treatment

Primary treatment is most economically done when all  fibers  containing
wastes  are  mixed  before treatment.  Besides the fact that large units
give lesser treatment costs  than  a  series  of  smaller  units,  mixed
effluents  generally  also  have improved settling characteristics, thus
decreasing  the  total  treatment  unit  requirements.   Internal  fiber
recovery  is assumed done to the maximum economic justifiable degree, so
that no external fiber recovery  for reuse is considered in the treatment
process design.
                                   328

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    o
    8 100
        50
                                                    15
0
       
       o

      ll
      'o v.
      58
      1 -
       O 4fy
atin
                        10            20
                           FLOW, MGD
30
Figure  3      Capital And  Operation  Cost  For
                  Raw  Waste Screening
                             329

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Three  unit  operations  for  suspended  solids  separation  have   been
considered.  These are:

a)  settling ponds
b)  mechanical clarifiers
c)  dissolved air flotation

Settling Pcnds - Design Criteria:
Construction:  earthen construction, concrete inlet and outlet structures
Detention time:  24 hours
Water depth:  12 feet
Sludge removal:  manual
Cost Functions:
Capital cost in $1000 =27.3 x**0.75
where:  V = pond volume in million gallons

This construction cost function is based on work bin Reference (3).   The
construction  cost,  which  includes  plant  sewers, and all diversion -
inflow-, and outflow- structures, but  excludes  land  costs,  is  shown
graphically  in  Figure  4,  Appendix IV.  The function is "verified" by
plotting data from the field survey phase on the same figure.

Operation Costs:

The operation cost of sedimentation  ponds  consists  mainly  cf  sludge
dredging  and  disposal which was estimated to cost $6.50 per ton of dry
solids removed.

Annual maintenance was estimated to be 1% of capital cost.

Primary Clarifiers

Construction:  Circular heavy duty plow type rotary sludge scraper,  scum
collection and removal facilities.

Overflow rate:  700 gpd/ft**2   (4) Widewater,depth:  15 feet

                      Capital cost in $1000  (3)  =
                   62x((1.5 - 0.001QX1000./OR)**0.60

where:  Q = flow in MGD
OR = overflow rate in gpd/ft**2

The construction costs include all mechanical and electrical  equipment,
instrumentation,  installation, and sludge pumps and plant sewers.   Land
costs are not included.  This cost of function is shown  graphically  in
Figure  5,  Appendix IV and includes data from the field survey phase of
the project.
                                   330

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    300
o
8
    200
'3.
5
    100
 Figure   4
   10            20           30
      FLOW, MGD

Construction  Cost  of  Earthen  Settling Ponds
                  Project  Cost  Files
                      331

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   1000
o

2  750
 8
o
   500
    250
  80
  60
      O
      O
  40
                                                         8
                                                         o
      S

  20 S.
      o
                      IO            20

                         FLOW, MGD
30
Figure  5       Capital and  Operating  Costs  For  Mechical Clarifiers
               Capital  Cost Case  Studies:



                  A
                  O
                       Project Cost  Files
                     332

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Bop removal,  i.e.  secondary treatment,  in  the  pulp  and paper  industry  is
Usually done  by a  biological  process.   However,  no  single  design of  any
biological  treatment   process   is  applicable  to all  pulp  and paper  mill
effluents.  Four different biological units  in various combinations  have
been  considered in this report:   a)   biological filters,  b)   natural
oxidation   ponds,   c)  aerated lagoons  (or  aerated stabilization basins),
and d)  activated  sludge treatment  units.

Biological  Filters

In spite of a serious  attempt to use biological  filters, they have  not
found widespread   use  in  the   pulp   and paper industry.  According  to
Reference  (6) , this fact is due  to  plugging  problems  and   BOD_5 loadings
which prohibit  high   efficiency  removals.   A summary  (6)  on tickling
filter performance shows BOD  removals,  ranging from  25  to   52%.    With
these removal  degrees  it   can be concluded  that  trickling  filters can
only  be used  successfully as  a   roughing  device  prior   to   additional
treatment.    Trickling filters are, therefore, not  considered further  in
this  study.

Natural Oxidation  Ponds

From  a cost standpoint, this  treatment  method  can  only   be   considered
when  large  areas  of "inexpensive" land  are  available.   Another  factor
limiting their use in  the pulp and  paper industry is  that  the effluent
Ipolors   are   usually   higher   than   those  of sanitary wastes  and,
Consequently,  the  growth of the  algae population might be  prohibited  or
reduced,  resulting in  lesser   oxygen quantities  available for  the
biochemical process.   However, for  mills located in  the  South,  where
climatic    conditions    are   appropriate  for  photosynthetic activity
throughout  the year and large land areas  are   often  available,  this
method is reasonably effective.

Decomposition products  from the biological mass will accumulate  on the
sludge bottom and  may  have to be removed periodically.

Design criteria:
Construction:  earthen, unlined, concrete  inlet  and outlet structures
Loading rate:  50  Ib BOD/acre/day  (7)
Liquid depth:  5  feet   (7)
BOD removal:   85%
Cost  functions:  Capital cost in $1000  (3) = 62800  x  A**0.74
where A = pond area in acres
                                   333

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The cost function includes all material and labor required for all earth
moving, bank stabilization, concrete work and  plant  sewers.   Cost  of
land is not included.

Operation  cost was considered independent of pond size and estimated to
be $6000 annually.

Since the rate of metabolism is low and the detention time is  long,  it
is  assumed  that  the  biomass  will  lyse  and no nutrient addition is
assumed necessary.

Maintenance cost is estimated to be 0.15% of the capital cost annually.

Aerated Lagoons

The aerated lagoon system used for the costing  basis  consists  of  two
aerated  cells in series as shown in Figure 6, Appendix IV.  This system
was chosen because it usually gives better overall performance at  lower
land  requirements than the conventional single cell does.  The aeration
system consists of mechanical surface turbine aerators.   Miniirum  pcwer
levels are assigned to ensure adequate mixing and oxygen distribution.

Nutrients  are  added  in  proportions to biological mass production and
solids wasted in the effluent.  It is assumed that the biomass will lyse
and release nutrients to a large degree in  the  second  cell,  so  that
nutrient  addition  is  required only in the first cell.  Nutrients have
been added in quantities as determined by Reference #8 in that 4  pounds
of  nitrogen  and  0.6  pounds  of phosphorus should be provided per 100
pounds of BOD removed.  Nutrient content in the influents  are  included
in these values.

Design Criteria:  Aeration Cells

    Construction:  earthen construction, stabilized banks, lined for
                   seepage prevention, concrete inlet and outlet
                   structures, two cells in series.

    Liquid depth:  15 feet

    Nutrient addition:  4 pounds of nitrogen and 0.6 pounds of phosphorus

                         per every 100 pounds of BOD removed.  Influent
                        nutrients are subtracted from these values.
                                  33H

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                                    NUTRIENT
                                    ADDITION
  RAW
WASTE WATE
R

TREATMENT
1

	 fr
PRIMARY
TREATMENT

.
-1-*
FIRST
AERATION
CELL
DET. TIME
0.5-£0 DYS

-&
SECOND
AERATION
CELL
DET. TIME
1.5- 10 DYS
_w
->
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
(OPTIONAL)
i
TREATS
	 — ^
EFFLUE
            SCREENINGS,
                ETC.
                             SLUDGE
                                                                           SLUDGE
 Figure
    Aerated  Lagoon  Treatment  Plant
                                     335

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Aerators:

         Type:  mechanical surface turbine aerators
         Minimum power levels:  20 HP/MG in first cell  (9)
                                 6 HP/MG in second cell  (9)

    Secondary clarifiers:

    Construction:  Circular, concrete tanks, plow type rotary sludge
                   scraper
    Overflow rate:  600 gpd/ft**2
    Sidewater depth:  15 feet

Cost functions:  Capital costs in $1000:
    Aeration cells (10)  = 62.8 x A**0.7U
         where    A = total cell area in acres

    Aerators  (10) = 1.13 x HP**0.80
         where   HP = total horsepower installation

    Secondary clarifiers (3) = 62.*( (1.5-0.001Q)Q x 1000/QR)**0.60
         where    Q = flow in MGD
                 QR = overflow rate in gpd/ft**2

Operating and Maintenance Costs:

    Aeration Cells:

    Annual  aeration cell maintenance costs were taken to be 1.0 perce
    of capital costs (10).

    Nutrient costs were calculated on the  basis  of  $250  per  ton  of
    nitrogen and $380 per ton of phosphorus.

    Sludge  removal  cost  was  based  on the assumption that 0.2 ton of
    sludge settles to the aeration basin bottom per ten of  BOE  removed
    and that the unit price of sludge removal is $7.50/ton.   This sludge
    accumulation  rate is representative of existing field installations
    for aerated lagoons.

    Operation cost estimates were based on work in Reference (11):
    Annual cost:  18.5 x Q**0.25
         where Q = average daily flow in MGD

    Aerators:

    Annual maintenance costs for the aerators were taken to   be  10%  of
    installed aerator cost  (10).  Power cost used 1.1 cents/kwh.
                                  336

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    Secondary Clarifiers:

    Annual  operation  and  maintenance costs were obtained frcm work in
    Reference (5) and are:
                   1360 Q + 3537 x Q**0.5
                   Q = average daily flow in MGD
Activated Sludge
    All costs for activated sludge treatment considered  in  this  study
    are  for  completely mixed systems, and with biological reaction and
    oxygen utilization  rates representative of the particular effluents
    undergoing treatment.  The  completely  mixed  system  was  selected
    because  of  its ability to handle surges of organic loads and slugs
    of toxicants.  The activated sludge plant used for the costing basis
    is shown in Figure 7, Appendix IV.

Design Criteria:

    Aeration Tank:

         Construction:  reinforced concrete with pier mounted surface
                        aerators.

         Liquid Depth:  15 feet

         Nutrient addition:  U pounds of nitrogen and 0.6 pounds of
                             phosphorous per every 100 pounds of BOD
                             removed.  Influent nutrients are subtracted
                             from these values.

    Aerators:  Type:  mechanical surface aerators

    Secondary Clarifiers:
         Construction:  circular concrete tanks with rotary suction
                        type sludge collector
         Sidewater depth:  15 feet
                                  337

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NUTRIENT
ADDITION
Raw Waste Water
or i
Primary Treatment



<
AERATION
• TANK
DETEN. TIME
1-5 MRS
./SECONDARY^ Secondary
*\CLARIFIER ) Effluent 9
^ Recycled
Sludge
Figure   7
Completely  Mixed  Activated  Sludge System
                           338

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    Cost Functions:  Capital costs in  $1000
         Aeration tank  (3) =   225 x V**0.71
              where       V =  tank volume  in  million  gallons

         Aerators  (3)   = 1.75 x HP**0.81
              where     HP = total horsepower installed

         Secondary clarifiers  (3) = 62.* (1.5-0.002Q)Q*1000.OR)**0. 60
              where     Q = flow in MGD, including  recycle
 overflow rate in gpd/ft**2

         Sludge recycle pumps  (3)  = 5.36  -f  1.66  x  Q
              where     Q = average daily  flow in MG
Operation and Maintenance Costs

Cost of operation and maintenance  of  activated  sludge  system  has   teen
calculated  using  a  cost  function developed in  Reference  5.   This  cost
function  includes  operation  and maintenance  of    aeration    basins,
aerators, final sedimentation  tanks and  sludge  return pumps:

    Operation cost  (0/1000  gal) =  R x (3.40  + 4.95/v**0.5
         where     V= basin volume in million gallons
                   R=retention time in days

P'he  breakdown  between  operation and   maintenance  is  60%  and   40X,
respectively  (10) .

Power cost  is  calculated  from   the net  horsepower requirements  at
1.10/kwh.

Nutrient  cost are calculated  on the  basis of $250 per ton  of sludge and
$380 per ton of phosphorus.
                                   339

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Color Removal

    Basis:  "minimum  lime"  process
    Costs include addition  of  lime  kiln  capacity,  mixing  eqmt.,
    lime clarifier w/associated  lime  sludge  thickening and
    handling, necessary  pumps, piping, instrumentation and
    auxiliaries.

                       10 CO  T/D Unbleached  Kraft  Mill

      capital:   $1,800,000 +  35% engr.
                 legal and  contingency     =          12^^30^00^
      operating   (maint., spares, power,
                 make-up chemicals, labor,
                 insurance  and taxes)      =          $   297,500/yr
      add:  15% of 2,430,000 interest +    =          __ 364X500_
            depr.
                      total  annual cost     =          $   662,000
      less: energy cost  at  40% of
            297,500                        =          ___ 12.Lc._COO_
            annual cost  less energy     =           $  542,000

      $_542.i.OCO     =     $1.50/ton less energy
      1000 x~350
       T/D  Days/Yr

      120 A OCp      =     _. 35/ton energy
      1000 x 350         ~1.85/ton total

                iOOO_T/2_Cross-Recovery._NSSC-Kraft_Mill
      capital:    $1,500,000+35%          =           32^02 5X.COO
      operating  (same  basis  as  above)      =
                                                      $  280,000/yr
      add:   15%  of  2,025,000 depr+int.     =           ___ 304, CCO
                     total  annual  cost     =           $  584,000
      less:  energy  cost at  40%  of
             280,000                       =           __ 112.tJ.CO

                                                      $  472,000
      $472^0^0      =      $1.35/ton less  energy
      1000 x 350

      112.1.000       =      _0i32/ton energy
      1000 x 350         $1.67/ton total
                                   340

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                  Sodium^Base NSSC-250 T/D

200 T/D mill (i.e. 250 T/D w/50 T/D wastepaper)
1  Capital cost $250,000 turnkey,  100GPM =
150,000 gal/day

      _Q2 gts

   depr. + interest at 15% of $250,000 = $37,500
   operating cost incl. energy

     I50xCOO_gal x 350_day_s x $0.95 2 = $50,000
             day      yr  ~   1000 gal

   increase by 40% to reflect higher unit costs
   in 150,000 gal/day unit of w/500,000 gal/day
   in 2.

     $50,000 x 1.40        =       __ 21ilQ.C
        total annual cost  =       $107,500

   less:  elec. power costs
      HP = 11003Einl__{6002Sil_    =    60 HP for R.O
             1714     (.60)

         •«• est. for transfer pumps=  2j HP
                    total est. HP  =  80 HP =  60kw
           $^Qll x 24_hr x 350_day.s  =   power  cost=
           kw-hr   day       yr          _U5J).C
           total annual cost
                less power     =   $102^000
Co st Per Ton
                             $1-50 per  ton  (not
   200T/D x 350 days/yr      incl.  power)

   $ __ 5^500               =    0. 79  per  ton  (power)
   200x350                   $2.29  total cost per
                                    ton
    Ammonia Base ~ 2CCT/D*5OT/DT Waste,Pager_g_250T/p
             ""     ""   No data  available.
                  Assume same as  sodium  base.
                          341

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Mixed j Media .(Multi-Media)  Filtration for Suspended Solids_geingyal


                     1COO T/D Unbleached Kraft Mill

    capital:   $240,000 + 35% =            $325^0
    operating                              $123,000
    add:  15%  of  325,000 for int.+depr. = __ IJLtjj.Cj;
                       total annual cost = $141,500
    less:  3556  of 123,000 for energy    = __ 4 3 ^ C 0 0
                annual cost less energy = $ 98,500
                         =        $0.28/ton less energy
      1000x350
       T/D days/yr

       43, COO            =         0.12/ton
      1000x350                    $ . 40/ton total

                      1000 T/D Cross-Recoyer^Mill

    capital:  $210,000 + 3555 =            !2_6fLt.OO.O_
    operating                              $100,000
    add:   15% of  284,000 (int.^depr.)   =  __ i3A^OjC
                    total annual cost   =  $143,000
    less:  energy at 35% of 100,000    =  __ BS^.OO.O
              annual cost less energy  =  $108,000

    £1 Cjj.iJ3.CO        =       $.31/ton less energy
    1000x350

    _35X£C.C_        =       _i!P_/ton energy
    1000x350                $.41/ton total

                        JSO^T/D NSSC-Sodiurn Mill

    capital:  $100,000 + 35% =            $135, CO 0
    operating                                37,000
    add:   15% of  135,000 (int+depr.)   =   __ 2^^^
                    total annual cost  =   $ 57,000
    less:  energy at 35% of 37,000    =   __ 13^000
             annual cost less energy  =   $ U 4,000

    -MjJKJj         =       $.50/ton less energy
    250x350

    _13X^CC         =       _..15/ton energy
    250x350                 $.65/ton total
                                342

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250T/DNSSC_^_Ammonia_Mill

                    li62j.^CO
                      73,500
35% =
        capital:   $120,000 +
        operating
        add:   15% of 162,000
                  total annual cost     =    $ 97,500
        less:   energy at 35% of 73,000  =    __ 26_,.CQC
               annual cost less energy  =    $ 71,500
                             $.82/ton less energy
_i3_0/ton energy
$1.10/ton total
        250x350

        _26^^0
        250x350
                                from Waste Paper
        capital:   $75,000 +  35% =
        operating                            $ 12,300
        add:  15% of 101,000            =    	IJLi.000
                  total annual cost     =    $ 27,300
        less:  energy at 35% of 12,300  =    	ixJ^C
                                             $ 23,000
        23X.CO.C
        100x300
        100x300
SLUDGE DEWATERING
$0.76/ton less energy
_0i14/ton energy
$0.90/ton total
The sludges drawn from the  primary  and  secondary  clarifiers  require
dewatering  prior  to final disposal.  A large number of unit operations
are available for  this  purpose,  from  which  the  specific  selection
depends upon local conditions like sludge characteristics, proportion of
primary  and  secondary sludges, distance to ultimate disposal site, and
ultimate disposal considerations.
                                  343

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The units operations considered  in  this  study  are  sludge  settlings
ponds,   gravity  thickeners,  vacuum  filters  centrifuges  and
presses.  The selected sludge dewatering process might consist of one
more sludge dewatering unit operations.

The  dewatered  sludge  solids  are  usually  disposed  of   either   by
landfilling or incineration, according to local conditions and the level
of  technology required.  Sludge disposal by landfilling might give very
satisfactory solutions provided a suitable site can be  found  within  a
reasonable distance from the rrill.

Possible  harmful  effects from landfilling are grcundwater pollution by
leaching of chemical constituents or decomposition products and  erosion
by  precipitation.   Thus,  both  soil  conditions  and  climate must be
suitable to make sludge  disposal  by  landfilling  successful,  or  the
required site work might result in a very expensive solution.

Provided  air  pollution  requirements  are met, sludge incineration is,
from an environmental point of view, a very satisfactory solution, since
only inert ashes need to be  disposed  of.   Although  the  solution  is
usually  quite  expensive,  especially  for small installations, lack of
other solutions might make it the only alternative.

Cost of sludge dewatering and disposal commonly accounts for  30-50%  of
the total treatment cost.

Cost Functions:

    Sludge dewatering ponds:  Capital cost in $1000 (3) = 125 x V**0.70
         where     V = volume in MG

The  operation  cost  of sludge ponds consists mainly of sludge dredging
and disposal which was estimated to cost $6.50 per  ton  of  dry  solids
removed.

Annual maintenance cost was estimated to be 1X of capital cost.
    Gravity Thickeners:  capital cost in $1000  (3)
                             = (SA)  (34.-H6.5/exp (SA/13.3)
         where  SA = surface area in thousands of square feet
                                  34U

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.nnual operation and maintenance costs of gravity sludge thickeners were
stimated to 8% of the capital cost.

   Vacuum Filters:  capital costs in $1000  (12)  = 4.70 x A**.58
        where     A = filter area in square feet
                                 345

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Operating and maintenance cost for vacuum filtration was based on the
following  (3):
    Labor:  0.5
    Power cost:
    Chemicals:

    Maintenance
    Centrifuges
         where
man-hours  per  filter  hour  8  $5.25  per  hour
  0.15  HP per square foot of  filter 31.10  tf/kwh
$10.00 per dry ton for  waste activated sludge, and
$4.00  per  dry  ton for primary sludges
:   5% of capital cost, annually
;   capital  costs $1000 (12) = 15.65 *  (HP)**0.4
    HP  = total  installed horsepower of  the centrifuge.
Operation and maintenance costs have been calculated as follows:

    Labor:  0.25 man-hours per hour of centrifuge operation 35.25 per
             hour  (3) .

    Power cost:  1.10 2/kwh
    Chemicals:  None required for primary sludges increasing linearly
                with the fraction of secondary sludges to 8 pounds of
                polymer per dry ton of solids 5)1.25 per pound of polymer.
    Maintenance:   1051 of capital cost, annually.

    Sludge Presses:  capital cost in $1000 = 5.75 x  (S/F)**0.95
         where   S = dry weight of sludge, ton/day
                 F = press load, as a fraction of nominal load

    Operation Cost:
         Labor:  0.25 hours per hour of press operation 3$5.25 per hour
                 of press operation.
         Power:  1.102/kwh
         Maintenance:  10% of operation cost, annually.

    Landfilling:   Transport cost:  202/ton mile
                   Transport distance:  10 miles

Incineration:  capital cost $1000  (3) =  (S/9.6)(170 + 735 x S**0.61)

where         S =  total solids in tons/day
Incineration:  capital cost $1000  (3) =  (S/9.6)(170 + 735 x S**0.61)
    where      S = total solids in tons/day

    Operation cost in $1000/yr  (3)
          (0.001 +  0.004      SE/P)S + S**0.85 x  0.001
         where     SE = secondary sludge in Ibs/day
                    P = primary sludge in Ib/day
                    S = total pounds of sludge/day.
                                   346

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                          REFERENCES FOR COSTS


!„,  Engineer ing -News  Record.   Published  Weekly by McGraw Hill, Inc« ,
Highstown, New Jersey.

2.  NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 178, "Settleable Solids Removal in  the
Pulp and Paper Industry", (November 1964) .

3.   Barnard,  J. L. , "Treatment Cost Relationships for Industrial Waste
Treatment,"  Ph.D.,  Dissertation.   Vanderbilt  University,   Tennessee
(1971) .

Uo   NCASI  Technical  Bulletin No^ 190.  "Manual of Practice for Sludge
Handling in the Pulp and Paper Industry," (June 1959) .

5.  Swanson, C. L.,  "Unit Process Operating and Maintenance  Costs  for
Conventional  Waste  Treatment  Pl§Di.§,"  FWQA,  Cincinnati,  Ohio  (June
1968) .

6.  Edde, H. , "A Manual of Practice for Biological  Waste  Treatment   in
the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 214.   (1968).

7-   Cost  of  Clean  WaterA  Industrial Waste Profile No. 3, GWQA, U.S.
Department of the Interior (November 1967) .
    Helmers, E. N., J. D. Frame, A. F.  Greenberg,  and  C.  N.  Sawyer,
 Nutritional  Requirements in the Biological Stabilization of Industrial
Wastes," Sewage and Industrial Wastes, ND 23, Vol. 7  (1951) p. 884.

9.  Eckenf elder, W.  E. ,  and  D.  L.  Ford,  Water  Pollution  Control-
ExE§£ilD§Ili§i  Procedures  for  Process  Design, Pemberton Press, Austin,
Texas.

10. EKONO, Study of Pulp and  Paper  Industry's  Effluent  Treatment^  A
B§B2rt  Prepared for the Food and Agriculture Or gani zation of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy, 1972.

11. Development of Operator Training Materials, Prepared by Enviromental
Science Services Corp., Stanford, conn., under the direction  of  W.  W.
Eckenf elder, Jr. for FWQA  (August 1968) .

12.  Quirk,  T. P., "Application of computerized Analysis to comparative
Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum Filtration and Centrifuge,"  Proc.j,
23rd Ind^. Waste Conf . , Purdue University 1968, pp. 691=709.
                                  3U7

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Supplemental References

1)  Draft of Pulp Mill  In-Plant  Control  of  Dissolved  Organic  Wasifl
Products  for  the U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency, Contract f68-03?
0765, May 1973, by EKONO Consulting Engineers.

2) Advanced  Pollution  Abatement  Technology  in  the  Pulp,  and  Paper
Industry*  prepared  for  OECD,  Paris,  France,  General  Distribution,
February 28, 1973.
                                   348

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                               APPENDIX V

                               Exhibit 1


                     PRELIMINARY MILL SURVEY FORMAT

iQf2£ffiS£i2D "to be determined prior to mill survey.

1.  PRE-VISIT INFORMATION - Obtain information describing the plant
prior to the reconnaissance survey.  This could include magazine
articles describing the facilities, data or drawings furnished by the
mill, RAPP data, or any other pertinent information available.  This
will enable us to get familiar with the mill before we meet with the
mill personnel.

2.  EVALUATION OF EXISTING DATA - Check the availability of existing
data that the mill will make available for our inspection.

Included in this should be any drawings of the inplant or external
treatment facilities such as:

    a.  Layouts and sewer locations
    b.  Flow diagrams of treatment facilities
    c.  Flow diagrams of mill process areas
    d.  Water balance
    e.  Material balances

3.  INITIAL MEETING - Establish what procedures will te required of us
during the sampling survey.  For example, are there any areas of the
mill off limits or will the mill want someone with us at all times?

What safety requirements must we follow?  Do we need safety shoes,
life preservers, hard hats, respirators, etc.?  Can the mill supply
these?

4.  INSPECTION OF MILL - In inspecting the various process areas of the
mill, we should identify the following:

    a.  Location of individual discharges to the process sewers.

    b.  Relative quality and type of individual discharges, i.e.,
        clean, cooling water, contaminated, etc.

    c.  Types of sewers, i.e., open, closed, and direction of flow.

    d.  Location of existing flow measurement and sampling points and
        type of equipment in use.
                                  350

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    e.  Tentative locations of additional sampling and gauging points.
        Where possible, an estimation of the average flow and possible
        peak conditions will be indicated.  Upstream conditions and
        sewer characteristics will be inspected to ascertain that no .
        flooding or other problems will be encountered during measure-
        ment.

    f.  Methods and procedures in use to prevent or intercept strong
        spills.

    g.  Relative amount of process water reuse and adequacy of exist-
        ing information such as flow diagrams to explain and document
        the extent, methods, and equipment required for reuse.

5.  INSPECTION OF EFFLUENT TREATMENT FACILITIES - In addition to loca-
tion of existing flew measurement and sampling points we should evaluate
the need for additional points and any special equipment needed.  Sam-
pling points should be available at the following locations:

    a.  Primary influent
    b.  Primary effluent
    c.  Primary sludge
    d.  Secondary effluent
    e.  Secondary sludge  (if any)
    f.  Chemical feed systems
    g.  Sludge disposal
    h.  Additional treatment facilities

6.  LABORATORY FACILITIES - A complete check of the procedures used by
the mill in running its chemical and biological tests should be made by
the plant chemist or other responsible party.

Determine whether the mill will allow us to use its lab and/or personnel
during the survey.  If the mill will allow us to use its facilities, a
complete list of equipment available should be made and a list of
supplies needed to perform the various tests.

If we can not use the mill's lab, we must determine where we intend to
have the samples tested and make the appropriate arrangements.

7.  REVIEW INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON FRESH WATER USED AND WHERE USED -

    a.  Process
    b.  Sanitary
    c.  Cooling water
    d.  Other
Review records showing quantity and quality of fresh water and flow
measurement device used.
                                  351

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    REVIEW INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON THE WASTE WATER DISCHARGE FROM THE
  >WER PLANT -

  .  a.  Determine water treatment facilities employed
    b.  Facilities used on water discharge
    c.  Frequency of waste discharges
    d.  Quality of discharge

9.  COST INFORMATION - Determine or have the mill get for us (if they
will) any information on the cost of the internal and external treat-
ment facilities.  This should include both capital and operating cost
for the facilities, preferably for a number of years.  The method used
by the mill to finance the facilities and the number of years used to
write the expense off would be useful.

If possible the cost data should be gotten by area such as internal
treatment, primary, secondary, etc.  Operating costs should include
labor, maintenance, chemicals, utilities, hauling, supplies, and any
other costs available from the mill.

10.   TIME CONSIDERATIONS - Obtain any available information on the
following:

    a.  Time required to design the facility including the preliminary
        study and final design.

    b.  Time to construct the facility.

    c.  Was construction bid after completion of engineering or done
        turn-key?

    d.  What were delivery times for major pieces of equipment --
        both internal and external?

    e.  What delays were encountered in getting approval by the various
        regulatory agencies?

Determine the availability of any schedules, CPM or Pert charts for the
engineering or construction.
                                  352

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                              Exhibit 2
                          Verification Program
              DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIELD SURVEY TEAMS
The enclosed material is prepared for the guidance of field sairpling and
verification crews following the preliminary Mill Reconnaissance Survey.

It is expected that these verification studies will follow along similar
lines at all field survey sites, therefore, it is  intended  that  these
procedures  be  followed as closely as possible in order to provide uni-
formity to the verification program.  Where mill conditions are  unique,
adjustments  in  program operation may be necessary.  If such conditions
are found, a justification for the adjustment in method should  be  pre-
pared, explaining the reasons for the deviations.

The  material  that  follows is pertinent to a specific plant in that it
identifies specific sampling locations there.  It is expected that other
plant sampling locations will be identified in similar fashion  and  the
sampling  and analytical emphasis will be placed on those locations that
will have the greatest influence in the verification process.
In conjunction with the verification program it is  expected  that  e
plant  will  have  in its files records of its wastewater control opera-
tions, including daily analyses of the  pertinent  parameters,  such  as
BOD,  SS  VSS ,  pH, flows, production information, etc.  Such data as is
available should be obtained for a period of at least 13 months (overlap
to account for end of year shutdown  and  startup)  including  not  only
daily  summary  information  but  the  laboratory  bench sheets wherever
possible.  Also, during the field  visit  every  opportunity  should  be
taken  to  arrange for split samples between the plant lab and the field
operation as well as to exchange analytical results  on  locations  that
are  being  sampled  and  analysed  separately.  These data will be most
valuable in the verification process to establish  laboratory  bias,  if
any, of the results reported by the plant in question.

we  have  purposely selected the hourly grab sample method of sample and
composite preparation of the important waste stream components in  order
to  circumvent  any errors that may be due to design or faulty operation
of any automatic  samplers  or  other  sample  collection  devices.   In
reference  to  sampling  of  process  streams  within the plant it is of
utmost importance that every effort be made to obtain samples  from  the
following process wastewaters in the pulp mill and paper mill areas:
                                  353

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    wood handling and barking
    digester and washings
    causticizing
    recovery
    wet end
    dry end - with and without coating applications.

Integrated  sampling  programs  are preferred, as outlined for the major
wastewater and treatment units; however, random  grab  samples  will  be
acceptable  if the sampling locations are not amenable to a more precise
technique.  In any case, every effort should be made to acccmmcdate  the
sampling  to  flow or other critical variations within the process under
study.

The analytical program exemplified by the attached pages described  that
which  is  under  way  at  a  specific plant.  Each mill study should be
programed to carry out these analyses on the significant  waste  streams
in  accordance with parameters and frequencies listed.  The locations at
which the analyses  are  to  be  performed  will  determine  the  sample
preservation  method.   It is recommended that all analyses be performed
with minimum delay following collection.
  MPLING AND ANALYSES FROGPAM

I.  Identify Sampling Locations as Exemplified below:

    Station #

    1.  Process Water - raw
    2.  Heavy Liquor - raw
    3.  Clarifier inflow - raw
    6.  Clarifier Effluent - primary

        Sample stations 1, 2, 3, and 6 once/hr.  Measure Temp.,
        Measure/record flow.

    9.  Final Effluent

        Sample this station once/hr, when flowing.   Measure Temp.  °C,
        when flowing.  Measure/record flow, when flowing.

    U.  Ash Pond overflow
                                  354

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    5.   Color Pond overflow
    7.   Aeration Pond overflow
    8.   Stabilization Pond overflow
    10.  Non Process overflow
    11.  Raw Intake

        Sample stations U, 5, 7,  8, 10, and 11 once every 2 hrs.
        Measure/record Temp.  Measure/record Flow,  where measurable.

    12.  Clarifier Underflow

        Sample at the beginning and end of the underflow pumping
        operation.

    13.  Process Streams

        Sample as often as in-process changes warrant.


II.   SAMPLING INSTRUCTIONS

    1.   Fill sample collector completely; then pour out.
    2.   Fill again.  Measure temperature immediately.
    3.   Stir rapidly; then pour off about 1 litar into sample bottle.
    4.   Mark  (tag bottle)  with Station #, time, flow, and temp.
    5.   Seal bottle, place in cooler, deliver to lab.
    6.   Keep sample in cooler until ready for compositing.
    7.   After returning from a sample run, enter the data collected
        on the log sheet.
III.  COMPOSITING INSTRUCTIONS

    1.   Arrange the hourly collections per sample station in the  order
        of increasing flow rate.

    2.   Determine the volumetric ratio of each sample by dividing the
        lowest flow rate into each succeeding flow rate, i.e., flow
        rate 100 G/M, 110, 120, 150, 180, 200, etc.  Divide 100 into
        each succeeding number to get ratios 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8,  2.0,
        etc.

    3.   Stir the sample well.  Measure the amount to be removed,  i.e.,
        500 Ml base x 1.2. =  600 Ml into a grad. cylinder.  Transfer
        into the compositing bottle lor the sample station.

    4.   Attach tag giving number of composites and volume of each as
        well as other pertinent data, i.e., station number, date,
        period of composite.

    5.   Mix well.  Remove appropriate volume for shipment back to the
        main lab.  The remainder will be used for analysis at the site.


                                   355

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           IV..  ANALYSES TO BE PERFORMED
           Location
              for
           Analysis   Test
                    STATION

123456789

       RAW        PRIMARY  SECONDARY
10   11   12    13
        /	/   A.
        SOLIDS
                                                                                                B.   C.   D.
etc.
oo
VJ1
ON


















Key
1 -
2 -
3 -
A -
5 -
6 -
7 -


F BOD5
F pH
F Suspended
Solids
F V. SS.
F/L Dissolved
Solids
F/L Ash
F Color
L Metals -
(Fe. MN, Nl
Cr, Pb, Hg,
Cu, Zn)
L Total N -
(Kjeldahl +
No2,No3)
L Total P.
F/L Sp. Cond.
to Number Codes
Process Sewer
Heavy Liquor
Clarifier in
Ash Pond Out
Color Pond out
Clarifier out
Aeration Pont out


DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD

DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD

D
D
D D D D








D

8 - Stabilization Pond
9 - Final Effluent
10 - Non-Process Sewer
11 - Raw Water Intake
12 - Clarifier Underflow
13 - Process Stream
A,B,C,D, etc refers
to location within
process
D
D

D
D

D
D
D



T


T
T
D
Key
D -
T -
0 -
F -
L -
D*-



D D
D D

D D
D D

0
0
0 0






T
T
D
to Letter
refers to
refers to
refers to
refers to
refers to
—
D*

D*
D*













Codes
daily
total
daily
Field
Home
combine random
sampling


cannot


D* 	
D*— — — — — — — ^— -

D* 	
n*________— _____________


n*













composite
composite
composite, run one time only
analysis
Laboratory analysis
grab samples if programmed
be carried out.



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V.  METHODS TO BE USED FOR MILLS SURVEYS


Color..	NCASI_Method

1.  Measure 200 Ml sample and adjust pH to 7.6 by adding 1. N NaOH or
    1. N H2So4, while pH Meter is in sample.

2.  Filter sample through 0.8 micron membrane.

3.  Measure atsorbance at 465 NM.

4.  Read Color value from standard curve, prepared from pt. co. stan-
    dard.


Suspended^Solidg/yolatile Suspended Solids

Use 5.5cm fiberglass filter which has been heat treated and weighed
prior to use.


Nitrogen and_PhosEhorus_Determinatigns

To preserve samples for metals analyses, add 5 ml reagent grade HN03
per liter of sample.  Preserve at least 1 liter of each sample that
is to have metals analyses.  Also, save a 100 ml sample of the con-
centrated nitric acid used for preserving the metals samples.  This
will be used to establish a reagent blank for the metals.


BQD5

1.  Select the appropriate dilutions  (no less than two) for the sample
    to be analysed.

2.  Mix the composited sample well.

3.  Transfer the appropriate volume with a pipette into a standard
    300 ml BOD bottle.

U.  Fill the BOD bottle into the neck with the dilution water; do not
    2X§£fi2S£. Allow air bubbles to escapa.

5.  Measure and record initial D.O. with Probe.

6.  If any water is lost after probe is removed, add dilution water so
    that water level is into the neck of the BOD bottle.


                                  357

-------
•K.  Insert stopper  carefully  to avoid entrapment of air bubbles.

  8." Place bottle  in incubator at  20°C ± 1.   Incubate  5 days +  2 hours.
   •
  9.  Measure and record  final  D. O. with Probe.

  10. Make appropriate corrections  for seed and dilution water as follows:

     a.  Prepare 5%  dilution of seed if aged  primary or 50% dilution  if
         raw river water,  following steps 3 through 9  above.

     b.  Calculate the D.  O. equivalent of the seed plus dilution water
         and record.

  11. Use those dilutions that  fall within the D. O. depletion limits
     shown in Standard Methods p492.

  12. Subtract the  D.  O.  equivalent of the seed plus dilution water  from
     the final D.  O.  of  each sample.

  13. Multiply the  net D. O. depletion by the  dilution  factor to give
     the BOD value for the selected dilution.

  14. a.  If more than one  dilution falls within the acceptable  range,
         report the  average of the BOD's of the individual samples.

     b.  If all dilutions  are  depleted of D.  O. report the highest
         dilution  as greater than 	.

     c.  If all depletions are less than 2 mg/1 D. O., report the lowest
         dilution  only.

  15. Run a glo^-use-glutamic standard, preferably with  each day's run  of
     samples.

  16. Run a duplicate dilution  on approximately one-third of the samples
     daily.


  BOD_Diluti on_ Wa t e r

  1.  Use distilled water only  as base.  Check for D. O.; aerate if
     necessary.

  2.  Check for copper with cuprethal reagent, or equivalent.  This  is
     necessary if  the dilution water is purchased, or  is from a source
     not previously  checked for copper.  Reject if Cu  test is positive,
     i.e., greater than  0.01 mg/1.
                                   358

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3.  Withdraw a volume of dilution water sufficient for the day's samples.
4.  Add appropriate volumes of mineral and buffer solutions.  (Stan-
    dard Methods pU89-491).  Stir well.

5.  a.  Add 2 ml seed/liter if primary effluent from municipal STP
        is available.

    b.  If not available use raw river water (50 ml/1).

6.  Check pH.  Should be 7.2.


B•  Data Analysis_and^Tran§mittal

1.  Upon completion of each Field Survey prepare a critical analysis
of the verification program in which the following elements are considered

        An analysis of the variability of results between the plant
        laboratory and the field study taking into account the split
        samples, standards duplicates, etc., and the results reported
        for each sample by the separate laboratories.

2.  Based on your analysis, indicate the appropriate factors that need to
be applied to the available historical data that will bring these into
line with similar data being collected at other plants.  Indicate how
and where each factor should be applied.

3.  Transmit the raw data which were obtained during the verification
study including all analyses that were performed on all samples.

U.  Transmit two copies of the 13 months of plant performance data which
are to be used to establish the performance expectations of the treatment
system being studied.
                                   359

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A




AB




An . Av .




APHA CU




AR-BOD5




AR-TSS




AS




ASB




BATEA




BPCTCA




C
COD




CU




CV




DAF




gpd




gpd/sq.ft,



gpm




hp




kkg




kg/kkg




MGD, tngd
      APPENDIX VI



      Abbreviations





Aeration



Alternating Basins



Annual Average



American Public Health Association Colcr Unit



Average ratio for BOD5:  (An.Av.+2SD)/An.Av.



Average ratio for TSS:   (An.Av.+2SD)/An.Av.



Activated Sludge



Aerated Stabilization Basin



Best Available Technology Economically Achievable



Best Practicable control Technology Currently Availabl



Clarifier



Controlled Discharge



Chemical Oxygen Demand



Color Unit



Coefficient of Variation



Dissolved Air Flotation



Gallons per day



Gallons per day per square foot



Gallons per minute



Horsepower



1000 Kilograms (one metric ton)



Kilograms per 1000 kilograms



Million gallons per day
                                  360

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MLD




M30CD




M30CD+SD




m-tpd




Na




NCASI




NH3




NSM




NSPS




RAPP




SD




SD30




SM




SO




SS




SS




30CD




tpd




TSS
Million liters per day



Average (mean) of 30 consecutive day averages



The M30CD plus one standard deviation



Metric tons per day



Sodium



National Council for Air and Stream Improvement



Ammonia



Non-Standard Methods



New Source Performance Standards



Refuse Act Permit Program



Standard Deviation of daily values for annual avera,



Standard Deviation of 30CD average from the M30CD



Standard Methods



Storage Oxidation Pond



Suspended Solids (same as TSS)



Secondary Settling



The average of 30 consecutive days



Short tons per day



Total Suspended Solids (same as SS)
                                   361

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                                   METRIC UNITS
                                 CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)

    ENGLISH UNIT      ABBREVIATION
acre                    ac
acre - feet             ac ft
British Thermal
  Unit                  BTU
British Thermal
  Unit/pound            BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute       cfm
cubic feet/second       cfs
cubic feet              cu ft
cubic feet              cu ft
cubic inches            cu in
degree Fahrenheit       F°
feet                    ft
gallon                  gal
gallon/minute           gpm
horsepower              hp
inches                  in
inches of mercury       in Hg
pounds                  lb
million gallons/day     mgd
mile                    mi
pound/square
  inch (gauge)          psig
square feet             sq ft
square inches           sq in
tons (short)            t
yard                    y
          by                TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)

     CONVERSION   ABBREVIATION   METRIC  UNIT
       0.405
    1233.5

       0.252
ha
cu m

kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)*  atm
       0.0929       sq m
       6.452        sq cm
       0.907        kkg
       0.9144       m
hectares
cubic meters

kilogram - calories

kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer

atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
* Actual conversion, not a multiplier
                                      362

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