EPA 440/1-74/025
DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT FOR
PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
AND NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
FOR THE
UNBLEACHED KRAFT AND
SEMICHEMICAL PULP
SEGMENT OF THE
PULP, PAPER AND PAPERBOARD MILLS
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
JANUARY 1974
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DEVELOPMENT DOCUMENT
for
PROPOSED EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
and
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
for the
UNBLEACHED KRAFT AND SEMICHEMICAL PULP SEGMENT OF THE
PULP, PAPER AND PAPERBOARD MILLS
POINT SOURCE CATEGORY
Russell Train
Administrator
Robert L. Sansom
Assistant Administrator for Air & Water Programs
Allen Cywin
Director, Effluent Guidelines Division
George Webster
Project Officer
January, 1974
Effluent Guidelines Division
Office of Air and Water Programs
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D. C. 20460
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ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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Abstract
•s document presents the findings of a study of the unbleached kraft,
^-chemical and paperboard segment of the pulp, paper, and paperboard
industry for the purpose of developing waste water effluent limitation
guidelines and Federal standards of performance for new sources in order
to .implement Section 304 (b) and 306 of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 (The "Act"). The first phase of the
study is limited to unbleached kraft mills, neutral sulfite semi-
chemical (NSSC) mills, unbleached kraft-NSCC (cross recovery) mills, and
paperboard from waste paper mills.
Effluent limitations guidelines are set forth for the degree of effluent
reduction attainable through the application of the "Best Practicable
Control Technology Currently Available", and the "Best Available
Technology Economically Achievable", which must be achieved by existing
point sources by July 1, 1977, and July 1, 1983, respectively.
"Standards of Performance for New Sources" set forth the degree effluent
reduction which is achievable through the application of the best
available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating methods,
or other alternatives.
The proposed regulations for July 1, 1977, require in-plant waste
management and operating methods, together with the best secondary
biological treatment technology currently available for discharge into
navigable water bodies. This technology is represented by preliminary
screening, primary treatment and secondary biological treatment (one or
o stage) .
± recommended technology for July 1, 1983, and for new source
performance standards, is in-plant waste management and preliminary
screening, primary sedimentation, and the two stage biological secondary
treatment. In addition multi-media filtration with, if necessary,
chemical addition and coagulation is recommended. Color removal is
recommended in several cases.
Supportive data and rational for development of the proposed effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are contained in
this report.
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CONTENTS
Section
Production Processes 37
Products Produced 37
Age and Size of Mills 38
Geographical Location 38
V Water Use and Waste Characterization 39
Wood Preparation 39
Pulping Processes *>6
Unbleached Kraft 1*6
Sodium Base NSSC W
Ammonia Base NSSC 56
Kraft -NSSC (Cross Recovery) 62
Paperboard from Waste Paper 63
Paper Machines 69
VI Selection of Pollutant Parameters 72
Waste Water Parameters of Significance 72
Rationale for Selection of Identified Parameters 72
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (5 day-20 c) 72
Suspended Solids 72
pH 73
Color 73
. Ammonia Nitrogen 73
Rationale for Parameters Not Selected 73
Settleable Solids 73
Turbidity 71*
Ccliform Organisms 71*
Resin Acids 7}i
Polychlorinated Biphenyls 75
VII control and Treatment Technologies 76
Unbleached Kraft 79
Internal Technologies 79
External Technologies 90
Removal of Suspended Solids 90
BOD5 Reduction °5
Two Stage Biological Treatment 100
Temperature Effects 101
Sludge Dewatering and Disposal 103
By-product Usage 105
Color Removal 108
iii
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CONTENTS
Section
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
Best Practicable Control Technology 3
Currently Available
Best Available Technology Economically '
Achievable
New Source Performance Standards ^
III Introduction ?
Purpose and Authority q
Summary of Methods Used for Development of the 10
Effluent Limitation Guidelines and
Standards of Performance
Summary Discussion of Data Sources ir)
Mill Records 10
NCASI Publications n
Short Term Survey };}-
RAPP Applications
Literature
Use of Data Sources
Data Analysis
Results of Data Analysis -"-£
General Description of industry Segments ^
Products p
Daily Production Capacity and Distribution ^ '
Annual Production 1^
Pulp and Papermaking Process 10
Unbleached Kraft lf)
Paper Production ?3
NSSC Process 2£
Recovery or Burning of Cooking Chemicals 2^
Paper Production 2°
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery) 30
Paper Production 3?
Paperboard from Waste Paper 3?
IV Subcategorization of the Industry 35
Factors of consideration 35
Rationale for Selection of Subcategories 36
Raw Material 3f'
_u_i_
•
IV
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CONTENTS
Section
Additional Reductions of Suspended Solids
and Refractory Organics
NSSC-Sodium Ease
Internal Technologies
External Technologies
NSSC-Ammonia Base 150
Internal Technologies 15°
External Technologies 15^
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery) 151'
Paperboard from Waste Paper 15]i
Internal Technologies 1?°
External Technologies 160
Irrigation and Land Disposal of Effluents
Unbleached Kraft
NSSC
Paperboard from Waste Paper
VIII Costs, Energy, Non-Water Quality Aspects
and Implementation Requirements
Rationale for Development of Costs 17**
Development of Effluent Treatment Costs 175
Pretreatment Technology 176
BPCTCA Technology
BATEA Technology
NSPS Technology
Energy Requirements
Non-Water Quality Aspects of Control and l8fi
Treatment Technologies
Air Pollution Potential
Noise Potential
Solid Wastes and Their Disposal
By-product Recovery
Implementation Requirements
Availability of Equipment 193
Availability of Construction Manpower 197
Construction Cost Index !?fi
Land Requirements 19^
Time Required to Construct Treatment Facilities 201
IX Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
Introduction
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CONTENTS
Section
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through the 205
Application of Best Practicable Control
Technology Currently Available
Hydraulic Debarking Variance 2<~>£
Temperature Variance 20^
Identification of Best Practicable Control 206
Technology Currently Available
Internal Controls 206
External Treatment 20°
Rationale for Selection of Best Practicable Control 210
Technology Currently Available
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities 210
Process Changes 210
Non-Water Quality Environmental Impact 2.10
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent 211
Reduction Benefits
Processes Employed 212
Rationale for Selection of Effluent Limitation 212
Guidelines
Unbleached Kraft 213
NSSC-Ammonia Ease 21'4
NSSC-Sodium Base
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
Paperboard from Waste Paper 21^
All Subcategories-pH Range 217
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable 218
Introduction 213
Effluent Reduction Attainable Through Application 21^
of the Best Available Technology Economically
Achievable
Identification of the Best Available Technology 220
Economically Achievable
Internal Controls 220
External Treatment 221
Rational for Selection of the Best Available 222
Technology Economically Achievable
Age and Size of Equipment and Facilities 222
Process Changes 222
Engineering Aspects of Control Technique 222
Applications
Non-water Quality Environmental Impact 222
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent 223
vi
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CONTENTS
Section Page
Reduction Benefits
Processes Employed 22'
Rationale for Development of EATEA Effluent
Limitation Guidelines
XI New Source Performance Standards
Introduction
Effluent Reductions Attainable Through the
Application of New Source Performance
Standards
Identification of Technology to Achieve the New 22°
Source Performance Standards
External Controls 22°
Rationale for Selection of Technology for New
Source Performance Standards
Type of Process Employed and Process Changes
Operation Methods
Batch as Opposed to Continuous Operation
Use of Alternative Raw Materials and Mixes 22°
of Raw Materials
Use of Dry Rather Than Wet Processes (Including 22°
Substitution of Recoverable solvents for Water)
Recovery of Pollutants as By-products
Cost of Application in Relation to Effluent
Reduction Benefits
XII Acknowledgements
XIII References
XIV Glossary 2)|2
Appendices
vii
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TABLES
1. Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitation Guidelines. '3
M
2. Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines. 4
3. Recommended NSPS. 6
4. Pulp and Paper Industry - Pulp Production. 17
5. Analysis of Wet Drum Barking Effluents. 40
6. Analysis of Hydraulic Barking Effluents. 43
7. Sewer Losses from Wet Barking Operations. 86
, 8. Raw Waste Characteristics - Unbleached Kraft. 52
9. Raw Waste Characteristics - NSSC - Sodium Base. 55
10. Evaporation Plant Waste Load Reduction and Secondary Conden- 60
sate Discharge Loads - NSSC - Ammonia Base.
11. Raw Waste Characterization -. NSSC - Ammonia Base. 61
12. Raw Waste Characteristics - NSSC - Ammonia Base. 62
13. Raw Waste Characteristics - Kraft - NSSC (Cross Recovery). 63
14. Raw Waste Characteristics - Paperboard from Waste Paper. 65
15. Summary of Internal Technologies. 77
16. Summary of External Technologies. 78
17. Reuse of Effluent from Different Unit Operations. 83
18. Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems 91
at Unbleached Kraft Mills.
19. Vacuum Filtration Rates of Sludges. 103
20. Sources of Color. 109
21. Unit Process Flow and color Distribution in Individual 109
Kraft Pulping Effluent.
22. Color Reduction by Minimum Lime Treatment. 113
viii
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Cables cont'd.
^3". Color Removal in Biological Oxidation - Carbon Adsorption 117
Sequence.
24*. Color Removal by Primary Clarification - Carbon Adsorption HQ
Sequence.
25. Color Removal by Lime Treatment - Carbon Adsorption Sequence 120
at Soluble Calcium Range of 69-83 mg/L.
26. Removal of Color and TOC by FACET Carbon Adsorption Following 122
Lime Treatment for 12 Day Period.
27. Waste Water Renovation - Summary of Results. 123
28. Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Total Mill
Effluent (Pilot Plant Run No. 1). 124
29. Renovated Water Analysis - Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Total 125
Mill Effluent (Pilot Plant Run No. 2).
30. Results cf Granular Activated Carbon Column Pilot Plant Treating
Unbleached Kraft Mill Waste. 131
31. Results of Activated Carbon Pilot Plants Treating Unbleached 135
Kraft Mill Effluents.
32. Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems at NSSC - 145
Sodium Base Mills.
33. Summary of Results of Treatment by Reverse Osmosis. 149
34. Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems at NSSC - 151
Ammonia Base Mills.
35. Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems at Kraft -
NSSC (Cross Recovery) Mills. 158
36. Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment Systems at Paper-
board from Waste Paper Mills. 162
37. Summary - Recommended Internal Control Technologies. 167
38. Summary - Recommended External Control Technologies. 172
39. Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for Unbleached Kraft Mill. 177
40. Effluent Treatment cost and Quality for NSSC - Sodium Base Mill. 173
IX
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Tables Cont'd.
41. Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for NSSC - Ammonia Base
Mill.
42. Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for Kraft - NSSC (Cross 180
Recovery Mill).
43. Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality for Paperboard from Waste 181
Paper Mill.
44. Power Costs: 186
45. Energy Requirements 187
46. Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines . 205
47. Cost of Application of BPCTCA. 211
48. Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitations Guidelines. 219
49. Cost cf Application of BATEA. 223
50. Recommended NSPS. 227
51. Cost cf Application of NSPS. 230
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Figures
Distribution of Unbleached Kraft, NSSC, and Unbleached Kraft - 21
NSSC Mills in the U. S. (1973)
2." Distribution of Paperboard from Waste Paper Mills in the U. S. 22
(1973)
3. Kraft Pulping Process Diagram 24
4. Kraft Pulping Recovery System Process Flow Diagram 25
5. Fourdrinier Paper Machine Process Diagram 27
6. Neutral Sulfite Semi-Chemical Pulp Process diagram 29
7. Process Flow Diagram of Spent Liquor Recovery Systems 31
at combined Unbleached Kraft - NSSC Mills
8. Paperboard from Waste Paper Mill Process Diagram 34
9. Long Term BOD of Barker Effluent 44
10. Settling Rate of Barker Screening Effluent 45
_11. Relationship between total Soluble Solids, BOD, Conductance 49
& Light Absorption in Kraft Pulping Decker Filtrate
Effluent
12. Process Flow and Materials Diagram for A 907 Metric Ton-a-Day 51
Kraft Linerboard Mill
13. BOD load of NSSC Pulping 54
14. Suspended Solids Losses from NSSC Pulping 54a
15. Process Flow and Materials Diagram for A 227 metric ton per day 58
NSSC Mill
16. Process Flow and Materials Diagram of a Paperboard from Waste 71
Paper Mill
17. Process Flow Diagram of Mill Effluent Treatment 96
18. Sludge Dewatering and Disposal 107
19. Massive Lime Process for Color Removal
xi
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20. Minimum Lime Process for Color Removal
21. Activated Carbon Pilot Plant
22. Color Removal in Lime Treatment as a Function of Soluble 119
ca in Water
23. Economy in scale - Carbon Absorption Systems 138
24. Effects cf Tower Depth on Ammonia Removal at Various 155
Depths
25. Effects of Hydraulic Loading on Ammonia Removal at Various 156
Depts
26. Effects on Packing spacing on Ammonia Removal 157
27. Total Water Pollution Control Expenditures 195
28. Wastewater Treatment Equipment Sales 196
29. Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index 199
30. Land Required for Waste Water Treatment 200
31. Time Required to construct Waste Water Facilities con- 202
ventional and Turnkey Contracts
xii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
For. the purpose of establishing effluent limitations guidelines and
standards of performance, the unbleached kraft, semi-chemical and
paperboard segments of the pulp, paper and paperboard manufacturing
industry have been subcategorized as follows:
Unbleached Kraft
Neutral Sodium Sulfite Semi-Chemical (NSSC) - Sodium Base
NSSC - Amironia Base
Unbleached Kraft - NSSC (Cross-Recovery)
Paperboard from Waste Paper
Within each identified subcategory, factors such as age, size of plant,
process employed, climate, and waste treatability confirm and
substantiate this subcategorization for the purpose of establishing
effluent limitations and performance standards to be achieved through
the application of recommended treatment and control technologies.
At this time, some mills within each subcategory are achieving the 1977
requirement of best practicable control technology currently available
(EPCTCA). It is estimated that increases in production costs to achieve
BPCTCA will range from less than $1.00 per ton up to $14.00 per ton
Depending upon specific mill conditions relating to available
technologies at that location. The BPCTCA suggests biological waste
treatment as the basic treatment process and limitations on BOD5,
suspended solids, and pH range are set forth.
Best available technology economically achievable (BATEA) is the
requirement for 1983. The estimated increases in production costs of
upgrading existing mills from the 1977 requirements to those of 1983
range from less than $1.00 per ton up to $7.00 per ton, depending on
specific mill conditions. The BATEA suggests major internal mill
improvements, biological waste treatment, and some physical-chemical
waste treatment technologies as the basic treatment and control
technologies, and limitations on BOD5, suspended solids, pH range, color
and, for one subcategory, ammonia nitrogen, are set forth.
New source performance standards (NSPS) are proposed which reflect
internal improvements which can be achieved through effective design and
layout of mill operations. Standards are set forth on BOD5, suspended
solids, pH range, and color. The basic treatment and control processes
which are suggested as a means of meeting these performance standards
are similar tc those proposed for existing mills by 1983.
Remaining segments within the pulp, paper and paperboard manufacturing
industry will be covered at a later date.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based upon the information in this report, the following effluent
limitations guidelines and standards of performance are recommended for
the sufccategories studied.
Best Pracicable
The recommended' effluent limitations guidelines for best practicable
control technology currently available (EPCTCA) are shown in Table 1.
Table 1
Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
EOD5 TSS
30_Day, ___ 2§ily,_Max 30_Day.
Unbleached Kraft 2.2 (4.4) 4.0 (8.0) 4.6 (9.2) 11.1 (22.2)
'sc-Ammonia 5.25(10.5) 8.75(17.5) 5.0 (10.0) 8.5 (17.0)
NSSC-Sodium 3.25 (6.5) 4.5 (9.0) 5.0(10.0) 8.5 (17.0)
Unbleached
Kraft-NSSC 3.05 (6.1) 6.35 (12.7) 5.3 (10.6) 12.5 (25.0)
Paperboard from
Waste Paper 1.25 (2.5) 2.2 (4.4) 1.5 (3.0) 2.8 (5.6)
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
The maximum average of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
should net exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines shown
above. The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximum
effluent limitations guidelines as shown above. The guidelines shown
above are in kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of producticn (pounds
of pollutant per short ton of production) . Effluents should always be
within the pH range of 6.0 to 9.0.
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The above guidelines for TSS are for TSS as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard_Methods
°f WaJ:e_r_ and Was_tewater (13th Edition) (1) .
Best Ayailable^TechnolggY^ Economically Achievable
The recommended effluent limitations guidelines for best available
technology economically achievable (BATEA) are shown in Table 2.
Table 2
Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BODS TSS
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
30
1.38
3.5
1.5
1.5
0.65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
Daily Max
2.5
5.87
2.1
2.95
1.25
(5.
(11
(*.
(5.
(2.
0)
.75)
2)
9)
5)
1
2
2
2
0
30 Day
.85
.0
.0
.1
.6
(3.7)
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
Daily Max
4
4
4
5
1
.45
.5
.5
.0
.1
(8.9)
(9.0)
(9.0)
(10. Oil
(2.2)
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
Color
30 Day Daily Max
10 (20) 15 (30)
75 % removal
75 % removal
10 (20) 15 (30)
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
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The maximum average of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
puld not exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines shown
ve. The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximum
fluent limitations guidelines shown above. The guidelines are in
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
per^short ton of production).
Effluent limitations guidelines are needed for nitrogen on NSSC ammonia
base mills only. However, no specific limitation has been established
because of the extreme lack of meaningful data. Currently, only two
such mills exist and preliminary indications are that discharges in the
range of 7.5-10.0 kilograms per metric ton (15-20 pounds per short ton)
can occur. No technology for the removal of nitrogen has been applied
within the pulp and paper industry, and only very limited technology has
been applied in other industries, especially at the concentrations
cited. Extensive studies on effective methods for the removal of
nitrogen in these concentrations must be carried out before specific
effluent limitations guidelines can be established.
The above guidelines for TSS are for TSS as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (13th Edition) (1).
The above limitations guidelines for color are for color as measured by
the NCASI testing method as described in NCASI_Technical Bulletin #253
(2). The above color limitations guidelines of 75% removal for both
odium and ammonia base NSSC will be changed to kilograms of color per
trie ton cf production (pounds of color per short ton of production)
a later date when technology has provided additional data from more
installations.
^ —
•
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New Source Performance^standards
The recommended new source performance standards (NSPS) are shown ^m
Table 3.
Table 3
Recommended New Source Performance Standards
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
EOD5 TSS
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
30
1.38
3.5
1.5
1.5
0.65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
Daily Max
2.5
5.87
2.1
2.95
1.25
(5.
(11
(0.
(5.
(2.
0)
.75)
2)
9)
5)
30 Day
1.85
2.0
2.0
2.1
0.6
(3.7)
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
Daily Max
4
4
4
5
1
.45
.5
.5
.0
.1
(8.9)
(9.0)
(9.0)
(10.0)
(2.2)
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
Color
30 Day Daily Max
10 (20) 15 (30)
10 (20) 15 (30)
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
The maximurr average of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
should not exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines shown
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above. The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximum
iffluent limitations guidelines shown above. The guidelines are in
.lograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
Tef short ton of production). The above TSS standards are for TSS as
measured by the technique utilizing glass fiber filter disks as
specified in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater (13th Edition) (1). The above color standards are for color
as measured by methods described in NCASI_Technical Bulletin #253 (2).
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
PU]RPOSE_ANE_AUTHORrrY
•
Section 301(b) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in
1972, requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1977, of
effluent limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned
treatment works, which are based on the application of the best practi-
cable control technology currently available as defined by the Adminis-
trator pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act. Section 301 (b) also
requires the achievement by not later than July 1, 1983, of effluent
limitations for point sources, other than publicly owned treatment
works, which are based on the application of the best available tech-
nology economically achievable which will result in reasonable further
progress toward the national goal of eliminating the discharge of all
pollutants, as determined in accordance with regulations issued by the
Administrator pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act. Section 306 of the
Act requires the achievement by new sources of a Federal standard of
performance providing for the control of the discharge pollutants which
reflects the greatest degree of effluent reduction which the
Administrator determines to be achievable through the application of the
best available demonstrated control technology, processes, operating
methods, or other alternatives, including, where practicable, a standard
permitting no discharge of pollutants.
Kction 304 (b) of the Act requires the Administrator to publish within
e year of enactment of the Act, regulations providing guidelines for
effluent limitations setting forth the degree of effluent reduction
attainable through the application of the best control measures and
practices achievable, including treatment techniques, process and pro-
cedure innovations, operation methods, and other alternatives. The
regulations proposed herein set forth effluent limitations guidelines
pursuant to Section 304 (b) of the Act for the unbleached kraft, neutral
sulfite semi-chemical (NSSC), and paperboard from waste paper segments
of the pulp, paper, and paperboard point source categories.
Section 306 of the Act requires the Administrator, within one year after
a category of sources is included in a list published pursuant to
Section 306(b)(1) (A) of the Act, to propose regulations establishing
Federal standards of performance for new sources within such categories.
The Administrator published in the Federal Register of January 16, 1973,
(38 FR 1624), a list of 27 source categories. Publication of the list
constituted announcement of the Administrator's intention of
establishing, under Section 306, standards of performance applicable to
new sources within the pulp, paper, and paperboard point source cate-
gories, which were included within the list published January 16, 1973.
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This report proposes such standards for the unbleached kraft, neutral
sulfite semi-chemical, and paperboard from waste paper segments of
point source categories.
SUMMARY OF METHODS USED FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
GUIDELINES_AND_STANDARDS_gF_PERFORMANCE
The basic procedures used in developing the effluent limitations
guidelines and standards of performance are discussed below.
The unbleached pulping segments, exclusive of groundwood, acid sulfite,
and soda pulping segments, of the pulp and paper industry were
subcategorized based on an evaluation of available data in terms of raw
materials, process differences, waste loads, products produced, age size
of mills, geographical locations, and consultations with recognized
authorities in the pulp and paper industry. The resultant subcategories
include:
1. Unbleached kraft
2. Neutral sulfite semi-chemical (NSSC) - Sodium base
3. NSSC - Ammonia base
<*. Unbleached kraft - NSSC (Cross Recovery)
5. Paperboard from Waste Paper
Summary Discussion of Data^Sources
The extensive data and information base which was used in the
development of the effluent limitations guidelines was generated by thj
methods discussed below. The sources of data and information include
the following:
1. Mill records of exemplary mills
2. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI)
publications, specifically Special Reports 73-02 (3) and 73-03 (4)
3. Short term verification survey results of exemplary mills
1. EPA Refuse Act Permit Program (RAPP) Applications
5. Literature
Tables 5 through 28 in Appendix IIIB show the available data from the
above data sources for each exemplary mill.
Mill Records
Data was accumulated from the exemplary mill records which covered 12-13
months operating time. Most of the mill data was a result of daily
sampling and analysis. The mill data was carefully screened in order to
have an accurate set of data for each mill. In order to screen the
data, a survey of sampling and analytical techniques was made. Mill
waste waters were sampled for a period of 3-7 days with samples being
split between the mill laboratory and contract laboratory.
10
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Publications
AjSI Publications 73-02 3 and 73-03 H presented suspended solids and
OD5 data for mills using activated sludge or aerated stabilization
basins treatment systems, respectively. The data was carefully screened
by JSICASI before inclusion in the publications. The data was from mill
records and represented an average of a year's operation. Data for
several of the exemplary mills is also included in the publications.
Short .Term Survey
As mentioned previously, surveys were conducted of exemplary mills for
3-7 days with a basic objective of evaluation of mill data. Twenty-four
hour composites of hourly samples were taken of the mills waste water
during the surveys. Sampling and analytical techniques were conducted
using EPA accepted procedures. It should be noted that the resulting
data cannot be directly related to the mill data because of the short
duration of the survey.
RAPP Applications
Data from RAPP applications represents an average operating condition
for the mills. Unfortunately, the reliability of some of the data for
£he mills is questionable as it does net compare with data from reliable
ources for the same mills. Possibly, the RAPP data does not represent
he latest year's operation period.
Literature
Frequently, the data in published literature is not correlated with the
particular mill which it represents. Also, the reliability of the data
is sometimes questionable since sampling and analytical methods are
usually not presented and the time frame which the data represents is
frequently omitted.
Use of Data_Sources
With a objective of determining mills which could be considered as
representing the best existing control technology, a list of every mill
in each of the above subcategories was compiled and is shown in Appendix
I. All available information regarding the internal processes employed,
types of products, waste treatment facilities in operation, and
quantity/quality of the waste water discharge was then tabulated for
each mill.
11
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•uf •*•»
1
.no
The above information was evaluated to determine which mills should be
further investigated by on-site surveys. The main criteria used duri
the evaluation was the quantity of waste water discharge (liters/kkg
productions) and quality of the discharge as characterized by BOD5 an
suspended solids (both in kg/kkg of production). The former tended to
indicate the extent of in-plant control practices and the latter the
extent and performance capabilities of waste treatment facilities. This
effort resulted in a list of mills which included 10 unbleached kraft
mills, 6 NSSC mills, 7 combination kraft-NSSC mills, and 12 paperboard
from waste paper mills.
Other factors, such as production mix, age of mill, type of wood used,
type of digester and recovery systems, and reliability of daily
treatment records were then weighed in making the selection of mills
that should qualify for on-site surveys and as candidates for best
demonstrated performance. This procedure further reduced the list of
potential candidates to 14 in the pulping subcategories and 10 in the
paperboard from waste paper subcategory.
Prior to sending a survey team to the above mills, a reconnaissance team
of two men was sent to the site of the mills selected from the above
list. At that time the mill personnel were briefed on the objectives of
the project, the information that was necessary for the successful
completion of the project, and the work program to be carried out by a
survey team. A copy of the reconnaissance and mill survey
questionnaires is shown in Appendix V. At that time the availability of
laboratory facilities, and the feasibility of obtaining verification-
data by a field survey were determined. A tour of the plant and ti»
treatment facilities, and a review of the available mill records on'
waste streams, both internal and external, were made. The objective of
this effort was to verify that the mill was an exemplary mill and that
the mill records could be validated by a field survey team. The type of
cost records and information required for the project was described at
this time so that the mill would have the time to compile this
information which was then collected by the survey team. This
pre-survey visit eliminated three candidate mills from the survey effort
for the following reasons: flood conditions at one mill made it
impossible to obtain good flow measurements of the waste stream; and two
mills were engaged in major construction in the pulp mill which exerted
an abnormal influence on the waste water generated.
The field survey team consisted of three to seven men, depending on the
particular mill studied. The goal was to obtain analytical and flow
data on various in-plant and out-of-plant treatment systems. Samples
were collected every hour and composited every 24 hours for three to
seven days. During the survey, composited samples were split between
the mill laboratory personnel and the survey team. Samples were
analyzed on-site by the survey team or by an independent laboratory.
All analyses were performed following methods described in Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. (13th Edition) or
12
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equivalent EPA accepted methods (See Appendix V, Exhibit 2). A typical
ample cf the results is tabulated in Appendix IIIA, Table 4. One
jective cf this effort was to generate an "analytical procedure
factor" tc be applied to the 12 month data collected by the mill. This
attempted to place all data from all surveyed mills on the same
analytical base. The biggest variation and most difficulty experienced
in this procedure was in suspended solids since some mills used filter
paper with a funnel and others used asbestos or fiberglass pads with a
gouch crucible. In almost all mills, the comparative BOD5 values fell
within the limits of accuracy of the test.
The 12-month mill data, subject tc any cautions indicated from the
testing procedures, was used to generate a broad based data bank for
each of the subcategories under study. The tons per day of production
for each mill was corrected to air dry tons (ADT) as required. Some
mill data for raw waste load was found not to include all waste water
discharges and corrections to the data were made where necessary. The
data was generally developed from 12 months of daily records from each
mill. The data presented is believed to be in accordance with accepted
standards of the analytical procedures verified by survey programs with
an exception for total suspended solids data which includes some mill
data which was determined by non-standard methods.
In addition to the above accumulated data and information, the full
range of control and treatment technologies existing within each
^ubcategory was identified. This included an identification of each
Distinct control and treatment technology, including both inplant and
^nd-of-process technologies, which are existent or capable of being
designed for each subcategory. It also included an identification in
terms of the amount of constituents and the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of pollutants, of the effluent level
resulting from the application of each of the treatment and control
technologies. The problems, limitations, and reliability of each
treatment and control technology and the required implementation time
were also identified. In addition, the non-water quality environmental
impact, such as the effects of the application of such technologies upon
other pollution problems, including air, solid waste, noise, and
radiation was also identified. The energy requirements of each of the
control and treatment technologies were identified as well as the cost
of the application cf such technologies.
The information, as outlined above, was then evaluated in order tc de-
termine the best practicable control technology currently available;
best available technology economically achievable; and the best
available demonstrated control technology processes, operating methods,
cr other alternatives. In identifying such technologies, various
factors were considered. These included the total cost of application
of technology in relation to the effluent reduction benefits to be
achieved from such application, the age of equipment and facilities
13
-------
involved, the process employed, the engineering aspects of the
application of various types of control techniques or process change
non-water quality environmental impact (including energy requirements
and other factors.
All of the above sources were used in developing the effluent
limitations guidelines. However, it should be pointed out that the data
sources are net equal in reliability and thus, they were weighted
accordingly. The data from exemplary mills records was used as the
major source in conjunction with data from the NCASI publications.
These two sources were used as the basis for the effluent limitations
guidelines. The data from other sources was used mainly as backup data
from which to check the mill and NCASI data. The short term survey data
represents essentially one data point over a year's time and thus should
be within the range of the year's operating data. The RAPE data was
used as a comparison check. Data from literature was used when the data
from mill records and NCASI publications had resulted in only a small
data base for the specific subcategory.
Data_Anal¥Sis jMill^gecords^
After carefully screening the data from mill records, the daily data
(when available) was entered into a computer and the following analyses
were performed:
Average (Annual average - An. Av.) of daily
data over 12-13 months
Standard deviation (SD) of daily values from the
above annual average
- Ratio of (two SD plus An. Av. ) to (An. Av.)
Average of monthly averages of daily values
Determination of maximum monthly average
Ratio of maximum monthly average to An. Av.
Average of 30 consecutive day averages (M30CD)
Standard deviation (SD30) of 30 consecutive
day averages (30CD) from the M30CD
Maximum 30CD
Determination of M30CD plus SD30
Data for many of the mills was not available for every day of the year.
Thus, a true M30CD value could not be obtained. The days without data
were dropped and thus, the M30CD value actually represents 30 data days
instead of 30 calendar days. It should be noted that the M30CD value
for each mill does not necessarily equal the annual average, because the
M30CD value was obtained by not closing the year's data loop. For
example, a mill with 360 data days would have 330 30CD values.
1U
-------
Results of Pata_Analysis
bles 1-6r Appendix IIA, show results of the above data analysis.
The summary bloc of data shown in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1, 2, and 3 is
the basis of the recommendations made in this report for each of the
sutcategories under study.
15
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GENERAL_DESCRIPTION_OF_INDUSTRY_SEGMENTS
Paper is made from raw materials which contain adequate amounts
cellulose fiber. The cellulose fibers must first be separated
other constituents of the fiber source and fiberized. This function is'
the pulping process. During the 19th century, the use of wood began^to
supplant cotton and linen rags, straw, and other less plentiful fiber
sources. Today, wood pulp accounts for over 98 percent of the virgin
fiber used in papermaking.
There are several methods used for pulping wood. In some, it is cocked
with chemicals under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure,
time, and pulping liquor composition (5) . The various processes utilize
different chemicals or ccmbinations of them. In other methods, wood is
reduced to a fibrous state by mechanical means or a combination of
chemical and mechanical action. The repulping of waste paper is a
hydraulic and mechanical process.
The early use of kraft pulping, an alkaline chemical process, was con-
current with the ascendancy of wood as a papermaking raw material. The
process was first patented in this country more than 100 years ago and
is currently the dominant pulping method accounting for nearly 58% of
the total industry production. Table 4 shows production figures for the
segments of the pulp and paper industry. Kraft pulping is the dominant
pulping method largely for two reasons: 1) Recovery, because of the
cost of the chemicals utilized, is an economic necessity to the process
and in the 1930's successful chemical recovery techniques were applied;
2) The process was found to be adaptable to nearly all wood species an
its application to southern yellow pines, which were unsuitable fo
other processes, resulted in a rapid expansion of kraft pulping (6).
The principles basic to the neutral sulfite semi-chemical process -1)
chemical treatment of chips followed by grinding cr fiberizing and 2)
cooking with a neutral or slightly alkaline sodium sulfite solution —
were also advanced in the 19th century. However, it was not until their
advantages were demonstrated in the 1920's at the U.S. Forest Products
Laboratory that the first NSSC mill began operation in 1925 for the
production of corrugating board (6). The process gained rapid accep-
tance particularly because of its ability to utilize the vast quantities
of inexpensive hardwoods previously considered unsuitable for producing
quality pulps (7). Also, the quality of stiffness which hardwood NSSC
pulps impart to corrugating board (6), and the large demand for this
material, have promoted a rapid expansion of the process.
The future of NSSC pulping is closely tied to the development of eco-
nomic systems for chemical recovery or non-polluting chemical disposal.
In the past, the small size of the mills, the low organic content and
heat value of the spent liquor, and the low cost of cooking chemicals
provided little incentive for large capital investment for recovery
plants (6).
16
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Waste paper has been recycled in this country since the mid-1850's.
fday, about 21 percent of the paper and paperboard produced is reused
.a raw material for new products. In 1972, 11.4 million metric tons
2.6 million short tons) were reclaimed. Paperboard from waste paper
mills consumed about 75 percent of this total (8).
Table 4
Pulp and Paper Industry
Pulp Production (excluding builders board)
Pulp & Paper Segments Metric Tons/year (Tons/Year) X of Production
Groundwood pulp
NSSC
Unbleached kraft
Unbleached kraft-NSSC
Bleached kraft
Bleached sulfite
Unbleached sulfite
Soda pulp
Paperboard from waste paper
Pulp from waste paper (**)
4,188,000
3,449,000
15,677,000
(*)
11,220,000
1,629,000
302,000
127,000
6,670,000
3,507,000
(4,617,000)
(3,803,000)
(17,285,000)
(*)
(12,371,000)
(1,796,000)
(333,000)
(140,000)
(7,354,000)
(3,867,000)
8.9
7.4
33.6
(*)
24.0
3.5
0.6
0.2
14.3
7.5
TOTALS 46,770,000 (51,566,000) 100.0
Production figures for Unbleached kraft-NSSC are reported
in the separate values for unbleached kraft and NSSC.
(**) Used as furnish for the segments listed above
(except paperboard from waste paper).
Sources of data:
a. Post's 1973 Pulp and Paper Directory.
b. API (verbal discussions) .
c • State^of -the- Art_Review_of_Pulp._and
_Paper_W§§te_Treatment-EPA
17
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Products
Unbleached kraft pulps are particularly suitable for producing liner-
board which is a paperboard that is used as (1) the smooth surface
facing in "corrugated" boxes, (2) wrapping paper, and (3) paper for
grocery bags and shipping sacks. About 95 percent of NSSC pulp is used
to manufacture the corrugated medium for corrugated boxes but it is also
a component of other products which do not require the maximum tearing
resistance or folding endurance such as white paper and newsprint (6).
Paperboard made from waste paper is most familiar in a wide variety of
commercial packaging which does require a folding capability, such as
bottle carriers.
Capacity and_Distribution
The 1973 industry data show that there are approximately 27 mills in the
United States which produce nothing other than unbleached kraft pulp and
paper and/or paperboard. Their total daily capacity is abcut 18,140
metric tons (20,000 short tons) for pulp and nearly 22,675 metric tons
(25,000 short tons) for paper and board production. Sixteen separate
NSSC mills with a total daily capacity of 5455 metric tons (6025 short
tons) for producing pulp and 6004 metric tons (6620 short tons) for
paper and board are recorded. The total daily capacity of te
unbleached kraft and NSSC mills operating with cross recovery is
follows:
Kraft pulp — 8492 metric tons (9363 short tons)
NSSC pulp — 1971 metric tons (2173 short tons)
Paperboard — 9452 metric tons (10,421 short tons approx.)
One hundred thirty-six paperboard from waste paper having a daily pro-
duction capacity of about 19,047 metric tons (21,000 short tons) are
also shown.
Mills which fall within these subcategories of the pulp and paper
industry are listed in Appendix I.
The size range of these mills in terms of paper and board capacity is:
Unbleached Kraft — 181-1701 metric tons (200-1875 short tons)
NSSC-Sodium — 91-635 metric tons (100-700 short tens)
NSSC-Ammonia — 453 metric tons (500 short tons)
Unbleached Kraft-NSSC — 604-1905 metric tons (666-2100 short tons)
Paperboard from
Waste Paper — 13.6-907 metric tons (15-1000 short tons)
18
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The geographic distribution of the kraft and NSSC mills, and that of the
kraft-NSSC operations, are shown in Figure 1. Figure 2
the distribution of the waste paperboard from waste paper
mills.
A total of over 15.U trillion metric tons (17 million short tons) of un-
bleached kraft pulp and nearly 3.6 metric tons (4 million short tons) of
NSSC pulp were produced in the United States in 1972 according to
preliminary American Paper Institute (API) statistics. Total unbleached
kraft paper and paperboard production was 15.6 million metric tons (17.2
million short tons); NSSC paperboard, 3.6 million metric tons (4.0
million short tons); and paperboard from waste paper 6.9 million metric
tons (7.6 million short tons) (9). These totals include production of
mills which manufacture other products in addition to those to which
this report is addressed.
PULP_AND_PAPE]RMAKING_PROCESSES
Unbleached Kraft
C"-
€
Wood, the fiber raw material of unbleached kraft pulp, arrives at the
pulp mill as logs or as chips. Barked logs can be chipped directly for
se. Bark is removed from unbarked logs in a wet cr dry process and the
gs are then chipped for conveyance to the digester, a large steel
ressure vessel heated with steam to about 150°c. Here the chips are
cooked in either a batch or continuous operation to dissolve lignin and
separate the cellulosic fibers. The cooking liquor contains a mixture
of caustic soda and sodium sulfide, which necessitate, because of high
chemical costs and high liquor concentrations, a chemical recovery sys-
tem which is integral to the process. This system and its role in the
preparation of cooking liqucr are described in ensuing paragraphs.
The unbleached kraft process is described as a "full-cook" process since
cooking is completed to the point at which the wood will be fiberized
upon being blown from the digester. In modern practice, the pulp is
ejected to a blowtank.
The pulp, along with the "spent cooking liquor" is then transferred to a
"brown-stock" chest, or tank, and thence to vacuum drum washers or
continuous diffusers where the spent cooking liquor is separated by
counter-current washing. In older mills, the pulp is "blown" directly
to the diffusers from the digester.
Chemical recovery necessitates a high degree of liquor separation with
as little dilution as is possible to minimize heat requirements of
evaporation (6)(10). Three stages of washing, which may employ blow
19
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tank condensate reuse are common but, in some cases, four are used. In
some newer installations a combination of vacuum washers and diffuses
is employed (11). Some continuous digesters contain liquor separatif
and diffusion washing zones within the digester body, and in some kraft
mills,, the pulp is screened and/or refined prior to trown-stock washing
m
to effect certain economies in washing and improvements in pulp quality
(6).
After washing, the pulp is diluted and then screened to remove kncts,
uncooked chips, pitch particles, etc., and is ready for production of
unbleached paper and paperboard or thickening to a high consistency for
further processing, storage, or lapping for shipment.
The kraft pulping process is illustrated in Figure 3.
"Weak black liquor" comes from the washing operation and contains about
10-16 percent solids. In addition to the inorganic cooking chemicals,
it contains organic wood constituents separated in the pulping process.
The weak black liquor is concentrated to about 45 to 50 percent solids
in long-tube multiple-effect evaporators and the resulting viscous mass
is called "strong black liquor." This is then concentrated further to a
consistency of 60 to 65 percent solids in the recovery furnace contact
evaporator or in a concentrator.
Cooking chemicals lost in pulping and washing are replaced with make-up
chemical, usually sodium sulfate, or a residue with a high content q
this salt (12). Acid sludge from oil treatment, raffinate from by-pr
duct production, NSSC waste liquor, and ash from incineration of NSS<
liquor are examples of such residues. Salts captured from the recovery
furnace stack gases are also reintroduced into the system. Sulfur and
caustic soda are sometimes used to adjust the sulfidity.
Uf
•
The strong black liquor is then burned and the heat recovered in an
especially designed boiler. During burning, the organic scdiuir com-
pounds are converted to soda ash and sulfates reduced to sulfides on the
floor or reducing section of the furnace. The molten smelt of salts is
dissolved in water to form "green liquor." This is clarified by sedi-
mentation and then causticized with lime to convert the soda ash to
caustic soda. After causticizing, the combined Na2S - NaOH solution is
known as "white liquor."\ This is settled and sometimes filtered through
pressure filters, adjusted to the desired strength or concentration for
cooking with weak black .liquor, and stored for use in the pulping pro-
cess.
20
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Figure 1
DISTRIBUTION OF UNRLEACHF.D KRAFT, NSSC, AND KRAFT-I3FSC MILLS IN TIIF U.S. (1973)
LJ Unbleached Kraft
O NSSC
Kraft-NSSC
-------
NJ
Figure 2
DISTRIBUTION OF WASTE PAPERBOARD MILLS IN THE U.S. (1973)
C.
-------
The lime mud (calcium carbonate) obtained on settling this white liquor
washed and dewatered on rotary vacuum filters or centrifuges and
Jrned in rotary or fluidized kilns tc form quick lime. This is hy-
Trated with green liquor in slakers for reintroduction to the recovery
cycle,
*
The kraft chemical recovery system is shown in Figure 4 (5).
Pager^Production
Paper is made by depositing, from a dilute water suspension of pulp, a
layer of fiber on a fine screen which permits the water to drain through
but which retains the fiber layer (6). This layer is then removed from
the wire, pressed, and dried.
Two general types of machines and variations thereof are commcnly
employed. One is the cylinder machine in which the wire is placed on
cylinders which rotate in the furnish, and the other is the fcurdrir.ier
in which the furnish is deposited upon an endless wire belt.
Generally, kraft paper is manufactured on tourdrinier machines and
paperboard on either fourdrinier or cylinder machines. The primary
operational difference between the two is the flat sheet-forming surface
of the fcurdrinier and the cylindrical-shaped meld of the cylinder
machine. However, the type of machine used has little bearing on the
_raw waste load.
23
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FIGURE 3
KRAFT PULPING PROCESS DIAGRAM
LEGEND
CHEM. 8 LIQUORS
PROCESS WATER
BACK WATER
EFFLUENT
STEAM 8 GASES
REJECTS
BY-PRODUCTS
EFFLUENT
I
i
TURP
RECOVERY
OFF
GASES
24
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FIGURE 4
KRAFT PULPING CHEMICAL RECOVERY
white liquor
storage
WOOD
CHIPS
\
WATER
digester
blow pit
pulp washer
weak black
liquor storage
evaporator
mud
washer I
WATER
mud
thickener
LIME
STONE
molten
chemical
strong black
liquor storage
recovery
furnace
NEW SALT
CAKE
dregs
washer
weak liquor
storage
25
-------
The water which drains through the paper machine is known as white water
and contains suspended fiber, pulp fines, and chemicals used
additives in the paper or board. In the case of unbleached kra
products, few additives are required other than alum and starch, and, irT
some bag and sack stock, wet-strength resins. The manufacture of
linerboard involves a minimum of additives. It is, therefore, commoa to
reuse white water from these operations, first in the paper and beard
making operation itself, and then in the pulping process. Fiber is
collected and returned to the system.
The continuous paper sheet is sent through a series of pressing and
drying machines before emerging as the basic product. A flow sheet of
the fourdrinier operation is presented in Figure 5.
tjSSC Process
There are three main features of the NSSC process (13):
1. Impregnation of hardwood chips with cooking liquor
2. Cooking at high temperature
3. Mechanical fiberizing
While some mills buy the cooking chemical, it is more commonly prepared
on the premises by burning sulfur and absorbing it in soda ash or
nia, depending on which base is utilized. Newer mills employ
digesters although a large percentage of NSSC pulping still cccurs
batch digesters which have been converted from other processes.
Maximum temperature is adjusted according to retention time in the
digester (13). A short cook, 10-20 minutes at approximately 200°C. is
characteristic of screw digesters. In vertical or rotating spherical
digesters, a period of one to three hours at temperatures ranging from
160°-175°C. is typical.
In some mills, the softened chips as they come frcm the digester are
compressed in one or more stages of screw pressing. This facilitates
maximum recovery of spent liquor and partial washing with minimum dilu
26
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FIGURE 5
FOURDRINIER PAPER MACHINE
PROCESS DIAGRAM
OVERFLOW
| -»•
1
1
1
I
u_. .
FILTERED
\A/LJI~TC 1A/AXCD
WHI 1 b WA 1 bn
TANK
1
SAVE-ALL
I
1
RICH WHITE
WATER TANK
COUCH PIT
WIRE PIT
~
1
J
— —
PULP
CHEST
•»•
REFINERS
MACHINE
CHEST
1
MACHINE
SCREENS
i
i
FOURDRINIER
SECTION
1
PRESS
SECTION
1
DRIER
SECTION
t
PRODUCT
_ PROCESS
WATER
LEGEND
PRODUCT and RAW ,MAT'L
PROCESS WATER
REFUSE WATER
EFFLUENT
27
-------
tion (6). Either from this stage or directly from the digester they are
sent to a disk mill for fiberizing. The chips then undergo vacuum
pressure washing, screening, and/or centrifugal cleaning. Digester
lief and blow gases are condensed, and in some mills the condensate"is
used in pulp washing.
The pulp is conveyed to an agitated chest where it is diluted with white
water from the paper mill to the desired consistency for feed to the
secondary refiners servicing the papermaking operation. In making cor-
rugating board, a small percentage of repulped waste paper is added to
give the product desired characteristics.
The NSSC pulping process is illustrated in Figure 6.
Recovery__or_Burnin2_of_Cookin2_Chemicals
Chemical recovery in the sodium base NSSC process is considerably more
difficult than in the kraft process. The spent liquor is low in solids
with a relatively high proportion of inorganic to organic constituents,
and, thus, does not burn easily. Other factors which complicate
recovery are a relatively high liquor viscosity and relatively low
sodium to sulfur ratio (5).
Because of these factors many mills simply evaporate and burn the spent
liquor without recovery. Evaporation is commonly accomplished in multi-
ple-effect evaporators. The concentrated liquor is burned for dispcsa
or recovery in a fluidized bed reactor or a specially designed furnace
In sodium base mills, the fluidized bed combustion units produce sodiu
sulfate which i§ suitable for use in kraft mill liquor systems.
Recovery of sodium base NSSC liquor alcne is presently limited to a few
large mills. Three of the 13 sodium base NSSC mills under consideration
in this report — i.e., those which employ no other pulping processes —
have chemical recovery systems. Three others incinerate the liquor and
two discharge to city sewers. For these mills, the simplest recovery
practice, which is called "cross recovery", is to send the liquor to a
nearby kraft recovery system.
No successful system has been developed for chemical recovery in ammonia
base NSSC mills. In the two mills utilizing this base, the spent liquor
is incinerated. The combustion products are gaseous with a negligible
residue of inorganic ash (14) (15).
Production
Production of paper from NSSC pulp is similar to the operations in
unbleached kraft mills as discussed previously.
28
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FIGURE 6
NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMl- CHEMICAL
PULP PROCESS DIAGRAM
CHIP
STORAGE
TO ATMOSPHERE
•
STEAM
—|
COOKING
LIQUOR
•
ABSORBER
STACK
GASES
SOe-COe
r
I-—.
BLOW
TANK
i
SULFUR
DIOXIDE
I
REFINERS
SODIUM
CARBONATE
SEAL
PIT
J
EVAPORATOR
1
LIQUOR
RECOVERY OR
BURNING
FLOOR DRAINS
111 A OLJfM ITO
WASHOUTS
OVERFLOWS
«--
~l
{
—
[
L
WASHER
i
SHREDDER
*
PRODUCT
EFFLUENT
•-i
L
1
1
H
—
r
i-
STOCK
PREP.
i
WHITE
WATER TANK
1 J-
PAPER MACH.
SAVE -ALL
PROCESS
WATER
I
PRODUCT a RAW MATL. —
CHEM. a LIQUORS
PROCESS WATER
BACK WATER
STEAM a GASES
EFFLUENT
EVAP. COND.
COOLING Hj.0
29
-------
Kraft-NSSC^Cross^Recoveryj
A substantial number of kraft pulp mills have an accessary sodium
neutral sulfite semi-cheirical pulp mill. In most instances these are
kraft linerbpard mills employing pine as a raw material frcm forest
areas where appreciable hardwood species grow as well. These mixed
hardwoods are harvested separately but simultaneously with the pine,
cooked by the sodium base NSSC process, and manufactured into
corrugating board. This product is compatible with linerboard since
both are required to produce container board. Such combined pulp
production also provides the simplest and most economic means fcr
disposing of the sodium base NSSC spent liquor since it can be intro-
duced into the kraft recovery system at one point or another tc provide
make-up chemicals to the kraft liquor system. The latter requires
elements present in the NSSC liquor, sodium and sulfur, to produce white
liquor, the kraft cooking agent. Alternative methods for introducing
the spent brown NSSC liquor into the system are illustrated in Figure 7.
Kraft recovery systems can absorb spent liquor from an NSSC ir.ill
producing about one-third the tonnage of the kraft operation assuming
that adequate evaporator capacity is provided to accept the NSSC brown
liquor which is generally more dilute and lower in heat value than the
kraft black liquor. One mill has been able to increase this ratio
through a process employing crystalization of soda ash from the green
liquor for use in preparing NSSC cooking liquor. This limitation has
also been overcome by cooking the hardwood with green liquor, although
the pulp produced has less desirable characteristics than
Problems which have been encountered in handling NSSC spent liquor
kraft recovery plants are as follows:
1. Low solids content of NSSC liquor which dilutes kraft black
liquor to a degree where considerable additional evaporator capacity
and steam is required. 2. Lower heat value of NSSC liqucr solids
which requires evaporation of combined liquors to a higher
consistency making forced feed necessary in the final evaporation
effects due to higher liquor viscosity. 3. Increased evaporator
fouling and scaling problems and the need for frequent boil-cut.
4. Corrosion problems resulting frcm the presence of NSSC liquor
components in the system. 5. Interference with the separation of
tall oil from the kraft black liquor. 6. The release of hydrogen
sulfide on combining the two liquors due to the lew pH of the NSSC
liquor.
30
-------
FIGURE 7
METHODS EMPLOYED FOR THE INTRODUCTION OF
SPENT SODIUM BASE NSSC LIQUOR INTO THE KRAFT RECOVERY SYSTEM
KRAFT
DIGESTERS
AIT.ll ,
NSSC
LIQUOR
BLOW
TANK
PULP
WASHERS
EVAPORATORS
STACK
EVAPORATORS
r
_, ALT.#4 I
NSSC
EVAPORATOR
STRONG
BLACK LIQUOR
RECOVERY
FURNACES
DISSOLVING
TANK
WHITE
LIQUOR
CAUSTIC
SYSTEM
31
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These problems have differed in intensity from mill to mill and have
largely been overcome by various means depending upon individual circ
stances. Separate evaporation of the brown liquor is practiced at so
mills to overcome fouling and scaling as well as tall oil separaticr?
difficulties. Introduction of the NSSC liquor as dilution in the kraft
digesters has been practiced to reduce evaporation problems. Ihe use of
stainless steel evaporator tubes and pH control have been successful in
arresting corrosion and hydrogen sulfide release. The practices
employed for handling NSSC in kraft systems are fully documented in
TAPPI Monograph |32 (16) . Details of this practice are alsc reviewed
in standard textbooks on wood pulping (5) (13) (6) .
While limitation of 1:3 on the basis of NSSC to kraft pulping may appear
severe, this is not usually the case because the large size cf modern
linerboard mills still allows an economic size NSSC operation.
Pager Production
Production of paper in Kraft-NSSC mills is similar to the operations as
discussed previously for unbleached kraft mills.
To convert waste paper to secondary fiber waste paper, sufficient
to provide desired consistency of four to six percent, and chemicals
charged at a controlled rate to a pulper along with steam. In this
operation, the paper follows water circulating in a large open vat and
is repeatedly exposed to rotating impeller blades. Over a period of
time it is ripped, shredded, and finally defibered (17). The pulper
operation may be batch, continuous, or a combination of both. A junker
is usually attached which, through centrifugal action, collects and
removes extraneous solid materials and papers not suitable for use.
The stock is then passed to centrifugal cleaners, and finally to a
thickener which may be preceded by pressure screens. Reject material is
dewatered for disposal, and the stock is stored for use or goes directly
to the refiners which serve the paper machines.
The removal of modern contaminants found in waste paper, including
plastic containers, polystyrene packing material, and other plastic
coatings and laminants (17) has required some refinements to the basic
process. Some mills also have systems for dispersing the bituminous
asphalt found in some reclaimed laminated kraft bags. This type system
subjects the fiber to a heat and pressure environment in a press and
digester (12)
32
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The paper forming section cf the board machine, or wet end, employed
spends on the type of product made. Both fourdrinier and cylinder ma-
Jiines and some special devices as well are used (18) . Variations and
xceptions occur throughout the industry, although in general, a four-
drinier is used to make a single stock sheet and a cylinder machine a
mu].ti-ply sheet or heavy board. During recent years, cylinder machines
have been replaced by variations of the so-called "dry-vat" principle in
order to produce a multi-stock sheet at higher speeds.
A process flow diagram of a typical paperboard from waste paper mills is
shown in Figure 8.
33
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FIGURE 3
WASTE PAPER BOARD MILL
PROCESS DIAGRAM
MACHINE
PIT
EFFLUENT
...J
LEGEND
PROD. S RAWMAT'L
CHEMICALS
PROCESS WATER.
BACK WATER
STEAM
REJECTS
EFFLUENT-
34
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SECTION IV
SUBCATEGORIZATION OF THE INDUSTRY
FACTORS OF_ CONSIDERATION
This study is concerned with the unbleached kraft, neutral sulfite semi-
chemical, and paperboard from waste paper segments of the pulp and paper
industry. In order to identify any relevant, discrete subcategories of
these segments of the industry, the following factors were considered:
1. Raw materials
2. Production processes
3. Products produced
U. Size and age of mills
5. Waste water characteristics and treatability
6. Geographical location
After analyzing these factors, it is concluded that the
subcategorization is defined as follows:
1. UNBLEACHED KRAFT means the production of pulp without bleaching
by a "full cook" process, utilizing a highly alkaline sodium hydroxide
and sodium sulfide cooking liquor. This pulp is used principally to
manufacture linerboard, the smooth facing of "corrugated boxes," but
-also utilized for ether products such as grocery sacks.
2- SODIUM BASE NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL means the production
of pulp without bleaching utilizing a neutral sulfite cooking liquor
having a sodium base. Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage,
and the principal product made from this pulp is the corrugating medium
or inner layer in the corrugated box "sandwich."
3. AMMONIA BASE NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL means the production
of pulp without bleaching, using a neutral sulfite cooking liquor having
an ammonia base. Mechanical fiberizing follows the cooking stage, and
the pulp is used to manufacture essentially the same products as is
sodium base NSSC.
4. UNBLEACHED KRAFT--NSSC jCross Recovery^ means the production of
unbleached kraft and sodium base NSSC pulps wherein the spent NSSC
liquor is recovered within the unbleached kraft recovery process. The
products made are the same as outlined above for the unbleached kraft
and NSSC subcategories, respectively.
35
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5- PAPEFBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER means the production of paperboard
products from a wide variety of waste papers such as corrugated
box board, and newspapers without doing bleaching and/or wood
operations. Mills which produce paperboard products principally or
exclusively from bleached virgin fiber are not included within this
subcategory which only covers those mills using waste paper for Q0%- or
more of their fibrous materials.
RATigNALE_FgR_SELECTigN_OF_SUECATEGORIES
The rationale discussed below is supported by raw waste loadings and
effluent data presented in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1-3.
B§w_Material
wood is the primary raw material of all pulping processes. While there
are differences in types of wood utilized, such differences have only a
minor impact upon waste water characteristics and treatability. For
example, assuming normal unit operations, by-product recovery, and in-
plant controls, a surveyed mill using southern pine and a raw waste
loading BOD5 of 1U kilograms per metric ton (28 pounds per short ton)
while a similar surveyed mill using western pine had a raw waste loading
BOD5 value of 15.5 kilograms per metric ton (31 pounds per shcrt ton).
This difference is not significant in light of other data from 35
similar mills using many different woods which had a typical range of 15
to 20 kilograms of BOD5 per metric ton (30 to 40 pounds of BOD5
short ton) .
Raw materials used in the preparation of cooking liquors, however,
differ widely among pulping processes. The highly alkaline liquor used
in unbleached kraft produces waste water characteristics different from
the neutral NSSC liquors, for example. Sodium base NSSC utilizes
neutral sodium sulfite cooking liquor as described in Section III. This
produces distinctly different waste water characteristics, as shown in
Section V, than the unbleached kraft process. Ammonia base NSSC
utilizes ammonia as a principal raw material in the preparation of
cooking liquor. This produces a waste water high in nitrogen, in
contrast to other pulping wastes which are very low in nitrogen, as
delineated in Section V.
Paperboard from waste paper does not utilize wood as a raw material and
therefore no pulping chemicals are required. Its principal rav; material
is waste paper. Waste water characteristics from the manufacture of
paperboard from waste paper differ widely from those which result from
any of the pulping processes. Within the paperboard from waste paper
subcategory, a mixed grade of paper is generally used as the raw fibrous
materials. Several specific types of waste paper such as magazines may
increase the mill effluent suspended solids loads if used as the only
stock. However, the raw stock is usually mixed grades of waste paper
36
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and the percentage of the specific types of waste paper is generally
:nown. Magazine stock is generally used up to a maximum of 15% by
ight of the furnish, and is used in the furnish from 25-75% of the
ime. From available data, no direct detrimental effect from the use
of waste papers such as magazine stock has been shown.
•
Thus, raw materials produce distinctly difference waste water
characteristics and were a basis for subcategorizaticn.
Production_Prgce§ses
All chemical pulping processes are similar in that each utilizes diges-
tion of wood chips with a chemical cooking liquor and removal of the
spent liqucr from the cellulose pulp. Process differences among the
various pulp types relate primarily to the preparation, use, and recov-
ery of the cooking liquor. In the case of paperboard from waste paper,
no pulping is involved.
Pulp or waste paper furnish is used to manufacture paper or paperbcard
on papermaking equipment which has been described in Section III. The
papermaking operation is similar for all products of the subject indus-
try segments. Since the cooking liquors and pulping processes do result
in varying waste water characteristics, process differences were used as
a basis for subcategorization.
Products_Produced
Section III discusses the wide variety of products produced by these
segments of the industry. While the differences in characteristics and
end-use of the products are substantial, these differences dc not of
themselves produce significant variations in waste water characteristics
and thus have been considered but not used as a basis to sutcategorize
the industry segment under study.
Specifically within the paperboard from waste paper subcategory, mills
produce both food grade and non-food grade products. The production of
food grade products generates larger quantities of waste water and raw
waste loads because health considerations preclude the reuse of certain
waste waters and reclaimed fiber. The exclusive production of food
grade products occurs in very few mills with most mills that produce
food grade products from waste paper also producing nonfood grade
products. Mill "h" referred to in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1-3, produces
a combination of grades and at any given time may be producing food
37
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grade products on one or two of its machines while making nonfood grade
on the other. As shown in Appendix IIIA, Tables 1 and 2, there
difference between the raw waste characteristics in terms of flow
suspended solids between mill "k" and mills "j" and "1" which make
food grades exclusively. However, Appendix IIIA, Table 2, reveals that
there is little difference in the final effluent in terms of kilograms
per metric ton (pounds per ton) of BOD5 and suspended solids. This
indicates that both are treatable by primary clarification and
biological treatment. Thus, since it is common practice to produce both
grades at the same paper mill, this precludes subcategorization by
product.
It should be emphasized that mills making food grade products
principally or exclusively from bleach virgin fiber are not included in
this subcategory. This subcategory covers only those mills using waste
paper for 80% or more of their fibrous raw material.
Age_and_Size_gf_Mills
There is a substantial variation in age as well as size of mills in the
industry. Mills built over 40 years ago are still operating, as well as
mills built as recently as 1971. Most, if not all, of the older mills,
however, have been substantially upgraded and expanded so that most of
them are not "old" in the production sense. Waste water characteristics
from the "old" mills therefore do not show significant differences fro
those of the "new" mills. For example, a surveyed "old" mill built
1955 but expanded over several years through 1971, had 14 kilograms
BOD5 per metric ton (28 pounds of BOD5 per short ten) of production in
the raw waste, whereas a "new" mill built in 1971 had an almost identi-
cal 14.5 kilograms of BOD5 per metric ton (29 pounds of BOD5 per ton).
In the case of ammonia base NSSC mills, age and size are net factors
since this is a relatively new process and only two mills are currently
operating in the United States. One of these is scheduled for shutdown
in 1974. Thus, the age and size of mills do not justify further
subcategorization of the industry segments under study.
Geggrap_hical_ Location
Waste water characteristics and treatability do not differ significantly
with geographical location, irrespective of the raw materials and pro-
cess employed and the products produced. Climatic differences have an
effect upon treatability, and a lesser effect upon waste water
characteristics. The industry segments under study were not
subcategorized based upon geographical location, but a variance is
allowed for climatic conditions and is discussed in Sections IX.
38
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SECTION V
WATER USE ANE WASTE CHARACTERIZATION
Usage of water and resultant waste water characteristics for the general
operations of (1) wood preparation, (2) pulping processes, and (3) the
paper machine are discussed in this section. Since a relatively
thorough discussion of wood preparation is presented, it should be noted
that raw waste loads resulting from wood preparation are much less than
loads resulting from pulping process and paper production and usually
utilize waste water from another unit within the mill.
WOOD PREPARATION
Wood, the primary fiber raw material for unbleached kraft and NSSC
pulps, is received at the mills in various forms and consequently trust
be handled in a number of different ways ( 2 ) . Some mills receive
chips from saw mills or barked logs which can be chipped directly. In
these instances, little, if any, water is employed in preparation of the
wood and no effluent is produced. Most mills receive roundwood in short
lengths with the bark remaining on it, and, since the bark interferes
with the pulping process and product quality, it must be removed.
Kgs are frequently washed before dry or wet barking in order to reircve
It ( 19 ). In most installations a water shower is activated by the
g itself while on the conveyer so that a minimum of water is used.
The actual quantity discharged per unit cf wood handled or pulp produced
is most difficult to ascertain because of the wide weight variation in
stick size and the fact that not all the wood barked at soire instal-
lations is pulped, a portion going to lumber.
It is established that this effluent is very low in color and EOD5 (20)
and that its suspended solids content is largely silt. Hence, it is
generally disposed of on the land together with grits and dregs from the
pulp mill and/or ashes from the boiler plants, or combined with the
general flcwage to the treatment works. Most of the pulpwccd used in
the United States is small in diameter and is barked dry in drums.
However, when large diameter or long wood is used, wet barking is
commonly employed. The latter operation is pretty much limited to
northern mills and its use is presently declining.
Wet barking of logs is accomplished by one of three methods: by drums,
pocket barkers, or hydraulic barkers (6) (21). Slabs are generally
handled by hydraulic units as is the larger diameter and long roundwood.
The wet drum barker consists of a slotted drum equipped with internal
staves which knock the bark from the wood as the drum rotates in a pool
39
-------
of water. The bark falls through the slots and is removed with the
overflow of water. These units handle from seven to 45 cords of
daily. Frequently the water supplied to them is spent process
and recycling within the barking unit itself is often practiced. Bar-
kers of this type contribute BOD5 from 7.5 to 10 kilograms per metric
ton (15-20 Ibs/short ten) cf wood barked, and from 15 to 20 kilograms
per metric ton (30-40 Ibs/short ton) of suspended solids. Examples of
the BOD5 and suspended solids concentration of this waste water with the
barkers using fresh process water are shown in Table 5.
wet pocket barkers are stationary machines which atrade bark from tirrber
by jostling and gradually rotating a confined wood stack against an end-
less chainbelt equipped with projections called "dogs" which raise the
wood pile allowing bark to pass between the chains. Water is sprayed
through apertures in the side of the pocket at rates of between 1254 and
2280 liters per minute (330 and 600 gpm) for pockets of 2.8 and 5.7
cords per hours, respectively. The use of this process is rapidly de-
clining in the United States. Hydraulic barkers employ high-pressure
water jets to blow the bark from the timber which is either conveyed
past them or rotated under a rcoving jet which traverses the log. The
volume of water employed is generally from 19,000 to 45,600 liters (5000
to 12,000 gallons) per cord of wood barked depending upon leg diameter.
Water discharged from all three types of wet barking is generally com-
bined with log.wash water, and then coarse screens are used to remove
the large pieces of bark and wood slivers which are conveyed away con-
tinuously. The flowage then passes to fine screens. These are of th,
drum, fixed vertical, or horizontal vibrating type, having wire mesh
perforated plate media with openings in the range of 0.127 to 0.2
centimeters (0.05 to 0.10 inches). Screenings are removed and mixed
with the coarse materials from the initial screenings, the mixture being
dewatered in a press prior to burning in the bark boiler. Press water,
which is combined with the fine screen effluent, is very minor in vol-
ume. The total waste flow, which amounts to about 19,000 to 26,600
liters (5000 to 7000 gallons) a cord, generally carries from 0.454 to
4.54 kilograms (one to 10 pounds) of EOD5 and 2.72 to 25 kilograms (six
to 55 pounds) of suspended solids per ton of product.
TABLE_5_
BNALYSIS_CF_WET_DRUM_EAPKING_EFFLUENTS*
TOTAL SUSPENDED COLOR
SOLIDS %ASE BOD5 APHA
MILL _m.3/i 23/1 jDs/i
~1 2017 — 480 20
2 3171 21 605 50
3 2875 18 987 50
*The water source for wet drum barkers is frequently a waste water which
40
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has been recycled from some ether source.
-------
The combined discharge contains bark fines and silt, the latter varying
greatly in quantity since its presence is due mainly to soil adhering
the logs. In. dry weather the percentage of silt in relation to b
fines is low as is the case when legs are stored in or transported by
water. However, attachment of mud in wet weather can make this material
a major percentage of the total suspended matter passing the fine
screens.
Fine screen effluent following hydraulic barkers has been analyzed by
several investigators ( 22 ) ( 23 ) ( 24 ), and examples are shown in
Table 6. It can be concluded from the data included in these publi-
cations that these effluents have a total suspended solids content
ranging from 521 to 2350 mg/1 with the ash content running from 11 tc 27
percent. The latter is generally below 15 percent for clean logs. EOD5
values range between 56 and 250 mg/1. These low values are due to the
fact that the contact of the water with the bark is short and no
grinding action on the wood takes place. Hence, leaching of wood and
bark solubles is minimized. The water originally employed is all fresh
process water, since the close clearances of the high pressure pumping
systems supplying water to the jets will not tolerate the presence of
suspended solids in the water.
Such low values are not the case with drum and pocket grinding where
attrition in contact with water over an appreciable period of time takes
place. Also, spent pulping process waters already high in EOD5 and
color are sometimes used for these barking processes which raise further
the ultimate level of organics in the screened effluent. While wet dru
and pocket barker fine screen discharge is not greatly different fro
that of hydraulic barkers in suspended solids content, the EOE5 can b
considerably higher ( 20 ) ( 22 ).
m^^
W
BOD5 values are also greatly affected by the species of wood barked and
the season in which the wood was cut since wood juices and water ex-
tractables are responsible for it. The BOD5 contributed by the
suspended matter present is a minor fraction of the total BCE5. The
curves presented in Figure 9, indicate that the 15-day values are about
twice those of the five day with little further demand exerted after
this period. Table 7 illustrates sewer losses from wet barking
operations, while Figure 10 shows settleability characteristics of
barker screening effluent.
-------
MILL
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
TABLE_6
ANALYSIS_OF_HYDRAULIC_BARKING_EFFLUENTS
TOTAL SUSPENDED COLOR
SOLIDS % ASH APHA
mg/1 _E!3/1_ I°J?5 UNITS
2362 27 585 50
889 14 101 50
1391 17 64 50
550 11 99 50
521 13 121 50
2017 21 56 50
2000 19 97
600 10 250 35
43
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120
100
80
£60
in
o
O
CD
40
20
FIGURE 9
LONG TERM BOD OF BARKER EFFLUENT
( AFTER FINE SCREENS)
RAW
FILTERED
/
/
/
• y
/
10 15
DAYS INCUBATION
20
25
44
-------
FIGURE 10
SETTLING RATE OF
BARKER SCREENING EFFLUENT
100
90
z
o
H
u
I>
o
UJ
tr
o
_i
o
o
UJ
o
z
UJ
80
70
60
50
20
40 60 80
RETENTION TIME (MINUTES)
100
I
1
I
I
3240 1620 1000 810 648
CLARIFIER SURFACE LOADING-GAL/FT.2/DAY
45
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TABLE_7
SEWER LOSSES FROM WET BARKING OPERATIONS
Effluent Volume BOD5 TSS
Kiloliter/metric ton Kg/metric ton Kg/metric ton
Mill.* J!O.CO_gal/shgrt_ton) iibs/short_ton) Iifcs/short_tcni
1 11.3 (2.7) 0.6 (1.2) 3.2 (6.4)
2 10.0 (2.4) 0.9 (1.8) 3.8 (7.6)
3 14.6 (3.5) 6.0 (12.0) 2.75 (5.5)
4 25.0 (6.0) 3.0 ((6.0) 15.0 (30.0)
5 12.5 (3.0) 1.25 (2.5) 11. 4 (22.8)
6 4.2 (1.0) 1.0 (2.0) 5.0 (10.0)
7 23.4 (5.6) 9.5 (19.0) 9.0 (18.0)
8 4.2 (1.0) 5.75(11.5) 15.0 (30.0)
9 31.3 (7.5) 11.05(20.1) 17.0 (34.0)
PULPING_PROCESS
Unt!§§£hed_Kraft
The waste water resulting from unbleached kraft pumping comes primarily
from three areas of the process. The effluent from pulp washing, which
separates the spent liquor from the pulp, formerly consisted mainly of
decker filtrate water containing spent cooking liquor solids and ac-
counts for a high percentage of the total effluent. Today, the use of
hot stock washing, as discussed in Section VII, has considerably reduced
the waste load generated in the washing operation.
Relationships between solids concentration of this waste water and BOD5,
light absorbence, and conductivity are shown in Figure 11 ( 25 ). It
should be noted that the relationships shown in Figure 11 will vary
somewhat depending upon the specific case. The relationship of
dissolved solids to the three other parameters of waste strength is
linear and of very similar slope. From this it can be concluded that
effluent strength as measured by these parameters is a direct function
of pulp washing efficiency and that conductivity can be employed as an
accurate monitoring index for the pulp washing operation. The magnitude
of this relationship can be disturbed somewhat by loss of liquor to the
vacuum system or to floor drains due to foaming on the washers.
46
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The second area of waste water sources is condensate streams. Belief
kondensate from the digesters is condensed and the turpentine is
Recovered from it by decantation. The residual water from this opera-
tion is sewered. Blow and evaporation condensates are contaminated
mainly with methanol, ethanol, and acetone, with the extent of their
content a function of the wood species pulped ( 26 ). When surface con-
densers are employed on the evaporators, the volume of this' stream is
low and its BOD5 can be reduced by air stripping in a cooling tower (27)
or by steam stripping ( 28 ). These condensates are frequently reused
for pulp washing.
All chemical recovery operations and other minor losses constitute the
last BOD5 source from kraft pulping.
Losses per ton of product from kraft pulping itself are difficult to
determine because of the common practice of reusing water from inte-
grated papermaking operations into the pulp mill ( 29 ).
A process flow and materials diagram for a 907 metric ton (1000 short
ton) a day kraft linerboard mill is shown in Figure 12.
Total BOD5 raw waste load from unbleached kraft mills, including both
pulping and papermaking operations, is typically in the 15 to 20 kilo-
grams per metric ton (30 to 40 pounds per short ten) range. The sur-
veyed mills were in the lower region of this range, averaging 15.5
kilograms per metric ton (31 pounds per short ton). Suspended solids
^ata for 35 mills were within a typical range of 10 to 15 kilograms per
Jietric ton (20 to 30 pounds per short ton). Surveyed mills, however,
averaged 18 kilograms per metric ton (36 pounds per short ton). This
difference is most probably explained by the fact that most mills use a
filter paper method of determining suspended solids (non-standard
methods -NSM) whereas "Standard Methods" ( SM ) (4) were used in the
surveyed mills. Specific relationships between the two methods are
difficult to establish because the mills using NSM have many different
filter papers presently in use which yield large variations in results.
However, SM generally yields higher results than NSM with some reported
relationships of up to ten times greater.
Raw waste color APHA color units (CU) are typically in the 500-1500
range, and one of the surveyed mills fell in the lew end of this range
at 567 units, while a second surveyed mill, on a short term test,
measured 286 color units.
The impact of in-plant measures, as described in Section VII, is evident
in the surveyed mills as compared with previous typical ranges of data.
All of the surveyed mills had reduced their flows to the 40,173 to
54,249 liters per metric ton (10,000 to 13,000 gallons per short ton)
range. In contrast, an earlier report on 35 mills indicated a range of
83,460 to 125,190 liters per metric ton (20,000 to 30,000 gallons per
short ton). It was reported (29) in 1966 on 19 unbleached kraft ir.ilIs
47
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with a median water usage of 121f017 liters per metric ton (29,000
gallons per short ton). The details of methods utilized to accompli
this flow reduction, with concomitant reductions in pollution
the raw waste, are described in Section VII.
Raw waste characteristics of unbleached mill effluent are shown .in
Table 8.
Neutral_Sulfite_§emi-chemical
In most sodium base NSSC mills, liquor is prepared by burning sulfur and
absorbing it in soda ash or ammonia, depending on tase utilized. This
part of the process produces cnly small quantities of liquid wastes
other than floor drainings, equipment wash-up, and cooling waters which
can frequently be used as process water.
Digester-relief and blow gases are condensed, and in some trills the
condensate is used for pulp washing. Pulp wash water together with
drainings from the blow tank are delivered to the recovery or liquor
burning system, or in the case of some sodium base mills to an adjunct
kraft recovery system.
-------
UJ
o
!s
,<£ E
O
in
ro
1.6
UJ
O X
3,000 j
2.500
FIGURE- 11
600
0.8 4 1,500 4 400
0.44 1,0004 200
10
o
O
CD
ipoo
800
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TOTAL
SOLUBLE SOLIDS, BOD, CONDUCTANCE
a LIGHT ABSORPTION IN KRAFT
PULPING DECKER FILTRATE EFFLUENT
2pOO 3pOO
TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS, ( mg / I)
4POO
-------
From the washers the pulp is conveyed to an agitated chest where it is
diluted with white water from the paper mill to the desired consisten
for feed to the secondary refiners serving the papermaking cperati
Other than spent liquor, the pulping and washing operations dischar
little waste water since the small amount of residual liquor solids
present in pulp is carried through the machine system passing out %»ith
the overflow white water ( 21 ).
The final effluent from sodium base NSSC mills is low in volume because
of the high degree of recycle commonly practiced in both the pulping and
papermaking operations. For the same reason it is high in BCD5.
Without recovery or incineration of the liquor, effluents would range
from 1500 to 5000 mg/1 with a suspended solids content of from 400 to
600 mg/1. The color and chemical oxygen demand (COD) content would be
correspondingly high ( 22 ). Overall process losses in EOD5 and total
suspended solids without recovery in relation to pulp yield are shown in
Figures 13 and 14, respectively.
Sodium base NSSC mills which practice extensive internal recycle and
other in-plant measures, as described in Section VII, have succeeded in
reducing raw waste pollutants to the lower levels shown in Table 9 (32).
For example, it has been reported ( 33 ) that EOC5 loadings of 28.5
kilograms per metric ton (57 pounds per short ton) at a flow of 709U
liters per metric ton (1700 gallons per ton). As flow is progressively
reduced through more extensive in-plant measures, BOD5 is reduced to
14.5 kilograms per metric ton (29 pounds per short ten) at 2921 liters
per metric ton (700 gallons per ton). The lower value cannot b
sustained, however, because of operational problems ( 33 ) discussed
Section VII. Also shown in Table 9 is data for the exemplary mill. T
data presented is for mill "f" and is an average of 6 months of daily
mill records. It should be noted that mill "f" may also be included in
mills 1-13 in Table 9.
50
-------
Wood 2190 Tons
546,000 Gal. Water
|" —
iL^
i
DRUM BARKERS
FINES
48 tons
BARK
BOILER
BARK
673 tons
Cooling Water 208,200 Gal.
Wash Water
250,000 Gal.
NaOH 615 Tons
Sulfur 58 Tons
Water 1,000,000 Gal .
I
NaOH
Sulfur
5.4 Tons
4.6 Tons
ESTERS
^
RPENTINE
STORAGE
. 14 Tons
r 1 .4 Ton
16,000 fi
-It
_rfc,
BLOW TANKS
it
M— TURPENTINE
J DECANTER
I-, \ CHEMICAL
3 | MAKE-UP
Na OH 33 Tons
Sulfur 13 Tons
J
*
^
FIBERIZER
\T~
«
TALL OIL
SOAP
T
STRONG
BLACK LIQUOR
1
IB L
OXIDATION
1 S
Dis.Org.
NaOH
Water 22
EWER
_t
HOT STOCK
REFINER
^
A*
T
HOT STOCK
SCREENS
Sulfur 4.3 Tons
Water 2,000,000 Gal .
100 Tons
600 Tons
50 Tons
D,000 Gal
Cool ing Water
11 MGD
IWEAK
BLACK
LIQUOR
^-
WASHERS |
1
HIGH DENSITY
STORAGE
NaOH 600 Tons
Sulfur 58 Tons
Ois.Org. 1150 Tons
Water 2,400,000 Gal .
SEWER
WHITE LIQUOR
STORAGE
Mud 500 Tons
NaOH 5.0 Tons
Sulfur 1.1 Tons
Water 76,000 Gal
NaOH 580 Tons
Sulfur 60 Tons
Inerts 10 Tons
Make-Up Water 403,400 Gal.
Figure 12
PROCESS FLOW AND MATERIALS DIAGRAM
FOR A 1 ,000 TON A DAY KRAFT
I.INERBOARD MILL
Inerts 5 Tons
Water 24,100 Gal.
Dis.Org. 11 Tons
Fiber & Add. 9 Tons
NaOH 4.5 Tons
Sulfur .46 Tons
Water 1,000,000 Gal.
-------
Ol
Si
Mill
a
b
c
d
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Table 8
Raw Waste Characteristics
Unbleached Kraft
Flow
kilolitersAkg (1000 gal/ton)
Mill Survey
43.9 (10.5)
47.2 (11.3)
39.5 (9.46)
56.3 (13.5)
Literature
Million Liters/day (MGD)
98.3 (26)
37.8 (10)
71.8 (19)
11.3 (3)
45.4 (12)
113 (30)
56.7 (15)
25.7 (6)
45.4 (12)
BOD 5
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
TSS
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill
13.5 (27)
13.5 (27)
14 (28)
15.5 (31)
Survey Mill
12 (24) 10.5 (21)
17 (34) 17 (34)
9.5 (19) 28 (56)
S urvey
6.5 (13)
11 (22)
17 (34)
22.5 (45) 19.5 (39) 26.5 (53)
Literature
21 (42)
11 (22)
19 (38)
17.5 (35)
16.5 (33)
45 (90)
9 (18)
15 (30)
13 (26)
Literature
15 (30)
20 (40)
6 (12)
9.5 (19)
12.5 (25)
11.5 (23)
34.5 (69)
6 (12)
15 (30)
-------
Tafele 8
Raw Waste Characteristics Chart (Contd.)
Literature Literature Literature
Million Liters/day (MOD)
10 102 (27) 20.5 (41) 26.5 (53)
11 45.4 (12) 23.5 (27) 27.5 (55)
12 37.8 (10) 50.5 (101) 69.5 (139)
13 60.5 (16) 16.5 (33) - (-)
14 34.0 (9) 17 (34) 13.5 (27)
-------
FIGURE 13
BOD LOAD OF NSSC PULPING
(WITHOUT RECOVERY)
700
600
ID
Q.
a:
o
ui
o
I
a:
UJ
a.
S3
500
400
300
200
100
55
60
65
70
75
80
PERCENT PULP YIELD
54
-------
FIGURE 14 SUSPENDED SOLIDS LOSSES FROM NSSC PULPING
(WITHOUT RECOVERY)
Q.
_J
u no
a.
g
Ul
ffi 100
I
o
v>
z
UJ
Q.
o
>
O
Z
o
Q.
90
80
70
60
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
65 70 75
PERCENT YIELD
80
85
54a
-------
Literature
Mill #
TAELE_9
Raw Waste Load
NSSC - Sodium Base
(Liquor not included)
Effluent Volume BOD5 TSS
kiloliters/metric ton kg/metric ton kg/metric ton
_(lbs/short_tonl _(lb/shgrt_tcn
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Exemplary
Mill
f*
f**
36.
20.
30.
25.
7.
47.
41.
43.
106.
83.
29.
43.
100.
44.
0
0
0
0
1
2
7
4
8
5
2
0
2
6
(9.
c»-
(7.
(6.
(1-
(11.
(10.
(10.
(25.
(20.
(7.
(10.
(24.
(10.
D
8)
2)
0)
7)
3)
0)
4)
6)
0)
0)
3)
0)
7)
1
3
2
1
2
3
4
2
2
2
2
1
7
8.
1
5.
2.
1.
3.
8.
0.
5.
1.
3.
9.
1.
1.
5.
5
3
0
0
5
5
5
5
0
0
5
5
5
0
0
(1
<''
(30)
(64)
(43)
(27)
(57)
(71)
(90)
(42)
(47)
(69)
(43)
(22)
(150)
17)
>6)
7
6
4
8
4
21
14
16
11
23
50
17
20
8.5 (
7.5 (
^ i;
.0
.5
.5
.0
. 5
.0
.5
.5
.0
.0
.5
.0
17)
15)
(15)
(12)
(9)
(17)
(8)
(43)
(28)
(33)
(23)
(46)
(100)
(37)
(40)
*Mill Records
**Short term survey data (3-7 days)
55
-------
Similarly, others (33) have reported a short-term average of 5.5 kilo-
rams per metric ton (11 pounds per short ton) for BOC5. Again, oper-
ting difficulties are cited at this low level, and daily variations of
TODS range up to 25 kilograms per metric ton (50 pounds per short ton)
and higher. For the same mill, one researcher (33) reported a goal of abou-
50 .kilograms per metric ton (100 pounds per short ton) of BOD5 after
installation of liquor recovery.
The effluent of a surveyed sodium-base NSSC mill utilizing recycle con-
tained 13 kilograms per metric ton (26 pounds per short ten) of EOD5
during the survey period lasting several days.
Total dissolved solids is frequently measured in the raw waste from NSSC
mills, since it is a relatively rapid indicator of upsets. As dissolved
solids exceed 1.5 percent due to increased recycle, reports of increased
operating problems have been reported (33) . A surveyed sodium base irill
reported no operating problems due to total dissolved solids at the much
lower level of 0.2 percent. Others (33) reported difficulties in
meeting wet strength requirements of the product when total dissolved
solids of the recirculated white water reached 3.7 percent.
A process flow and materials diagram for a 250 ton per day scdium base
NSSC corrugating board mill is shown in Figure 15.
Neutral_Sulfite_Senji^Chemical (Ammonia_Base)
ammonia base process is similar to the sodium base process described
except that ammonia is utilized in the preparation of cooking
liquor in place of sodium. Waste water characteristics cf the two
processes are similar, as shown in Appendix III A, Tables 1 and 2,
except for the nitrogen concentration in the liquid wastes from the
ammonia base mills.
The wood preparation step does not generate a significant waste stream
since it is essentially a bark removal and chipping operation. This
generates a small stream of approximately ten to fifteen gallons per
minute emanating from the chip washer which is directed to a holding
pond.
The initial phase of pulp preparation begins with heating the chips in a
steaming vessel. The chips are then conveyed by a series of horizontal
and vertical screw feeders upward through the cooking liquor and into
the digester. The cooking liquor consists of ammonium sulfite, produced
on site, and anhydrous ammonia. The pressure and temperature in the
digestor are controlled by injection of live steam. The digested chips
are fed continuously to refiners where they pass between stationary and
rotating discs, after which the refined pulp passes into a blow tank to
be mixed and diluted to the proper consistency. The vapor and steam
from the blew tank are condensed and used elsewhere. From the blow
56
-------
tank, the pulp goes into a two-stage, counter-current washer and then
into a high density storage chest. From here the pulp is pumped to
secondary refiner and into the blend chest. The weak black liquor
the washers, and any other wasted cooking liquor,
goes to the evaporators. The vapor off the evaporators is condensed, and
goes to the sewer while the remaining black liquor is burned in a liquor
disposal unit.
The paper production stage begins after the pulp has been washed, re-
fined and blended. Pulp is removed from the blend chest and processed
through refiners, the third and last refining step. Before going to the
paper machine, the pulp passes through cleaners and screens. Excess
white water from the paper machine flows through a disc-type saveall,
where wocd fiber is recovered.
There are five sources of waste water in the manufacturing process: 1)
the evaporators, 2) the powerhouse and maintenance, 3) the pulp mill, 4)
the paper machine, and 5) the waste paper plant. The latter, however,
is an insignificant source.
i
In the surveyed mill which produced 453 metric tons (500 short tons) p
day, all chips are washed before entering the digester for removal
sand and dirt. Reuse-water from the hot water tank in the pulping ar
is used as wash water. According to a mill study on July 17, 1972, the
chip washer contained the following effluent load:
Flow 81.3 liters/min (21.5 gpm)
SS 78.8 mg/1
Total Solids 98 mg/1
Nonvolatiles 7.6% (of total solids)
The chips washer discharges directly to a drainage ditch leading to the
holding pond. The above numbers refer to the raw solids lead before
discharge into the holding pond.
No raw water is used in the pulping area. The most significant point
for water usage is at the washers where reuse water from the paper ma-
chine vacuum system is used.
57
-------
Figure 15
i -r — ~, ~i
i i t
COOLING
WATER
1.61 MG
r~-
Z^T EVAPORATOR 1
U b CONDENSER |
1 10 MG 0.28 MG
t- 1 -1 _^_ t
AUXILIARY _ • ' CHEMICAL
EQUIPMENT 1 ' ASH
PROCESS J 0.32 MG 1
0.66 MG |_
WOOD fc
CHIPS 1 ^
200 CORDS j C
CHEMICALS
u«Tr otofo
AND BROKE
, L 1 - . LIQUOR
UUUtkS p T-11 -J (^ BURNING
0.14 MG | £ D.S. 155,000 1
\ *
r,--r-rrnc •> B|OW LIOUOR ,_ , , ^ I,,,,, II feM
UIGtbltHb • T.NI, srRFFN LVACURAIORb ~
K D.S 500 i»
.S. 200,500 * 1 A 1 D.S. 155,500 .
I I 0.23 MG
RERNER |-*| WASHERS REJECTS '
D.S. 55,000 t I
prntiFp to
SCREENS
BREAKER ^ °4°MG
BEATER i p A 1
II h-- SE -*t
If ,- •
GRIT ANH - t
JUNK ~~
PROCESS FLOW AND MATER I
FOR A 250 TON A DAY NSSC
BOARD MILL
LEGENDS
D.S.- Dissolved
STOCK ^rnri; 1 fc
CLEANING CHEST | •
I - NSSC PULP BLENDED
1 ^ STOCK
HA
CKEST |
50 Tons FIBER FILTER
CORRUGATING , , °-S' "°'000 *
f PAPERBOARD T^ PAPER SrHER
Solids || 250tons IT ™™m
1.95 MG
58
-------
Excepting floor drains, the water discharge into the pulp mill sewer
comes from the screw feeder and the paper machine saveall. To accomj|
plish sufficient high dry solids content in the chips before t«
digester, water is pressed out of the chips in the screwfeeder. The
screwfeeder effluent is a low flow high BOD5 concentrated stream which
contributes about 18-20 percent to the total raw BCD5 load of the mill
(Jan. 1972). A study carried out by the mill in Nov. - Dec. 1971 showed
the following effluent load from the screw feeder:
Flow 3UO liters/min (90 gpm)
BOD5 4260 mg/1 (range 2180-6080)
BOD5 2090 kg/day (4600 Ibs/day)
The saveall overflow is highly variable both in flow and concentrations
depending en the amount of clarified water taken for reuse. It is also
high in BOD5 load since it contains the dry solids loss from the
washers. This stream discharges to the pulp mill sewer.
The weak liguor recovered in the washing plant is evaporated in a qua-
druple evaporator unit to about 52 percent dryness. The thick liquor is
burned in the recovery boiler, or disposed of on land or scld. The
combustion products are gaseous with a negligible redsidue of inorganic
ash. The gaseous products contain significant sulfur dioxide emissions.
Fresh water is used in the evaporation plant vacuum system and in the
boiler area as makeup water to the boilers. The cooling water to the
surface condenser may te recycled through a cooling tower.
The most significant effluent stream is the secondary condensate. Th3
condensate can be separated in three streams.
- combined condensate from middle effects
- condensate from the surface condenser
- direct cooling water from the spray condenser and steam ejector.
The combined condensate plus the surface condenser condensate can be
diverted in one stream and discharged through a boilout tank. This
stream contains a high BOD5 and ammonia load.
The waste loads to the evaporation plant and the effluent from the plant
are summarized below for two tests during 1972 and 1973 in Table 10. As
can be seen, the condensate BCD_ and NH3 concentrations experience wide
variations.
59
-------
Effluent is discharged from the following points in the paper machine
- floor drains
- gland water
* - felt conditioners
- centri-cleaners
The effluent discharges to a separate sewer and is metered separately.
Table 11 shows raw waste characteristics for the combined ccndensates
sewer, the papermill sewer, and the total mill sewer. Table 12 shows
the raw waste characteristics of the exemplary mill for this
subcategory.
Table 10
Evaporation Plant Waste Load Reduction and
Secondary condensate Discharge Loads
low
(gpm)
liters/min
mg/1
kg/day (Ibs/day)
% of Mill Load
% Reduction: Evap
oration plant
NH3-N mg/1
kg/day (Ibs/day)
% Reduction Evap-
oration plant
Januarv_J97_3
Flow liters/min (gpm)
NH3-N mg/1
kg/day (Ibs/day)
Weak Black
Liguor
983 (260)
37,900
49,900 (110,000)
81
7,000
9,260 (20,400)
69
680 (180)
9,600
9,400 (20,700)
Combined
Condensate
839 (222)
7,520
8,540 (18,800)
60-75
2,600
2,910 (6,400)
1,750 (3,860)
60
-------
Table 11
Raw Waste Characterization
NSSC - NH3-N
Combined Paper Mill Total Mill
Condensate Sewer Sewer
Flow kiloliters/day (MGD) 1,020 (0.27) 7,180 (1.9) 12,470 (3.3)
BODS* mg/1 6,120 620 630
BODS* kg/day (Ibs/day) 6,260 (13,800) 4,470 (9,840) 7,850 (17,300)
Suspended Solids mg/1 5 970 620
Suspended Solids kg/day (Ibs/day) 5 (11) 6,950 (15,300) 7,760 (17,100)
Kjeldahl Nitrogen mg/1 2,180 285 210
Kjeldahl Nitrogen kg/day (Ibs/day) 2,230 (4,910) 2,050 (4,520) 2,640 (5,810)
Ammonia Nitrogen mg/1 1,700 100 150
Ammonia Nitrogen kg/day (Ibs/day) 1,740 (3,830) 750 (1,650) 1,880 (4,130)
* Soluble
-------
Table 12
Raw Waste Characteristics
NSSC - NH3-N
Flow BODS TSS
ill Jsii2lii§rs/kkg_UOOO_2al/ton]_ ]£S/klS2__(lbI/tonl ka/kkg_Jlbs/tonl
e* 3U.8 (8.33) 335 (67) 17 (34)
e** 305 (61) 16 (32)
* 13 months of daily mill records
** Short term survey data (3-7 days)
Kraft^- NSSC_JCrgs§_iRecgyeryl
Methods employed for introducing spant sodium base NSSC liquor into a
kraft recovery system are illustrated in Figure 7 in Section III. While
this is the simplest and most economic solution to the recovery problems
§this process, it can create some operational difficulties in recovery
ich must be overcome, as is discussed in Section III.
Assuming solution of these problems, if the ratio of the NSSC operation
does not exceed 1:3 of the kraft production, the waste characteristics
are not seriously altered. At this ratio, the BOD5 and total suspended
solids losses are increased to a small degree over those of kraft
recovery alone. NSSC pulp does not wash as well as kraft and thus, more
fines pass off in the effluent . However, in modern operations these
increases are not anticipated to exceed 10 percent of an equivalent
amount of kraft pulp alone on the basis of the 1:3 production ratio.
Treatability by biological oxidation processes is not altered by the
addition of NSSC pulping to kraft production and electrolyte
concentration of the effluent is not altered appreciably. Paw waste
characteristics based on 13 months of daily mill records for the two
exemplary mills are shown in Table 13.
62
-------
Table 13
Raw Waste Characteristics
Kraft - NSSC (Cross recovery)
Mill Flow BOD5 TSS
kiloliters/kkg__(100_c[al/tonl k.g/kkg_(lbs/tonl_
g* 51.3 (12.3) 17.5 (35) 16.5 (33)
g** - 14. 5 (29) 19.5 (39)
h* 53.4 (12.8) - 8.9 (17.8
h** - 13.5 (27) 5.5 (11)
*Mill Records
**Shcrt Term Survey Data (3-7 days)
i
The raw waste load of paperboard from waste paper mills is generated in
the stock preparation area and is mainly a function of the type of raw
materials and additives used. In general, the higher the percentage of
kraft or neutral sulfite waste paper used in the furnish, the higher the
BOD5 value per ton of product. Mills whose wastes have the higher EOD5
value generally include those that employ an asphalt dispersion syste
in the stock preparation process in order to melt and disperse t
asphalt found in corrugated waste paper. This system subjects the fibe1
to a heat and pressure environment in a press and digester which
contributes to the higher BOD5_ loads. A process flow and materials
diagram of a typical paperboard from waste paper mill is shown in Figure
16.
Effluent volume, BOD5, and total suspended solids data for 42 irills have
been collected and are presented in Table 14. The data was compiled
from data collected by the Michigan Water Resources commission (30) , the
Wisconsin Water Resources Commission (31), and the NCASI (32). The
volume of effluent ranged from 13,760 to 100,150 liters per metric ten
(3.3 to 24.0 thousand gallons per short ton) of product and it is known
that at three mills the effluent has been virtually eliminated through
clarification and water reuse. However, these mills manufacture a sirall
number of products of coarse grade which makes this procedure possible.
Also shown in Table 14 is data for exemplary mills. The data is frorr 13
months of daily mill records. It should be noted that mills »i," "j,"
"k," and "1"
-------
TAELE_14
PAPEPBOARp_FROM_WASTE_PAPER_MILL_WASTE_LOApINGS
lffluent_Volume BOD5 TSS
Literature Kiloliters/metric ton kg/metric ton kg/metric ton
Mill_# _11000_gal/short_ton ilbs/short_ton]. llbs/shgrt_ton]_
1 45.9 (11.0) 18.0 (36) 61.0 (122)
2 61.9 (16.3) 21.0 (42) 61.5 (123)
3 35.5 ((8.5) 7.5 (15) 43.5 (87)
4 59.7 (14.3) 11.0 (22) 49.0 (98)
5 16.7 (4.0) 8.0 (16) 4.0 (8)
6 45.1 (10.8) 6.5 (13) 10.0 (20)
7 90.1 (21.6) 7.0 (14) 20.0 (40)
8 41.7 (10.0) 8.0 (16) 21.0 (42)
9 83.5 (20.0) 18.0 (36) 14.0 (28)
10 40.5 (9.7) 10.0 (20) 16.5 (33)
11 39.6 (9.5) 9.0 (18) 14.0 (28)
12 41.7 (10.0) 9.5 (19) 9.0 (18)
13 39.6 (9.5) 37.5 (75) 33.5 (67)
14 28.0 (6.7) 6.0 (12) 7.0 (14)
15 62.6 (15.0) 32.5 (67) 53.0 (106)
16 51.7 (12.4) 11.5 (23) 21.0 (42)
17 43.0 (10.3) 12.0 (24) 29.5 (59)
18 13.8 (3.3) 16.0 (32) 10.5 (21)
.19 48.0 (11.5) 6.0 (12) 10.5 (21)
§20 24.2 (5.8) 9.0 (18) 17.0 (34)
^21 65.9 (15.8) 8.0 (16) 13.5 (27)
22 52.2 (12.5) 21.0 (42) 38.0 (76)
23 38.8 (9.3) 11.0 (22) 15.0 (30)
24 24.2 (5.8) 8.0 (16) 9.0 (18)
25 55.9 (13.4) 5.0 (10) 10.5 (21)
26 53.0 (12.7) 12.0 (24) 15.0 (30)
27 31.3 (7.5) 17.5 (35) 16.5 (33)
28 80.1 (19.2) 14.5 (29) 20.0 (40)
29 25.1 (6.6) 23.0 (46) 14.5 (29)
30 69.3 (16.6) 8.0 (16) 32.5 (65)
31 54.2 (13.0) 18.0 (36) 20.0 (40)
32 47.6 (11.4) 11.0 (22) 21.5 (43)
33 25.0 (6.0) 8.5 (17) 34.0 (68)
34 39.6 (9.5) 7.0 (14) 16.0 (32)
35 41.7 (10.0) 12.5 (25) 8.0 (16)
36 43.4 (10.4) 10.0 (20) 7.0 (14)
37 35.9 (8.6) 6.0 (12) 7.0 (14)
38 100.1 (24.0) 12.5 (25) 27.0 (54)
39 41.7 (10.0) 12.5 (25) 35.0 (70)
40 43.4 (10.4) 10.0 (20) 8.0 (16)
41 35.9 (8.6) 6.0 (12) 7.0 (14)
42 52.2 (12.5) 13.0 (26) 9.0 (18)
65
-------
TABLED14 cent.
PAPEPBOARD_FROM_WASTE_PAPlER_MILL_WASTE_LgADINGS
lfflue£t_Volume BOD5 TSS
Literature Kilcliters/metric ton kg/metric ton kg/metric ton
Mill_# _JJOOO_gal/short_ton j[lbs/short_tgnl llb§/short_tonl
Exemplary
Mills
i* -
i** - 0.80 (0.15) 0.08 (0.15)
j* 12.1 (2.9) 7 (14) 2.1 (4.1)
j** - 9 (18) 1.2 (2.4)
k* 38.8 (9.3) 5.5 (11) 35 (70)
k** - 11.5 (23) 33 (66)
1* 9.6 (2.3) 9.5 (19) 2.8 (5.6)
1** - 5.5 (11) 0.95 (1.9)
*Mill Records
*Short term survey data (3-7 days)
The minimum quantity of water required also depends on whether or not
food packaging grades of board are produced. If they are not, a re-
duction of discharge to the three to four thousand gallon per ton level
may be achieved. If they are, reuse is somewhat restricted since taste-
and odor-producing substances tend to accumulate in the system and ad-|
versely affect the product. Slimicides usage is likewise limited since
some of these also impart odors. Hence, the minimum practical discharge
for a mill producing foodboard is generally considered to be about seven
to 10 thousand gallons per ton of product. Practically all products can
be produced in this effluent range. As discussed in Section IV, mills
frequently produce food board in conjunction with non-food board and
therefore minimum practical flows range anywhere from 4000 to 10,000
gallons per ton.
Total suspended solids losses for the 42 mills listed range from 4.0 to
61.5 kilograms per metric ton (8 to 123 pounds per short ton) of
product; 27 containing 20 kilograms per metric ton (40 pounds per short
ton) or under. This value depends upon the type of save-all employed
for fiber recovery and the application of the more effective types is
contingent upon the kinds of waste paper used and the products
manufactured. All mills of this type can employ a cylinder-type save-
all and, while it is not the most effective type, it serves tc separate
usable from unusable fiber and ordinarily restricts losses to less than
20 kilograms per metric ton (40 pounds per short ton) . It also serves
to protect effluent treatment systems from slugs of fiber and clarifiers
from flotation problems.
66
-------
BOD5 values ranged from 5 to 37.5 kilograms per metric ton (10 to 75
«inds per short ton) of product, 30 of the 42 being less than or equal
12.5 kilograms per metric ton (25 pounds per short ton). Residual
Lping liquor, starch, and other adhesives, such as glutens, account
for most of the BOD5. Reduction of suspended solids is the only in-
process control exercised which would reduce BOD5.
The raw waste load discharged by the mills in this industry is a matter
of some interpretation as the tendency to treat waste water for use
prior to biological treatment has become more typical for the industry.
The practice has taken the form of the use of inplant treatment facili-
ties or an cut of plant primary clarifier for the removal of suspended
solids from the process white water prior to reuse on the wet end and
other selected areas in the mill. The recovered solids are recycled for
reuse in the stock system in either case and the excess water not
returned to the mill represents the waste volume discharge to biological
treatment or to municipal waste treatment facilities. The raw waste
load attributable to the mills using the above systems is the volume of
waste water after reuse. Those mills that practice only nominal reuse
of process water but provide primary biological and secondary solids
removal facilities generate a primary clarifier effluent waste load that
equate to the raw waste load of the mills practicing reuse. A
comparison of the raw waste load of mills using any one of the three
different systems described above in response to their pollution control
problem shews that the primary clarifier effluent of each is the most
equatable parameter. That this is the most representative raw waste
for a mill is supported by the nearly industry wide practice of
g all primary clarifier sludge back to the process. Under these
mditions the clarifier influent does not represent the actual waste
load leaving the mill.
The use of this criterion for defining raw waste loads for mills in this
category becomes more significant when considering the fourth response
to pollution abatement which is receiving wider use in this industry.
This requires the recycle of process water to the extent that the fresh
water use for process purposes equals the evaporation rate frcm the
process system. The waste water that is generated is both the raw waste
load and final discharge for these mills. This waste is generally the
result of intermittent discharges from holding basins used to contain
the many variables associated with production requirements including
excessive stock dumps, grade changes, or mill wash ups. Achievement of
this goal is made by differing routes. One approach utilizes a well
designed inplant treatment facility with safeguards designed into the
system to accommodate process variations and upsets. Another utilizes
the outer plant primary clarifier effluent with surge storage tanks and
screening equipment on the water return to the mill to insure
reliability of the quality of the recycle water. There are a few mills
in this industry which have been built within the last ten years that
have designed into the process plans at the engineering stage the
concept of complete process water recycle. This approach utilizes one
67
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or the other cf bcth solids removal systems described above and includes
extensive noncontact cooling water collection and recycled fresh wat
systems used in noncontaminating areas and discharged separately to
environment without treatment, in addition, selective process water "u
and recycle practices are designed into the plant at the engineering
phase. One such mill was included in this study in order to obtain
reliable information regarding the waste loads generated in the process
water systems and the final effluent. This mill did net employ
biological treatment on the final discharge, however, the waste load
discharged to the environment was significantly lower than the discharge
from mills with primary settling and biological treatment facilities.
Using data obtained at mills practicing all four methods of treatment
and recycle, the following comparisons can be made. The ECD5 cf the
discharge by mills with secondary treatment facilities averaged 0.5
pounds per ton and that for the mill without biolcgical treatment but
with near complete recycle achieved 0.15 pounds per ton BOD5 and far
lower waste loads than achieved by the other mills in total suspended
solids and total dissolved solids, i.e., 0.15 and 1.0 pounds per ton
versus an average of 1.5 and 25.0 pounds per ton. However, for this
mill the concentrations of contaminants was considerebly higher in the
final discharge to the environment. Perhaps more importantly the
concentrations of dissolved solids attributable to the extensive recycle
of process water reached significantly high levels, 1800 mg/1 EOD5 and
7500 mg/1 total dissolved solids (TDS), which this particular
production process was able to tolerate.
Evaluation of the results obtained by the four basic approaches made
this industry to the pollution control effort supports the fact that
waste waters generated respond well to the biological treatment process
for the reduction of BOD5 and to a lesser extent, except with near
complete recycle, dissolved solids. The waste is generally deficient in
phosphorus and nitrogen making necessary the addition of nutrients to
achieve good biological treatment performance and is low in heavy metals
concentration, rarely exceeding one mg/1.
These wastes are substantially neutral although some grades of paper
board lean toward the acid side due to the large amount of alum used as
sizing. They seldom, however, contain mineralacidity and can be treated
biologically without neutralization. They generally contain relatively
little true color unless such is imparted by the water supply, but can
be quite turbid due to the presence of clay or titanium dioxide used in
the process or entering the system with the waste paper. The turbidity
varies over a wide range depending depending on the production grade
being run in the mill. However, evaluation of the data obtained during
the survey program carried out at mills in this subcategory demonstrates
that clarification followed by biological treatment reduces the
turbidity from 200 to 700 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Units) to 15 to 35 JTU.
It can be concluded that the installation of treatment facilities for
68
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the reduction of BOD5 will successfully reduce turbidity to acceptable
vels.
astorically, the raw waste water for mills in this industry has been
characterized in terms of a particular manufacturing process and by the
raw, materials used in the process. The realization of near complete
reuse of process water by some mills indicates that the reuse factor
becomes paramount when characterizing the waste loads discharged to the
environment on an industry-wide basis.
There are ether factors that exert an adverse influence en the quantity
and quality of the waste water generated by paperboard from waste paper
mills on an intermittent basis. Virtually all mills change from one
grade of product to another during an operating cycle. The frequency cf
this occurrence varies frcm two or three changes in a 24-hour period to
only once in three or four days. The effect on the waste water
generated may be negligible or quite obvious, depending on the
difference in the grade change being made. Generally the suspended
solids increases with an attendant increase in BOD5. The duration of
this import is from perhaps 15 minutes to one hour after which the waste
stream returns to normal conditions. Production scheduling generally
avoids following a production grade with a completely different grade in
order to reduce the interim period of production that meets neither
grade specification. This, therefore, tends to minimize the impact of
grade change on waste water quality except where it is unavoidable.
*" 11 washups occur perhaps once a week; however, in recent years irany
11s have extended their operating period to 14 and 21 day cycles.
is extended period frequently coincides with a felt or wire life cycle
which permits a felt or wire to be changed during a scheduled irill
shutdown. A mill shut down largely influences the suspended solids
content of the waste stream. These solids have accumulated in various
tanks and chests throughout the process system over the operating cycle
and are generally considered to be undesirable for return to the
production process. Some mills reuse a substantial amount of the solids
generated by a washup, others reuse virtually none. In either case the
primary clarifier removes these solids from the waste stream and the
excess is disposed of via the clarifier underflow system to sludge
dewatering ponds or vacuum filtration prior to land disposal.
EBPEE_MACHINES
The manufacture of paper involves two relatively discrete process
systems in terms of quantity and quality of water utilizations, namely
the wet end and the dry end of the machine. Refined pulp stcck is
discharged to the machine chest from which it enters the wet end of the
paper machine. The stock is pumped to a headbox which meters the
quantity of stock to the paper machine. Process water is added to
reduce the stock consistency to 0.25-0.5 percent either in the headbox
69
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or the vat, depending on whether the forming section is a cylinder or
fourdrinier machine.
The stock deposits on a cylinder or fourdrinier wire and excess
white water passes through the wire. A large portion of this white
water is recycled back through the machine stock loop, and the excess is
pumped to a white water collection chest for reuse in the stock prepara-
tion area. Any remaining excess goes to a save-all for fiber collection
and white water clarification. These showers clean areas which tend to
develop fiber buildup and represent the largest portion of raw waste
water generated by a paper machine.
The sheet is carried by cloth felts to the forming and press sections
where additional quantities of water are removed. Felt cleaning showers
which add more excess water are used. They are required, however, in
order to maintain the drainability of the felt. The sheet passes
through the drier section to the dry end where water use is generally
low in volume and consists principally of cooling water. If en-machine
coating is practiced it involves a coating kitchen in which the coating
is made up to specifications and applied in successive applications to
the sheet. The presence of this operation generates a low volume waste
water relatively high in BOD5 and dissolved solids.
Many mills utilize a broke pulper on the dry end of this machine. This
represents the largest single water use in this area and is generally
recycled white water. However, this system component is responsible for
creating process water system imbalances of the greatest magnitude^.
Since a dry end break requires that the entire tonnage of the irachine^
reduced to pulp consistency the volume of water needed to accompli
this is very high. The imbalance created depends on the duration of the
break and generally is reflected by an increase of voluire with an
attendant increase in suspended solids and, to a lesser extent, EOE5 and
dissolved solids in the mill effluent. During this period the treatment
facilities may be subject to two or three times the average waste load
generated by the mill. The subsequent impact on the performance of the
mill waste treatment facilities is not documented, however. Since
treatment capabilities are a function of time and kilograms of
contaminant per unit of time, the impact must exert an influence which
is hidden in the 24-hour average waste load data reported by the mill.
Impact of this system on a mill practicing near complete recycling of
process water is probably more critical. Normal operation requires
facilities for recycling process water within the machine locp and the
stock preparation loop, and from one loop to the other. To accommodate
a dry end or wet end break, the process water system must be capable of
responding quickly to the need for a large volume cf process water at
either the wet end or dry end of the machine without utilizing fresh
water make-up. This system must also have the capacity to bring this
volume of water back into the process water system without losses to the
mill discharge sewer.
70
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' ~| 0.574 KG
I 1 Ton
I THICKENER
II.44 HG I W.W. TANK
4 Tons
^ 1 WHITEWATER
0.5 Tons | 1.181 MG I "** I
I
Figure 16
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM AIID MATERIALS
OF A
WASTE PAPERBOARD HILL
PROCESS WATER
FRESHWATER
EXTENSIVE WATER RE-USE
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SECTION VI
SELECTION OF POLLUTANT PARAMETERS
WASTE_WATER_PARAMETERS_OF_SIGNIFICANCE
A thorough analysis of the literature, mill records, sampling data which
has been derived from this study, and the RAPP data demonstrates that
the following constituents represent pollutants according to the Water
Pollution Control Act for the subcategories under study:
BOD5
Total Suspended Solids
PH
Color (Not including Paperboard from Waste Paper)
Ammonia Nitrogen (NSSC-ammcnia base only)
i
BiochemJ.cal_OxYgen_pemand {5-day^
This parameter is a measure of the amount of biologically degradable or-
ganic matter which is present in the waste stream. Failure tc substan-
tially reduce the amount of BOD5 in the waste stream before discharge t
receiving waters would adversely affect water quality by consuming lar "
amounts of dissolved oxygen. Although the amount of BOD5 per ten
product in the discharge from an industrial process varies to a large
degree between subcategories, and even significantly from mill to irill
within a given subcategory, the wastewaters can essentially te treated
by the same treatment systems.
§li§E§2 de d_ So 1 i d s
This parameter is a measure of nondissolved solids in the waste water
which are trapped or "suspended" on a test filter medium. Total
suspended solids, also called Suspended Solids are divided into
settleable and nonsettleable fractions, the former being these solids
which will settle in one hour under quiescent conditions. Pulp and
paper mill effluents are normally analyzed for suspended solids. If not
removed from waste flows, the heavier and larger portion of suspended
solids may deposit on the bottom of receiving waters, causing
interference with normal benthic growths. Also, such deposits, due to
anaerobic biological action, may generate gasses which cause clumps of
solids to float, producing an unsightly condition en the water surface
together with offensive odors. Most suspended solids of mill origin can
be removed by proper treatment, as described in Section VII. Suspended
72
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solids of biological origin which are generated by biological treatment
are included in the test, but are generally more difficult to remove.
El
Thfe effluent from a typical biological treatment process will normally
have a pH in the range of 6.0 to 9.0, which is not detrimental to irost
receiving waters. However, the application of some technologies for the
removal of color, solids, and nitrogen can result in major adjustments
in pH. The effluent limitations which are cited insure that these ad-
justments are compensated prior to final discharge of treated wastes in
order to avoid harmful effects within the receiving waters.
Color
Color is defined as either "true" or "apparent" color. In Standard
Methods for the Examination of Water and W§§tewater (U) , the true color
of water is defined as "the color of water from which the turbidity has
been removed." Apparent color includes "not only the color due to
substances in solution, but also due to suspended matter." In the
various chemical pulping processes, lignin and lignin derivatives are
solubilized and removed from the wood during the cooking process. The
spent cooking liquors containing these highly colored compounds are
removed from the pulp in a washing sequence following the cocking pro-
cess. The wash water is highly colored, and large amounts of color are
ultimately discharged to the receiving stream despite some recovery
perations.
r
Ammonia Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a nutrient which can contribute to excessive growth of algae
and other aquatic vegetation when discharged in significant quantities.
Pulp and papermaking waste flows normally contain only miner concen-
trations of this nutrient, and nitrogen compounds must often be added to
provide desired biological waste treatment efficiencies. As a result,
effluent limitations on nitrogen are not considered necessary. The one
exception regarding limitations is for the ammonia base NSSC
subcategory. Large quantities of ammonia nitrogen can be released to
the waste water from the industrial process itself. Failure to
substantially reduce this pollutant could be highly detrimental to
receiving waters.
RATIONALE_FOF_PARAMETERS_NgT_SELECTED
S§ttle_able_Solids
Settleable solids are a measure of that fraction of suspended solids
which settles after one hour in a quiescent vessel. While a few mills
have measured settleable solids, reliable data are not generally cr
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widely available. Since settleable solids are measured as a part cf the
suspended solids, settleable solids are not considered a separata.
pollutant.
Turbidity
Turbidity is an expression of the optical property of the fine suspended
matter in a sample of water. The suspended matter may be clay silt,
finely divided organic and inorganic matter, plankton, and other
microscopic organisms. The suspended matter causes light to be
scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through
the sample. The paperboard from waste paper subcategory has been
reported having mill effluents which may have high turbidities.
However, turbidity is not considered as a pollutant parameter because an
adequate data base does not exist for turbidity in paperboard from waste
paper mill effluents.
Coliform_grganisms
The fecal ccliform test is the most valid microbiological parameter for
pulp and paper effluents presently available. The excessive densities
of fecal coliforms and more specifically, Klebsiella pneumoniae, as
measured by the fecal colifcrm test, in pulp and paper mill effluents
are significant. Klebsiella can complicate E. coli detection, they can
be pathogenic, and they are coliforms by definition. In addition,
Klebsiella are found in the intestinal tract of approximately 3051 of
humans and H0% of animals. Klebsiella reflect the high nutrient levels
in pulp and paper mill wastes. With adequate treatment for reduction
nutrients, densities of Klebsiella and also total coliforms should
significantly reduced.
A geometric mean density of fecal coliforms of 1000/100mls or less is
generally indicative of adequate treatment.
Coliforms are not included as a separate pollutant parameter because (1)
an adequate data base is lacking, (2) the exclusion of domestic sewage
from mill waste waters is required, and (3) adequate biological
treatment should reduce fecal coliform levels to less than 1000/100 iris.
Regin Acids
Soaps of resin acids (isopimaric, abietric, and dehydroabietric) have
been identified as causing 80 percent of the biologically deleterious
effects of unbleached kraft mill effluent. Studies in Canada indicates
that these; compounds are contained mainly in combined condensates rather
than black1, liquor. The most recent studies indicate they can increase
during biological treatment in aerated lagoons. This parameter is not
considered as a separate pollutant parameter for any of the
-------
subcategories because adequate treatment systems are not available for
l^ts reduction.
^glYchlgrinated_BiphenYl§
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB's) are chemically and thermally stable
compounds found in paper and paperboard manufacture and are known to
cause deleterious effects upon biological organisms. They have been
shown to concentrate in food chains and few restrictions on thier
control exist at present. Recycled office papers are the main source in
the paper industry at present, although occasionally paperboard extracts
show evidence of Monsanto1s Aroclor 1254 (PCB) from environmental and
other sources. Quantities of PCB in recycled paperboard are generally
between 1 and 10 mg/1, but may be more or less. Functional barriers or
lines in paperboard are seen to provide food stuff protection until
PCB's are purged from the system through process waters, volatilization
and paper destruction. This parameter is not considered as a separate
pollutant parameter for any of the subcategories because an adequate
data base does not exist.
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SECTION VII
CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Waste water effluents discharged from the subject subcategories of "the
industry to receiving waters can be reduced to required levels by
conscientious application of established in-plant process control
together with water recycle measures and by well designed and operated
external treatment facilities. Present technology will not allow
achievement of zerc discharge.
This section describes both the in-plant and external technologies which
are either presently available or under intensive development to achieve
various levels of pollutant reduction for each of the sutcategcries. In
some cases the "in-plant" and "external" technologies merge. For
example, a mill may employ extensive suspended solids removal equipment
internally, reusing both the clarified water for manufacture and the
recovered solids in the product, whereas another similar mill may depend
to a greater extent on "external" suspended solids removal tc arrive at
a similar end point.
Tables 15 and 16 summarize alternative technologies, both internal and
external, in present use and of the more advanced degree.
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Table 15
SUMMARY OF INTERNAL TECHNOLOGIES
Unbl. NSSC
Kraft Ammon.
.Subcatecjcry
Paperboar
NSSC Kraft- from
Sodium _NSSC_ Waste_PajDe
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
I. PULP_MILL
A. General
Gland water reduction/reuse
Vacuum pump seal water
reduction/reuse
Internal spill collection
B. Wood Handling
Dry Handling
Wet Handling with recycle
c• Digestion & Pulp Washing
Hot stock screening
Knot removal and/or reuse
Wash water reuse
D. Spent_Cooking_Ligugrs
Chemical recovery
Land disposal or sale
Condensate reuse
Dregs recovery
II. PAPER_MILL
Reuse of white water
Saveall system
Shower water reduction/reuse
Gland water reduction/reuse
Vacuum pump seal water
reduction/reuse
Internal spill collection
Note: Data was not available to determine the percentage use by mills
in each subcategory of the internal technologies.
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
77
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Table 16
SUMMARY OF EXTERNAL TECHNOLOGIES
I Technologies in general use.
IASIC_FUNCTION
Screening
Neutralization
Suspended Solids
Removal
BODS removal
Foam control
ALTERNATIVE_TECHNgLOGIES
Traveling, self-cleaning
Fixed tars
Automatic pH control
Manual pH control
(C) Mechanical Clarifier
(L) Earthen Basin
(DAF) Dissolved Air Flotation
(ASE) Aerated Stabilization Basin
(AS) Activated Sludge
(SO) Storage oxidation
Chemical
Mechanical
Estimated percentage use (Based upon RAPP data)
of above alternatives by subcategory:
TECHNOLOGY
UNBLEACHED
KRAFT
(C)
(L)
(DAF)
(ASB)
(AS)
(SO)
50
30
*10
50
*10
20
PAPERECARD
NSSC NSSC KRAFT FRCM
AMMONIA SODIUM NSSC VvASTE EAFEF
50 20 80 80
*10 10 10 15
10 10 10 *10
50 40 60 30
*10 *10 *10 30
*10 *10 10 *10
* means "less than"
Note: Mills discharging into public sewers are excluded from abcve
percentage estimates.
78
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Advanced technologies.
ALTERNATIVETECHNOLCGIES
Color removal (Lime) Lime treatment
(Carbon) Activated carbon
(Coag.) Coagulation-alum
(R.O.) Reverse osmosis
Suspended Solids Removal (MMF) Mixed (Multi) Media Filtration
III Color Removal Technologies - Stage of Development
Treatment Subcategory. Type of Installation
Lime Unbleached Kraft Full Scale
Kraft-NSSC Full Scale
Carbon Unbleached Kraft Pilot Scale
Coag.
R.o. NSSC-Sodium Pilot Scale
I
NBLEACHED KRAFT
Internal_Technologies^_
Available methods for reduction of pollutant discharges by internal
measures include effective pulp washing, chemicals and fiber recovery,
treatment and reuse of selected waste streams and collection of spills
and prevention of "accidental" discharges. Internal measures are
essentially reduction of pollutant discharges at their origin and result
in recovery of chemicals, by-products, and in conservation of heat and
water.
Generally, mills which reduce raw waste pollutant loads conccmmitantly
reduce effluent flowage through recycle. An example selected frcm two
surveyed unbleached kraft mills will illustrate this point. The raw
waste lead of one such mill contained 22.5 kilograms of BOD5 per metric
ton (45 pounds of BOD5 per short ton) of production using 58,422 liters
of water per metric ton (14,000 gallons of water per short ton). The
effluent of the second mill contained only 17 kilograms of BOD5 per
metric ton (34 pounds of BOD5 per short ton) at a 41,731 liter of water
per metric ton (10,000 gallons of water per short ton) flow.
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Barking of wood prior to pulping is most commonly performed by dry pro-
cesses which require very little water. This practice is preferred
wet barking from the viewpoint of reducing raw waste load. Where
barking is employed, the BOD5 and suspended solids losses are not a
major percentage of the total waste, as pointed out in Section V.
However, as mills reduce their raw waste loads through internal
controls, the waste loads from wet barking may become more significant
as it will be a larger percentage of the total waste load. Elimination
of raw waste loads from wet barking can be achieved through total
recycle of the barking water. A closed system for wet barking has been
successfully demonstrated at a mill in California.
Treatment of wet barking effluents consists of screening followed by
settling to remove fine suspended solids (principally silt). Heavy duty
mechanically-raked clarifiers are preferably employed, with a design
rise rate of 10,741-48,890 liters per square meter per day (1000-1200
gallons per square foot per day) and a retention time of two hcurs (12).
Clarified effluent may be added to the mill biological treatment system.
settled solids are removed continuously and are readily dewatered for
disposal.
In dry drum barking which is employed by many linerboard mills, the wood
is sprayed with water on entering the drum to remove soil and loose
bark. From 0.83 to 1.67 liters per metric ton (0.2 to 0.4 gallons per
short ton) of product is used and in some instances the water is settled
and recycled. Overflow from settling ponds is discharged to treatment
systems.
Many linerboard mills receive wood in the form of chips either direct
from the forest or, more generally, from saw mills. In these cases, no
barking is required. As the forest products industry continues its
trend toward maximum utilization of the tree, it is likely that more
wood will be delivered as chips and less round wood will be barked by
pulp mills, thus reducing or eliminating waste water discharges from
this source.
After cooking, pulp is washed to remove the dissolved wood substances
and spent cooking chemicals, older practice was to dilute the pulp to
about one percent consistency after washing in order to promote effec-
tive screening for the removal of knots and shives. Thickening en a
decker was then required to raise the consistency for storage purposes.
The water removed by the decker typically accounted for about one-third
of the total BOD5 loss from the mill.
Modern practice reduces this loss substantially by a process
modification. After cooking, the pulp is passed through a fibrilizer
which fractionates the knots remaining with the pulp. The pulp then
passes through a specially designed hot stock screen which effectively
removes shives prior to washing. This sequence avoids the need for
dilution of the pulp for screening after washing, so losses from this
80
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source are reduced. This practice is preferred for unbleached kraft
e" ps from the waste water viewpoint. Rejected knots and shives, if not
poked, are disposed of on the land and are not permitted in the mill
er system.
In the kraft recovery process, inert materials originating in the wood
and other raw materials must be removed. Inert grits from the lime-
slaking operation are generally removed for disposal on the land as are
dregs from the white and green liquor clarification steps. This
practice reduces the suspended solids loss to the sewer.
Kraft mill condensates are recognized to be the principal EOD
contributor to the effluent load from unbleached kraft irills.
Consequently, considerable effort has been spent by most kraft
operations tc consume internally as much of these condensates as
possible by substituting them for normal fresh water make-up
applications. Most commonly the recycling of condensates has occurred
in brown stock washing and in causticizing make-up. Use of condensates
in stack scrubbers for lime kilns and disolving tank vents is also a
common practice. Direct disposal of condensates has been successfully
accomplished by large scale spray irrigation.
Despite the extensive condensate recycling practices, these waste
streams still constitute, collectively, a most serious source of air and
water pollution from unbleached kraft operations.
Cny of the problems related to condensates evolve from the recycling
actices themselves. Ideally, recycling of waste streams assumes that
e waste stream is totally consumed in the process - that the polluting
materials are destroyed by incineration or homogeneously assimilated
into the process streams. This of course is not entirely correct when
speaking of condensates. Since condensates in general are black liquor
distillates, a large fraction of the offending chemical substances
involved are volatile substances which are not amenable to the basic
black liquor processing scheme. If this were not so, the materials
would not have distilled during the formation of the condensate stream.
Recycling the condensate may result in a gradual increase in the
concentration of the volatiles in the process stream involved.
Consequently, distillate slip streams from the process may become
enriched with these volatiles to the extent that serious air and water
pollution problems occur in areas where no serious problems exist
without the recycling practices. The observed increase in EOD
concentration of multi-effect evaporator condensate with extensive
recycling of condensates to brown stock washers may serve as an example.
Recycling cf condensates to the causticizing system may also result in
similar problems. Elevated temperatures at the recovery dissolving
tank, slaking and causticizing area, and lime kiln area, may provide a
means for purging recycled volatiles from condensates to the atmosphere.
Since many of these volatiles are malodorous, it is obvious that the
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kraft mill odor problem may be greatly enhanced by the recycling
practice. Normally innocuous emission sources, such as tank vents a
vacuum pump exhausts, may also become fortified through extensi
condensate recycling.
Operational problems may also occur with extensive condensate recycling.
Increased wet strength additive usage has been linked with the
application of multi effect evaporator condensate en brcwn stcck
washing. Momentary black liquor carry-over in condensate streams
recycled to the causticizing area may seriously disrupt the noriral
liquor-making process. Unquestionably, many of the side effects of the
recycling practices have yet to be defined.
For a large part the condensate streams from the continuous pulping
process differs markedly from the batch process. The continuous
digester blow generally occurs at a lower temperature and pressure than
that of the batch cook. The evolution of distillates in this function
is inconsequential in comparison to the batch counterpart. Relief
condensate, characteristic of the batch cook, does net occur as such in
the continuous cook. However, condensate from continuous digester
steaming vessels may be compared with the batch relief condensate.
Condensates from the recovery system evaporators and from condensed blow
tank vapors account for about one-third of the total BODS. Table 17
shows typical reuse points for these condensates. Methanol accounts for
about 80 percent of their organic content and for most of the EOD5 (33).
Other alcohols, ketones, and small quantities of phenolic substances,
sulfur compounds, and terpenes account for the remainder. Eecause
the odorous compounds, reuse of condensates has been restricted by
pollution considerations. This led, about 10 years ago, to the develop-
ment of technology to remove such compounds. Steam stripping cf conden-
sates has been studied extensively for this purpose (34)(35)(36). Steam
stripping has been successfully applied at least at one bleached kraft
mill, and another is planning to air strip condensates. It should be
noted that this technology is transferable from bleached to unbleached
kraft mills.
A rule of thumb sometimes used in the industry is that one-third to cne-
half of the BOD5 and suspended solids in the raw waste are due to
spills, overflows, and wash-ups which occur when the production process
is not in equilibrium. These losses occur due to a variety cf factors
including breakdown of equipment, routine maintenance, planned shutdowns
and startups, power failures, and grade changes. For economic reasons,
efforts are made to minimize these occurrences, but even under the best
of circumstances, they occur regularly and therefore should be taken in-
to consideration in any waste management program. An example occurred
during a survey of one mill which experienced an unusual short-term
black liquor loss. This caused raw waste BOD5 to increase frorr 17 tc 29
kilograms per metric ton (34 to 58 pounds per short ton). Suspended
solids increased from 11 to 18.5 kilograms per metric ton (22 to 29
82
-------
pounds per short ton). Such shock loads can interfere with external
teatment operation, reducing its removal efficiency. Short-term
>logical processes are particularly susceptible to upset from shock
[bads.
TABLE 17
REUSE OF EFFLUENT FROM DIFFERENT UNIT OPERATIONS
Ef fluent
Blow gas condensate,
direct
1000 liter/metric tons
igal/ton]_
5.7 - 22.4
(1500-5900)
Average
8.6 (2000)
Place of Reuse
Brown stock washing
Screen room or decker operc
Hot water supply
Mud washing
Dissolving cf additives
Blow gas condensate,
indirect
Cooling-water for
blow-gas condenser,
indirect
*rpentine-decanter
derflow
1133 - 1.52
(350 - 400)
(350 - 400)
(1500 - 5900)
Average:
8.6 (2000)
0.038 - 0.63
(10 - 165)
Average:
0.19 (50)
None (Sewered)
Hot water supply
Brown stock washing
Bleached stock washing
Screen room or decker opera
Showers on knctter
Showers en hrcwn-stock wash
83
-------
Table 17 (cont.)
Cooling water for 2.47 - 9.12 Hot water supply
turpentine condenser (675 - 2440) Screen room
Boiler make-up water
Direct blow-heat condense
Evaporator 2.56 - 10.6 Brcwn stock washing
condensate (675 - 2800) Lime kiln scrubber
Average: Cooking liquor preparatiOi
about Mud-washing or dreg washi
5.7 - 7.6 Woodyard
(1500 - 2000) Wash-ups
Sewer
Boiler make-up water
Evaporator 30.4 - 57.0 Transport of bark-boiler
barometric (8000 - 15000) Recycled through cooling-
effluent
Cooling water for Hot water supply
evaporator surface Machine showers in paper
condensers
Evaporator seal 1.52 - 5.89 Brown stock washing
pit, discharge (400 - 1550)
from surface
condensers
84
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i
e following practices should be employed to eliminate or minimize non-
uilibrium losses:
1. Evaporators should be periodically "boiled out" to remcve scale
, and ether substances which interfere with efficient operation. A
storage tank should be provided to contain the flushed material,
which can then be slowly returned to the process when it is again in
operation.
2. Storage facilities should be provided for weak black liquor,
strong black liquor, and recovery plant chemicals and liquors.
These should be adequately sized to avoid overflows in approximately
90 percent of process upsets. Provision can be made to return these
stored materials to the originating subprocess at a later time.
3. If overflows would cause treatment plant upset or increased
discharge of pollutants, production curtailments should be made as
required to avoid overflows if the overflows cannot be prevented by
some other means. Sewer segregation can be utilized, especially in
new mills, to minimize these impacts, in conjuction with adequate
storage.
4. Continuous monitoring within mill sewers (especially conduc-
tivity) should be employed to give immediate warning of unknown
spills so that corrective action can be promptly taken.
5. Personnel should be trained to avoid such spills where possible,
and to take immediate corrective action when they occur.
6. Storage lagoons located prior to biological treatment may be
provided to accept longer term shock loads. The contents can then
be gradually returned to process or to treatment without detriment
to treatment operations or to receiving waters.
In the stock preparation paper machine systems large quantities of water
are necessary to form a sheet of paper. Typically, the fibrous stock is
diluted to about 0.5 percent consistency before entering the paper
machine itself. Such dilutions are necessary in order tc provide
uniformity of dispersion of the fibers in the sheet of paper, as well as
to provide other desired qualities such as smoothness. Most of this
water must be removed in the papermaking process, since only a small
amount of moisture, typically five to eight percent by weight, is
retained in the final sheet.
A high percentage of this water is removed in the forming section of the
machine. In the case of a fourdrinier machine, the water is removed by
rolls, called table rolls, or foils located under the endless-belt
screen or "wire" onto which the dilute stock is fed. Additional water
is removed by suction boxes and a suction couch roll which transfers the
85
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sheet from the wire to the felt. In a cylinder machine, the water
drains through the screen-covered drums which are immersed in vats coj^j
taining the dilute stock.
After leaving the forming section of the machine, the sheet of paper or
board contains about 80 percent moisture. A press section employing
squeeze rolls, sometimes utilizing vacuum, is used to further reduce
moisture to a level of about 60 percent. The remaining moisture is
removed by steam-heated drying rolls.
Water leaving the forming and press sections is called white water, and
approximates 104,325 liters per metric ton (25,000 gallons per short
ton) of paper or board. Due to recycling, only a relatively small
portion of the total is wasted. Mills which utilize varying amounts of
extensive recycling discharge only 2087 to 20,865 liters of white water
per metric ton (500 to 5000 gallons of white water per short ton) from
the system.
As shown in the process flow diagrams for each of the subcategories in
Section V, water is used in the manufacture of pulp and paper for a
variety of purposes including washing, cooling, transporting, chemical
preparation, gland seals, vacuum pump seals, felt washing and washups.
In addition, water is a necessary material in the chemical-mechanical
process of "hydrating" or "brushing" pulp fibers during stock prepara-
tion in order to promote the bonding characteristics required tc forir a
sheet of paper or board.
These uses of water, and the technology available to reduce polluta^M
loads in the raw waste water, are discussed below.
Recycling of this white water within the stock preparation/paperrraking
process has long been practiced in the industry, as discussed in Section
V. In the last 10 years, further strides in reuse have been made.
Problems associated with increased reuse usually manifest theirselves in
reduced machine speed and/cr product quality. Slime growth due to in-
crease of BOD5 and temperature has been encountered. This problem can
be reduced by the proper application of biocides, by better housekeep-
ing, and by design for higher liquor velocities in pipelines, shorter
detention times in tanks, and avoidance of pockets in the system. Scale
buildup is another problem which can be reduced, principally by chemical
and mechanical design techniques. Buildup of dissolved solids can also
cause product quality problems, but in the typical case, reuse is lim-
ited by slime growth and scale buildup. In addition, corrosion is a
significant factor in increased recycling within the white water system.
Most mills employ a save-all to recover fibrous and other suspended
material escaping from the paper machine. This is considered by many
mills to be a necessity for both economic and pollution control reasons,
although some mills can obtain equivalent results by other means. Save-
alls are of three principal types. First is the older drum type
86
-------
immersed in a vat containing the waste water. The water passes through
«drum, leaving a mat cf fiber which is removed continuously for
se. Second is the newer disc type, which utilizes a series cf
een-covered discs on a rotating shaft immersed in the vat. The
action is similar to the drum save-all, but the disc type has the
advantages of greater filtering area per unit volume and the use of
vacuum, both of which reduce space requirements. In both of these types
of save-alls a side-stream of "sweetener" fibrous stock is added to the
influent to improve the efficiency of suspended solids removal in the
main influent feed. The recovered fiber is then removed from the save-
all for reuse directly in the manufacturing process. The third type is
the dissolved air flotation save-all (DAF). In this type unit air
bubbles, formed on the addition of air under pressure, attach themselves
to the fibers, causing them to float to the surface, where a continuous
mechanical rake recovers them for reuse.
The disc type has enjoyed recent popularity because of its flexibility
and higher removal efficiencies in most cases. In addition it provides
a positive barrier for fibers preventing their introduction into the
clarified white water. DAF units are still popular, however, in
paperboard from waste paper mills.
Clarified effluent from save-alls is on the order of 10,433-25,038
liters per metric ton (2900-6000 gallons per short ton) (19), with a
suspended solids content of 120 milligrams or less per liter (one pcuncS
or less per 1000 gallons), whereas the influent may contain 2398
illigrams or more per liter (20 pounds or more per 1000 gallons).
1 or a part of the clarified effluent may be discharged directly to a
sewer, but most mills reuse a significant portion of the effluent for
such services as (19):
1. Vacuum pump seals
2. Machine showers
3. Stock cleaner elutriation
4. Cooling waters
5. Pulp washing
6. Wash-ups
7. Consistency regulation dilution
8. Barometric evaporator condensers (pulp mill)
9. Repulping of broke and purchased fiber
Vacuum pumps are utilized in paper mills to provide a vacuum source to
accelerate the removal of water from fourdrinier machines, presses,
save-alls, and other devices and thus the vacuum pump demand for water
is somewhat product dependent. Most such pumps are of the ring seal
type, which require large amounts of water. This water provides a seal
between the moving parts of the pump, and is necessary to avoid backflow
of air to the vacuum side. Water used for this purpose approximates
87
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10,433 to 16,692 liters per metric ton (2500 to 4000 gallons per short
ton). It must be sufficiently free of suspended solids to avoid
ging of the orifices or other control devices used to meter it to
pump. The formation of scale inside of the pumps can be a prcble
Further, it must not be corrosive to the mechanical parts of the pump,
and it must be relatively cool (typically less than 32°C (90°F)J to
permit development of high vacuums of 0.67-0.74 atm. (20-22 in. Hg.) For
lower vacuum requirements 0.17-0.40 atm. (5-12 in. Hg.), somewhat higher
temperatures are permissible.
As more extensive recycling is employed in machine systems, the signifi-
cance of this volume of seal water increases. The use of irechanical
seals has reduced the volume of seal water, but they have so far not
p.roven satisfactory in many applications. Reduction of seal water usage
is an area which requires more study and development.
Presently, several methods are used to minimize fresh water requirements
depending en product as well as mill configuration. Seal water is
collected and passed through for reuse directly back to the pumps or to
another water-using system. The use of excess white water fcr vacuum
pump sealing, before discharge to sewer or back to process, is also
practiced. Another procedure is to utilize the discharged vacuum pump
water for cooling of heat exchangers.
Seal water is also used on packing glands of process pumps, agitators,
and other equipment employing rotating shafts. It cools bearings, and
lubricates the packing, and minimizes leakage of the process
Even though the amount of water used per packing is small —
in the range of 1.86 to 11.34 liters per minute (0.5 to 3 gpm) —
total usage is quite extensive because of the large number of rotating
shafts required in the processes. The total usage may approximate 4173-
8346 liters per metric ton (1000-2000 gallons per short ton) of paper or
board. Methods used to control and reduce quantities required include
proper maintenance of packings and flow control of individual seal water
lines. In some cases, seal water which leaks from the packing can be
collected and reused, usually after filtering.
Water showers are used in both the forming and pressing sections to
clean the wire, felts, and other machine elements subject tc contact
with the stock. Formerly, large volumes of fresh water were used for
this purpose. In recent years, attention has focused on the use of
recycled white water on showers, and this trend has increased with the
development of self-cleaning showers. Even with self-cleaning showers,
however, a suspended solids content of less than 120 milligrams per
liter (one pound per thousand gallons) is generally desired to avoid
plugging. Concurrently, the use of high pressure (up to 52 atm. or 750
psig), low volume showers using fresh water has increased. These are
employed where product, operability, cleanliness, or other factors
mitigate against the use of white water showers. In many such cases, it
88
-------
is possible tc operate these high pressure showers on a time cycle, so
at flow occurs only a small percentage, 10 to 20 percent, of the time.
5h«
howers are also used on grooved presses to keep the grooves clean and
operable. Grooved presses were developed within the last 10 years and
have enjoyed increasing popularity because of their efficiency in water
removal, and lower capital and operating cost than the sucticn (i.e.,
vacuum) presses which they replace. Recycle of this shower water,
usually after filtering to remove fibrous and other suspended solids, is
commonly employed.
Whether recycled water or lower volumes of fresh water are used for
showers, a reduction in fresh water usage and its concomitant waste
water flow results. Significantly, this reduction also decreases the
fiber losses to sewer.
Since the 1950's, free-discharge cleaners have been used increasingly to
remove dirt and other undesirable materials from the dilute stock prior
to its application to the paper machine. These cleaners are the
cyclonic type and operate on the centrifugal force principle, utilizing
hydraulic pressure drop as the source of energy. They increase cleaning
efficiency through a continuous discharge of reject although significant
quantities of usable fiber are also rejected. To reduce such losses,
the cleaners are usually arranged in stages, so that rejects from
previous stages are sent through subsequent stages of smaller size. Re-
jects from the last stage have a consistency about three percent and are
usually sewered. Well designed and operated cleaner systems reject cne-
«lf to one percent of production from the final stage. To reduce such
Tosses further, elutriation water is added or in seme cases, a closed-
discharge cleaner replaces the free-discharge unit in the final stage.
Either method reduces sewer losses.
Cooling water is used for bearings, particularly in older mills using
sleeve bearings instead of the anti-friction bearings used in new or
rebuilt mills. Cooling water is not contaminated and can be collected
and reused either directly (after heat removal), or indirectly by dis-
charge into the fresh water system, if heat buildup is not a problem.
Similarly, water used to cocl brake linings in paper rewind applications
may be reused. Water used to cool condensate from the steam dryers can
similarly be reused, but because of high heat loads, cooling of this
water by cooling towers or other means would usually be necessary. None
of the mills surveyed in this study cooled this water. However, one
mill surveyed returned dryer condensate directly to the feed water heat-
er at the boiler plant under 1.20-1.34 atm pressure (three-five psig
pressure), thereby reducing the cooling water requirement. This
approach could be used more generally where dryers are operated at
pressures above 1.34 atm. (five psig) .
89
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External Technologies
External control technologies for the treatment of unbleached kraHM
effluents are discussed below. Specifically these technologies include
technologies for reduction cf suspended solids, BODS, and color.
Effluent levels achieved by existing treatment systems of unbleached
kraft effluents are shown in Table 18 for exemplary mills, mills
surveyed by NCASI as representative of BPCTCA technology, and mills from
the literature (32). It should be noted that some of the mills from the
literature (mills 1-14) may be included as NCASI or exemplary mills (no
decode list was available for the mills from the literature).
RemovalmQf^Suspended_Sglids
The physical process of removing suspended organic and inorganic mate-
rials, commonly termed primary treatment, is accomplished either by
sedimentation or flotation, or a combination thereof. Screening ahead
of treatment units is particularly useful for barking and wocd washing
effluents and is necessary in all cases to remove trash materials wfoich
could seriously damage or clog succeeding equipment. Automatic/ally
cleaned screens, operating in response to level control, are commonly
employed and represent preferred practice.
Primary treatment can be accomplished in mechanical clarifiers, flota-
tion units, or sedimentation lagoons. Although the latter enjoyed
spread use in the past, the large land requirement, coupled
inefficient performance and high cost for cleaning, has made them
popular in recent years (12).
Dissolved air flotation has been applied to effluents from paperbcard
from waste paper mills and has achieved removal efficiencies of up to
98 percent of the suspended solids (37). The relatively high cost of
flotation equipment, its requirements for flocculating chemicals, high
power requirements, and mechanical complexity make it unsuitable for
application in other than the capacity of a save-all, except where space
is at a premium. Also, its capacity to handle high concentrations and
shock loads of solids is somewhat limited.
The most widely used method for sedimentation of pulp and paper wastes
is the mechanically cleaned quiescent sedimentation basin (12). Large
circular tanks of concrete construction are normally utilized with ro-
tating sludge scraper mechanisms mounted in the center. Effluent
usually enters the tank through a well which is located on a center
pier. Settled sludge is raked to a center sump or concentric hopper and
is conveyed to further concentration or disposal by solids handling
pumps. Floating material is collected by a surface skimmer attached to
the rotating mechanism and discharged to a hopper.
90
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Table 18
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment Systems at
UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS
Flow
Exemplary kiloliters/kkg
Mills Treatment (1,000 gal/ton) kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
INF
a*
a**
b*
b**
c*
c**
d*
d**
C-ASB 43.8 (10.5)
C-ASB
C-ASB-SO 47.2 (11.3)
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-SO 39.6 (9.5)
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-SO 56.3 (13.5)
C-ASB-SO
13.
12
13.
17
14
9.
15.
22.
5
5
5
5
5
(27)
(24)
(27)
(34)
(28)
(19)
(31)
(45)
2.
1.
1.
0.
1.
2.
4.
1.
EFF
25
1
0
7
5
35
35
35
(4
(2
(2
(1
(3
(4
(8
(2
.5)
.2)
.0)
.4)
.0)
.7)
.7)
.7)
INF
10.5
6.5
17
11
28
17
19.5
26.5
(21)
(13)
(34)
(22)
(56)
(34)
(39)
(53)
BOD TSS
EFF
6.4 (12.8)
33 (6.6)
1.25 (2.5)
1.1 (2.11)
1.1 (2.2)
1.15 (2.2)
7.1 (14.2)
5.0 (10)
-------
Table 18
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS (contd.)
Flow
NCASI kiloliters/kkg
Mills Treatment (1,000 gal/ton) kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD TSS
INF EFF INF EFF
22 C-ASB-SO - - 3.05 (6.1) - 1.0 (2.0)
33 C-ASB - - 4.35 (8.7) - 4.7 (9.4)
44 C-ASB-SO - - 0.8 (1.6) - 0.85 (1.7)
55 C-ASB - - 2.45 (4.9) - 4.0 (8.0)
66 C-ASB-SO - - 2.85 (5.7) - 3.7 (7.4)
-------
Table 18
Effluent Levies Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS (contd)
s from
ature Treatment
Flow
MLD
(MGD)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD
INF EFF
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB
C-TF-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB
AB-SO
C-SO-A
C-SO
AB-SO-L
C-ASB -L
98
37
71
11
45
113
56
22
45
102
45
.2
.8
.8
.3
.3
.7
.6
.4
.4
(26)
(10)
(19)
(3)
(12)
(30)
(15)
(6)
(12)
(27)
(12)
21
11
19
17.5
16.5
45
9
15
13
20.5
13.5
(42)
(22)
(38)
(35)
(33)
(90)
(18)
(30)
(26)
(41)
(27)
7
2
5
5.
1.
3
2.
1
3.
2.
3
(14)
(4)
(10)
5 (11)
5 (3)
(6)
5 (5)
(2)
5 (7)
5 (5)
(6)
TSS
INF EFF
15
20
6
9.5
12.5
11.5
34.5
6
15
26.5
27.5
(30)
(40)
(12)
(19)
(25)
(23)
(69)
(12)
(30)
(53)
(55)
5.5
2
3
10
0.5
2.5
3.5
0.2
1.5
2
2
(11)
(4)
(6)
(20)
(1)
(5)
(7)
(0.4)
(3)
(4)
(4)
-------
Table 18
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS (contd.)
Mills from
Literature Treatment
12 C-ASB
13 C-ASB
14 C-ASB
Flow
MLD
(MGD)
37.8 (10)
60.5 (16)
34.0 (9)
BOD
INF
50.5 (101)
16.5 (33)
17 (34)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
EFF INF
14 (28) 69.5 (139)
10.5 (21)
1 (2) 13.5 (27)
TSS
EFF
3.5 (7)
1.5 (3)
VO
*Mill Records
**Short Term Survey Data (3-7 days)
Notes- Exemplary mill "a" is the same mill as NCASI mill "55".
Exemplary mill "b" is the same mill as NCASI mill "44".
-------
At kraft (and NSSC) mills, clarifier diameters range from 9.14 to 106.68
ters (30 to 350 feet) and overflow rates from 15,970 to 82,702 liters
r square meter per day (392 to 2030 gallons per square foot per day)
overflow. A survey of 12 mills in the five subcategcries indicates that
the majority of the plants have primary clarifiers with overflow rates
ranging from approximately 8148-28,518 liters per square meter per day
(200-700 gallons per square foor per day).
A properly designed and installed mechanical clarifier is capable cf
removing over 95 percent of the settleable suspended solids frcm all the
effluents produced by the subcategories studied. The removal efficiency
of this fraction of the total suspended solids is the true treasure cf
performance for this device since it cannot be expected to separate
those solids which will not settle under the most favorable conditicns.
The settleable solids content of linerbcard mill effluents average 85
percent of the total suspended solids.
Because of the biodegradable nature of a portion of the settleable
solids present in the effluents of these mills, clarification results in
some EOD5 reduction. Tabulated data for a number of mills showed a BOD5
reduction effected by settling is less than 20 percent for linerbcard
mills.
BOD5 Reduction
5 reduction is generally accomplished by biological means, again be-
luse of the relative bicdegradability of most of the organic substances
the waste. Lignin is the one major exception. Advances in reduction
of internal chemical losses and recycling have removed rr.cst of the
factors which interfere with biological activity.
While BOD5 reduction by biological methods represents common practice
today, it should be understood that other methods discussed under "Color
Removal" may, in the future, avoid the need fcr biological treatment to
reduce BOD5.
Common current biological treatment practice is the use of very large
storage oxidation basins, aerated stabilization basins, or tc a lesser
extent, the activated sludge process and modifications thereof. The
storage oxidation basin is the most widely used method in kraft pulping,
followed closely by the aerated stabilization basin (36). The activated
sludge process is not used by unbleached kraft mills, and a trickling
(roughing) filter is presently being employed by two kraft mills for
pretreatment (36). A process flow diagram showing alternate biological
effluent treatment systems is shown in Figure 17.
95
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FIGURE 17
SPILLAGE &
WASH-OUTS
1
LOW SUSP. SOLIDS
.EFFLUENTS
HIGH SUSP. SOLIDS
EFFLUENTS
STRONG WASTE
HOLDING BASIN
I
DIVERSION
CHAMBER
BAR
SCREENS
—
-»
METERING
PUMP
COLLE
WE
1
:CTION
:LL
DECANTATION
EFFLUENTS
CLEAN
COOLING WATER
IN-STREAM
DIFFUSER
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM
MILL EFFLUENT TREATMENT
CLARIFIERS
ALTERNATE
SETTLING
BASINS
WOOD
WASHINGS
INORGANIC
WASTES
ASH
BASIN
WOOD YARD
RUN OFF
1
FROM SLUDGE
HANDLING
DISCHARGE
REG.BASIN
STORAGE
OXIDATION
ALTERNATE
SETTLING
BASINS
AERATED
OXIDATION
ALTERNATE
FLOW METER
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
AERATION
TANKS
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE
TO SLUDGE
CONDITIONING
AND DISPOSAL
T
WASTE
ACT. SLUDGE
f
-------
Since the storage oxidation basin is a relatively low-rate process,
land areas are required, making it unsuitable for many locations.
of the availability of land, and the warmer climate which helps
to maintain consistent biological activity, mcst natural oxidation
basins are found in the Southern States (12). Ninety percent ECD5
removal efficiency for an 82-day detention time stabilization basin
treating unbleached kraft waste is reported (36). Design loading rates
of 56 kilograms BOD5 per hectare per day (50 pounds BOD5 per acre per
day) for natural oxidation basins to achieve 85-90 percent removal in
warm climates were also reported (38) . A survey of four rrills with
loadings of 59.4 kilograms BOD5 per hectare per day (53 pounds BOD5 per
acre per day) or less showed BOD5 removals ranging from 80-93 percent,
while basins averaging 112-336 kilograms BOD5 per hectare per day (100-
300 pounds BOD5 per acre per day) had removals in the 23-55 percent
range. For shallow basins an oxygenation rate of 67.3 kilograms EOD5
per hectare per day (60 pounds BOD5 per acre per day) was reported tc be
used for design purposes.
By installing aeration equipment in a natural basin, its ability to
assimilate BOD5 per unit of surface area is greatly increased. The
aerated stabilization basin, as used by all subcategories, originally
evolved out of the necessity of increasing performance of existing
natural basins due to increasing effluent flows and/or mere stringent
water quality standards. It soon became apparent that the process had
many applications in the pulp and paper industry and, as a consequence,
significant use of this waste treatment process began in the early to
idsixties.
I
TTu
ue to its inherent acceleration of the biological process, the aerated
stabilization basin requires much less land than the natural stabiliza-
tion basin and because of the long reaction period less nutrient
addition than that required for activated sludge. Typically, 0.21
hectares per million liters (two acres per MGD) of the aerated
stabilization basin compared with 4.8 hectares per million liters (40
acres per MGD) for natural basins for equivalent treatment levels (36).
Detention times in the aerated stabilization basin normally range from
five to 15 days, averaging less than 10 days. Of the 12 mills studied
in these categories, nine mills employed aerated stabilization basins,
most with less than 10 days detention time.
Due to the relatively long aeration time, the buildup of sludge solids
is considerably less than for higher rate processes, particularly where
primary clarification is employed. Typical rates are 45.4 to 90.8 grams
(0.1 to 0.2 pounds) of sludge generated for each 454 grams (one pound)
of BOD5 removed (12). The sludge is removed as formed by endogenous
respiration, sludge loss in the effluent, and sedimentation within the
aeration basin. However, discharge of untreated waste to ar aerated
stabilization basin without prior clarification can result in a buildup
of sludge which after a period of time will impede its efficiency. An
unbleached kraft mill in the study group reported a significant less in
97
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operating efficiency after a period of eight years, at which time
approximately 25 percent of the aerated lagoon was filled with sludg
After dredging the sludge, the process returned to a high operat.i
efficiency.
Most mill wastes are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus. Many cf the
mills studied found it necessary to add these nutrients to the aeration
basin. Nitrogen, in particular, is added in almost every case fcy mills
in four of the subcategories. Reported optimum ratios of EOD5 to nitro-
gen are 50:1 with four days aeration, and 100:1 with 10-15 days aeration
(38).
Aeration is normally accomplished using either gear driven turbine-type
aerators, direct-drive, axial flow-pump aerators, and, in a few cases,
diffused aerators. Oxygenation efficiencies under actual operating con-
ditions range from 0.61 to 1.52 kilograms of oxygen per kilowatt per
hour (one to 2.5 pounds of oxygen per horsepower per hour), depending on
the type of equipment used, the amount of aeration power per unit lagocn
volume, basin configuration, and the biological characteristics of the
system. A dissolved oxygen (D.O.) level of 0.5 mg/1 remaining in the
lagoon liquid is required to sustain aerobic conditions (39).
Generally, it was reported that 1.1 to 1.3 kilograms of oxygen per
kilogram EOD5 (1.1 to 1.3 pounds oxygen per pound BOE5) are required to
maintain adequate D.O. for waste oxidation and endogenous respiration of
the biological mass produced.
Although the activated sludge process has been employed for many yeara
to treat domestic sewage,'it was first applied to pulp and paper milfl
waste in 1953 (38) . The process is similar to the aerated stabilization^
basin except that it is much faster, usually designed for four to eight
hours of total detention time. The biolcgical mass grown in the aera-
tion tank is settled in a secondary clarifier and returned to the
aeration tank, building up a large concentration of active biological
material. Since there is approximately 2000-4000 mg/1 of active sludge
mass in the aeration section of this process, as opposed to 50-200 mg/1
in the aerated stabilization basin, dissolved and suspended organic mat-
ter are removed much more rapidly, greatly reducing necessary tank vol-
ume as well as required detention time. Since biolcgical organisms are
in continuous circulation thrcug out the process, complete mixing and
suspension of solids in the aeration basin is required. The active
microbial mass consists mainly of bacteria, protozoa, rotifers, fungi,
and cyntomnemotodes. Because the process involves intimate contact of
organic waste with biological organisms, followed by sedimentation, a
high degree of BOD5 and solids removals is obtained.
The contact stabilization process is a variation of activated sludge
wherein two aeration steps are utilized rather than one. First, the
incoming waste is contacted for a short period with active organisms
prior to sedimentation. Settled solids are then aerated for a longer
period to complete waste assimilation. Contact stabilization has been
98
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applied successfully tc integrated kraft mill effluent, while conven-
ional activated sludge is used at most ether rrills.
AC-
ctivated sludge plants treating pulp and paper waste have teen leaded
up to 2.41 kilograms of BOD5 per cubic meter (150 pcunds cf BOD5 per
1000 cubic feet) of aeration tank volume per day (12). Of the 12 mills
studied two utilized activated sludge treatment with primary and
secondary clarification. In both cases, tank leadings were less than
0.80 kilograms of EOD5 per cubic meter (50 pounds of EOD5 per 1000 cubic
feet) with one system operating at less than 0.24 kilograms of BOD5 per
cubic meter (15 pounds of BOD5 per 1000 cubic feet). Detention tiires
ranging frcm 2.5 to 8.5 hours with loading rates ranging frorr 601 to
2084 kilograms of BOD5 per cubic meter (37.5 to 130 pounds of BODS per
1000 cubic feet) have been reported (38) . In all cases nitrogen and
phosphorus were added.
The secondary clarifier performs the function of sedimentation of the
active micrcbial mass for return to the aeration tank. Pates of about
211 liters per day per square merer (600 gallcns per day per square
foot) have been reported (36).
Due to the fact that the volume of bio-mass in the activated sludge
process is greatly reduced because of hydraulic detention time, the
endogenous respiration of the concentrated sludge is considerably
lessened. Thus, there are additional quantities of excess sludge, 3/U
kilogram cf excess sludge per kilogram of BODJ3 (3/U pound cf excess
sludge per pound of BOD5), which must be disposed.
in the case of the aerated stabilization basin, aeration can be
accomplished by mechanical or diffused aeration. The more efficient and
more easily maintained mechanical method is preferred by the pulp and
paper industry. Oxygen requirements where activated sludge processes
are utilized were reported in the range of one kilogram of oxygen per
kilogram of EOD5 (one pound of oxygen per pound of BOC5) removed.
Short detention times and low volumes make the activated sludge process
more susceptible tc upset due to shock loads. When the process is dis-
rupted, several days are usually required to return the biological
activity and high BOD5 removal rates back to normal. Thus, particular
attention is required to avoid such shock loads in mills utilizing this
process. The greater -shock load tolerance of aerated stabilization
basins, lower nutrient requirements, reduced sludge handling problems,
and lower cost, explains the general preference for this type of treat-
ment. Exceptions occur particularly where the high cost or unavaila-
bility of land dictates the use of the activated sludge process with its
much lower land requirement. One such use is in paperboard from waste
paper mills located in urban areas. An effluent treatment flew diagram
appears in Figure 17.
99
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Trickling filter usage in all subcategories is very limited, primarily
due to the inability of such systems to accomplish high degrees of EOlQfc
removal at high loading levels (38). A kraft mill employing trickli^
filters with artificial plastic media achieved 50 percent reduction or
BOD5 with 50 percent recycle at a loading rate of 80.16 kilograms of
BOD5 per cubic meter of media per day (500 pounds of BOD5 per 100 cubic
feet of media per day) (38).
TWO'Stage_Biological Treatment
Two-stage biological treatment is employed to enhance the EOD5 removal
obtained with a single stage. This concept consists of two biological
treatments systems, usually arranged in series. In the literature (40)
a two-stage system is described which employs the activated sludge
process in both stages in the treatment of municipal water. The authors
note that sludge may be returned or wasted within each stage, or that
excess sludge from one stage may be recycled to the other. A principal
advantage of this particular arrangement is that the sludge flews may be
utilized to maximize BOD5 removal.
Other combinations of biological treatment may be employed in a two-
stage arrangment. For example, a trickling filter may precede an
aerated stabilization basin or an activated sludge system. This
arrangment may be employed where the second stage is required because of
insufficient performance of the trickling filter alone. It may also be
used in cases where cooling of the waste is required before further
biological treatment may proceed. In the latter case, the tricklin
filter serves as a partial cooling tower, and also accomplishes s
BOD5 reduction.
Two-stage aerated stabilization basins, operated in series, may have
particular appeal for this industry. This arrangement usually requires
less land than a single unit, and can be expected to provide tetter
treatment on an equal-volume basis. For the first stage, a detention
time up to two days or more is usually recommended, and up to 10 days or
more for the second stage. If sufficient land is available at
reasonable cost, this system is usually a less expensive approach than a
two-stage system involving activated sludge. It has the further
advantage of providing more detention time which is helpful in treating
surges of flow or pollutant load. In colder climates, however, arrange-
ments using aerated stabilization basins are more susceptible than
activated sludge to decreased wintertime performance. This, in turn,
relates to the greater heat loss of the aerated stabilization tasin due
to its greater detention time as compared to activated sludge. Under
conditions of proper design and operation, including nutrient addition
and surge basins located prior to biological treatment, BODS removals of
90 percent can ultimately be expected to be achieved with this system.
A two-stage biological system currently employed by some Southern un-
bleached kraft mills utilizes an aerated stabilization basin followed by
100
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storage oxidation. Typically, detention time of the former is eight to
days and for the latter is eight to 40 days. In these installations,
erall BOD5 removal (compared to raw waste) of 85 percent is being
achieved, with 70 percent removal after the first stage. These data do
not, however, reflect usage of nutrients. It is probable that the
addition of surge basins, coupled with nutrient addition, proper
aeration and mixing capacity, will ultimately permit BOD5 reductions of
90 percent in this system. For mills with adequate land and other
favorable factors, this system may be the most economical approach.
Other combinations of two-stage biological treatment are, of course,
possible. These would include use of activated sludge followed by an
aerated stabilization basin, storage oxidation, or trickling filters.
Such combinations, with rare exceptions, would not usually be the more
economical or practicable solution, however.
Temperature_Effects
All biological treatment systems are sensitive to temperature. Optimum
temperature for these systems is generally in the 16° to 38°C (60° to
100°F) range. Impaired BOD5 removal efficiency is usually encountered
as temperature of the waste water drops significantly below or rises
significantly above this range.
Temperatures over 38°C may be encountered in warm climates where heat is
o added to the waste stream during processing. Cooling towers or
rickling filters have been employed to reduce these higher teirperatures
r to biological treatment. In colder climates, waste water
temperature is likely to drop below 16°C in the winter, particularly
where detention time of the biological unit exceeds 12 to 2U hours.
With greater detention times, heat loss to atmosphere from the treatment
unit generally becomes significant. Thus activated sludge units, which
are usually designed for two to 10 hours detention, are less susceptible
to reduction of BOD5 removal efficiency in cold climates than are
aerated stabilization basins or storage oxidation basins.
To some degree, this drop-off of BOD5 removal efficiency can be
mitigated in colder climates by improved design of aeration and mixing
factors. Two-stage aerated stabilization basins are likely to perform
better in cold temperatures than a single stage of greater total
detention time.
A large amount of precise data on the performance of biological
treatment systems relative to temperature are lacking. Studies
conducted at a mill in Michigan indicated that at waste water
temperatures of 35°F, BODS levels increased by over 100% of those
obtained at 16°c (60°F) (Ul). dition, a research project operating on
pilot scale also indicated that BODS levels at waste water teirperatures
of 2°C (35°F) increased to nearly 100X of those obtained at 16°C (60°F)
101
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(42). More study is needed in this area, since other design variables,
as well as operating variables, affect BOD5 removal. For
mixing efficiency varies as temperature changes in the basin.
design parameters, such as lagoon geometry, depth, detention time,
nutrient addition, BOD5 loading rate, and aerator spacing, and
horsepower, are significant. other factors which affect heat loss in
the basin are wind velocity, ambient air temperature and humidity, solar
radiation, aeration turbulence, and foam cover.
102
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Sludge Devatering^and^Disposal
Due to their high organic content, the dewatering and disposal of
sludges resulting from the treatment of kraft linerfcoard can pose a
major problem and cost mere than the treatment itself. In early
practice, these sludges were placed in holding basins from vhich free
water from natural compaction and rainfall was decanted. When a basin
was full, it was abandoned, or, if sufficient drying took place, the
cake was excavated and dumped on waste land. In this case, the basin
was returned to service.
Odor problems from drying, as well as land limitations, have demanded
the adoption of more advanced practices. These are covered in detail in
NCASI Technical Bulletin No... 390 (43) and are described briefly below.
Depending on the performance of dewatering equipment, in some cases it
is either necessary or desirable to prethicken sludges. This is accom-
plished by gravity thickeners of the "picket-fence" type or by providing
a high level of sludge storage capacity in mechanical clarifiers. Small
mills sometimes employ high conical tanks which serve as both storage
tanks and thickeners. These have side wall slopes in excess of 60° but
contain nc mechanism.
Vacuum filters are in common use for dewatering sludges from the pulping
Kd papermaking processes considered in this report. They produce cakes
nging from 20 to 30 percent solids. For comparison, filtration rate
nges observed for each subcategory are as shown in Table 19.
TABLE 19
Vacuum^Filtration Rates of_Sludges
£l°.duct 2Ey,j£2/SL2/hr Dry,_|/ft2/hr
Unbleached Kraft 39 to 93 8 to 19
Paperboard from 10 to 29 2 to 6
Waste Paper
NSSC 10 to 64 2 to 13
Observed capacities for the poorly filterable sludges can generally be
about doubled by chemical conditioning with ferric chloride, alum, or
polyelectrolytes at a cost of from $2.72 to $4.54 per metric ton ($3.00
to $5.00 per short ton) of dry solids. Such treatment is generally
necessary when activated sludge is included in the sludge to be
103
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dewatered since the addition of 20 percent of this material en a dry
solids basis can reduce filtration rates as much as 50 percent. ~
Complete vacuum filter installations, including all accessories, range
from $4306 to $5382 per square meter of filter area ($400 to $500 per
square foot of filter area). Although a number of different types of
filters are in service, coil or belt types are the most popular among
recent installations. At one mill using coil filters, average cake
content of 23 percent was reported, with an influent sludge
concentration of 3.3 percent. Loading rates averaged 27.37 kilograms
solids per square meter of filter area per day (5.6 pounds sclids per
square foot of filter area per day). After initial problems, filter
availability exceeded 94 percent and cleaning problems were minor (46).
In practice, the higher the consistency of the feed, the more effective
centrifuges are in terms of solids capture in relation tc through-put as
well as to reduced cake moisture. Moisture is generally lower than in
cakes produced by vacuum filters. Cakes range from 25 to 35 percent dry
solids content and are in a pelletized easily handleable form. To
operate effectively, centrifuges must capture in excess of 85 percent of
the solids in the feed stream.
Centrifuges cost from $106 to $159 per liter per minute ($400 to $600
per gpm) of feed capacity. At a two percent solids feed consistency,
this is equivalent to 97.6 kilograms of dry solids (215 pounds of dry
solids) daily at 90 percent capture.
The application of drying beds for dewatering sludges is limited
small mills and they are not constructed as elaborately as are
employed for sanitary sewage. They generally consist only of multiple
beds of gravel or cinders without a complex underdrain system.
Detailed experiments on this method of dewatering paperboard mill sludge
set forth parameters of good practice and area requirements (45) . The
latter vary naturally with the climate, although adjustments as to the
depth of sludge deposited and its initial moisture content are also
involved. The most effective depth is less than one foot.
Sludge can be removed for disposal on the land as soon as it becomes
"spadeable" or handleable with earth moving equipment. For paperboard
mill sludges, this condition is reached at about 25 percent solids con-
tent. Further drying occurs upon the land if initial drying is suffi-
cient.
Some sludges, including those from linerboard mills, can be dewatered to
a solids content approaching 40 percent by pressing (46) . "V"-type
presses are most commonly used but others have proven suitable. First
efforts to employ presses involved the handling of sludge cakes obtained
from vacuum filtration which contained on the crder of 20 percent
104
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solids. Recent efforts have been toward direct use cf presses on
hickened linerboard sludge, thus eliminating the first dewatering step.
I
rrerally, pressing is followed by incineration in air-entrained incine-
rators which can burn the pressed sludge without supplemental fuel since
little further drying is required (47). Semi-chemical corrugating fccard
ope'rations and paperboard from waste paper mills of noriral size,
however, do not supply enough sludge to support the operation of even a
small incinerator. Future developments may permit incineration of
sludges from such operations in existing fossil fuel-fired power
boilers.
Sludge is alsc incinerated at some linerboard mills in boilers burning
bark or hog fuel. In this case, the pressed sludge is mixed with the
bark or fuel before introduction into the furnace (43).
Both types of operation are described by in the literature. (47) (48),
(49) and cost figures are presented. The cost of air-entrained
incineration was $14.33 per metric ton ($13 per short ton) and that for
burning with hog fuel was $12.68 per metric ton ($11.5 per short ton) of
dry solids.
Land disposal, via dumping or lagooning, has been a common means of
disposing of waste sludges and other solid wastes from many pulp and
paper mills. Odors formed upon decomposition of these materials, the
potential for pollution of nearby surface waters, and the elimination of
affected lands from potential future usages, have made such practices
^nerally undesirable. If disposed of using proper sanitary landfill
techniques however, most solids from the pulp and paper industry should
create no environmental problems. In the rare cases where sludges may
contain leachable quantities of taste or odor imparting, toxic, or
otherwise undesirable substances, simple sanitary landfilling may not be
sufficient to protect groundwater quality.
The sludge dewatering and disposal operation is illustrated in Figure
18.
Interest has been stimulated in utilizing sludge from kraft mills in low
grade products such as roofing felts, but lack of uniformity mitigates
against such practice. Several researchers (47) experimented with the
use of this material as an organic soil supplement and with
hydromulching. Incorporation of high sludge levels into soil, after
standing for a year, increased bean and corn crops for two successive
plantings as compared to control crops. However, equivalent amounts cf
sludge added to the soil each year caused reduction in crop yields which
was apparently due to nitrogen unavailability. In the hydromulching
tests "which sludge was applied to a simulated highway cut, sludge with
105
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or withou-t the addition of bark dust was found to be competitive with
commercial prcduct for establishing a grass stand.
Several mills are presently experimenting with using the sludge a
soil supplement in reclaiming,land for growing pulp wood. Application
of primary sludge to the land at loads (dry solids) cf 22U-U48
kkg/hectare (100-200 tons per acre) are being practiced. Ccttonwcods
are being grown with planned harvest and reapplication of sludge in
three to five years following planting.
Interest in production of bacterial protein from cellulosic sludges
continues to attract the attention of researchers despite the failure to
date of similar products to gain a foothold in the market in this
country. A satisfactory product has been produced by growing thermo-
mgnosgora fusca, a strongly cellulolytic thermophylic organism en low
lignin pulp mill fines (52). This process is attractive in that acid
hydrolysis of the cellulose prior to fermentation is not required. The
observed substantial reduction of organic matter which is attained is of
considerable interest.
106
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SLUDGE FROM
TREATMENT PLANT
1
WASTE SLUDGE
METER
!
GRAVITY
THICKENER
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
L.
'
— "j FILTERS
ALTERNATE
^M» ••
ALTERNATE
J DRYING BEDS
_l
1
1
1
, ±
1
1
1
*
— m»
^•M
*
FILTRATES TO
TREATMENT PLANT
STACK
(OFF-GASES)
•
1
•
1
INCINERATOR T
ALTERNATE
, LAND
DISPOSAL AREA
t
1
1
1
1
— J
H
ASHES
SLUDGE DEWATERING AND DISPOSAL
FIGURE
18
-------
For more than twenty years, the pulp and paper industry has been active'
ly engaged in research for the reduction of color, primarily in kraft
mill effluents. These efforts have been directed particularly to those
cases where color discharge has created aesthetic problems due to the
high clarity of the particular receiving waters. The bulk of the re-
search has concentrated on development of lime precipitation techniques
because of the relative economics of this compared to other techniques,
and the familiarity with and availability of lime handling systems in
kraft mills. The overriding initial problem with the lime approaches
was the generation of large volumes of gelatinous, difficult to dewater
sludges. Several schemes were developed to overcome this problem and
full-scale systems have been installed in recent years. Colcr removal
efficiencies of 85 to 90 percent are being achieved. In two unbleached
kraft mills, the lime sludge is recovered, dewatered, and incinerated in
the lime kiln.
Considerable research has been performed on other color removal tech-
niques, principally activated carbon, reverse osmosis, and alum preci-
pitation. Alum precipitation was found to be economical in one instance
where alum mud from the nearby manufacture of alum is the primary
chemical source. A full-scale installation of this system is planned.
Activated carbon and reverse osmosis have been considered as polishing
treatment in conjunction with ether processes, for producing a highly
treated effluent for discharge. Additionally, they have been considere^
as a treatment process producing an effluent suitable for recyclings
The latter concept appears promising. However, full-scale testing has
not been tried to date.
Sources of Color
In the various chemical pulping processes, lignin and lignin derivatives
are solubilized and removed from the wood during the cooking process.
The spent cooking liquors, containing these highly colored compounds,
are removed from the pulp in a washing sequence following the cooking
process. The wash water is highly colored. In the kraft process,
however, this wash water is sent to the recovery area, with the
exception of the stock decker discharge, where the cooking chemicals are
recovered and the organic materials are burned in the recovery furnace.
The washing and recovery operations are efficient; however, losses of
cooking liquor and the discharge of evaporator condensate and decker
filtrate result in a reddish brown effluent. Average values of color
discharged from unbleached kraft papermaking operations are shown in
Tables 20 and 21 (36) .
108
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TABLE 20
SOURCES OF COLOR
Effluent kg/kkg (Ib/ton)*
Kraft Pulping 25-150 (50-300)
Kraft Papermaking 1.5-4 (3-8)
*Based on APHA color units
TABLE 21
UNIT_PRQCESS_FLOW_AND_COLOR_DISTRIBUTION
I^INpIVIDyAL_KRAFT_PULPING_EFFLUENTS
kiloliters/kkg
Unit_Process J_1000_gal/ton) Col or_ Units
Paper Mill 47.6 (11.4) 10
Pulp Mill 3.8 (0.9) 520
Evaporators 0.4 (0.1) 3760
Recovery 0.8 (0.2) 20
Caustic House 3.3 (0.8) 20
Lime Treatment
The development of the lime color reduction process has been traced by
several authors (51) (52) (36) (12). Based on the results of early work,
research was directed towards development of the lime precipitation
process with the overriding problem of the difficulty of dewatering the
lime-organic sludge. Specific studies were conducted for resolving the
sludge problem with limited success (53) (54). Continuing efforts to
improve the dewatering of the lime sludge led to consideration of using
large dosages of lime for color reduction. In this process (massive
lime process), the mill's total process lime is slaked and reacted with
a highly colored effluent stream. The lime sludge is then settled,
dewatered, and used for causticizing green liquor. During the
causticizing process, the color bodies are dissolved in the white liquor
and eventually burned in the recovery furnace. Pilct plant
demonstration of the massive lime treatment system for unbleached kraft
waste waters has been conducted on a 2000 liters/min (530 gpm) basis
109
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(55) . Two phases of operation were conducted en unbleached kraft decker
effluent. Over 91 percent of the average 1,640 AFHA CU were remov
during operations which had very little white water reuse in the deck
pulp washing operations. When nearly all of the water used in the
decker system was white water, the removal efficiency dropped to 74
percent of the initial 900 APHA CU. A flow diagram of the process "is
shown in Figure 19.
The massive lime process, as developed, relies on high concentrations cf
lime (on the order of 20,000 mg/1). Because of this, only a relatively
small effluent stream could be treated with the quantity of lime used
for causticizing green liquor. Additionally, the use of this process
required modifications to the recovery system. These restrictions and
the need for color removal from total unbleached kraft mill effluents
led to the independent development of three lime precipitation processes
employing a "minimum" lime dcsage for decolorizatien followed ty various
methods of sludge disposal or recovery. Two of these systems are now in
full-scale operation on the total mill effluent from the production of
unbleached kraft pulp (56) (57) . The results of cne of the rrill's
operations show that color is removed from unbleached kraft waste waters
under conditions of widely varying raw waste color loads. A relatively
constant effluent color of 125-150 APHA CU was obtained independent of
raw waste loading. The mill raw waste color levels were generally in
the range cf 1000-1400 APHA CU. With a lime dosage of 1000 mg/1,
removal efficiencies were consistently well above 80 percent. Results
of the color removal operations are shown in Table 22 and a flew diagram
is shown in Figure 20.
The other irdll which is a kraft-NSSC (cross recovery) operation has con-
tinuously achieved 70 percent color removal. This mill dewaters the
lime sludge by centrifuge and recovers the lime in the process lime
kiln.
Other Color Removal Systems
Although lime treatment methods have been the only color removal pro-
cesses installed on a full scale basis to date, research is ongoing for
other processes. These include activated carbon, reverse osmosis and
other membrane techniques, resin separation, ion exchange, and other
coagulation systems.
110
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Activated Carbon
Researchers (36) have reported on the use of activated carbon in
combination with other treatment processes on a pilot scale for the
treatment of unbleached kraft mill effluent. The treatment sequences
were:
1. Primary clarification; activated carbon
2. Lime treatment; clarification; activated carton
3. Clarification; biological oxidation; activated carbon
The flow diagram of the pilot system is shown in Figure 21. Two carbon
systems were evaluated. The first used four standard down-flew columns
for series or parallel operation. The second system is called the FACET
(Fine Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment) system and is a multi-stage
countercurrent, agitated system with continuous ccuntercurrent transfer
of both carbon and liquor from stage to stage. It uses a carbon size
between standard granular and powdered classifications. The system is
the subject of a patent application.
In the lime-carbon system, lime dosages were from 318 to 980 mg/1 CaO,
and is referred to by the authors as "micro" lime treatment as compared
to the "minimum" lime treatment used by others, (58) (56) (57) . Kith
these dosages, the authors state that recarbonation of the effluent is
f necessary for reuse of the treated effluent. It should be ncted that
e intent of this investigation was to treat the effluent to a degree
lowing reuse in the mill. In this respect they were not necessarily
looking for a ccmbination of systems capable of producing an effluent
suitable for discharge.
Coagulation Techniques
The effects of alum and ferric chloride for the removal of color from
kraft mill effluents was investigated in the laboratory (59). Tests
were run on both hard and softwoods. The optimum dosage of alum on
hardwood wastes was found to be 150 mg/1. A color reduction of 89
percent was achieved from an initial color of 710 units. softwood kraft
effluent was fcund to require a dosage of 300 mg/1. Ferric chloride
coagulation of softwood waste required an optimum dosage of 286 mg/1 and
produced 87 percent removals.
111
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LIME
MAKE-UP
LIME
STORAGE
SLAKER
BLEACHERY EFFLUENT
UNDERFLOW
VACUUM
FILTER
KILN
CLARIFIER
FILTRATE
Lj
WHITE LIQUOR
CLARIFIER
CAUSTIC I ZING
I LIME RECLAIMER
l
I
ititi r
DECOLORIZED
EFFLUENT
LIME MUD
TO KILN
MUD
WASHER
MASSIVE LIME PROCESS FOR COLOR REMOVAL (9)
FIGURE -19
-------
Averages *
TABLE 22
Color Reduction by Minimum Lime Treatment
APHA Color Uni ts
Month
lovember 1968
December 1968
January 1969
February 1969
March 1969
April 1969
May 1969
June 1969
July 1969
/^Ist 1969
September 1969
October 1969
November 1969
December 1969
Data Points
7
1
3
8
12
8
10
11
13
12
7
12
9
3
Influent
1060
1500
2100
2470
1230
1300
690
1230
1430
1150
1450
1750
1690
1800
Effluent
110
150
160
170
105
110
83
95
110
110
140
135
150
170
% Reduction
88
90
91
91
91
84
84
90
91
90
90
92
91
90
1360
120
89.5
* Weighted averages by number of data points per month.
113
-------
(10 MOD MAX)
9 MOD
14000* BOD/DAY
LIME STORAGE TANK
VARIABLE SPEED
SCREW CONVEYOR
EMERGENCY
DIVERSION BOX
GATES
2000 CLARIFIES
12 HOUR RETENTION
A
4.9 MOD
• 8200» BOD/DAY
FLOAT
MOUNTED
AERATOR
s-
BIOCHEMICAL TREATMENT LAKE
650 ACRES - 900 MG
(180 DAYS RETENTION)
MOTORIZED SLUICE GATE
-eoo» BOD/DAY
EFFLUENT LIFT PUMPS
3500 GPM 50' TDM
HOLDING LAGOON 48 MG
Figure . 20
Minimum Lime Process for Color Removal (55)
-------
i4
> ;. i i
t !, i *•
t tr,n'i
. ,; '1
i i! n
i " 1 1
1 M ' !
• ;
•' . *rs
i1
ii
"r-
1'
KrvA
** * '
e^stit -
SLUDGE
LIME TREATER CARBONATOR pH
ADJUST-
MENT
FILTER ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMNS
STORAGE
TANK
r ACTIVATED CARBON
No. Z MILL
EFFLUENT
CLARIFICATION
EQUILIBRATION OR
BIO-OXIDATION BASIN
V
SPENT
CARBON
FACET
CONTACTORS
FILTER
STORAGE
TANK
FIGURE
21
Actived Carbon Pilot Plant
-------
Laboratory investigation was conducted of aluir and six organic
polyelectrolytes for the removal of color from kraft mill waste wat^B
(60) . Little difference was reported in the performance cf the -sH
polyelectrolytes was reported. Alum produced good results, but resulted
in approximately three times the volume of sludge. Color removals
averaged 95 percent.
Comparison of System Efficiencies
It was reported that the biological-carbon treatment sequence utilizing
four columns in series reduced color of total kraft effluent to 212
units which they state is too high for reuse in some areas of the irill
(36). This is shown in Table 23. It is estimated that an additional
three columns would be required to produce the goal of 100 colcr units.
The primary clarification-carbon system tested used four columns, color
was reduced to 185-202 units. This is shown in Table 24. As with the
biological-caibon system, it was estimated that an additional three
columns would be required to reach 100 color units.
116
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TABLE 23
CARBON ADSORPTION SEQUENCE AT 57 l/min. _.J15 gpiru 2^ 3 gpm/f12)^
Range Average
Feed to bio-oxidation, APHA CU 430-2500 1100
Feed tc carbon, APHA CU 460-1100 740
Product from carbon, APHA CU 42-400 212
Removal by bio-oxidation plus filter,% - 33
Removal by carbon, % of feed to carbon - 71
Total removal % feed to bio-oxidation - 81
Rate of removal by carbon, CU/g hr 0.51-1.00 0.77
Note: Color measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.
117
-------
TABLE 24
COLOR REMOVAL BY PRIMARY CLARIFICATION - CARBON ADSORPTION
Trial 1 Trial_2
Flow rate, liters/min(gpm) 37.8(10) 18.9(5)
Flow rate, Iiters/min/ft2(gpm/ft2) 5.4(1.42) 2.7(0.71)
Feed to Carbon, APHA CU 925 11160
Product from Carbon, APHA CU 185 202
Removal by Carbon 80 83
Rate of Removal by Carbon CU/g hr 0.69 0.46
Note: Colcr measured at pH 7.6 after 0.8 micron Millipore filtration.
The clarification-lime-carbon system produced the best results of the
three systems. In the lime treatment system, the investigators found
that color removal increased from 70 percent at a dissolved Ca concen-
tration of 80 mg/1 to 86 percent at a Ca concentration of 400 mg/1.
Lime dosages ranged from 318 to 980 mg/1. This reduction is shewn
graphically in Figure 22. Color removal in the carbon columns (2
columns in series) was also found to be dependent on Ca concentration.
Color in the effluent remained at about 60 units at calcium
concentrations above 80 mg/1. TOC levels after carbon treatment
varied with Ca concentration, remaining fairly constant with Ca
centrations above 80 mg/1. TOC levels after carbon treatment also
varied with Ca concentration, remaining fairly constant with Ca concen-
trations above 40 mg/1. Color removal through the carbon columns in the
soluble calcium range of 69-83 mg/1 averaged an additional 21 percent,
to give an overall reduction of 90 percent. This is shown in Table 25.
Water of this quality was considered suitable for reuse.
118
-------
. 100
CO
:E
Q.
of
o
o
o
3:
Q.
o
§'
LLJ
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
I I
I
I I I I
I
40 120 200 280 360
0 80 160 240 320 400
SOLUBLE CALCIUM FROM LIME TREATER, MG/L
FIGURE 22 COLOR REMOVAL IN LIME TREATMENT AS A
FUNCTION OF SOLUBLE Ca IN WATER (74)
-------
Table 25
COLOR REMOVAL BY LIME TREATMENT - CARBON ADSORPTION
SEQUENCE AT SOLUBLE CALCIUM RANGE OF 69 - 83 rog/1 (29)
lime dosage, CaO, mg/1 523
pH of feed to carbon adsorption 11.3
flow rate to carbon adsorption, gpm 10
No. of carbon columns 2
Color, TOG,
Concentrations: APHA pH. 7.6 mg/1
to lime treatment 852 272
to carbon columns 252 177
from carbon columns 76 100
% removals from feed to lime treatment:
in lime treatment 70 35
in carbon adsorption 21 28
total 91 63
120
-------
Operation of the FACET system following lime treatment produced similar
» suits to the two carfcon columns after filtration. This is shown in
ble 26.
A total color removal in the four stage (lime - carbonation - oxidation
- carbon) system of 99.5 percent was reported (61). In the three
stage system (no oxidation) the total removal was again 99.5 percent.
This is shown in Table 27.
As shown in Tables 28 and 29, the color of unbleached kraft effluent was
reduced to 10 and 15 units in two separate pilot runs using the massive
lime-biological-carbon system. Raw effluent color was 4800 and 3000
units respectively.
Operation Considerations
It was concluded that the use of a sand filter ahead of the carbon
system did not provide enough benefit to warrant consideration in a
full-scale installation (62). The investigators also noted concentrated
bioactivity in the top one- or two-foot layer of the first column in
series which caused plugging. Backwashing was required every cne cr two
days. It was also noted that mechanisms other than adsorption con-
tributed substantially to color removal. This mechanism has been
referred to as a coagulation of the colloidal color bodies at the
surface of the carbon particle. In the section on "System
Efficiencies," it was explained that in the lime-carbon system, lime
osages were recommended to control the dissolved calcium concentration
about 80 mg/1. A benefit of this, as reported, is the elimination of
necessity tc carbonate the effluent to remove the calciuir. Higher
dosages could make carbcnation required prior to reuse of the effluent.
The lime treatment system also produced a sludge that dewatered readily
to 70 percent solids. The authors also state that lime treatment to
higher dissolved calcium levels of 400 mg/1 followed by carbonation and
carbon treatment did not improve color reductions.
The authors are enthusiastic about the possibilities of the FACET
system. They state that the rate of TOC removal was 4.7 times the rate
of removal in columns. Also, the degree of color removal was the same
as in the columns, but with one-fifth the amount of carbon. More work
is planned. The work performed has been directed towards reuse of the
treated effluent. As such, the degree of treatment obtained is less
than typical discharge standards. At this time, the effect of recycled
effluent on mill processes has not been tested. They are confident the
kraft process contains unit processes by which any buildup in
contaminants due to recycling can be purged from the system (63).
121
-------
Table 26
REMOVAL OF COLOR AND TOC BY
FACET CARBON ADSORPTION FOLLOWING LIME TREATMENT FOR 12-DAY PERIOD
10/20 THROUGH 11/6 (29)
Conditions:
Water feed rate 10 gpm
Carbon feed rate 2.7 l.b/hr = 4.5 lb/1000 gal
Carbon in system 605 Ib
Carbon slurry density 14.3 g/100 ml slurry
Stages 3
Color, C.U.
Removals: APHA pH 7.6
Feed 157
Product 73
Percent removal 54
Removed, mg/g carbon 214
Removal rate, mg/g x hr 0.71
122
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Table 27
WASTE WATER RENOVATION—SUMMARY OF RESULTS (25)
5-DAY BOD
COLOR
Treatment
Step
Raw
Lime
Biolo
Carbon
Total
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Max.
Min.
Avg.
Four-stage process
mg/liter . % Removal
1A30 .
225
723
740
170
395 45.5
135
21
48 88
80
0
23 53
23 97
Three-stage process
mK/liter % Removal
265
206
221
144
69
102 54
84
15
32 68.5
32 85.5
Four-stage process
Units % Removal
12,000
1,000
5,200
1,000
90
358 93
1,000
200
365 0
15
10
13 96.5
13 99.5
Three-stage process
Units % Removal
5250
240
3558
450
10
185 95
55
0
23 87.5
23 99.5
Tests Conducted on Bleached and Unbleached Kraft Effluents.
-------
Table 28
RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS (26)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD TOTAL MILL EFFLUENT
PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 1 50 GALLON BATCH OPERATION
N)
Constituent
Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
pH
Hardness, ppm
Dissolved solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm--
Desired Range
5-25
0-80
6.5-7.7
5-200
50-500
10-150
0-12
0-5
Effluent
4800
8.7
107
3380
110
818
1400
Obtained by Treatment
Bio**'Carbon *>c'
140
11.5
7.1
2510
140
460
1130
65
200
9.1
86
2650
36
201
8
1600 (d)
10
10
8.7
61
2500
36
1
2
1400
Notes: (a) 8.40 Ibs, reburned lime slaked and added to raw effluent (equivalent to
20,000 ppm Ca(OE}2).
(b) Extended aeration for 10 days. One gallon fertile lake water added as seed
material. NH^OH, HN03 and H3P04 added as nutrient. ^80$ added to neutralize.
(c) Carbon columns containing 12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
Carbon. Contact time in the carbon bed was 8.2 minutes.
(d) Possible NBA interference.
-------
Table 29
RENOVATED WATER ANALYSIS (26)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD TOTAL MILL EFFLUENT
PILOT PLANT RUN NO. 2 50 GALLON BATCE OPERATION
Obtained by Treatment
Desired Range
Effluent
Lime
(a)
Bio
(b)
Carbon
(c)
Constituent
Turbidity, ppm
Color, units
pH
Hardness, ppm
Dissolved Solids, ppm
Chloride, ppm
COD, ppm
BOD, ppm
Na, ppm
Notes; (a) 2.87 Ibs. reburned lime slaked and added to raw effluent (equivalent to 7500 ppm
Ca (OH)2).
(b) Extended aeration for 8 days. One gallon fertile lake water added as seed
material. HNO^, H^PO^ added as nutrient. I^SO^ added- to neutralize.
5-25
0-80
6.5-7.7
5-200
50-500
10-150
0-12
0-5
-
.
3000
7.5
-
4190
160
_
1430
320
_
100
12.1
964
2610
200
—
740
230
.
200
8.2
1000
30.70
130
_
(135)(d)
230
_
15
8.5
866
2800
130
_
(80) (d
230
(c) Carbon columns containing 12x40 mesh activated carbon furnished by Pittsburgh
Carbon. Contact time in carbon bed was 1.6 minutes.
(d) Estimate, incubator problems.
-------
I
Others (6i4) found that elimination of biological oxidation in the lime -
carbonation - biological - carbon sequence did not affect col
reduction, and BOD5 reduction remained about 85 percent when treat!
effluents with a moderate raw BODS. They point towards further resea'rc
toward improved BOD5 reduction in the lime stage and use of more
effective carbons. They also look to requirements for advanced
treatments leading to recycle of waste waters and see the possible
elimination of biological systems as recycle becomes more important.
Treatment^Systems for Additional Reductions of Suspended Solids and
Refractory Organics
Treatment technologies for additional reductions (over those previously
discussed) of suspended solids and refractory organics are discussed
below.
Suspended Solids
Flocculation, Coagulation, and Sedimentation for Suspended Solids Removal
To avoid rapid plugging of final filters, an additional step to reirove
suspended solids contained in biological treatment effluents may be
required.
Traditional treatment systems have utilized rapid-mix and flocculati
basins ahead of sedimentation tanks for chemical clarification.
rapid mix is designed to provide a thorough and complete dispersal of
chemical throughout the waste water being treated to insure uniform ex-
posure to pollutants which are to be removed. In-line blenders can be
used as well as the traditional high-powered mixers which may require as
much as 0.35 kilowatts/MLD (1 horsepower/MGD). In essence, the rapid
mix performs two functions, the one previously noted (mixing) and a
rapid coagulation. These functions are enhanced by increased
turbulence.
Flocculaticn promotes the contact, coalescence and size increase of
coagulated particles. Flocculation devices vary in form, but are gener-
ally divided into two categories. These are mechanically mixed and
baffled flocculators. Baffled basins have the advantage of low
operating and maintenance costs, but they are not normally used because
of their space requirement, inability to be easily modified for changing
conditions and high head losses. Most installations utilize horizontal
or vertical shaft mechanical flocculators which are easily adjusted to
changing requirements.
Solids-contact clarifiers have become popular for advanced waste water
treatment in recent years because of their inherent size reduction when
126
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compared to separate mixing„ flocculation and sedimentation fcasins in
Pries., Their use in water clarification and softening was carried over
waste treatment when chemical treatment of waste waters was
initiated., Theoretically„ the advantage of reduced size accrues to
their ability to maintain a high concentration of previously-formed
chemical sclids for enhanced orthokinetic flocculaticn or precipitation
and their physical design, whereby three unit processes are combined in
one unito In practice„ this amounts to savings in equipment size and
capital costs,,
Problems have occurred with the sludge-blanket clarifiers for reasons
which include possible anaerobic conditions in the slurry5 lack of
individual process control for the mixing, flocculation and
sedimentaiton steps5 and uncontrolled blanket upsets under varying
hydraulic and organic loading conditions„ The major allegation is the
instability of the blanket,, which has presented operational problems in
the chemical treatment of waste waters= Possibly the most effective
method of control to date, other than close manual control, has been to
mimimize the blanket height to allow for upsets„ The advantages of
higher flow rates and solids-contacting are maintained„ but the added
advantage of the blanket is minimized«, Another possibility which has
not been fully evaluated is the use of sludge-blanket sensors for
automatic control of solids wasting,,
Solids-contact clarifiers have been used for the treatment of secondary
and primary effluents, as well as for the treatment of raw, degritted
jjjaste water., Lime as the treatment chemical has been used with overflow
Iptes from 20,400 to 40,700 liters per day per square meter (1200 to
^700 gpd/sq ft) in solids-contact units, while iron compounds and alum
have been used at lower values,, usually between 480900 to 69,300 liters
per day per square meter ([500 and 1000 gpd/sq ft) = All of these rates
come from pilot studies of less than 3078 MLD (1 MGD) capacity„ and may
be subject to change at a larger scale due to differences in hydraulics=
Polymer treatment can also influence the choice of overflow rates for
design if their cost can be economically justified when compared to the
cost of lower overflow rates0 Detention times in these solids-contact
basins have ranged frdm just over one to almost five hours» Sludge
removal rate is dependent on the solids concentration of the underflow,
which is a function of the unit design as well as the chemical employed.,
These pilot plants have reported lime sludge drawoffs frcm 0<,5 to 1»5
percent of the waste water flow at concentrations 'of from 3 to H7
percent solids <= -Alum and iron sludges have not been monitored
extensivelyp fonat drawoffs have been reported to be 1 to 6 percent of the
flow with Oo2 to 1<,5 percent solids0
Much of the design information necessary for solids-contact clarifiers
has been obtained from water treatment experience. This is not sur-
prising in that the principles of treatment are identical,, The charac-
teristics of the solids that are formed and separated are the source of
differenceSo The organic matter contained in the chemically created
127
-------
sludges causes the sludge to become lighter and also more susceptible to
septicity due to the action of micro-organisms. The former conditi
suggests lower hydraulic loadings, while the latter suggests big
ones, given a set physical design. Since sludge septicity is neith
universal nor uncontrollable, a lower design overflow rate may comprise
much of the necessary adjustment to waste treatment conditions irom
those of water treatment. As indicated previously, design overflow
rates from 48,900 to 69,300 liters per day per square meter (1200 to
1700 gpd/sq ft) for lime treatment and from 20,400 to 40,700 liters per
day per square meter (500 to 1000 gpd/sq ft) for alum or iron treatment
have been successful at less than 3.78 MLD (1 MGD) capacity. Cold
weather peak flow conditions will probably constitute the limiting
condition, as water treatment practice has shown that overflow rates are
reduced by as much as 50 percent at near-freezing temperature.
wastewater will probably not reach such low temperatures in most areas,
but the effects are significant.
Mixed-Media Filtration
Mixed (multi) media filters are similar to conventional single media
deep-bed sand filters, but employ more than one filter media. Typical
arrangements employ garnet, sand, or anthracite.
Conventional sand filters have the finer mesh material on top of the
bed, with courser grades below. Flow is downward. Thus most of the
suspended solids are trapped in the top inch or two of the bed. Certain
types of suspended solids, such as those from biological treatment
rapidly plug the top of the bed, requiring very frequent backwashes.
Multi-media filters have been designed with the objective of overcoming
this disadvantage of single-media filters. Large size media is employed
on the top layer, over a second layer of finer media. Usually
anthracite coal is used in the top layer, and sand in the lower layer.
Thus larger particles of suspended solids are trapped in the top layer,
and finer particles in the lower layer. The result is to extend the
filter "run" before backwashing is required. An extension of this
principle is to add a third, finer, layer of garnet below the sand
layer. Since some intermixing of layers occurs, there tends to be a
continuously decreasing particle size of media as depth increases. The
different media are selected so that the top bed has the lowest specific
gravity, and successively lower beds have successively higher specific
gravities. With this arrangemnet, the bed layers tend to maintain their
respective physical locations during and after the turbulence created by
backwashing. Typical arrangements for dual media filters are anthracite
(specific gravity 1.6) over sand (specific gravity 2.65). A layer of
garnet (specific gravity 4.2) is imposed below the sand for a three-
media filter.
Studies on municipal wastes have indicated that multi-media filters
outperform single-media sand filters. Better removal of suspended
128
-------
solids was obtained with longer runs and at higher flow rates per unit
^rea of filter foedo
Refractory Organics
Th® advanced waste treatment systems studied for the removal of trace
refractory organics include the following^ 1J activated carbon , 2)
cblorination, and 3) ozonation= The activated carbon process has
demonstrated its applicability to the treatment of municipal waste water
at full plant scale= Pilot plants and laboratory studies have shown the
potential for treatment of pulp and paper mill wastes with activated
carbon0 However,, the potential of the other processes is not well docu-
mented and there are no plant scale operations utilizing them. The
removal of cne specific refractory organic, color, is discussed in de-
tail in a separate subsection.,
Activated carbon has been used at water treatment plants to remove or-
ganics that caused taste and odor problems in drinking water supplies„
The use of activated carbon as a step in the physical-chemical treatment
process for domestic waste waters or as an add-on to an existing biolo-
gical treatment system is well documented (81)„ Many researchers have
studied the use of activated carbon as a tertiary process for the treat-
ment of pulp and paper mill wastes (65) (66) (67) (68) (69) (70) . One
of the studies (69) found that activated carbon was capable cf reducing
coloro COD, BOD50 and odor in kraft mill effluents to very low
concentration s„
Ipne of the highest concentrations of BOD5 in the whole kraft pulp irill
TOaste discharge is contained in the evaporator condensate (65)„ Most of
the BOD5 and COD of the condensate waste is exerted by dissolved organic
materialo Several researchers (65) found that 75 percent of the ECC5,
CODa and TOE could te removed from the condensates ty activated carbon
adsorptiono
Activated carbon is characterized by an extremely large surface area per
unit weight (450-1800 sq0 m/g) (62)., This large surface area is one
feature of activated carbon which results in its large adsorption
capacity,, It can be separated into two general classifications?
powdered and granular„ The ultimate adsorption capacities of both
powdered and granular carbons are essentially equal (73) ; however,
powdered carbon has faster adsorption rates than granular (71) (69).
The number of carbon manufacturers and their particular specifications
is very large The selection of a specific carbon cannot be made,
however, without first testing the carbon under consideration with the
particular effluent to be treated (72)„
The activated carbon process has various configurations which includes
use of granular or powdered carbon, contact in a column or slurry, fixed
or moving beds, upflow or downflow of influent, series or parallel
arrangement, and continuous or periodic wasting and regeneration of
129
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spent carbon. Treatability of a particular waste by activated carbon is
described by various analytical adsorption isotherm equations which are-
covered in depth in the literature. The Freundlich equation is probabl^
the most frequently used to determine adsorption isotherm. However,
poor correlation between isotherm results and column tests has been
reported. This is partially due to the fact that adsorption is not the
only mechanism responsible for the removals of organics through carbon
columns. Three functions describe the operation of carbcn columns (73);
adsorption, biological degradation, and filtration.
Most of the researchers studying activated carbon have made cne common
assumption — i.e., that the effluent from the carbon system should be
of a sufficient quality to permit reuse as process water. According to
one study (67), renovated waste water suitable for reuse can be obtained
without a biological oxidation step, particularly if the renovation
process starts with a moderate BOD5 to 200-300 mg/1. Table 30 presents
the pilot plant results obtained by this study.
Other researchers (70) found that adsorption equilibrium increased with
a decrease in pH. The effect on the rate of adsorption with changes in
temperature is not well defined.
Activated carbon will not remove certain low molecular weight organic
substances, particularly methanol, a common constituent of pulping
effluents (74). Also, carbon columns do a relatively pocr jcb of
removing turbidity and associated organic matter (72). Seme highly
polar organic molecules such as carbohydrates will not b€ removed
through carbon columns (72) (65). However, most of these materials a
biodegradable and would not be present in appreciable quantities in
well bio-oxidized secondary effluent (72).
Results of laboratory rate studies (71) using powdered activated carbon
to treat municipal secondary effluents, showed that 90 percent of
equilibrium adsorption capacity could be obtained in less than five
minutes using turbulent mixing. The researchers considered five
different contact systems during their laboratory investigation. The
systems considered were:
1. countercurrent agitated tank adsorption
2. Flotation adsorption
3. Diffusion adsorption
H. Packed bed columnar adsorption
5. Upflow column adsorption
130
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table 30
RESULTS OF GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON COLUMN
PILOT PLANT TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL WASTE
BOD, mg/1
COD, mg/1
SS, mg/1
Turbidity, J.U.
Color, Units
Odor
PH
T.S. mg/1
Columns*
Preceded by Lime
Precipitation and
Biological Oxidation
Influent
48
—
—
—
—
365
—
-------
Based on their investigation, the countercurrent agitated tank system
was considered as the most promising of the five systems for thm
following reasons:
1. The secondary effluent did not have to be filtered prior
to contact.
2. Variable secondary effluent flow rates and effluent COE
concentrations could be readily handled.
3. Maintenance costs were low.
4. Design and operation was simple.
5. The system was truly continuous.
6. COD removals to approximately 5 mg/1 could be achieved.
7. The potential existed for treating primary treatment
plant effluent.
8. Beth suspended solids and colloidal material were brought
down with the carbon due to flocculation.
They reported that the processes investigated fcr separating the
powdered carbon from the treated waste water were not 100 percent
effective and filtration of the waste water was necessary to remove the
carbon. In a full scale operation, the necessity to filter the effluent
might make the use of powdered carbon economically impractical. Other
research (65) has showed that 70-75 percent of the organic matter from
kraft evaporator condensate could be removed with 0.46 kilograms of
carbon per kiloliter (3.8 pounds of carbon per 1000 gallons) of waste
water. It was also determined that an extended contact time (over 1
hour) showed insignificant additional COD removal. However, even after
six hours of contact there was an effect on the removal of toxicity
which was attributed to other various constituents. The results of the
work conflict with those reported by others. Other researchers have
reported that activated carbon is not effective in removing low
molecular weight organics such as methanol and other major constituents
of evaporator condensates from the kraft pulping operation. The
condensate used by this study may have been contaminated with black
liquor carry over.
132
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One research program (62) ran extensive pilot plant tests for treating
E bleached kraft mill effluent with activated carbon. Their 114 liter
r minute (30 gpm) pilot plant utilized four different treatment pre-
sses. They were as follows:
1. Clarification followed by downflow granular carbon columns.
2. Lime treatment and clarification followed by granular carbon
columns.
3. Biological oxidation and clarification followed by granular
carbon columns.
4. Lime treatment and clarification followed by FACET (Fine
Activated Carbon Effluent Treatment). (Subject of a
patent application.)
All treatment processes were operated in the attempt to obtain a treated
effluent with less than 100 APHA color units and less than 100 mg/1 TOC
which would be suitable for reuse. The lime-carbon treatment achieved
the desired effluent criteria and was considered the most economical of
three processes utilizing carbon columns. A relatively small lime dos-
age of 320-600 mg/1 CaO without carbonation prior tc carbon treatment
was reported to be the optimum operating condition for the lime-carbon
process. It should be emphasized that the lack of carbonation was a
criterion for optimum treatment. It was determined that the effluent
should contain about 80 mg/1 Ca for successful optimization of
^rea^ent. The required fresh carbon dosage was 0.30 kilograms of
arbon per kiloliter (2.5 pounds of carbon per 1000 gallons) treated.
With biological oxidation and clarification followed by carbon columns,
the fresh carbon dosage was 0.96 kilograms of carbon per 1000 gallons (8
pounds of carbon per 1000 liters) treated.
It was found that non-adsorptive mechanisms accounted for a significant
amount of color and TOC removal in the clarification-carbon process. It
was felt that the removals were not due to any biological degradation
which might have occurred within the carbon columns. It was determined
that the color in colloidal form coagulated on the carbon surface. The
color colloids were subsequently removed as large settleable solids
during the backwashing process (62). The method of disposal or recycle
of the backwash water was not discussed. The disposal of backwash water
is a major item and cannot be ignored on full scale designs.
The FACET system is the subject of a patent application (62). It is a
multi-stage, countercurrent, agitated system with a continuous transfer
of both carbon and liquid. One of the major aspects of the FACET system
is the use of an intermediate size carbon endeavoring to combine the
advantages of both powdered and granular carbon while minimizing their
limitations. Equipment size and carbon inventory are decreased due to
133
-------
the increased adsorption rate of the intermediate carbon. The FACET
system showed distinct advantages over the column adsorption syste
(62). Table 31 tabulates the pilot plant results obtained from t "
above investigation.
The use of granular activated carbon for the removal cf trace refractory
organics is technically sound. However, when this degree of treatment
is obtained, the ability to reuse the effluent fcr process water is
desirable. Powdered activated carbon has not been widely utilized be-
cause of difficult handling problems encountered in carbon recovery and
regeneration (71). It has been reported that the control cf pH or
temperature, though advantageous to the operation of the process, would
be economically impractical (33).
Several ethers (74) utilized a carbon slurry to treat municipal wastes.
They reported a tendency of the compacted slurry in the quiescent
concentrator to form a gelatinous mass. It became necessary to agitate
the gel to reliquefy it for easy removal.
The use of powdered carbon columns was also studied (71). The
researchers fcund that the columns became clogged with colloidal matter
within a few hours of operaton and pressure drops became prohibitive.
They tried the upflow contact process, but the bed could not be
stabilized and serious channeling occurred resulting in poor CCD removal
efficiencies. Polyelectrolyte flocculation was determined to be the
most economical method of recovering spent powdered carbon. It was also
determined that a suspended solids concentration of 500 mg/1 or more
must be maintained in the carbon slurry to assure flccculatio^
efficiency.
Pilot plant tests on domestic secondary effluent were conducted (72) and
results showed that organic matter which was adsorbed on the carbon went
septic and produced a breakthrough of turbidity and organic matter. An
H2S odor in the treated effluent was observed which indicated some
biological activity within the first two feet of the carbon column which
caused some plugging problems if the columns were not backwashed every
day or two. They felt because of the low dissolved oxygen concentration
that the biological activity was anaerobic. Chlorinaticn of the
influent to the carbon columns appears to eliminate sliming problems
caused by biological activity within the columns.
Lower rates of adsorption, were reported (62), resulting in larger
projected capital and operating costs, for the biological-carbon and
primary-carbon processes for treating unbleached kraft mill effluent.
The lower rates of adsorption were believed to be caused by coagulation
of colloidal color bodies on the carbon surface. They also determined
that the use of sand filters prior to the activated carbon was not
necessary. The carbon columns operated with a suspended solids concen-
tration of 200 mg/1 without problems when backwashed every day or two.
Filtration or coagulation of the effluent from the FACET process was
134
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necessary in order to remove that formed on the cuter surfaces of the
»ctivated carbon granules.
igure 23 (75) indicates the estimated cost per pound of COD removed for
various influent and effluent COD concentrations and various design
fIpws.
135
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Table 31
RESULTS OF ACTIVATED CARBON PILOT PLANTS
TREATING UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILL EFFLUENT
Description Of
Carbon Process
Hydraulic
Load, gpm/ft
Carbon
Contact Time, Mia.
BOD, mg/1
TOC, og/1
Turbidity, J.U.-
Color, Units
Fresh Carbon
Dosage
Ib. carbon/
1000 gal.
PH
Columns
Preceded By
Biological
Oxidation &
Clarification
Inf.
2
Gran
Eff.
.13
ular
140
148
740
57
212
a
Removal
611
71Z
Columns
Preceded By
Priuary
Clarification
Inf.
1.
Eff.
,2
Granular
220
925
2
83
185
3.5
Renoval
62Z
80Z
Columns
Preceded By
Prinary
Clarification
Inf.
0
.Eff. i Removal
71
Granular
310
1160
121
202
18
61Z
83Z
Columns
Preceded By
Liir.e Treatment
6c Clarification
Inf.
1.;
Gran
Eff. I Removal
2
ular
108
26% Renoval
177
252
2
11.3
100
5-15
76
.5
44Z
70%
FACET Systaa
Ir.f. Eff. I Ra=oval
X.
A.
i
Intermediate
153
157
•
101
73*
.9
36Z
s;%
CO
*Piltered
-------
Chemical oxidation using chlorine or hypochlorite is an accepted means
disinfection for water supplies and waste water effluents. Chlorina-
Jon has also been found useful for the removal of ammonia nitrogen and
loirs from waste water. However, the use of chlcrination for the
removal of trace refractory organics is not a well-documented process.
Several researchers (76) report that the costs indicate that chlorine
oxidation is not competitive with activated carbon adsorption fcr
removal of relatively large quantities of COD from municipal wastes. It
may offer an alternate for the removal of very small quantities of
organics which have not been removed by activated cartcn or as a
temporary means of reducing the soluble BOD5 in the absence of
adsorption equipment. No literature has been found that directs its
attention specifically to the applicability of chlorination to the pulp
and paper industry. However, a demonstration project has recently teen
completed on the chlorination of pulp and paper mill effluents and the
results should soon be available.
A seven-month study of chlorination was conducted (77) of approximately
303 million liters per day (80 mgd) of effluent from a conventional
activated sludge process treating municipal waste water. It was
determined that chlorination caused a substantial reduction in the BCD5.
The BODS decreased an average of 34.5 percent. Very good effluent or
effluent from a bulking plant was not significantly improved. Effluent
of 12 to 30 mg/1 of BOD5 was noticeably improved. The researcher also
monitored the suspended solids, PO4, and TCD. He found that the
suspended solids concentration increased about 20 percent. He theorized
«at some of the soluble compounds were "precipitated" into a suspended
ate by the chlorine. The PO4 and TOD were not significantly affected
chlorination. Chlorine oxidation, catalyzed with ultraviolet
radiation, was studied for the treatment of domestic waste water (78).
They found that chlorine will slowly oxidize only a small fraction of
dissolved organic material in the dark, but in the presence of
ultraviolet radiation, rapid elimination of large amounts of CCD and TOC
is possible.
137
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FIGURE 23
ECONOMY IN SCALE - CARBON ADSORPTION SYSTEMS
CO
00
INFLUENT COD 200mq/l
(EFFLUENT COD 50mq/l)
INFLUENT COD = 500-700mq/l
(EFFLUENT COD 150 mq/l)
'20 40 60 80 MOD
PLANT DESIGN CAPACITY
1. Costs based on ENR = 1400.
2. Unit costs assume an annual capital recovery
factor of 0.0877.
3. Costs include Initial carbon inventory, carbon
handling system, and regeneration facilities.
-------
The most irrportant factor involved in the process was the selection of
15 source of radiant energy. Short-wavelength radiation (below 300 mu)
_more effective than long-wavelength radiation in promoting The
Lorine oxidation process. Radiation of 254 mu was about six times
more effective than polychromatic radiation between 300-370 mu. The
rate of organic oxidation was increased by increased radiation
intensity; however, lower intensities produce more overall organic
oxidation for a specific amount of absorbed radiant energy than do
higher intensities. It was also established that the chlorine
consumption was directly proportional to the amount of radiant energy
absorbed, regardless of intensity. The effectiveness of treatment is
dependent on the penetration achieved by the ultraviolet radiation.
However, the correlation of treatment efficiencies with influent cclor
and turbidity concentrations was not reported.
Quantum efficiency is the amount of organic oxidation obtained from a
given amount of absorbed radiant energy. Meiners observed higher
quantum efficiencies at low intensities and an increase in quantum
efficiency as the oxidation proceeded has been observed.
Mercury-arc lamps are the most practical source of radiant energy.
However, the ideal mercury-arc lamp is presently not ccrrmercialiy
available. Of those presently available, the low pressure mercury-arc
is probably the most practical.
The most rapid rate of oxidation and the most efficient use of chlorine
P obtained at pH 5. However, the most economic operation may be at
ient pH values without the addition of caustic for pH control.
Chlorine concentrations above 5 mg/1 produced no significant increase in
the oxidation rate. High concentrations of chlorine were wasteful of
chlorine and wasteful of radiant energy. It was concluded that an
optimum chlorine concentration below 5 mg/1 might be established where
oxidation rates could be maximized and chlorine consumption minimized.
Ozone has been used for a number of years at water treatment plants as a
deodorant and disinfectant. It has recently been utilized at municipal
waste water treatment plants to deodorize gases which are emitted and to
disinfect the effluent. Ozone is a very effective disinfectant and
oxidizing agent. It is about thirteen times more soluble in water than
oxygen (79). Others (79) have determined that ozone effectively reduces
the COD and TOC content of effluents from municipal waste water
treatment plants, as well as odors, color, and pathogenic organisms.
Residual ozone decomposes very rapidly. It has a half-life in drinking
water of about 20 minutes (79). Because of the instability of ozone, it
must be produced at its point of use. The most common methods of
producing ozone are (79):
1. Silent electric discharge in air or oxygen
139
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2. Photochemical conversion of air or oxygen
3. Electrolysis of sulfuric acid
Photochemical conversion is used only where small quantities in very lew
concentrations are required. Silent electric discharge is the only
practical and economical method for large-scale production of ozone. In
general, for large ozone usage, use of oxygen with recycle is a ircre
economical system than using air (79) .
Because of the expense involved, the use of ozonation to oxidize
organics has not in the past been considered a practical form of
tertiary treatment. No investigation of its applicability to the pulp
and paper industry has been found.
Laboratory scale tests were conducted (79) with about 37.85 liters per
hour (10 gallons per hour) on the use of ozone to oxidize organics
remaining in effluent from municipal secondary waste water treatment
plants. Effluent from a treatment plant using trickling filters was
treated with czone and virtually all the color, odor, and turbidity were
removed. No living organisms remained, and the COD was below 15 mg/1.
Ozone concentrations from 11 mg/1 to 48 mg/1 as oxygen proved equally
effective.
Rates of CCD and TOC removal were very dependent on agitation rates.
Removals were increased approximately twofold using high-shear
contacting rather than low-shear countercurrent contacting. Cccurre
contacting, mixing effluent and ozone in an injector, proved mo
desirable than the use of a turbine agitator. For effective czonatic
good agitation must be considered the prime objective in contractor
design (79).
aj_
1
Low pH resulted in lower reaction rates, but higher ozone utilization
efficiencies.
Ozone oxidizes many compounds which resist biological cxidaticn.
However, the most readily bio-oxidizable organics also consume ozone the
most efficiently (79) . Chemical clarification prior to ozonation will
remove a portion of the TOC that is resistant to oxidation by ozone
resulting in lower final TOC level and less ozone consumption.
Ozonation efficiency was high when COD and TOC concentrations were high.
However, the effluent had an unacceptably high COD and TOC content. It
was concluded that effluents having high organic content (COD above 40
mg/1) are more economically treated by a combination of chemical
clarification and ozonation. Effluents with a low organic content
require only ozonation.
Because of the short life of ozone and the slow reaction of czone with
many organics, it was concluded that the best treatment would be
achieved with multi-stage, high-shear, gas-liquid contacting. The half-
1UO
-------
life of ozone is approximately twenty minutes. From this, they
|tetermined that a residence time of ten minutes per stage was
^reasonable. One hour was needed for a COD reduction frcm 35-40 mg/1 to
15 mg/1. Therefore, six stages were necessary. With the required
amount of ozone being added to each stage as it was needed, an overall
ozdne efficiency as high as 90 percent was obtained.
It has been reported (68) that ozonation, catalyzed with activated
Raney-Nickel removed 85 percent of the COD and 60 percent of the TOC
from secondary treatment effluents in two hours under favorable condi-
tions.
Also, it has been concluded (79) that tertiary treatment with ozone has
potential of an automated, trouble-free operation with low maintenance.
Initially, they thought that the ammonia in the waste would react with
the ozone but found that this was not the case.
The reduction of TOC is caused by organic molecules decomposing and
giving off carbon dioxide (79) . This rate of decomposition was reduced
only at a pH below 7. A Icwer pH resulted in lower rates of COD removal
because the activity of dissolved ozone was enhanced by higher pH. Lime
dosage resulted in high pH, while alum-acid coagulants gave the lowest
pH. A pH from 6.0 to 7.0 seemed to be optimum for multistage,
concurrent ozonation.
EUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL-SODIUM EASE
Water reuse and upset control in this subcategory of mills have been
described in detail in the literature (30) (33) (80). The practices cf
one tightly closed NSSC mill (i.e., with maximum reuse) are illustrative
of possible internal modifications to maximize reuse and upset control
(33).
The principal direct uses of water in this operation, which consists of
an NSSC pulp mill and a closely integrated paper mill, are identified
as:
1. Chip cooking
2. certain fourdrinier showers
3. Pump shaft seals
141
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Indirect uses of fresh water include:
1. Vacuum pump seal coater
2. Losses from indirect steam heating
3. Cooling and condensing systems
Excess white water is used, without treatment, for dilution injection in
the digesters and in the screw presses used for separation of strong
cooking 'liquor prior to evaporation and burning.
During daily wood pulp production of 181.4 metric tons (200 shcrt tons),
some 90,800 kilograms (200,000 pounds) of dissolved solids are produced.
Approximately, 68,100 kilograms (150,000 pounds) of this amount are
removed in the combined screw pressate and digester blow liqucrs,
reduced to 21 percent solids by indirect evaporation, and supplied to
the fluidized bed reactor. Additional solubles are introduced into the
overall system via the 86.2 metric tons (95 short tons) of waste paper
utilized daily.
The remaining soluble solids remain with the pulp as it proceeds to the
stock preparation/papermaking system. Routinely a high percentage of
these solubles remains with the paperboard as manufactured, but two
principal sewer losses occur. One is "carryover" into the vacuum pump
seal water. The other represents non-equilibrium losses due to shut-
downs, equipment failures, and other factors mentioned in the above sub-
section on unbleached kraft mills.
Emphasis is placed on controlling the effects of these non-equilibriWP
upsets. These efforts include:
1. Prevention of spills by process control modifications.
2. Redirection of overflow pipes to trenches leading to "con-
taminated" surge vessels for ultimate reuse.
3. Individual revisions cf level controls and storage tanks to
minimize overflows and spills.
4. Redundant installation of key pumps and other equipment to avoid
losses due to equipment failure and routine maintenance.
5. Monitoring systems to alert operating personnel of potential and
actual spills so that corrective action can be promptly initiated.
6. Storage lagocns located prior to biological treatment may be
provided to accept longer term shock loads.
7. Personnel should be trained to avoid such spills where possible,
and to take immediate corrective action when they occur.
142
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It will be recognized that most of these techniques are the same in
Principle, if not in detail, as those in-plant measures applicable to
n£leached kraft mills.
From the engineering viewpoint, it is readily evident that none of the
above measures represent novel technology. What is novel, however, is
the "systeirs approach" to a complex manufacturing operation having
variables and potential loss points measured in the hundreds or even
thousands. This kind of effort, however, is necessary and recommended
to effect a significant reduction in raw waste loads -- particularly
surge loads — with their adverse impact upon external treatment facili-
ties and final effluent quality.
One mill may soon install a reverse osmosis system to handle unavoidable
final spills (81) . For this system to operate economically it is
imperative to reduce the volume of waste water to be treated. VOhile
this program will not result in zero discharge of pollutants, it is
expected that very significant reductions, over and above those itemized
above, will occur.
Another mill (30) has applied similar techniques in reuse of white
water, but has taken a different approach in disposal of spent NSSC
liquor. As in the above case, intensive reuse results in white water
characteristics approaching these of the spent liquor itself. For ex-
ample, white water solubles approach the three to four percent figure in
both mills. Since both mills make corrugating medium, the corresponding
evels of solubles (primarily spent cooking liquor) can be tolerated in
e end product. This is net true of many other subcategory grades.
Problems occur with increased reuse as discussed in the subsection
above. An NSSC mill (30) has delineated these problems as process water
usage approached 6260 liters per metric ton (1500 gallons per short
ton) :
1. Variable paper quality due to wet streaks in wet felts
2. Decreased wet felt life due to plugging from fines
3. Increased slime deposits
4. Higher maintenance costs due to increased cleaning of
machine elements
5. Higher corrosion rates
6. Increased calcium scaling
7. Greater chemical demands for sized and wet strength grades
8. Buildup of contaminants from waste paper
143
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9. Increased incidence of sheet breaks, particularly at the
presses, due to "stickiness" caused by solubles buildup
and to apparent reduction in wet web strength
To minimize the above problems, fresh water usage was increased to 8346
liters per metric ton (2000 gallons per short ton) from 6260 liters per
metric ton (1500 gallons per short ton).
The techniques and methods of internal controls for the stock
preparation and paper machine operations as described for unbleached
kraft mills are equally applicable to this sutcategory.
External_Technoloc[ies
Although there are variations in concentrations and specific waste
constituents, the general classes of compounds which occur in these
wastes are similar to those occurring in unbleached kraft wastes. Thus,
treatability and treatment systems for NSSC-sodium are similar to the
systems discussed previously in unbleached kraft. Specifically, the
discussions of suspended solids removal and BOD5 removal apply to NSSC-
sodium mills also. Effluent levels presently being achieved by
exemplary mill "f" by its external treatment are shown in Table 32.
I
As shown in Table 16, color removal techniques on NSSC waste water
primarily include reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis has been extensive
investigated for possible application within the pulp and pap
industry. All of the work, however, has been undertaken on a pilot
plant basis. The progress made with reverse osmosis systems within the
past five years suggests that it could in the future be a very valuable
tool in waste treatment for removal of color and suspended and tctal
dissolved solids. At present this method seems particularly applicable
to NSSC mills. While many of the mechanical problems have been solved,
membrane life and flux rates have not progressed to the extent where
large scale applications can be considered. If membrane life can be
improved and flux rates increased, then the total costs could be
lowered.
The initial work with membranes was in conjunction with an electrodia-
lysis system (82) . Electrodialysis investigations of pulp liquors
provided important background on new membrane processes such as ultra-
filtration and reverse osmosis. The application of reverse osmosis
membranes has been centered en concentrations of dilute streams in the
range of one-half to one percent suspended solids (83) (84).
The Pulp Manufacturers Research League and The Institute of Paper
Chemistry have investigated the reverse osmosis process for treatment of
pulp and paper mill waste waters under a project partially sponsored by
144
-------
the Office of Research and Monitoring of the Environmental Protection
Agency (83). Their studies led to confirming trials conducted in field
=monstrations ranging from 18,900 to 189,300 liters per day (500 to
>0^000 gallons per day) on five different waste flows. The five field
demonstrations were undertaken on:
•
1. Ca Base Pulp Washing and Cooling Waters
2. NSSC White Water
3. NH3 Ease Pulp Wash Water (also Calcium Hypochlorite
Bleach Effluent)
4. Kraft Bleach Effluent (also Kraft Rewash Water)
5. Chemi-mechanical Pulping Wash Water
Their study concluded that the reverse osmosis process is an important
new tool for concentrating and recovering solutes in dilute pulp and
papermaking effluents (83). They obtained membrane rejections of 90
to 99 percent for most components in the feed with the exception of
low molecular weight salts and volatiles which were less well rejected.
1U5
-------
Table 32.
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment Systems at
NSSC-SODIUM BASE MILLS
Exemplary
Mill
Treatment
f*
f**
ASB-SO
ASB-SO
ON
Flow
kilolites/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)
44.6 (10.7)
NCASI Mills
1 ASB
* Mill Records
** Short term survey data (3-7 days)
INF
8.5 (17)
13 (26)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD 5
EFF
2.05 (4.1)
INF
8.5 (17)
7.5 (15)
2.5 (5.0)
TSS
EFF
6.5 (13)
5.9 (11.8)
-------
ne mill has also undertaken detailed studies for the use of reverse
sjmosis as a unit operation for producing water suitable for process
reuse under a program also partially funded by the Office of Research
and Monitoring of the Environmental Protection Agency (84). This study
included the operation of proprietary osmosis equipment
on a pilot basis by vendors simultaneously and continuously on the
same feed. This allowed the development of operating techniques
applicable to the
particular feed and development of design criteria for the design cf a
full scale production facility. This study also concluded that the
reverse osmosis process is effective in concentrating the dilute waste
stream while producing a clarified water flow that can be recycled for
process purposes (81). The concentrated stream would be directed to
the fluidized bed reactor operating as part of their chemical recovery
system. Three basic types of reverse osmosis irembrane surfaces are
available:
1. Capillary fiber
2. Sheet membrane (spiral round)
3. Tubular
Tubular membranes have been found to be the most suitable in the work
that has been undertaken because capillary fiber and sheet membranes
were more subject to clogging problems (82). Most cf the work with
reverse osmosis has been concerned with the use cf cellulose acetate
•nembranes, but some work with dynamic membranes, or replaceable mem-
branes, is receiving more attention as it could substantially reduce the
cost of reverse osmosis systems (85) (83) .
The reverse osmosis process would best fit into a treatment scheme
following primary treatment, prior to activated carbcn polishing if the
benefits derived from the improved solids removal and the elimination of
pretreatment with massive lime and large scale activated carbon are
greater than the incurred less of membrane capacity resulting frcm lower
flux rates (86). While hyperfiltration is very effective in removing
color and iracromolecular organic compounds, certain lower weight
molecular organic compounds are not rejected by the reverse osmosis
process.
If color removal only is necessary, the ultrafiltration which is not as
effective as hyperfiltraticn in removal of organic matters and solids,
but is very effective in color removal, would be satisfactory (83).
The efficiency of the reverse osmosis process for NSSC pulp and
papermaking waste waters is presented in Table 33 (82).
147
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The waste flows had to be pretreated by passage through a 40 mesh screen
and the temperature adjusted to a safe operating range to protect thj|
cellulose acetate membranes (below 40°C) (82) . ^
The extensive pilot testing undertaken by a sodium base NSSC mill showed
general rejections by the reverse osmosis process as follows (85):
Total Solids 99.7%
BOD5 98.6%
Color-Optical Comparator 99.6%
Colcr-Spectrophotometer 99.8%
The work by the Institute of Paper Chemistry indicated that fouling of
reverse osmosis membranes by suspended particles, colloidal suspensoids
of large molecular weight organics, etc., could be partially controlled
by pretreatment, by periodic pressure pulsations, and by periodic wash-
ing of the membrane surfaces (81). Self-cleaning, high velocities of
flow were found to be the most likely means of maintaining high flux
rates through the membrane, especially with the newer high performance,
tight surface membranes that became available in 1971. It was reported
that minimum velocities of 0.61 meters per second (2 feet per second)
overcame ccncentrative polarization, but 0.91 meters per second (3.0
feet per second) were required to maintain adequate mass transfer rates
(39) . It was also stated that concentration pclarization did not appear
to seriously affect performance at operating pressures below 55.4 atm.
(800 psig) .
Present commercial hyperf iltration membranes cannot be operated at
peratures much above ambient, and cooling of many pulping effluents
therefore necessary. Dynamically formed membranes, however, have been
shown to suffer less from these disadvantages and may be preferable when
a high degree of salt removal is not required (83) . In addition,
ultraf iltraticn membranes are more open than the more tight reverse
osmosis (hyperf iltraticn) membranes and while rejection fcr colored
ligonsulf onates is high, other components are rejected to a much less
satisfactory degree. Research is being carried out to develop improved
rejection with ultraf iltration membranes because they have higher flux
rates than hyperf iltration and the advantages of simplified equipment
design (85) . In addition, a major roadblock delaying the practical use
of reverse osmosis in waste treatment lies in the several causes of
short life expectancy in the membrane system. Membrane manufacturers
should be encouraged to obtain goals of a minimum three-year life
expectancy for these membranes (82). In addition, membrane development
should include a capability for operating at wider ranges of pH and
temperature (82) and higher flux rates.
Dynamic membrane studies should be advanced to achieve higher levels of
solid rejection without serious reduction in permeate rates and flux
rates. The development of these membranes could substantially improve
performance and cost parameters (83) (87) (88) .
148
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TABLE 33
SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF TREATMENT BY REVERSE OSMOSIS (77)
REPORTED REJECTION - %
WASTE
FLOW
Calcium Sulflte
NSSC
Ammonium Sulfite
Kraft Bleach
TOTAL
SOLIDS
87-98
96-98
93-96
91-99
BOD
69-89
87-95
77-94
85-97
COD
87-95
96-98
92-97
97-99
BASE
95-99Ca
82-95Na
92-98NH3
83-95Na
COLOR
99
99+
99
99+
WATER RECOVERY
80-90
72-92
65
149
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N§§C-AMMONIA_EASE
Internal_Technologies
Ammonia base and sodium base NSSC pulping are separate subcategories in
that the two bases produce different waste characteristics. However,
they are essentially the same process in terms of equipment used and the
manufacturing steps involved, with the exception of spent liquor hand-
ling in some cases. Therefore, the sources of waste water would gener-
ally vary only as they typically vary from mill to mill without a sub-
category, and, thus, offer a potential for water reuse similar to that
described above for sodium base mills. Ammonia base mills, however,
have experienced somewhat more difficulty in reduction of waste flow
volume through reuse because of the buildup of ammonia within the pro-
cess system.
The techniques and methods for reducing upset and spills described for
both the unbleached kraft and sodium base NSSC mills, or some
modification of them, are equally applicable to this subcategory. In
the newest mill of this type -- there are only two in operation -design
efforts are underway to eliminate a waste stream which contributes about
18-20 percent Of the total raw BOD5 load of the mill. This is from the
screwfeeder utilized to press water from the chips before the digester
to achieve a sufficiently high dry solids content.
The additional internal control needed in this type of mill is one which
will reduce ammonia concentrations in the waste stream. One proposal is
to channel the primary cooling water into the weak black liquor as iiA
enters the evaporators (84), thus lowering the pH and inhibiting con-*
version of ammonium to ammonia. The techniques and methods of internal
controls for the stock preparation and paper machine operations as
described for unbleached kraft mills are equally applicable to this
subcategory.
External_Technolocjies
Although there are variations in concentrations and specific waste
constituents, the general classes of compounds which occur in these
wastes are similar to those occurring in unbleached kraft wastes. Thus,
treatability and treatment systems for NSSC- ammonia are similar to the
systems discussed previously in unbleached kraft. Specifically, the
discussions of suspended solids removal and BOD5 removal apply to NSSC-
ammonia mills also. Effluent levels presently being achieved by the
existing treatment systems at exemplary mill "e" are shown in Table 34.
As discussed for NSSC - sodium base, removal of color by reverse osmosis
is equally applicable to NSSC - ammonia base mills. As mentioned
previously, ammonia base NSSC mill effluents contain high concentrations
of ammonia for which removal technologies have not yet been demonstrated
for the pulp and paper industry. A discussion cf potential ammonia
removal technologies follows.
150
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Table 34
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment at
NSSC-Ammonia Base Mills
Flow
Exemplary kiloliters/kkg
Mill Treatment (1,000 gal/ton)
e* C-ASB-SO 34.8 (8.3)
M
H- e** C-ASB-SO
* Mill Records
** Short Term survey data (3-7 days)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD 5
TSS
INF
33.5 (67)
30.5 (61)
EFF
5.25(10.5)
2.9 (58)
INF
17 (34)
16 (32)
EFF
9.45(18.9)
8.0 (16)
-------
A selective ion exchange system for the removal of ammonia nitrogen has
been developed (76) (89) (90) but has not been applied to ammonia
NSSC mills. The process uses a natural zeolite, clinoptilolite which,
selective for ammonium ions. Regeneration of the clinoptilolite can
accomplished with a lime slurry which yields an alkaline aqueous ammoni-
ous solution. The spent regenerate can then be processed through an air
stripping tower to remove the ammonia, with recycle of the regenerate
(76) (89) (90). Work showed that the ammonia can be destroyed by
electrolysis of the regenerant, which results in the production of
chlorine that reacts with the ammonia to produce nitrogen gas (90). A
preliminary design report was prepared for the design of a 28.39 million
liter per day (97.5 mgd) ammonia ion exchange system to serve the South
Tahoe Water Reclamation Plant (76) (91).
In the work undertaken by Battelle-Northwest and the South Tahoe Public
Utility District (90) , ammonia removal of 93 to 97 percent was reported
with a clarified and carbon treated secondary effluent and clarified raw
sewage with a 378,500 liters per day (100,000 gpd) mobile pilot plant.
Ninety-four percent ammonia removal was obtained with a single 29.26
meter (96 foot) deep bed at 150-bed volumes of Tahoe tertiary effluent,
while with a two-column semi-countercurrent operation with 1.43 meter
(4.7 foot) deep beds operating at an average of 250-bed volumes, 97
percent ammonia removal was obtained. Ammonia removal averaged 93
percent at an average of 232-bed volumes with clarified raw sewage
treated by the two-column, semi-countercurrent operation.
In the work undertaken by the University of California, an average
ammonia removal of 95.7 percent was obtained in demonstration studies om
three municipal wastes having an NH3-N content of about 20 mg/1. It is*
stated that ammonia removal to less than 0.5 mg/1 NH3-N is technically
feasible, but only with shorter runs and greater regenerate
requirements.
When using selective ion exchange for ammonia removal, the processing of
waste waters with high Mg+2 concentrations may require clarification of
the regenerate to avoid plugging of the bed with Mg (OH)2 (90). In
addition, it has been stated that secondary effluents may require clari-
fication by plain filtration to prevent fouling of the zeolite beds
(76).
Ammonia removal by selective ion exchange is probably best suited to
areas where prolonged periods of freezing weather are encountered and
where very high degrees of ammonia removal must be maintained. Air-
stripping and biological nitrification-denitrificaticn may be used in
the warmer climates at a lower cost, but at a somewhat lower efficiency.
Nitrification-denitrification refers to the biological treatment process
utilized to convert nitrogen compounds (generally ammonia) tc nitrates
and nitrates to nitrogen gas. The biological nitrification-denitrifica-
152
-------
tion process has been extensively investigated and reported (76) (91)
2) (93) (94).
I
e" nitrifying bacteria are very sensitive to poiscning by simple sub-
stances, including heavy metals and free ammonia. Before this process
can- be used with industrial wastes, therefore, careful testing must be
conducted under realistic conditions.
The following factors will influence nitrification (75):
1. Dissolved oxygen level should be above 1.0 mg/1.
2, pH of activated sludge system should be in the range of 7.5-8.5.
3. The growth rate of the nitrifiers is temperature related.
Nitrification below 5°C is minimum, while optimuir tempera
ture is about 32°C.
U. Growth rate of nitrifiers is reduced by chlorates, cyanides,
alkaloids, mercaptans, urethanes, guanidines, methylamine, and
nitrourea.
The denitrifying bacteria convert the nitrite and nitrate nitrogen
resulting from the nitrification reaction to nitrogen gas.
The three basic requirements for denitrification tc proceed are the
following (95):
1. An organic carbon source which can be utilized by the
dentrifying bacteria.
2. An anaerobic environment.
3. A pH of about 6=5.
The ammonia stripping process can be generally summarized as follows:
1. Raising the pH of the water to 10.5-11.5;
2. Formation and reformation of water droplets (can be easily
accomplished in a stripping tower);
3. Circulation of large quantities of air.
Items 1 and 2 above are the same requirements applied to conventional
cooling towers and explains the adaptability of these towers to the
removal of ammonia.
Discussion of two stripping towers that have been designed for treatment
of waste waters is given below. The most well known work done with air
153
-------
stripping of ammonia has been done on municipal wastes at Lake Tahoe
(75) . A countercurrent stripping tower, 7.62 meters (25 feet) hi
1.83 meters (6 feet) wide, and 1.22 meters (4 feet) in depth was used
investigate the various parameters affecting air stripping of ammon'ia
The results of these are shown in Figures 24, 25, and 26. It is
apparent from these figures that the design of air stripping tcwers -can
be such as to accommodate any desired ammonia removal up to 90-95
percent removal when ambient air temperatures are above 20°C. As
reported (76), the efficiency of the tower was substantially reduced
below 20°C. Data obtained with operation of the tower during winter
conditions at Lake Tahoe indicated that the average lower limit of the
process will be in the range of 50-60 percent ammonia removal. In
addition, a stripping tower has been used in conjunction with barometric
type evaporator condensers for treatment of final and combined
condensates in at least one pulp and paper mill. The mill at 771 metric
tons (850 short tons) removed about 6 kg/metric ton (12 Ibs/ton) and
reduced raw water intake by 30,200-37,800 kiloiters/day (8-10mgd).
The limitations of the use of ammonia stripping towers were first
realized with the winter operations at Lake Tahoe. These limitations
are outlined as follows (94):
1. Vvhen the air temperatures are at 9°C, or below, freezing
problems can occur which will restrict air flow.
2. Ammonia solubility increases at the lower temperatures, which
results in higher treatment costs.
3. A calcium carbonate scale formation results on the tower becau
the lime treated wastes are saturated with CaC03. The scale cculd
be flushed from the Lake Tahoe Tower, but at the EPA's Blue Plains
Pilot Plant it was hard and adhered to the tower packing.
Based on the current status of ammonia stripping towers, they probably
will only be used in warm climates. In addition, the hard scale prob-
lems have to be solved.
KRAFT-NSSC (CROSS RECOVERY)^
As shown in Tables 15 and 16, internal and external control technologies
applicable to unbleached kraft mills also apply to kraft-NSSC rrills with
cross recovery and have been discussed previously. Table 35 shows
effluents levels presently being achieved by existing treatment systems
at exemplary trills "g" and "h" and for NCASI selected mills.
154
-------
FIGURE 24
EFFECT OF TOWER DEPTH ON AMMONIA REMOVAL
o
LU
-------
FIGURE 25
OF HYDRAULIC LOADING ON AMMONIA REMOVAL AT VARIOUS DEPTHS
Ul
-J
Si
O
s
UJ
cr
-
0
0
CO
0
< 60
2
O
S
S
<
PERCENT
&
0
K>
0
12' Depth
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
SURFACE LOADING RATE (GPM/FT^)
-------
FIGURE 26
EFFECTS ON PACKING SPACING ON AMMONIA REMOVAL
i
x 2 In. Packing (redwood slats)
4x4In. Packing (plastic truss bars)
Note :24 Ft. Packing Depth
500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 4POO
CUBIC FEET AIR/GALLON TREATED
-------
Table 35
Effluent Levels Achieved By Existing
Treatment Systems at
UNBLEACHED KRAFT-NSSC (Cross Recovery) Mills
Exemplary
Mills Treatment
8*
g**
h*
£ h**
NCASI Mills
1
2
3
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
C-ASB
Flow
kiloliters/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)
51.3 (12.3)
53.4 (12.8)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD 5
INF
17.5 (35)
14.5 (29)
13.5 (27)
* Mill Records
** Short term survey data (3-7days)
Note- Mill "h" and Mill "2" are the same mill.
EFF
5 (10)
1.5 (3)
4 (8)
1.5 (3)
4.9 (9.9)
4.5 (9.0)
3.0 (6.0)
TSS
INF
16.5 (33)
19.5 (39)
8.9 (17.8)
5.5 (11)
EFF
4.5 (9)
2.8 (5.6)
1.5 (3)
3.05 (6.1)
4.4 (8.8)
1.75 (3.5)
5.75 (11.5)
-------
PAPERBOARD FROM, WASTE.,PAPER
ternal Technologies
————————————— -*———
A paperbcard from waste paper mill utilizes water in its process
exclusive of steam generation for the following purposes:
1. Water used for the preparation and transport of fiber through
the papermaking process. This is generally recycled water; however,
process water that escapes from one stock system to another represents a
contribution to the mill effluent to the extent that this intersystem
loss occurs. Reduction of the less of process water from one stock
system to another is one type of in-plant control that can be utilized
to reduce the raw waste load generated by many mills in this category.
2. Shower water used principally to remove the build-up of fibrous
materials on the wet end of the machine which is detrimental to the
formation of the product. This water enters the system via shower
nozzles and accounts for the largest contribution to the volume of raw
waste water generated. The use of recycled process water instead of
fresh water for this purpose is essential if major reductions in waste
loads generated are to be realized.
3. Water used to permit process equipment to perform its design
function. Typical applications are the seal and cooling waters used on
pumps, agitators, drives, bearings, vacuum pumps, and process controls.
This represents a significant contribution to the volume of waste water
generated by the process. In-plant control systems have been developed
many mills that minimize or eliminate this source of waste water
feneration. The introduction of this source of water tc the process
system is generally under automatic control and will, in the event of
undetected control malfunction, contribute substantially tc the waste
water volume generated by a mill. Reliable control of these sources of
waste water must be included in any in-plant water control system
designed to minimize the waste load generated by a mill.
4. Water utilized as ncn-contact cooling water. The segregation
and discharge of this water without treatment has been achieved by irany
mills and represents in-plant control technology which is essential if
near total recycle of process water is a goal.
The water utilization and control technologies described if implemented
would make possible very significant reductions in waste loads generated
by mills in this category. There are a number of mills that have
achieved near total recycle of process water using these or variations
of these control technologies. However, for many mills in the industry
near total recycle could present a number of production related
problems. Those mills that use predominately corrugated waste paper in
their furnish could experience excessive dissolved solids buildup in the
process water systems which may not be the case for those mills that use
predominantly news, mixed, and magazine waste papers. Corrugated waste
159
-------
paper contains adhesives that are relatively high in starch content.
This adhesive is dissolved during the stock preparation process and
to its solubility becomes part of the process water system.
The presence of these dissolved solids has no significance for a
discharging 10,000 gallons of waste water per ton of product or more.
However, for a mill practicing near complete recycle the attending
dissolved sclids buildup could create production problems of
considerable magnitude. Similar problems could be experienced by those
mills that employ on machine coating when near complete process water
recycle systems are implemented. Mills that produce food board from a
waste paper furnish may experience increasing problems in meeting
regulations established by government health authorities due to
objectionable odors or other considerations attributable to the
implementation of extensive process water recycle concepts.
These are a few of the product grades that have increasing significance
as near complete recycle of process water is considered by many mills in
this subcategory. Mills that produce a similar grade of product for
most of their production time will experience fewer problems if
extensive recycle of process water is implemented. However a majority
of mills in this subcategory produce these and many other production
grades, including food board, all of which can be affected to a greater
or lesser extent if a near total recycle of process water system has
been implemented.
As shown in Table 15, only a few of the internal control technologies
(as discussed for unbleached kraft) for the pulping operation
However, all of the control technologies for the stcck preparation
paper machine operations apply as were discussed previously for
unbleached kraft.
Extern al_Technglogieg
Since waste paper is fiberized by hydraulic and mechanical means there
are no comparable chemical constituents in the mill effluents to the
other subcategories resulting from pulping processes. However, the
waste treatability is similar to that of the other subcategories, and
the external technologies for primary and secondary treatment as
discussed previously also apply to paperboard from waste paper mills.
Effluent levels achieved by existing treatment systems at exemplary
mills "i," "j," "k," and "1," NCASI Selected mills, and mills from the
literature are shown in Table 36.
In the case of many paperboard from waste paper mills which discharge
into public sewerage systems, effluent treatment sludges are handled
with those contributed by sanitary sewage. Methods are set forth in
FWPCA Manual of Practice No. 20 (96) and their effects on the overall
process are described in the literature (97) .
160
-------
Sludges from paperboard from waste paper mills can generally te
Chickened to a consistency in excess of four percent dry solids by
Brethickening. If activated sludge from secondary treatment is included
this figure can be somewhat lower.
IEEIGATigN_AND_LANp_pISPgSAL_gF_EFFLUENTS
Total mill effluents of pulp and paper mills, as well as specific ones
having particularly undesirable properties, have been disposed of by
means of irrigation and land disposal. Examples of specific effluents
handled in this manner are cooking liquors, foul ccndensates, and
turpentine decanter water.
The advantage of land disposal, when properly practiced, is that a very
high degree of purification is obtained on passage through the soil so
that the water finally reaching either the adjacent stream or ground
water is practically devoid of suspended matter, BODS, and color. The
disadvantages are 1) the relatively small volume that can be disposed of
per acre per day - 37,850 -to 113,550 liters (10,000 to 30,000 gallons)
under most soil conditions, and 2) freezing problems during the winter
months, and (3) the potential for imparting taste, odors, or ether
undesirable characteristics to groundwaters. In some instances, this
process is applied only during the critical months when temperatures are
high, stream flowages low, and crops, which increase the allowable
application rate appreciably, can be grown.
I
he use of land for the disposal of pulp and paper mill effluents has
een applied in the following forms:
1. Seepage ponds 2. Direct application to fallow soil with a wide
range of textures by both spray and ridge-and-furrow distribution 3.
Application by similar means to soils whose absorption capacity has
been modified by development of suitable cover vegetation 4.
Controlled effluent application designed to produce crops by use of
suitable irrigation practices.
Since these effluents contain little in the way of the basic fertilizer
elements, any value they add to the soil other than their irrigating
effect is the increased water-holding capacity and friability induced by
the stable organic matter present. The use of land disposal and irriga-
tion for disposing of these wastes has been described in detail (98).
An assessment of the effectiveness of irrigation on crop growth and the
parameters for application of water, BODS, cellulose, and sodium for
soils of different character and textures are set forth.
161
-------
Table 36
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing
Treatment Systems at
PAPERBOARD FROM WASTEPAPER MILLS
Flow
Exemplary kiloliters/kkg
Mills Treatment (1,000 gal/ton) kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD 5 TSS
INF EFF INF EFF
i* C - - -
i** C - 0.08 (0.15) 0.045 (0.09) 0.08 (0.15) 0.02 (0.04)
g j* C-ASB-C 12.1 (2.9) 7 (14) 0.25 (0.5) 2.1 (4.1) 1.3 (2.6)
j** C-ASB-C - 9 (18) 0.11 (0.22) 1.2 (2.4) 0.45 (0.9)
k* C-AS 38.8 (9.3) 5.5 (11) 0.14 (0.28) 35 (70) 0.95 (1.9)
k** C-AS - 11.5 (23) 0.28 (0.57) 33 (66) 0.6 (1.2)
1* ASB 9.6 (2.3) 9.5 (19) 0.32 (0.65) 2.8 (5.6) 0.55 (1.1)
1** ASB - 5.5 (11) 0.21 (0.42) 0.95 (1.9) 0.5 (1.0)
-------
Table 36 contd.
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at PAPERBOARD FROM WASTEPAPER MILLS (Contd.)
Flow
NCASI
Mills Treatment
1 C-AS
2 C-AS
3 C-ASB-L
4 C-ASB
5
ON 6
Mills
1
2
3
4
5
6
C-ASB -SO
C-ASB-L
from Literature
AB-ASB-I
C-ASB
AB-ASB-A
C-ASB
C-AS -AS
C-ASB
kiloliters/kkg
(1,000 gal/ton)
MLD -
2.6
7.6
10.2
7.6
12.5
1.1
-
-
(MGD)
(0.7)
(2.0)
(2.7)
(2.0)
(3.3)
(0.3)
INF
-
-
22.5(45)
13 (26)
11.5 (23)
15 (30)
7.5 (15)
4 (8)
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD 5
EFF
0.15 (0.3)
0.1 (0.2)
1.1 (2.2)
5.2 (10.3)
0.55 (1.1)
5.3 (10.7)
2 (4)
1.5 (3)
1.0 (2)
3.5 (7)
0.1 (0.2)
0.5 (1)
INF
TSS
23 (46)
25.5 (51)
40.5 (81)
43.5 (87)
3.5 (7)
28 (56)
EFF
0.95 (1.9)
1.0 (2.0)
1.4 (2.8)
9.6 (19.3)
0.8 (1.6)
11.2 (22.5)
1 (2)
2.0 (4)
4.5 (9)
4.0 (8)
0.25 (0.5)
1.5 (3)
-------
Table 36 contd.
Effluent Levels Achieved by Existing Treatment
Systems at PAPERBOARD FROM WASTEPAPER MILLS (Contd.)
Is from
erature
7
8
9
10
Treatment
AB-ASB
C-AS
C-AS
C-ASB
Flow
MLD
(MGD)
1.1
10.2
2.3
(0.3)
(2.7)
(0.6)
—
INF
7.5 (15)
7 (14)
9.5 (19)
-
kg/kkg
BOD 5
EFF
1.0 (2)
0.35 (0.7)
1.0 (2)
0.75 (1.5)
(Ibs/ton)
30
28
36
INF
(60)
(56)
.5 (73)
—
TSS
2
1
3
0
EFF
.0
.0
.0
.9
(4)
(2)
(6)
(1.8)
* Mill Records
** Short term survey data (3-7 days)
Notes- NCASI Mill "1" is the same mill as exemplary mill "k".
- Mills from literature may be the same mills as in the
exemplary mills and/or the NCASI mills.
-------
Blt-hough considerable demonstration work has been done on the use of
Kraft mill effluents for irrigating fodder crops, corn, vegetables, and
pine trees, there are at present no linerboard mills making large scale
use of this means of disposal. Detailed studies of the effects of kraft
mill effluents on the soil and its productivity have been published (99)
which indicate the suitability of such effluents for irrigation.
However, after applications and trials made to date, this technique has
received only minimal acceptance by these mills en a full scale (12) .
The major problem is the large volume of effluent produced due to the
high production capacity of the mills now operating and the correspond-
ingly large land areas needed. For example, at an application rate of
8,346 liters per metric ton (20,000 gallons per short ton) of product,
2025 hectares (5000 acres) of land would be required for a 970 metric
tons per day (1000 short tons per day) linerboard operation. Viith large
land areas, transporting the effluent incurs both extensive capital and
operating costs, exceeding those for the common types of waste treat-
ment. This procedure would also necessitate the mill engaging in a
business sideline unless there was a neighboring agricultural operation
to contract for the waste water. The possibility of spraying the
effluent in woodlands to enhance tree growth has been explored but
appears unattractive both from the standpoint of its cost and the value
received in terms of increased wood yield.
the present time only one unbleached kraft mill uses land disposal to
extent. It employs seepage ponds seasonally following secondary
reatment of the effluent. The major purpose of this is tc prevent
direct discharge of the treated effluent to the receiving stream during
the summer months.
NSSC
Land disposal of both spent cooking liquor and wash and machine waters
from NSSC mills has been described (100). Such disposal was at one time
practiced by a number of mills, although only two continue the practice
today. This is primarily due to the increasing popularity of cooking
liquor disposal by pyroprocesses and treating the remaining waste
streams by the treatment methods common to the industry. Thus, only the
two most successful of the land disposal systems remain in operation,
one of which uses land disposal for spent cooking liquor, and the other
employs seepage drains for the entire effluent.
Paperboard from Waste Paper
There has been no use of irrigation for the disposal of paperboard from
waste paper mill effluents. Two mills, both located on small streams,
have, however, irrigated fields growing fodder crops during the sumir.er
165
-------
months with treated effluent. This procedure proved very effective for
one mill because of its small size and correspondingly small land
requirements.
166
-------
RECOMMENDED INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL CONTROLS
I
Iables 37 and 38 summarize recommended internal and external control
echnologies for all subcategories for BPCTCA, BATEA and NSPS.
Table 37
Summary Recommended Internal
Control Technologies for Specific Sufccategories
Unbleached Kraft
EPCTCA
EATEA
NSPS
addition of spill collection provisions for chemicals and fibers
installation of lew volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
all paper machines
filtering and reuse of press waters
pressure screening (hot-stock)
segregation and reuse of white waters
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of savealls, and
gland water reduction
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major pollutional loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
167
-------
NSSC-Sodium
EPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
addition of liquor recovery system
installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning
showers on paper machines
filtering and reuse of press water
segregation and reuse of white waters
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of savealls, and
gland water reduction
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major pollutional loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
168
-------
-------
NSSC-Kraft
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
addition of spill collection provisions for chemicals and fibers
installation of lew volume, high pressure self cleaning showers <
all paper machines
filtering and reuse of press waters
pressure screening (hot-stock)
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of saveallsr and
gland water reduction
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
expanded process water reuse
separation of cooling water and recovery cf heat
reuse of fresh water filter backwash
control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass
the waste water treatment system to a retention basin and
are ultimately either reused, gradually discharged into the
treatment system, or treated separately; and
reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
170
-------
BATEA
Paperbgard from Waste Paper
land disposal of junk materials
installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning
showers on paper machines
filtering and reuse cf press water
segregation and reuse of white waters
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of savealls, and
gland water reduction
land disposal of junk materials
installation cf low volume, high pressure self cleaning
showers on paper machines
filtering and reuse of press water
segregation and reuse of white waters
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of savealls, and
gland water reduction
land disposal of junk materials
installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
paper machines
filtering and reuse of press water
segregation and reuse of white waters
collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
installation of savealls, and
gland water reduction
NSPS
171
-------
Table 38
Recommended External
Control Technologies
EPCTCA
Screening, primary, and secondary treatment are provided to tctal mill
effluents for all sutcategories, where the screening is ty tar screens
and primary sedimentation in mechanical clarifiers.
Secondary treatment is provided by nutrient addition and one or two
stage biological treatment. An emergency spill basin is installed prior
to the secondary treatment step.
Foam control, flow monitoring and automatic sampling and outfall
diffuser system are recommended.
The sludge is dewatered by vacuum filter and sludge press and sanitary
landfilled for kraft and Kraft-NSSC mills, while the sludge is
dewatered by vacuum filters and sanitary landfilled for paperbcard from
waste paper mills, and NSSC-Sodium mills.
The screenings are burned in bark burners in case of kraft mills,
kraft-NSSC mills, and the NSSC mills. The screenings are sanitary
landfilled in case of paperboard from waste paper mills. (
EATEA
All mill effluents are screened by bar screens, and are subjected to
primary solids separation in mechanical clarifiers and secondary
treatment by nutrient addition and two stage biological treatment. All
mill effluents have mixed-media filtration with, if necessary, chemical
addition and coagulation. Unbleached kraft and kraft-NSSC (cross
recovery) mills have color removal by lime treatment. NSSC-sodium base
and NSSC-airmonia base mills have color removal by reverse osmosis.
All mill effluents receive foam control treatment, monitoring and
automatic sampling prior to entering the receiving waters through
diffusers.
Screenings from the kraft mill and the kraft - NSSC mill effluents are
burned in sludge incinerators, and screenings from the NSSC - Sodium and
NSSC - Ammonia base mills are burned in existing bark boilers.
Primary sludges and waste activated sludge are thickened in gravity
sludge thickeners, and dewatered mechanically by vacuum filters and
presses prior to ultimate disposal.
172
-------
Ultimate sludge disposal fcr kraft mills and kraft-NSSC mills is by
fcncineration, and for other sutcategories by sanitary landfilling.
NSPS
All mill effluents are screened, receive primary solids separation in
mechanical clarifiers, and secondary treatment by nutrient addition, and
two stage biological treatment.
All sutcategory effluents receive further solids reduction by mixed
media filtration with , if necessary, chemical addition and coagulation.
Unbleached kraft and kraft - NSSC (cross recovery) mills have cclor
removal by lime treatment. All effluents receive foam control,
monitoring and automatic sairpling prior to outfall by diffusers.
Screenings from the kraft mill, the Kraft-NSSC mill, the NSSC - Sodium
and NSSC - Ammonia mills are burned in existing bark burners. The
screenings from paperboard from waste paper mills are disposed of by
sanitary landfilling.
Primary sludge and wasted activated sludge are thickened in gravity
thickeners prior to mechanical dewatering by vacuum filters and presses.
Sludges from unbleached kraft mills and Kraft-NSSC mills are
incinerated, while all other sludges are disposed of by sanitary
landfilling.
173
-------
SECTION VIII
COSTS, ENERGY, NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS
AND IMPLEMENTATION REQUIREMENTS
RATIONALE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF_COSTg
This section of -the report, summarizes the costs of internal and external
effluent treatment associated with technology levels of BPTCA, EATEA,
and New Source Standards of Performance. The cost functions used are
for conventional treatment methods based on industry experience with
full scale installations and equipment suppliers' estimates. For more
advanced processes, where full scale installations are few or
nonexistent, the cost estimates are largely based on experience with
pilot installations and on estimates from and discussions with equipment
suppliers.
1
It should be recognized that actual treatment costs vary largely from
mill to mill depending upon the design and operation of the productiq
facilities and local conditions. Furthermore, effluent treatment cos'
reported by the industry vary greatly from one installation to anothe
depending upon bookkeeping procedures. The estimates of effluent
volumes and treatment methods described in this section are intended to
be descriptive of the segments of the industry that they cover.
However, the industry is extremely heterogeneous in that almost every
installation has some uniqueness which could be of critical importance
in assessing effluent treatment problems and their associated costs.
For each technology level, the cost of effluent treatment has been
summarized for six case studies with regard to type and size of trill.
The case situations studied are as follows:
Type of Mill Production Capacity metric tons/day (tons/d
Unbleached kraft (linerboard) 907 (1000)
Kraft - NSSC 907 (1000)
NSSC - Sodium base 227 (250) *
NSSC - Ammonia base 227 (250) *
Paperboard from Wastepaper 91 (100)
* includes use of 50 tpd waste paper
174
-------
Development of Effluent Treatment Costs
ts£s of effluent treatment are presented as investment and annual
sts. The annual costs are further broken down intc capital costs and
depreciation. Investment costs are defined as the capital expenditures
required to bring the treatment or control technology into operation.
These include the traditional expenditures such as design, purchase of
land and all mechanical and electrical equipment, instrumentation, site
preparation, plant sewers, all construction work, installation and
testing, etc.
The capital costs are the financial charges on the capital expenditures
for pollution control.
The depreciation is the accounting charges which reflect the
deterioration of a capital asset over its useful life. Straight line
depreciation has been used in all case study cost calculations.
Operation and maintenance costs are those costs required to operate and
maintain the pollution abatement equipment. They include labor, parts,
chemicals, energy, insurance, taxes, solid waste disposal, quality
control, monitoring and administration, etc. Productivity increases or
by-product revenues as a result of improved effluent control are
subtracted so that the operation and maintenance costs reported are the
net costs.
^11 costs in this report are expressed in terms of August 1971 prices.
^is is comparable to the following cost indexes:
Indexes Index a August 1971
EPA Treatment Plant Construction Cost 164.5
Index (1957-59 = 100)
EPA Sewer Line Construction Cost 166.8
Index (1957-59 = 100)
Engineering News Record (ENR)
Construction Cost Index (1913 = 100) (1) 1614
ENR Labor Cost Index (1949 = 100) (1) 420
Effluent treatment or control technology is grouped into internal and
external measures. The internal and external treatment technologies
which were used to develop treatment costs are shown below. It should
be noted that the treatment systems that are shown below may be
different than the recommended treatment systems in Sections IX, X, and
XI. The reason for these differences is that costs were developed for
the most expensive case (within practical limits) in order to determine
the impact upon the industry.
175
-------
Available methods for reduction of pollutant discharges by internal
measures include effective pulp washing, chemicals and fiber recovery
treatment and reuse of selected waste streams and collection cf spi!
and prevention cf "accidental11 discharges. Internal measures ai
essentially reduction of pollutant discharges at their origin and result
in recovery of chemicals, by-products, and in conservation of heat -and
water.
1
The treatment unit operation which is discussed is grouped into pre-,
primary, secondary and tertiary treatment and sludge dewatering and
disposal.
Pretreatment includes those processes which are used as required to
prepare the effluent for the subsequent treatment steps.
Primary treatment is designed to remove suspended solids and is usually
the first major external treatment step.
The primary purpose of secondary treatment is to remove soluble EOE5.
The tertiary treatment steps are designed to remove suspended solids and
BOD5 to degrees which are not obtainable through primary and secondary
treatment processes, or to remove substances which are refractory to the
primary and secondary treatment steps.
The costs of the effluent treatment and resulting pollutant reductions
are shown in Tables 39, 40, 41, 42, and 43 for unbleached kraft, NSS
sodium base, NSSC-ammonia base, unbleached kraft-NSSC (cross recover
and paperboard from waste paper subcategories , respectively.
T§£ i>Q glogy
Internal Measures
The internal measures can be summarized as follows:
907 metric tons/day (mtpd) (1000 short tons per day-tpd) unbleached
kraft linerboard mill and 907 mtpd kraft - NSSC mill
-addition of spill collection provisions for chemicals and fibers
-installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
all paper machines
-filtering and reuse of press waters
907 mtpd (1000 tpd) paperboard from waste paper mill
-land disposal of junk materials
-installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
paper machines
-filtering and reuse of press water
176
-------
Table 39
Effluent Treatment Cost and Effluent Quality
for 907 mtpd (1000 tpd) Unbleached Kraft (linerboard Mill)
a
b
c ,
d
None
I
0.
0.
0.
E
0.
0.
0.
T
0.
0.
0.
Pre
BPCTCA
BATEA
NSPS
0.
0.
0.
2160
394
324
70
1820
480
254
226
3980
874
578
296
5397
1542
810
732
4873
1133
630
503
kg/kkg (Pounds Per Ton)
TSS 35 (70)
BODS 25 (50)
Color
3 (6)
12 (24)
kiloliters/kkg (1000 gal/ton)
^ 104 (25) 50 (12)
Data re in $1000's unless otherwise indicated.
I = Costs for Internal controls
E = Costs for External Controls
T = Sum of costs I and E.
10270 6197
2675 1739
1440 1079
1235 660
3.75
2.2
46
(7.5)
(4.4)
(11)
8536
2437
1277
1160
14733
4176
2356
1820
NA
NA
NA
NA
10652
2892
1588
1304
10652
2892
1588
1304
1.5 (3.0)
1.37 (2.75)
10 (20)
37.5 (9)
1.5
1.37
10
(3.0)
(2.75)
(20)
37.5 (9)
a = Investment cost
b = Total annual cost (sum of c and d)
c = Interest cost plus Depreciation cost
at 15% per year.
d = Operating and Maintenance cost (including
energy and power) per year.
-------
Table
Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality
for 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC - NA Mill
00
None
I
a 0.
b 0.
c 0.
d 0.
kg/kkg
TSS
BODS
Color
E
0.
0.
0.
0.
T
0.
0.
0.
0.
I
1785
744
268
476
Pre
E
602
171
81
90
T I
2387 2350
915 869
349 352
566 517
BPCTCA
E T I
1138 3488 2670
325 1194 964
145 497 401
180 697 563
BATEA
E
2038
409
306
103
T
4708
1372
706
666
(Ibs/ton)
37
175
kiloliters/kkg
.5
(75)
(350)
20 (40)
45 (90)
5.0 (10)
3.25(6.5)
2
1
75%
(4)
.5(3)
Removal
(1000 gal/ ton)
NSPS
I
NA
NA
NA
NA
E
1592
413
239
174
2 (4)
1.5(3)
T
1592
413
239
174
62.5 (15)
50 (12)
41.7 (10)
20.8(5)
20.8(5)
-------
Table
Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality
for 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC NH3 Mill
None
I E T I
a -
b -
c - - - ,
d - -
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
TSS
BODS
Color
Pre
E T I
0
0
0
0
5
5.25
BPCTCA
E
1406
375
184
191
(10)
(10.5)
T
1406
375
184
191
I
221
95
49
46
2 (4)
3.5 (7)
BATEA
E
1975
561
280
281
T
2196
656
329
327
75% removal
I
NA
NA
NA
NA
E
1954
528
284
244
T
1954
528
284
244
2 (4)
3.5 (7)
kiloliters/kkg (1000 gal/ton)
V£>
33
(8)
25
(6)
25 (6)
-------
Table 42
Effluent Treatment Cost and Effluent Quality
for 907 mtpd (1000 tpd) Kraft - NSSC Mill
I
a 0.
b 0.
c 0.
d 0.
TSS
BODS
Color
None
E
0.
0.
0.
0.
kg/kkg
T
I
0. 2501
0.
0.
0.
440
360
80
Pre
E
T I
1460 3961 5229
400
190
210
880 1888
550 1193
290 695
BPCTCA
E T I
3668 8897 6269
934 2822 2067
504 1697 1432
430 1125 635
BATEA
E
8232
2401
1263
1138
T
14501
4468
2695
1773
(Ibs/ton)
35 (70)
30 (60)
—
kiloliters/kkg
(1000
3.5
24.5
gal/ton)
(7)
(49)
—
5.3 (10.6)
3.05(6.1)
—
2
1
10
.1 (4.2)
.5 (3.0)
(20)
NSPS
I
NA
NA
NA
NA
E
9864
2848
1514
1334
2.1
1.5
10
T
9864
2848
1514
1334
(4.2)
(3.0)
(20)
92 (22) 75 (18)
54 (13)
33 (8)
33 (8)
-------
Table 43
oo
Effluent Treatment Cost and Quality
for 91 mtpd (100 tpd) Paperboard from Waste Paper
None
I E
a 0. 0.
b 0. 0.
c 0. 0.
d 0. 0.
T
0.
0.
0.
0.
I
105
29
15
14
Pre
E
314
76
42
34
T I
419 422
105 104
57 63
48 41
BPCTCA
E T I
561 983 422
155 259 104
74 137 63
81 122 41
BATEA
E T I
801 1223 NA
190 294 NA
115 173 NA
75 116 NA
NSPS
E
415
103
57
46
T
415
103
57
46
kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
TSS
BODS
40 (80)
35 (70)
kiloliters/kkg (1000
4 (8)
15 (30)
1.5 (3.0)
1.25 (2.5)
0.6 (1.2)
0.65 (1.3)
0.6
0.65
(1.2)
(1.3)
gal/ton)
50 (12)
25 (6)
12.5 (3)
8.3 (2)
8.3 (2)
Note: In going from *) to **) practical considerations dictate that the internal
investment be made at BPCTCA. Therefore although a decrease in internal water
use is expected between BPCTCA and BATEA, the total required investment is given
in BPCTCA.
-------
227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC - Na mill
-addition of liquor recovery system
-installation of low volume, high pressure self cleaning showers on
paper machines
-filtering and reuse of press water
External Treatment
For all case mills the liquid external treatment consists of raw waste
screening ty tar screens, primary treatment by mechanical clarifiers,
foam control, effluent monitoring and automatic sampling and outfall
system by diffuser.
The screenings are assumed burned in bark burners in case of the kraft
linerboard mill, the kraft - NSSC mill and the NSSC - Na nd.11. The
screenings are assumed sanitary landfilled in case of the waste paper
and the building paper mills.
The sludge is dewatered by vacuum filter and sludge press and sanitary
landfilled for kraft linerboard and kraft - NSSC mills, while the sludge
is dewatered by vacuum filters and sanitary landfilled for the waste
paper board mill and the NSSC - Na mill.
EPCTCA_Technglogy__
Internal Measures
The internal measures to bring the base mills up to BPCTCA technology
consist of the additions already made plus the following:
907 mtpd (1000 tpd) unbleached kraft linerboard mill and 907 mtpd
(1000 tpd) kraft - NSSC mill
-pressure screening (hot-stock)
-segregation and reuse of white waters
-collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
-installation of savealls, and
-gland water reduction
907 mtpd (1000 tpd) waste paper board mill, 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC
- Na base mill and 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC - NH3 base mill
-segregation and reuse of white waters
-collection and reuse of vacuum pump seal waters
-installation of savealls, and
-gland water reduction
182
-------
External Measures
Screening, primary, and secondary treatment are provided to tctal ir.ill
efifluents for all case mills, where the screening is by bar screens and
primary sedimentation in mechanical clarifiers as was used when the
upgrading was done in the previous upgrading step.
Secondary treatment is provided by nutrient addition, aerated lagoon
treatment and biological solids separation in mechanical clarifiers. An
emergency spill basin is installed prior to the secondary treatment
step.
Foam control, flow monitoring and sampling and outfall system are as
used under previous upgrading step.
The solids dewatering and disposal process is the same as the one used
in the previous upgrading step.
BATE A_Tecbno logy.
Internal Measures
The internal measures to bring the base mills up to EATEA consist of
BPCTCA installations plus the following additions:
W07
mtpd (1000 tpd) unbleached kraft linerboard mill, 907 mtpd (1000
tpd) kraft - NSSC 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC - Na base mill, and 227
tpd (250 tpd) NSSC - NH3 base mill
-expanded process water reuse
-separation of cooling water and recovery of heat
91 mtpd (1000 tpd) paperboard from wastepaper mill
-no additional installations beyond those selected to bring these
mills up to EPCTCA.
External Measures
All mill effluents are screened by bar screens and are subjected to
primary solids separation in mechanical clarifiers and secondary
treatment by nutrient addition, activated sludge treatment and secondary
solids separation in mechanical clarifiers. Emergency spill basin is
provided prior to the secondary treatment step.
183
-------
The 907 mtpd (1000 tpd) kraft linerboard mill, and the 907 mtpd (1000
tpd) kraft - NSSC mill effluents receive color removal by
treatment. The 227 mtpd (250 tpd) NSSC - sodium base and amironia
mills have reverse osmosis systems for color removal.
All mill effluents receive further solids reduction by mixed media
filtration.
All mill effluents receive foam control treatment, monitoring and
automatic sampling prior to entering the receiving waters through
diffusers.
Screenings from the linerboard mill and the kraft - NSSC mill effluents
are assumed burned in sludge incinerators, and screenings from the NSSC
Na and NSSC - NH3 base mills are assumed burned in existing bark
boilers.
Primary sludges and waste activated sludge are thickened in gravity
sludge thickeners, and dewatered mechanically by vacuum filters and
presses prior to ultimate disposal.
Ultimate sludge disposal is for the kraft linerboard nrdll and the kraft
NSSC mill by incineration, and for the other mills by sanitary
landfilling.
NSPS Technology
Internal Measures
Internal measures are not costed because such measures are included in
the design of new mills.
External Measures
All mill effluents are screened, receive primary solids separation in
mechanical clarifiers, and secondary treatment by nutrient addition,
activated sludge treatment and secondary solids separation by mechanical
clarifiers. Emergency spill basins are provided ahead of the secondary
treatment step.
All effluents receive foam control, monitoring and automatic sampling
prior to outfall by diffusers.
184
-------
The 907 MTPD (1000 tpd) unbleached kraft and kraft - NSSC (cross
ecovery) mill effluents receive color removal by lime treatment.
i
l"l mill effluents receive further solids reduction by mixed media
filtration.
*
Screenings from the kraft linerboard mill, the kraft - NSSC mill, the
NSSC - Na and the NSSC - NH3 mills are assumed burned in existing bark
burners. The screenings from the other mills are disposed of by
sanitary landfilling.
Primary sludge and wasted activated sludge are thickened in gravity
thickeners prior to mechanical dewatering by vacuum filters and presses.
Sludges frcm the kraft linerboard mill and the kraft - NSSC mill are
incinerated, while all other sludges are disposed of by sanitary land-
filling.
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
As previously stated, the costs shown above do not include energy costs.
Specific energy and power prices have been developed based on the
following:
External treatment
power cost = 1.12/KWH
fuel price = $0.2U/million Kg Cal ($0.95/million BTU)
Internal treatment
steam = $1.86/metric ton ($2.05/short ton)
power = 0.62/KWH
The lower power unit price used for internal treatment takes into con-
sideration the lower cost cf power generated by the mill, while pcwer
from external sources is assumed for external treatment.
Power costs are reported on Table 4U as annual expenditures.
Energy requirements for application of BPCTCA, BATEA, and NSPS are shewn
in Table 45.
185
-------
Type of Mill
TABLE 44
POWER COSTS, $1000
Technology Level
Unbleached Kraft
907 mtpd (1000 tpd)
NSSC-Sodiuir Base
227 mtpd (250 tpd)
NSSC-Ammonia Ease
227 mtpd (250 tpd)
Kraft-NSSC
907 mtpd (1000)
Paperboard from waste paper
91 mtpd (100 tpd)
BPCTCA
248
121
73.
232
BATEA
499
NSPS (2)
609
147
88(1)
503
42
65
91(1)
509
27
(1) Costs for removal of nitrogen are not included because of lack cf
sufficient data.
(2) Costs for NSPS treatment and control technology do not include
expenditures necessary for internal mill improvements. Sufficient
data was not available to establish this portion of the costs.
186
-------
Unbleached Kraft
907 mtpd (1000 :tpd)
NSSC-Sodium Base
117 mtpd (250 tpd)
NSSC-Airanonia Base
117 mtpd (250 tpd)
Kraft-NSSC
907 mtpd (1000 tpd)
Paperboard
91 mtpd (100 tpd)
TABLE 45
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
BPCTCA
kwh Jkwhl
kkg (ton)
EATEA
75
(68)
87
NSPS
kwh
kkg
127
(ton)
(115)
kwh
kkg
153
(ton)
(139)
146 (132) 171 (155) 74 (67)
(79) 104 (94) 104 (94)
69 (63) 128 (116) 125 (113)
154 (140) 148 (134) 92
(83)
187
-------
NON-WATER QUALITY ASPECTS OF CONTROL AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Air gollution_Potential
There are several potential air pollution problems associated with the
external treatment of effluents from mills in each of the subcategories.
When properly designed and operated, primary and biological treatment do
not produce odors associated with anaerobic decomposition. However,
biological treatment of unbleached kraft and NSSC waste waters does
result in very localized odors, especially when mechanical aeration is
employed. The odor is characterized as wood extractives.
There are air pollution problems associated with the treatment of wastes
in the ammonia base NSSC subcategory. These take twc forms. First is
the odor of ammonia arising from the treatment itself. While ammonia is
not present in high concentrations, the odors can te objectionable under
low-wind conditions close to the treatment site. Secondly, the
synergistic combination of gaseous ammonia with other elements in the
atmosphere, such as sulfur dioxide, is believed to te responsible fcr a
localized atmospheric haze under certain conditions. Similar
combinations may be responsible for observed damage to new growth ends
of pine trees.
Odors can arise from improper land disposal of liquid sludges as
result of their anaerobic decomposition. These derive primarily frc
organic acids and hydrogen sulfide produced on reduction of sulfatel
dissolved in the water content of the sludges. Dewatering prior to
disposal on the land inhibits such decomposition, thus reducing odors.
The use of sanitary landfill practices will also mitigate odor probleirs.
Presently sludge lagooning is largely limited to unbleached kraft mills
on large sites. The low level of odor produced is generally ccnfined to
company property. The practice of decanting free water from lagoons and
returning it to the treatment system has noticeably reduced the odor
level in their immediate environs.
Incineration of sludges produced in the effluent treatment processes
can, without appropriate control equipment, result in the discharge of
particulates to the atmosphere. However, emission control devices are
available tc meet state regulatory requirements in most instances. In-
cinerators are either sold with integral emission ccntrol appliances or
are equipped with them on installation. Gaseous pollutant emissions
from such incinerators are negligible.
In-mill controls which effect a reduction in fiber and additive losses,
such as save-alls, recycling of process waters, and removal of dregs and
grits in the unbleached kraft recovery process, are not producers of air
188
-------
pollution. On the other hand, recovery of cooking chemicals in the
Kaft process, which, in addition to its principal function cf conserv-
g expensive raw materials, also serves to reduce chemical waste lead,
oduces odorous sulfur compounds. When these escape the recovery fur-
nace to the atmosphere, they become the major air pollution problems cf
the mill. These emissions and measures to control them are described in
a report prepared for an EPA predecessor agency entitled "Ccntrol of
Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry11 (101).
Potential
There are no official records of public noise problems arising from the
operation of effluent treatment works by the subject subcategcries of
mills. However, based on many years of contractor association with in-
dustry operations, it can be stated that public complaints engendered by
such noise are very infrequent. This is due in all probability to the
remote location of most large treatment works or to their confinement,
in some instances, to manufacturing or utility areas. Also, the noise
level of most of the devices employed for treatment is generally lower
than that cf some manufacturing machinery.
The sources of noise are for the most part air compressors or irechanical
surface aerators supplying air to treatment processes, vacuum pumps and
centrifuges involved in sludge dewatering, and fans serving sludge
incinerators. With the exception of surface aerators, these devices are
most frequently operated in buildings which serve to muffle their noise.
I
mall surface aerators are generally found in small mills which,are more
likely to be located closer to habitation. Units of this size, particu-
larly those not driven through gear boxes, produce little noise. The
problem of noise emanating from gear boxes is the subject of an
extensive investigation by the Philadelphia Gear Company which
manufactures many of these units. It is anticipated that this study
will lead to a reduction in noise from these sources. Noise produced by
the large aerator units which are usually operated away froir built-up
areas is neither high-level nor far-carrying.
It can be concluded that noise produced by equipment used for treating
pulp and paper mill effluent is not a major public problem at present.
Efforts underway to reduce the noise level of mechanical equipment in
general, stimulated by industrial health protection programs, will
assist in preventing it from becoming one.
189
-------
Wast €s_and_Their_Dis]gc sal
In addition to sludges produced by effluent treatment, the following
wastes are or can be produced at mills in the sutcategories covered 'by'
this survey:
UNBLEACHED KRAFT MILLS
(and Kraft-NSSC)
Bark
Rejects and Screenings
Grits and Dregs
Log wash Water
Ash
Waste Paper
Garbage
Trash
NSSC_MILLS
Bark
Rejects and Screenings
Chemical Ash
Ash
Waste Paper
Garbage
Trash
PAPERBOARE^FROM^WASTE PAPER MILLS
Trash
Waste Paper
Fly Ash
Garbage
Linerboard mills which bark rcundwood on the premises produce sufficient
bark to fire a boiler for steam generation so the necessity for its dis-
posal is eliminated. Others receive their wood supply in the form of
chips which are a byproduct of lumbering operations, and no bark is
involved.
Rejects and screenings from linerboard mills are either reprocessed,
burned in incinerators or in the bark-fired bcilers or disposed of by
land fill. The latter procedure represents no problem for most of these
mills because of the large mill sites containing considerable usable
land. Grits and dregs from the causticizing system of the recovery
plant are inorganic solids which are generally water carried tc a land
190
-------
disposal site. This is facilitated by their small quantity which
Pounts to about 22.5 kilograms per metric ton (45 pcunds per short ten)
pulp produced.
Ash from bark- and coal-fired boilers and screening rejects are as a
rule discharged hydraulically to ash ponds. There the solids settle and
compact and the clear supernatant water is discharged to the itiill efflu-
ent system. In some instances, ash and rejects are hauled to a disposal
area away from the mill site. Viet handling of these materials avoids
their being blown into the atmosphere.
Overflow from log washing operations which contains silt and fine bark
particles generally joins the stream carrying ash from the irill.
Waste paper, garbage, and trash attendant to production or accessory
operations and activities are either incinerated on the site cr hauled
away for disposal by contractors engaged in this business.
NSSC corrugating board mills generate most of the kinds of solid wastes
created at linerboard mills and handle them in a similar manner. One
exception is that most of these mills are relatively small operations
which do not produce enough bark to justify a steam-generating bark
boiler. The bark is usually disposed of in incinerators designed for
this purpose.
At NSSC mills where spent liquor is burned in fluidized bed units, ash
consisting of a mixture of sodium carbonate and sodium sulfate is pro-
kced. This is usually sold to kraft mills to be used as a make-up
emical replacing salt cake in the recovery system.
At paperboard from waste paper mills, trash, such as rags, wire and
other metals, glass, and plastics, is removed in the breaker beater and
stock cleaning operations. This material, and grit from the rifflers,
is disposed of by land fill on the mill premises or hauled to a suitable
location for disposal in this manner.
The remaining solids wastes such as ash, waste paper, etc., are handled
as described above.
Particulate emissions from incineration of bark and other solid wastes
must be controlled by effective devices such as bag filters or
scrubbers.
Research has recently been conducted on solid wastes generated in the
pulp and paper industry and their disposal for EPA1s Office of Solid
Waste Management Programs (EPA Contract No. 68-03-0207).
191
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By-product^gecoyery
The unbleached kraft process is the only subject subcategory in
significant quantities of byproducts are recovered. The two major
able byproducts of this process are turpentine and tall oil, both in a
crude form which is usually refined elsewhere.
Digester relief gases are the source of crude sulfate turpentine. The
gases are condensed and the crude oil fractions decanted from the water
fraction. The turpentine requires distillation to remove the objection-
able odcr of the sulfur compounds present. Generally crude turpentine
is shipped from the mills fcr rectification by chemical plants.
Turpentine yields vary with wood specie (102) and cooking variables. A
1969 study (103) reported yields ranging from 6.3-17.9 liters per metric
ton (1.5-4.3 gallons per short ton) of pulp; its market value was esti-
mated at 180-362/metric ton (202-40tf/short ton); and its recovery was
calculated to represent approximately one percent diminution of the
pollution lead in terms of BOD5. Its removal from the mill effluent is
actually cf much greater significance since it has a high tcxicity level
for aquatic life. It is used primarily in paint thinners and the manu-
facture of insecticides.
A light fraction of the distilled turpentine contains dimethyl sulfide
which can be removed and converted to dimethyl sulfoxide, an excellent
industrial solvent (13).
Tall oil components are recovered from kraft black liquor at varioud
points in the chemical recovery system in the form of sodium soap skim"
mings. These are acidified with sulfuric acid to produce tall oil and
the spent acid which consists primarily of sodium sulfate is returned to
the black liquor as chemical make-up. Tall oil consists of a mixture of
resin and fatty acids, and its derivatives are used to make adhesives,
emulsions, paints, disinfectants, and soaps (103).
Tall oil yield per metric ton of kraft peaked in 1968 at about 47.5
kilograms per metric ton (95 pounds per short ton) and has declined to
about 34 kilograms per metric ton (78 pounds per short ton) in 1973.
(104). Normal variations occur depending on the fatty content of the
wood, skimmer efficiency, and other factors. Efficiency of recovery now
averages about 75-80 percent (105).
Fluctuations in price also occur due to market factors and a
considerable range may be found in the literature. The most recent
price quoted is $72.56 per metric ton ($80 per short ton), a 25 percent
increase ever the past five years (104). The economic incentive for
increased soap recovery may expand the corollary benefits of recovery
which have a direct bearing on raw waste load.
192
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The presence cf soap in black liquor accelerates fouling of the evapcra-
which in turn affects required heat differences. This creates the
essity for more frequent bcil-out during which liquor losses inevita-
occur. Frequent skimming of the weak liquor storage tanks is needed
in addition to evaporator skimming to prevent soap being pulled into the
evaporator feed during low liquor inventory. The resultant foaming can
create evaporator upset which will require boil-out to restore stability
(105).
Mill practices which will permit more complete recovery cf turpentine
and tall oil are forecast. For example, shorter storage of chips or
precooking extraction would prevent the loss of turpentine and tall cil
by oxygenation prior to pulping. Solvent extraction of the soap from
black liqucr could improve recovery efficiencies.
On the other hand there are factors which will inhibit recovery of these
byproducts. Increased use of continuous digesters will reduce the yield
of turpentine thus creating a need for an economic method of turpentine
recovery from the black liquor in continuous processes. Mixing pine and
hardwood black liquors reduces the recovery of tall oil and separate
liquor tanks will be required (105) . Use of more hardwood, sawirill
wastes, immature wood, and outside chip storage are other adverse fac-
tors (10U) .
Production of other byproducts, such as methanol, acetic acid, tars,
etc., on a commercial scale is not yet economically feasible. Effluent
limitations and standards are expected to stimulate increased research
byproduct recovery in the next decade.
AvailabilitY_of_Egui,pjnent
Since 1966, when Federal water pollution control expenditures began,
various Federal and private organizations have analyzed the projected
levels of water pollution control activity and their economic impact on
the construction and equipment industries. As a result, a plethora of
studies has been developed which is related to the levels of municipal
and industrial water pollution control construction and the respective
markets for waste water treatment equipment. Less information is avail-
able concerning the actual and anticipated levels of expenditure by any
specific industry.
In recent years, the trend in the waste water equipment industry has
seen the larger firms acquiring smaller companies in order to broaden
their market coverage.
Figure 27 shows graphically past expenditures and projected future out-
lays for the construction of industrial waste water treatment
193
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facilities, as well as total water pollution control expenditures.
Obviously, the level of expenditures by industry is related to the-
Federal compliance schedule. This will increase until industry is ifl
compliance with Federal standards. Once that occurs, the level "o?
spending will return to a level commensurate with the construction of
new facilities, replacement of existing facilities, and the construction
of advanced waste treatment facilities.
Figure 28 shows past expenditures for and projected future trends in
total sales of waste water treatment equipment and the dollar amounts
attributable to industrial and municipal sales. This curve closely
follows the trend shown in Figure 28.
194
-------
VO
Ln
1*5 SO
FIGURE 27
TOTAL WATER POL
CONTROL £XPENDlTUeeS
-------
900
VO
ISSO
FIGURE
WASTEWAT&CZ. .
EQUIPMENT
-------
The data in Figures 27 and 28 related to industrial water pollution
xpenditures include only those costs external to the industrial activ-
., Internal process changes made to accomplish water pollution
control are not included.
Recent market studies have projected the total available production
capacity for water and waste water treatment equipment. Most of them
have indicated that the level of sales is currently only 30-40 percent
of the total available plant capacity. Several major manufacturers were
contacted to verify these figures and indications are that they are
still accurate. A partial reason for this overcapacity is that the de-
mand for equipment has been lower than anticipated. Production capacity
was increased assuming Federal expenditures in accord with funds author-
ized by Congress and conformance to compliance schedules.
For the immediate future, increased demands for waste water treatment
equipment can be absorbed by the existing overcapacity. Long term
requirements will probably necessitate expansion of production capacity
in various product lines where the demand is expected to increase dra-
matically — specifically, advanced treatment systems and waste solids
handling equipment.
It should also be noted that the capacity to produce waste water treat-
ment equipirent could be expanded significantly through the use of inde-
pendent metal fabricators as subcontractors. Even at the present time
independent fabricators are used by some equipment manufacturers when
A?ork loads are heavy and excessive shipping costs make it desirable to
•se a fabricator close to the delivery site.
There appear to be no substantial geographical limitations to the
distribution of waste water treatment equipment to industry. In various
areas, certain suppliers may be more successful than others; however,
this seems to be related more to the effectiveness of the sales
activities than to as geographical limitation. The use of independent
metal fabricators as subcontractors to manufacture certain pieces of
equipment further reduces geographical limitations.
Equipment delivery schedules may vary substantially depending upon the
manufacturer, the current demand, and the specific equipment in
question. Obviously, the greater the demand or the more specialized the
equipment, the greater the delivery time.
Availabilityof^Cgnstructign^Mangower
After consultation with the Associated General contractors of America
and other industry groups, it is concluded that sufficient manpower
exists to construct any required treatment facilities.
197
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This conclusion has reportedly been substantiated by EPA in an indepen-
dent study although there is still seme concern about
problems. The Bureau of Labor Statistics has been requested to
another study.
Constructicn_Cost_Index
The most detailed study and careful analysis of cost trends in prior
years still leave much to te desired in predicting construction costs
through the next ten years.
During the years 1955 through 1965 there was a very consistent price
rise. The Engineering News Record (ENR) Construction Cost Index in
January 1955 was 644. With slight deviations from a straight line,
costs rose at a steady rate to an index of 988 in December 1965. This
represented an increased cost of 53.4 percent over an 11 year period of
approximately five percent per year.
The first six months of 1966 saw an increase of 6.6 percent then leveled
off abruptly only to rise sharply again in 1967 at a rate of 6.2
percent, then increasing to 9.4 percent in 1968.
The increase in costs continued to rise at about 10.5 percent per year
through 1970. During 1971, construction costs rose at the unprecedented
rate of 15.7 percent primarily due to larger increases in labor rates.
With the application of Federal wage and price controls in 1972,
rate of increase dropped to 8.7 percent. The first three months of
saw some escalation of costs due to allowable materials price gains.
(106) EPA determined the increase in Treatment Plant Construction Cost
during this period to be 3.1 percent. This compares v;ith a rise of only
0.9 percent during the previous three months.
The opinion of some officials of the Associated General Contractors is
that the rate of cost increase for general construction work, including
waste water treatment and industrial construction, should average no
more than five to six percent over the next several years. This is,
therefore, the basis used for extension of the ENR Index curve at an
annual six percent increase for construction costs through the year
1983. This is shown in Figure 29.
£and_Rec[uirements
Land requirements for a number of external treatment systems have been
evaluated and are shown in Figure 30 for a range of plant sizes. In-
cineration or off-site disposal of dewatered sludge has been assumed.
Should sludge lagoons be used on site, additional land would be
required.
198
-------
vo
X
lU
o
s
u
5000
ZUOO
ZiOO
\983
X" JUL.Y i«5-73
/ 1^00 ±
1800
I40O
IOOO
I9S5
I960
weo
1983
YEAR
PldURE 29
ENGINEERING, Nt^S RECORD
CONSTRUCTION COST INDfcX
-------
(f)
ID
tt
U
4
in
tt
IOOO
500
NATURAL
STABILIZATION
STABILIZATION
ACTIVATED SLU DG»&
200
FIGUR6 30
LAND REQUIRED FOR
'WASTEWATER, TREATMENT
-------
Time_Reguired_tQ_Cgnstruct^Treatment Facilities
te time required to construct treatment facilities has been determined
r a range of plant sizes and for two different project contract possi-
bilities. The treatment sizes evaluated were under 18.9 million liters
per day - MLD (5 MGD) , 18.9 - 37.8 MLD (5-10 MGD) , and over 37.8 iMLD (10
MGD). The contract bases evaluated were 1) separate engineering and
construction and 2) turnkey performance. The components considered for
both approaches included preliminary engineering, final design
engineering, bid and construction award, and construction.
It is concluded from reviewing the data shown in Figure 31 that it
should be possible in all cases to meet the implementation requirements
of the July 1977 deadlines.
201
-------
O
NJ
MGO
UMDER 5
CONV.
UNDER 5
TURNKEY
5-10
CONV
5-10
TURNKEY
OVER IO
CONV
OVER IO
TURNKEY
1974
JFMAMJJASOND
'"'
•""
1
MI
iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii
inn
• 1 1
-
HIM
1
-
im
1975
JFM AMJ JASOND
HID
„.
-
...
—
-'
• 1 •
, 1
»,«
-
...
1 I •
1
1976
JFM AMJJ ASON-D
1977
JFM AMJJ A
PRELIMINARY ENGINEERING
FINAL DESIGN ENGINEERING FIGURE 31
BID AND CONSTRUCTION AWARD
TIME REQUIRED TO
CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCT WASTEWATER £AC»V.rt\e^
CONVEMTIOWAL < TURKJKEY COKJTI^fci
-------
SECTION IX
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
INTRODUCTION
The effluent limitations which must be achieved by July 1, 1977 are to
specify the degree of effluent reduction attainable through the appli-
cation of the Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available.
Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available is generally
based upon the average of the best existing performance by plants of
various sizes, ages, and unit processes within the industrial subcate-
gory.
Consideration must also be given to:
a. the total cost of application of technology in relation to the
effluent reduction benefits to be achieved from such applica-
tion;
b. the size and age of equipment and facilities involved;
c. the process employed;
d. the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
control techniques;
e. process changes;
f. non-water quality environmental impact (including energy re-
quirements) .
Also, Best Practicable control Technology Currently Available emphasizes
treatment facilities at the end of a manufacturing process but includes
the control technologies within the process itself when the latter are
considered to be normal practice within an industry.
A further consideration is the degree of economic feasibility and engi-
neering reliability which must be established for the technology to be
"currently available." As a result of demonstration projects, pilot
plants, and general use, there must exist a high degree of confidence in
the engineering and economic practicability of the technology at the
time of commencement of construction or installation of the control fa-
cilities.
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EFFLUENT FEDUCTION ATTAINABLE THROUGH THE APPLICATION_OF BEST
RACTIABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
sed upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII and in
the Appendices in this report, a determination has been made that the
point source discharge guidelines for each identified pollutant, as
shown in Table 46, can be obtained through the application of the best
practicable pollution control technology currently available.
Table 46
Recommended BPCTCA Effluent Limitations Guidelines
Values in kg/kkg (1bs/ton)
EOD5 TSS
30_Day. Daily._Max 30_Day. Daily Max
Unbleached Kraft 2.2 (4.4) 4.0 (8.0) 4.6 (9.2) 11.1 (22.2)
NSSC-Ammonia 5.25(10.5) 8.75(17.5) 5.0 (10.0) 8.5 (17.0)
NSSC-Sodium 3.25 (6.5) 4.5 (9.0) 5.0(10.0) 8.5 (17.0)
Unbleached
Kraft-NSSC 3.05 (6.1) 6.35 (12.7) 5.3 (10.6) 12.5 (25.0)
I
perboard from
Waste Paper 1.25 (2.5) 2.2 (4.4) 1.5 (3.0) 2.8 (5.6)
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
The maximum average of daily values for any thirty consecutive day
period should not exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines
shown above. The maximum for any one day should net exceed the daily
maximum effluent limitations guidelines as shown above. The guidelines
shown above are in kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production
(pounds of pollutant per short ton of production). Effluents shculd
always be within the pH range of 6.0 to 9.0.
The above TSS guidelines are for TSS as measured by the technique
utilizing glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard Methods for
the Examination of Water and Wastewater (13th Edition) (1).
Production, in air-dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production (off-the-machine) sustained for seven consecutive operating
days of normal production.
205
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Hydraulic^Debarking Variance
A variance is allowed for mills practicing hydraulic debarking, Tfl
guidelines for these mills may be up to 0.05 kg/kkg (0.1 Ibs/ton)
greater than the above guidelines for BOD5 and TSS.
Temperature Variance
Additional allocations equal to the above guidelines, (excluding pH) ,
are allowed during periods when the waste water temperature within the
treatment system is 35 degrees F or lower. If 35 degrees F is the
maximum temperature which occurs in the waste water within the treatment
system for one day or for 30 consecutive days, the allocation may be
applied to the daily maximum and 30 day maximum guidelines,
respectively.
IDENTIFICATION OF BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE
Best practicable pollution control technology currently available is the
same for all subject subcategories with regard to external treatment of
industrial wastes. However, currently available and applicable
technology varies between subcategories for internal control measures.
The following is a discussion of both these internal and external
controls.
Internal_Contrgl
Unbleached_Kraft
a. Hot Stock Screening
As explained in Section VII, this is a process modification in
which the pulp is passed through a fibrilizer to fractionate
knots and then through a hot stock screen to remove shives.
This sequence avoids the need for dilution of the pulp for
screening and subsequent decker sewer losses.
This should be accomplished without increasing black
liquor concentrations in the white water system.
b. Spill and Evaporator Boil-Out Storage
Evaporators are periodically "boiled out" to restore efficient
operation. The material flushed can be stored in a tark to be
slowly returned to the process upon resumption of operation.
Storage facilities can also be supplied to contain weak black
liquor, strong black liquor, and recovery plant chemicals and
liquors during process upsets for similar return to the system.
206
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NSSC - Sodium Base
a. Spent Liquor Disposal
Spent liquor disposal can be accomplished ty partial evaporation fol
lowed by incineration in a fluidized bed reactor or other coin-
parable unit.
IJSi^C-,;- Ammonia=Base
a. Non-Polluting Liquor Disposal
If there are operating problems in ammonia liquor incineration,
alternate methods for non-polluting disposal such as
sale as a byproduct must be employed.
Kraft^-_NSSC (grosser ecoyervi
a. Hot Stock Screening
As explained in Section VII, this is a process modification in
which the pulp is passed through a fibrilizer to fractionate
knots and then through a hot stock screen to remove shives.
This sequence avoids the need for dilution of the pulp for
screening and subsequent decker sewer losses.
This should be accomplished without increasing black liquor
concentrations in the white water system.
b. Spill and Evaporator Boil-Out Storage
Evaporators are periodically "boiled out" to restore efficient
operation. The material flushed can be stored in a tank to be
slowly returned to the process upon resumption of operation.
Storage facilities can also be supplied to contain weak black
liquor, strong black liquor, and recovery plant chemicals and
liquors during process upsets for similar return to the system.
Paperbgard from Waste Paper
a. Land Disposal of Junk Materials
Extraneous matter found in waste paper, such as metals, plas-
tics, and rags, should be efficiently removed from the process
and disposed of on the land.
207
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Pager_Machines (All sufccateggries^
a. Water Showers
Fresh water showers used to clean wire, felt, and other machine
elements (of both fourdrinier and cylinder machines) should be
low-volume and high-pressure; white water showers should be low
pressure, high-volume, and self-cleaning.
b. Segregation of White Water Systems
The segregation of white water systems should be designed to per
mit maximum reuse within the stock preparation/machine systems
and in the pulp mill and to permit only low fiber content white
water to enter the sewer.
c. Press Water Filtering
A vibrating or centrifugal screen should be employed tc remove
felt hairs prior to press water reuse.
d. Collection System for Vacuum Pulp Seal Water
Seal water should be collected for partial reuse and/or cascade
to or from other water users.
e. Save-all with Associated Equipment
An effective save-all should be employed to recover fibrous and
other suspended material which escapes from the paper machine.
f. Gland Water Reduction
Flow control of individual seal water lines tc equipment packing
glands, or equivalent measures, should be exercised.
208
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eternal^ Treatment
a. Suspended solids Reduction
This step involves removal of suspended solids from the
raw waste stream. It can incorporate 1) an earthen
stilling basin; 2) mechanical clarification and sludge removal;
3) and/or dissolved air flotation. Solids dewatering screens
can also be incorporated prior to solids settling as a means of
removing coarse solids.
b. BOD5 Reduction
The treatment system for reduction of BOD5 may be either
one or two stage biological treatment. The treatment system
may consist of the activated sludge process (AS) , aerated
basins (ASB), and/or storage oxidation ponds (SO).
c. Biological Solids Removal
The treatment system should provide for removal of biological
solids by either mechanical clarifiers, stilling ponds (or a
SO following ASB or AS), or a quiescent zone in an ASE which is
beyond the influence of the aeration equipment.
d. Sludge Disposal
When compatible with ether unit processes, sludge disposal can
often be carried out in a stilling pond. However, this neces-
sitates periodic dredging, removal, and disposal of solids.
Where activated sludge and mechanical clarification are utilized,
ultimate sludge disposal can be accomplished through sludge
thickening by vacuum filtration or centrifugation, followed by
sludge dewatering and ultimate solids disposal. Disposal can be
accomplished by either sanitary landfilling or incineration.
Combustion can be carried either in a sludge incinerator, the
power boiler, or the bark boiler in unbleached kraft pulp mill
operations.
209
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RATIONALE FOR THE SELECTION OF BEST PRACTICABLE POLLUTICN CONTRO
TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE
Age_and Size of Equipment and Facilities
There is a wide range, in both size and age, among mills in the subcate-
gories studied. However, internal operations of most older mills have
been upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very efficient
ly. The technology for upgrading of older mills is well established,
and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within a given sub-
category. Studies have also shown that waste treatment plant perfor-
mance does not relate to mill size. Most mills within a subcategory are
constructed on a "modular" concept, where key process elements are
duplicated as mill size expands, consequently, there is no significant
variation in either the waste water characteristics or in the waste
water loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in pounds per short
ton of product), between mills of varying sizes.
Process Change
Application of best technology currently available does net require
major changes in existing industrial processes for the subcategories
studied. Incorporation of additional systems, treatment processes, and
control measures can be accomplished in most cases through changes in
piping, and through design modifications to existing equipment. Such
alterations can be carried out on all mills within a given subcategory.
The technology to achieve these effluent limitations is practiced within
the subcategories under study. The concepts are proven, available for
implementation, and applicable to the wastes in question. The waste
treatment techniques are also broadly applied within many other indus-
tries. The technology required will necessitate improved monitoring of
waste discharges and of waste treatment components on the part of ir.any
mills, as well as more extensive training of personnel in operation and
maintenance of waste treatment facilities. However, these procedures
are currently practiced in some mills and are common practice in many
other industries.
Ngprwater Quality^Environmental Impact
Application of the activated sludge waste treatment process offers a
potential for adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated. However, proper selection and operation of particulate
emission control equipment can minimize this impact. Dredged or dewa-
tered sludges disposed of on land can present an odor problem unless
sanitary landfilling techniques are properly instituted.
210
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The technology cited will not create any significant increase in noise
Revels beyond those observed in well designed municipal wastewater
reatment systems which currently are being approved by the Federal
government for construction in populated areas. Further, no hazardous
chemicals are required as part of this technology.
The greatest proportion of energy consumed will be for pumping and for
biological treatment. The total energy requirements for implementation
of best available technology for the categories under study are not sub-
stantial and should not be great enough to warrant concern on either a
national or regional basis. However, it should be cautioned that no
investigation has been made in this study into the cumulative effect of
energy requirements when all industries within the country
simultaneously implement best available technology levels.
C.2§t of AEfilication in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII and the Appendices
of this report, the total project costs of BPCTCA reflects an increase
of production expenses as shown in Table 47.
Table 47
Cost of Application of BPCTCA (1971 Cost Index)
Size Total Annual Increase in
metric tons/day Cost, Inc1. Costs $/metric ton
ubcategory. Jshort_tons/day-]_ Energy t*/short_ton)
Unbleached Kraft 907 (1000) $2,675,000 8.43 (7.65)
NSSC-Sodium Base 227 (250) $1,194,000 15.04 (13.65)
NSSC-Ammonia Ease 227 (250) $375,000* 4.74 (4.30)*
Kraft-NSSC
(Cross Recovery) 907 (1000) $2,922,000 8.60 (7.80)
Paperboard from
Waste Paper 91 (100) $259,000 9.53 (8.64)
*Cost data for internal mill improvements was not available.
Thus, these costs reflect only the external treatment reccnrmended.
These increases reflect both all internal mill and external waste treat-
ment improvements. They are based on 350 days of production/year except
for the paperboard from waste paper subcategory which is based upon 300
days/year. It should be emphasized, however, that most mills have
already carried out many of these improvements. Consequently, their
increased costs would be less than those shown above.
211
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Processes Employed
All mills within each subcategory studied utilize the same basic produc^j
tion processes. Although there are deviations in equipment and produc-
tion procedures, these deviations do not significantly alter either the
characteristics or the treatability of the wastewater generated.
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
The rationale used in developing the effluent guidelines limitations for
BOD5, TSS, and pH is discussed below for each of the subcategories.
Specifically, methods which were used for selecting the 30 day
limitation and r the daily maximum are discussed. Calculations and
assumptions used in determining the effluent limitation guidelines are
included in Appendix IIB.
Where data was available, the 30 day limitation was determined by
averaging the mean 30 consecutive days plus cne standard deviation
(M30CD+SD) value for the exemplary mills in the sutcategcry. The
M30CD+SD was used as a basis for the 30 day limitation guidelines to
allow for the natural variability cf mill and treatment plant operations
over a year's time. Addition of the standard deviation (SD) to the
M30CD value allows the exemplary mills to be within the limitation
guidelines 83.556 of the time. (67% for one SD plus 16.5% - derived from
3356/2 =16.5%). Tighter controls by the mills to eliminate unnatural
variations in mill and treatment system operations, such as spills or
human errors, should allow the exemplary mills tc be within the effluent,
limitations all of the time.
When an adequate amount of data was not available for the exemplary
mills to determine the average M30CD+SD value, the annual average of
daily values or monthly means were used as a basis in selecting the
limitations. The daily maximum limitation was determined using the
annual average plus two standard deviations (AA+2SD) for all
subcategories. Tables 3 and 6 in Appendix IIA shows for each exemplary
mill for which an adequate amount of data was available, the ratio of
the AA+2SE to the annual average for both BOD5 and TSS. This ratic is a
measure of the daily variability of the treatment systems at the rrills.
The average ratio for BOD5 was 2.5 (AR-BOD5) and for TSS was 2.8 (AR-
TSS) . Also shown is the ratio of the maximum month to the annual
average as this is also considered indicative of treatment system
variability. The average ratios were 2.0 and 2.1 for BOD5 and 1SS,
respectively. The AA+2SD is a more realistic indication "of daily
variations than the maximum month as the AA+2SE allows for the exemplary
mills to be within the limitation guidelines at least 97.5% of the time.
(95% for two SD plus 2.5% - derived from 5%/2 = 2.5%). Values of 2.5
(AR-BOD5) and 2.8 (AR-TSS) for BOD5 and TSS, respectively, times the
annual average were used to determine daily maximum limitation
guidelines for all subcategories.
212
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~_3O^Dav_Lirnitation Guidelines
The 30 day limitation guidelines for BOD5 were determined by averaging
the M30CE+SD values for exemplary mills "a", "b", and "c" as shewn in
Table 1, Appendix IIA. Exemplary mill "d" was not used because of the
relatively inefficient BOD5 removal being achieved by the rrill's
treatment system. The average M30CD+SD value was 2.17 kg/kkg (4.34
Ibs/ton) and thus, 2.2 kg/kkg (4.4 Ibs/ton) was chosen as the effluent
limitation guidelines.
BOD5 - Daily Maximu^Limitation^Guidelines
The daily maximum limitation guideline for BOD.5 was determined by
averaging the annual average values for mills exemplary mills "a", "b11,
and "c" and multiplying by 2.5 (AR-BODjj) . The average annual average
was 1.6 kg/kkg (3.21 Ibs/ton). Thus, 4.0 kg/kkg (8.0 Ibs/ton) is the
daily maximum.
1.6 kg/kkg (3.2 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 4.0 kg/kkg (8.0 Ibs/ton)
TSS -^30 Day Limitation Guidelines
The entire data base which was accumulated could not be completely
utilized in developing the guidelines limitations, because a majority of
the mills use non-standard methods (NSM) where analyzing for effluent
kuspended solids as discussed previously. Since NSM cannot be directly
orrelated with standard methods (SM) by application of a conversion
factor, data for mills using NSM or data for literature mills
(unidentified mills - thus, methods unknown) was not directly used in
determining the limitation guidelines. Thus, as shewn in Table 18,
Section VII, data for exemplary mills "a" and "b", NCASI mills "22",
"33", "44", and "55", and Literature mills 1=10 was not directly
considered. Mills for which data was available that use SM include
exemplary irills "c" and "d" and NCASI mill "66".
The M30CD+SD for mills "c", "d", and "66" were averaged to determine the
limitation guideline. The average M30CD+SD for mills "c", "d", and "66"
was 4.6 kg/kkg (9.2 Ibs/ton). Thus, an effluent limitation guideline of
4.6 kg/kkg (9.2 Ibs/ton) was chosen.
TSS-DailY^Maximum Limitation Guideline
The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.8
(AR-TSS) times the average annual average of mills "c", "d", and "66".
The average annual average was 3.96 kg/kkg (7.93 Ibs/ton) and thus the
daily maximum is 11.1 kg/kkg (22.2 Ibs/ton).
3.96 kg/kkg (7.93 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS) = 11.1 kg/kkg (22.2 Ibs/ton)
213
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NSSC-Anunonia^gase
BOD5-30 Day Limitation Guidelines
The available data for the exemplary mill in this sutcategory was only
available on a monthly basis. The monthly average was 5.25 kg/kkg (19.5
Ibs/ton) as shown in Table 1, Appendix IIA. Data from other sources
were nonexistent. The data shows this mill as achieving 84.3% reduction
using monthly averages. This level is very similar to exemplary mills
performance in other subcategories. Thus, 5.25 kg/kkg (10.5 Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the 30 day limitation guidelines.
BOD5-Daily Maximum Limitation Guidelines
To determine the daily maximum limitation guidelines, a theoretical
annual average was first calculated for the mill since only monthly data
was available. The resulting theoretical annual average was 3.5 kg/kkg
(7.0 Ibs/ton). Multiplication of the theoretical annual average by 2.5
(AR-BOD5) resulted in the daily maximum of 8.75 kg/kkg (17.5 Its/ton).
3.5 kg/kkg (7.0 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 3.5 kg/kkg (17.5 Its/ten).
TSS^3_0_Dav._Limitation_ Guideline
To determine the limitations guideline for TSS, the subcategories of
NSSC-ammonia base and NSSC-sodium base were considered together for the
following reasons: (1) the processes are similar with comparafclJ|
resultant raw waste loads except for the high levels of ammonia nitrcge™
in ammonia base NSSC mill waste waters and (2) the small amount of
available data in each subcategory.
Even though the data for mill "e" is based on NSM, there was a high
degree of correlation between the short term survey results (SM) and the
mill records. It appeared that the short term survey was conducted
during an "average raw waste load period as the short term raw waste
data is nearly equal to the average of the year's data. Therefore irill
"e" data was considered along with mill "f" data to determine the
limitation guidelines.
Since both mills were only achieving less than SOX reduction of TSS when
a level of at least 75-80% reduction is desirable, 15% reduction was
applied to the mills raw wastes to determine the desired effluent level.
The M30CD+SD values were then calculated and averaged to determine the
limitation guideline. The average M30CD+SD was 5.06 kg/kkg (10.12
Ibs/ton). Thus, 5.0 kg/kkg (10.0 Ibs/ton) was chosen as the effluent
limitation guideline.
214
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T S S - Da i 1 y__ Ma x imu m_L imit a t ion_ Guideline
The daily iraximuin limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.8
times the average of the calculated annual averages. The daily maximum
limitation is thus 8.5 kg/kkg (17.0 Ibs/ton) .
3.06 kg/kkg (6.12 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS) = 8.56 kg/kkg (17.13 Ibs/tcn)
BOD 5 __ 30 Day Limitation^Guideline
The data for exemplary mill "f" as shown in Table 1, Appendix IIA, does
not include the entire waste leading from the mill. A portion of the
mill's waste water is discharged untreated. Thus, the available rrill
data can only be used to determine the total raw waste load and the
treatment system removal efficiencies for a portion of the total raw
waste load. The total raw waste load is 7.3 kg/kkg (14.6 Ibs/ton) and
treatment efficiencies are 88.7%. Application of 88.7% BOD5 removal to
the total raw waste load yields a theoretical 0.8 kg/kkg (1.6 Ibs/ton)
in the final effluent.
Reviewing data from the literature as shown in Table 10 of Section V
suggests that the raw waste load from mill "f" is a relatively low raw
waste load. Using the three lowest raw waste loads as shown in Table 10
Section V and assuming that mill "f" is the same mill as the lowest
Loading, the average raw waste load was calculated. Using 85% BOD5
removal, the annual average and M30CD+SD were calculated. The M30CD+SD
value was 3.15 kg/kkg (6.3 Ibs/ton) and thus 3.25 kg/kkg (6.5 Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the effluent guideline limitation.
BOD 5- Daily Maximum^ Limit at ion Guidelines
The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.5
times the annual average effluent level. Thus, 4.5 kg/kkg (9,0 Ibs/ton)
was chosen as the daily maximum.
1.8 kg/kkg (3.6 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) =4.5 kg/kkg (9.0 Iks/ton)
TSS-3 0 DaY_and_Daily Maximum Limitation Guidelines
The limitation guidelines were determined previously in the discussion
under NSSC-ammonia base.
215
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Kraft-NSSC __ (cross ^recovery).
BODS-paily^Maximuin^Limitation Guideline
The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.5
times the annual average as calculated above. Thus, 6.35 kg/kkg (12.7
Ibs/ton) is the daily maximum.
2.53 kg/kkg (5.07 Ibs/ton) X 2.5(AR-BOD5) = 6.35 kg/kkg (12.7 Ibs/ton)
TSS-SO^Day^Limitation^Guideline
The 30 day limitation guideline was determined by averageing exemplary
mill "g" and NCASI mill "1" effluent levels by determining M30CC+SD
values for exemplary mill "g" and NCASI mill "1". Eata available from
other mills was not acceptable due to NSM. The M30CD+SD value for NCASI
mill "1" was calculated and the average of the two mills M30CC+SD values
was determined. The limitation guideline was thus 5.3 kg/kkg (10.6
Ibs/ton) .
TSS-DailY_Maximum Limit at ion^Guideline
The daily iraximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying 2.8
times the average annual average for the two mills. The daily maximum
is therefore 12.5 kg/kkg (25.0 Ibs/ton).
4.47 kg/kkg (8.95 Ibs/ton) X 2.8(AR-TSS) = 12.5 kg/kkg (25.0 Ibs/ton)
BOD5-3 C Day Limitation Guideline
The 30 day limitation guideline was determined by averaging ar.nual
averages and calculating the M30CD+SD value. Mill data that was used
included exemplary mills ,"j", "k" , and "1" NCASI mills "2", "3", and "5"
(NCASI mill "1" is the same as exemplary mill "k"; NCASI mills "4" and
"6" were excluded because their effluent levels were relatively high
compared to all of the other mills), and Literature mills f1-10. Data
for these mills is shown in Table 36, Section VII. The average M30CE+SD
value for the above mills was 1.14 kg/kkg (2.29 Ibs/ton). Allowing for
variability in effluent levels due to the raw materials and processes
used within this subcategory, the 30 day limitations guideline was
chosen as 1.25 kg/kkg (2.50 Ibs/ton).
216
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Limitation Guideline
daily rraximum limitation guideline is 2.8(AR-TSS) times the average
annual average for the above mills. The daily maximum is therefore 2.20
kg/*kkg (4.40 Ibs/ton) .
0.88 kg/kkg (1.76 Ibs/ton) X 2.5 (AR-EOD5) = 2.20 kg/kkg (4.40 Ibs/ton).
TSSr30_Day^Limitation_Guideline
The 30 day limitation guideline was determined using data from exemplary
mills "j", "k", and "1" and NCASI mills "2", "3", and "5" all of which
used SM. The M30CD_SD values for the NCASI mills was calculated and the
average of the M30CD+SD values for all of the mills was determined. The
average M30CD+SD was 1.50 kg/kkg (3.00 Ibs/ton) and was chosen as the 30
day limitation guideline.
TSS-Daily^Maximum Limitation Guideline
The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined by multiplying the
average annual average for the above mills which was 1.00 kg/kkg (2.00
Ibs/ton) by 2.8 (AR-TSS). The daily maximum is thus 2.8 kg/kkg (5.6
Ibs/ton) .
1.00 kg/kkg (2.00 Ibs/ton) X 2.8 (AR-TSS) = 2.8 kg/kkg (5.6 Its/ton).
^.1 Subcateggries pH^Range
The pH range of 6.0-9.0 in receiving waters is satisfactory for aquatic
life as specified in the draft document by the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) on Water_2ualitXJCx!£§£i!• Thus, the effluent limitation
of pH range 6.0-9.0 was chosen for all subcategories.
217
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SECTION X
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
INTRODUCTION
Best available technology economically achievable is to be achieved not
later than July 1, 1983. It is not based upon an average of the best
performance within a given subcategory under study, but has been
determined by identifying the very best control and treatment technology
employed by a specific point source within a given subcategory, or by
applying technology from other industry areas where it is transferrable.
Consideration was also given to:
a. the age of equipment and facilities involved;
b. the process employed;
c. the engineering aspects of the application of various types of
control techniques:
d. process changes;
e. cost of achieving the effluent reduction resulting frcm
application of the technology;
f. non-water quality environmental impact, including energy
requirements.
This level of technology emphasizes both process improvements and
external treatment of waste waters. It will, therefore, require
existing mills to implement significant internal changes on water reuse
and chemical recovery and recycle as well as to apply more advanced
waste treatment processes and other improved internal and external
controls in order to meet the suggested effluent guidelines. In some
cases, the industry may be required to conduct applied research and
demonstration studies in order to firmly establish the most economical
approach toward meeting the guidelines. Such studies on the removal of
color and nitrogen, where applicable, will undoubtedly be desirable.
218
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EFFLUENT_PEDUCTION_ATTAINABLE_THROUGH_APPLICAT10N_OF_THE_BEST_AVAILAEL. E
TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII and
the appendices of this repcrt, a determination has been made that the
point source discharge guidelines for each identified pollutant as
shown in Table 48 can be obtained through the application of best
available technology.
Table 48
Recommended BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
ECE5 TSS
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
1.
3.
1.
1.
0.
30
38
5
5
5
65
Day
(2.
(7.
(3.
(3.
(1.
Daily Max
75)
0)
0)
0)
3)
2.
5.
2.
2.
1.
5
87
1
95
25
(5.0)
(11.75)
(4.2)
(5.9)
(2.5)
1
2
2
2
0
30
Day
.85 (3.7)
.0
.0
.1
.6
(4.0)
(4.0)
(4.2)
(1.2)
Daily Max
4.45 (8.9)
4.5 (9.0)
4.5 (9.0)
5.0 (10.0)
1.1 (2.2)
Unbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 tc 9.0
Color
30 Day Daily Max
10 (20) 15 (30)
75 % removal
75 % removal
10 (20) 15 (30)
219
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Effluent limitations guidelines are needed for nitrogen for NSEC ammonia
base mills only. However, no specific limitation has been establish
because of the extreme lack of meaningful data. Currently, only
such mills exist and preliminary indications are that discharges in the
range of 7.5-10.0 kilograms per metric ton (15-20 pounds per short ton)
can occur. No technology for the removal of nitrogen has been applied
within the pulp and paper industry, and only very limited technology has
been applied in other industries, especially at the concentrations
cited. Extensive studies on effective methods for the removal of
nitrogen in these concentrations must be carried out before specific
effluent limitations guidelines can be established.
The above guidelines for TSS are measured by the technique utilizing
glass fiber filter disks as specified in Standard Methods f_or the
Examination of Water and Wastewater, (13th Edition) (1) .
The above limitations guidelines for color are for color as measured ty
the NCASI testing method as described in NCASI Technical Bulletin #2.53
(2) . The above color limitations guidelines of 75% removal for both
sodium and ammonia base NSSC will be changed to kilograms of color per
metric ton of production (pounds of color per short ton of production)
at a later date when technology has been confirmed by mere
installations.
The maximum average of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
should not exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines shown
above. The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximu
effluent limitations guidelines shewn above. The guidelines are
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutan1
per short ton of production).
urn
I
Production, in air-dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production (off the machine) sustained for seven consecutive operating
days of normal production.
!I!LINTIFICATION_gF_TJIE_EEST_AVAJLABLE
The best available technology economically achievable consists of the
best practicable control technology currently available as defined in
Section IX of this report. It also includes the following additional
internal mill improvements and external advanced waste water treatment
practices.
Internal_Ccntrols
Pulping operations of all applicable subcategories will be able to
implement modifications and operating procedures fcr:
220
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a. reuse of fresh water filter backwash;
b. control of spills whereby major polluticnal loads bypass the
waste water treatment system to a retention basin and are ulti-
mately either reused, gradually discharged into the treatment
system, or treated separately;
c. reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
without decreasing washing efficiencies;
d. extensive internal reuse of process waters;
e. separation of cooling waters from other waste water streams, and
subsequent heat removal and reuse;
f. extensive reduction cf gland water spillage.
With the exception of the procedures pertaining to reuse of fresh water
filter backwash (a.) and reduction of pulp wash and extraction water
(c.), the same modifications and procedures are applicable to and
capable of implementation by all paper machine systems, including
paperboard from waste paper mills.
External_Treatment
Section IX of the report describes best practicable external control
schnology currently available. Application of that technology in
injunction with several additional recognized and potential
Technologies described in Section VII constitutes best available
technology economically achievable. The additional external processes
applicable to this more advanced technology are as follows:
a. BCD5 Reduction
The treatment system for reduction of BOD5 should
consist of two stage biological treatment.
b. Suspended Solids Reduction
In addition to the technologies identified
in Section IX, suspended solids shall be
further reduced by mixed media filtration
with, if necessary, chemical addition and coagulation.
c. color Reduction
Color reduction should be achieved by lime treatment for unbleached
kraft and kraft - NSSC (cross recovery) mills, and by
reverse osmosis for NSSC - sodium base and NSSC-
ammonia base mills.
221
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RATIONALE TOR THE SELECTION OF THE BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE
Age and Sizg gf_EguiBinent and_gacilities
There is a wide range, in both size and age, among mills in the
subcategories studied. However, internal operations of most older mills
have been upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very
efficiently. The technology for updating of older mills is well
established, and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within a
given subcategory. Studies have also shown that waste treatment plant
performance does not relate to mill size. Most mills within a
subcategory are constructed on a "modular" concept, where key process
elements are duplicated as mill size expands. Consequently, there is no
significant variation in either the waste water characteristics or in
the waste water loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in pounds
per short ton of product) , between mills of varying sizes.
Application of best available technology economically achievable does
not require major changes in existing industrial processes for the sub-
categories studied. Incorporation of additional systems, treatment
processes, and control measures can be accomplished in most cases
through changes in piping, and through design modifications to existing
equipment. Such alternations can be carried out on all mills within a
given subcategory.
Engineering A spec ts_of Con trgl Technigue_AEpli cations
The technology to achieve most of these effluent limitations is either
practiced within the pulp and paper industry by an outstanding mill in a
given subcategory, or is demonstrated in other industries and
transferable. However, sufficient research and pilot work has been
carried cut on both parameters to demonstrate the feasibility of
achieving the guidelines after completion of additional study. In fact,
several full scale color removal systems currently exist. The
technology required for all best available treatment and control systems
will necessitate sophisticated monitoring, sampling, and control
programs, as well as properly trained personnel.
Ngn-water_guality_EnvirQnmental_Imgact
Application of the activated sludge waste treatment process offers a
potential for adverse impact upon air quality if dewatered sludges are
incinerated. However, proper selection and operation of particulate
emission control equipment can minimize this impact. Dredged or
dewatered sludges disposed of on land can present an odor problem unless
sanitary landfilling techniques are properly instituted.
222
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The technology cited will not create any significant increase in noise
|els beyond those observed in well designed municipal wastewater
fatment systems which currently are being approved by the Federal
government for construction in populated areas. Further, no hazardous
chemicals are required as part of this technology.
The greatest proportion of energy consumed will be fcr pumping and for
biological treatment. The total energy requirements for implementation
of best available technology for the categories under study are not
substantial and should not be great enough to warrant concern on either
a national or regional basis. However, it should be cautioned that no
investigation has been made in this study on the cumulative effect of
energy requirements when all industries within the country
simultaneously implement best available technology levels.
Cost^of Application in Relation tg^Ef fluent Rgduct ion gene f it g
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII and the Appendices
of this report, total projected cost of upgrading a mill incorporating
best practicable control technology currently available to the level of
best achievable technology economically feasible reflects an increase in
production expenses as shown in Table 49, (1971 price index).
Table 49
Cost af Application of BATEA
Size Total Annual Increase in
metric tons/day Cost Inc1. Costs iretric ton
.i§h2£t_tons/dayj_ __ Energy __ ___ ($/shgrt_tgn],
Unbleached Kraft 907 (1000) $1,505,000 4.74 (4.30)
NSSC-Soduim Base 227 (250) $465,000 5.85 (5.31)
NSSC-Ammonia Ease 227 (250) $383,000 4.83 (4.38)
Kraft-NSSC
(With Cross Recovery) 907 (1000) $1,645,000 5.18 (4.70)
Paperboard from
Waste Paper 91 (100) $35,000 1.29 (1.17)
These increases reflect both all internal mill and external waste
treatment improvements, with the exception of nitrogen removal for NSSC
ammonia base mills. Sufficient data was not available on this
parameter. The increases are based on 350 days of production per year
223
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except for the paperboard from waste paper subcategory which is based^
upon 300 days per year.
Processes Employed
There is a wide range, in both size and age, among mills in the
subcategories studied. However, internal operations of mcst older mills
have been upgraded, and some of these mills currently operate very
efficiently. The technology for upgrading cf elder mills is well
established, and does not vary significantly from mill to mill within a
given subcategory. Studies have also shewn that waste treatment plant
performance does not relate to mill size. Most mills within a
subcategory are constructed on a "modular" concept, where key process
elements are duplicated as mill size expands. Consequently, there is no
significant variation in either the waste water characteristics or in
the waste water loading rates, in kilograms per metric ton (in pounds
per short ton of product) , between mills of varying sizes.
Rationale_for_DevelQgment_gf^BATEA^Ef fluent Limitations Guidelines
The rationale used in developing the BATEA effluent limitation
guidelines for BOD5, TSS, pH, and Color are discussed below.
Calculaticns and assumptions used are shown in Appendix IIC.
BOD5_-_30_DaY_Limitatign_Guideline
As in BPCTCA guidelines development, the M30CD+SD was used as the basjj|
for the BATEA guidelines as was discussed in Section IX. Tlfl
recommended treatment system for BATEA should remove at least 90-9 5% o?
BODj>. Thus, the 30 day limitation guidelines were determined by
applying 93% reduction to the raw waste load for each subcategory and
calculating the M30CD+SD.
BOD5 - DailY^Maximum_Limitatign Guideline
The daily maximum limitation guideline was determined in the same manner
as the BPCTCA daily maximum guidelines as discussed in Section IX.
TSS - 30^ DaY^Limi tat. ion Guideline
The 30 day limitation guidelines were determined by reducing the EPCTCA
30 day limitation guidelines by 60%. This reflects the addition of
mixed media filtration to the recommended treatment system for BATEA
Mixed media filtration can reduce well flocculated suspended solids
levels by at least 90%. Suspended solids which are relatively dispersed
which are common to pulp and paper mill effluents can be reduced up to
80-85% by mixed media filtration with chemical addition and coagulation
prior to the mixed media filtration units. Thus, a very conservative
reduction of 60% was applied to the BPCTCA effluent ^ limitation
guidelines.
22U
-------
TSS^- Dai ly_Maximum_L imitation Guideline
daily maximum limitation guideline was determined by applying 60%
reduction to the BPCTCA daily maximum guidelines.
The pH range of 6.0-9.0 in receiving waters is satisfactory for aquatic
life as specified in the draft document by the National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) on Vvater Quality_Criteria . Thus, the effluent limitation
of pH range 6.0-9.0 was chosen for all subcategories .
Color
Unbleached_Kraft - 30 Day^LimitationmGuideline
Minimum lime treatment systems have demonstrated that consistent
effluent levels of 125-150 APHA CU can be attained independent of
influent color levels. Massisve lime treatment systems have, achieved
effluent levels of 200-250 APHA CU. At the BATEA water usage of 37560
liters/kkg (9000 gal/ton) and at 250 APHA CU, the effluent color level
would be 9.35 kg/kkg (18.7 Ibs/ton) . Thus, an effluent limitation
guideline for color of 10 kg/kkg (20 Ibs/ton) was chosen.
Daily Maximum^Limit at ion Guideline
m. daily maximum of 50% greater than the 30 day limitation was chosen as
^;he demonstrated processes had daily variations of approximately 50%
from the long term average.
(Cross_RecoveryJ__
Efficiencies of the demonstrated lime treatment systems for removal of
color from Kraft - NSSC waste waters are generally 15% less than for
unbleached kraft waste waters. Thus, 12.5 kg/kkg (25 Ibs/ton) was
chosen as the 30 day effluent limitation guideline. The daily maximum
is 50% greater and thus is 18.75 kg/kkg (37.5 Ibs/ton).
NSSC^-^Ammonia Base, Sodium^ Ease
Reverse osmosis has not yet been demonstrated at full mill scale.
However, pilot scale studies have indicated that at least 75% reduction
of color should be achievable. Thus, the effluent limitation guideline
was chosen as 75% removal cf color.
225
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SECTION XI
NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
INTRODUCTION
This level of technology is to be achieved by new sources. The term
"new source" is defined in the Act to mean "any source, the construction
of which is commenced after the publication of proposed regulaticns pre-
scribing a standard of performance." Such commencement of construction
can occur within the near future, certainly before either the 1977 or
1983 compliance dates for either best practicable or best achievable
technolog ies.
Consideration has also been given to:
a. The type of process employed and process changes;
b. Operating methods;
c. Batch as opposed to continuous operations;
d. Use of alternative raw materials and mixes of raw materials;
e. Use of dry rather than wet processes (including substitution
of recoverable solvents for water);
f. Recovery of pollutants as by-products;
EFFLUENT REDUCTIONS ATTAINABLE THROU THE APPLICATION OF NEW SOURCjl
PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
Based upon the information contained in Sections III through VIII and in
the appendices of this report, a determination has been made that the
point source discharge standards for each identified pollutant shown in
Table 50 can be obtained through the application of proper technology.
226
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Subcateqory
Unbleached
Kraft
Table 50
Recommended NSPS Effluent Limitation Guidelines
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
BOD5 TSS
30~DayDaily Max 30 Day
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
1.38 (2.75) 2.5 (5.0)
3.5 (7.0) 5.87 (11.75)
1.5 (3.0) 2.1 (4.2)
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC 1.5 (3.0) 2.95 (5.9)
Paperboard from
Waste Paper 0.65 (1.3) 1.25 (2.5)
1.85 (3.7)
2.0 (4.0)
2.0 (4.0)
2.1 (4.2)
0.6 (1.2)
Daily Max
4.45 (8.9)
4.5 (9.0)
4.5 (9.0)
5.0 (10.0)
1.1 (2.2)
Color
Jnbleached
Kraft
NSSC - Ammonia
NSSC - Sodium
Unbleached
Kraft - NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
30 Day Daily Max
10 (20) 15 (30)
10 (20) 15 (30)
pH for all subcategories shall be within the range of 6.0 to 9.0
The maximum average of daily values for any 30 consecutive day period
should not exceed the 30 day effluent limitations guidelines shown
above. The maximum for any one day should not exceed the daily maximum
effluent limitations guidelines shown above. The guidelines are in
kilograms of pollutant per metric ton of production (pounds of pollutant
per short ton of production). The above TSS guidelines are for TSS as
measured by the technique utilizing glass fiber filter disks as
227
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specified in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, (13th Edition) (1). The above color limitations guidelines
are for color as measured by methods described in NCASI TechnicjJ
Bulletin #253 (2) .
Production, in air dry tons, is defined as the highest average level of
production (off the machine) sustained for seven consecutive operating
days of normal production.
IDENTIFICATION OF TECHNOLOGY TO ACHIEVE THE NEW SOURCE PERFOPMANCE
STANDARDS ~ ~
The technology to achieve the new source performance standards shculd
consist of the best available pollution control technology economically
achievable as described in Section X with the following changes:
External^Ccntrgls
Color reduction for NSSC - sodium base and NSSC - ammonia base mills is
not required.
RATIONALE FOR SELECTION OF TECHNOLOGY FOR NEW SOURCE PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS
Tvj3e_Qf^Prgcess_Employed and^Process Changes
No radical new in-plant processes are proposed as a means of achieving
new source performance standards for the sutcategories studied. The
internal control technologies which are recommended have all be
demonstrated in mills within the subcategories under study or in ether
segments of the pulp and paper industry.
Qperating_Methods
Significant revisions in operating methods, both in-plant and at the
waste water treatment facility, will be necessary. However, these im-
provements are not beyond the scope of well-trained personnel, and are
currently being practiced in ether industries. The primary areas of
operational change will pertain to required activities for recycle, re-
use, and spill control, as well as for optimal performance cf waste
water treatment facilities.
228
-------
Batch as^Opposed to Continuous^O^erations
•or the subcategories studied, it was determined that batch as opposed
^o" continuous operations are not a significant factor in waste load
characteristics and no additional control of pollutants could be
achieved through the use of one type process over the other.
Use^of_Alternatiye_gaw__Materialsraand_Mixes of Raw Materials
The raw materials requirements for a given mill in each of the subcate-
gories studied do vary, depending upon supply and demand, desired end
product, and ether conditions. However, alteration of raw materials as
a means of reducing pollutants is not considered feasible over the long
term even though such a change could possibly realize benefits of short
duration in a given instance. The one possible exception to this cculd
be alternatives for the NSSC-ammonia base mill if an effective and
economical method for removal of nitrogen does not become available
through further study.
Use of Dry. Rather than Wet Processes LSDSilJdiSS Substitution of
B§coverab1e_Solvents_for_Water)
For the subcategories studied, it was determined that technology for dry
pulping or papermaking processes does not exist nor is it in a suffici-
ently viable experimental stage to be considered here.
PecoverY_of Pollutants as Byproducts
As discussed in Section VIII of this report, recovery of seme
potentially polluting materials as byproducts is economically feasible
and commonly practiced in unbleached kraft mills. In addition, ash from
incineration of sodium base NSSC spent liquor is sold to kraft mills to
be used as make-up chemical which avoids the necessity for its disposal.
It is anticipated that these performance standards will motivate
increased research on recovering other materials for byproduct sale the
recovery of which is not presently economically feasible.
229
-------
Cost_of^Application in Relation to Effluent Reduction Benefits
Based upon the information contained in Section VIII and the
of this report, the total projected cost of NSPS technology reflects *
increase in production expenses as shown in Table 51, (1971 price
index) .
Subcategory
Unfcleacned Kraft
NSSC-Sodium
NSSC-Ammonia
Kraft-NSSC
Paperboard from
Waste Paper
Table 51
Cost of Application of NSPS
Size
metric tons/day
-ishort_tons/day_l_
907 (1000)
227 (250)
227 (250)
907 (1000)
91 (100)
Total Annual
Cost Inc1.
Energy
$2,198,000
$402,000
$526,000
$2,264,000
$103,000
Increase in
Costs per metric
(£ e r _ s ho r t_ t on ]__
$6.92 (6.28)
$5.06 (4.59)
$6.63 (6.01)
$7.13 (6.47)
$3.78 (3.43)
These increases reflect both all internal and external recommended
control technologies. The increases are based on 350 days of production
per year except for paperboard from waste paper which is based on 30J1
days per year.
230
-------
SECTION XII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Environmental Protection Agency wishes to acknowledge the
contributions of WAPORA, Inc., and its subcontractors, E. C. Jordan Co.
and EKONO, who prepared the original draft of this document. The
efforts of Mr. E. N. Ross, Dr. Harry Gehm, Mr. William Groff, Er. Howard
Eddy, and Mr. James Vamvakias are appreciated.
The cooperation of the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement
in providing liaison with the industry was an invaluable asset, and this
service is greatly appreciated. Thanks are also extended to the
American Paper Institute for its continued assistance.
Appreciation is expressed for the contributions of several individuals
within the Environmental Protection Agency: Kirk Willard and Ralph
Scott, National Environmental Research Center at Corvallis, Oregon, and
Richard Williams, Ernst Hall, and Allen Cywin of the Effluent Guidelines
Division.
Special thanks are due Craig Vogt, Effluent Guidelines Division, who has
made an invaluable contribution to the preparation of this report
through his assistance, guidance, and reviews. The efforts of Gary
Fisher and Taffy Neuburg in data handling and computer analysis are
appreciated. Thanks are also due to the many secretaries who typed and
retyped this document: Jan Beale, Pearl Smith, Acqua McNeal, Vanessa
Batcher, Karen Thompson, Cnythia Wright, Jane Mitchell, and Georgette
Web.
Appreciation is also extended to companies who granted access to their
mills and treatment works from field surveys and for the assistance lent
by mill personnel to field crews. The operation records furnished by
these manufacturers and information supplied by other individuals in the
industry contributed significantly to the project.
232
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SECTION XIII
REFERENCES
1. American Public Health Assn., (APHA), AWWA, WPCF, Standard_Methcds
fgr^the_Exarninatign_of_Water and_Wastewater, New York 1971.
2. National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. Technical
Bulletin^253, December 1971.
3. Buckley, D. B. and McKeown, J. J.r An Analysis of the Performance
of Activated Sludge and Aerated Stabilization Basin Systems in
Controlling the Release of Suspended Solids in Treated Mill Effluents
to Receiving Waters, NCASI_Sp.ecial_Re£ort_Nc_.._73-02f April 1973.
4. Buckley, D. B. and McKeown J. J., An Analysis of the Performance
of activated Sludge and Aerated Stabilization Basin Systems in
Controlling the Release of Suspended Solids in Treated Mill Effluents
to Receiving Waters, NCASI_Sp_ecial_Re2ort_Noi_73^03_, August 1973.
5. Casey, J. P., Pulp_and_Pa2er^ Chemistry_and^Chemical^Techriology,
Voli_I_Pu^p_ing_and_Bleaching, 2nd Ed., Interscience Publishers, Inc.
New York (1960) .
6- Pl^E_^D
-------
14. Bryan, W. P., "Inland's Tennessee Mill Was First Designed for
Ammonia Base NSSC," Paper Trade^Journal , September 25, (1972)
15. Moor, J. L. , "Ammonia Base Sulphite Pulping at Inland Container,"
£§Eer_Tr ade_ Jour nal , November 20, (1972) .
16. Whitney, TAPPI Monograph #32.
17. Britt, K. W. , Handbook_of_Pulp_and_Pa2er_Technology_,2nd Ed., Van
Nostrand Reinhold Cc. , New York (1970) .
1 8 . Pulg and Paper^Manufacture, _
Making, 2nd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1970
19. Kleppe, P. J., and Rogers, C. N. , Suryey^of Water Utilization and
Waste CgntrolmPracticgs_in_the_Southern Pulp and^Pager^Industry; ,
Water Resources Research Institute of the University of N.C.,
OWRR Project No. A-036-NC, June (1970).
20. Private Communication (1970) .
21. Kronis, H. , and Holder, D. A., "Drum Barker Effluent," Pulp and
of _Canada , 69, 62 February (1968) .
22. Draper, R. E., and Mercier, F. S., "Hydraulic Barker. Effluent
Clarifier at Woods Products Division, Weyerhaeuser Co.," Proceed-
ings llth Pacific Northwest Industrial Waste Conf . (1962) .
23. Blosser, R. O., "Practice in Handling Barker Effluents in Mills in
the United States," NCASI_Technical, Bulletin No. 194 (1966) .
24 . Pollutignal^Effects_of_Pulg-_and Paper mi 11 Waste s_in_Puget_Sgund ,
FWQA, U.S.~Dept. of the interior (1967).
25. South, W. D. , "New Approaches to In-Plant Land Control and Monitoring,"
NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_Noi_248, Part II, 2 (1971) .
26. Wilson, D. F. Johanson, L. N. , and Hrutfiord, B. F. , "Methanal,
Ethanal, and Acetone in Kraft Pulp Mill condensate Streams,"
JAPPI_55, 8 (1972) .
27. Estridge, R. B. , Thibodeaux, L. J., et. Al. , "Treatment of Selected
Kraft Mill Wastes in a Cooling Tower," TAPPI 7th Water and Air
Conf. (1970)
28. Bergkvist, S., and Foss, E. , "Treatment of Contaminated Ccndensates
in Kraft Pulp Mills, "International Congress on Industrial Waste
Water, Stockholm (1970) .
235
-------
29. Haynes, D. C.r "Water Reuse -- A Survey of Pulp and Paper Indust
TAPPIX_49, 9 (1966).
30. Lowe, K. E., "Control of Effluent at a NSSC Mill by Reuse of White
Water," TAPPI 7th Water and Air Conf. (1970).
31. Vilbrant, F., "Report on Semi-Chemical Wastes," NCASI^Technical
Bulletin_Noi_28 (1949).
32. Bishop, F. W., et al., "Biological Waste Treatment case Histories
in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI_Technical_Bul^etin No.__220
(1968).
33. Hrutfiord, B.F., el al. , Steam^StripBing^Ordorous^Substances^frcrri
ISElfi_Ef flU§St_Streams, EPA-R2-73-164 (1973) .
34. Matteson, M.J., et al., "SEKOR II: Steam Stripping of Volatile
Organic Substances from Kraft Pulp Mill Effluent Streams,"
TAPPI_50, 2 (1967).
35. Maahs, H.G., et al., "SEKOR III: Preliminary Engineering Design
and Cost Estimates for Steam Stripping Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents,"
TAPPI_50, 6 (1967).
36. Timpe, W.G., Lang, E., and Miller, R.L., KraftjFulEing_Effluent
Treatment_and_Reuse_-_State_of_the_Art, Environmental Protection
Technology Series EPA-R2-73-164 (1973).
37. Gould, M., and Walzer, J., "Mill Waste Treatment by Flotation."
38. Edde, H., "A Manual of Practice for Biological Waste Treatment
in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical^Bulletin Ng^ 214
(1968).
39. Gellman, I., "Aerated Stabilization Basin Treatment of Mill
Effluents," NCASl_Technical_Bulletin_No._185 (1965).
40. Fair, Geyer, Okun, Water^and^Wastewater Engineering,
John Wiley 6 Sons, 1968.
41. The Mead company, Escanaba, Michigan.
42. WAPORA, Inc., Washington, D. C.
43. Follett, R., and Gehm, H. W., "Manual of Practice for Sludge
Handling in the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI^Technical
Bulletin_Noi_190 (1966).
44. Lindsey, A. M., "Dewatering Paper Mill Sludges by Vaccum Filtration
236
-------
Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference XXIII (1968) .
45. Voegler, J., "Drainability and Dewaterihg of White Water Sludges,"
NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_Noi_35 (1950).
46. Stovall, J. H., and Berry, D. A., "Pressing and Incineration of
Kraft Mill Primary Clarification Sludge," TAPPI 6th Water and Air
Conf. (1969) .
47. Aspitrate, T. R., et. al., "Pulp and Paper Mill Sludge Utilization
and Disposal," TAPPI Environmental Conf. (1973).
48. Coogan, F. J., and Stovall, J. H., "Incineration of Sludge from
Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents," NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_No.._185 (1965)
49. Bishop, F. W., and Drew, A. E., "Disposal of Hydrous Sludges frcm
a Paper Mill," TAPPI Water and Air Conf. (1971)
50. Harkin, J. M., and Crawford, D. L., "Bacterial Protein frcm Paper
Mill Sludges," TAPPI Environmental Conf. (1973) .
51. Berger, H. F., "Development of an Effective Technology for Pulp
and Bleaching Effluent Color Reduction," NCASI Technical_Bulletin
No. 228 (1969).
52. Spruill, E. L., Draft of final report. Color Removal and Sludge
Disposal Process_for_Kraft_Mill_Effluents, EPA Project f12040
DRY (1973)
53. "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges Obtained From Lime Treatment
of Kraft Pulp Mill Effluents - Part I," NCASI Technical^Eulletin
No_.._62 (1955) .
54. "Treatment of Calcium-Organic Sludges from Lime Treatment of Kraft
Pulp Mill Effluents - Part KK," NCASI Technical Bulletin * 75,
(1955).
55. Interstate Paper Corp., Color^Remgval^from Kraft Pulping Effluent
feY_Lime_Addition, EPA Grant # WPRD 183-01-68, December 1971.
56. Davis, C. L., Color^Remgyal^frgm Kraft^Pulpinq Effluent by^Lime
Addition, Interstate Paper Corporation, EPA Project 12040 ENC
(1971)".
57. Spruill, E. L., CQlor_Removal ancLSludge Recovery from Total_Mill
Effluent, Paper presented at TAPPI Environmental Conference,
Houston, Texas (1972).
237
-------
58. Oswalt, J. L. , and Lund, J. G., Jr., Colgr^Remoyal frgm_Kraft
Pulp Mill Effluents_by Massive Lime^Treatment, EFA Project 12040
DYD (1973) .
59. Smith, S. E., and Christman, R. F., "Coagulation of Pulping
Wastes for the Removal of Color," Journal of^thg^Water Pollution
Centrol_Federation, V. 41, No. 2, Part I (1969f.
60. Middlebrcoks, E. J., et. al, "Chemical Coagulation of Kraft Mill
Wastewater," Water and Sewage Works. V. 116, No. 3 (1967).
61. Berger, H.: F., and Thibodeaux, L. J., "Laboratory and Pilot Plant
Studies of water Reclamation," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 203
(1967).
62. Timpe, W. G., and Lange, E. W., "Activated Carbon Treatment of
Unbleached Kraft Effluent for Reuse, Pilot Plant Studies," TAPPI
Environmental Conference (1973).
63. Private Communication, St. Regis Paper Company, 1973.
64. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F., "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI
51 (1968).
65. Hansen, s. P., and Burgess, F. J., "Carbon Treatment of Kraft
Condensate Wastes," TAPPI^_51, 6 (1968).
66. Rimer, A. E., et. al., "Activated Carbon System for Treatment of
Combined Municipal and Paper Mill Waste Waters in Fitchburg,
Mass., TAPPIa_54, 9 (1971).
67. Smith, D. R., and Berger, H. F., "Waste Water Renovation," TAPPI,
51, 10 (1968) .
68. Chen, J. W., and Smith, G. V., Feasibility Studies^of Applications
of_Catalv^ic_Oxidation_in_Wastewaterr Environmental Protection
Agency, Southern Illinois University, for EPA, Nov. (1971).
69. Coates, J., and McGlasson, W. G., "Treatment of Pulp Mill
Effluents With Activitated Carbon," NCASI Technical Bulletin No.
1JJ (1967) .
70. Weber, W. J., Jr., and Morris, J. C., "Kinetics of Adsorption in
Columns of Fluidized Media," Journa1_WPCF, 37, 4 (1965).
71. Davies, D. S., and Kaplan, R. A., "Activated Carbon Eliminates
Organics," Chemical_Engineering^Progress, 60, 12 (1964).
238
-------
72. Bishop, D. F., et al. , "Studies on Activated Carton Treatment,"
iI_WPCF , 39, 2 (1967).
73. Vanier, C. , et al.. Carbon^ Column,. Operation in Waste rWater^Treatment
Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York, Nov. (1970) .
74. Beebe, R. L. , and Stevens, J. I., "Activated Carbon System for
Wastewater Renovation," Water and Wastes Engineering, Jan. (1967)
75. Eckenf elder, W. W., Jr., Krenkel, P. A., and Adams, C. A.,
B^vanced_Waste_Water_Treatmentr American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, New York (1972) .
76. Gulp, R. L. , and Gulp, G. L. , Advanced Waste Treatment, Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York (1971).
77. Holm, J. D. , "A Study of Treated Wastewater Chlorination," Water
12
-------
84. Associated Water and Air Resources Engineers, Inc., Waste
Characterization^and^Treatment Eyaluation_of^an_Amrnonia-Laden
Pulp_and.rPaper Mill_Waste, Prepared for Inland Container Corp.
Dec. (1971).
85. Leitner, Gordon F., "Reverse Osmosis For Waste Water Treatment
What: When?, TAPPI 8th Water 6 Air Conference (1971).
86. Beder, H., and Gillespie, W. J., "The Removal of Solutes From
Pulp Mill Effluents by Reverse Osmosis," TAPPI_53, 5 (1970).
87. Bishop, H. K., Use of^lnEroved^Membranes in Tertiary Treatment by
E®verse_Osmosis, McDonnell Douglas Astronautics Company for EPA,
Program #17020 DHR, Dec. (1970).
88. McGlasson, W. G., et. al., "Treatment of Pulp Mill Effluents With
Activated Carbon," NCASI_Technical_Bulletin_No._199 (1967).
89. Optiinization_of_Ammonia_Rernoyali_bY_lQn Exchange Using_Clinaptilo-
lite. University of California for EPA, Project"#17080 DAtT
Sept. (1971) .
90. Wastewater_Amm2nia_Removal_by__lon_Exchan2e, Battelle-Northwest
for EPA, Project #17010 EEZ, Feb. (1971)."
91. Johnson, Walter K., and Vania, George B., Nitrificatipn^and
Denitrification_of_Waste_Waterr University of Minnesota fcr
EPA, Research Grant Number WP~01028, January (1971).
92. Nitrogen_Removal_From_wastewaters, Federal Water Quality Research
Laboratory, Advanced Waste Treatment Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati, Ohio, Oct. (1970).
93. Shindala, Adnan, "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal From Waste-
waters - Part I," Wat er_and_Sewacie_ Works, June (1971).
94. Shindala, Adnan, "Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal From Waste-
waters - Part II," Water_and_Sewage_Works, July (1971).
240
-------
Young, James C., AdYaSS§^-.Waste_Water_Treatnient_Cgncegts, General
Filter Co.
96.. Sludge_Dewatering, Manual of Practice No. 20, FWPCA (1969) =
97. Gehm, H. W., "Effects of Paper Mill Wastes on Sewage Treatment
Plant Operation," sewage_Works_Journa 1, 17, 510 (1945) .
98. Gellman, I., "Reduction of Paper, Paperboard and Weak Pulping
Wastes by Irrigation," Pulp and^Paper Magazine^of __Canada,, T-221,
March (1960) .
99. Vercher, B. D., et. al., "Paper Mill Waste Water for Crop
Irrigation and Its Effects on the Soil," Louisiana State Univo,
Agri cultural _Exp_eriment_S ta ti on_ Bui letin_No_._ 6^ 4, (1965).
100. Voights, D., "Lagooning and Spray Disposal of NSSC Pulp Mill
Liquors," Purdue University Industrial Waste Conference X (1955) „
101. Hendrickson, E. R., et al.. Control of Atmospheric Emissigns^in
£h§_W°2d_Pulp,ing_Industrv., DHEW, NAPCA Contract No. CPA 22-69-18,
March (1970)".
102. Drew, J., and Pyland, G. D., Jr., "Turpentine from the Pulpwoods
of the United States and Canada," TAPPI_49, 10 (1966).
3. Resource Engineering Associates, "State of the Art Review on
Product Recovery," FWPCA Contract No. 14-12-495, Nov. (1969).
104. Ellente, R. W., "Why, Where, and How U.S. Mills Recover Tall Oil
Soap," Pap.e r_Tr ad e_ Journal, June 25 (1973).
105. Barton, J. S., "Future Technical Needs and Trends of the Paper
Industry, By-Products Usages," TAPPI_56, 6 (1973).
106. "Availability of Construction Manpower," Engineerinc;_News Record,
June 7 (1973) .
241
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SECTION XIV
GLOSS AKY
Act
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended in 1972.
Air_Dry_Tgn
Measurement of production including moisture content, which usually
varies between four and ten percent.
Bark
The protective covering of a tree.
Barking^
Removal of bark from logs in a wet or dry process.
Spent liguor recovered from a kraft digester up to the point of the
liquor being incinerated in the recovery plant.
The brightening and delignification of pulp by addition of chemicals
such as chlorine.
Boil-Out
A procedure, usually utilizing heat and chemicals, to clean process
equipment such as evaporators, heat-exchangers and pipelines.
Broke
Partly "or completely manufactured paper that does not leave the machine
room as salable paper or board; also paper damaged in finishing opera-
tions such as rewinding rolls, cutting, and trimming.
Cellulose
The fibrous constituent of trees which is the principal raw material of
paper and paperboard.
242
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zMechanica1_P ulp_
produced mechanically by grinding or refining after presoaking of
wood with caustic soda/sodium sulfite solution. Chest
*
A tank used for storage of wet fiber or furnish.
Chj-]3S
Small pieces cf wood used to make pulp.
Coatings
Materials such as clay, starch, alum, synthetic adhesives, etc., applied
to the surface of paper or paperboard to impart special characteristics.
Color_Unit
A measure of color concentration in water using NCASI methods.
Consistency
A weight percent of solids in a solids-water mixture used in the
manufacture of pulp or paper.
Cooking
Keating of wood, water, and chemicals in a closed vessel under pressure
to a temperature sufficient tc separate fibrous portion of wood by dis-
solving lignin and other nonfibrous constituents.
Cgoking_Liguor
The mixture cf chemicals and water used to dissolve lignin in wood
chips.
Countercurrent Washing
Pulp washing in which fresh water is added only at the last stage and
the effluent from this stage is then used as wash water for the previous
stages.
Decker
A mechanical device used to remove water or spent cooking liquor from
pulp.
243
-------
Digester
A pressure vessel used tc cock wood chips in the presence of cooking
liquor and heat.
-------
Eenitrif icaticn
mediated reduction of nitrate to nitrite. Other bacteria may
act on the nitrite reducing it to ammonia and finally N2 gas. This
reduction of nitrate occurs under anaerobic conditions. The nitrate
replaces oxygen as an election acceptor during the metabolism of carbon
compounds under anaerobic conditions. A pressure vessel used to cook
wood chips in the presence of cooking liquor and heat.
The inert rejects from the green liquor clarifier of a pulp mill.
External_Treatment
Technology applied to raw waste streams to reduce pollutant levels
F.xtraction_Water
Water removed during a pulp manufacturing process.
An endless belt of wool or plastic used to convey and dewater the sheet
during the papermaking process.
Fiber
I
'he cellulosic portion of the tree used to make pulp, paper and paper-
board.
Furnish
The mixture of fibers and chemicals used to manufacture paper.
Gland
A device utilizing a soft wear-resistant material used to iriniir.ize
leakage between a rotating shaft and the stationary portion of a vessel
such as a pump.
Water used to lubricate a gland. Sometimes called "packing water."
2U5
-------
Grade
The type of pulp or paper product manufactured
Liquor made by dissolving chemicals recovered from the kraft process in
water and weak liqucr preparatory to causticizing. In Plan t^Mea sure s
Technology applied within the manufacturing process to reduce or
eliminate pollutants in the raw waste water. Sometimes called "internal
measures. "
Nitrification
Bacterial mediated oxidation of ammonia to nitrite. Nitrite can be
further oxidized to nitrate. These reactions are brought about by cnly
a few specialized bacterial species. Nitrosomonias sp. and Nitrococcus
sp. oxidize ammonia to nitrite which is species. Nitrosomon oxidized to
nitrate by Nitrobacter sp.
Nitrogen^ fixation
Biological nitrogen fixation is carried on by a select group of bacteria
which take up atmospheric nitrogen (N2) and convert it tc amine groups
or for amino acid synthesis.
£§.£ ki G3_ Water
See Gland water.
Cellulosic fibers after conversion frcm wood chips.
Pulp,er
A mechanical device resembling a large-scale kitchen blender used to
separate fiber bundles in the presence of water prior to papermaking.
Rejects
Material unsuitable for pulp or papermaking which has been separated in
the manufacturing process.
246
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Sanitary Landfill
•sanitary landfill is a land disposal site employing an engineered
method of disposing of solid wastes on land in a manner that minimizes
environmental hazards by spreading the wastes in thin layers, compacting
the solid wastes to the smallest practical volume, and applying ccver
material at the end of each operating day.
247
-------
Save-all
A mechanical device used to recover papermaking fibers and
suspended solids from a waste water or process stream.
Screenings
Rejects from a pulp mill separating device such as a screen.
Cooking liquor after the digesting operation, containing lignaceous as
well as chemical materials.
Stock
Wet pulp with or without chemical additions.
Suction Bex
A rectangular box with holes or slots on its top surface, used to suck
water out of a felt or paper sheet by the application of vacuuir.
Suction Couch Roll
A rotating roll containing holes through which water is sucked out of a
paper sheet on a fourdrinier machine, by the application of vacuum.
Sulfidity
Sulfidity is a measure of the amount of sulfur in kraft cooking liquor.
It is the percentage ratio of NaS, expressed as NaO, to active alkali.
Virgin_Wood_Pulg (or fiber)
Pulp made from wood, as contrasted to waste paper sources of fiber.
White^Ligugr
Liquors made by causticizing green liquors; cooking liquor.
248
-------
White Water
Water which drains through the wire of a paper machine which contains
fdber, filler, and chemicals.
Wire
An endless moving belt made of metal or plastic, resembling a window
screen, upon which a sheet of paper is formed on a fourdrinier machine.
249
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APPENDICES
IIA. Table 1
2
3
4
5
6
IIB.
IIC.
IIIA.
IIIB.
Table 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
List of Mills per Subcategory with Sources cf
Data per Mill Identified.
Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills. 26
Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills. 26!
Final Effluent BODS Data for Exemplary Mills. 27t
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills. 271
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills. 27?
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills. 272
Calculations and Assumptions Used in Determining 27/-
BPCTCA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.
Calculations and Assumptions Used in Determining 283
BATEA Effluent Limitation Guidelines.
Exemplary Mill Data - Flow, Production, Treatment 287
Exemplary Mill Data - Data from Mill Records. 288
Exemplary Mill Data - Short Term Survey Results. ^Pl
Split Sample Comparison: Mill Results vs. Survey 290
Results.
Mill "a" BODS Data 291
Mill,"a" TSS Data 292
Mill "b" BODS Data 293
Mill "b" TSS Data 294
Mill "c" EOD5 Data 295
Mill "c" TSS Data 296
Mill "d" BODS Data 297
Mill "d" TSS Data 298
Mill "e" BODS Data 299
250
-------
14 Mill "e" TSS Data 300
15 Mill "f" EOD5 Data 301
16 Mill "f" Tss Data 302
17 Mill "g" ECD5 Data 303
18 Mill "g" TSS Data 304
19 Mill "h» EOD5 Data 305
20 Mill "h" TSS Data 306
21 Mill "i" BODS Data 307
22 Mill "i" TSS Data 308
23 Mill "j" EOD5 Data 309
24 Mill "j" TSS Data 310
25 Mill "k" EOD5 Data 311
26 Mill "k" TSS Data 312
27 Mill "1" BODS Data 313
28 Mill "1" TSS Data 314
251
-------
inc.
IV.
Figure 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
V. Exhibit 1
Exhibit 2
VI.
RAPP Data
Development of costs
Spill Control Installations
Spill Easin and Controls
Capital and Operation Cost for Raw Waste Screening
Construction Cost of Earthern Settling Ponds
Capital and Operating Cost for Mechanical Clarifiers
Aerated Lagoon Treatment Plant
Completely Mixed Activated Sludge
Preliminary Mill Survey Format
Verification Program - Detailed Instructions
for Field Survey Teams.
Abreviations
252
-------
APPENDIX I
MILLS LISTED BY SUECATEGORY*
UNBLEACHED KRAFT
Georgia Kraft Co. (R) (L)
Mahrt, Alabama
Union Camp Corp (R)
Montgomery, Alabama
MacMillan Eloedel United, Inc. (R)
Pine Hill, Alabama
Gulf States Paper Corp.
Tuscaloosa, Alabama
International Paper Co. (R)
Camden , Arkansas
Arkansas Kraft Corp. (R)
Morrilton, Arkansas
Weyerhaeuser Co. (R) (L)
|Pine Bluff, Arkansas
Alton Box Board Co.
Jacksonville, Florida
St. Regis Paper Co. (R) (L)
Jacksonville, Florida
Georgia Kraft Co. (R)
Krannert, Georgia
Georgia Kraft Co. (R)
Macon, Georgia
Continental Can Co., Inc. (R)
Port wentworth, Georgia
Interstate Paper Corp. (R) (L)
Riceboro, Georgia
254
-------
Owens-Illinois, Inc. (R)(L)
Valdosta, Georgia
Unijax, Inc.
Elizabeth, Louisiana
Pineville Kraft Corp. (R) (L)
Pineville, Louisiana
St. Regis Paper Co. (R)
Monticello, Mississippi
International Paper Co. (R)
Vicksburg, Mississippi
Albemarle Paper Co.
Roanoke Rapids, North Carolina
International Paper Co. (R)
Gardiner, Oregon
Weyerhaeuser Co. (R)(L)
Springfield, Oregon
Georgia-Pacific Corp. (R)
Toledo, Oregon
Westvaco Corp.
Charleston, South Carolina
South Carolina Industries, Inc. (R)
Florence, South Carolina
Tennessee River Pulp & Paper Co. (R) (L)
Counce, Tennessee
Owens-Illinois, Inc. (R)(L)
Orange, Texas
Crown Zellerbach Corp.
Port Townsend, Washington
255
-------
KAFT-NSSCMILLS
Northern Paper Co. (R)
Cedar Springs, Georgia
Union Camp Corp.
Savannah, Georgia
International Paper Co. (R)
Bastrop, Louisiana
Continental Can Co. (R) (L)
Hodge, Louisiana
Continental Can Co. (R)
Hopewell, Virginia
Weyerhaeuser Co. (R)
Plymouth, N.C.
Olinkraft, Inc. (R)
West Monroe, Louisiana
Weyerhaeuser Co. (R) (L)
Valliant, Oklahoma
estern Kraft Corp. (R)(L)
bany, Oregon
Boise Cascade Corp. (R)
Wallula, Washington
256
-------
NSSC MILLS JSODIUM BASE)
Weston Paper and Mfg. Co. (R) (L)
Terre Haute, Indiana
Celotex Corp.
Dutuque, Iowa
Consolidated Packaging Corp.
Fort Madison, Iowa
Wescor Corp. (R)
Hawesville, Kentucky
Hoerner Waldorf Corp. (R)
Ontonagon, Michigan
Menasha Corp. (R) (L)
Otsego, Michigan
Hoerner Waldorf Corp. (R)
St. Paul, Minnesota
Container Corp. of America (R)
Circleville, Ohio
Stone Container Corp. (R)
Coschocton, Ohio
Celotex Corp.
Sunbury, Pennsylvania
Mead Corp. (R)
Harriman, Tennessee
Mead Corp.
Lynchburg, Virginia
Green Bay Packaging, Inc. (R) (L)
Green Bay, Wisconsin
Menasha Corp. (R)
North Bend, Oregon
257
-------
N§SC_MILLS__(AMMONIA_BASE).
t
'ad Corp.
ylva, North Carolina
Inland Container Corp. (R) (L)
New Johnsonville, Tennessee
258
-------
PAPERBOARC FROM WASTE PAPER MILLS IN THE U.S.
National Gypsum Co. (R)
Annas-ton, Alabama
Stone Container Corp. (R)
Mobile, Alabama
Sonoco Products Co.
City of industry, California
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc. (M)
Los Angeles, California
L.A. Paper Box & Board Mills
Los Angeles, California
Sonoco Products Co.
Richmond, California
Kaiser Gypsum Co.
San Leandro, California
Container Corp. of America
Santa Clara, California
Georgia-Pacific Corp.
Santa Clara, California
U.S. Gypsum Co.
South Gate, California
Fibreboard Corp.
Stockton, California
Fibreboard Corp.
Vernon, California
Packaging Corp. of America
Denver, Colorado
Colonial Board Co.
Manchester, Connecticut
Robertson Paper Box Co. (M)
Montville, Connecticut
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
New Haven, Connecticut
259
-------
Simkins Industries, Inc.
ew Haven, Connecticut
i
ederal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Versailles, Connecticut
Container Corp. of America
Wilmington, Delaware
U.S. Gypsum Co. (M)
Jacksonville, Florida
Simkins Industries, Inc.
Miami, Florida
Sonoco Products Co. (M)
Atlanta, Georgia
Austell Box Board Corp. (R)
Austell, Georgia
Alton Box Board Co.
Cedartown, Georgia
Alton Box Board Co.
Alton, Illinois
^Container Corp. of America (M)
Rhicago, Illinois
Prairie State Paper Mills (M)
Joliet, Illinois
Nabisco, Inc. (M)
Marseilles, Illinois
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc. (M)
Morris, Illinois
Quaker Oats Co. (R)
Pekin, Illinois
Packaging Corp. of America
Quincy, Illinois
Sonoco Products Co. (R)
Rockton, Illinois
Kieffer Paper Mills, Inc.
Brownstown, Indiana
260
-------
Container Corp. of America
Carthage, Indiana
Eeveridge Paper Co. (M)
Indianapolis, Indiana
Alton Box Board Co.
Lafayette, Indiana
Vincennes Paper Mills Inc.
Vincennes, Indiana
Container Corp. of America
Wabash, Indiana
Packaging Corp. of America
Tama, Iowa
Packaging Corp. of America
Hutchinson, Kansas
Lawrence Paper Co.
Lawrence, Kansas
Ycrktowne Paper Mills of Maine, Inc.
Gardiner, Maine
Keys Fibre Co,
Waterville, Maine
Chesapeake Paper Board Co. (M)
Baltimore, Maryland
Simkins Industries, Inc. (M)
Catonsville, Maryland
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Whitehall, Maryland
Bird and Son, Inc.
East Wapole, Massachusetts
Haverhill Paperboard Corp.
Haverhill, Massachusetts
Sonoco Products Co.
Holyoke, Massachusetts
Perket Folding Box Corp.
Hyde Park, Massachusetts
261
-------
Lawrence Paperboard Corp.
wrence, Massachusetts
^e
ewark Boxboard Co.
Natick, Massachusetts
•
Michigan Cartcn Co. (M)
Battle Creek, Michigan
Simplex Industries
Constantine, Michigan
Packaging Corp. of America
Grand Rapids, Michigan
Brown Co. (M)
Kalamazoo, Michigan
National Gypsum Co. (M)
Kalamazoo, Michigan
Time Container Corp. (M)
Monroe, Michigan
Union Camp Corp.
Monroe, Michigan
I
ead Corp.
tsego, Michigan
Rockford Paper Mills, Inc.
Rockford, Michigan
Weyerhaeuser Co.
White Pigeon, Michigan
U.S. Gypsum Co.
N. Kansas City, Missouri
Groveton Paper Board, Inc.
Groveton, New Hampshire
Hoague Sprague Div., USM Corp.
West Hopkinton, New Hampshire
MacAndrews 6 Forbes Co. (M)
Camden, New Jersey
U.S. Gypsum Co. (M)
Clark, New Jersey
262
-------
Whippany Paper Board Co.
Clifton, New Jersey
Georgia-Pacific Corp. (R)
Delair, New Jersey
National Gypsum Co. (M)
Garwood, New Jersey
Eoyle Co. (M)
Jersey City, New Jersey
Davey Co. (M)
Jersey City, New Jersey
National Gypsum Co.
Millington, New Jersey
Newark Boxboard Co. (M)
Newark, New Jersey
Morris Paper Eoard Co. (M)
Paterson, New Jersey
Lincoln Paper Mills, Inc.
Ridgefield Park, New Jersey
Whippany Paper Board Co. (R)
Whippany, New Jersey
Sonoco Products Co.
Amsterdam, New York
Climax Mfg. Co.
Carthage, New York
Brown Co.
Castleton-on-Hudson, New York
Columbia Corp. (R)
Chatham, New York
Cornwall Paper Mills Co.
Cornwall, New York
3eaverboard Cc., Inc.
Lcckport, New York
Martisco Paper Co., Inc.
Marcellus, New York
263
-------
Columbia Ccrp.
•North Hocsick, New York
Boundary Paper Mills, Inc.
North Tonawanda, New York
U.S. Gypsum Co.
Oakfield, New York
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Piermont, New York
Warrensburg Board 6 Paper Corp.
Warrensburg, New York
Carolina Paper Board Corp.
Charlotte, North Carolina
Crown Zellerbach Corp. (R)
Baltimore, Ohio
Tecumseh Corrugated Box Co. (R)
Brecksville, Ohio
Container Corp. of America (M)
Cincinnati, Ohio
lyiead Corp. (M)
Cincinnati, Ohio
St. Regis Paper Co.
Coschocton, Ohio
Stone Container Corp. (R)
Franklin, Chic
U.S. Gypsum Co. (M)
Gypsum, Ohio
Loroco Industries, Inc.
Lancaster, Ohio
Diamond International Corp.
Lockland, Chic
Massillon Paper Co.
Massillon, Ohio
Diamond international Corp.
Middletown, Ohio
26U
-------
Middle-town Paperbcard Co.
Middle-town, Ohio
Sonoco Products Co.
Munroe Falls, Ohio
Packaging Corp. of America
Rittman, Ohio
Federal Paperfcoard Co., Inc. (M)
Steubenville, Ohio
Packaging Corp. of America
Delaware Water Gap, Pennsylvania
Brandywine Paper Corp.
Dcwingtown, Pennsylvania
Sonoco Products Co. (R) (L)
Downingtown, Pennsylvania
American Paper Products Co.
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
National Gypsum Co. (R) (L)
Milton, Pennsylvania
Container Corp. of America (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Crown Paper Board Co. (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Newman 6 Co., Inc. (M)
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Federal Paper Board Co., Inc.
Reading, Pennsylvania
Tim-Bar Paper Co.
Reading, Pennsylvania
Vvhippany Paper Board Co.
Riegelsville, Pennsylvania
Westvaco Ccrp.
Williamsburg, Pennsylvania
St. Regis Paper Co. (M)
York, Pennsylvania
265
-------
Yorktovme Paper Mills, Inc. (M)
York, Pennsylvania
Carotell Paper Board Corp. (R) (L)
Taylors, South Carolina
Sonoco Products Co. (R)
Hartsville, S. C.
Container Corp. of America
Chattanooga, Tennessee
Tennessee Paper Mills, Inc.
Chattanooga, Tennessee
Sonoco Products Co.
Newport, Tennessee
TXI Paper Products, Inc.
Dallas, Texas
U.S. Gypsum Co. (R)(L)
Galena Park, Texas
Container Corp. of America
Tacoma, Washington
Banner Fibrebcard Co.
Wellsburg, West Virginia
Eeloit Box Board Co.
Beloit, Wisconsin
Menasha Ccrp.
Menasha, Wisconsin
St. Regis Paper Co.
MiIwaukee, Wi scon sin
D.S. Paper Mills ccrp.
west De Pere, Wisconsin
Fibreboard Corp.
Sumner, Washington
*Key: (R) = RAPP (Refuse Act Permit Program) Data Available
(M) = Discharge into public sewer system
(L) = Literature Data Available
Note: Information was not available for mills without (R), (L), and (M)
266
-------
APPENDIX IIA
TABLE 1
Final Effluent EOD5 Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Annual Monthly Max
Mill Average SD Mean Month
Note - Numbers following parenthesis indicate the f cf data points
Unbleached Kraft
a 2.2(4.5)-68 1.4(2.8) 2.2(4.5)-15 4.3(8.6)
b 1.0(2.0)-348 0.7(1.5) 1.0(2.0)-13 2.4(4.8)
c 1.5(3.0)-229 1.5(3.1) 1.4(2.9)-14 2.9(5.8)
d 4.3(8.7)-73 2.5(5.0) 4.2(8.5)-13 8.0(16)
NSSC-Ammonia Ease
e - 5.2(10.5)-12 8.0(16.1)
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 0.5(1.0)-179 0.34(0.68) 0.5(1.0)-6 1.4(2.8)
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g 5.0(10.1)-319 3.4(6.8) 4.6(9.2)-13 8.6(17.2)
h 4.0(8.0)-104 1.8(3.6) 3.8(7.7)-7 5.5(11.0)
Paperboard from Waste Paper
j 0.26 (0.52)-355 0.28(0.56) 0. 26 (0 . 53) - 1 3 0.69(1.38)
k 0.14 (0.28)-218 0.13(0.27) 0. 1 4 (0 . 28)-1 4 0.33(0.66)
1 0.32 (0.65)-106 0.27(0.54) 0. 31 (0. 63)-1 4 0.70(1.41)
*This data includes only treated wastes - not the total waste load
268
-------
TABLE 2
Final Effluent BOD5 Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill M30CJD
Unbleached Kraft
a 1.8(3.5)
b 0.9(1.8)
c 1.3(2.7)
d 3.9(7.8)
NSSC -Ammonia Ease
e
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 0.49(0.99)
Kraft-NSSC (Cress Recovery)
4.8(9.6) 8.9(17.8)
h 4.1 (8.2) 5.0(10.1)
Paperboard from Waste Paper
Maximum
M3CCD
2.8(5.6)
2.5(4.95)
2.8(5.6)
5.3(10.6)
SD30
1. 15(2.3)
0.37(0.75)
0.99(1 .98)
0.87(1.75)
CV
0.66
0.42
0.73
0.22
0.92(1.84)
j 0.27(0.54)
k 0.13(0.27)
1 0.31(0.63)
0.63(1.26)
0.32(0.65)
0.47(0.95)
0.26(0.52) 0.52
2.5(5.05)
0.7(1.40)
0.28
0.14
0.12(0.24) 0.19
0.06(0.13) 0.20
0.07(0.15) 0.16
*This data includes only treated wastes - not the total waste load
269
-------
TABLE 3
Final Effluent BOD5 Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Annual
2.
1.
1.
4.
2
0
5
3
(4
(2
(3
(8
.5)
.0)
.0)
•7)
An
5
2
4
9
. Av.
2SD
• 0(
.52
.6(
• 3(
10
(5
9.
18
Plus
•1)
.04)
2)
-7)
Ratio
2.
2.
3.
2.
24
47
07
15
Max Month
to An. Av
1
2
1
1
.91
.35
.93
.83
Unbleached Kraft
a
b
c
d
NSSC -Ammonia Base
e -
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 0.5(1.0) 1.18(2.36) 2.36 1.78
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g 5.0(10.1) 11.8(23.7) 2.35 1.70
h 4.0(8.0) 7.6(15.2) 1.90 1.37
Paperboard from Waste Paper
j 0.26(0.52) 0.82(1.64) 3.15 2.65
k 0.14(0.28) 0.41(0.82) 2.93 2.35
1 0.32(0.65) 0.86(1.73) 2.66 2.17
Averages 2.55 2.03
Averages 2.55 2.03
*This data includes only treated wastes-not the total waste load
270
-------
TABLE 4
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Annual Monthly Maximum
Mill Average SD Mean Month Methods
Unbleached Kraft
a 6.4(12.8)-66 2.9(5.9) 6.4 (12.8)-16 11.1(22.2) NSM
b 1 = 2(2.5)-353 1.5(3.1) 1.07 (2. 14)-13 4,2(8.5) NSM
c 1.1(2.2)-206 0.7(1.4) 1. 17 (2.35)-14 1.6(3.3) SM
d 7. 1 (14.2)-249 7.6(15.2) 6. 25 (1 2. 5)-1 3 8.8(17.7) SM
NSSC-Ammonia Ease
e - - 4.2(8.5)-13 9.4(18.9) NSM
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 1.71 (3.43)-178 1.51(3.02) 1.61(3.23)-6 3.18(6.37) SM
J^raft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
* 4.55(9.1)-321 2.10(4.2) 4.55 (9. 1)-13 6.1(12.2) SM
h 1.57(3.15)-104 1.25(2.5) 1.55(3.1)-? 3.2(6.5) KSM
Paperboard from Waste Paper
j 1.29(2.58)-356 1.27(2.55) 1.13 (2.26)-13 3.64(7.28) SM
k 0.95(1.91-278 0.60(1.19) 0.96 (1 .93)-14 1.56(3.13) SM
1 0.56(1.12)-105 0.60(1.19) 0. 55 (1 .11) - 1 4 1.77(3.54) SM
*This data includes only treated wastes - not the total waste load
Note - Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
271
-------
TABLE 5
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Maximum
Mill M30CD M30CD SD30 CV Methods
Unbleached Kraft
a 5.7(11.4) 7.55(15.1) 0.68(1.36) 0.09 NSM
b 1.12(2.25) 4.55(9.1) 1.02(2.05) 0.22 NSM
c 1.05(2.10) 1.55(3.1) 0.23(0.46) 0.15 SM
d 7.05(14.1) 9.55(19.1) 1.25(2.50) 0.13 SM
NSSC-Ammonia Ease
e - - - NSM
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 1.71(3.43) 3.50(7.00) 0.98(1.96) 0.57 SM
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g 4.6(9.2) 6.4(12.8) 1.2(2.4) 0.19 SM
h 1.6(3.2) 2.6(5.3) 0.5(1.0) 0.19 NSM
Paperboard from Waste Paper
j 1.33(2.67) 3.76(7.52) 0.89(1.79) 0.67 SM
k 0.90(1.81) 1.63(3.'37) 0.27(0.55) 0.31 SM
1 0.51/1.03) 1.11(2.23) 0.27(0.54) 0.52 SM
*This data includes only treated wastes - not the total waste load.
272
-------
TABLE 6
Final Effluent TSS Data for Exemplary Mills
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Annual
Average
An. Av.
plus
2SD
Ratio
Max Month
to
Annual Average
Unbleached Kraft
a 6.4(12.8)
b 1.2(2.5)
c 1.1(2.2)
d 7.1(14.2)
NSSC-Ammonia Base
e
NSSC-Sodium Base
f* 1.71(3.343)
13.15(26.3)
6.05(12.1)
2.50(5.0)
22.9(45.8)
2.06
4.84
2.27
3.23
2.76
1.92
2.59
2.97
2.25
3.12
2.81
1.73
3.40
1 .50
1.25
1.85
4.73 (9.47)
•Craft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g 4.55(9.1) 8.75(17.5)
h 1.57(3.15) 4.07(8.15)
Paperboard from Waste Paper
j 1.29(2.58) 3.84(7.68)
k 0.95(1.91) 2.14(4.29)
1 0.56(1.12) 1.75(3.50)
averages
*This data includes only treated wastes - not the total waste load
1.00
2.06
2.82
1.64
3.16
1 .48
273
-------
APPENDIX IIB
CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED IN DETERMINING
BPCTCA EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS GUIDELINES
Values are expressed as kg/kkg(lbs/ton)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT
BODS - 3(
Mill
a
b
c
Averages
) Ca^ Guideline
Data Annual
£2iD^§ Average
68
348
229
2.21 (4.54)
1.02 (2.04)
1.51(3.02)
IT? 011720)
M30CD+SD SD3_0
2.90(5.80) 1.15(2.3)
1.27(2.55) 0.37(0.75)
2.34(4.68) 0.99(1.98)
2~7lT(4734)
BOD5_-^DailY_Maxirnuin_-Guideline
Annual Average x 2.5
1.60(3.20) x 2.5 = 4.0(8.0)
TSS_-_30_Day_Guideline
Mill
c
d
66
1
7
3
Annual
Average
.1(2.2)
.1 (14.2)
.7(7.40)
0
0
0
CV
.1
.1
.1
5
3
4
0.
1.
0.
SD30
23(0.
25(2.
51 (1.
M3OCD+SD
46)
50)
30)
1.
8.
4.
28(2
3 (1
21 (8
.56)
6.6)
.43)
averages 3.96(7.93) 4.9(9.2)
Notes:
1. CV for mill "66" is average of "c" and "d»
2. SD30 for mill "66" calculated from
SD = CV(M30CD)
TSS-Daily._Maximum
2.8 x 3.96 (7.93) = 11.1 (22.2)
274
-------
NS.SC-AMMONIA BASE
BOp5-Daily Maximum
1. Assume CV = 0.50 (from NSSC-sodium)
2. M30CD * SD = 30 Day Limitation
M30CD + SD = 5.25(10.5)
SD = CV(M30CD)
M30CD + CV(M30CD) = 5.25(10.5)
M30CD(1 + 0.5) = 5.25(10.5)
M30CD = 3.5(7)
3. Annual Average = M30CD
Annual Average = 3.5(7)
4. 2.5 x 3. 5(7) = 8.75(17.5)
TSS-30_Day._Limitation
Mill Eaw Waste Final Effluent Reduction
e 3.1 (6.2) 8(16) 50.0
f* 3.1(6.2) 1.6(3.3) 46.8
Average 18.4
*This raw waste load does not include approximately
5.4(10.8) in the main sewer which is discharged
without treatment. The total raw waste for mill
"f" is thus 8.5(17).
Desired effluent levels:
753S of mill »e" = 4.0(8.0)
75% of mill «f" = 2.22(4.25)
CV for mill f = 0.57 from Table 5, Appendix IIA,
Use CV for mill e of 0.57
Mill e
275
-------
M30CD+SD=mean SD = 4.0(8.0) + 4. 0 (8. 0) (0 . 57)
M30CD + SD = 4.0(8.0) x 1.57
= 6.28(12.56)
Mill f
M30CD+SD= 2.22(4.25) x 1.57
= 3.33(6.67)
Mill An.Av. (Mean) CV M30CD+SD
e 4.0(8.0) 0.57 6.28(12.56)
f 2.2(4.25) 0.57 3.33(6.67)
Averages 3.06(6.12) 5.06(10.12)
TSS-Daily._Maximum
2.8 x 3.06(6.12) = 8.56(17.13)
NSSC^SODIUM_BASE
1QD5-3^_DaY_ Limitation
Mill Raw Waste
f 7.3(14.6)
Literature
4 13.5(27)
1 15J30).
Average 11.9(23.8) at 85% = 1.8(3.6)
assume CV = 0.75
SD = CV(mean)
M30CD(1 + CV) = M30CD+SD
1.8(3.6) x 1.75 = 3.15 (6.3)
BOD5-Dailv._Maximum
2.5 x 1.8 (3. 6) = 4.5(9.0)
276
-------
KRAFT-NSSC_ICRgSS_RECgVERY]_
BC5D5-30 Day Limitation
Raw_Waste
mill g mill h
mill records 17.5(35)
survey data 14.5(29) 13.5(27)
Calculate annual average for mill h
1. Assume ratio of raw wastes is relatively constant,
2. Then 11^5^27) x 17.5(35) = 16.25(32.5)
14.5(29)
3. Average of mill g and h
17.5(35) + 16.25(32.5) = 16.9(33.8)
4. 85% BODS removal
0.15 x 16.9(33.8) = 2.53(5.07)
5. CV = average of mill g and h
CV = (0.28 + 0.14)/2 = 0.21
6. M30CD+SD
M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
2.53(5.07) + 0.21 x 2.53(5.07) = M30CD+SD
2.53(5.07) x 1.21 = 3.06(6.13)
277
-------
BOD5-Daily_Maximum
2.5 x 2.53(5.07) = 6.3(12.7)
TSS-30 Day_Liniitation
Mill Annual Average
g 4.55(9.2)
NCASI 1 4.4(8.8)
Average 4.5(9.0)
Mill g and h, CV = 0.19
M30CD+SD = M30CD + CV(M30CD)
= 4.5(9. 0) x 1.19
= 5.35(10.7
TSS-3_0_Day._Limitation
Mill_ Annual_Average_ CV_ M30CD4;SD_
g 4.55(9.1) 0.19 5.4(10.8)
NCASI 1 iLtiiS^Jl 0.19 5^25^10^51
Average 4.47(8.95) 5.32(10.65)
TSS-Daily Maximum
2.8 x 4.47(8.95) = 12.5(25.0)
278
-------
'APERBOARC FROM WASTE PAPER
r.
BOD5-30 Day.
"Mill
j
k
1
Average
NCASI
2
3
5
Literature
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Limitation
Annual
0.26(0
0.14(0
0.32(0
0.1
1.1
0.55
2
1.5
1.0
3.5
0.1
0.5
1.0
0.35
1.0
0.75
Average SD
.52) 0.12(0.24)
.28) 0.06(0.13)
.65) 0.07(0.15)
(0.2)
(2.2)
(1.1)
CO
(3)
(2)
(7)
(0.2)
(1.0)
(2)
(0.70)
(2.0)
(1.5)
CV
0.19
0.20
0^6
0.183
Average 0.88 (1.76)
Assume CV = 0.30 for all mills
M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
M30CD + CV(M30CD) = M30CD+SD
M30CD(1 + CV) = M30CD+SD
0.88(1.76) x 1.30 = 1.14(2.29)
M30CD+SD
0.39(0.78)
0.20(0.40)
0.39(0.78)
279
-------
BQD5-DailY^Maximurn
2.5 x 0.88(1.76) = 2.2(4.4)
280
-------
^TSS-30 Day Limitation
*
^ Mill Annual Average SD CV M30CD+SD
•j 1.29(2.58) 0..89(1.79) 0.67 2.23(4.46)
k 0.95(1.91) 0.27(0.55) 0.30 1.18(2.36)
1 0.56(1.12) 0.27(0.54) 0.52 0.78(1.57)
NCASI
2 1.0(2.0) 0.50(1.00) 0.50 1.50(3.00)
3 1.4(2.8) 0.70(1.40) 0.50 2.10(4.20)
5 1.3(1.6) 0.40(0.80) 0.50 1.20(2.40)
Average 1.00(2.00) 1.50(3.00)
281
-------
APPENDIX IIC
CALCULATIONS AND ASSUMPTIONS USED^IN^DETERMINING^EATEA^GUIDELINES
Values are expressed in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT
BOD5-30 Day Limitation
Use 93% Reduction
Average raw waste = 14.12(28.25) Annual Average = 14.12(28.25) x
0.07 = 0.99(1 .98)
Use mill b SD30 since mill b is achieving 1.0(2.0) in final
effluent. SD30 = 0.37(0.75)
M30CD + SD = 0.99(1.98) + 0.37(0.75) M30CD + SD = 1.36(2.73)
BOD5^Daily Maximum
2.5 x 0.99(1.98) = 2.47(4.95)
TSS-30 Day Limitation
Use 60% reduction by mixed media filtration 0.40 x 4.6 (9.2) =
1.85 (3.7)
TSS-Daily._Maximum
0.40 x 11.1 (22.2) = 4.45 (8.9)
NSSC-AMMONIA EASE
BOD5-30 Day Limitation
Raw Waste = 33.5(67) Use 9356 reduction Eff = 0.07 x 33.5(67) Eff
2.35(4.7) = annual average
Assume CV = 0.50 (from BPCTCA)
M30CD = SD = M30 CD+SD Def.: M30CD = Annual Average 2.35(4.7)
CV(M30CD) = M30CD = SD 2.35(4.7) x 1.5 = 3.5(7.05)
283
-------
BOD 5 -Daily_Maximuni
2.5 x 2.35(4.7) = 5.87(11.75)
TSS-30 Day^Limitation
0.40 x 5.0(10.0) = 2.0(4.0)
TSS-Daij-Y^Maxirnum
0.40 x 8.5(17.0) = 3.4(6.8)
N S SC_ - _ SO D I UM_BAS E
1Q2 $~ 3.P__ Da v_L j.rni t a ti on
Raw Waste = 11.9(23.8) Use 93% reduction Annual Average = 0.07 x
11.9(23.8) = 0.83(1.66) = M30CD
Assume CV = 0.80 (from BPCTCA) (Note - Conservative assumption)
M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD (0.83) (1.66) x 1.8 = 1.49(2,98)
2.5 x 0.83(1.66) = 2.07(4.15)
5SS-30_Dav._Liinitation
0.40 x 5.0(10.0) = 2.0(4.0)
TSS-DailY_Maximum
0.40 x 8.5(17.0) = 3.4(6.8)
284
-------
KRAFT-NSSC (CROSS RECOVERY^
)D5-30_Day-i_ Limitation
Raw Waste = 16.9(33.8) Use 9356 Reduction M30CD = Annual Average
0.07 x 16.9(33.8) M30CD = 1.18(2.37)
Assume CV = 0.21 (from BPCTCA)
M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD 1.18(2.37) x 1.21 = 1.43(2.86)
B OD 5_^Dai 1 y_Ma ximum
2.5 x 1.18*2.37) = 2.96(5.92)
TSS-30 Day Limitation
0.40 x 5.3(10.6) = 2.1(4.2)
TSS-Dail^_Maximum_
0.40 x 12.5(25) = 5.0(10.0)
PAPERBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER
^DS - 3 0_D a^_Li mi t at ion
Mill Raw Waste
j 7(14)
k 5.5(11)
1 9.5(19)
Literature
1 22.5(45)
2 13(26)
3 11.5(23)
4 15(30)
5 7.5(15)
6 4(8)
7 7.5(15)
8 7(14)
9 9.5(19)
Average 9.95(19.9)
285
-------
BPCTCA represents 91.2% reduction
Use 95% Reduction for BATEA
Annual Average = 0.05 x 9.95(19.9) = 0.49(0.99)
M30CD + SD = M30CD+SD
Assume CV = 0.30 (from BPCTCA)
0.49(0.99) x 1.3 = 0.64(1.29)
BQD5-Daily Maximum
2.5 x 0.49(0.99) = 1.24(2.49)
TSS-3C Day Limitation
0.40 x 1.5(3. 0) = 0.6(1.2)
TSS-DailY_Maximum
0.40 x 2.8(5.6) = 1.1 (2.2)
286
-------
Appendix IIIA
Table 1
Exemplary Mill Data-
Flow, Production, Treatment
K3
00
Mill
Unbleached Kraft
a
b
c
d
NSSC-Ammonia Base
e
NSSC-Sodium Base
f
Flow
kiloliters/kkg
(IQOOgal/ton)
43.8 (10.5)
47.1 (11.3)
39.5 (9.46)
56.3 (13.5)
34.7 (8.33)
44.6 (10.7)
Kraft-NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g
h
51.3 (12.3)
53.4 (12.8)
Paperboard From Wastepaper
j
k
1
12.1 (2.91)
38.8 (9.30)
9.43 (2.26)
Production
kkg/Day
(tons/Day)
1025 (1130)
839 (925)
794 (875)
753 (830)
390 (430)
336 (370)
1261 (1390)
694 (765)
272 (300)
245 (270)
145 (160)
Type
of
Treatment
C-ASB
C-ASB-SO-HP
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-SO
C-ASB-HP
C-ASB-HP
C-ASB
C-ASB
C*
C-ASB-C
C-AS
ASB
*Clarifies for reuse of water and solids.
-------
Table 2
Data From Exemplary Mill Records
Values in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill
Raw
BODS
Waste
TSS
Final Effluent
BODS TSS
TSS
Methods
Unbleached Kraft
a
b
c
d
13
13
14
15
.5
.5
.0
.5
(27)
(27)
(28)
(31)
10.5
17.0
28.0
19.5
(21)
(34)
(56)
(39)
2.
1.
1.
4.
25(4.
0 (2.
5 (3.
3 (8.
5)
0)
0)
7)
6.4(12
1.2 (2
1.1 (2
7.1(14
.8)
.5)
.2)
.2)
NSM
NSM
SM
SM
NSSC-Ammonia Base
e 33.5 (67) 17 (34) 5.25(10.5) 4.2 (8.5) NSM
NJ
g NSSC-Sodium Base
f 8.5 (17) 8.5 (17) 0.5 (1.0)* 1.7 (3.4)* SM
Kraft-NSSC (Cross-Recovery)
g
h
Paperboard
i
j
k
1
17.5 (35)
— —
From Wastepaper
__
7.0 (14)
5.5 (11)
9.5 (19)
16.5 (33)
9.0 (18)
__
2.05 (4.1)
35 (70)
2.8 (5.6)
5.05(10.1)
4.0 (8.0)
__
0.26 (0.52)
0.14 (0.28)
0.32 (0.65)
4.5 (9.1)
1.6 (3.2)
__
1.3 (2.6)
0.95(1.9)
0.56(1.12)
SM
SM
_—
SM
SM
SM
is data includes only treated wastes-no^^he total load.
-------
to
oo
Raw Waste
Mill BODS TSS pH
UNBLEACHED KRAFT
a 12 (24) 6.5 (13) 7.4
b 17 (34) 11 (22)
c 9.5 (19) 17 (34)
d 22.5 (45) 26.5 (53) 11
NSSC - AMMONIA BASE
e 30.5 (61) 16 (32) 6.1
NSSC - SODIUM BASE
f 13 (26) 7.5 (15) 7.4
KRAFT - NSSC (Cross Recovery)
g 14.6 (29) 19.5 (39) 10.6
h 13.5 (27) 5.5 (11) 7.8
PAPERBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER
i 0.07(0.15) 0.07(0.15)5.!
H 9 (18) 1.2 (2.4) 6.3
k 11.5 (23) 33 (66) 6.4
1 5.5 (11) 0.95(1.9) -
Table 3
SHORT TERM SURVEY RESULTS EXEMPLARY MILLS
Values for BODS, TSS, and Color in kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Values for Total K^eldahl Nitrogen (TKN) in mg/L
Primary Effluent
BODS TSS
Secondary Effluent
BODS TSS
11 (22) 2.2 (4.4) 0.85 (1.7)
17.5 (35) 3.6 (7.2) 4.7 (9.4)
11 (22) 4.45 (8.9) 7.55 (5.1)
19
(3R) 30.5 (71) 8.5 (17)
30 (60)
(18) 3.15 (6.3)
7.5 (15) 3.0 (6.1)
13.4 (27) 3.4 (6.8)
Near Comolete Recycle
8.5 (17) 1.15 (2.3) 2.3 (4.6)
8.5 (17) 3.5 (7) 18 (36)
BODS
Final Effluent
TSS Color
TKN
pH
2.4 (4.8) 1.1 (2.2) 3.3 (6.6)
4.3 (8.6) 0.7 (1.4) 1.0 (2.1) 21
3.2 (6.4) 2.3 (4.7) 1.1 (2.2) 18
6.5 (13) 1.3 (2.7) 5 (10) 30
0.7 7.4
(42) - 7.7
(36) - 8.0
(61) 4.9 8.8
14.5 (29) 2.9 (5.8) 8 (16) 68 (137) 190 7.2
2.0 (4.1) 6.5 (13)
7.9
6
90
1.5 (3.0) 2.8 (5.6) 21.5 (43) - 7.4
1.5 (3.0) 3.0 (6.1) 17 (35) 4.22 7.1
0.045(0.09) 0.02(0.04) 0.16 (0.32)8.6 4.5
(12) 0.11(0.22) 0.45(0.9) 3.1 (6.2) 12 7.4
(180) 0.28(0.57) 0.6 (1.2) '2.15 (4.3) 3.6 7.6
0.21(0.42) 0.5 (1.0) -
-------
Table
^Sample Comparison of Mill Data and Short Tarm Survey Data
from Split Samples Taken at Various Points in the Process (for mill d)
ro
vo
o
Date:
Hay 1973
7
8
9
10
Analysis
BY
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
Mill
EPA
BOD5
330
265
400
280
NA
232
260
268
Raw
TSS
NA
NA
547
270
632
637
384
534
Waste
PH
10.5
NA
8.7 .
NA
.8 8.3
NA
10.4
NA
Primary Effluent
Color
NA
NA
290
680
220
130
330
220
BOD5
430
331
430
302
240
282
250
299
TSS
NA
NA
478
66
151
332
144
476
PH
9.5
NA
9.7
10.2
9.8
9.3
9.3
9.6
Color
NA
NA
540
400
290
230
220
560
Secondary
BOD5
130
104
130
118
110
115
130
112
TSS
NO
NA
109
34
115
91
120
125
Effluent
PH
8.0
NA
8.0
8.4
9.1
8.4
8.0
8.0
Color
NA
NA
360
270
470
340
440
560
Final Effluent
BOD5
34
30.5
33
36
21
24.7
22
26
TSS
NA
NA
83
64
77
66
163
89
PH
7.4
NA
7.9
8.2
8.4
7.8
7.6
8.0
Cole
NA
NA
400
230
400
448
400
700
Units: Color - APHA Color units
pH - pH values
TSS, BOD 5- milligrams per liter
-------
Appendix HIE
Table 5
" "
Mill " a
BODS kg/ kkg (Ibs/toQ
nual Ave.
d. Dev.
mthly Ave.
Mill Data
2.27(4.54)-68
1.39(2.79)
2.26(4.53)-15
Contractor
1.1(2.2)
NCASI
2.45(4.9)-80
1.15(2.3)
RAPP
1.15(2.3)
t A . n u u i. 11
ean 30CD
aj. Mean
30CD
td. Dev.
4.28(8.57)
1.74(3.49)
2.78(5.56)
1.14(2.29)
I
2.7(5.4)
5.0(10.0^-5
Max Mean
20CD
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points.
291
-------
Table 6
Mill " a "
TSS kp,/kkg (Ibs/ton)
\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
6.4(l2.8)-66
2.93(5.86)
6.4(12.8)-16
Con tractor
3.3(6.6)
NCASI
4.0(8.0)-37
1.5(3.0)
RAPP
2.9(5.8)
Max. Month 11.1(22.2)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
5.7(11.4)
7.55(15.1)
0.68(1.36)
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
292
-------
Table 7
Mill " b "
BODS kg/.kkg (Ibs/ton)
tnual Ave.
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
a. A . ri u 11 1. 11
[can 30CD
lax Mean
30CD
td. Dev.
Mill Data
1.02(2.04)-348
0.73(1.47)
1.0(2.0)-13
2.42(4.84)
0.92(1.84)
2.97(4.95)
0.37(0.75)
Note-Numbers
Contractor
0.7(1.4)
following parei
NCASI
0.8(1.6)-300
0.65(1.3)
•1.75(3.5)
2.05(4.lJ-17
*
Max Mean
20CD
ithesis indica
i
1
293
i
RAPP
0.75 (1.5)
te * of data
points.
-------
Table 8
Mill " b "
TSS kR/-kkB (Its/ton)
Mill Data
Cont ra c tor
NCASI
RAPP
\nnual Ave.
1.25 (2.5) - 353
1.05 (2.1)
0.85 (1.7)-300
0.6 (1.2)
Std. Dev.
1.53 (3.07)
0.75 (1.5)
Monthly Ave,
1.07 (2.14) - 13
Max. Month 4.26 (8.53) '
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
1.12 (2.25)
4.56 (9.13)
1.02 (2.05)
15 (3.0)*-19
*Max Mean
20CD
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points.
294
-------
Table 9
Mill " <& "
BODS kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
anual Ave .
td. Dev.
lonthly Ave.
..
4 a A . n u u c u
*Iean 30CD
*lax Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
!
Mill Data
1.51(3.Q2)-229
1.53(3.07)
1.45(2.90)-14
2.88(5.77)
1.35(2.70)
2.79(5.59)
0.99(1.98)
Note-Numbers :
Contractor
2.35(4.70)
ollowing paren
295
NCASI
thesis indical
RAPP
2.60(5.20)
-e # of data
points
!
i
-------
Table 10
Mill " C "
TSS kr,/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill Data
Cont r actor
NCASI
RAPP
Xnnual Ave.
1.09 (2.19) - 206
1.1 (2.2)
ltd. Dev.
0.68 (1.36)
2.95 (5.90)
Monthly Ave
1.17 (2.35) - 11
Max. Month l>64 (3.28)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
1.05 (2.11)
1.53 (3.06)
0.23 (0.46)
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicat
296
2 # of data joints
-------
Table 11
Mill " d "
BODS kg/ kkg (lbs/t«.-:i)
Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
nnual Ave.
4.36(8.72)-73
1.35(2.7)
1.85(3.7).
td. Dev.
2.5(5.tn
•lonthly Ave.
4.26(8.53)-13
• la A. 1-Iuin.ii 1.52(3.04)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
3.91(7.83)
5.32(10.64)
0.87(1.75)
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
297
-------
Table 12
Mill " H "
TSS k-K/kkg (Ibs/ton)
\nnual Ave .
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Max. Month
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
Mill Data
7.11 (14.22)-249
7.58 (15.16)
6.25 (12.5) - 13
8.83 (17.66)
7.05 (14.10)
9.56 (19.13)
1.26 (2.52)
Note- Mumbers j
Contractor
5.0 (10.0)
:ollowina Daren
298
NCASI
:hesis indicat
RAPP
2.5 (5.0)
e # of data ]
•oints .
-------
Table 13
Mill " e "
BOD5 kg/.kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
Ave.
2.9(5.8)
9.0(18.0)
Cd. Dev.
onthly Ave.
5.25(10.5)-12
let A . null u u 8.05(16.1)
lean 30CD
•lax Mean
30CD
^td. Dev.
following parenthesis indicate # of data po
ints,
299
-------
Table 14
Mill " e "
TSS kR/ kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
\nnual Ave.
8.0(16)
3.25(6.5)
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
4.25 (8.5)-I3
Max. Month 9,45(18.9)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data noints
300
-------
Table 15
Mill
II c II
BODS kg/ kkg (Ibs/tcx )
nual Ave.
d. Dev.
nthly Ave.
Mill Data
Contractor
2.05(4.1)
NCASI
RAPP
9.05(18.1)
a A . nun i. u
ean 30CD
""a>; Mean
30CD
• td. Dev.
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data joints.
301
-------
Table 16
Mill " f "
TSS kP,/kk P. (Ibs/ton)
Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
6.5 (13)
8.75 (17.5)
Monthly Ave,
Max. Month
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
302
-------
Table 17
Mill " g "
BODS kg/kkq, (Ibs/ton)
nnual Ave.
td. Dev.
[onthly Ave.
Mill Data
5.02(10.05)-319
3.38(6.76)
4. 60(9.20)-13
Contractor
1.5(3.0)
NCASI
3.0(6.0)-159
1.25(2.5)
RAPP
3.65(7.3).
1'iei A. . i-iu n i_ ii 8.59(17.19)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
4.82(9.64)
.91(17.82)
2.52(5.05)
'3.35(6.7) ' '
4.2(8.45-18
Max Mean
20CD
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data .points
303
-------
Table 18
Mill " g "
TSS yc/kkg (Ibs/ton)
\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
4.54 (9.09) -321
2.09 (4.18)
4.56 (9.12)
Contractor
2.8 (5.6)
NCASI
5.75 (11.5)-171
2.9 (5.8)
RAPP
3.7 (7.4)
Max. Month 6.09 (12.18)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
4.58 (9.17)
6.40 (12.80)
1.19 (2.39)
8.25 (16.5)*-20
* max mean
20CD
Note-Numbersfollowinq parent
304
lesis indicate # of data DC
ints.
-------
Table 19
Mill " h "
BQD5 kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
mual Ave .
d. Dev.
onthly Ave.
ct A. . I'lO 11 L 11
can 30CD
ax Mean
30CD
td . Dev.
Mill Data*
3.98(7. 97)-104
1.82(3. 64)
3.85 (7. 71)-9
5.48(10. 97)
4.08(8. 16)
5. 02 (10. 05)
0. 70(1.41)
A
Nov-May
Note-Numbers f<
Con tractor
1.5(3.0)
>llowing parent
305
NCASI
4.5(9.0)-75
1.25(2.5)
5.4(10. 8)
5.85(11.7)-8'
**Max Mean
20CD
hesis indicate
RAPP
1.55(3.10)
*
. # of data p<
>ints.
-------
Table 20
Mill " h "
TSS kr./kkS (Ibs/ton)
•Xnnual Ave .
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data**
1.57(3.15)-104
1.24(2.48)
1.54(3.09)-9
Contractor
3.05(6.10)
NCASI
1.75(3.5)-75
1.35(2.7)
-
RAPP
0.74(1.49)
Max. Month 3.25(6.50)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev .
1.59(3.19)
2.64(5.28)
0.51(1.03)
**
3.95(7.9)-8
Max Mean
20CD
Nov-May
No to-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data joints.,
306
-------
Table 21
Mill " i "
BODS 'kg/ kkg (Ibs/ton)
Mill Data
Contractor
NCASI
RAPP
nual Ave.
:d. Dev.
0.045(0.09)
0.2(0.4)
mthly Ave.
ean 30CD
ax Mean
30CD
td. Dev.
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data p
307
oints
-------
Table 22
Mill " j "
TSS ks/kkg (Ibs/ton)
\nnual Ave.
Std. Dev.
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
Con tractor
0.018 (0.036)
NCASI
RAPP
0.035 (0.07)
Max. Month
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data
308
Doints
-------
Table 23
Mill " j
11 j it
BODS kg/ kkg (Ibs/ton)
mual Ave.
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
Mill Data
0.26(0.52)-355
0.28(0.56)
0.26(0.53)-13
Contractor
0.11(0.22)
NCASI
RAPP
0.5(1.0)
0.69(1.38)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
0.27(0.54)
0.63(1.26)
0.12(0.24)
Note-Number following parenthesis indicate # of data p
309
oints.
-------
Table 24
Mill " j "
TSS k p./kk ?, (Ibs/ton)
\nnual Ave.
3td . Dev .
Monthly Ave.
Mill Data
1.29(2.58)-356
1.27 (2.55)
1.13 (2.26) - 13
Contractor
0.45 (0.90)
t'JCASI
RAPP
1.25 (2.5)
Max. Month 3,54 (7.28)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
1.33 (2.67)
3.76 (7.52)
0.89 (1.79)
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
310
-------
Table 25
Mill " k "
BODS .kg/ kkg (Ibs/tc.Q
nual Ave.
d. Dev.
mthly Ave.
Mill Data
0.14(0.28)-218
0.13(0.27)
0.14(0.28)-14
Contractor
0.28(0.57)
NCASI
0.15(0.30)-18:
0.15(0.30)
RAPP
1.35(2.7)
. . nuu L. 11
0.33(0.66)
lean 30CD
lax Mean
30CD
td. Dev.
0.13(0.27)
0.32(0.65)
0.06(0.13)
0.30(0.60)
0.36(0.735-7
Max Mean
20CD
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data points
311
-------
Table 26
Mill " k "
TSS kG/kkg (Ibs/ton)
Xnnual Ave .
^td . Dev.
^ton thly Ave .
Mill Data
0.95 (1.91) - 278
0.59 (1.19)
0.96 (1.93) - 14
Contractor
0.60 (1.2)
NCASI
0.85 (1.9) - 237
0.75 (1.5)
RAPP
2.50 (5.1)
Max. Month
< 5g (3J3)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std. Dev.
0.90 (1.81)
1.68 (3.37)
0.27 (0.55)
2.6 (5.2) - 10
* max mean
20CD
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data p
312
Dints,
-------
Table 27
Mill " I "
BODS kg/kkg (Ibs/ton)
inual Ave .
td. Dev.
onthly Ave.
d A • riu 11 L. 11
can 30CD
ax Mean
30CD
td . Dev .
_
Mill Data
0.32(0.65)-106
0.27(0.54)
0.31(0.63)-14
0.70 (1.41)
0.31(0.63)
0.47(0.95)
0.07(0.15)
Note-Numbers f
Contractor
0.21(0.42)
ol lowing paren
313
NCASI
.
bhesis indicat
RAPP
0.001(0.003)
e # of data
joints.
-------
Table 28
Mill " 1
111 tf
TSS kr./kkG (ibs/ton)
Xnnual Ave .
3td. Dev.
Monthly Ave .
Mill Data
).56 (1.12) - 105
J.59 (1.19)
0.55 (1.11) - 14
Contractor
0.5 (1.0)
NCASI
RAPP
0.0 (0.00)
Max. Month
1.77 (3.54)
Mean 30CD
Max Mean
30CD
Std . Dev.
0.51 (1.03)
1.11 (2.23)
0.27 (0.54)
Note-Numbers following parenthesis indicate # of data noints
314
-------
Appendix III C
RAPP DATA
UNBLEACHED KRAFT LINERBOARD MILLS
Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
650 X
450 X
900 X X
940 X X
1000 X x X
1000 X x
900 X X
206 X X
1150 X x
1670 XX L
1200 X X L X
1585 X X
850 X x L
600
1000 X
750 X X
625 X
650 X x
1670 X x
1000 X
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
16.7
21.0
10.0
21.0
17.0
11.75
23.0
17.5
14.7
10.1
7.1
10.4
13.7
23.3
14.5
11.2
9.1
29.5
10.1
13.0
Discharge
TSS
///Ton
1.1
1.0
1.67
2.8
1.2
5.0
3.4
7.6
10.0*
5.8
36.0
0.56
16.8
5.9
34.2
24.1
10.3
35.5
34.8
3.7
20.8
BOD
///Ton
0.4
0.9
1.25
1.3
1.5
3.7
4.0
11.5
4.0*
2.3
6.5
3.2
10.1
5.2
42.5
27.2
19.6
56.1
9.4
6.5
36.3
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
315
-------
Unbleached Kraft Linerboard Mills - Cont'd.
Mill
No.
21
22
23
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS
410 X
1450 X L
1250
Flow
G/Ton
CD xlOOO
75.8
6.3
30.4
40.0*
Discharge
TSS
it /Ton
48.5
2.9
328
BOD
I? /Ton
56.6
8.0
368
''Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL MILLS
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS
335 X
150
240
550
525 X X
625 X X
? SO — — — •— - — Nnf- AvA-f 1 rtKI a _ _ _ .
285
300
250 X X
NSSC 250?
Paper 145 j X
(SODIUM BASE)
Flow
G/Ton
CD xlOOO
12.9
14.9
5.0
24.4
8.1
. _ _ inn
. — — 99 n
25.0*
3.5
7.1
3.5
Discharge
TSS
#/Ton
8.3
61.6
N/A
N/A
33.5
20.5
20.0*
58.3
22.7
8.9
N/A
9.1
17.5
BOD
#/Ton
15.5
90.0
N/A
N/A
30.7
15.0*
15.7
21.0*
163.0
52.0
71.0
N/A
10.7
18.1
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
316
-------
NEUTRAL SULFITE SEMI-CHEMICAL MILLS (AMMONIA BASE)
Mill
No.
1
Mill
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
*Councll
Mill
No.
1
2
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
500 X X X
COMBINATION KRAFT AND NSSC MILLS
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
1320 X
1600 X X
2100 XX X
1955 X
666 X
1030 X
820 X X
770 X X
1680 X X
1464 XX L x
of Economic Priorities Report 8/72
PAPERBOARD FROM WASTE PAPER
Tons/ Treatment
Day C L ASB AS SO SS CD
125 X X L
115 * 1
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
8.6
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
19.1
10.6
20.0
7.7
10.5
20.3
16.6
8.0
27.9
25.3
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
16.0
0.01
Discharge
TSS
If/Ton
6.5
BOD
#/Ton
18.0
Discharge
TSS
///Ton
4.7
7.4
12.7
10.3
10.0*
25.4
35.0*
26.8
42.0*
5.3
1.5
320.0
5.4
BOD
if/Ton
2.0
7.3
6.0
13.0
12.0*
33.9
26.0
40.0
41.0*
8.8
3.1
132.0
9.4
Discharge
TSS
tf/Ton
0.34
.07
BOD
I/Ton
0.4
0.4
*Council of Economic Priorities Report 8/J2
317
-------
Paperboard from Waste^ Paper Mills- cont* d.
Mill
No.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1 o
J.Z
13
14
15
16
Tons/
Day
240
804
80
59.1
165
122
90
275
320
OTC
f. 1 j
250
850
150
80
Treatment
C L ASB AS SO SS CD
X L
X X C
X X
X X
XX L
X
x x c
XX L
X X
X X
X XX
X
X X
Flow
G/Ton
xlOOO
8.4
7.6
12.5
11.9
4.6
5.7
10.0
2.3
8.4
Uc
. J
1.2
3.5
0.18
Disch
TSS
tf/Ton
0.5
5.1
10.6
0.25
5.6
14.2
4.6
2.5
6.0
nc
.0
0.7
0.5
o.oo
arge
BOD
9 /Ton
21.1
2.7
0.3
0.17
7.4
15.3
3.0
1.0
1.4
1 /. C
14 . J
0.1
0.4
.003
318
-------
Appendix IV
Development of Cost Effluent Limitation Guidelines and Standards
INTERNAL TREATMENT
The following unit prices have been used for the internal measures:
Power 0.60 2/kwh
Heat 3.50 $/10« cal
Maintenance: 2.5% of capital cost, annually
Costs of heat exchangers, storage tanks, pumps and pipes are estimated
according to Chemical Engineering, March 24, 1969, issue and updated to
August 1971 price levels.
It should be recognized that costs of internal process modifications may
vary greatly from mill to mill, and that cost of internal improvements
should be evaluated upon consideration of local conditions.
Sp_ill and Eva£orator Boilout Storage
Chemical spills are collected, pumped to storage and fed into the black
liquor evaporator plant. Fiber spills from floor drains are recovered
in a save-all and returned to the pulp line.
Investment costs for 1000 TPKD Kraft -Mill are:
$1000
Overdesign of evaporation plant (installation
of one additional effect) $1150
Chemicals storage tank (260000 gal) 100
Fiber storage tank (8000 gal) 5
Saveall 150
Pumps, pipes, valves 450
Instrumentation ^JOO
Total $2000
Operating costs will be zero since value of recovered chemicals and
fibers will cover operating expenses. However, value of recovered
fibers and chemicals will not cover capital expenses.
319
-------
-Na Cgpel and
Assumed process parameters and operating conditions of the Copeland instal
Pulping Process NSSC
Pulp Production, ADTPD 200
Yield, % 75
Washing efficiency, % 90
Chemical Requirements, LB/ton
Na2G03 440
Sulfur 95
Weak liqucr concentration, % solids 10
Heat value on weak red liquor BTU/lb 5600
Waste liquor feed (1) 263 GPM 70.4 t/hour
Cone, liquor product (2) 91 GPM 27.3 t/hour
Evaporation capacity 1 H20/hr 50
Steam requirements, TGPS/hr (3) 20
Air blower horsepower, HP
Connected 900
Operating 675
Process power requirements, kw
Connected 350
Operating 275
(1) Sp. Gr. : 1.07, 1016 solids
(2) Sp. Gr.: 1.20, 35% solids
(3) Triple-effect evaporation
Operational utilities required for application of Container -
Copeland Process:
Low pressure steam, ton/hr 20
High pressure steam, ton/hr 5
Electric Power, kw 780
Qp_eratin
-------
Buildings (27 US DOL/cu ft) 280
Planning, Design, Etc. 10
TOTAL 2,060
(The cost does not include compressor station, electrical
supply station, outside piping, and turbines.)
L and_Disgosa1_of_Jun k_Materials
The cost has been calculated on the basis of an external trans-
portation contract, and no capital cost has been assumed, The
cost of transportation has been estimated to 20 cent/ton-inile,
and cost of disposal to $1.5/ton. Transportation distance has
been taken to 10 miles. Amounts of junk materials are as shown
in flow diagrams, or:
For the paperboard from waste paper mill:
3 ton junk materials a day
3 ton/day (20 cent x 10 miles + 150 cent/ton) =
1050 cent/d
PaBer_Machine_Contrgls
High pressure self cleaning, low volume showers for paper machine
and press water filter for removing felt hairs.
The following paper machine widths have been assumed:
-1000 tpd liner board machine 28 feet
-750 tpd liner board machine 21 feet
-250 tpd corrugated board machine 14 feet
-100 tpd wastepaper board machine 14 feet
Capital cost has been calculated to 14 feet width and then
converted to other widths by using a liner factor.
Cost for each unit:
-4 shower pipes 14 feet 12,000
-2 pumps (10 kw) 2,000
-1 smith screens 1,000
-4 water saveall pans 3,000
-2 hair screens, smith 1,000
-tank, piping, hoses 4,000
-spares 1,000
-design, instrumentation,
electricity, installation, etc. ll^CKO
TOTAL $35,000
321
-------
The cost of this item for a 14 foot corrugated board machine:
Wire part 35,000
Press part 35,000
Cylinder forms 35j.OJDO
105,000
For kraft liner machines:
1000 tpd 750 tpd
Wire part 55,000 45,000
Press part 55A0_0^ 45,000
110,000 90,000
Spi11^Control
By spills are meant releases of wood fibers and/or process
additions to those which are "normal" for the process. The
release of the "normal" pollutant load for a process de-
pends upon the process design and equipment used, and
is therefore reasonably well defined or deterministic
in nature. The spills are caused by "accidents" or
mechanical failures in the production facilities and
are as such probabilistic in nature.
The accidental spills are in general of short duration and
usually have a fiber and/or concentration of chemical sub-
stances which are several times those of the normal mill
effluents (1). Another undesirable property associated with
accidental spills is that they might not be intercepted
by the waste water collection system that finds its way into
the storm sewers and therefore bypasses all treatment waters.
The main sources of accidental losses are:
a) leaks and overflows from storage tanks
b) leaks and spills resulting from repairs, system
changes and mistakes in departments handling
strong liquor, and
c) overflows from screens and filters in departments
handling fiber
Controls of spills can be done by connecting overflow lines
to holding tanks equipped with pumps, a procedure which returns chemi<
to storage or to the recovery system, and fibers to the stock
chest.
Cost of spill control is based on systems shown schematically
in Figure 1, Appendix IV.
322
-------
.
V
Storage
Tank
J
Ji
To Recovery
I
Holding Tank
a) Control Of Chemical Spills And Losses
Stock
Storage
Filter/ Screen
Holding Tank
b) Control Of Fiber Containing Spills
To Process
Emergency Overflow To
Treatment Plant
To Process
Emergency overflow to
treatment plant
Figure 1
Spill Control Installations
323
-------
Process Effluent
Sewer
To Treatmenl^
Process
Snill Basin
Figure 2
Spill Basin and Controls
324
-------
Costs of spill controls are lump sums as shown in the cost
summary. These costs include construction costs and mechan-
ical and electrical equipment as shown in Figure 1, Appendix IV.
Lar g e_ §Ei 1 is
Large accidental losses caused by mechanical failures can
be prevented by an effective control system, e.g., conduc-
tivity measurements in the waste water lines. As these losses
might render the effluent unsuitable for treatment, an
emergency spill basin is constructed to intercept these
wastes. The spill basin content is pumped back to the treatment
process at a rate which does not "upset" the treatment process.
Construction cost of the spill basin is based on a system
which is shown schematically in Figure 2, Appendix IV.
Design Criteria for Spill Basin:
Volume: 12 hours of average flow
Pump Capacity: Basin volume returned to treatment
process in 12 hours at 30 feet head.
Easin: Earthen construction with 12 foot depth
Sewers
Plant Sewers
Plant sewers are defined as the gravity flow type conveyance facilities
within the boundaries of the treatment plant. These may be both closed
conduits and open channels. The capital costs of these items are
included under the respective treatment plant components.
Annual operation and maintenance costs of in-plant sewers have been
taken at a flat 0.50% of the estimated construction cost with no
differentiation between materials of construction, except as reflected
in the construction cost.
325
-------
Interceptor Sewers
Interceptor sewers are defined as the conveyance facilities whlcTP
connect the mill to the treatment plant and the treatment plant to the
outfall system. Thus, they may vary from being insignificant in" a
situation where land is available adjacent to the mill, whereas they may
amount to a large percentage of the treatment plant cost where long
interceptor sewers are required. For this reason no interceptor sewers
are included in this study.
Submarine Outfalls
The costs of these facilities are based on moderately severe
oceanographic conditions. Costs include pipe, excavation, laying and
jointing, backfill where necessary, provision of protection against
scour, a straight diffuser section at outlet and with multiple outlets
for efficient initial dilution, testing, and cleanup.
Annual operation and maintenance costs of outfall systems have been
taken at a flat 0.50% of the estimated construction cost.
and Costs
Land Requirements
A site suitable for an effluent treatment facility should have the
following properties:
- should be within a reasonable distance from the production
facilities so that long and expensive interceptor sewers
are eliminated.
- should be far enough from the production facilities so that
their expansion possibilities are not hampered.
- should be at a suitable elevation relative to the production
facilities so that pumping costs are minimized, and ideally
allow for gravity flow through all treatment units.
- should allow for orderly future treatment plant expansion on land
which can be purchased at a reasonable price and with adequate
soil properties.
326
-------
two major factors affecting the area requirements for external waste
treatment are the type of secondary treatment and the type of
sludge disposal. The approximate land requirements for the most
commonly used secondary treatment methods used in the pulp and paper
industry are shown below..
Land Requirement for different secondary treatment
methods
Treatment Method Land Requirements - Acre/MGD
Natural Stabilization 40.0
Aerated Stabilization 2.0
Activated Sludge 0.04
Land required for ultimate solids disposal depends on the
sludge quantities generated, moisture content, ash content
and method of placement.
Land requirement for different ultimate sludge
disposal methods (Disposed effluent at 12 feet
depth)
Disposal Condition Land Requirements
sq ft / ton dry solids
Thickened clarifier underflow, 5% solids 53.0
Centrifuge cake, 20% solids 16.5
Pressed cake, 35% solids 11.6
Incineration, 3% ash 0.15
Incineration, 12% ash 0.60
Land Costs
The value of land is often difficult to establish. Depending upon land
availability and alternate land use, the land cost might vary from $1.00
per square foot or more down to only a few cents per square foot. For
the purpose of this study a land cost selected was $4,000 per acre.
327
-------
EXTERNAL TREATMENT
Pretreatment
Pre-treatment consists of screening only for all alternatives
in this report.
considered
Total effluents from all mills considered in this study usually lose
coarse material in the form of chips, bark, wet strength paper, etc., in
quantities that require screening to avoid plugging of sludge lines and
escape of floating objects over overflow weirs.
Although vibrating screens have proven satisfactory when the flows are
small (2-4 MGD) , travelling screens with one inch openings have been
recommended (2) and are used for all mills included in this study.
Design Criteria:
where:
Type: Travelling bar screens
Design Flow: Average daily
Bar Spacing: 1 inch
Capital Cost in $1,000 =
11 + .27 x Q + 7.64 X Q**.625
Q = average daily flow in MGD
(cost information from numerous individual
installations was also considered in all case
Capital cost and annual operation and maintenance costs for raw waste
screening are shown graphically in Figure 3, Appendix IV.
Treatment
Primary treatment is most economically done when all fibers containing
wastes are mixed before treatment. Besides the fact that large units
give lesser treatment costs than a series of smaller units, mixed
effluents generally also have improved settling characteristics, thus
decreasing the total treatment unit requirements. Internal fiber
recovery is assumed done to the maximum economic justifiable degree, so
that no external fiber recovery for reuse is considered in the treatment
process design.
328
-------
o
8 100
50
15
0
o
ll
'o v.
58
1 -
O 4fy
atin
10 20
FLOW, MGD
30
Figure 3 Capital And Operation Cost For
Raw Waste Screening
329
-------
Three unit operations for suspended solids separation have been
considered. These are:
a) settling ponds
b) mechanical clarifiers
c) dissolved air flotation
Settling Pcnds - Design Criteria:
Construction: earthen construction, concrete inlet and outlet structures
Detention time: 24 hours
Water depth: 12 feet
Sludge removal: manual
Cost Functions:
Capital cost in $1000 =27.3 x**0.75
where: V = pond volume in million gallons
This construction cost function is based on work bin Reference (3). The
construction cost, which includes plant sewers, and all diversion -
inflow-, and outflow- structures, but excludes land costs, is shown
graphically in Figure 4, Appendix IV. The function is "verified" by
plotting data from the field survey phase on the same figure.
Operation Costs:
The operation cost of sedimentation ponds consists mainly cf sludge
dredging and disposal which was estimated to cost $6.50 per ton of dry
solids removed.
Annual maintenance was estimated to be 1% of capital cost.
Primary Clarifiers
Construction: Circular heavy duty plow type rotary sludge scraper, scum
collection and removal facilities.
Overflow rate: 700 gpd/ft**2 (4) Widewater,depth: 15 feet
Capital cost in $1000 (3) =
62x((1.5 - 0.001QX1000./OR)**0.60
where: Q = flow in MGD
OR = overflow rate in gpd/ft**2
The construction costs include all mechanical and electrical equipment,
instrumentation, installation, and sludge pumps and plant sewers. Land
costs are not included. This cost of function is shown graphically in
Figure 5, Appendix IV and includes data from the field survey phase of
the project.
330
-------
300
o
8
200
'3.
5
100
Figure 4
10 20 30
FLOW, MGD
Construction Cost of Earthen Settling Ponds
Project Cost Files
331
-------
1000
o
2 750
8
o
500
250
80
60
O
O
40
8
o
S
20 S.
o
IO 20
FLOW, MGD
30
Figure 5 Capital and Operating Costs For Mechical Clarifiers
Capital Cost Case Studies:
A
O
Project Cost Files
332
-------
Bop removal, i.e. secondary treatment, in the pulp and paper industry is
Usually done by a biological process. However, no single design of any
biological treatment process is applicable to all pulp and paper mill
effluents. Four different biological units in various combinations have
been considered in this report: a) biological filters, b) natural
oxidation ponds, c) aerated lagoons (or aerated stabilization basins),
and d) activated sludge treatment units.
Biological Filters
In spite of a serious attempt to use biological filters, they have not
found widespread use in the pulp and paper industry. According to
Reference (6) , this fact is due to plugging problems and BOD_5 loadings
which prohibit high efficiency removals. A summary (6) on tickling
filter performance shows BOD removals, ranging from 25 to 52%. With
these removal degrees it can be concluded that trickling filters can
only be used successfully as a roughing device prior to additional
treatment. Trickling filters are, therefore, not considered further in
this study.
Natural Oxidation Ponds
From a cost standpoint, this treatment method can only be considered
when large areas of "inexpensive" land are available. Another factor
limiting their use in the pulp and paper industry is that the effluent
Ipolors are usually higher than those of sanitary wastes and,
Consequently, the growth of the algae population might be prohibited or
reduced, resulting in lesser oxygen quantities available for the
biochemical process. However, for mills located in the South, where
climatic conditions are appropriate for photosynthetic activity
throughout the year and large land areas are often available, this
method is reasonably effective.
Decomposition products from the biological mass will accumulate on the
sludge bottom and may have to be removed periodically.
Design criteria:
Construction: earthen, unlined, concrete inlet and outlet structures
Loading rate: 50 Ib BOD/acre/day (7)
Liquid depth: 5 feet (7)
BOD removal: 85%
Cost functions: Capital cost in $1000 (3) = 62800 x A**0.74
where A = pond area in acres
333
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The cost function includes all material and labor required for all earth
moving, bank stabilization, concrete work and plant sewers. Cost of
land is not included.
Operation cost was considered independent of pond size and estimated to
be $6000 annually.
Since the rate of metabolism is low and the detention time is long, it
is assumed that the biomass will lyse and no nutrient addition is
assumed necessary.
Maintenance cost is estimated to be 0.15% of the capital cost annually.
Aerated Lagoons
The aerated lagoon system used for the costing basis consists of two
aerated cells in series as shown in Figure 6, Appendix IV. This system
was chosen because it usually gives better overall performance at lower
land requirements than the conventional single cell does. The aeration
system consists of mechanical surface turbine aerators. Miniirum pcwer
levels are assigned to ensure adequate mixing and oxygen distribution.
Nutrients are added in proportions to biological mass production and
solids wasted in the effluent. It is assumed that the biomass will lyse
and release nutrients to a large degree in the second cell, so that
nutrient addition is required only in the first cell. Nutrients have
been added in quantities as determined by Reference #8 in that 4 pounds
of nitrogen and 0.6 pounds of phosphorus should be provided per 100
pounds of BOD removed. Nutrient content in the influents are included
in these values.
Design Criteria: Aeration Cells
Construction: earthen construction, stabilized banks, lined for
seepage prevention, concrete inlet and outlet
structures, two cells in series.
Liquid depth: 15 feet
Nutrient addition: 4 pounds of nitrogen and 0.6 pounds of phosphorus
per every 100 pounds of BOD removed. Influent
nutrients are subtracted from these values.
33H
-------
NUTRIENT
ADDITION
RAW
WASTE WATE
R
TREATMENT
1
fr
PRIMARY
TREATMENT
.
-1-*
FIRST
AERATION
CELL
DET. TIME
0.5-£0 DYS
-&
SECOND
AERATION
CELL
DET. TIME
1.5- 10 DYS
_w
->
SECONDARY
CLARIFIER
(OPTIONAL)
i
TREATS
— ^
EFFLUE
SCREENINGS,
ETC.
SLUDGE
SLUDGE
Figure
Aerated Lagoon Treatment Plant
335
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Aerators:
Type: mechanical surface turbine aerators
Minimum power levels: 20 HP/MG in first cell (9)
6 HP/MG in second cell (9)
Secondary clarifiers:
Construction: Circular, concrete tanks, plow type rotary sludge
scraper
Overflow rate: 600 gpd/ft**2
Sidewater depth: 15 feet
Cost functions: Capital costs in $1000:
Aeration cells (10) = 62.8 x A**0.7U
where A = total cell area in acres
Aerators (10) = 1.13 x HP**0.80
where HP = total horsepower installation
Secondary clarifiers (3) = 62.*( (1.5-0.001Q)Q x 1000/QR)**0.60
where Q = flow in MGD
QR = overflow rate in gpd/ft**2
Operating and Maintenance Costs:
Aeration Cells:
Annual aeration cell maintenance costs were taken to be 1.0 perce
of capital costs (10).
Nutrient costs were calculated on the basis of $250 per ton of
nitrogen and $380 per ton of phosphorus.
Sludge removal cost was based on the assumption that 0.2 ton of
sludge settles to the aeration basin bottom per ten of BOE removed
and that the unit price of sludge removal is $7.50/ton. This sludge
accumulation rate is representative of existing field installations
for aerated lagoons.
Operation cost estimates were based on work in Reference (11):
Annual cost: 18.5 x Q**0.25
where Q = average daily flow in MGD
Aerators:
Annual maintenance costs for the aerators were taken to be 10% of
installed aerator cost (10). Power cost used 1.1 cents/kwh.
336
-------
Secondary Clarifiers:
Annual operation and maintenance costs were obtained frcm work in
Reference (5) and are:
1360 Q + 3537 x Q**0.5
Q = average daily flow in MGD
Activated Sludge
All costs for activated sludge treatment considered in this study
are for completely mixed systems, and with biological reaction and
oxygen utilization rates representative of the particular effluents
undergoing treatment. The completely mixed system was selected
because of its ability to handle surges of organic loads and slugs
of toxicants. The activated sludge plant used for the costing basis
is shown in Figure 7, Appendix IV.
Design Criteria:
Aeration Tank:
Construction: reinforced concrete with pier mounted surface
aerators.
Liquid Depth: 15 feet
Nutrient addition: U pounds of nitrogen and 0.6 pounds of
phosphorous per every 100 pounds of BOD
removed. Influent nutrients are subtracted
from these values.
Aerators: Type: mechanical surface aerators
Secondary Clarifiers:
Construction: circular concrete tanks with rotary suction
type sludge collector
Sidewater depth: 15 feet
337
-------
NUTRIENT
ADDITION
Raw Waste Water
or i
Primary Treatment
<
AERATION
• TANK
DETEN. TIME
1-5 MRS
./SECONDARY^ Secondary
*\CLARIFIER ) Effluent 9
^ Recycled
Sludge
Figure 7
Completely Mixed Activated Sludge System
338
-------
Cost Functions: Capital costs in $1000
Aeration tank (3) = 225 x V**0.71
where V = tank volume in million gallons
Aerators (3) = 1.75 x HP**0.81
where HP = total horsepower installed
Secondary clarifiers (3) = 62.* (1.5-0.002Q)Q*1000.OR)**0. 60
where Q = flow in MGD, including recycle
overflow rate in gpd/ft**2
Sludge recycle pumps (3) = 5.36 -f 1.66 x Q
where Q = average daily flow in MG
Operation and Maintenance Costs
Cost of operation and maintenance of activated sludge system has teen
calculated using a cost function developed in Reference 5. This cost
function includes operation and maintenance of aeration basins,
aerators, final sedimentation tanks and sludge return pumps:
Operation cost (0/1000 gal) = R x (3.40 + 4.95/v**0.5
where V= basin volume in million gallons
R=retention time in days
P'he breakdown between operation and maintenance is 60% and 40X,
respectively (10) .
Power cost is calculated from the net horsepower requirements at
1.10/kwh.
Nutrient cost are calculated on the basis of $250 per ton of sludge and
$380 per ton of phosphorus.
339
-------
Color Removal
Basis: "minimum lime" process
Costs include addition of lime kiln capacity, mixing eqmt.,
lime clarifier w/associated lime sludge thickening and
handling, necessary pumps, piping, instrumentation and
auxiliaries.
10 CO T/D Unbleached Kraft Mill
capital: $1,800,000 + 35% engr.
legal and contingency = 12^^30^00^
operating (maint., spares, power,
make-up chemicals, labor,
insurance and taxes) = $ 297,500/yr
add: 15% of 2,430,000 interest + = __ 364X500_
depr.
total annual cost = $ 662,000
less: energy cost at 40% of
297,500 = ___ 12.Lc._COO_
annual cost less energy = $ 542,000
$_542.i.OCO = $1.50/ton less energy
1000 x~350
T/D Days/Yr
120 A OCp = _. 35/ton energy
1000 x 350 ~1.85/ton total
iOOO_T/2_Cross-Recovery._NSSC-Kraft_Mill
capital: $1,500,000+35% = 32^02 5X.COO
operating (same basis as above) =
$ 280,000/yr
add: 15% of 2,025,000 depr+int. = ___ 304, CCO
total annual cost = $ 584,000
less: energy cost at 40% of
280,000 = __ 112.tJ.CO
$ 472,000
$472^0^0 = $1.35/ton less energy
1000 x 350
112.1.000 = _0i32/ton energy
1000 x 350 $1.67/ton total
340
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Sodium^Base NSSC-250 T/D
200 T/D mill (i.e. 250 T/D w/50 T/D wastepaper)
1 Capital cost $250,000 turnkey, 100GPM =
150,000 gal/day
_Q2 gts
depr. + interest at 15% of $250,000 = $37,500
operating cost incl. energy
I50xCOO_gal x 350_day_s x $0.95 2 = $50,000
day yr ~ 1000 gal
increase by 40% to reflect higher unit costs
in 150,000 gal/day unit of w/500,000 gal/day
in 2.
$50,000 x 1.40 = __ 21ilQ.C
total annual cost = $107,500
less: elec. power costs
HP = 11003Einl__{6002Sil_ = 60 HP for R.O
1714 (.60)
•«• est. for transfer pumps= 2j HP
total est. HP = 80 HP = 60kw
$^Qll x 24_hr x 350_day.s = power cost=
kw-hr day yr _U5J).C
total annual cost
less power = $102^000
Co st Per Ton
$1-50 per ton (not
200T/D x 350 days/yr incl. power)
$ __ 5^500 = 0. 79 per ton (power)
200x350 $2.29 total cost per
ton
Ammonia Base ~ 2CCT/D*5OT/DT Waste,Pager_g_250T/p
"" "" No data available.
Assume same as sodium base.
341
-------
Mixed j Media .(Multi-Media) Filtration for Suspended Solids_geingyal
1COO T/D Unbleached Kraft Mill
capital: $240,000 + 35% = $325^0
operating $123,000
add: 15% of 325,000 for int.+depr. = __ IJLtjj.Cj;
total annual cost = $141,500
less: 3556 of 123,000 for energy = __ 4 3 ^ C 0 0
annual cost less energy = $ 98,500
= $0.28/ton less energy
1000x350
T/D days/yr
43, COO = 0.12/ton
1000x350 $ . 40/ton total
1000 T/D Cross-Recoyer^Mill
capital: $210,000 + 3555 = !2_6fLt.OO.O_
operating $100,000
add: 15% of 284,000 (int.^depr.) = __ i3A^OjC
total annual cost = $143,000
less: energy at 35% of 100,000 = __ BS^.OO.O
annual cost less energy = $108,000
£1 Cjj.iJ3.CO = $.31/ton less energy
1000x350
_35X£C.C_ = _i!P_/ton energy
1000x350 $.41/ton total
JSO^T/D NSSC-Sodiurn Mill
capital: $100,000 + 35% = $135, CO 0
operating 37,000
add: 15% of 135,000 (int+depr.) = __ 2^^^
total annual cost = $ 57,000
less: energy at 35% of 37,000 = __ 13^000
annual cost less energy = $ U 4,000
-MjJKJj = $.50/ton less energy
250x350
_13X^CC = _..15/ton energy
250x350 $.65/ton total
342
-------
250T/DNSSC_^_Ammonia_Mill
li62j.^CO
73,500
35% =
capital: $120,000 +
operating
add: 15% of 162,000
total annual cost = $ 97,500
less: energy at 35% of 73,000 = __ 26_,.CQC
annual cost less energy = $ 71,500
$.82/ton less energy
_i3_0/ton energy
$1.10/ton total
250x350
_26^^0
250x350
from Waste Paper
capital: $75,000 + 35% =
operating $ 12,300
add: 15% of 101,000 = IJLi.000
total annual cost = $ 27,300
less: energy at 35% of 12,300 = ixJ^C
$ 23,000
23X.CO.C
100x300
100x300
SLUDGE DEWATERING
$0.76/ton less energy
_0i14/ton energy
$0.90/ton total
The sludges drawn from the primary and secondary clarifiers require
dewatering prior to final disposal. A large number of unit operations
are available for this purpose, from which the specific selection
depends upon local conditions like sludge characteristics, proportion of
primary and secondary sludges, distance to ultimate disposal site, and
ultimate disposal considerations.
343
-------
The units operations considered in this study are sludge settlings
ponds, gravity thickeners, vacuum filters centrifuges and
presses. The selected sludge dewatering process might consist of one
more sludge dewatering unit operations.
The dewatered sludge solids are usually disposed of either by
landfilling or incineration, according to local conditions and the level
of technology required. Sludge disposal by landfilling might give very
satisfactory solutions provided a suitable site can be found within a
reasonable distance from the rrill.
Possible harmful effects from landfilling are grcundwater pollution by
leaching of chemical constituents or decomposition products and erosion
by precipitation. Thus, both soil conditions and climate must be
suitable to make sludge disposal by landfilling successful, or the
required site work might result in a very expensive solution.
Provided air pollution requirements are met, sludge incineration is,
from an environmental point of view, a very satisfactory solution, since
only inert ashes need to be disposed of. Although the solution is
usually quite expensive, especially for small installations, lack of
other solutions might make it the only alternative.
Cost of sludge dewatering and disposal commonly accounts for 30-50% of
the total treatment cost.
Cost Functions:
Sludge dewatering ponds: Capital cost in $1000 (3) = 125 x V**0.70
where V = volume in MG
The operation cost of sludge ponds consists mainly of sludge dredging
and disposal which was estimated to cost $6.50 per ton of dry solids
removed.
Annual maintenance cost was estimated to be 1X of capital cost.
Gravity Thickeners: capital cost in $1000 (3)
= (SA) (34.-H6.5/exp (SA/13.3)
where SA = surface area in thousands of square feet
34U
-------
.nnual operation and maintenance costs of gravity sludge thickeners were
stimated to 8% of the capital cost.
Vacuum Filters: capital costs in $1000 (12) = 4.70 x A**.58
where A = filter area in square feet
345
-------
Operating and maintenance cost for vacuum filtration was based on the
following (3):
Labor: 0.5
Power cost:
Chemicals:
Maintenance
Centrifuges
where
man-hours per filter hour 8 $5.25 per hour
0.15 HP per square foot of filter 31.10 tf/kwh
$10.00 per dry ton for waste activated sludge, and
$4.00 per dry ton for primary sludges
: 5% of capital cost, annually
; capital costs $1000 (12) = 15.65 * (HP)**0.4
HP = total installed horsepower of the centrifuge.
Operation and maintenance costs have been calculated as follows:
Labor: 0.25 man-hours per hour of centrifuge operation 35.25 per
hour (3) .
Power cost: 1.10 2/kwh
Chemicals: None required for primary sludges increasing linearly
with the fraction of secondary sludges to 8 pounds of
polymer per dry ton of solids 5)1.25 per pound of polymer.
Maintenance: 1051 of capital cost, annually.
Sludge Presses: capital cost in $1000 = 5.75 x (S/F)**0.95
where S = dry weight of sludge, ton/day
F = press load, as a fraction of nominal load
Operation Cost:
Labor: 0.25 hours per hour of press operation 3$5.25 per hour
of press operation.
Power: 1.102/kwh
Maintenance: 10% of operation cost, annually.
Landfilling: Transport cost: 202/ton mile
Transport distance: 10 miles
Incineration: capital cost $1000 (3) = (S/9.6)(170 + 735 x S**0.61)
where S = total solids in tons/day
Incineration: capital cost $1000 (3) = (S/9.6)(170 + 735 x S**0.61)
where S = total solids in tons/day
Operation cost in $1000/yr (3)
(0.001 + 0.004 SE/P)S + S**0.85 x 0.001
where SE = secondary sludge in Ibs/day
P = primary sludge in Ib/day
S = total pounds of sludge/day.
346
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REFERENCES FOR COSTS
!„, Engineer ing -News Record. Published Weekly by McGraw Hill, Inc« ,
Highstown, New Jersey.
2. NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 178, "Settleable Solids Removal in the
Pulp and Paper Industry", (November 1964) .
3. Barnard, J. L. , "Treatment Cost Relationships for Industrial Waste
Treatment," Ph.D., Dissertation. Vanderbilt University, Tennessee
(1971) .
Uo NCASI Technical Bulletin No^ 190. "Manual of Practice for Sludge
Handling in the Pulp and Paper Industry," (June 1959) .
5. Swanson, C. L., "Unit Process Operating and Maintenance Costs for
Conventional Waste Treatment Pl§Di.§," FWQA, Cincinnati, Ohio (June
1968) .
6. Edde, H. , "A Manual of Practice for Biological Waste Treatment in
the Pulp and Paper Industry," NCASI Technical Bulletin No. 214. (1968).
7- Cost of Clean WaterA Industrial Waste Profile No. 3, GWQA, U.S.
Department of the Interior (November 1967) .
Helmers, E. N., J. D. Frame, A. F. Greenberg, and C. N. Sawyer,
Nutritional Requirements in the Biological Stabilization of Industrial
Wastes," Sewage and Industrial Wastes, ND 23, Vol. 7 (1951) p. 884.
9. Eckenf elder, W. E. , and D. L. Ford, Water Pollution Control-
ExE§£ilD§Ili§i Procedures for Process Design, Pemberton Press, Austin,
Texas.
10. EKONO, Study of Pulp and Paper Industry's Effluent Treatment^ A
B§B2rt Prepared for the Food and Agriculture Or gani zation of the United
Nations, Rome, Italy, 1972.
11. Development of Operator Training Materials, Prepared by Enviromental
Science Services Corp., Stanford, conn., under the direction of W. W.
Eckenf elder, Jr. for FWQA (August 1968) .
12. Quirk, T. P., "Application of computerized Analysis to comparative
Costs of Sludge Dewatering by Vacuum Filtration and Centrifuge," Proc.j,
23rd Ind^. Waste Conf . , Purdue University 1968, pp. 691=709.
3U7
-------
Supplemental References
1) Draft of Pulp Mill In-Plant Control of Dissolved Organic Wasifl
Products for the U.S. Enviromental Protection Agency, Contract f68-03?
0765, May 1973, by EKONO Consulting Engineers.
2) Advanced Pollution Abatement Technology in the Pulp, and Paper
Industry* prepared for OECD, Paris, France, General Distribution,
February 28, 1973.
348
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APPENDIX V
Exhibit 1
PRELIMINARY MILL SURVEY FORMAT
iQf2£ffiS£i2D "to be determined prior to mill survey.
1. PRE-VISIT INFORMATION - Obtain information describing the plant
prior to the reconnaissance survey. This could include magazine
articles describing the facilities, data or drawings furnished by the
mill, RAPP data, or any other pertinent information available. This
will enable us to get familiar with the mill before we meet with the
mill personnel.
2. EVALUATION OF EXISTING DATA - Check the availability of existing
data that the mill will make available for our inspection.
Included in this should be any drawings of the inplant or external
treatment facilities such as:
a. Layouts and sewer locations
b. Flow diagrams of treatment facilities
c. Flow diagrams of mill process areas
d. Water balance
e. Material balances
3. INITIAL MEETING - Establish what procedures will te required of us
during the sampling survey. For example, are there any areas of the
mill off limits or will the mill want someone with us at all times?
What safety requirements must we follow? Do we need safety shoes,
life preservers, hard hats, respirators, etc.? Can the mill supply
these?
4. INSPECTION OF MILL - In inspecting the various process areas of the
mill, we should identify the following:
a. Location of individual discharges to the process sewers.
b. Relative quality and type of individual discharges, i.e.,
clean, cooling water, contaminated, etc.
c. Types of sewers, i.e., open, closed, and direction of flow.
d. Location of existing flow measurement and sampling points and
type of equipment in use.
350
-------
e. Tentative locations of additional sampling and gauging points.
Where possible, an estimation of the average flow and possible
peak conditions will be indicated. Upstream conditions and
sewer characteristics will be inspected to ascertain that no .
flooding or other problems will be encountered during measure-
ment.
f. Methods and procedures in use to prevent or intercept strong
spills.
g. Relative amount of process water reuse and adequacy of exist-
ing information such as flow diagrams to explain and document
the extent, methods, and equipment required for reuse.
5. INSPECTION OF EFFLUENT TREATMENT FACILITIES - In addition to loca-
tion of existing flew measurement and sampling points we should evaluate
the need for additional points and any special equipment needed. Sam-
pling points should be available at the following locations:
a. Primary influent
b. Primary effluent
c. Primary sludge
d. Secondary effluent
e. Secondary sludge (if any)
f. Chemical feed systems
g. Sludge disposal
h. Additional treatment facilities
6. LABORATORY FACILITIES - A complete check of the procedures used by
the mill in running its chemical and biological tests should be made by
the plant chemist or other responsible party.
Determine whether the mill will allow us to use its lab and/or personnel
during the survey. If the mill will allow us to use its facilities, a
complete list of equipment available should be made and a list of
supplies needed to perform the various tests.
If we can not use the mill's lab, we must determine where we intend to
have the samples tested and make the appropriate arrangements.
7. REVIEW INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON FRESH WATER USED AND WHERE USED -
a. Process
b. Sanitary
c. Cooling water
d. Other
Review records showing quantity and quality of fresh water and flow
measurement device used.
351
-------
REVIEW INFORMATION AVAILABLE ON THE WASTE WATER DISCHARGE FROM THE
>WER PLANT -
. a. Determine water treatment facilities employed
b. Facilities used on water discharge
c. Frequency of waste discharges
d. Quality of discharge
9. COST INFORMATION - Determine or have the mill get for us (if they
will) any information on the cost of the internal and external treat-
ment facilities. This should include both capital and operating cost
for the facilities, preferably for a number of years. The method used
by the mill to finance the facilities and the number of years used to
write the expense off would be useful.
If possible the cost data should be gotten by area such as internal
treatment, primary, secondary, etc. Operating costs should include
labor, maintenance, chemicals, utilities, hauling, supplies, and any
other costs available from the mill.
10. TIME CONSIDERATIONS - Obtain any available information on the
following:
a. Time required to design the facility including the preliminary
study and final design.
b. Time to construct the facility.
c. Was construction bid after completion of engineering or done
turn-key?
d. What were delivery times for major pieces of equipment --
both internal and external?
e. What delays were encountered in getting approval by the various
regulatory agencies?
Determine the availability of any schedules, CPM or Pert charts for the
engineering or construction.
352
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Exhibit 2
Verification Program
DETAILED INSTRUCTIONS FOR FIELD SURVEY TEAMS
The enclosed material is prepared for the guidance of field sairpling and
verification crews following the preliminary Mill Reconnaissance Survey.
It is expected that these verification studies will follow along similar
lines at all field survey sites, therefore, it is intended that these
procedures be followed as closely as possible in order to provide uni-
formity to the verification program. Where mill conditions are unique,
adjustments in program operation may be necessary. If such conditions
are found, a justification for the adjustment in method should be pre-
pared, explaining the reasons for the deviations.
The material that follows is pertinent to a specific plant in that it
identifies specific sampling locations there. It is expected that other
plant sampling locations will be identified in similar fashion and the
sampling and analytical emphasis will be placed on those locations that
will have the greatest influence in the verification process.
In conjunction with the verification program it is expected that e
plant will have in its files records of its wastewater control opera-
tions, including daily analyses of the pertinent parameters, such as
BOD, SS VSS , pH, flows, production information, etc. Such data as is
available should be obtained for a period of at least 13 months (overlap
to account for end of year shutdown and startup) including not only
daily summary information but the laboratory bench sheets wherever
possible. Also, during the field visit every opportunity should be
taken to arrange for split samples between the plant lab and the field
operation as well as to exchange analytical results on locations that
are being sampled and analysed separately. These data will be most
valuable in the verification process to establish laboratory bias, if
any, of the results reported by the plant in question.
we have purposely selected the hourly grab sample method of sample and
composite preparation of the important waste stream components in order
to circumvent any errors that may be due to design or faulty operation
of any automatic samplers or other sample collection devices. In
reference to sampling of process streams within the plant it is of
utmost importance that every effort be made to obtain samples from the
following process wastewaters in the pulp mill and paper mill areas:
353
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wood handling and barking
digester and washings
causticizing
recovery
wet end
dry end - with and without coating applications.
Integrated sampling programs are preferred, as outlined for the major
wastewater and treatment units; however, random grab samples will be
acceptable if the sampling locations are not amenable to a more precise
technique. In any case, every effort should be made to acccmmcdate the
sampling to flow or other critical variations within the process under
study.
The analytical program exemplified by the attached pages described that
which is under way at a specific plant. Each mill study should be
programed to carry out these analyses on the significant waste streams
in accordance with parameters and frequencies listed. The locations at
which the analyses are to be performed will determine the sample
preservation method. It is recommended that all analyses be performed
with minimum delay following collection.
MPLING AND ANALYSES FROGPAM
I. Identify Sampling Locations as Exemplified below:
Station #
1. Process Water - raw
2. Heavy Liquor - raw
3. Clarifier inflow - raw
6. Clarifier Effluent - primary
Sample stations 1, 2, 3, and 6 once/hr. Measure Temp.,
Measure/record flow.
9. Final Effluent
Sample this station once/hr, when flowing. Measure Temp. °C,
when flowing. Measure/record flow, when flowing.
U. Ash Pond overflow
354
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5. Color Pond overflow
7. Aeration Pond overflow
8. Stabilization Pond overflow
10. Non Process overflow
11. Raw Intake
Sample stations U, 5, 7, 8, 10, and 11 once every 2 hrs.
Measure/record Temp. Measure/record Flow, where measurable.
12. Clarifier Underflow
Sample at the beginning and end of the underflow pumping
operation.
13. Process Streams
Sample as often as in-process changes warrant.
II. SAMPLING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Fill sample collector completely; then pour out.
2. Fill again. Measure temperature immediately.
3. Stir rapidly; then pour off about 1 litar into sample bottle.
4. Mark (tag bottle) with Station #, time, flow, and temp.
5. Seal bottle, place in cooler, deliver to lab.
6. Keep sample in cooler until ready for compositing.
7. After returning from a sample run, enter the data collected
on the log sheet.
III. COMPOSITING INSTRUCTIONS
1. Arrange the hourly collections per sample station in the order
of increasing flow rate.
2. Determine the volumetric ratio of each sample by dividing the
lowest flow rate into each succeeding flow rate, i.e., flow
rate 100 G/M, 110, 120, 150, 180, 200, etc. Divide 100 into
each succeeding number to get ratios 1.1, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.0,
etc.
3. Stir the sample well. Measure the amount to be removed, i.e.,
500 Ml base x 1.2. = 600 Ml into a grad. cylinder. Transfer
into the compositing bottle lor the sample station.
4. Attach tag giving number of composites and volume of each as
well as other pertinent data, i.e., station number, date,
period of composite.
5. Mix well. Remove appropriate volume for shipment back to the
main lab. The remainder will be used for analysis at the site.
355
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IV.. ANALYSES TO BE PERFORMED
Location
for
Analysis Test
STATION
123456789
RAW PRIMARY SECONDARY
10 11 12 13
/ / A.
SOLIDS
B. C. D.
etc.
oo
VJ1
ON
Key
1 -
2 -
3 -
A -
5 -
6 -
7 -
F BOD5
F pH
F Suspended
Solids
F V. SS.
F/L Dissolved
Solids
F/L Ash
F Color
L Metals -
(Fe. MN, Nl
Cr, Pb, Hg,
Cu, Zn)
L Total N -
(Kjeldahl +
No2,No3)
L Total P.
F/L Sp. Cond.
to Number Codes
Process Sewer
Heavy Liquor
Clarifier in
Ash Pond Out
Color Pond out
Clarifier out
Aeration Pont out
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
DDDDDDDD
D
D
D D D D
D
8 - Stabilization Pond
9 - Final Effluent
10 - Non-Process Sewer
11 - Raw Water Intake
12 - Clarifier Underflow
13 - Process Stream
A,B,C,D, etc refers
to location within
process
D
D
D
D
D
D
D
T
T
T
D
Key
D -
T -
0 -
F -
L -
D*-
D D
D D
D D
D D
0
0
0 0
T
T
D
to Letter
refers to
refers to
refers to
refers to
refers to
—
D*
D*
D*
Codes
daily
total
daily
Field
Home
combine random
sampling
cannot
D*
D*— — — — — — — ^— -
D*
n*________— _____________
n*
composite
composite
composite, run one time only
analysis
Laboratory analysis
grab samples if programmed
be carried out.
-------
V. METHODS TO BE USED FOR MILLS SURVEYS
Color.. NCASI_Method
1. Measure 200 Ml sample and adjust pH to 7.6 by adding 1. N NaOH or
1. N H2So4, while pH Meter is in sample.
2. Filter sample through 0.8 micron membrane.
3. Measure atsorbance at 465 NM.
4. Read Color value from standard curve, prepared from pt. co. stan-
dard.
Suspended^Solidg/yolatile Suspended Solids
Use 5.5cm fiberglass filter which has been heat treated and weighed
prior to use.
Nitrogen and_PhosEhorus_Determinatigns
To preserve samples for metals analyses, add 5 ml reagent grade HN03
per liter of sample. Preserve at least 1 liter of each sample that
is to have metals analyses. Also, save a 100 ml sample of the con-
centrated nitric acid used for preserving the metals samples. This
will be used to establish a reagent blank for the metals.
BQD5
1. Select the appropriate dilutions (no less than two) for the sample
to be analysed.
2. Mix the composited sample well.
3. Transfer the appropriate volume with a pipette into a standard
300 ml BOD bottle.
U. Fill the BOD bottle into the neck with the dilution water; do not
2X§£fi2S£. Allow air bubbles to escapa.
5. Measure and record initial D.O. with Probe.
6. If any water is lost after probe is removed, add dilution water so
that water level is into the neck of the BOD bottle.
357
-------
•K. Insert stopper carefully to avoid entrapment of air bubbles.
8." Place bottle in incubator at 20°C ± 1. Incubate 5 days + 2 hours.
•
9. Measure and record final D. O. with Probe.
10. Make appropriate corrections for seed and dilution water as follows:
a. Prepare 5% dilution of seed if aged primary or 50% dilution if
raw river water, following steps 3 through 9 above.
b. Calculate the D. O. equivalent of the seed plus dilution water
and record.
11. Use those dilutions that fall within the D. O. depletion limits
shown in Standard Methods p492.
12. Subtract the D. O. equivalent of the seed plus dilution water from
the final D. O. of each sample.
13. Multiply the net D. O. depletion by the dilution factor to give
the BOD value for the selected dilution.
14. a. If more than one dilution falls within the acceptable range,
report the average of the BOD's of the individual samples.
b. If all dilutions are depleted of D. O. report the highest
dilution as greater than .
c. If all depletions are less than 2 mg/1 D. O., report the lowest
dilution only.
15. Run a glo^-use-glutamic standard, preferably with each day's run of
samples.
16. Run a duplicate dilution on approximately one-third of the samples
daily.
BOD_Diluti on_ Wa t e r
1. Use distilled water only as base. Check for D. O.; aerate if
necessary.
2. Check for copper with cuprethal reagent, or equivalent. This is
necessary if the dilution water is purchased, or is from a source
not previously checked for copper. Reject if Cu test is positive,
i.e., greater than 0.01 mg/1.
358
-------
3. Withdraw a volume of dilution water sufficient for the day's samples.
4. Add appropriate volumes of mineral and buffer solutions. (Stan-
dard Methods pU89-491). Stir well.
5. a. Add 2 ml seed/liter if primary effluent from municipal STP
is available.
b. If not available use raw river water (50 ml/1).
6. Check pH. Should be 7.2.
B• Data Analysis_and^Tran§mittal
1. Upon completion of each Field Survey prepare a critical analysis
of the verification program in which the following elements are considered
An analysis of the variability of results between the plant
laboratory and the field study taking into account the split
samples, standards duplicates, etc., and the results reported
for each sample by the separate laboratories.
2. Based on your analysis, indicate the appropriate factors that need to
be applied to the available historical data that will bring these into
line with similar data being collected at other plants. Indicate how
and where each factor should be applied.
3. Transmit the raw data which were obtained during the verification
study including all analyses that were performed on all samples.
U. Transmit two copies of the 13 months of plant performance data which
are to be used to establish the performance expectations of the treatment
system being studied.
359
-------
A
AB
An . Av .
APHA CU
AR-BOD5
AR-TSS
AS
ASB
BATEA
BPCTCA
C
COD
CU
CV
DAF
gpd
gpd/sq.ft,
gpm
hp
kkg
kg/kkg
MGD, tngd
APPENDIX VI
Abbreviations
Aeration
Alternating Basins
Annual Average
American Public Health Association Colcr Unit
Average ratio for BOD5: (An.Av.+2SD)/An.Av.
Average ratio for TSS: (An.Av.+2SD)/An.Av.
Activated Sludge
Aerated Stabilization Basin
Best Available Technology Economically Achievable
Best Practicable control Technology Currently Availabl
Clarifier
Controlled Discharge
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Color Unit
Coefficient of Variation
Dissolved Air Flotation
Gallons per day
Gallons per day per square foot
Gallons per minute
Horsepower
1000 Kilograms (one metric ton)
Kilograms per 1000 kilograms
Million gallons per day
360
-------
MLD
M30CD
M30CD+SD
m-tpd
Na
NCASI
NH3
NSM
NSPS
RAPP
SD
SD30
SM
SO
SS
SS
30CD
tpd
TSS
Million liters per day
Average (mean) of 30 consecutive day averages
The M30CD plus one standard deviation
Metric tons per day
Sodium
National Council for Air and Stream Improvement
Ammonia
Non-Standard Methods
New Source Performance Standards
Refuse Act Permit Program
Standard Deviation of daily values for annual avera,
Standard Deviation of 30CD average from the M30CD
Standard Methods
Storage Oxidation Pond
Suspended Solids (same as TSS)
Secondary Settling
The average of 30 consecutive days
Short tons per day
Total Suspended Solids (same as SS)
361
-------
METRIC UNITS
CONVERSION TABLE
MULTIPLY (ENGLISH UNITS)
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATION
acre ac
acre - feet ac ft
British Thermal
Unit BTU
British Thermal
Unit/pound BTU/lb
cubic feet/minute cfm
cubic feet/second cfs
cubic feet cu ft
cubic feet cu ft
cubic inches cu in
degree Fahrenheit F°
feet ft
gallon gal
gallon/minute gpm
horsepower hp
inches in
inches of mercury in Hg
pounds lb
million gallons/day mgd
mile mi
pound/square
inch (gauge) psig
square feet sq ft
square inches sq in
tons (short) t
yard y
by TO OBTAIN (METRIC UNITS)
CONVERSION ABBREVIATION METRIC UNIT
0.405
1233.5
0.252
ha
cu m
kg cal
0.555
0.028
1.7
0.028
28.32
16.39
0.555(°F-32)*
0.3048
3.785
0.0631
0.7457
2.54
0.03342
0.454
3,785
1.609
kg cal/kg
cu m/min
cu m/min
cu m
1
cu cm
°C
m
1
I/sec
kw
cm
atm
kg
cu m/day
km
(0.06805 psig +1)* atm
0.0929 sq m
6.452 sq cm
0.907 kkg
0.9144 m
hectares
cubic meters
kilogram - calories
kilogram calories/kilogram
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters/minute
cubic meters
liters
cubic centimeters
degree Centigrade
meters
liters
liters/second
killowatts
centimeters
atmospheres
kilograms
cubic meters/day
kilometer
atmospheres (absolute)
square meters
square centimeters
metric tons (1000 kilograms)
meters
* Actual conversion, not a multiplier
362
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