Ecological Research Series
THE BIOENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF
COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
First Interim Report
Colstrip, Montana - December 197
Environmental Research Laborator
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further development and application of
environmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal
species, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term
influences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to
determine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical
basis for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms
in the aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-76-002
January 1976
THE BIOENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
OF A COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
First Interim Report, Col strip, Montana
December 1974
Edited by
Robert A. Lewis and Allen S. Lefohn
Ecological Effects Research Division
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Con/all is, Oregon 97330
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
CORVALLIS", OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental
Research Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial
products does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
11
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ABSTRACT
In June 1974, the National Ecological Research Laboratory initiated
a field program in southeastern Montana. The purpose of this program is
to assess the effects of a coal-fired power plant on a terrestrial
environment. Numerous investigators have worked together on this project
to establish a baseline investigation to characterize the environment
around the plant prior to operation. This report is a summary of activities
from June through October, 1974. The overall objectives, rationale, and
design of the project are outlined. Recommendations regarding further
actions on any of the components of this program are also included. The
paper serves primarily as a status report to the scientists and managers
who have been following the project since its inception in March, 1973.
m
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In addition to the authors and their respective institutions, a
very large number of persons have contributed to the development of the
Colstrip, Montana Coal-fired Power Plant Project and to the preparation
of this document. We would like to express our warmest thanks to all.
Members of the following agencies and institutions have been particularly
helpful: The Custer National Forest; Office of the Lieutenant Governor,
State of Montana; the Montana State Air Quality Bureau.
Our work could not proceed without the help and support of the
people of southeastern Montana, especially the ranchers on whose land we
are working and the personnel and persons residing at and near Fort
Howes Ranger Station. Critical contributions or review of the present
document were provided by Drs. Carolyn W. Lewis and John Reuss. Editorial
assistance was provided by Ms. Susan Jones and Mr. Larry Doe.
IV
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CONTENTS
Abstract ^ j ^
Acknowledgements iv
List of Tables vl-
List of Figures vil
SECTIONS
I. Introduction and Perspectives 1
II. Site Descriptions and Effects of Coal-Fired 11
Power Plant Emissions on Plant Community
Structure
III. Effects of S02 and Other Coal-Fired Power Plant 40
Emissions on Producer, Invertebrate Consumer,
and Decomposer Structure and Function in South-
eastern Montana Grassland
IV. Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions on 48
Plant Disease and on Plant-Fungus and Plant-Insect
Systems
V. Lichens as Predictors and Indicators of Air Pollution 69
from Coal-Fired Power Plants
VI. Physiological Responses of Plants to Coal-Fired 77
Power Plant Emissions
VII. Effects of Coal-Fired Power Plant Emissions on 79
Animals: A Summary
VIII. Field Experimental Component: The Bioenvironmental 95
Effects of Sulfur Dioxide
IX. Air Quality Component Measurements 102
X. Contributors 107
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TABLES
No. Page
1. Outline of the Research Plan for the Montana, 8
Coal-fired Power Plant Project.
2. Species Encountered on Eight Study Sites, Summary 13
1974
3. Average Percent Canopy Cover on Eight Study Sites. 21
4. Number of Plants per Species on Eight Study Sites. 25
5. Comparison of Various Indices of Diversity Based 31
on Plant Numbers.
6. Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients, Based on 32
Plant Numbers.
7. Pearson's Product of Moments Correlation Coefficients, 32
Based on Plant Numbers.
8. Classification of Phenological Stages. 34
9. Plant Phenology Scorecard. 35
10. Chemical Analyses Planned for Above and Below 43
Ground Biomass.
11. List of Plant Species Encountered in Aboveground 46
Biomass Samples.
12. Vegetation Collection Sites in the Vicinity of 50
Col strip, Montana.
13. Checklist of Identified Fungal Cultures. 52
14. Plant Species Propagated in the Laboratory. 53
15. Chemical Analyses of Indigenous Plants. 61
16. Summary of Lichen Data. 74
17. Taxonomic List of Wild Mammals Observed in the Col strip go
Study Area, 1974.
18. Taxonomic List of Wild Birds Observed in the Colstrip 92
Study Area, 1974.
19. Air Quality Laboratory Instrumentation. 193
20. Ambient Air Quality Data. 106
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FIGURES
No. Page
1. Location of Principal Study Sites in the Vicinity 17
of Col strip, Montana.
2. Map of Vegetation Collection Sites. 49
3. Zonal Air Pollution System. 99
4. Modified Zonal Air Pollution System. 100
vn
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SECTION I
INTRODUCTION AND PERSPECTIVES
by
Robert A. Lewis,
Allen S. Lefohn, and
Norman R. Glass
INTRODUCTION
The nation is presently faced with a series of problems concerning
the production, distribution, and consumption of fossil fuel energy.
Because of great abundance at relatively low cost, the Administration's
commitment to energy self-sufficiency by 1980 and other factors, it is
clear that the United States is moving toward an economy based on coal
as the primary fossil fuel resource. The rush toward energy self-
sufficiency will result in new pressures on the environment. The decisions
that will ultimately resolve the environmental and economic issues we
face must be made with full knowledge of the constraints imposed by the
need to minimize environmental impacts associated with energy production
and utilization.
Currently, over 95 percent of the primary energy in the United
States is produced through the combustion of fossil fuels (the remainder
is derived from hydro power and nuclear energy). By the year 2000, the
fossil fuel contribution to the total energy demand is estimated to be
approximately 70 percent, but total usage of fossil fuels is estimated
to increase over 100 percent. During the same period, nuclear energy is
expected to grow ten-fold.
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There is a clear relationship between research conducted on energy
related problems and research which has been carried out for the purpose
of setting or revising air and water quality standards designed to
maintain environmental quality. This is due to the fact that environ-
mental research designed to determine the effects on biota and ecological
processes is concerned with the same types of pollutants or residuals
for standard setting purposes as for purposes of identifying the effects
of energy extraction, conversion, or generation. For example, ambient
air quality standards have been established under the Clean Air Act
Amendments of 1970 for the major, but not all, pollutants generated by
fossil fuels. National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) have been
established for sulfur oxides, particulates, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, and oxidants and were based upon the best infor-
mation available at the time of their promulgation. New source performance
standards (NSPS) have been established for several industries, including
electric utilities, which place restrictions on the emissions of SO ,
/\
NO , particulates, and other pollutants. They apply to the operation of
/\
fossil fueled generating plants, the construction or modification of
which started after August 1971.
E
The Clean Air Act states that "...air quality criteria for an air
pollutant shall accurately reflect the latest scientific knowledge
useful in indicating the kind and extent of all identifiable effects on
public health or welfare which may be expected from the presence of such
pollutants in the ambient air, in varying quantities" [section 108(a)].
The Act further states that national primary ambient air quality standards
are regulations which "in the judgment of the administrator, based on
such criteria, and allowing for an adequate margin of safety, are requisite
to protect the public health" [section 109(b)]. Air quality criteria,
then reflect scientific knowledge, while primary air quality standards
involve a judgement as to how this knowledge must be used in a regulatory
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action to protect public health. Secondary air quality standards
determine the level of air quality required to protect the public welfare.
Public welfare as defined in the Clean Air Act "includes, but is not
limited to, effects on soils, water, crops, vegetation, manmade materials,
animals, wildlife, weather, visibility, and climate..." [section 302(h)].
These considerations also apply and become focal points for energy
related environmental research. It is clear that the research experience
gained in furtherance of the Clean Air Act is valuable in pursuing
energy related research - in fact, the objectives of research programs
are so similar that clear separation is not straight forward.
The major air pollutants emanating from fossil fuel energy systems
are sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides and particulate matter. Fossil fuel
systems also contribute, to a lesser degree, to the carbon monoxide and
oxidant burden. Primary ambient air standards, based on health effects
have been established for these pollutants. Secondary standards have
been established for SCL, particulates, CO, oxidants, hydrocarbons, and
N02- These standards were based on the best scientific information
available at the time of their creation. However, at the time they were
set, significant gaps in knowledge existed; even now important gaps in
knowledge still exist for each pollutant. Accordingly, under the Clean
Air Act, EPA is required to continually examine and update the criteria
upon which these standards are based. In addition to the above pollutants,
numerous trace metals such as copper, cadmium, zinc, lead, arsenic,
mercury, and others, are emitted from fossil fueled power generating
plants. In addition to trace metals, numerous other trace contaminants
in the form of hydrocarbons and various aerosols are also emitted from
power plants. In general, trace metals are emitted as particles adsorbed
to fly ash or other particulate matter coming from the stack of the
coal-fired power plant.
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The following discussion represents an overview of the National
Ecological Research Laboratory's recently initiated coal-fired power
plant project. The broad objective of this program is to measure and
predict change in a grassland ecosystem as a function of meaningful
environmental parameters including air pollutants. This study is con-
cerned not only with the stability of ecosystem organization in relation
to ambient conditions, but also with the predictability and reproduc- -
ability of changes that do occur. Insight into the mechanisms of
dynamic-structural responses of ecosystem components to air pollution
challenge is also sought. It is particularly important to identify the
subsystem functions that contribute to ecosystem regulation and mechanisms
whereby such regulation is effected.
This investigation thus represents an attempt to characterize the
impact of air pollutants on a total ecosystem. It is the first attempt
to generate methods to predict bioenvironmental effects of air pollution
before damage is sustained. Historically, most terrestrial air pollution
field research has dealt almost exclusively with direct, usually acute,
effects on vegetation. We expect to observe complex changes in ecosystem
dynamics as a function of relatively long term, chronic pollution challenge.
By studying a rather broad range of interacting variables, we hope to
isolate some of these as sensitive and reliable measures of air pollution
impact.
The approach envisioned requires (1) the use of reasonably compre-
hensive models of component populations of the ecosystems; (2) the use
of appropriately structured field and laboratory experiments; and (3) an
evaluation of physiological and biochemical functions that may serve as
specific indicators or predictors of air pollution stress.
Even in a comprehensive investigation, extensive studies of a large
array of species or processes is not possible. Considerable research is
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required to identify the specific parameters that will give an adequate,
sensitive measure of air pollution to a grassland ecosystem or components
thereof. Broad categories of important functions that should be investi-
gated include (1) changes in productivity or biomass of ecosystem
compartments; (2) changes in life-cycle and population dynamic functions
of "key" taxa; (3) changes in community structure or diversity; (4)
changes in nutrient cycling; (5) sublethal biochemical or physiological
changes in individuals or compartments; (6) behavioral changes in mobile
organisms; and (7) changes in reproductive patterns.
If we are to assess and interpret the effects of air quality on
natural ecosystems, it is essential that we understand the wide range of
abiotic factors (e.g., weather, geography, insolation, hydrology, etc.)
that influence the dynamics of the living components of the ecosystem.
Optimum production, the maintenance of stability and diversity, and
other desirable properties of ecosystems all depend upon a variety of
these abiotic factors.
RATIONALE
In addition to the "simple" direct effects of air pollutants that
have been reported from experimental studies of natural systems, we may
expect to observe complex changes in ecosystem dynamics as a function of
pollution challenge. We know that insults to the environment from
rather diverse sources (toxic substances, pesticides, radiation, disease,
and adverse climate) produce a similar array of effects at the community
level in spite of very different effects on individual organisms studied
under experimental conditions. The response mechanisms may vary, but
results are often similar: (1) a "reversal" of succession or simplification
of ecosystem structure; (2) a reduction in the ratio of photosynthesis
to respiration; and (3) a reduction in species diversity at more than
one trophic level, which may include the elimination of certain species
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(e.g., in grassland, usually rare, but characteristic species). Effects
may be temporary and reversible (i.e., the system adapts) or chronic and
cumulative. In any case, if a coal-fired power plant has a measurable
impact on the environment, there is every reason to believe that it will
be registered as a diminution of community structure.
Both plant and animal diversity and energy transfer between and
within trophic levels are measures of community structure. Furthermore,
these functions may be regarded as important ecosystem resources. We
hypothesize that the immediate population-level effects from environmental
stress may result from differential impairment of competitive ability.
At the relatively low pollution levels anticipated in the investigation,
we may expect to find predisposing and subclinical effects that will be
impossible to detect in the absence of appropriate population dynamic,
biochemical, and physiologic information.
Effects need not be mediated by alterations in food chains or
energy flow. Certainly food chains and mass and energy flow patterns
will be affected (although possibly secondarily) whenever population
adjustments occur. For example, a pollutant may alter the physiology or
behavior of the individuals that comprise a population. These alter-
ations are ultimately reflected in altered survival, reproduction
and/or emigration rates. Such effects may be subtle and difficult to
relate to the specific stressor. In the real world, numerous stressors
are operating in complex ways with various lag times; these tend to
confound the results of any field evaluation of a single stressor. The
end result of the response of the community to a continued environmental
stress is a readjustment of the component populations (plant and animal)
at a new state of dynamic equilibrium. It is not possible to predict
with any confidence, either the adjustments and mechanisms most importantly
involved or the final population levels that will be reached. By studying
a rather broad range of interacting variables and, in particular, by an
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intensive study of certain populations, some may be isolated as sensitive
and reliable measures of air pollution.
Table 1 outlines the existing research plan.
BASIS FOR SITING THE INVESTIGATION IN SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA
The selection of an appropriate study area was deemed to be essential
to structuring the entire investigation. Col strip was selected on the
basis of our initial literature review and several field trips to Montana
and Wyoming. The principal criteria employed in the selection of the
study area are detailed below:
1. The region is climatically and ecologically representative of
a relatively large portion of the North Central Great Plains.
2. The Col strip area of the Fort Union Basin is. a relatively
pristine pine savanna area which has never had a stationary source of
[toxic] gaseous or particulate emissions. Thus the vegetation and non-
migratory animals in the area, while being stressed by various envir-
onmental factors such as drought, adverse temperatures, nutrient defi-
ciencies, etc. have never been subjected to the added stress of air
pollutants. Previous air pollution studies around power plants (e.g.,
the Environmental Protection Agency's Mount Storm studies; the Tennessee
Valley Authority's pre- and post-operational studies; Large Power Plant
Effluent Study (LAPPES) [APTD 70-2, 0589, and 0735] and others [EPA
660/3-74-011] have occurred after the power plants are on line, or in
areas already so polluted prior to operation of the power plant that one
has never been able to adequately assess the very first introduction of
toxic emissions of power plants to an essentially pristine ecosystem.
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Table 1. Outline of The Research Plan for the Montana
Coal-Fired Power Plant Project
I. Field Investigation
A. Temporal and spatial quantitative inventory of components of
the study area, with particular focus on the annual cycle
phenomena of key species.
B. Meteorological measurements to support the modeling and experimental
air pollution research efforts.
C. Development of remote sensing as a tool for detecting effects
of air pollutant challenge on the ecosystem.
D. Measurement of loss of inventory attributed to strip mining, power
lines, human activity, water use, and other potentially confounding
influences, e.g., pesticides, disease, population cycling.
II. Air Pollution Experiments
A. Experimentally controlled air pollution of spatial segments of
an ecosystem.
B. Detailed measurement of biological structure and function,
including energy flow, nutrient cycling and species condition,
composition and diversity during and following air pollution stress.
III. Laboratory Experiments
A. Measurement and evaluation of physiologic, biochemical and
behavioral mechanisms of response to air pollution challenge.
B. Precise measurement of parameters that support dynamic models.
C. Experiments designed to test whether changes observed in
experimental study plots can be attributed to air pollutant
stress.
D. Secondary stresser experiments (e.g., disease, temperature
stress, water stress, non-specific stress).
E. Experiments designed to test field-generated hypotheses.
IV. Modeling
A. Use of an ecosystem level model to describe and predict effects
of air pollutant challenge.
B. Use of models to help design experiments.
C. Use of models to help disentangle pollutant effects from
natural variation and system dynamics.
D. Meteorlogical and dispersion modeling to describe the
mode of entry of pollutant into the ecosystem and its
time and space distribution and concentration.
8
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3. Montana laws favor rational development of resources.
4. According to current assessments, Montana contains nearly a
third of the strippable coal reserves in the northern central Great
Plains. It is possible that some 120,000 acres will be stripped during
the next two decades.
5. Southeastern Montana constitutes a rich range!and resource.
6. Existing data, while extremely scarce, indicate that air
quality in Eastern Montana is well above the national average.
7. Local-regional emission sources (see Regional Profile Report
on Atmospheric Aspects, Northern Great Plains Resource Program,
April 1974 [draft copy]) other than the coal-fired power plant at Col strip
are unlikely to contribute importantly to the air pollution burden of
the Rosebud Creek Watershed during the period of investigation.
8. The projected sites and schedules of strip-mining and power
plant development are known.
9. The history of human disturbance is reasonably well-documented.
10. We expect human disturbance (except that associated with coal
mining and coal-conversion) to be relatively low throughout the period
of investigation. We feel reasonably assured that sample sites, including
buffer zones and reference sites, will remain substantially free of
confounding disturbance.
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11. Other investigations are underway at Colstrip that are
complementary to our investigation. Our investigation will thus
broaden and extend an existing data base.
SCOPE AND PURPOSE
Summaries of the progress of the individual studies contained
within the National Ecological Research Laboratory's Colstrip, Montana
Coal-fired Power Plant Project are presented in the sections that
follow. Most of these research activities were initiated in July 1974
and this document represents a summary of the progress to date. The
overall investigation as presently planned is a three-year field effort
with a fourth year devoted to data analysis and evaluation. Most of the
field activities during each sampling year will take place from April
through October, although some components will continue through the
entire annual cycle. We expect the evaluation and synthesis of our
results to generate a protocol that will allow planning managers to
assess the impact of energy conversion activities on grasslands in the
Northern Great Plains prior to the initiation of site selection activities.
Achievement of this objective would greatly enhance our ability to make
valid siting and regulatory decisions. The full realization of this
objective within the time frame that has been projected will require a
synthesis of the National Ecological Research Laboratory's effects
research data and the coordination of these with the results of socio-
economic and transport/fate research projects. This will be difficult
to accomplish, but the rewards are potentially great.
10
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SECTION II
SITE DESCRIPTIONS AND EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT
EMISSIONS ON PLANT COMMUNITY STRUCTURE
by John E. Taylor, Wayne Leininger,
and Ronald Fuchs
INTRODUCTION
This investigation was activated on 15 July 1974 as part of the
larger project to study the bioenvirontnental effects of air pollution
from fossil fuel power plants on a grassland ecosystem.
Our particular project objectives were to describe pre-treatment
native plant communities in areas likely to be affected by fossil fuel
power plants and on areas to be stressed artificially with pollutants;
to develop measurement techniques to monitor changes in plant community
structure, diversity, phenology, and speciation; and to provide data for
simulation models which can be used to predict bioenvironmental changes
following fossil fuel power generation in other areas.
Because of the seasonally late initiation of the project, priorit-
ies had to be realigned to conform with the growing season. In particular,
many of the early ephemeral plants had completed their annual cycles and
were essentially gone from the scene by the time field work was initiated.
This affected estimates of plant species diversity, community structure,
and phenology. Also, infrared photographic procedures were hindered by
the absence of green plant material; consequently, infrared signatures
to aid in aerial photo interpretation were not obtained. The data
served a most useful purpose, however, since they constitute a trial of
procedures to be refined and used in future years. Some of the field
techniques will be rejected or modified as the data analyses are completed
this winter.
11
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A good part of the first field season was devoted to developing
procedures and techniques which will be used in subsequent years.
RESEARCH ACTIVITIES
A field station was established at the Environmental Protection
Agency site at the Fort Howes Ranger Station. Studies in the vicinities
of Ft. Howes and Colstrip were conducted from that location.
The project activities for the report period may be classified as
follows:
Description and Characterization of Study Areas
Plant Community Structure Studies
Aerial Photography
Miscellaneous Service Functions
Each of these activities is discussed in detail below. Plants encountered
at each of the study sites are listed in Table 2.
Description and Characterization of Study Areas
The first season's work was concentrated on the principal sites which
were established for the overall EPA project (Figure 1) and on the proposed
experimental site at Ash Creek.
Site Descriptions are:
1. Ash Creek: This site is located on the Custer National Forest
(Ft. Howes Ranger District), southeast of Ashland, Montana. The 27 acre
12
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Table 2. Species Encountered on Eight Study Sites, Summer 1974
co
Site
Species
GRAM I NO IDS
Agropyron cristatum
Agropyron smithii
Agropyron spicatum
Aristida longiseta
Bouteloua curtipendula
Bouteloua gracilis
Bromus japonicus
Bromus tectorum
Calamovilfa longj folia
Calamagrostis montanensis
Carex filifolia
Carex jsennsylvanica
Festuca idahoensis
Koeleria cristata
Muhlenbergia cuspidata
Poa secunda
Poa pratensis
Schedonnardus paniculatus
Schizachyrium scoparium
Sporobolus cryptandrus
Stipa comata
Stipa viridula
Vulpia octoflora
Ash
Creek
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Hay
Coulee
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
West
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
North
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
East
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll A
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll B
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll C
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
FORBS
Achillea lanulosa
Ambrosia psilostachya
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Table 2. (Continued)
Species
Ash Hay Kluver Kluver Kluver
Creek Coulee West North East
McRae McRae McRae
Knoll A Knoll B Knoll C
FORBS (Continued)
Linum perenne
Linum rigidum
Mammillaria missouriensis X
Melilotus officinale
Mirabilis linearis
Opunta fragi1is X
Opuntia polyacantha
Orthocarpus luteus X
Oxytropis spp.
Petalostemon purpureum
Phlox hoodii X
Plantago purshii X
Polygala alba
Psora!ea argophylla X
Ratibida columnaris X
Sisymbrium altissimum
Solidago missouriensis
Solidago occidental is
Soli dago spp. X
Sphaeralcea coccinea X
Taraxacum officinale X
Tragopogon dubius X
Yucca glauca
Unknown forbs X
SHRUBS
Artemisia cana X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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Table 2. (Continued)
en
Site
Species
Forbs (continued)
Androsace occidental is
Antennaria parvi folia
Antennaria spp.
Artemisia ludoviciana
Aster spp.
Astragalus crassi carpus
Astragalus gilviflorus
Astragalus striatus
Cerastium arvese
Chrysopsis villosa
Cirsium arvense
Cirsium undulatum
Conyza canadensis
Echinacea pall i da
Eriogonum annuum
Erigeron divergens
Erigeron spp.
Erysimum asperum
Evolvus pilosus
Gaura cocci nea
Grindelia squarrosa
Haplopappus spinulosus
Hedeoma hispida
Hymenopappus filifolius
Lactuca spp.
Lepidium spp.
Liatris punctata
Ash
Creek
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Hay
Coulee
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
West
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
North
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
East
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae McRae
Knoll A Knoll B
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X X
X
X X
X
McRae
Knoll C
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
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Table 2. (Continued)
Site
Species
SHRUBS (continued)
Artemisia dracunculus
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia tridentata
Atriplex gardneri
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Eurotia lanata
Gutierrezia sarothrae
Juniperus scopulorum
Prunus virginiana
Rhus trilobata
Rosa arkansana
Rosa spp.
Ash
Creek
X
X
X
X
X
Hay Kluver
Coulee West
X X
X X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Kluver
North
X
X
X
X
Kluver
East
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll A
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll B
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
McRae
Knoll C
X
X
X
X
-------
45°45'-
-45°45'
06° 25'
MILES
Figure 1. Location of Principal Study Sites in the Vicinity of Colstrip,
Montana
17
-------
exclosure is situated on a broad upland bench at an elevation of about
3850 feet. There is a slight (four to five percent) slope to the NE.
Soils are silt loams, derived in place from decomposition of parent
material. The site is estimated to be in low good range condition,
according to the method of the Soil Conservation Service (1971).
Dominant vegetation is western wheatgrass (Agropyron smithii) and
prairie junegrass (Koeleria cristata), associated with Japanese brome
(Bromus japonicus) and silver sage (Artemisia cana).
2. Hay Coulee: This site is the location of the air quality
monitoring station, and is situated on private land, seven miles south-
east of Colstrip, Montana. Topography is a sloping hillside above a
coulee bottom, with a four percent slope to the south-southwest. Elevation
is 3050 feet. The clay loam soils are derived from alluvium from
surrounding uplands. Range condition is estimated to be good. Western
wheatgrass and big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) dominate the site,
in association with prairie junegrass and Japanese brome.
3. Kluver West (Cow Creek): This site is on private land about
eight miles east-southeast of Colstrip at an elevation of approximately
3070 feet. The exclosure is on an outwash terrace and slopes about six
percent toward the north. The predominant soils are sandy loams which
have been washed down from the higher slopes. Range condition is good.
The dominant vegetation is needle-and-thread (Stipa comata) and annual
bromes [cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) and Japanese brome]. Major plant
associates are western wheatgrass, wooly indianwheat (Plantago purshii),
six weeks fescue (Vulpia octoflora). and scarlet globemallow (Sphaeralcea
coccinea).
4. Kluver North: This location is on private land about nine
miles east of Colstrip. The exclosure is near a coulee bottom at an
elevation of 3000 feet. The topography is fairly flat, with a five
18
-------
percent slope to the northeast. Soils are alluvial sandy loams. Range
condition is good, with needle-and-thread and fringed sagewort (Artemisia
frigida) the most conspicuous plants. Other important species include
western wheatgrass, Japanese and cheatgrass bromes, thread!eaf sedge
(Carex filifolia), Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda) and meadow salsify
(Tragopogon dubius).
5. Kluver East (School Section, Bull Pasture): The exclosure is
about 11 1/2 miles east-southeast of Col strip on a state section. The
site is a gently sloping (three and one-half percent) coulee bottom with
a southwest exposure. Elevation is 3000 feet. Soils are clay loams,
formed in place from weathered parent material and alluvium. Range
condition is good. Western wheatgrass, cheatgrass and Japanese bromes
are associated with fringed sagewort, meadow salsify, and needle-and-
thread grass.
6. McRae Knolls.
6a. McRae Knoll "A": This is one of three adjacent sites, essentially
undisturbed by domestic animals, located on private land nine miles
southeast of Colstrip. The site is on a relatively flat-topped knoll at
3030 feet elevation. There is a slight (two percent) slope to the east-
southeast. The sandy loam soils are derived from alluvium and parent
materials weathered in place. Range condition is good. The knoll top
is dominated by needle-and-thread grass and Japanese brome, with western
wheatgrass and scattered silver sagebrush. Several desirable native
range species are found along the knoll slopes. These include prairie
sandreed (Calamovilfa longifolia), little bluestem (Schizachyrium
scoparium), and bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum).
6b. McRae Knoll "B": This site lies between Knolls "A" and "C"
and is about 20 feet lower in elevation. Soils are similar to those of
19
-------
Knoll "A". This knoll slopes up toward Knoll "A" (northeast) and
slopes downward in the other directions. Range condition here is
estimated to be excellent. Bluebunch wheatgrass and needle-and-threadgrass
dominate the vegetation, associated with big sagebrush and Japanese
brome. Prairie sandreed is found on the slopes.
6c. McRae Knoll "C": Adjacent to the previous site, this area is
considerably smaller than "A" and about the same size as "B". It breaks
off abruptly to the west side. Soils and topography are generally
similar to those of Knolls "A" and "B". Range condition is high good,
with needle-and-thread and threadleaf sedge predominating. Major
associates include western wheatgrass, Japanese brome, prairie sandreed,
and little bluestem.
Further possible sites were examined for future use, including
areas near Pony Creek (east of Col strip), Poker Jim Flat (west of Ft.
Howes), the Ashland Division, Custer National Forest (Ashland and Ft.
Howes Districts), and several study areas established and described by
Steve Knapp, Biologist, Montana Fish and Game Department (pers. comm.).
Plant Community Structure
Canopy Cover Determinations —
Canopy cover estimates were made on all intensively studied
locations and on all three of the McRae knolls. The technique used
was that of Daubenmire (1959), which employs a two by five dm plot in
which each species' canopy cover is classified into one of
six categories. Fifty frames were examined on each sampling date
on each site. The data from the first sampling date are shown in
Table 3. It can be seen that there is a substantial difference
among sites, and that Ash Creek is by far the richest floristically.
20
-------
Table 3. Average Percent Canopy Cover on Eight Study Sites (averages of two lines of 25 frames each)
ro
Species
GRAM I NO IDS
Agropyron cristatum
A. smithii
A. spicatum
Bouteloua gracilis
Bromus japonicus
B. tectorum
Calamovilfa longi folia
Calamagrostis montanensis
Carex filifolia
C. pennsylvanica
Koeleria cristata
Poa secunda
Schedonnardus paniculatus
Stipa comata
S. viridula
Vulpia octoflora
Aristida longiseta
FORBS
Achillea lanulosa
Androsace occidental is
Antennaria parvi folia
Antennaria species
Artemisia ludoviciana
Astragalus crass i carpus
A. striatus
Cerastium arvense
Conyza canadensis
Erysimum as per urn
Ash
Creek
22.65
.05
7.1
.25
.05
19.9
3.65
1.05
.05
1.6
1.5
.9
.65
3.45
.4
.15
.75
1.45
Site
Hay Kluver
Coulee West
14.45 10.65
.3
9.0 6.0
16.0 32.65
7.8 9.8
3.95
9.6 .1
2.35 2.95
.4 38.1
2.9 8.45
.3
.15
.3 .35
.1
.05
Kluver
North
11.7
16.8
15.1
3.85
.4
.3
2.2
14.8
.65
1.25
.55
.35
.15
Kluver
East
10.9
17.35
5.95
13.2
12.15
.05
.75
.3
5.05
.2
.05
.6
.1
.05
.3
McRae
Knoll A
1.55
2.1
24.85
2.15
10.9
2.55
.75
13.15
.35
.05
McRae
Knoll B
3.4
.4
14.15
4.75
.8
6.35
10.55
.15
3.4
.05
1.0
.05
McRae
Knoll C
1.7
7.15
9.4
1.1
1.85
16.8
20.0
1.05
.1
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Site
Species
Ash
Creek
Hay
Coulee
Kluver
West
Kluver
North
Kluver
East
McRae
Knoll A
McRae
Knoll B
McRae
Knoll
C
FORBS (Continued)
Gaura coccinea .75 .05 .1
Grindelia squarrosa .3
Haplopappus spinulosus .05
Hedeoma hispi da 2.0 3.4 1.8 1.2 .45 .1 .1
Lepidium spp. .1 .1 .2 .1 .1
Lygodesmia juncea .1 .8 3.05 .15
Linum rigidum .05 -05
Mamillaria missouriensis .15
Opuntia fragilis .05 .3 .1 .9 1.1 .65 .05
0_. polyacantha .3
Phlox hoodii 3.5 .75 -05
Plantago purshii 2.15 2.95 3.75 1.5 1.95 .4 .65
Psora!ea argophylla 4.5 .25 .75 .1 .05
Sphaeralcea coccinea 1.1 .05 1.05 -4
Taraxacum officinale .75 .5 2.9 .5
Tragopogon dubius 3.25 1.3 1.2 13.7 3.4 .4 .4 .2
Unknown forbs .05 .45 .35
SHRUBS
Artemisia cana 1.1 1.4 1.25 1.55 1.1 .3
A. frigida5.15 5.2 .4 12.8 16.95 2.35 2.85 2.55
A. tridentata 5.5 -75
Eurotia lanata .05 .35
Gutierrezia sarothrae 3.15 .3 .3 .05
Rosa arkansana .8
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Site
Species
OTHERS
Moss
Bare ground
Rocks and erosion pavement
Lichens
Litter
Ash
Creek
1.45
22.85
4.35
56.4
Hay
Coulee
.05
11.05
12.3
68.5
Kluver
West
.05
5.25
.05
29.35
78.25
Kluver
North
.05
16.4
16.2
60.95
Kluver
East
14.9
.1
15.8
53.4
McRae
Knoll A
1.75
8.45
.25
12.85
37.2
McRae
Knoll B
2.8
11.15
.85
10.65
42.85
McRae
Knoll C
5.45
15.8
.15
3.5
50.25
no
CO
-------
Diversity Studies
Procedure -- Numerical data for index of diversity studies (species
and individuals per species) were recorded for each Daubenmire
plot concurrently with canopy cover. These data are presented
in Table 4.
Indices used —
(1) Shannon-Weaver Function
s
H'= Z P.Log P.
i = 1 1 1
Where H1 = the index of diversity
S = the number of species present
P. = the number of individuals per
species divided by the total
number of individuals sampled.
H' is an estimation of Brillouin's H, the true
population diversity. At large sample sizes
the value for H1 is almost exactly that for
H. In addition, since log P. is used rarer
species aren't discriminated against (Pielou,
1966; Shannon and Weaver, 1963).
24
-------
Table 4. Number of Plants par Species on Eight Study Sites (total of two lines of 25 frames each).
ro
en
Site
Species
GRAM! NO IDS
Agropyron cristatum
A. smithii
A. spjcatum
ATisticia loncp'seta
Bouteloua gracilis
Bromus japonicus
B. tectorum
Calamovilfa lonq'ifolia
Calamagrostis montanensis
Carex fill folia
C. pennsylvam'ca
Koeleria cristata
Poa secunda
Sc'nedonnardus paniculatus
Stipa comata
S. viridula
Vulpia octoflora
FORBS
Achil lea lanulosa
Androsace occidental is
Antennaria parvi folia
Antennaria species
Artemisia ludoviciana
Astragalus crassicarpus
A. striatus
Cerastium arvense
Conyza^ canadensis
Erysimum asperum
Ash
Creek
1324
1
576
7
2
563
157
12
128
106
89
7
112
1
4
11
59
Hay
Coulee
1362
2
101
1141
388
302
124
2
386
9
Kluver
West
418
1
63
1905
556
91
2
35
260
803
3
14
1
1
Kluver
North
467
7
104
803
243
10
5
48
137
30
18
1
3
Kluver
East
96
956
1
22
797
710
1
10
1
37
14
7
2
1
5
McRae
Knoll A
92
22
2700
201
352
40
29
169
18
2
McRae
Knoll 8
251
11
203
1124
123
249
143
5
126
1
82
1
McRae
Knoll C
123
116
855
553
12
535
129
68
4
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Species
Ash
Creek
Hay
Coulee
Kluver
West
Kluver
North
Si1
Kluver
East
McRae
Knoll A
McRae
Knoll B
McRae
Knoll
C
FORBS (Continued)
Gaura coccinea 35 1 2
Grindelia squarrosa 1
Hedeoma hispida 156 498 94 51 11 2 1
Lepidium spp. 3 3 11 2 2
Lygodesmia juncea 2 18 28 3
Linum rigidum 1 1
Mamillaria missouriensis 4
Opuntia fragilis 36 6 19 10 2 2
0_. polyacantha 4
Phlox hoodii 44 15 3
PTantago purshii 374 377 225 141 124 9 40
Psoralea argophylla 61 5 14 35
Sphaeralcea coccinea 66 1 32 8
Taraxacum officinale 96 48 11
Tragopogon~duDTuT39 24 22 291 47 9 10 4
Unknown forbs 1 5 1
SHRUBS
Artemisia cana 73 1581
A. frigida 49 47 4 125 140 4 25 2
A. tridentata 4 1
Eurotia lanata 2
Gutierrezia sarothrae 13 1 1 1
Rosa arkansana 6
-------
Table 4. (Continued)
Site
Ash Hay Kluver Kluver Kluver McRae McRae McRae
Species Creek Coulee West North East Knoll A Knoll B Knoll C
OTHERS
Moss 6112 32 90 74
Bare ground
Lichens 101 235 285 197 264 279 451 101
ro
-------
(2) Simpson's D
D = 1 -
Where D
S
Pi =
the index of diversity
the number of species present
the number of individuals per
species divided by the total
number of individuals sampled.
While values for D agree closely with values for H1, the expression
2
p. used in the formula discriminates against the rarer species (Simpson,
1949).
(3) Redundancy
R = (H'max-H1) (H'max-H'min)
Where R
H1
H'max+H'min
redundancy
Shannon's H1
are the maximum and minimum possible
values, respectively, for H1 based
on the species and total number of
individuals recorded.
28
-------
Redundancy is a measure of evenness or equitability which relates the
observed H1 to the maximum and minimum possible values of H1 given the
number of species and total number of individuals present (Hamilton,
1974).
(4) Probability of Interspecific Encounter (P. I.E.)
4 • -> p2 • ->D
i
Where A, = the probability of interspecific
encounter (P. I.E.)
D = Simpson's D
N = the total number of individuals sampled.
P. I.E. is an index of diversity based on
Simpson's D. It is the probability an individual
has of encountering an individual of another
species (Hurlbert, 1971).
(5) Probability of Intraspecific Encounter (Pa)
Pa = 1-A-,
Where Pa = the probability of intraspecific encounters
A] = P. I.E.
Pa is the complement to P. I.E. (Hurlbert, 1971). It
measures the probability of one individual encountering
another individual of the same species in the sample
population.
29
-------
(6) P. I.E. Transformation (A-)
s
1 E
Where A
P. I.E. transformation
E P. = the expression from Simpson's D.
i = 1 1
The P.I.E. transformation is used to increase
the spread between values for Simpson's D at
the upper portion of its range (Hurlbert,
1971).
(7) Fisher's a
=
a
Where a
N
the index of diversity
the total number of individuals
sampled
number of species with just one
individual
Fisher's a is based on the number of species in
the sample containing only one individual
(Fisher, Cobert and Williams, 1943).
Results and discussion -- A comparison of the various indices is
given in Table 5. Statistical tests of correlation appear in Tables 6 and 7.
30
-------
Table 5. Comparison of Various Indexes of Diversity, Based on Plant Numbers
Site Fisher's a Simpson's D H' Redundancy P.I.E. Pa A3 Range Condition
Kluver North
Hay Coulee
Kluver West
Ash Creek
Kluver East
3
5
5
2
6
.0382
.0052
.0053
.0010
.0112
.8765
.8585
.8433
.8423
.8194
1.0506
.9804
.9464
1.0590
.8886
.2808
.3275
.3516
.3547
.3948
.8768
.8587
.8435
.8425
.8196
.1232
.1413
.1565
.1575
.1804
8.
7.
6.
6.
5.
0972
0671
3816
3412
5371
60%
60%
55%
50%
50%
-------
Table 6. Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients, Based on Plant Numbers
D
H1
R
P. I.E.
Pa
A3
R.C.
Table 7.
D
H1
R
P. I.E.
Pa
A3
R.C.
D
-
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
1.0
H1
0.4
-
-0.4
0.4
-0.4
0.4
0.4
R
-1.0
-0.4
-
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
Pearson's Product of
Based on
D
-
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
1.0
H'
0.4
-
-0.4
0.4
-0.4
0.4
0.4
R
-1.0
-0.4
-
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
P. I.E.
1.0
0.4
-1.0
-
-1.0
1.0
1.0
Pa
-1.0
-0.4
1.0
-1.0
-
-1.0
-1.0
A3
1.0
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
-
1.0
R.C.
1.0
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
-
Moments Correlation Coefficients,
Plant Numbers
P. I.E.
1.0
0.4
-1.0
-
-1.0
1.0
1.0
Pa
-1.0
-0.4
1.0
-1.0
-
-1.0
-1.0
A3
1.0
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
-
1.0
R.C.
1.0
0.4
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
H.
32
-------
As can be seen from Tables 5, 6 and 7, the various indexes correlated
quite closely except for Fisher's a. The high value for H1 for the Ash
Creek control site is probably due to a greater number of forbs, reflecting
the more favorable plant habitat.
Future studies -- Additional data are needed to see if the various
indexes used are sensitive enough to show variations in diversity through
the growing season. Once enough background data have been gathered and
analyzed, it will be seen if the indexes can monitor changes in diversity
due to air pollution stresses on the ecosystem.
Also, we will calculate another set of diversity indexes based on
Colorado State University's biomass data. These indexes will be compared
with the results gained using individuals per species. Modifications in
methods, procedures, and calculations of indices may follow if biomass
rather than individuals per species yields more promising results.
Phenology studies — Initial observations were made to test a pheno-
logical scorecard which was developed for this project. The lateness of
the season precluded the development of an annual phenologic profile for
the study areas, but it was felt that the system will be useful in
subsequent seasons.
The phenological stages recognized and the field form used are
shown in Tables 8 and 9, respectively.
Pattern analysis -- Some preliminary pattern studies were initiated on
several of the locations using the approach of Kershaw (1957). These
data will be analyzed this winter. The purpose of this study is to
evaluate pattern analysis procedures in terms of their sensitivity to
plant community changes which may result from the initiation of power
generation.
33
-------
Table 8. Classification of Phenological Stages
Code Stages
1 Cotyledon (newly germinated)
2 Seedling
3 Basal Rosette
4 Early greenup, veg. buds swelling
5 Vegetative growth, twig elongation
6 Boat stage, flower buds appearing
7 Shooting seed stalk, floral buds opening
8 Flowering, anthesis
9 Late flowering
10 Fruit formed
11 Seed shatter, dehiscence
12 Vegetative maturity, summer dormancy, leaf drop
13 Fall greenup
14 Winter dormancy
15 Dead
34
-------
Table 9. Plant Scorecard
LOCATION
DATE
WORKER(S)
Species Phenology Code Comments
35
-------
Plant Collection -- The field crew attempted to collect all plant
species on each study site as they came into flower. This included only
the late flowering species of this year. Future collections will obtain
specimens of the early flora. This material will constitute a local
reference herbarium for consultation by field workers. Specimens also
will be submitted to the Montana State University Herbarium for taxonomic
verification and voucher purposes.
Seed Collection -- Seeds of common plant species were collected as time
permitted. This material will be used by the bird research personnel in
examining food habits. This work will continue in future years.
Soil Sampling -- Soil samples were collected from the McRae Knoll sites
to be used in further characterization of plant habitats. Additional
collections will be made on all sites, following the methods
of Passey and Hugie (1962). Soil analysis will be conducted by the Soil
Testing Laboratory, Montana State University.
Permanent Ground Photo Plots -- Initial photo plots were established
and photographed at all locations. At Ash Creek, two plots were placed
in each of the proposed stressing plots. At Hay Coulee and the three
Kluver sites, two photo plots were established in each enclosure, and
one photo plot was placed on each of the three McRae knolls.
The photo plots were three by three feet, and were marked for
relocation. Each was photographed in color from a high oblique angle
(25° from vertical). Stereoscopic photography was used for ease of
plant identification. Most of the plots also were photographed with
infrared color film. After the oblique photographs were made, the
camera was tilted up so that the field of view included the horizon, and
an aspect picture was taken. At the same time as the plot photography,
a rough chart was prepared of the plot, showing locations and identi-
fications of the various species present. This was done to aid in the
interpretation of the photographs this winter.
36
-------
The ground level photographs will be analyzed during the coming
months to evaluate potential usefulness in recording detailed vegetational
changes.
Aerial Photography
On 24 and 25 September, initial aerial photography of the study
areas was contracted to Aerial Survey, Inc. of Miles City. The purpose
of this activity was to obtain imagery in various emulsion types and at
different scales for evaluation as future operational procedures.
Color, IR color, and black-and-white imagery were obtained in 35 mm and
70 mm formats. Flying elevations ranged from 500 to 7200 feet above
ground level, yielding image scales from 1/3000 to 1/44,500.
Black-and-white index mosaics were prepared for each of the study
areas as aids to future aerial photography. The color imagery will be
examined further in terms of its use as a monitoring technique.
FUTURE ACTIVITIES
No substantial changes are anticipated in this research, with the
exception of the procedural modifications mentioned above. The winter
season will be used to identify the most useful and meaningful data and
to refine field procedures. Photographic interpretation will be completed
and base maps drawn of each experimental area. Decisions about future
aerial photographic support requests will be made in consultation with
Robert A. Lewis and Thomas Osburg. Other principal investigators will
be contacted about their photographic support requirements and their
data sharing possibilities.
No field work is planned for the next quarter, except for the
possibility of some more aerial photo scale experiments if conditions
37
-------
are favorable. This will be accomplished locally. The bulk of research
activities for the next quarter will be centered on data analysis and
interpretation and planning for the next field season.
38
-------
REFERENCES
Fisher, R. A., A. S. Corbet, and C. B. Williams. 1943. "The Relations
Between the Number of Species and the Number of Individuals in a
Random Sample of an Animal Population." J. Anim Ecol. 12:42-58.
Hamilton, M. A. 1974. "Indices of Diversity and Redundancy." Unpubl.
paper, Dept. of Mathematics, Mont. State Univ., Bozeman.
Hurlbert, S. H. 1971. "The Nonconcept of Species Diversity: A Critique
and Alternative Parameters." Ecol. 52:577-586.
Kershaw, K. A. 1957. "The Use of Cover and Frequency in the Detection
of
Pattern in Plant Communities. Ecol. 38:291-299.
Passey, H. B. and V. I. Hugie. 1962. "Application of Soil-Climate
Relations to Soil Survey Interpretations for Rangelands." J. Range Manage.
15:162-166.
Pielou, E. C. 1966. "The Use of Information Theory in the Study of the
Diversity of Biological Populations." Presented at Fifth Berkeley
Symposium on Mathematical Statistics arid Probability.
Shannon, C. E. and W. Weaver. 1963. The Mathematical Theory of Communi-
cation. Univer. Illinois Press, Urbana. 117p.
Simpson, E. H. 1949. "Measurement of Diversity." Nature, 163:688.
Soil Conservation Service. 1971. "Technicians' Guide to Range Sites,
Conditions Classes and Recommended Stocking Rates in Soil Conservation
Districts of the Sedimentary Plains of Montana; 10-14" and 15-19"
Precipitation Zones." U.S. Department of Agriculture.
39
-------
SECTION III
EFFECTS OF S02 AND OTHER COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
ON PRODUCER, INVERTEBRATE CONSUMER, AND DECOMPOSER
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IN A SOUTHEASTERN MONTANA GRASSLAND
By J. L. Dodd, R. 6. Woodmansee, and W. K. Lauenroth
INTRODUCTION
The overall objective of our task is to determine the effects of
coal-fired power plant emissions on the 'structure and function of a
southeastern Montana grassland ecosystem and to represent these effects
in a total system simulation model.
One set of objectives relates to baseline monitoring of four
grassland study sites (Hay Coulee, Kluver West, Kluver North, and
Kluver East) near the coal-fired power plant at Col strip, Montana.
These sites are expected to be exposed to differing intensities of
atmospheric pollution following completion of the plant during midsummer
1975. The objectives for 1974 were to characterize decomposition rates
and seasonal biomass dynamics of the producer and invertebrate consumer
components of each of these ecosystems in the season prior to their
first exposure to emissions from the coal-fired plant. Objectives for
1975 are to determine the effects of the anticipated atmospheric pollution
on these and other ecosystem attributes.
A second array of objectives relates to the field experimental
study to be located near the Ash Creek reservoir seven miles northeast
of the Ft. Howes Ranger Station in the Custer National Forest, Our
objectives are to determine the effects of S02, a major component of
power plant emissions, on the seasonal biomass dynamics of the producers
and invertebrate consumers and on decomposition rates. Our objectives
40
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for 1974 were to test pre-treatment homogeneity of the four sites to be
used in the field experimental study.
A final set of objectives pertain to the adaptation of the Natural
Resource Ecology Laboratory ecosystem level simulation model to the
grassland type mentioned in the previous objectives. The objectives for
this year were to secure the field information necessary to adapt the
model and to consider modifications of the model that will allow it to
be used to simulate the dynamics of the Montana grassland under challenge
from atmospheric pollution.
PROGRESS FOR THE 1974 FIELD SEASON
Primary Producer Biomass
Seasonal Biomass Dynamics —
Colstrip sites — Six sample dates (10 May, 15 June, 1 July, 24
July, 12 August, and 26 September) were completed for the 1974 season.
2
Ten 0.5-m quadrats were clipped for each of the four exclosures on each
sample date. Aerial plant biomass was separated by species and categories
(viz. live, recent dead, old dead). The data have been summarized
(X"'s, SE's) for five of the dates. Below-ground biomass and plant bases
(crowns) were sampled in conjunction with above-ground biomass. Thirty
cores, 7.5 cm in diameter x 10 cm deep, were collected on each sample
date on each site. In addition to this, on 27 July an extra set of 10
cores 5 cm in diameter x 60 cm deep was collected per exclosure.
The cores were washed with water to remove soil and the crowns and roots
were separated and weighed. These data also1 are summarized for five
dates. Litter was collected from each quadrat clipped for above ground
biomass with a vacuum. These data are also summarized for five dates.
41
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Ash Creek experimental site — Sampling was done in a similar
manner here- Two sample dates (3 June and 10 July) were completed at
this site in 1974.
Phenology —
No phenology data were collected in 1974 due to a late starting
date.
Species Lists —
Species lists compiled in 1974 included only those species occurring
2
in the 0.5-m quadrats clipped for above ground biomass.
Chemical Analyses —
Table 10 summarizes the chemical analyses planned for both above-
and below ground biomass. In addition, all above-ground plant material
is being saved for future analyses. No results are available at this
time.
Soil Respiration
No soil respiration data were collected in 1974 due to a late
starting date.
Decomposition Bags
Litter —
No litter bag samples were collected in 1974 due to a late starting
date.
42
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Table 10. Chemical Analyses Planned for Above and Below Ground Biomass
CO
Average Number
Components of Categories
Col strip (treatment
EC p u \**/
, r , b, H;—
Ft. Howes (treatment
A, B, C, D)
KOCR-/
AGSM
STCO
BRJA
BOGR ,
Belowground—
KOCR
AGSM
STCO
BRJA
Belowground
2
2
2.,
1—
2
1
2
2
2,,
1—
1
Dates
3
3
3
3
3
1
\LI
2fV
^h/
•jlv
1
Treatment
4
4
4
4
4
4
I-/
4
4
4
4
Types of Total Numbi
Replicate Analysis of Analyse;
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
N,
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,s
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash •/
.AshJAC17
Sub
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash
,Ash,TAC
Sub
Tntal '
1 U Lu 1 i
192
192
192
96
192
40
904
16
128
64
32
32
272
176
a/ Treatment: A, control, Ash Creek; B, low level S0?, Ash Creek; C,
D, high level S02, Ash Creek; E, Hay Coulee; F, KTuver West; G
b/ Plant species coae names, see Table 11.
£/ Belowground sample is dry separated from 0-10 cm layer.
d_/ Use live or dead, not both, for each date.
e/ Dates are 10 May, 1 July, late August, or early September.
f/ Use samples from 1 July.
£/ All dates since this set treatments will be sampled only two times.
h/ Use material from earliest date (maximum live).
j_/ Use treatment A.
jy Nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, ash, total available carbohydrates.
k/ Total number is approximate.
moderate level SOp, Ash Creek;
Kluver North; and H, Kluver East.
-------
Cellulose
Sixteen cellulose bags were placed in the field per treatment
(exclosure) in the spring of 1974. Three collections of four bags per
treatment (exclosure) were completed in 1974. These data are not yet
summarized.
Invertebrates
Above-ground Invertebrates --
Samples were collected in conjunction with plant biomass samples.
Six sample dates were completed for the Col strip sites and two for Ash
2
Creek. Each sample date included ten 1.5-m samples per treatment
(exclosure). Laboratory processing is complete for four Colstrip dates
and one Ash Creek date. Preliminary statistical analysis is incomplete.
Below-ground Invertebrates --
Macroarthropods. Ten soil cores per treatment (exclosure) were
collected on each of the aboveground invertebrate sample dates. Processing
and statistical analysis status is the same as for above-ground macro-
arthropods .
Microarthropods —
Ten soil cores per treatment were collected on each of the aboveground
invertebrate sample dates. Laboratory processing and statistical analysis
is incomplete at this time.
44
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Soil Description
One soil pit was described in September at the Ash Creek site.
Plans include describing several more pits at Ash Creek and at least one
at each of the Colstrip sites in the spring of 1975.
FUTURE ACTIVITIES
We intend to complete all sample processing and preliminary data
analysis of 1974 field information by 1 December. In addition, we hope
to have preliminary tabular summaries on our first-season results by
1 January, 1975.
We intend to continue field efforts in 1975. Tentative plans have
been made to monitor primary producer and invertebrate consumer biomass
dynamics and decomposition rates (cellulose decay, standard litter
decay, and soil respiration) on each of the four Colstrip sites and each
of the four S0? fumigation sites on six sample dates in the growing
season of 1975. Procedures will be as outlined in our original proposal
to EPA with modifications as necessary. Following completion of prelimi-
nary analyses of our 1974 work and comprehensive discussions and plans
with other investigators of the project at our January meeting, we will
formulate specific plans for the 1975 season.
We are currently considering preparation of a manuscript to be
submitted to the refereed literature by midspring of 1975. We intend
this publication to be a formal presentation of much of the 1974 data
from our portion of the study and make our data available to other
investigators of the project in a summarized, evaluated, and citable
form.
45
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Table 11. List of Plant Species Encountered in Above-ground Biomass Samples
Soil Conservation
Service Standard
Code
ACM12
A6CR
AGSM
ANOC2
ANNE
ARL03
ARFU3
ARCA13
ARDR4
ARFR4
ARLU
ARTR2
ASTRA
BOGR2
BRJA
CAMO
CALO
CAEL2
CAP I
CAPE6
CIUN
COCA5
CYAC
DRRE2
ECVI2
ERIGE
ERAS 2
EULA5
FEOC2
GAC05
GRSQ
GUSA2
HEHI
KOCR
LARE
Scientific Name
Achillea lanulosa
Agropyron cristatum
Agropyron smithii
Androsace occidental is
Antennaria neglecta
Aristida longiseta
Arnica fulgens
Artemisia cana
Artemisia dracunculoides
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia ludoviciana
Artemisia tridentata
Astragalus spp.
Bouteloua gracilis
Bromus japonicus
Calamagrostis montanensis
Calamovilfa longifolia
Carex eleocharis
Carex filifolia
Carex pennsylvanica
Circium undulatum
Conyza canadensis
Cymopterus acaulis
Draba reptans
Echinocereus vicidiflorus
Erigeron spp.
Erysimum asperum
Eurotia lanata
Vulpia octoflora (=Festuca)
Gaura coccinea
Grindelia squarrosa
Gutierrezia sarothrae
Hedeoma hispida
Koeleria cristata
Lappula redowskii
46
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Table 11. (Continued)
LEDE
LEM04
LIIN2
LOOR
LYJU
MAMM1
OPFR
OPPO
ORLU2
PACH
PHHO
PLPAG
POSE
PSAR2
PSES
PSTE3
RAC03
ROARS
SCPA
SEDE2
SENIC
SPCO
SORI2
STC04
STVI4
TAOF
TRDU
VIAM
ZYEL
CSFO
WSFO
Lepidium densiflorum
Leucocrinum montanum
Lithospermum incisum
Lomatium orientale
Lygodesmia juncea
Mammillarla spp.
Opuntia fragilis
Opuntia polyacantha
Orthocarpus lutea
Parmelia chlorochroa
Phlox hoodli
Plantago patagonia gnaphaloides
Poa secunda
Psoralea argophyla
Psora!ea esculenta
Psoralea tenuiflora
Ratibida columm'fera
Rosa arkansana
Schedonnardus paniculatus
Selaginella densa
Senecio spp.
Spaeralcea coccinea
Soli dago rigida
Stipa comata
Stipa viridula
Taraxacum officinale
Tragopogon dubius
Vicia americana
Zygadenus elegans
Miscellaneous cool season forbs
Miscellaneous warm season forbs
47
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SECTION IV
EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS ON PLANT
DISEASE AND ON PLANT-FUNGUS AND PLANT-INSECT SYSTEMS
by C. C. Gordon
INTRODUCTION
Our component of the Montana Coal-fired Power Plant Project was
initiated on 1 August, 1974. Consequently, this report treats the
progress of both the field and laboratory studies which have been under-
taken during^the first two and two-thirds months of work. There are
five objectives for the first year of this study and each is discussed
individually in the text that follows in terms of: (1) the field and
laboratory work thus far accomplished; (2) results obtained to date; and
(3) work plans for the fall and winter months.
DISCUSSION OF OBJECTIVE #1: A SURVEY OF THE INSECTS AND FUNGAL POPULATIONS,
INFESTATIONS, AND DAMGE TO INDIGENOUS PLANT SPECIES AT THE STUDY SITES
OUTSIDE AND INSIDE THE IMPACT AREA
Five of the primary sites as well as 14 other sites are employed in
our preliminary surveys of fungal and insect populations. We are survey-
ing and collecting at the following sites: Ash Creek, Hay Coulee, Kluver
West, Kluver North and Kluver East. The other study sites which have
been selected are presented in Figure 2 of this report and the range and
township of each of these sites is given in Table 12.
Thus far we have collected vegetation samples from each of these
sites twice since August 1. A check list of the plant species found at
the sites is being prepared for each site. An herbarium sample has been
prepared for each of the plant species collected, and those species thus
far collected are now on deposit at the University of Montana Botanical
48
-------
N
U.
CARTER
COUNTY
—!
1
j
IOUNT? j
i
1
0 25
MILES
Figure 2. Map of Vegetation Collection Sites
-------
Table 12. Vegetation Collection Sites in thre Vicinity of Colstrip, Montana
Site No. Location (section, township, range)
North #4 Sec. 36, T8N, R40E
Northeast #1 Sec. 16, T2N, R42E
Northeast #3 Sec. 10, T4N, R43E
Northeast #4 Sec. 17, T6N, R46E
East #1 Sec. 29, T2N, R42E
East #3 Sec. 27, T2N, R44E
East #4 Sec. 36, T2N, R47E
East #5 Sec. 18, T2S, R55E
Southeast #1 Sec. 16, TIN, R42E
Southeast #3 Sec. 17, T2S, R44E
West #3 Sec. 36, T2N, R37E
West #4 Sec. 8, T2N, R35E
Northwest #3 Sec. 16, T4N, R39E
Northwest #4 Sec. 2, T5N, R36E
50
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Herbarium with a special herbarium label which was prepared for our
study in the Colstrip area of the Fort Union Basin.
The identification of the insect fauna present on the vegetation
collected from the sampling sites is being carried out by Dr. Jerry
Bromenshenk, entomologist, while the identification of the fungal species
is being done by Dr. C. C. Gordon, plant pathologist and mycologist.
The identification of fungi as well as insects is done almost
entirely in the laboratory and not in the field. Those plant samples
containing symptoms of fungal disease are treated in the following
manner: a temporary microscope slide is prepared of the plant tissue
manifesting the tissue necrosis caused by the fungus. If the fungus is
not an obligate parasite (a rust or smut), an attempt to isolate the
organisms by culturing on nutrient media is made. To date, 46 cultures
have been obtained of fungal isolates utilizing this culturing method.
A list of those isolates which have been identified appears in Table 13.
The majority of isolates, several which have not produced spores at
this time, have not as yet been identified. Culturing of these fungi
and new isolates as plant collections are made throughout the late fall
of this year will continue until we obtain an adequately diverse group
of fungi to utilize at the stress sites next spring.
Samples of both obligate and saprophytic fungi have been prepared
for histological studies, utilizing the normal procedures of fixing in
a solution of 95 percent ethanol: glacial acetic acid: formalin:
water (126:10:10:54), dehydrating in the tertiary butyl alcohol series,
and mounting in paraffin. Thus far, 54 plant specimens damaged or
have been prepared for microtoming in this manner. Sectioning of the
materials has not commenced at the time of writing this report. It
should be noted that special emphasis for histological studies has been
given to the fungi parasitizing the grass species. The reason for this
51
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Table 13. Checklist of Identified Fungal Cultures
Number
2
3
4
5
8
9
10
11
12
Fungus
Septoria avenae
Ascohyta agropyrina
Hendersonia sp.
Fusarium so 1am'
Penicillium spp.
Aspergillus spp.
Leptosphaeria artemisiae
Phyllosticta sp.
Tubercularia vulgaris
Alternaria sp.
Cladosporium sp.
Verticillium sp.
Hosts obtained from:
Agropyron smithii
A_. spicatum
Agropyron smithii
Stipa comata
Koeleria cristata
Stipa comata
Agropyron spicatum
Melilotus alba
Agropyron spicatum
A. smithii
Koeleria cristata
etc.
Artemisia cana
A_. tridentata
A_- tridentata
Symphoricarpos occidental is
Rhus trilobata
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
Petalostemon purpureum
Artemisia frigida
52
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is that at the principal study sites the grasses are the predominant
species. With the completion of the histological studies as well as the
isolation and cultural studies, a host-fungal checklist will be completed
this winter.
Plant samples demonstrating symptoms of insect damage are processed
in the following manner. The vegetation is sorted, dissected, and
examined for insects and for insect damage. Insects are extracted from
the plant material using a Berlese funnel. Pending identification,
immature insects are preserved in 70 percent alcohol, while adult specimens
are freeze-dried. Recognition of dominant insect-host plant relation-
ships will be followed by collection of eggs and immature forms of
specific insects and subsequent rearing in a greenhouse for use in
studies with the Environmental Studies Laboratory's fumigation chamber.
Since most insects at mid to high latitudes undergo an obligatory cold-
induced diapause, it is anticipated that these laboratory populations
will have to be treated to low temperatures for 50-80 days before hatching
can be induced (January or February, 1975).
Sweep net surveys of Orthopterans were conducted during August, and
identification of the prominent grasshopper populations is almost completed.
An intensive survey of insect populations in the grassland ecosystem of
the Colstrip area of the Fort Union Basin would be redundant, since
Colorado State University is conducting a survey of the above- and
below-ground invertebrates found on the principal study sites. Ponderosa
pine trees, which occur on most of our study sites, do not occur on the
principal sites. Therefore, we are conducting a more intensive survey
of the insects associated with pines rather than of the insects of the
grassland sites. To date, vegetation samples have been obtained from 70
trees at 14 sites. Additional samples will be obtained through the late
fall of this year and early next spring. Pine samples are obtained from
53
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mid-crown using a pole primer equipped with a basket below the cutting
head to catch branch samples and insects dislodged during the cutting
process. Four branches 18-20 inches in length are removed from each
tree. Estimates of populations of pine insects are made in the laboratory
based on the type and amount of insect damage and the relative amount of
damage caused by each type of insect. Chemical analyses of the foliar
concentrations of fluorides and sulfurs are partially completed. The
relationships between damage caused by each species of insect and foliar
concentrations of fluoride and sulfur will be analyzed statistically.
Visual ratings of tree conditions are made at the time of foliage sampling
and this information also will be analyzed with regard to insect, fluoride,
and sulfur damage. Tree vigor descriptions are based on the degree of
insect damage, crown thinning, and needle retention. The majority of
the pines sampled to date displayed little or no insect damage, no
apparent thinning of the crown, and good needle retention (four to eight
years). At one site, some insect damage and thinning was apparent.
At the time of this report, insects have been separated and preserved
from pines, shrubs and grasses. The majority of the specimens are
immature forms, since many of the insect adults had begun to die off by
early August.
DISCUSSION OF OBJECTIVE #2: ANALYSIS AND SELECTION OF INDIGENOUS PLANT
SPECIES WHICH HAVE A DIVERSIFIED BUT UNDERSTANDABLE INTERRELATIONSHIP
WITH THE INSECT AND FUNGAL POPULATIONS AT THE STUDY SITES
Until more pure culture isolations have been obtained from the
grass and forb species which are dominant on the grassland sites, selection
of the insect, fungus, and host species to be utilized on these sites
next spring will not be accomplished. The fulfillment of this objective
depends also on the host-parasite relationships which will be realized
54
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with the histologlcal studies of the diseased and insect-infested materials
prepared and being prepared for microtoming.
What we are primarily watching for, in our selection of both fungal
parasites and host species, is that we have some fungi which carry out
their entire life cycle within the host tissues as well as some that
have a large percentage of their life cycle exogenously (outside) on the
host species. Also, as previously stated, we are interested in selecting
the forb and grass species which are predominant on the principal study
sites. While fungal taxonomists have carried out their tasks of naming
these species, very little data are available in the literature on the
host-parasite relationships of the majority of these fungi. This objective
will be fully realized when the isolation and histological studies are
completed this winter.
DISCUSSION OF OBJECTIVE #3: SELECTION AND PRETESTING FOR EASE OF IN-
VITRO GROWTH AND INOCCULATION STUDIES OF DISEASE AND INJURY-CAUSING
FUNGAL AND INSECT SPECIES TO BE UTILIZED AT STUDY SITES INSIDE AND
OUTSIDE THE IMPACT AREA
As previously mentioned, 46 fungal isolates have been obtained in
pure culture thus far. This is considered by us a very small number
since our goal is to have at least 150 fungal isolates to select from
and work with during the National Ecological Research Laboratory's
stressing program in the spring. The reason for the low success to date
is possibly because the shrub, forb, and grass species at the sampling
sites, as well as off the sampling sites, which have been collected have
had very low populations of fungi. Currently it is not known if this is
because of a normal low population of fungi in the Col strip area of Fort
Union Basin or whether this was a growing year in
which the incidence of disease-causing fungi was extremely low. However,
since field collections will continue throughout these fall and winter
55
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months, we still anticipate that at least 150 isolates can be obtained
from the winter collections.
Of these species of fungi isolated into pure culture and identified
so far, there is a predominance of species of Moniliales and Sphaeropsidales
which belong to the class Fungi Imperfect! (Deuteromycetes). The species
of Moniliales, especially the isolates of Fusarium. PeniciIlium, and
Aspergillus, are not known to be strongly parasitic to any of the host
plants from which they were isolated and, in fact, are likely
to be soil contaminants on the plant samples as being saprophytic.
However, several of these isolates of the Moniliales are being maintained
for inocculation studies this winter. Species of the Sphaeropsidales
isolated to date are known pathogens or saprogens of the hosts from
which they were isolated. Three of the genera isolated (Septoria avenae,
Phyllostieta sp. and Hendersonia) have been cited as common saprophytes
and/or parasites of indigenous grasses of the Col strip area. The isola-
tion, culturing, identification, and inocculation pretesting of fungi is
expected to take a large portion of time the remainder of this year and
during January and February of 1975.
Several potential insect systems have been identified for further
testing and selection. These include several grasshopper species (Melanoplus
spp.) on grasses and forbs, the Western Harvester Ant (Pogonomyrmex
occidental is) which occurs on each of the principal study si-tes, and
several pine insects including bark beetles (Ips and Dendroctonus spp.),
needle miners, and scale insects. Preliminary studies of the Western
Harvester Ant were initiated in August, 1974. A photographic record of
each of the colonies (hills) as well as counts of colonies at each site
were made. Population trends as indicated by the number of colonies per
unit area, ant density per colony, and colony size will be followed at
these sites. As mentioned before, laboratory populations of insects for
studies of insect-plant relationships will be established this winter.
56
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DISCUSSION OF OBJECTIVE #4: SELECTION AND PRETESTING OF BENEFICIAL
FUNGAL AND INSECT SPECIES TO BE UTILIZED AT STUDY SITES INSIDE AND
OUTSIDE THE IMPACT AREA
To date we have acquired seed and begun propogation of the plant
species listed in Table 14. Also the fumigation chamber has been remodeled
for better temperature and gas delivery controls and has been tested for
three weeks on these two modifications. The chamber is working with
excellent performance, and we are able to maintain continuous S02
concentrations as low as 0.1 ppm. After adequate numbers of parasites
and saprophytic fungal species have been isolated for inocculation and
pretesting, fumigation studies will commence which will help us in
selecting the species of plants and fungi to be utilized at the National
Ecological Research Laboratory's sites in the spring.
Preliminary studies of the Colstrip area indicate that the social
bees best lend themselves to air pollution studies, not only because of
their indispensible function of pollination, but because of their social
nature and the very fact that they can be manipulated by man. Furthermore,
such parameters as reproduction, honey production, pollen collection,
flight activity, mortality and the like can be readily measured. Bees
are particularly susceptible to population changes linked to airborne
sulfur and fluoride. Samples of worker Honey Bees have been obtained
from 11 sites (apiaries) near Colstrip. Thirty-four samples of approximately
1100 bees (100 gms) were collected, using an electric vacuum apparatus.
Three samples were obtained at each site, consisting of specimens from
at least four colonies. The samples from each site were distributed as
follows: One sample is at our laboratory for fluoride and sulfur analyses;
one sample has been sent to Dr. Robert A. Lewis (National Ecological
Research Laboratory) for acetylcholinesterase determinations; and one
sample was sent to Dr. Ronald Thomas (Environmental Protection Agency,
Chemical and Biological Investigations Branch, Pesticides'Surveillance
57
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Table 14. Plant Species Propogated in the Laboratory
Common Name Scientific Name
Fairway crested wheatgrass
Thickspike wheatgrass
Western wheatgrass
Tall wheatgrass
Slender Wheatgrass
Lincoln bromegrass
Orchardgrass
Green needlegrass
Alfalfa
Prairie sandreed grass
Basin wild rye
Indian ricegrass
Cicer milkvetch
Sainfoin
Rabbitbrush
Yellow sweetclover
Skunkbush sumac
Nuttall saltbush
Woods rose
Native snowberry
Golden current
Blue grama grass
Needle and thread grass
Agropyron cristatum
A. dasystachyum
A_. smithii
A_. elongatum
A_. trachycaulum
Bromus inermis
Dactyli s glomerata
Stipa viridula
Medicago sativa
Calamovilfa longifolia
Elymus cinereus
Oryzopsis hymenoides
Astragalus cicer
Onobrychis vicialfolia
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Melilotus officinal is
Rhus trilobata
Atriplex nutallii
Rosa woodsii
Symphoricarpos albus
Ribes sp.
Bouteloua gracilis
Stipa comata
58
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Division, Beltsville, Maryland) for pesticide residue analyses. Pesticides
have periodically been a source of severe environmental stress in the
study area. The presence of pesticides in the environment tends to
confound the results of evaluations of other environmental stressors,
particularly if the types and quantities of pesticides present are
unknown.
Honey Bees will be utilized next summer on the experimental plots
for physiological and behavioral studies. Since the commercial beekeeper
in the Colstrip area moves his colonies to California in early October,
the removal of bee samples from apiaries in this area took precedence
over other aspects of the insect investigations. Arrangements have been
made for bee colonies to be left throughout the year at several locations
near Colstrip so that permanent colonies are available for study. Wild
bees such as Leaf-cutter Bees and Bumblebees will be utilized for compara-
tive investigations.
DISCUSSION OF OBJECTIVE #5: CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF INDIGENOUS PLANTS,
INSECTS, AND FUNGI (WHEN POSSIBLE) WHICH ARE SELECTED FOR INTENSIVE
INVESTIGATION DURING SECOND AND THIRD YEARS OF PROPOSED STUDY
Over 350 samples of vegetation have been collected and prepared for
chemical analysis since August 1, 1974. Of these, 94 samples have been
analyzed for sulfur content and 180 for fluoride levels. We collected
data on the seasonal variation in fluoride and sulfur content in several
of these species in the fall of 1973 (Set I) and the spring of 1974 (Set
II). As regards F" content, the means of all species for collection
Sets I and II were below 5 ppm F" except for the rice-grass Oryzopsis
hymenoides, which was 7.27 ppm F". No difference between the F" content
of the grasses or shrubs could be detected, but both had significantly
greater fluoride concentrations than Ponderosa Pine. There was a reduction
in F" concentration in the needles of ponderosa pine from Set II compared
59
-------
with Set I, and a significant increase in the F" content as age of the
needles increased (see Table 15).
The mean total sulfur content in Ponderosa Pine did not exceed 900
ppm at any sampling location. It was not possible to show a tendency of
increase in sulfur content with increasing age of the needles, but there
was a significant decrease in the mean total sulfur content in Set II
when compared with Set I (see Table 15).
The amounts of "normal" sulfur accumulation as well as the possible
seasonal fluctuation of baseline sulfur levels in the indigenous grasses
growing at the principal study sites is not presently known. Also, the
significance and consequence of excessive accumulation of sulfur into
plant foliage from SOp fumigation to pathogenic and beneficial fungal
and insect population are totally unknown. The analysis of vegetation
will continue throughout this winter. The results of this analysis will
provide a background data bank of sulfur and fluoride concentrations for
use in future comparisons.
Also sulfur and fluoride analysis will be carried out this winter
on Honey Bees which were collected this fall.
OTHER WORK IN PROGRESS
Precipitation Chemistry
Bulk rain collectors have been set out at each of the principal
sites as well as at ten other sampling sites within a 20-mile radius of
Colstrip. Automated Wong rain water collectors will also be placed at
the sites where there is electricity and, where there is no electricity,
in as close proximity to the study sites as possible. Monthly collections
will be carried out throughout the fall, winter, and spring months.
60
-------
Table 15. Chemical Analysis of Indigenous Plants
**Sulfur Data** for all locations combined
parts per million
Paired T tests among pine needle data from collection set 1 only
Years
Means
SEPD
1
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
Paired T tests
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
Paired T tests
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
827.71
827.71
827.71
830.12
830.12
840.96
among pine needle data
762.50
762.50
762.50
756.25
756.25
780.00
among pine needle data
795.71
795.71
795.71
793.87
793.87
811.04
830.12
840.96
807.23
840.96
807.23
807.23
from collection
756.25
780.00
775.00
780.00
775.00
775.00
from collection
793.87
811.04
791.41
811.04
791.41
791.41
14.94
15.88
16.15
14.95
22.07
15.07
set 2 only
11.44
13.17
11.72
11.56
15.97
12.31
set 1 & 2
9.43
10.32
10.09
9.48
13.76
9.80
Standard error of the paired difference
o
"Degrees of freedom
Sample T
-0.16
-0.83
1.27
-0.73
1.04
2.24
0.55
-1.
-1,
-2,
-1.
33
07
05
17
0.41
0.20
-1.49
0.43
-1
81
0.18
2.00
82
82
82
82
82
82
79
79
79
79
79
79
162
162
162
162
162
162
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
**Sulfur data** for all locations combined
parts per million
Paired T tests, on pine needles, between collection sets 1 & 2
Years Means SEPD
Set 1 Set 2
ro
1970 vs
1971 vs
1972 vs
1973 vs
1970-73
1970
1971
1972
1973
vs 1970-73
Set 1
823.08
824.36
839.74
805.13
823.08
Set 2
755.13
752.56
775.64
767.95
762.82
20.60
23.22
22.12
18.17
10.53
Sample T
3.30
3.09
2.90
2.05
5.72
DF
77
77
77
77
311
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
co
Fluoride Data
parts per million
Both collection dates
Group Name
# of Data
All samples except Precip.
All shrub samples
All grass samples
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
Rhus trilobata
Artemisia frigida
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Artemesia cana
Oryzopsis hymenoides
Stipa comata
Andropogon scoparius
Calamovilfa longi folia
Aristida longiseta
Pinus Bpnderosa
Artemesia tridentata
Juniperus scopulorum
Hiniperus horizontal is
Agropyron spicatum
Populus trichocarpa
Sarcoratus vermiculatus
Symphoriocarpus sp.
Poa protensis
Koeleria cristata
Prunus virginiana
Sheperdia argentea
Precipitation
Festuca idahoensiss
Yucca glauca
Pinus ponderosa: 1970 needles
Pinus ponderosa: 1971 needles
Pinus ponderosa: 1972 needles
Pinus ponderosa: 1973 needles
1982
335
369
5
50
3
14
73
3
16
136
19
6
1271
51
129
1
185
1
1
2
2
1
5
1
68
1
6
315
318
319
319
Mean
2.
3.
3.
3.
3.
3.
4.
2.
7.
3.
2.
2.
3,
1,
4,
2.
2.
3.
2.
4.
3,
2,
3,
1,
4,
32
05
34
88
09
67
23
93
27
41
87
21
10
84
19
52
70
75
00
10
00
85
60
84
50
0.00
2.60
0.83
2.05
1.87
1.81
1.62
18.40
13.40
18.40
5.40
8.90
5,
6,
5,
00
40
70
13.50
5.70
12.40
9.
4.
60
50
13.20
9.60
13.40
2.70
18.40
2.
4.
3.
2.
3.
3.
4.
00
10
50
90
60
30
50
0.00
.60
,20
.50
.90
13.20
6.90
2.
1
7.
7.
Low
0.00
0.09
0.10
2.20
0.40
2,
1.
50
70
0.70
3.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.90
0.00
1.00
0.09
2.70
0.10
2.
4.
2.
2.
3.
.00
.10
.50
.80
.60
0.60
4.50
0.00
2.60
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.00
0.10
SD
2.
1.
2.
1.85
1.81
76
35
13
1.26
1.52
1.24
5.48
1.57
2.16
2.37
1.37
1.25
1.96
1.74
3.16
0.71
0.07
1.04
0.00
0.30
24
24
38
1.10
CV%
79.68
59.40
82.78
34.69
69.16
34.32
35.87
42.50
75.43
45.96
75.38
107.17
44.28
68.01
46.78
69.10
84.41
23.57
2.48
56.30
36.13
60.81
66.09
75.88
67.52
SEN
0.04
0.10
0.14
0.60
0.30
0.73
0.41
0.15
3.16
0.39
0.19
0.54
0.56
0.04
0.27
0.15
0.23
0.50
0.05
0.46
0.00
0.12
0.07
0.07
0.08
0.06
EEM%
1.
3.
4.
79
25
31
15.52
9.78
19.81
9.59
4.97
43.55
11.49
6.45
24.59
18.08
1,
6.
91
55
6.08
6.21
16.67
1.75
25.18
14.75
3.
3.
.43
,71
4.25
3.78
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
Fluoride data** for all locations combined
parts per million
CTi
Paired T tests, on pine needles, between collection sets 1 & 2
Years Means SEPD
Set 1
1970 vs
1971 vs
1972 vs
1973 vs
Set 2
1970
1971
1972
1973
1970-73 vs 1970-73
Set 1
2.30
2.02
2.06
1.72
2.03
Set 2
1.81
1.71
1.59
1.53
1.66
0.14
0.14
0.16
0.12
0.07
Sample T
3.56
2.21
2.95
1.64
5.24
DF
154
154
154
154
619
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
**Fluoride Data**
Parts per million
First collection set only
Group Name
# of Data
Mean
en
en
All samples except Precip.
All shrub samples
All grass samples
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
Rhus trilobata
Artemisia frigida
Chrysothamnus nauseosus
Artemisia cama
Oryzopsis hymenoides
Stipa comata
Andropogon scoparius
Calamovilfa longifolia
Aristida longiseta
Pinus ponderosa
Artemisia tridentata
Juniperus
Juniperus
scopulorum
horizontal is
Agropyron spicatum
Populus trichocarpa
Sarcoratus vermiculatus
Symphoriocarpus sp.
Poa protensis
Koeleria cristata
Prunus virginiana
Sheperdia argentea
Festuca idahoensiss
Yucca glauca
Pinus ponderosa:
Pinus ponderosa:
Pinus ponderosa:
Pinus ponderosa:
1970
1971
1972
1973
needles
needles
needles
needles
1347
335
369
5
50
3
14
73
3
16
136
19
6
636
51
129
1
185
1
1
2
2
1
5
1
1
6
157
159
160
160
2,
3,
3,
3,
3,
3,
2.
7.
3.
2.
2.
3,
2,
2,
2,
63
05
34
88
09
67
4.23
93
27
41
87
21
10
01
4.19
52
70
3.75
00
10
00
85
60
84
50
60
0.83
2.28
2.03
2.03
1.71
18.40
13.40
18.40
5.40
8.90
5,
6,
5,
00
40
70
13.50
5.70
12.40
9.
4.
.60
,50
13.20
9.60
13.40
2.70
18.40
2.00
4.10
.50
.90
.60
.30
.50
.60
.20
.50
.90
13.20
6.90
3.
2.
3.
3.
4.
2.
1
7.
7.
Low
0.09
0.09
0.10
2.20
0.40
2,
1,
50
70
0.70
3.20
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.90
0.10
1.00
0.09
2.70
0.10
00
10
50
80
60
0.60
4.50
2.60
0.30
0.10
0.10
0.12
0.10
SD
2.05
1.81
2.76
1.35
2.13
1.26
1.52
1.24
5.48
1.57
2,
2.
1,
16
37
37
1.40
1.96
1.74
3.16
0.71
0.07
1.04
0.30
1.36
1.38
1.57
1.20
CV %
77.94
59.40
82.78
34.69
69.16
34.32
35.87
42.50
75.43
45.96
75.38
107.17
44.28
69.35
46.79
69.10
84.41
23.57
2.48
56.30
36.13
59.37
68.02
77.51
70.12
SEM
0.06
0.10
0.14
0.60
0.30
0.73
0.41
0.15
3.16
0.39
0.19
0.54
0.56
0.06
0.27
0.15
0.23
0.50
0.05
0.46
0.12
0.11
0.11
0.12
0.09
EEM %
2.
3.
12
25
4.31
15.52
9.78
19.81
9.59
4.97
43.55
11.49
6.48
24.59
18.08
2.75
6.55
6.08
6.21
16.67
1.75
25.18
14.75
4.74
5.39
6.13
5.54
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
CT>
CTi
Fluoride data, parts per million
First collection set only
T-Tests
T Statistic
-8.60
-9.17
1.63
DF
1003
969
702
Total pines vs total grasses
Total pines vs total shrubs
Total grasses vs total shrubs
Flouride data ** for all locations combined
parts per million
Paired T tests among pine needle data from collection set 1 only
Years Means SEPD
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
Paired T tests
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
Paired T tests
1970 vs 1971
1970 vs 1972
1970 vs 1973
1971 vs 1972
1971 vs 1973
1972 vs 1973
2.29
2.29
2.29
2.03
2.03
2.06
among pine needle
1.81
1.81
1.81
1.71
1.71
1.59
among pine needle
2.05
2.05
2.05
1.87
1.87
1.82
2.03
2.06
1.72
2.06
1.72
1.72
data from
1.71
1.59
1.53
1.59
1.53
1.53
data from
1.87
1.82
1.82
1.82
1.62
1.62
0.13
0.13
0.12
0.15
0.13
0.12
collection set 2
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.08
0.09
collection sets
0.07
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.07
only
1 & 2
Sample T
2.
1
.05
.72
4.70
-0.19
2.37
2.74
1.
2.
3.
1,
2,
40
63
06
37
12
0.73
2.
2.
5.
.48
.86
.57
0.50
3.14
2.65
DF_
155
155
155
155
155
155
157
157
157
157
157
157
313
313
313
313
313
313
-------
Table 15. (Continued)
Fluoride data
parts per million
Both collection dates
T-Tests
T Statistic DF_
Total pines vs total grasses -10.14 1638
Total pines vs total shrubs -11.57 1604
Total grasses vs total shrubs 1.63 702
cr>
-------
Rain water samples thus far collected are being kept frozen in the
Environmental Studies Laboratory until adequate numbers of samples (80-
100) are available to carry out continuous analysis for one-week periods.
The bulk precipitation collectors will continue to be used this winter
even after the automated Wong collectors are located at or near the main
study sites, to establish if there is a difference between the physical
and chemical composition of precipitation collected by these two methods.
Annual Growth Increment, and Needle and Stem Growth of Ponderosa Pine
The incremental growth studies of Ponderosa Pine will begin by mid-
November after several frost periods. Since Ponderosa Pine are not
present on the grassland sites, we have selected, for annual growth
increment studies, the ridge areas immediately adjacent to these sites
where mixed-age stands of Ponderosa Pine are growing. Needle and stem
growth measurements, and needle retention counts will be made concurrently
with the incremental growth studies.
68
-------
SECTION V
LICHENS AS PREDICTORS AND INDICATORS OF AIR POLLUTION
FROM COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
By Sharon Eversman
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
The primary objectives of this part of the Colstrip Coal-fired
Power Plant Program are: 1) to identify those lichen species that can be
used as air pollution indicators; 2) to monitor those species in the
laboratory to determine specific effects of S02 pollution in a semi-arid
grassland field situation; 3) to try to compare relative sensitivities
of certain native grasses and crop plants, and lichen species; and, 4)
to catalog the components of the lichen communities to detect any popu-
lation changes as a result of the effluents from the coal-burning power
plants. Control measurements are those measurements completed during
the summer and fall of 1974, and those expected to be made during spring,
1975. SOp effects observed in lichens taken from the stress plot area
at the Ash Creek site will be used as gauges in determining power plant
effluent effects.
This part of the project is designed to detect changes, resulting
from coal-burning, in two of the major categories — community structure
and sublethal biochemical or physiological changes — outlined for the
program as a whole. The lichens are the particular component of the
biotic community being analyzed. Samples of all species of lichens
that occur on the primary study sites were collected. Present laboratory
work is concentrated on two species: Parmelia chlorochroa Tuck, and
Usnea hirta (L.) Wigg.
Parmelia chlorochroa is a quite common and abundant terricolous
foliose lichen of the Great Plains region that grows on fairly bare soil
69
-------
between grass, forb, and shrub clumps, usually in close proximity to the
Artemisia species. It reproduces by fragmentation and subsequent growth
of the fragments. Apothecia were observed on only two plants, both from
the Kluver West site. It does not form soredia or isidia.
Parmelia was found on all of the primary sites, but not on the Ash
Creek (experimental) site. Two slightly different growth forms occur at
each site, one with wider lobes, the other with more finely dissected
lobes.
Usnea hirta is a corticolous fruticose lichen, of the Rocky Mountains,
Pacific Northwest, and the northeastern United States, that grows on the
bark of the trunk and branches of Pinus ponderosa in the Colstrip area.
It is sorediate; no apothecia or isidia were observed. The most notable
observation about the Usnea in the study area is its complete absence
from many Ponderosa stands (near Kluver sites, near McRae sites), and
its low density at the Ash Creek site. This was disappointing, because
fruticose lichens are the type of lichen most sensitive to air pollutants
(according to all the literature) and because Usnea is the only fruticose
lichen of any consequence present in the area. It was also somewhat
unexpected because Usnea growth is abundant on the Ponderosa branches
and trunks on the divide between Lame Deer and Ashland, Montana. Possibly
due to aridity, Usnea has not become established on the trees on the
ridges near the Kluver and McRae sites. Conversely, Usnea was established
near Ash Creek and at Fort Howes, but was presumably destroyed by the
forest fire in Custer National Forest in 1967. Presently it occurs in
small tufts only on the shadiest trunks of the Ponderosa Pines.
Cladonia pyxidata commonly occurs on the soil at all of the primary
sites, but will not be studied because of the minute size, doubtful
vigor, and even closer association with soil particles than the Parmelia.
70
-------
About ten different lichen species were found growing on the soil
of the grassland study sites. Two fruticose species were found on the
Ponderosa Pine. Several as-yet unidentified saxicolous species occur.
The lichens other than Parmelia and Usnea occur in such sporadic and
minute amounts that trying to use them for the laboratory tests is
unreasonable.
DISCUSSION
Field work included:
1. Observations of presence and absence of lichen species on the
primary sites and other selected areas.
2. Estimation of cover-classes of grasses, forbs, and lichens (lichens
by species).
3. Collections of lichen samples for identification and laboratory
tests:
a- Parmelia chlorochroa from ground plots.
b. Usnea hirta from certain Ponderosa Pine stands.
4. Staking of permanent collection areas on test sites. Further
samples will be taken from a diameter of one meter from stakes.
5. Transplanting of Usnea from the lichen-rich area along the highway
on the divide between Lame Deer and Ashland, to the Ponderosa Pine
stand south of the Kluver North site and to Fort Howes Ranger
Station south of Ashland. Both sites of transplanting are east-
west ridges with Ponderosa Pine on north exposures. Transplantation
was achieved by taking entire Usnea-covered branches from Ponderosa
71
-------
pine on the Ashland-Lame Deer divide and tying them on comparable
branches on Ponderosa Pine at Fort Howes and Kluver North site.
Parmelia had to be transplanted from the Artemisia stand north
of the test site at Ash Creek to the Ash Creek stress plot, since
Parmelia was absent from the latter site. Twelve plants were
placed on bare spots at each of the four compass directions at the
base of identified Artemisia shrubs on the site.
Laboratory work included:
1. Recording weights of individual Parmelia plants over 30 mg, and of
available representative Usnea tufts.
2. Determination of absorption spectra of chlorophyll extracts from
Parmelia and Usnea.
3. Determination of nitrogen content of samples sent to the Chemistry
Analytical Laboratory for Kjeldahl analyses.
4. Determination of respiration rates (in pi 02 consumed/gram of dry
weight per hour at 20°C) in a Gilson Differential Respirometer.
Laboratory work to be completed fall and winter 1974-75, include:
1. Completion of spectrophotometric analyses of chlorophylls and
sample weights from some sites.
2. Repetition of respirometer readings, and readings for air-dry
samples, not moistened as the others have been.
72
-------
3. Sulfur content determination by the Soils Testing Laboratory.
4. Nitrogen content determination of lichens from some sites.
5. Identification of collected specimens.
6. Preparation of microscope slides of lichen tissues.
Data obtained as of 20 October 1974, are summarized in Table 16.
Laboratory Methods
Lichen samples in the laboratory were washed with tap water, rinsed
with distilled water, and air-dried for at least 48 hours before further
processing. There was no separation or grouping into possible clones;
all data are from randomly pooled samples (250 mg or one gram) of
lichens from each site.
For spectrophotometer determinations of absorption spectra, one
gram of Parmelia or 300 mg of Usnea was ground with 0.5 gram (or 150 mg)
Na2C03 in 20 ml of 80% acetone. The extract was filtered, mixed with 10
ml diethyl ether in a separatory funnel, and allowed to separate. The
upper ether layer was transferred to vials and used for absorption
spectrum determination in a Beckman DU spectrophotometer. The lower
acetone layer was discarded.
Respiration rates were determined for 250 mg samples of Parmelia
and Usnea in a Gilson Differential Respirometer. Air-dried specimens
were moistened with one ml distilled water for 30 minutes; excess water
was shaken off before placing specimens in the flasks. After 45 minutes
of calibration in the respirometer, four consecutive one-hour readings
were made to determine rates of oxygen consumption at 20°C.
73
-------
Table 16. Summary of Lichen Data (as of 20 October 1974)
Parmelia chlorochroa
02 McRae Hay Coulee A
B
03 Kluver West A
B
04 Kluver North
05 Kluver East
01 Ash Creek A
B
07 Harvey A
Usnea hirta
% Chlorophyll
ground absorption Respiration
cover peak urn rate*
2.75 660 265.68 (56.92)
323.96 (109.28)
3.00 660 211.88 (19.92)
221.12 (41.80)
2.50 660 288.36 (34.24)
2.50 660 230.00 (39.72)
345.80 (61.76)
344.60 (48.60)
274.24 (53.92)
280.13 (41.04)
Thai! us %
weight mg nitrogen
60.54 (32.45) 0.72
0.73
0.82
0.75
34.19 (14.85) 0.73
77.98 (24.46) 0.77
01 Ash Creek Trees
06 Highway
660
660
595.28 (97.41)
779.88 (90.80)
166.32 (136.40) 1.52
122.73 (60.35) 1.70
*Respiration rate is given in microliters 02 consumed per gram dry weight in one hour at 20°C.
Mean values of respiration rates and thallus weights are followed by standard deviations in
parentheses.
-------
Each plant and plant fragment was weighed on a Mettler balance to
the nearest hundredth mg. Weights over 30.00 mg were included for data
analysis.
The Chemistry Analytical Laboratory is employed in the determination
nitrogen content, and the Soils Testing Laboratory is determining total
sulfur content.
Field work to be completed before coal-burning operations begin,
probably spring, 1975, include:
1. Collection and laboratory analyses (respirometer, chlorophyll,
weight, nitrogen and sulfur content) of the transplanted Usnea
(from Ft. Howes and Kluver West) and Parmelia (from Ash Creek)
to determine whether they have survived transplanting with no
adverse effects.
2. Location and sample testing of some Usnea sites downwind from
the stack.
FUTURE ACTIVITIES
Unless greater amounts of material (particularly Usnea) can be
located in pertinent testable areas, expansion of this part of the
Colstrip study is impractical. Ideally, Usnea samples could be correlated
with Ponderosa Pine studies, and Parmelia could be correlated with
grassland data, but the Usnea needs to be found in amounts adequate for
large-scale repetitive laboratory testing.
1975 activies will include:
1. Collection of Usnea and Parmelia will be made from the same sites
as in 1974 and the same laboratory measurements will be made to
compare results from the two years.
75
-------
2. Field measurements of cover classes by species will be repeated to
detect possible changes after coal-burning begins.
3. Microscopic examination of tissue will continue.
4. Spring collection of some local grasses associated with the Parmelia
(e.g., Koeleria cristata, Bromus tectorum) and immediate laboratory
determination of respiration rates and nitrogen and sulfur concen-
trations would yield some bases with which to compare lichen
sensitivity with that of associated vascular plants.
The field season of 1974 began in late June and early July when the
driest season was underway. Parmelia, at every site and during every
collection, was dry and crisp indicating dormant condition. Moistening
them in the laboratory broke the dormancy. The grasses would be better
examined from a more active growing period, especially spring.
The largest problem with Usnea is finding it — very disappointing,
since this is predicted to be more sensitive to pollution than Parmelia.
The data obtained so far indicate that its mean respiratory rate at 20°C
is about twice that of Parmelia. If the trial transplantations are
found to be as viable as the source material at its source, data could
be obtained from transplantations. (The source of Usnea, however,
appears to be in the path of the new road, if it continues construction,
between Lame Deer and Ashland, although other sources could be located.)
The precise effects of various SO,, concentrations at the Ash Creek
experimental site will have to be tested in 1975, using the parameters
determined in 1974 as comparison standards.
No attention has yet been paid to clones versus averages of collections
from test sites. Clone characteristics probably vary, and comparisons
between clones, and between clones and population means would be an
interesting topic for further investigation.
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SECTION VI
PHYSIOLOGICAL RESPONSES OF PLANTS TO COAL-FIRED
POWER PLANT EMISSIONS
by David T. Tingey
INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES
This component of the Coal-fired Power Plant Project is designed to
supply plant physiological support. This will be accomplished by (1) .
experimentally assessing the sensitivity of selected plant species to
ozone, nitrogen dioxide alone, sulfur dioxide alone, and to mixtures of
these three gases; (2) determining the influence of moisture stress on the
sensitivity and growth of native plants exposed to sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen dioxide and to mixtures of these; and (3) measuring rates of
uptake of SOg and N02 by the plants. Other support activities may be
instituted as indicated by results of the field investigations.
PROGRESS TO DATE
The selected plant species have been collected from the Montana site.
These are (common names only): Western Wheat Grass, Blue Grama, Needle
and Thread Grass, Fringed Sage Wort, and Prairie June Grass. Techniques
for culturing and propagating the plants in the greenhouse are under
development and we have started to develop a system to grow these plants
at the defined levels of moisture stress.
PROBLEMS
It is necessary to develop a procedure in conjunction with the Chemistry
Laboratory to quantitate the sulfur content of plant tissue to be used
in the measurement of S02 uptake.
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FUTURE ACTIVITIES
We plan to: (1) continue to develop and make operational a system to
grow plants at the defined levels of moisture stress, (2) expose plants
to determine their levels of sensitivity to air pollutants and the
influence of various levels of moisture stress on sensitivity, (3)
determine the sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide content of plant
tissue; and (4) measure the influence of airborne toxicants and soil
stress on the nitrogen metabolism system in native plants. Ponderosa
Pine exposed to chronic levels of S0? through the growing season at our
Con/all is field site will be analyzed for nitrogen, sugar, starch and
sulfur content of the needles, stems, and roots. This data will then be
used to support the Montana study.
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SECTION VII
EFFECTS OF COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT EMISSIONS ON ANIMALS:
A SUMMARY
By Robert A. Lewis and Martin L. Morton
INTRODUCTION
In order to address the overall goals of the Col strip, Montana
Coal-fired Power Plant Project (see Lefohn, Lewis and Glass, 1974), the
animal component attempts to (1) identify those populations (or taxa) of
birds and mammals that are most sensitive to air pollution in the study
area; (2) identify, if possible, species, systems, and functions that
may serve as specific, "noise-free" indicators of pollution (e.g. pollination
systems, physiologic control systems, etc.); (3) identify population
components that may serve as a measure of impact in the sense that they
themselves are ecosystem resources or are coupled to ecosystem resources;
(4) to relate, if possible, functions of types (2) and (3) to evolve
extrapolative or predictive models; (5) to determine the extent of
pollution-related effects on small mammal and bird populations in the
study area, and if possible, to distinguish between direct and indirect
air pollution effects and the effects of other human activites that
might tend to confound our results (e.g. effects of coal-mining, water
use, increased human population density, use of herbicides and pesticides,
etc.); and (6) determine the temporal relationships of observed changes
in animal function to that of other ecosystem components so that predictive
relationships can be established.
This strategy to be fully realized depends upon appropriate support
from other elements of the Col strip, Montana Coal-fired Power Plant
Project.
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OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the animal task are:
1. To measure and predict change in population structure and/or dynamics
of selected species of birds and mammals as a function of air
pollution, endogenous and exogenous cycles, and other environmental
information including relevant biotic interactions and physical
factors.
a. To characterize both the population means and normal dispersion
about the mean of descriptors so that deviations may be discriminated
and assessed.
2. To evaluate physical and biotic factors that influence the dynamic-
structural processes under investigation.
3. To identify, if possible, specific pollution effects on animal
populations or systems.
4- To identify physiologic and population functions that contribute to
the regulation of selected populations and to evaluate the mechanisms
whereby such regulation is effected, so that we may better interpret
the causes of changes that occur. We may thus increase our under-
standing of pollution-related effects and the confidence in our
output.
5. To evaluate certain physiological, biochemical, and behavioral
functions that we think have a potential for sensitive assay of
pollution challenge. We thus hope to be able to identify low
levels of pollution stress before serious or irreversible effects
occur.
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6. To estimate, by the use of demographic methods, the ability of the
bird and mammal populations to recover from decimation or to withstand
environmental disturbance, including air pollution challenge.
To satisfy these objectives, the animal program is comprised of
five overlapping components:
I. Population biology
II. Reproductive biology
III. Measures of condition, physiologic stress, homeostasis, and
adaptation
IV. Histological cycles of organ-systems of potential or probable
concern
V. Indicators of pollution
The population portion of the investigation deals with population
processes and at least some of the mechanisms that effect population
adjustments (e.g. fecundity, mobility).
The investigation of reproductive biology broadly overlaps with the
population component. This work will be focused on the description of
the annual reproductive cycles of a small set of indigenous species
together with the growth and development of young to include information
on bioenergetics, productivity, and the regulation of reproductive
processes and of postnuptial molt (birds).
The third, or physiological, phase of this investigation treats a
number of types of functions, notably those that reflect condition and
vigor of the animals and their responses to stress. The fourth component
of the investigation, the evaluation of histological cycles, is designed
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to support the other components of the program. In addition, since it
is impossible to fully anticipate which tissues or organ systems may be
most affected by chronic pollution stress, we are establishing a tissue
bank of the major organs that might be expected to show involvement.
Laboratory experiments may be conducted to test field-generated or
model-generated hypotheses and/or to identify specific pollution effects
suggested by observed field responses.
For the present, the fifth phase of the study is restricted to an
assessment of brain acetylcholinesterase depression of Honey Bees as a
function of air pollution in the study area. We hope, of course, that
other sensitive indicators of air pollution challenge will be discovered
as a function of our approach to the animal task.
POPULATION BIOLOGY
The objectives of this component of the animal task are to:
1. Predict changes in population size and structure as a function of
mortality, recruitment rates and life cycle functions.
2. Predict changes in any of all of the above as a function of pollution
intensity.
a. Comparative (i.e. across sites; across species).
b. Annual (i.e. between and within years).
3. Determine the growth potential of the populations of concern. That
is, we would like to establish the capacity of the populations of
interest to tolerate (or to recover from) challenge (especially air
pollution) or perturbations that alter life functions and thereby
tend to reduce the population or alter its composition.
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The major characteristics of a population that allow us to make
predictions about that population are:
1. natality
2. mortality
3. mobility
4. density
5. sex and age structure
6. genetic composition
We must know something about all of these if we are to understand
mechanisms of population regulation and change and to relate observed
changes to environmental information (e.g., air pollution). Neverthe-
less, some of these functions are very difficult to assess.
Because of the relatively low signal-to-noise ratio in many population
dynamic functions, we may expect the short-term chronic effects of air
pollutants on population parameters to be small relative to natural
and/or random variation. Thus appropriate sensitive analysis requires:
a. A pollution gradient across study sites (mammals and perhaps
birds).
b. Employment of reference sites that will allow us to estimate
variations both between and within years (birds and mammals).
c. Investigation and characterization of responses that may be
pollution specific (birds and mammals).
d. Investigation of associated functions that may represent
deviations from the normal pattern or the phase-shifting or
uncoupling of normally coupled phenomena.
e. Evaluation of changes in population structure rooted in a
study of annual cycle and life cycle components (e.g. time-
based changes in sex and age structure; breeding success,
etc.).
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Standard mark and release methods are employed in the assessment of
population dynamics. Assessments of life table functions will be made
in order to help us to determine the mechanisms of population changes
that may occur. Field methods to be employed in the acquisition of such
information will be adapted from published methods (see for example
Henny, 1972; Manly and Parr, 1968). The functions that form the basic
life equation of small birds and mammals are:
1. Number of eggs laid per clutch or young formed per litter.
2. The frequency at which clutches are laid or young are born.
3. Survivorship (eggs, young) to the age of first breeding.
4. Survivorship of adults during their reproductive lifetime.
5. Age of sexual maturity.
These kinds of data will be employed in models to allow us (in
combination with behavioral and physiological data) to evaluate population
sensitivity to selected pollutants or to generate hypotheses to be
tested by laboratory experiments.
In addition to intensive studies of a few abundant indigenous
species at fixed study sites we are conducting infrequent surveys using
standard census techniques (e.g. Emlen, 1971; Robbins and Van Velzen,
1970) to assess changes in diversity and relative abundance of vertebrates
in the study area.
REPRODUCTION AND ONTOGENY
The reproduction component of this investigation is inseparable
from and supports the population-dynamic component. In addition, the
reproductive and life cycles are of special and independent concern. We
feel that significant impairment of animals at the population level will
be reflected in altered reproductive performance and/or in ontogenetic
cycles.
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The reproductive cycle of North Temperate Zone vertebrates is, in
general, the best characterized of the annual subcycles. Furthermore,
regulatory mechanisms are fairly well known (Farner and Lewis, 1971;
Lewis and Orcutt, 1971; Sadlier, 1969). We are thus in an excellent
position to assess the effects of air pollution on reproductive functions.
Lowered growth rates of altricial birds and rodents, by whatever
agency (e.g. air pollution), would increase the period of time that the
young remain in the nest and their period of dependence upon parental
care. They would thus be exposed to relatively high predation rates for
a longer than normal period and both parents and young might suffer a
competitive disadvantage following departure of the young from the nest.
CONDITION, STRESS, ADAPTATION AND DISEASE
In addition to reproduction, ontogeny, and the development of a
tissue-banking system, the physiological phase of the animal task is
directed to the evaluation of a number of functions and systems that may
be expected to reflect the condition of the animals under investigation.
Of particular interest are the following:
1. Bioenergetics (to include body weights, body composition
[water, lipid, etc.], growth rates) and nutritional biology.
2. Adrenocortical system and responses to stress (e.g. general
adaptation syndrome of mammals).
3. Immunobiologic responses (e.g. hematologic change, reticulo-
endothelial system responses).
4. Disease histopathology.
5. Behavior patterns (e.g. mobility, territorial behavior, habitat
selection, etc.).
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In general the measures of condition that we intend to employ are
regulated functions. That is, these functions tend to be maintained
within relatively narrow limits at any given stage of the annual cycle.
Such functions are, of course, frequently age and sex-dependent. We may
thus expect that some of these functions will provide relatively stable
frames of reference against which environmental impacts can be measured.
We are employing standard biometric methods and whole carcass and
organ analysis of selected species of rodents and birds to evaluate
compositional and biometric changes as a function of age, sex, season
and physiologic state in relation to the physical and biotic enviroment.
The main purpose of this type of analysis is to better assess condition,
vigor, nutritional state, and net energy balance as a function of air
quality and other environmental gradients.
Major body and organ components to be measured and evaluated include
live wet weight, lean wet weight, lean dry weight, lipids, allometry of
feather growth (birds) and of related functions, stomach and crop (birds)
contents and weights, caloric density of the diet, parasite burdens
(e.g., of intestinal tract and perhaps of blood). If possible, dietary
and tissue protein levels will be assayed.
HISTOLOGICAL CYCLES OF ORGAN-SYSTEMS OF POTENTIAL OR PROBABLE CONCERN
It is not possible to predict with confidence the organ-systems or
species of animals that deserve intensive histological evaluation.
Consequently, a system of tissue banking has been initiated whereby
several tissues and organs of animals collected in the field will be
fixed and routinely embedded. As pollution-sensitive species and tissues
are identified, appropriate specimens will be stained and examined
histologically.
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Organ-systems of probable importance include the respiratory system,
blood, adrenocortical system, reticuloendothelial system, liver, and
the reproductive system. Elements of these systems will definitely come
under study.
BEES AS INDICATORS OF AIR POLLUTION
In collaboration with Professor C. C. Gordon and Dr. J. Bromenshenk
of the University of Montana, we are investigating the effects of air
pollution on the physiology, production and behavior of bees. Samples
of worker Honey Bees are being collected from eleven sites (apiaries) in
the study area and from two reference sites outside the study area.
Samples are undergoing analysis for acetylcholinesterase pesticide
residues, fluorides and sulfur. As a result of this study we hope to
establish a gradient response analysis of air pollution effects and to
evaluate pesticides as a potentially confounding factor (NOTE: pesticides
effects tend to be episodic, whereas the air pollution effects will tend
to be chronic).
We will also conduct field experiments in one acre fenced enclosures
to evaluate physiological and behavioral responses of free-living bees
to controlled exposures of sulfur dioxide (four concentrations). We
hope thereby to establish the lower levels of sulfur dioxide to which
bees respond and to learn something about the character and specificity
of the responses.
Beginning April 1, 1975, we may also initiate a study of acetylcholin-
esterase levels in bird and mammal tissues as a function of air pollution
gradients.
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PROGRESS TO DATE
Collections of small mammals and birds employing standard mark and
release methods, were initiated in the vicinity of four of the primary
sites (Hay Coulee, Kluver West, Kluver North, and Kluver East). An
additional mammal station is situated on Pony Creek, and a bird trapping
station is operated at the McRae Knolls site. In additon, bird specimens
are collected via shotgun at various locations both within the study
area and in reference areas in Rosebud and Powder River counties.
Mammals are collected by means of two trapping systems, one for
collection of specimens and another for mark-release data. Live traps
are used in both cases.
1. Collections. Rodents are livetrapped one day per week and returned
to the laboratory for work-up. Body weight and length measurements
(body, ear, hindfoot and tail) are taken. Following ether anesthesia,
blood is taken from the orbital sinus in a capillary tube. From
this is determined hematocrit (via centrifugation) and plasma
protein concentration (via diffraction meter). Heart, lungs,
kidneys, adrenals, spleen, liver, gonads and oviducts are preserved
in Bouins, weighed after one week, and transferred to 70% ethanol
for subsequent embedding. Carcasses are saved frozen for analysis
of components. More than 200 small mammal specimens have been
collected thus far. Femurs from 80 animals have been frozen and
mailed to C. Gordon for determination of fluoride content.
2. Mark-release. Grids with outside dimensions of 150 m x 150 m have
been established at five locations. Trapping stations within each
grid are 15 m apart; thus there are 121 stations/grid. Two traps
are set at each station; a total of 242 traps/grid. The grids are
trapped in regular rotation following three or four nights of
prebaiting with rolled oats.
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All animals trapped are toe-clipped according to a standard numerical
scheme, weighed, measured, and examined for external signs of sexual
activity and other factors such as ectoparasites and pelage changes.
Releases are made at the station of capture. At this time 232 individuals
have been marked and released. A total of 238 recaptures have occurred.
The species captured in descending order of frequency, are Peromyscus
maniculatus, Microtus ochrogaster, Perognathus fasciatus, Reithrodontomys
megalotis. and Onychomys leucogaster. In addition we have caught a few
specimens of Peromyscus leucopus, Citellus tridecemlineatus and Sylvilagus
auduboni. Mammalian species that were trapped or observed in the study
area are listed in Table 17.
Birds are trapped at fixed stations by the use of four 12 meter mist
nets that are set at dawn and usually operated until noon. Birds captured
in this way are banded with U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service numbered
bands, weighed, examined for sex, breeding condition (degree of develop-
ment of the brood patch; cloaca! protuberance) molt, ectoparasites, and
then released at the site of capture. A total of 317 birds, representing
32 species were banded and released. Of these, only six percent (two
species) occurred at all of the netting stations and only 30 percent
were present at more than one site.
A standard roadside census of birds, to be conducted from April
through September at bimonthly intervals, was instituted. This census
is patterned after that of the North American Breeding Bird Survey (see
Robbins and Van Velzen, 1970). This census should provide us with
fairly sensitive data on significant changes in species diversity,
changes in relative and absolute abundance; changes in dispersion in
relation to the coal-fired power plant at Colstrip; and supplemental
information on sex and age ratios, productivity, and the annual calendar
of some species. Based upon the combined results of netting and censusing,
the most abundant and widely-distributed grassland bird species in the
study area are the Western Meadowlark, Vesper Sparrow and Lark Sparrow.
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Table 17. Taxonomies' List of Wild Mammals Observed in the Colstrip
Study Area, 1974 (May through September)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Masked Shrew
Little Brown Bat
White-tailed Jackrabbit
Desert Cottontail
Black-tailed Prairie Dog
13-lined Ground Squirrel
Least Chipmunk
Northern Pocket Gopher
Wyoming Pocket Mouse
Desert Harvest Mouse
Deer Mouse
Wood Mouse
Grasshopper Mouse
Prairie Vole
Porcupine
Coyote
Red Fox
Raccoon
Long-tailed Weasel
Mink
Badger
Striped Skunk
Bobcat
White-tailed Deer
Mule Deer
Pronghorn
So rex cinereus
Myotis lucifugus
Lepus town send i
Sylvilagus audoboni
Cynomys ludovicianus
Ci tell us tridecemlineatus
Eutamias minimus
Thomomys talpoides
Perognathus fasciatus
Reithrodontomys megalotis
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus leucopus
Onychomys leucogaster
Microtus ochrogaster
Erethizon dorsatum
Cam's latrans
Vulpes fulva
Procyon 1 otor
Mustela frenata
Mustela
Taxidea
vison
taxus
Mephitis mephitis
Lynx rufus
Odocoileus virginianus
Odocoileus hemionus
Antilocapra americana
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More than 300 birds have been collected by shooting. These are
frozen and transmitted to the Animal Physiology Laboratory in Corvallis.
Five species are specifically sought. These are the Vesper Sparrow,
Lark Sparrow, Western Meadow!ark, Mourning Dove, and Lark Bunting.
Avian species that were captured or observed in the study area are
listed in Table 18.
Samples of Honey Bees from the eleven study sites have been frozen
whole and await assay for acetylcholinesterase in our laboratory. In
addition, we are supporting this study by the deployment of corrosion
plates. Plates (four per site) have been placed at all of the bee
collecting sites, at all of the primary study sites, and at the mammal-
trapping station on Pony Creek. The plates were cleaned using a standard
method, initial weights were taken and the plates were set out on 4
October 1974. These plates will be changed at intervals of three months.
When the acetylcholinesterase assay on bees is operational, we may
begin to study acetylcholinesterase levels in birds and mammals as a
function of air pollution gradients.
FUTURE ACTIVITIES
We hope to complete the laboratory processing of the 1974 field
collections and data reduction by May, 1975. We will prepare data
summaries and preliminary data evaluations before the end of the fiscal
year. Field and laboratory efforts will continue.
Small mammal trapping will continue throughout the winter or until
it is no longer feasible. Intensive studies of the reproductive biology
of several selected species of birds will begin in April. In most
cases, breeding will terminate by about the time the Col strip power
plant becomes operational.
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Table 18. Taxonomic List of Wild Birds Observed in the Col strip
Study Area, 1974 (July through September)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Great Blue Heron
Turkey Vulture
Cooper's Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Rough-legged Hawk
Golden Eagle
Marsh Hawk
Pigeon Hawk
Kestrel
Sharp-Tailed Grouse
Sage Grouse
Ring-necked Pheasant
Kill deer
Spotted Sandpiper
Rock Dove
Mourning Dove
Great Horned Owl
Poor-will
Common Nighthawk
Belted Kingfisher
Red-shafted Flicker
Red-headed Woodpecker
Hairy Woodpecker
Eastern Kingbird
Western Kingbird
Cassin's Kingbird
Say's Phoebe
Western Flycatcher
Horned Lark
Tree Swallow
Barn Swallow
Black-billed Magpie
Black-capped Chickadee
House Wren
Ardea herodias
Cathartes aura
Accipiter cooperi i
Buteo jamaicensis
Buteo lagopus
Aquila
Circus
chrysaetps
cyaneus
GOlumbarius
sparverius
Pedioecetes phasianellus
Centrocercus urophasianus
Phasianus colchicus
Charadrius vpciferus
Actitus macularia
Columba livia
Zenaidura macroura
Bubo virginianus
Phalaenoptilus nuttallii
Chordeiles minor
Megaceryle alcyon
Colaptes cafer
Melanerpes erythrocephalus
Dendrocopus villosus
Tyrannus tyrannus
Tyrannus vertical is
Tyrannus vociferans
Sayornis saya
Empidonax difficilis
Eremophila alpestris
Iridoprocne bicolor
Hirundo rustica
Pica pica
Parus atricapillus
Troglodytes aedon
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Table 18. (Continued)
Common Name
Scientific Name
Winter Wren
Catbird
Brown Thrasher
Robin
Mountain Bluebird
Loggerhead Shrike
Starling
Red-eyed Vireo
Yellow Warbler
Audubon's Warbler
Ovenbird
Yellow-breasted Chat
American Redstart
Western Meadow!ark
Red-winged Blackbird
Bullock's Oriole
Brewer's Blackbird
Common Grackle
Brown-headed Cowbird
Black-headed Grosbeak
Dickcissel
American Goldfinch
Red Crossbill
Rufous-sided Towhee
Lark Bunting
Savannah Sparrow
Vesper Sparrow
Lark Sparrow
Harris' Sparrow
White-crowned Sparrow
Song Sparrow
McCown's Longspur
Troglodytes troglodytes
Dumetella carolinensis
Toxostoma rufum
Turdus tm'gratorius
Si alia currucoides
Lanius ludovicianus
Sturnus vulgaris
Vireo olivaceus
Dendroica petchia
Dendroica auduboni
Seiurus aurocapillus
I c ten a virens
Setophaga ruticilla
Sturnella neglecta
Agelaius phoeniceus
Icterus bullockii
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Quiscalus quisculas
Molothrus ater
Pheucticus melanocephalus
Spiza americana
Spinus tristis
Loxia curvirostra
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Calamospiza melanocorys
Passerculus sandwichensis
Pooecetes gramineus
Chondestes grammacus
Zonotrichia querula
Zonotrichia leucophrys
Melospiza melodia
Rjiynchophanes mccownij
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REFERENCES
Emlen, J. 1971. "Population Densities of Birds Derived from Transect
Counts." Auk. 88(2):323-342.
Farner, D. S. and R. A. Lewis. 1971. "Photoperiodism and Reproductive
Cycles in Birds." In Photophysiology: Current Topics in Photochemistry
and Photobiology, Vol. 6 (A. C. Giese, Ed.). Academic Press, New
York. pp. 325-370.
Henney, C. J. 1972. "An Analysis of the Population Dynamics of Selected
Avian Species with Special Reference to Changes During the Modern
Pesticide Era." Wildlife Research Report 1. U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. 99 p.
Lefohn, A. S., R. A. Lewis, and N. R. Glass. 1974. "An Approach to the
Investigation of the Bioenvironmental Impact of Air Pollution from
Fossil Fuel Power Plants." U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon, Ecological Research Series No. EPA 660/3-74-011.
22 p.
Lewis, R. A. and F. S., Orcutt, Jr. 1971. "Social Behavior and Avian
Sexual Cycles." Scientia 106:447-472.
Manly, B. F. J. and M. J. Parr. 1968. "A New Method of Estimating
Population Size, Survivorship, and Birth Rate from Capture-Recapture
Data." Trans. Soc. Br. Ent. 18:81-89.
Robbins, C. S. and W. T. Van Velzen. 1970. "Progress Report on the
North American Breeding Bird Survey." In: Bird Census Work and
Environmental Monitoring. (S. Svenson, Ed.) Swedish Natural Science
Research Council, Redaktionstjansten.
Sadlier, R. M. F. S. 1969. The Ecology of Reproduction in Wild and
Domestic Mammals. Methesen, London.
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SECTION VIII
FIELD EXPERIMENTAL COMPONENT:
THE BIOENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF SULFUR DIOXIDE
By Jeffrey Lee
and Robert A. Lewis
INTRODUCTION
The Montana Coal-fired Power Plant Project has, as a major objective,
the generation of a protocol that will allow planning managers to assess
the impact of energy producing activities on the environment prior to
the initiation of construction activities. The field experimental
component of this project is expected to provide data essential to the
construction of such a protocol. In particular, we hope to establish
both the specificity and threshold of the effects of sulfur dioxide on
well-defined components of a grassland ecosystem. We hope also, by
correlation of results of the field experimental stressing at the Ash
Creek site with those in the Colstrip study area, to evaluate the site-
specificity of these responses. Finally, during the three years of the
investigation, we hope to generate predictive or extrapolative models
that will link short-term low threshold effects to those that occur only
after prolonged exposure.
This investigation will take place at the Ash Creek site located in
Custer National Forest. Experimental stressing of four one-acre plots
will be initiated in April, 1975. These plots are situated within a 27
acre exclosure that was fenced one year in advance of the study to
reduce the effects of succession resulting from removal of the plots
from grazing by cattle.
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Our plan is to maintain different levels of sulfur dioxide on each
of these plots. The system is designed to allow us to maintain a constant
30 day mean concentration on each plot during the entire growing season
(circa 1 April-30 September). A log-normal distribution of concentrations
about this mean is expected. Preliminary testing of a prototype system
at Ash Creek during September 1974, indicates that this type of control
is feasible. A log-normal distribution is desirable because this type
of distribution occurs frequently.
DESCRIPTION OF SYSTEM
This zonal air pollution system will consist of a separate S02
delivery system for each of the four one acre plots at the stress site,
a common monitoring system, and a common electric power system. Spatial
geometry of the delivery system is depicted in Figure 4. The four plots
will be located along a line and will be separated by 200 foot buffer
zones. System components include: (1) an electric power system; (2) a
sulfur dioxide delivery system; and (3) sulfur dioxide monitoring system.
Power will be provided by a 6.5 kw diesel generator, located
approximately 1100 feet from the nearest study plot. The generator will
be positioned downwind from the stress plots and will be shielded by
terrain to minimize air and noise pollution effects. Power will be
transmitted via three conductor, buriable copper wire.
The sulfur dioxide delivery system for each plot will provide
coverage to at least a 210 feet x 210 feet area. The source will
consist of (l)a helical compressor that provides a continuous flow of
air, at a pressure gauge of about one pound per square inch and (2) a
bank of sulfur dioxide cylinders housed in a heated six by eight foot
fiberglass shed. The sulfur dioxide bank will consist of three pairs of
cylinders, each pair equipped with a pressure regulator. By setting the
96
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regulators differentially it will be possible to replace empty cyclinders
without interrupting gas flow. Gas delivery lines will consist of one
inch aluminum pipe with 1/32 inch exit holes situated at intervals of
ten feet. A series of one inch aluminum poles will support the delivery
lines at a height of two and one-half feet above the ground. Sulfur
dioxide will be monitored by a sulfur dioxide analyzer in the logarithmic
output mode. The output will be put onto a stripchart recorder. Sample
lines (1/4" aluminum tubing) from the four stress plots and from four
areas outside the plots will lead to a time-share system that has
single line that leads from the time-share to the analyzer. Each line
will be analyzed approximately once per hour. The recorder, time-share,
and analyzer will all be housed in a heated fiberglass shed.
The exact concentrations of S0? to be maintained on each test plot
have yet to be determined. However, these will range from the normal
ambient level on the control plot to a level of about 15 to 20 pphm on
one of the experimental plots.
When the first system is complete, the sulfur dioxide monitoring
component will be used to map in detail the spatial pattern of sulfur
dioxide under various meterological conditions. This will be related to
a particular type of sample and will serve as a calibration of the
actual sampling configuration used. Although current plans call for
four entry points yielding one pooled sample per sample area, the con-
struction technique allows a large degree of flexibility in design.
Different configurations can be easily tried.
Micrometeorological data to include air and soil temperatures,
humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and precipitation will be continu-
ously recorded from each plot.
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PROGRESS TO DATE
A full-size prototype system was constructed essentially following
the description that was written last spring. The dimensions were
modified somewhat, as shown in Figure 3, and steel pipe was used instead
of aluminum. The system was run for more than three weeks and data on
sulfur dioxide distribution were taken.
The prototype clearly demonstrated the feasibility of the field
experimental plan. Although certain problems were identified during the
start-up and testing phases, most were readily solved and none indicated
that the air pollution system would not perform adequately.
Most of the materials necessary for the construction of the stressing
system have been procured and are ready for transport to the experimental
site. Construction of the delivery system was recently initiated.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Figure 4 represents an improved Zonal Air Pollution System geometry
(Note: the plan is drawn to scale except for the shed and dispensing
equipment). The earlier geometry resulted in "dead spots" located
halfway between the sulfur dioxide pipes. The new design should eliminate
these and should generally produce a more nearly uniform sulfur dioxide
distribution. Superior features of the new design include
A. Main lines that are 50 feet apart (rather than 70 feet).
B. More point sources of gas (229 vs 152) per plot.
C. More dilute sulfur dioxide in lines and at sources, since
air flow will be increased approximately 50 percent while
sulfur dioxide flow will not be changed, for the same
average concentration in the plot.
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60'
60'
60'
250'-
-70'-
L
T
220'
H
C COMPRESSOR
S SULFUR DIOXIDE TANKS
H I KW HEATER
V VALVE
|" Al PIPE, 1/32" HOLES
EVERY 10'
|"AI PIPE, NO HOLES
Figure 3. Zonal Air Pollution System
99
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240'-
C
S
H
V
COMPRESSOR
SULFUR DIOXIDE TANKS
I KW HEATER
VALVE
l"AI PIPE, 1/32" HOLES
EVERY 10'
|"AI PIPE, NO HOLES
Figure 4. Modified Zonal Air Pollution System
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D. Staggered arms from the main lines which will effectively
produce intermediate lines wi-th sources 40 feet apart.
E. Minimized pipe cutting because distances between fittings
equal integer multiples of pipe length (20 feet).
At least one plot should be monitored for sulfur dioxide at several
locations for the length of the experiment. The actual number of points
monitored will depend upon empirical needs and available funding.
PROBLEM AREAS AND REQUIRED ACTION
The new design requires an additional 2,400' of aluminum pipe. If
this should prove difficult to obtain, steel pipe (possibly from the
prototype) should be considered as an alternative. Furthermore, any
decision to monitor sulfur dioxide more closely must be made quickly in
order to allow time for procurement of any additional equipment.
The data from the prototype show a pronounced daily pattern.
Concentrations increased very sharply after dawn and less sharply after
sunset. The sulfur dioxide flow must be reduced or stopped during these
periods. The controlling parameter can either be time or some meteorological
parameter, or sulfur dioxide concentration. In any case, meteorological
information will be needed to maximize efficiency. The prototype data
will be further, and more quantitatively, analyzed and if weather permits,
further prototype testing may aid in perfecting control and maintenance
protocols.
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SECTION IX
AIR QUALITY COMPONENT MEASUREMENTS
By Tim Call, Jim Miller, and Allerr S. Lefohn
PROGRESS TO DATE
In July, 1974, the National Ecological Research Laboratory sited an
air quality monitoring trailer near Col strip, Montana. The exact location
is at Hay Coulee, seven miles southeast of Col strip, Montana.
Although the trailer is considered to be a mobile air quality
laboratory, it is employed as a stationary laboratory facility. Table
19 summarizes the specific instrumentation that has been integrated into
the air quality facility. Technicians are able to monitor on a continuous
basis the amount of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone, total hydro-
carbons, carbon monoxide, methane, wind speed, humidity, and incident
radiation that is present in the area surrounding the laboratory. To
simplify data formating and analysis, a data acquisition system has been
designed to retain the air quality information and provide teletype
printouts at one hour and twenty-four hour periods. Data is also stored
on a magnetic tape so that further analysis can occur after the data is
returned from the field.
The air quality laboratory returned to Corvallis, Oregon, in late
October 1974. The trailer and its equipment will be serviced and prepared
for a return to the field in March 1975. The period of sampling will
be from March through October so as to insure complete characterization
of the ambient air quality in the area.
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Table 19. Air Quality Laboratory Instrumentation
Instrument
Instrumentation in
Minimum Measured
Detectable Level
Solar Radiation
Wind Speed and
Direction
High Volume
Particulate Sampler
Data Acquisition
System
mph
Minimum Detectable
Precision Level measured under
Field Conditions
CO/CH4/Total
Hydrocarbon
NO/N09/NOY
Cf A
Ozone
so2
Detailed Hydro-
carbons
Temperature
Sensor
Humidity Sensor
.02 ppm
0.005 ppm
0.001 ppm
0.005 ppm
--
0.5 °F
0.2%RH
+_ 0.5 percent
+_ 1 percent
+ 2 percent
+_ 1 percent
—
+ 1 percent
+ 2 percent
.02 ppm (CO,CH4,
hydrocarbon)
.003-. 005 ppm
0.003 ppm
0.01 ppm
"
0.5 °F
1%RH
+_ 1 mph<25 mph
+ 3 percent
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PROBLEMS TO DATE
The main difficulty encountered this past year was the late date of
the project's initiation. Because of the delay in getting approval for
the project, plans for obtaining appropriate electrical service were
delayed. Whereas the National Ecological Research Laboratory was prepared
to locate the air quality laboratory in Montana as early as April 1974,
it was unfortunately unable to obtain the necessary facility support
until late June 1974. Electric service was not provided by the local
rural electric company until July, 1974. Because all of the facility
support work has already been completed, we anticipate no difficulty in
gaining access to the area and being operational by March, 1975.
There have been several instances of instrumentation downtime. For
example, the CO, CH., and total hydrocarbon analyzer was inoperable for
a period of one month. In addition, the gas chromatograph system failed
to operate satisfactorily for a period of two weeks. The sulfur dioxide,
ozone, and nitrogen oxide analyzers performed continuously throughout
the period of data taking. The computer system did have a small amount
of downtime when a power transformer failed. This electrical failure
was corrected within a week after the problem was identified.
In summary, there was a certain amount of instrumentation breakdown
that did occur during this first year of sampling. However, this instru-
mentation downtime is normal and expected in this type of field operation.
We anticipate that as the field personnel gain more experience with the
equipment, instrumentation downtime will be reduced.
FUTURE ACTIVITIES
No substantial changes are anticipated with the mobile laboratory.
More time will be spent this winter on gaining experience with the
104
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various components of a support laboratory which hopefully will result
in less downtime during the actual operating time in the field. Wet
chemical calibration techniques will be developed during the winter
period so as to build up the calibration verification capability of the
mobile laboratory. The bulk of research activities for this next quarter
will be centered on further data analysis and interpretation and planning
for the next field season. Table 20 is a summary of the air quality
data that was obtained during the 1974 sampling season.
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Ambient Air Quality Data
Table 20. Number of Days Daily Average Equal to or Greater Than Indicated Values
Parameter
NO
N02
ra
X
°3
SO
X
CHA
4
CO
THC
Lesr.
CH4
Hi-Vol
Participate
>5pphm >^ 4 pphm
0 0
0 0
0 0
1 10
0 0
>_ 2.00 ppm >_ 1.5 ppm
1 19
0 0
0 0
> 125 yg/m3 >. 100 yg/m3
0 0
>3 pphm >2 pphm >1 pphm
0 5 18
000
2 8 25
35 47 51
000
>. 1.0 ppm ^ 0.5 ppm >. 0.1 ppm
23 24 25
0 0 15
2 4 11
33 3
>_ 75 pg/m >. 50 yg/m >_ 25 yg/m
1 7 34
Total
>^ .5 pphm >.l pphm Days
Highest
Value-Date
32 42 43 2.8 pphm
Aug. 28 - Sect. 1
5 42 43 .7 pphm
Sept. 26
41 43 43 3.3 pphm
51 51 51
3 12 42
>_ 0.5 ppm >_ -.01 ppm
25 25 25
22 24 25
16 21 25
3 3
>_ 10 yg/m >_ 5 yg/m
58 60 61
Aug. 28
5.57 pphm
Sept. 19
.66 pphm
Sept. 11
2.08 ppm
Sept. 5
0.46 ppm
Oct. 5
1.25 pom
Sept. 26
93.2 ug/ra
Sept. 26
Primary Secondary
Standard Stc.
5 pphm 5 pphm
100 yg/K3 TOO yg/M3
8 pphm 8 pphm
14 pphm 10 pphn;
50 pphm
_— .._
9 ppm 9 ppra
35 ppm 35 ppm
0.24 ppm 0.24 ppm
3 3
75yg/m" SQyig/n; ,
260Mg/m 1 50yg/m
-------
Tim Call
J. L. Dodd
SECTION X
CONTRIBUTORS
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Con/all is, Oregon
National Resources Ecological Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
Sharon Eversman
Department of Biology
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
Ronald Fuchs
Norman R. Glass
C. C. Gordon
W. K. Lauenroth
Department of Animal and Range Sciences
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Con/all is, Oregon
Environmental Studies Laboratory
University of Montana
Missoula, Montana
Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
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Jeffrey J. Lee
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
Allen S. Lefohn
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
Wayne Leininger
Department of Animal and Range Sciences
Montana State University
Bozeman, MT
Robert A. Lewis
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon, and Department of Zoology,
University of Washington, Seattle
Jim Miller
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
Martin L. Morton
National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
John E. Taylor
Department of Animal and Range Sciences
Montana State University
Bozeman, Montana
David T. Tingey National Ecological Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon
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R. 6. Woodmansee Natural Resources Ecology Laboratory
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA .
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-76-002
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION>NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
The Bioenvironmental Impact of a Coal-Fired Power
Plant First Interim Report,' Col strip, Montana
December 1974
5. REPORT DATE
December 1974
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
National Ecological Research Laboratory
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
National Ecological Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, OR 97330
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHA446 ROAP/Task 21BCI02
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Same
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
First Interim Report Jun-Oct 7
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
In June 1974, the National Ecological Research Laboratory initiated a field program
in southeastern Montana. The purpose of this program is to assess the effects of a
coal-fired power plant on the terrestrial environment. Numerous investigators have
worked together on this project to establish a baseline investigation to characterize
the environment around the plant prior to operation. This report is a summary of
activities from June through October, 1974. The overall objectives, rationale, and
design of the project are outlined. Recommendations regarding further actions on
many of the components of this program are also included. The paper serves primarily
as a status report to the scientists and managers who have been following the project
since its inception in March, 1973.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
ecosystem dynamics
ecosystem modelling
criteria for ecological damage
remote sensing
air pollution
fossil fuel energy conversion
pollution impact assessment
ecological impact
assessment
ecosystem dynamics
energy conversion
51
3. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)'
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
110
•k U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1976-696-534/56 REGION 10
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