vvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Municipal ,
Pollution Control (WH-546)
Washington DC 20460
July 1986
Water
An Energy Audit Procedure
and Supporting Data Base
Appendix C
Energy in Municipal Waste
Water Treatment
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APPENDIX C
ENERGY IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
AN ENERGY AUDIT PROCEDURE AND S IIP PORT ING DATABASE;
ALTERNATIVE METHODOLOGIES, FOR.
ESTIMATION OF EMBODIED ENERGIES
Contract No. 68-01-6433
Submitted to.:
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Municipal Construction Division (WHS 4.7)
Office of Water Programs
Attention: Mr. James Wheeler
401 M St. S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Submitted by:
CARLTECH ASSOCIATES, INC.
OVERLOOK CENTER, SUITE 301
5457 TWIN KNOLLS ROAD
COLUMBIA, MD 21045
July, 1986
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION PAGE
1. SUMMARY C-l
2. INTRODUCTION . C-2
3. METHODOLOGY ....,,..,,.. , C-3
3.1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE SEARCH C-3
3.2 COMPUTER INFORMATION SEARCH C-3
3.3 MANUAL LITERATURE SEARCH C-3
3.4 OTHER SOURCES CONSULTED C-4
3.5 ANALYSIS C-4
EXHIBIT 3-1 : INDIVIDUALS CONTACTED C-5
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION C-6
4.1 ENERGY EMBODIED IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS C-6
4.2 ENERGY EMBODIED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS C-7
EXHIBIT 4-1: REFERENCES OF EMBODIED ENERGY OF CONSTRUCTION
MATERIALS C-8
EXHIBIT 4-2: CONSUMABLE CHEMICALS COMMONLY USED IN WASTEWATER
TREATMENT C-10
EXHIBIT 4-3: REFERENCES OF EMBODIED ENERGY OF CONSUMABLE
CHEMICALS C-l 1
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS C-12
6. FUTURE WORK C-13
7. REFERENCES C-14
8. SOURCES CONSULTED C-l 5
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ENERGY IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
AN ENERGY AUDIT PROCEDURE AND SUPPORTING DATABASE
ALTERNATIVE METHODOLOGIES FOR
ESTIMATION OF EMBODIED ENERGIES
SECTION 1
SUMMARY
A methodology for determining total energy requirements of municipal waste-
water treatment plants is needed to satisfy requirements of EPA's regulation
pertaining to energy effectiveness of alternative technologies. Embodied
energies of construction materials and consumable chemicals represent a
significant energy demand. Both computer and manual literature searches
were performed and interviews were conducted with knowledgeable individuals
to identify and evaluate promising new methods of estimating these embodied
energies.
The Center for Advanced Computation (CAC) input/output analysis, especially
when updated and detailed for wastewater treatment construction materials
and components, was the best available tool for calculation of embodied
energies. The other quantitative studies that address embodied energies use
data from other sources without cross comparison to determine whether bases
(0 energy levels) were compatible. However, development of independent unit
embodied energies for consumable chemicals was possible. An approach
proposed by Kreijger (5) proved to be the most useful in calculating
embodied energies.
Future work on this project should include preparation of a consistent set
of unit embodied energies for consumable wastewater treatment chemicals.
This limited work could be used as a pilot project to test out the Kreijger
approach. Preparation of unit embodied energies of construction materials
using a modified Kreijger may also be warranted at a later date.
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SECTION 2
INTRODUCTION
A methodology for determining total energy requirements of municipal waste-
water treatment plants is needed to satisfy requirements of EPA's May 12,
1982 Regulation, "Grants for Construction of Treatment Works"
35.2030(b)(3)(VI) "Facilities Plan Contents." The regulation requires
evaluation of the energy effectiveness of alternative technologies by
municipalities or other submitting organizations. This project has been
performed in response to the regulation.
In earlier phases of this project a means to analyze energy effectiveness
was developed. Part of the methodology includes a method of calculation for
both acquisition energies and operating energies. Acquisition energies in-
clude both energy of construction and the embodied energies of construction
materials. Operating energies are influenced by the embodied energies of
consumable chemicals for several of the processes studied.
This project was performed to identify and evaluate new methods available to
estimate these embodied energies. A survey was conducted of recent
literature, published in English, in order to identify promising approaches
for calculation of embodied energies of construction materials and
consumable chemicals.
The acquisition energies presented in our Task 1 Report (1) were based on
data presented by the University of California at Davis (2). These data
were, in turn, based upon work performed by the CAC at the University of
Illinois (3) using data gathered in 1967. These were found to vary by as
much as 50%. Some questions have been raised concerning consistency of the
basis level (location of "0" energy) of estimated embodied energies. What
is needed, therefore, is a reliable and consistent method to estimate
embodied energies of both construction materials and consumable chemicals.
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SECTION 3
METHODOLOGY
Computer and manual literature searches were conducted to identify and
retrieve primary references and bibliographies. Telephone and personal
interviews with knowledgeable individuals were also conducted. Secondary
reference material identified in key references was obtained when possible,
A description of the overall approach is discussed below.
.3.1 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE SEARCH
The following abstract services were surveyed to determine availability of
energy data and to develop a strategy for the computerized searches:
Energy Information Abstracts;
Pollution Abstracts;
The Engineering Index Annual;
Energy Abstracts of Policy Analysis;
Environmental Abstracts; and
Water Resources Abstract.
3.2 COMPUTER INFORMATION SEARCH
The following computerized databases were searched:
• NTIS;
• DOE Energy;
• ENVIROLINE; and
• ENERGYLINE.
The searches used combinations of keywords such as: energy consumption,
energy use, energy conservation, building materials, construction, water
treatment chemicals, wastewater treatment chemicals, and chemical industry.
Promising citations were identified and references located using local
libraries, including the Library of Congress, EPA and DOE.
3.3 MANUAL LITERATURE SEARCH
An indepth manual search was conducted based on results of the preliminary
literature searches. In addition to screening the abstract services listed
in Section 3.2, the following sources were also surveyed:
• Chemical Abstracts;
• Monthly Checklist of State Publications;
• Index to Scientific and Technical Proceedings; and
• Applied Science and Technology Index.
Some of the references contained a number of relevant secondary references
which were obtained and analyzed. Proceedings of several energy conferences
were also screened for additional references.
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3.4 OTHER SOURCES CONSULTED
Individuals at the Argonne National Laboratories, Oak Ridge National
Research Center, DOE Washington, former members of the Center for Advanced
Computation at the University of Illinois, Urbana, and a number of private
companies (Exhibit 3-1) were contacted. These individuals provided data on
recently performed work on embodied energies of building materials and
wastewater treatment chemicals.
3.5 ANALYSIS
Publications were reviewed to determine relevance to the project, the types
of energy addressed, and whether methods used (or proposed) were
improvements over those studied in Task 1. Methods for calculation of
embodied energy of construction materials were compared to those used in
Task 1 of this project (1) to identify any improvements. Methods for
estimation of embodied energy of consumable chemicals were evaluated based
on "0" energy levels and/or data adjustment methods.
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EXHIBIT 3-1
INDIVIDUALS.CONTACTED
PERSON
W. D. Devine, Jr,
T. G. Alson
J. Eberhard
H. Saccer
R. Massey
T. Gross
K. Vogt
S. Diensfrey
AGENCY OR COMPANY
Institute for Energy Analysis
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Argonne National Laboratories
Argonne National Laboratories
Chemical Manufacturers Association
Washington, D.C.
U. S. Department of Energy
Washington, D.C.
U. S. Department of Energy
Washington, D.C.
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
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SECTION 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Information identified and analyzed as described in Section 3 was divided
into three classes:
• Information on energy embodied in building materials;
• References on energy consumption in the chemical industry;
• Information on energy used to produce specific chemicals.
4.1 ENERGY EMBODIED IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
References on embodied energy of building materials are presented in Exhibit
4-1. Work by Hannon and Stein (3) presented an elaboration by the Center
for Advanced Computation (CAC) on its input/output analysis, previously
discussed in Task' 1 of this project (1). This study further subdivides the
four digit SIC categories into five and seven digit classification levels.
It presents a breakdown of energies embodied in construction materials to
the level of specific materials such as plastic products, plumbing fixtures,
plumbing fittings, copper piping and wiring, aluminum piping and wiring,
heating components, typical building assemblies, types of steel and wood
structures, et cetera.
The major disadvantages of this approach as' applied to wastewater treatment
plant construction are:
• Inadequate level of detail for certain types of wastewater
equipment.
4 Energy calculations involving multiproduct industries have
been challenged and may be inaccurate.
• Available data is outdated since the CAC input/output analysis
is based on 1967 figures.
References using the process analysis approach are also presented in Exhibit
4-1. This approach determines the total energy required to produce a unit
of material of a manufactured item. Energy consumed in the manufacture of
an item is either theoretically computed or empirically estimated; energy
consumed in mining and transportation of raw materials and finished goods
may be added at a later step.
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No studies were found using the process analysis approach which addressed
construction in a comprehensive manner.
A mixed approach proposed by Kreijger (5) was the most promising. The
author points out that unit embodied energies of construction materials vary
widely with the manufacturing process used. This variance however, is not
necessarily reflected in the product price. He proposes that a database of
unit embodied energies be developed by using weighting factors for process
data. This approach was used in establishing the accurate database included
in this Appendix.
4.2 ENERGY EMBODIED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT CHEMICALS
Exhibit 4-2 presents a list of chemicals used for wastewater treatment.
Chemicals such as chlorine, sulfuric acid, oxygen, carbon dioxide, methanol,
and lime are consumed widely in high volumes. There is a large body of
information available on energy consumption in the production of these chemi-
cals (Exhibit 4-3). The most widely used methodology involves theoretical
thermodynamic calculations for specific production processes combined with
limited industry surveys. Three typical examples of approach are references
(6), (7), and (8). Reference (6) analyzes energy use and conservation poten-
tial for all of SIC No. 28 (chemicals and allied products). However, the
reference uses data from different sources without any reported adjustment for
basis.
It is possible, by careful comparison of available data, to estimate
embodied energies for consumed chemicals. There are several independent
studies for the 15 wastewater treatment chemicals listed in Exhibit 3-2,
which could provide adequate data. However, great care must be taken in use
of historical data on the chemical industry because of technological
innovations and conservation efforts. In addition, the Kreijger approach
(weighting of different process results by production factors) could be
applied to this data.
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EXHIBIT 4-1
REFERENCES ON EMBODIED ENERGY
OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
REF.
NO.*
7
12
13
19
22
23
26
Tn
Ji
TYPE OF
ENERGY
ADDRESSED
Eibudied
Eibodied
Esbodied
Site
Purchased
Fuel
Eibudied
Site
Purchased
Fuel
EtDudieu
Esbudied
Esbudied
Site
Purchased
Fuel
Esbodied
Site
Purchased
TYPE OF APPROACH
Modified Input/Output
Input/Output
Process
Process
Hixed
Modified Input/Output
Modified Input/Output
Input/Output
Input/Output
Process
Process
UNITS
Btu/unit
Btu/t
Btu/unit
Btu/unit area
or volute
Btu/unit
Mixed
Btu/unit
Btu/unit
Btu/*
Btu/t
Btu/unit
Btu/unit
REMARKS
Uses data froi Reference 22 which was based on
Reference 28.
Proposes refineeents to input/output tethod.
Uses data frot several other sources.
Used data froi reference 28 and others as basis, then
adjust Btu/$ to produce Btu/unit.
Uses data froi Reference 28 and adjust.
Uses data froi Reference 28 and adjust.
Uses satrix algebra approach based on Census Data
for 1967.
Uses data froi several sources.
Soce sources not identified.
Sources not identified.
•33 Embodied
SO Embodied
Process
L' / *
hit
'41 Esbodied Modified Input/Output Btu/unit
43 Esbodied Modified Input/Output Btu/unit
Modified Input/Output Btu/unit
Proposes refined approach for calculating energy of
construction saterials.
Proposes refinesents to input/output «thod to avoid
atypical product problems.
Basis for acquisition energies calculated during this
study.
Based on Reference 128.
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66 Embodied
bB Eeiodieu
Notes:
* Fro* SECTION 8
Mixed Btu/unit
Modified Input/Output Btu/unit
Obtained data fro§ several sources.
Eased on Reference I2B.
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EXHIBIT 4-2
CONSUMABLE CHEMICALS
COMMONLY USED IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Activated Carbon
Aluminum sulfate (alum)
Ammonium hydroxide (NH OH)
Carbon Dioxide (CO )
Chlorine
Ferric chloride (FECL )
Lime (calcium oxide)
Methanol
Oxygen
Ozone
Polymers
Sodium chloride (NaCL)
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
Sulfur dioxide (SO )
Sulfuric acid (H SO )
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EXHIBIT 4-3
REFERENCES ON EMBODIED ENERGY
OF CONSUMABLE CHEMICALS
TYPE OF
REF. ENERGY
NO.* ADDRESSED TYPE OF APPROACH
6 Enbodied Modified Input/Output
7 Enbodied N/A
8 Enbodied Process
13 Enbodied Process
14
46
45
49
Enbodied
Enbodied
Enbodied
Enbodied
Process
Process
Input/Output (1)
Process
54 Enbodied (2)
66 Enbodied Mixed
66 Enbodied Mixed
Note:
« Fron SECTION 8
(1) In Btu's per unit
(2) Not reported, probably nixed
CHEMICALS ADDRESSED
Chlorine, NaOH, Na^O ,
Oxygen, CO., Alun, Methanol,
N/A
Line, Na CO , NaOH
£ 0
Activated Carbon, Alun,
NH OH, CO , Chlorine, Fed ,
Line, Metnanol, Oxygen,
Polyners, Nad, NaOH, SO ,
V°4
Polyners, Methanol, NH OH
4
Chlorine, NaOH, Na.CO ,
Oxygen
Chlorine, NaOH, Oxygen,
REMARKS
Used data fron other reports without checking for
nixed nethods. Included scree breakdown by
nanufacturing process.
Refers user to several other sources.
Uses data fron other sources.
Uses data fron several other sources.
Process specific: Rely on use of proprietary nodel
'Botton* up engineering approach.
Feedstock energies estinated as heat of conbustion.
Uses data fron several sources.
Chlorine, NaOH, Fed ,
Oxygen, Alun, Activated
Carbon, Line, H SO., Hethanol
Activated Carbon, Alun, NH OH,
CO., Chlorine, Fed., Line,
Mefhanol, Oxygen, Polyners,
Nad, NaOH, S0, HS0
Chlorine, CO., Activated Data obtained fron several sources.
Carbon, Alunf NH OK, Fed ,
Line, Methanol, Oxygen,
Polyner, Nad, NaOH, SO.,
H2SO
Activated Carbon, Alun, NH^OH,
CO., Chlorine, Fed., Line,
Nethanol, Oxygen, Polyners,
Nad, NaOH, S02, H2S04
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SECTION 5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
No additional comprehensive studies on estimating energy embodied in
construction materials or wastewater treatment chemicals were found in the
literature. The CAC input/output analysis, especially if updated and
detailed for wastewater treatment construction materials and components, is
the best available tool.
Development of a reliable database of unit embodied energies for consumable
wastewater treatment chemicals is possible because of the availability of
sufficient energy data.
The Kreijger approach to estimating embodied energies is the most promising.
This method should be tried on a pilot basis for the embodied energies of
consumable chemicals.
Several statistical and mathematical smoothing techniques are available to.
minimize the variance inherent in acquisition energies. The results of
applying these methods would be acquisition energy ratios for comparison
among unit processes. Benefit's derived from use of these ratios do not
appear to justify the effort required to develop them at this time.
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SECTION 6
FUTURE WORK
Future work on this project should include the following:
• Preparation of a single database of unit embodied energies for
consumable wastewater treatment chemicals. This database
could be prepared using the Kreijger approaches as well as
chemical engineering process analysis indexed to a single "0"
energy level.
• Preparation of a database of unit embodied energies for con-
struction materials using the Kreijger approach to produce a
weighted average of process related unit embodied energy
values.
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SECTION 7
REFERENCES
1. Carltech Associates, Energy in Municipal Wastewater Treatment, An
Energy Audit Procedure and Supporting Data Base Task 1 Report,
Carltech Associates, Columbia MD, March 1982, Contract No. 68-01-
6433.
2. Roberts, E.G. and Hagan, R.M., Guidelines for the Estimation of
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Alternatives, University of
California, Davis CA, August 1977, Agreement No. 4074400.
3. Hannon, B.M; Stein, R.G.; Serber, D., Energy and Labor in the
Construction Sector, Science, 202, November 1978.
4. Hannon, B.M.; Stein, R.G.; Segal, B.Z.; Deiber, M.; Buckley, M.L. ;
Energy Use for Building Construction Supplement, University
of Illinois Center for Advanced Computation, Urbana IL, October
1977.
5. Kreijger, P.C., Energy Analysis of Materials and Structures in the
Building Industry, Applied Energy, 5, 1979
6. Battelle Columbus Laboratory, Developing A Maximum Energy Efficiency
Target for SIC 28 Chemicals and Allied Products. Volume 5 Further
Revision. Draft Target and Support Document, Federal Energy
Administration, Washington DC, July 1976.
7. Smith, R. , Total Energy Consumption for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment, U.S. EPA Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati OH, August 1978.
8. U.S. EPA, Energy Management Diagnostics, U.S. EPA Office of Water
Program Operations WH-547, Washington DC, February 1982, No. EPA-
430/9-82-002.
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SECTION 8
SOURCES CONSULTED
1. Energy Conservation: Retrofit of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Facilities, Several Articles
2. Adams, G.M.; Eppich, J.D.; Gratteau, J.C., Total Energy Concept at
the Joint Water Pollution Control Plant, Journal of the Water
Pollution Control Federation, 52,7, July 1980
3. Arthur D. Little, Environmental Considerations of Selected Energy
Conserving Manufacturing Process Options: Vol. XII. Chlor Alkalai
Industry Report, USEPA Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati OH, December 1976
4. Battelle Columbus Laboratory, Developing a Maximum Energy Efficiency
Target for SIC 28 Chemicals and Allied Products. Volume 5 Further
Revision. Draft Target and Support Document, Federal Energy
Administration, Washington DC, July 1976
5. Bodine, J.F.; Vitulo, M., Industrial Energy Use Data Book, Oak Ridge
Associated Universities, Oak Ridge TN, 1980, DRAU-160
6. Boerker, S.W., Energy Use in the Production of Primary Aluminum,
Materials and Society, 3, 1979
7. Burch, J.E.; Otis, J.L.; Hale, R.W., Pilot Study to Select
Candidates for Energy Conservation Research for the Chemical
Industry—Final Report, Battelle Columbus Labs, Ohio, November 1980
8. Burris, B E, Energy Conservation for Existing Wastewater Treatment
Plants, Journal of the Water Pollution Control Federation, 53,5, May
1981
9. Carltech Associates, Energy in Municipal Wastewater Treatment An
Energy Audit Procedure and Supporting Data Base—Task 1 Report,
Carltech Associates, Columbia MD, March 1982 Contract No. 68-01-6433
10. Costanza, R. , Embodied Energy and Economic Evaluation, Science, 210,
December 12, 1980
11. Culp/Wesner/Culp, Energy Considerations in Wastewater Treatment,
Course Notes, Santa Anna CA, September 1980.
12. Data Resources, Inc., Energy Conservation in the Petrochemical
Industry: An Analysis Using Industry Process and Mathematical
Models, U.S. DOE Office of Conservation and Solar Applications,
Washington DC, December 1978, Contract No. CR03-70001-00
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13. Department of Energy, Energy Abstracts for Policy Analysis—Vol. 8,
No. 10, U.S. DOE Technical Information Center, Washington DC,
October 1982, ISSN: 0098-51-04
14. Evans, R. D., Materials Selection and Energy Conservation,
Proceedings—Fifth Energy Technology Conference, Washington DC,
February 1978
15. Foster, W.E., Conserve Energy in Wastewater Systems, Water and
Wastes Engineering, 15, April 1978
16. Gambs, G.C., Energy Consumption, Fuel Utilization and Conservation
in Industry—in The Case for Energy Management, The 1975 Energy
Management Guidebook, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York NY, 1975
17. Goen, R.L., Energy Requirements for California Water Projects, SRI
Center for Resources and Environmental Systems Studies, CRES Report
No. 62, Sacramento CA, January 1979, Agreement No. B52802
18. Gordian Associates, Inc., The Potential for Energy Conservation in
Nine Selected Industries, Federal Energy Administration, Washington
DC, June 1974, Contract No. DI-14-01-0001-1842
19. Hall, E.H.; Bartlett, E.S.; Buttner, F.H.; Conkle, H.N.; Drennen,
D.C., Study of the Energy and Fuel-Use Patterns in the Nonferrous
Metals Industries, Federal Energy Administration, Washington DC,
December 1974, Contract No. DI-14-01-0001-1658
20. Hannon, B.M; Stein, R.G.; Serber, D., Energy and Labor in the
Construction Sector, Science, 202, November 1978
21. Hannon, B.M.; Stein, R.G.; Segal, B.Z.; Deiber, M.; Buckley, M.L. ;
Nathan, Energy Use for Building Construction—Supplement, University
of Illinois Center for Advanced Computation, Urbana IL, October 1977
22. Hannon, B.M.; Stein, R.G.; Segal, B.; Server, D.; and Stein, C.,
Energy Use for Building Construction, University of Illinois Center
For Advanced Computation, Urbana IL, December 1976, COO-2791-3
23. Haseldine, J.M., Energy Use in Sewerage and Sewage Treatment,
Proceedings—Fifth Energy Technology Conference, Washington DC,
February 1978
24. Hayes, E.T., Energy Implications of Materials Processing, Science,
191, 4228, February 1976
25. Heggen, R.J.; and Williamson, K.J., Energy Analysis of Regional
Water Pollution Control, Journal of the water Pollution Control
Federation, 51, April 1979
26. Herendeen, R.A.; and Bullard, C. W., Energy Cost of Goods and
Services, 1963 and 1967, University of Illinois Center for Advanced
Computation, Urbana IL, 1974, PB 242 670
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27. Institute for Energy Analysis, Publications on Net Energy and Energy
Intensity, Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge TN, 1980
28. Jacobs, A., An American View—Energy Management at Water and
Wastewater Facilities, Proceedings--Fifth Energy Technology
Conference, Washington DC, February 1978
29. Jewell, W.J.; Switzenbaum, M.S.; and Morris, J.W., Municipal
Wastewater Treatment with the Anaerobic Attached Microbial Film
Expanded Bed Process, Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 53, 4, April 1981
30. Kegel, R.A., The Energy Intensity of Building Materials in Handbook
of Energy Conservation for Mechanical Systems in Buildings* Van
Nostrand-Reinhold Co., Publishers, New York NY, 33, 1978
31. Kreijger, P.C., Energy Analysis of Materials and Structures in the
Building Industry, Applied Energy, 5, 1979
32. Mazaud, J.P., Energy Economy in Ammonia Production, Inf. Chim., 188,
France, 1979
33. McMillan, H.H.; Rimkus, R.R.; and Forrest, C.N., Metro Chicago's
Study of Energy Alternatives for Wastewater Treatment, Journal of
the Water Pollution Control Federation, 53, February 1981
34. Myers, J.G. et al, Energy .Consumption in Manufacturing, National
Science Foundation, Washington DC, 1974
35. National Technical Information Service, Energy-1982 Published Search
Bibliographies, N T I S, Springfield VA, 1982
36. Pillsbury, R.L., Energy Conservation Through the Architectural
Design of Water-Treatment Plants, Journal of the American Water
Works Association, 68, July 1976
37. Purcell, A.H., Materials and Energy Conservation—What Lies Ahead,
Proceedings—Fifth Energy Technology Conference, Washington DC,
February 1978
38. Reding, J.T. and Shepherd, B.P., Energy Consumption: The Chemical
Industry, U S EPA Office of Research and Development, Research
Triangle Park NC, April 1975, No. PB-241 927
39. Reister, D.B., The Energy Embodied in Goods, Institute for Energy
Analysis—Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge TN, February
1977, No. ORAU/IEAM-77-6
40. Resiter, D.B., Total Energy Cost of Freight Transport, Institute for
Energy Analysis—Oak Ridge Associated Universities, Oak Ridge TN,
February 1977, ORAU/IEAM-77-7
41. Roberts, E.B. and Hagan, R.M., Guidelines for the Estimation of
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Alternatives, University of
California, Davis CA, August 1977, Agreement No. 4074400
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42. Rushbrook, E.L., Energy Conservation and Alternative Energy Sources
in Wastewater Treatment, Journal of the Water Pollution Control
Federation, 52, 10, October 1980
43. Saxton, J.C.; Kramer, M.; Robertson, D.; Fortune, M.; Leggett, N.;
and Capell, R. , Industrial Energy Study of the Industrial Chemicals
Group, International Research and Technology Corporation, Arlington
VA, August 30, 1974, No. PB-236 322
44. Saxton, J.C. et al, Federal Findings on Energy for Industrial
Chemicals, Chemical Engineering, September 2, 1974
45. Serth, R.W.; Bostian, H.E.; and Lee, C.C., Energy Requirements for
Industrial Water Pollution Control, Journal of the American
Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1979
46. Shen, S.; and Wolsky, A,M.;, Energy and Materials Flows in the
Production of Liquid and Gaseous Oxygen, Argonne National
Laboratories—Report 1980, Argonne IL, 1980
47. Smith, R. , Total Energy Consumption for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment, U.S. EPA Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory,
Cincinnati OH, August 1978
48. Stein, R.G.; Stein, C.; Buckley, M. ; Green, M., Handbook of Energy
Use for Building Construction, Department of Energy, Office of
Buildings and Community Syst., Washington DC, March 1980
49. Susumu, H., Treatment and Disposal Problems of Sludge, Domestic
Sewage and Industrial Wastes—Energetic Considerations, Kankyo
Gijutsu, 10,2, Japan 1981
50. Tetra Tech, Inc., Energy Use in the Contract Construction Industry,
Federal Energy Administration, Washington DC, February 1975, DI-14-
01-0001-1664
51. Tuttle, D.; and Dandekar, R., Energy Consumption Data Base, Energy
and Environmental Analysis, Inc., Arlington VA, March 1977, Contract
No. CO-03-60412-00
52. US EPA, Energy Management Diagnostics, U S EPA Office of Water
Program Operations WH-547, Washington DC, February 1982, No. EPA-
430/9-82-002
53. U.S. Department of Energy, EIA Publications Directory—A User's
Guide, 1981 Annual Energy Information Administration, National
Energy Information, Washington DC, April 1982, DOE/EIA-0149C7-81)
54. Versar, Inc., Survey of Potential Chlorine Production Processes.
Final Report, Department of Energy, Springfield VA, April 1979, W-
31-109-ENG-38
55. Wagner, J., Ultrafiltration/Hyperfiltration, Institute of Chemical
Engineers—Symposium Paper, England, 1980
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56. Wang, F.C. et al, Energy Criteria for Water Use, American Society
for Civil Engineers—Proceedings, 106, March 1980
57. Wang, M. H.;and Wang, L. K., Mathematical Modeling of Electrical
Energy Consumption and Heating Requirements by Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Plants, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology,
August 1979
58. Wesner, G.M., Energy for Production of Consumable Materials, Journal
of the Environmental Engineering Division—ASCE, June 1978
59. Wishart, R.F.; Williams, M.A., Energy Conservation in the Chemical
Industry, Conference on National Materials Policy, Henniker NH,
August 1976
60. Pitt, W.W.Jr.; Genung, R.K., Energy Conservation and Production in a
Packed Bed Anaerobic Bioreactor, Energy Biomass Wastes—4, Chicago
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