oEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of International Activities September 1999
Mail Code 2610R 160-F-99-001
http://www.epa.gov/oia
Environmental Security
Strengthening National Security
Through Environmental Protection
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Arctic Ocean
North
Pacific
Ocean
South
Pacific
Ocean
"Protection of public health and
the environment has becofie an
important part of our national
security. Environmental protection
and economic growth go hand
in hand; both are essential to U.S.
long-range security interests at
home and abroad. By preserving
the global environment we promote
the peace and prosperity of America
and its allies."
—Carol Browner,
EPA Administrator
February 1999
South
Atlantic
Ocean
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&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of International Activities
Mail Code 2610R
http://www.epa.gov/oia
September 1999
160-F-99-001
Environmental Security
Strengthening National Security
Through Environmental Protection
Since the end of the Cold War, a new definition of
national security for the United States has emerged:
U.S. national security concerns now include diverse
military and non-military threats to our national
interests. Key among these concerns are
environmental mismanagement, natural resource
depletion, overpopulation, and the environmental
consequences of the Cold War.
Two well-known environmental disasters
underscore the link between environmental
degradation and threats to U.S. national interests:
*• The Chernobyl nuclear power plant explosion and
the tragic health effects that followed.
> The destruction of the forests of Haiti and erosion
of agricultural topsail, contributing to untenable
economic and living conditions and a flood of
refugees fleeing to the United States.
Examples in other parts of the world show how
environmental mismanagement can compromise
political and economic stability:
*• In the arid Central Asian region, the source
waters of the Aral Sea have been diverted to
irrigate water-intensive agricultural (cotton)
crops. This has led to the destruction of much of
the Aral Sea and its ecosystem, the collapse of its
fisheries, and the degrading of 7.9 million
hectares of arable land. Local populations suffer
from typhoid fever at rates up to 29 times
regional baselines, from viral hepatitis at rates
up to seven-times greater than baselines, and
70 percent of women with children in
Karakalpakstan are anemic.
*• The 1997-98 forest fires in Indonesia resulted in
the loss of at least 8,000 square miles of tropical
forest, over 20 million cases of smoke-related
respiratory troubles, and more than 1,000 deaths
from transportation and other accidents.
Gaseous and particulate emissions from the
1997 fires in Indonesia significantly exceeded
the emissions from the Kuwaiti oil fires of 1991,
according to a recent UNEP study.
Environmental problems can also heighten
tensions resulting from religious, ethnic, and
socioeconomic differences. For example, disputes
have erupted in recent years over water supplies
in the Jordan River Basin (shared by Israelis,
Jordanians, Lebanese, Syrians and Palestinians) and
in China's Yangtze and Yellow River basins. These
disputes show how competition for scarce
environmental resources can ignite hostilities.
Environmental security is a process whereby
solutions to environmental problems contribute
to national security objectives. It encompasses
the idea that cooperation among nations and regions
to solve environmental problems can
help advance the goals of political stability, economic
development, and peace. In addition,
by addressing the environmental components
of potential security "hot spots," threats to inter-
national security can be prevented before they
become a threat to political or economic stability
or peace.
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
"The Department of State I&
''-'.•-•- •• •-v *'$$>!
has been integrating
environmental issues into " ;
the mainstream of U.S.
foreign policy. This objec-
tive reflects our recogni- ;; j
tion that the environment
has a profound impact on
our national and foreign -.^S
policy interests. Not only
do environmental forces : >
transcend borders and ::
oceans to affect the ' ,>riS
health, prosperity and jobs
of American citizens, "° "
addressing environmental -
degradation is critical, in
many parts of the world, to
achieving political and
economic stability. The
State Department
supports the work of the
Environmental Protection ;>
Agency, the Department of
Defense and the c v
Department of Energy
under the Memorandum of
Understanding on Environ-
mental Security. This part-
nership allows these
agencies to combine their
resources, authorities arid
expertise to help
safeguard the global
environment and to make
the world a more secure
and prosperous place."
—Strobe Talbott, Deputy
; Secretary of State,
;;^ ^ February 1999
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) is committed to protecting the U.S.
environment from transboundary and global threats.
To this end, EPA has embraced the concept of
environmental security. The Agency contributes to
environmental security through
a broad range of activities:
*• Anticipating future national security concerns
of an environmental nature and determining
how to prevent or mitigate them;
•*• Addressing regional environmental threats and
promoting regional environmental security;
*• Abating global environmental problems such as
climate change, loss of biodiversity, and
destruction of the ozone layer;
*• Managing hazardous conditions resulting from
the legacy of the Cold War, such as radioactive
contamination of former military facilities;
> Enforcing international environmental treaties
and combating environmental crimes.
To meet its environmental security
responsibilities, EPA works in partnership with
other agencies that have more traditional national
security responsibilities. In 1996, EPA signed a
Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with the
Department of Defense (DOD) and the Department
of Energy (DOE) to work together on environment
and security issues. Since then, the three agencies
have joined with the Department
of State (DOS) and other agencies to address
regional and global environmental problems that
affect national security. In the following pages, some
of the projects jointly supported by the EPA, DOD
and DOE are highlighted.
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
Steps to a
Safer Environment
The Murmansk Initiative:
Eliminating Radioactive
Waste Dumping in the Arctic
Ocean
THE PROBLEM
Under the START II Treaty of 1992, Russia
is required to dismantle a portion of its nuclear
submarine fleet. However, Russian nuclear waste
storage facilities are unable to contain the nuclear
materials removed from decommissioned
submarines. Until 1993, Russia disposed of low-
level radioactive waste (LLRW) in the Arctic seas
and the Sea of Japan. The lack of adequate facilities
prevented Russia from signing a 1993 amendment
to the 1972 London Dumping Convention (LDC)
prohibiting the dumping of radioactive and other
waste in marine environments. Russia was faced
with a dilemma: either contaminate the marine
environment or renege on its commitment under
START II.
SOLUTIONS
In 1994, the United States proposed a plan to
expand Russian LLRW fuel processing capacity
to ensure proper treatment and disposal of LLRW
generated in Northwest Russia. Russia and Norway
agreed to act in partnership with the United States
to implement the plan. The plan called for the
expansion and upgrading of the only operational
LLRW processing facility in Russia, located in
Murmansk. The plant's processing capacity is being
expanded from 1,200 to 5,000 cubic meters per year
and its capabilities are being upgraded specifically to
accommodate the LLRW produced in submarine
decommissioning. Renovation of the facility began in
1996 and, as of 1999, was more than 90 percent
complete.
Japan has provided a solution to the
corresponding problem in the Russian Far East,
by funding construction of a barge-mounted facility
The unloading of a stainless steel shipping container with
spent nuclear fuel from a service vessel that removed the
fuel from a nuclear submarine.
to process LLRW. The facility will operate
at a processing capacity of 7,000 cubic meters of
LLRW per year.
Russia has voluntarily refrained from ocean
dumping since 1993, and has indicated its intent
to accept the amended LDC once both expanded
LLRW processing facilities are fully operational.
"Decisions today regarding
the environment and
natural resources can
affect our security for
generations; consequently,
our national security
planning is incorporating
environmental analysis as
never before.
In addition, we have a full
diplomatic agenda,
working unilaterally,
regionally and
multilaterally to forge
agreements to protect the
global environment."
—A National Security Strategy
for a New Century,
The White House, 1997
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
Northern European
Initiative (NEI)
In the Fall of 1997, the U.S.
Department of State launched a
new foreign policy initiative called
the Northern European
Initiative (NEI). The goals of NEI
are to promote greater integration
of Russia into the western interna-
tional community, expand coop-
eration between the United States
and the Nordic countries, and
strengthen U.S. relationships
in the Baltic region.
"Anchored in the harbors
of Russia's Northern Fleet
are at least 70 idle
nuclear-powered
submarines, with reactors
on board, fuel intact. In the
event of fire, seismic
calamity or technical error,
they are a new kind of
clear and present danger."
—Fred Barbash,
Washington Post, 1996
Interim Storage of Spent
and Damaged Nuclear Fuel:
Civilian and Military
Cooperation—A Dual Track
for Environmental
Protection
THE PROBLEM
In Northwest Russia, one of the world's largest
and most dangerous accumulations of spent and
damaged nuclear fuel assemblies is being stored
under environmentally unsafe conditions. As Russia
decommissions its nuclear submarine fleet, a
backlog of damaged nuclear fuel has built up.
Because Russia's storage and reprocessing capacity
is limited, no permanent solution exists to safely
dispose of the nuclear fuel. The problem of spent
nuclear fuel from decommissioned submarines
poses a bottleneck to the continued
decommissioning of those vessels.
Currently, the fuel is being stored on barges and
in the fuel reactor compartments of submarines
awaiting dismantlement, as well as in leaking wet
storage facilities on the Arctic coast of Russia. Fuel
is stored on two vessels of particular concern to the
international community, the Lepse and the Lotto.
These vessels are anchored at Murmansk, the
biggest population center north of the Arctic Circle.
They contain icebreaker fuel and special nuclear fuel
that has been transferred from military to civilian
control. Because the Lepse and Lotta are not
designed for long-term storage of nuclear fuel and
have already stored nuclear fuel for some years,
fears of an accident are growing
in Russia and in other Arctic nations.
SOLUTIONS
The United States, along with Nordic and
European partners, has developed a dual-track
approach to help the Russian Federation manage
this problem:
Military waste - Spent nuclear fuel under
Russian military control is being addressed through
the Arctic Military Environmental Co-operation
(AMEC) agreement. AMEC was signed in
September 1996 by the U.S. Secretary of Defense
and the Defense Ministers of Norway and Russia. It
aims to foster sustainable military use of the Arctic
region through sound environmental practices
throughout the life cycle of military and industrial
activities.
AMEC's most ambitious initial project, led by EFA,
is the construction of a prototype transportable
interim storage cask and concrete storage pad for
Spent icebreaker and submarine nuclear fuel are stored
in the vessel Lotto anchored in Murmansk Harbor.
spent and damaged fuel assemblies from nuclear-
powered vessels. The cask will be able to safely store
the fuel for 20 to 25 years while arrangements for final
disposition are made. Once the prototype project is
successfully completed, to help Russia meet its
START H obligations, DOD's Defense Threat
Reduction Agency is considering supporting the
construction of 50 or more of the casks.
Civilian waste - The parallel problem of spent
nuclear fuel under Russian civilian control is also
being addressed though the Department of State's
Northern European Initiative (NEI), in cooperation
with Barents Council member countries (Norway,
Sweden, and Finland); The goals of NEI are to better
integrate Russia into the western international
community, expand cooperation between the United
States and the Nordic countries, and strengthen
U.S. relationships
in the Baltic region.
In January 1998, Deputy Secretary of State
Strobe Talbott proposed under NEI that the Barents
Council help Russia develop a cask to hold spent
nuclear fuel, originating from both Russian nuclear
icebreakers and submarines, that is now under
Russian civilian control. A key element of the
proposal was cooperation between the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) and the Russian
civilian nuclear inspection agency to develop the
necessary guidance and licensing regulations for
installation of the casks and pad.
Russia and the governments of Norway, Sweden,
Finland, and the European Union launched this
project in May 1998. Construction is slated for 1999.
The initial focus of this project is on special
zirconium-clad uranium fuel on board the Lotta. Once
the concept is proven, it will be applied to special and
damaged fuel stored on the Lepse. Given harsh Arctic
conditions, the casks would have an initial licensing
period of around 10 years, and a total period of use of
20 to 25 years.
The dual-track civilian and military projects
under AMEC and NEI are important elements of
U.S. foreign policy and international efforts to
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
protect the Arctic environment. These projects are
designed to accomplish several important
objectives:
>To help Russia meet its START II commitment;
*"To further the development of a radioactive
waste management infrastructure in
Northwest Russia;
*"To help create a more favorable environment
for foreign investment in the region; and
*" To reduce the risk to Russian population
centers, Arctic ecosystems, and food sources
for native populations along the Arctic Rim,
including Alaska.
In the long run, the military and civilian
approaches are likely to converge as part of an
integrated Russian plan for nuclear waste
management.
Building Environmental
Security and Economic
Stability in the Baltic Sea
Region
THE PROBLEM
In 1991, when Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania
became independent from the Soviet Union, they
inherited serious environmental problems from the
numerous former Soviet military facilities located
within their borders. This legacy has contributed to
an environmental situation in the Baltic region that
constrains economic development and poses serious
threats to human health.
SOLUTIONS
EPA has launched several new environmental
security initiatives under the State Department's
Northern European Initiative (NEI), which
recognizes the strategic importance of the Baltic
region. These initiatives build on longstanding U.S.-
Baltic cooperation, including agreements with
Sweden, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania to address
the environmental management of defense
installations and to encourage military-civilian
cooperation on environmental management. Key
EPA partnerships and cooperative activities in the
region include:
> Launching of the Great Lakes-Baltic Sea
Partnership in November 1998 to address
environmental problems common to both bodies of
water. The Partnership includes a fellowship
program and a watershed management
program. Under the fellowship program,
scientists and public officials in the Baltic Sea
region will work with their counterparts in the
Great Lakes to protect water systems from
pollution by heavy metals, persistent organic
pollutants, and exotic species. The watershed
management program will work with three
international watersheds to develop
management plans as models for methods to
protect the Baltic Sea from pollution. The
Partnership will improve water quality and
watershed management of both regions and will
strengthen the cooperation among the Baltic
countries and their neighbors.
*• Establishment of a Regional Defense
Environmental Training Center at Nemencine,
Lithuania. The Center will train both military
and civil defense personnel with environmental
responsibilities, serve as a regional facility for
the Baltic countries, and train military
environmental personnel from other countries
in the region. EPA is working in collaboration
with the Department of Defense (DOD) and
Sweden to establish the Center.
>Development of a model environmental
management plan for the Adazi training base in
Latvia. This will include a plan for integrating
environmental management practices and
priorities into overall base management and
ongoing training. This planning is especially
important because the surrounding civilian
community depends on the base for its water
supply and waste management facilities. The
base is the home of the Baltic Battalion, the
equivalent of the U.S. National Guard for the
Baltic countries. By working at the Adazi Air
Field in cooperation with the Michigan Army
National Guard, the United States is reinforcing
the benefits of civilian-military cooperation.
*•Drafting of a site management plan for reuse
of the Zokniai military airfield in Lithuania.
EPA, the Department of Energy, and
Lithuanian officials will work together to
characterize the site, remediate contamination,
and identify how the site can be reused.
This environmental cooperation in the Baltic
region serves as a bridge to a future healthy
economy and strengthens Baltic governments and
their integration into Western Europe—a priority
under NEI.
"How we meet the security
and economic challenges
in the Baltic Sea region —
working together with
Russia and our Nordic and
Baltic partners — will
profoundly influence the
future of Europe; whether
Europe grows together
or remains marked by the
old economic and political
divisions. Indeed, this
region will be a litmus
test for the new European
security architecture,
which involves NATO, the
EU,
the OSCE, the Council of
Europe and other regional
institutions."
—Thomas L Siebert,
former U.S. Ambassador to
Sweden, September 1997
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
NATO'S'Committ^^s
" ;-~ -: : '••'-• - ' •'"**•~"''"~c°j-:*jiljj?1
on the Challenges '|?*" :
of Modern Society ^
The NATO Committee en,the —
Challenges of Modern Society •
(CCMS): was established in 1969
to give the Alliance a new ."social '«
dimension. "Theiaim of CCMS
- is to address practical problems
already under study at the :
expertise and technology available ;
in member countries, arrive at :. ;
valid conclusions and make -A
recommendations to benefit all , •'•:
countries. ;..' _j. >V; '•'•-•-•3g
EPA's Office of International- "*':'*%
Activities serves as the national , -
coordinating office.for CCMS, ..M^
bringing together government >;-.;'
agencies, the private sector,' :^:;
and academic institutions to ,•
- contribute to ongoing CCMS - YvJiS
pilot studies. ..... .,; , -^£.
In 1992, NATO expanded the work
of CCMS to include participation „,
by the Euro-Atlantic Partnership -'
Council (EAPC), the countries of '-,-'
Eastern and Central' Europe,
Russia, and the Newly- /••• ,~,'
Independent" States: Since then,
CCMS has undertaken work c... •,; .f
related to environment and ." ; - :- cH
^security, including conducting pilot'
studies on a range of defense-; >
related issues,, such . ; ."V- .; ;'-;;. /=
as the reuse of former military, --/J
lands, environmental manage- :' 3^
ment systems in the military T. Y^
sector, and cross-border >;„ >;
environmental problems from ., : -~ ;
defense-relatedjnstallatioris "^;5;?§|
and activities. :- 'C .i^S"
Combating International
Environmental Crimes:
Compliance with
International Treaties
THE PROBLEM
Transboundary environmental crimes and
noncompliance with international environmental
agreements are attracting increased global
attention, especially among industrial countries. For
example, it has been reported that 10,000 to 20,000
tons of ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)
contraband is smuggled into the United States per
year.
In a recent report on organized crime, the
Canadian government noted that the amount of
trade in ozone-depleting substances, hazardous
waste materials, and endangered species is second
only to the trafficking of illegal drugs. The report
asserts that these activities put Canada's health and
safety at serious risk. Other countries have reached
similar conclusions: In April 1998, the
environmental leaders of the G-8 nations and
representatives of the European Union expressed
grave concern over "the ever growing evidence of
violations of international environmental agree-
ments and particularly the involvement of interna-
tional organized crime. This harms not only the
global environment, but also the health and liveli-
hoods of people in developed and developing
countries alike."
SOLUTIONS
In October 1998, the United States articulated its
goal of increasing international cooperation to fight
transboundary environmental crime, including
trafficking in protected flora and fauna, hazardous
waste, and ozone-depleting chemicals.
Combating environmental crime has become
a key element of EPA's environmental security
efforts. EPA's Office of Criminal Enforcement,
Forensics, and Training (OCEFT) has investigated
more than 50 international environmental crimes
in the last two years. It has been working with
INTERPOL and other nations' law enforcement
agencies to improve information exchange between
nations and to conduct an international training to
facilitate safe and effective transboundary
investigations. OCEFT has also developed
a capability to respond to acts of environmental
terrorism and environmental crimes involving
the subversion of computer systems that operate
environmental compliance mechanisms.
In 1997, OCEFT opened its Center for Strategic
Environmental Enforcement. The Center is designed
to be a national and international resource for
intelligence gathering, data analysis, and targeting of
priority environmental investigations. It helps focus
data analyses to promote international crime
interdiction and environmental security.
The Middle East:
Environmental Diplomacy
at Work
The environment has been an important
component of the Middle East peace process. In
early 1992, the United States and Russia, as co-
sponsors of the peace process, established the
Environmental and Water Resources Multilateral
Working Groups. Through these Working Groups,
the United States has encouraged the regional
parties to work together on a range of common
environmental issues. The Working Groups have
developed regional projects dealing with a wide
range of issues, including:
> Regional water supply and demand;
>• Desalination;
*• Water data availability and electronic water data
networking;
> Public awareness and water conservation;
*• Wastewater treatment and reuse;
>• Desertification;
*• Environmental and health effects of pesticides;
and
> Oil spill contingency planning.
The process allows scientists, governmental
officials, community leaders, and business people to
develop the trust and familiarity necessary for long-
term, sustainable peace in the region. Notable
successes of the process to date include the
following:
> EPA and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA) have worked with Israel and the
Palestinians to address water-related sanitary
problems of the West Bank.
> The Middle East Desalination Research
Center, a project resolution from the Middle
East Multilateral Working Group on Water
Resources, was formally established in
December 1996. The Center, headquartered in
Muscat, Oman, is supported by the
international donor community.
> Plans are under way for a Regional
Environmental Center in Amman, Jordan.
> DOE and EPA have initiated a cooperative
effort in environment and energy with
Jordanian, Israeli, and Palestinian
environmental representatives to address solid
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
EPA and DOE Team join Israeli, Palestinian and Jordanian experts in visiting solar powered pump station that provides water
to inhabitants of Jordan's northern desert. Solutions to the area's water problem can contribute to a lessening of tensions in
the region.
and hazardous wastes, environmental
economics, enforcement of environmental laws
and regulations, agro-ecology, land use, and
emergency response. The partners in this
effort have formed plans to develop solar
technology for desalination, demonstrate
agricultural use of treated wastewater, and use
sophisticated technology to model groundwater
pollution.
Over the next three years, a number of additional
initiatives are planned. EPA, with funding from the
U.S. Agency for International Development, will
assist the Egyptian government in the areas of
environmental health, lead abatement, solid waste,
pollution prevention, air pollution, and
environmental enforcement. In addition, EPA and
USDA will conduct a series of environmental
management training programs
for Israeli, Palestinian, and Jordanian experts to
address solid waste, hazardous waste, and other
issues. EPA and DOE will also host exchanges of
government officials and scientists and conduct
training programs to strengthen professional
contacts among the Middle Eastern countries.
Looking Ahead
Cooperation among EPA, DOD, and DOE is proving
to be a valuable mechanism for addressing many
environmental problems that will affect national
security. These and other agencies are working
closely with the Department of State and non-
governmental organizations to identify
environmental security problems that might arise in
the future.
EPA anticipates activities in the following areas:
The Arctic - The Arctic ecosystem is highly
vulnerable to the remaining burden of radioactive and
other contaminants in the region. The effects of
environmental contamination are intensified by
several characteristics of the Arctic ecosystem. The
region's permanently frozen land (permafrost) is
highly sensitive to temperature changes, and
dispersed pollutants from vast areas drain into the
Arctic seas. In addition, indigenous people and
animals high on the food chain consume a diet that
promotes accumulation of toxins in their body
tissues. The Arctic ecosystem may be further
stressed by expected economic and political changes.
These include the revival of the Russian economy
from its post-Cold War slump and the rebirth of trans-
Arctic coastal commerce, which is likely to involve
trans-polar air transportation routes and greatly
expanded use of icebreaker vessels.
China - The U.S. Department of Defense and
the Ministry of National Defense of the People's
Republic of China signed a Joint Statement on the
Exchange of Information in September 1998. The
joint statement marks the willingness
(preparedness) of the two nations to cooperate on
military environmental protection. Because of the
Although CCMS is an effective
place to deal with defense and
environment issues, its mandate
also covers other environmental
matters, including air pollution,
hazardous waste disposal,
disaster preparedness for
chemical accidents, and estuarine
management.
"The government of
Lithuania has long
recognized the importance
of solving environmental
problems and has sought
assistance from a wide
variety of actors, among
them the United States
and other NATO members,
to accomplish this goal.
We are very pleased that
NATO itself recognizes that
the military can, with
proper planning and
management, minimize
and even prevent
environmental pollution.
By devoting management
resources and scientific
expertise, NATO is helping
countries like Lithuania to
deal with their inherited
problems as well as to
build modern and
responsive infrastructures
and institute public
policies to minimize
environmental hazards in
the future."
—Va/das Adamkus,
President of Lithuania, 1998
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
"The threats we face from
environmental harm are
not as spectacular as
those of a terrorist's bomb
or missile. But we know
that the health of our
families will be affected by
the health of the global
environment. The
prosperity of our families
will be affected by whether
other nations develop in
sustainable ways. The
safety of our families will
be affected by whether we
cut back on the use of
toxic chemicals. And the
security of our nation will
be affected by whether we
are able to prevent
conflicts from arising over
scarce resources."
—Madeleine Albright,
Secretary of State,
April, 1998
size of China's population and economy, the
country's environmental problems will have an
increasing impact on its neighbors and the global
environment. China's environmental problems
include intense population pressure, water scarcity
in the northeast, urban and industrial air pollution,
and poor land use practices. These problems
heighten tensions among provinces and between
rural and urban populations. They also affect
relations with other countries, as in the case of acid
rain and transboundary atmospheric transport of
pollutants which have been measured as far away as
the west coast of the United States.
Panama - The government of Panama assumes
authority over operation of the Canal and the
protection of its watershed on December 31,1999.
EPA is working with the Departments of Defense,
State, and Energy to develop environmental
protection as part of a new bilateral relationship. To
protect watersheds and commercial traffic through
the Canal, the U.S. government will work with the
government of Panama on training in the areas of
emergency response, watershed protection, climate
change, and environmental impact assessment.
Caspian Sea - Competition for access to the
huge oil and natural gas deposits under the Caspian
Sea is aggravating territorial disputes and political,
ethnic, and religious tensions in this area. Disputes
over resource ownership, the routing of pipelines,
and the readjustment of political and military power
in the region are having a destabilizing effect in the
region.
Africa - Africa's environmental problems may
best exemplify the direct link between environ-
mental degradation and human insecurity. Water
scarcity, desertification, the spread of communicable
diseases, a booming population, and overcrowded
urban centers constitute a dangerous combination of
factors that are undermining political stability and
economic development.
Although there is still work to be done, there
have been a number of positive developments in
combating environmental security problems:
> The grow ing use of environmental diplomacy
to establish cooperation among nations. Water
issues have helped spur cooperation on non-
environmental issues in the Middle East.
Bosnia, Ireland, and other areas may benefit
from this approach.
*" A growing number of non-military regional
cooperative efforts, such as the Barents Council,
the Arctic Council, and NATO's CCMS, which
have recognized and taken steps to address
regional environmental problems.
Clean up of illegal hazardous waste disposal site in China. The economie growth projected for China may produce pollution in
amounts large enough to undermine its economic sustainabiliu.
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
The Panama Canal is a vita] shipping link in the world's economy. Contingency planning and emergency response training
can reduce the probability that chemical accidents will affect the operation of the canal.
Leveraging of resources among many countries
and regional associations. Combining resources
is essential because no government alone can
support all the environmental work that is
needed.
Expansion ofmilitary-to-military cooperation, as
exemplified by AMEC, and military-civilian
cooperation within military agreements. This
cooperation on environmental management of
military facilities and operations can contribute
greatly to environmental security.
EPA recognizes that a healthy global
environment contributes to the security of nations.
The Agency will continue to work to determine how
to prevent or significantly defuse threats to
international security before they become a threat
to political, economic, or military instability. EPA is
committed to working in close cooperation with
others to secure a cleaner, safer, and more
prosperous future for all.
Identifying Future
Priority Needs
The Environmental Change
and Security Project
In 1994, the Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars
launched the Environmental
Change and Security Project
(ECSP) to explore the various
definitions of "environmental
security" advanced by scholars,
experts and government agencies;
whether (and which)
environmental issues should be
considered security concerns; and
how this dialogue fits into the
larger debate on redefining
traditional conceptions of national
security. In partnership with the
Center's Asia Program, ECSP also
coordinates the Working Group on
Environment in U.S.-China
Relations. The Working Group's
goals include developing creative
ideas and opportunities for
cooperation on environmental
projects between the two
countries and discussing how
environmental issues can
be a building block in improving
U.S.-China relations.
U.S. Army War College
The U.S. Army War College, a
center for training in complex
problems of national security,
recognizes the potential role that
environmental diplomacy can
play in reducing regional conflict.
The War College, with support
from DOD, has organized
"environmental security" games,
seminars, and conferences
to facilitate dialogue among
government officials and policy
makers, academicians, and the
military sector. These activities
help identify future environmental
security issues and possible areas
of interagency cooperation.
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
Glossary of Selected Terms
AM EC: Arctic Military Environmental Cooperation
Arctic and Barents Councils:
Intergovernmental bodies consisting of the Nordic
countries, the U.S., Canada, and Russia to promote
cooperation, coordination, and interaction among
the Arctic States
CCMS: NATO Committee for Challenges to a
Modern Society
CTR: Office of Cooperative Threat Reduction,
Department of Defense
INTERPOL: International Criminal Police
Organization
LLRW: Low-level Liquid Radioactive Waste
NEI: Northeast Europe Initiative. Umbrella term
for U.S. policy for Northern Europe
OCEFT: Office of Criminal Enforcement, Forensics
and Training, EPA
START II: Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
Environmental Security
Web Sites
The Bellona Foundation
http:llwww.bellona.no/elindex.htm
Canadian Global Change Program
http:llwww. cgcp. rsc. cal
Enter "Environmental Security" as search term for
links to sites on environment and human security.
Carnegie Corporation of New York
http:/lwww. carnegie. org
Click on "Carnegie Commission on Preventing
Deadly Conflict" and see Publications under
Reports.
Center for Environmental Security (CES)
Pacific Northwest National Lab
http://pnl.gmj/ces/
DOD, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary
of Defense (Environmental Security)
http://www.acq.osd.mil/ens/
Environment & Conflicts Project (ENCOP)
http://www.fsk.ethz.ch/encop/
Environmental Change and Security Project
(ECSP)
Woodrow Wilson International Center
for Scholars
http://ecsp.si.edu/default.htm
The ECSP Project Report contains an excellent list
of web resources.
Environmental Law Institute
http://www. eli. org/ecw/frame. htm
Search site for First International Conference on
Addressing Environmental Consequences of War.
Green Cross International
http://www.gci. chl
See Overview of Programs for a menu of topics.
Institute for African Alternatives (IFAA)
http://www. ifaa. org/
See IFAA UK for research in ecology, politics, and
conflict in the Horn of Africa.
Institute for National Security Studies
(INSS)
http://www.usafa.af.mil/inss/inss.htm
See Environmental Security under Research Topics
and relevant Occasional Papers under Publications.
International Human Dimensions
Programme on Global Environmental
Change (IHDP)
http://www.uni-bonn.de/IHDP/
See Project on Global Environmental Change
& Human Security (GECHS).
The Millennium Project survey
http://geocities.com/~acunu/millennium/
Mittennium_Project.html
Click on Environmental Security Study.
NATO Committee on the Challenges
of Modern Society
http-.llwww. nato. int/ccms/
Nautilus Institute for Security and
Sustainable Development
http://nautilus, org/
This site focuses on the Asia-Pacific region.
Project on World Security
Rockfeller Brothers Fund
http:I Iwww. rbf.org/pws
United Nations Food and Agriculture
Organization
Special Programme for Food Security
http://www.fao. orglspfsl
University of Toronto, Center for Peace and
Conflict Studies
http://www.library.utoronto.ca/www/pcs/
pcs.htm
Selected Reports
Pace, Scott, Kevin M.
O'Connell, Beth E. Lachman.
"Using Intelligence Data
for Environmental Needs:
Balancing National
Interests,"
RAND Corporation,
National Security Research
Division 1997.
http://www.rand.org/
publications/MR/MR799/
Russian Academy
of Sciences.
"East-West Cooperation
and International
Ecological Security."
http://www.geocities.com/
Athens/Academy/4372/
ecol-sec.html
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Environmental Security: Strengthening National Security Through Environmental Protection
Partners in Environment
and Security
EPA's environmental security activities are
undertaken through cooperation with a diverse
group of partners. They are:
UNITED STATE S
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Federal Bureau of Investigation
Great Lakes National Program Office (GLNPO),
EPA
Great Lakes Commission
Michigan Air National Guard
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
State and local law enforcement agencies
U. S. Agency for International Development
U.S. Customs Service
U.S. Department of Agriculture
U.S. Department of Defense
U.S. Department of Energy
U.S. Department of Interior
U.S. Department of Justice
U.S. Department of State
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
I ?i T t '".? i.i A T 6 O H A L
Association for Advanced Technologies, Moscow
European Union
CAN, Russia
Government of the Russian Federation
Government of the United Kingdom and
Northern Ireland
Government of Estonia
Government of Finland
Government of the German Federation
Government of Latvia
Government of Lithuania
Government of Poland
Government of the Russian Federation
Governments of G-8 countries
Norway, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Norwegian Radiation Protection Authority
Norwegian Defense Research Establishment
Minatom, Russia
Repair Technical Plant Atomflot, Murmansk, Russia
Sweden, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Sweden, Ministry of Defense
MULTILATERAL
Arctic Council
Barents Council
Nordic Council
Helsinki Commission (HELCOM)
International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis
(MSA)
DSfTERPOL
NATO countries: Belgium, Canada, The Czech
Republic, Denmark, France, Germany,
Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg,
Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Spain, Turkey, United Kingdom, United States.
Credit
The Panama Canal Commission hereby grants the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency permission to reproduce the
image of vessels transiting the Panama Canal in its publication
on Environmental Security.
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Arctic
K?"' Ocean
MIDDLE EAST
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