United State*
Environmental Protection
Agency
Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory
Cincinnati OH 45268
EPA 600 2 79-210h
December 1979
Research and Development
Status
Assessment of
Toxic Chemicals
Lead
-------
RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7 Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION TECH-
NOLOGY series. This series describes research performed to develop and dem-
onstrate instrumentation, equipment, and methodology to repair or prevent en-
vironmental degradation from point and non-point sources of pollution. This work
provides the new or improved technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality standards.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/2-79-210h
December 1979
STATUS ASSESSMENT OF TOXIC CHEMICALS:
LEAD
by
D. R. Tierney
T. R. Blackwood
Monsanto Research Corporation
Dayton, Ohio 45407
and
T. M. Briggs
PEDCo-Environmental, Inc.
Cincinnati, Ohio 45246
Contract No. 68-03-2550
Project Officer
David L. Becker
Industrial Pollution Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45268
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental
Research Laboratory - Cincinnati, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication. Approval does not signify
that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of
trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
IX
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed,
converted, and used, the related pollutional impacts on our
environment and even on our health often require that new and
increasingly more efficient pollution control methods be used.
The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory - Cincinnati
(lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and im-
proved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently
and economically.
This report contains a status assessment of the air emis-
sions, water pollution, health effects, and environmental signi-
ficance of polybrominated biphenyls. This study was conducted to
provide a better understanding of the distribution and character-
istics of this pollutant. Further information on this subject
may be obtained from the Organic Chemicals and Products Branch,
Industrial Pollution Control Division.
Status assessment reports are used by lERL-Ci to communicate
the readily available information on selected substances to
government, industry, and persons having specific needs and
interests. These reports are based primarily on data from open
literature sources, including government reports. They are indi-
cative rather than exhaustive.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
3-3.3.
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ABSTRACT
Lead has been recognized as a health hazard because it is widely
used and a toxic substance. In 1974, a total of 1.2 x 106 metric
tons of lead were produced from primary and secondary operations.
The air emissions from production and use are 16,414 metric
tons/yr, while water effluents are estimated at 4,726 metric
tons/yr. Little data are available on water effluents of lead
other than from lead-acid battery manufacture where the chemical
is as lead sulfate, lead hydroxide and a small amount of sus-
pended solids. Air emissions from waste incineration and auto- -
mobiles are a major source of lead.
Lead occurs naturally in water at levels usually below 50 mg/m3.
Even rainwater has been shown to contain an average of 34 mg/m3
although some of this may be due to automotive exhaust. Rain-
water in heavy traffic may exceed 100 Dig of lead per cubic meter.
Lead in soil varies from 2 mg/kg to 200 mg/kg with a mean of
16 mg/kg, but levels of lead in street dust, residential and
commercial areas of the U.S., has been observed to average
1,600 mg/kg and 2,400 mg/kg, respectively. Urban areas have
shown ambient lead levels (1 yg/m3 to 3 yg/m3) over an order of
magnitude higher than suburban areas and two orders of magnitude
over rural areas. Gasoline additives and waste incineration have
been the major sources in all urban areas and are, most likely,
the present cause of high urban lead levels. Lead levels in air
may decline due to the reduction of lead in gasoline; however,
soil and water levels will not change rapidly due to the low
reactivity of lead.
Control of lead from smelting operations is accomplished by bag-
houses, electrostatic precipitators and wet scrubbers. Lead is
removed from wastewaters by the addition of lime or caustic soda
as exemplified by the lead-acid battery industry.
EPA has proposed setting a new ambient air quality standard for
lead of 1.5 yg/m3 air. This standard is expected to affect lead
and copper smelters who will be forced to invest capital into
additional pollution control equipment. Lead has been desig-
nated as a priority pollutant under the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act. Water criteria for lead will be reviewed by the
end of 1979.
IV
-------
Additional information will be needed on lead to initiate further
regulatory actions. The biological and chemical pathways of lead
from its sources to the environment need to be studied further
for effective control of lead pollution. The number of persons
exposed to lead contamination from specific sources is not known,
making it difficult to assess the potential health hazards. Also
the hazards to the consumer caused by lead migration from various
products is still under investigation.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of Contract
68-03-2550 by Monsanto Research Corporation under the sponsorship
of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. This report covers
the period November 1, 1977 to December 31, 1977. The work was
completed as of January 20, 1978.
v
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract iv
Figures viii
Tables viii
Conversion Factors and Metric Prefixes ix
Acknowledgement x
1. Introduction 1
2. Summary 2
3. Source Description 5
Physical and chemical properties 5
Production 5
Process description 7
Uses 7
4. Environmental Significance and Health Effects 21
Environmental significance 21
Health effects 24
5. Control Technology 26
Primary lead production 26
Secondary lead production and use 27
6. Regulatory Action in Progress 32
References 33
vn
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FIGURES
Number Page
1 Milling flowsheet 8
2 Flow of lead in the United States (1973) 10
TABLES
1 Lead 3
2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Lead 6
3 Primary Lead Producers in the United States 6
4 Typical Blast Furnace Slag Analysis 9
5 Facilities Producing Lead Chemicals 13
6 Lead Emissions by Source 23
7 Atmospheric Control Systems on Primary Blast Furnaces . 26
8 Control Summary for Secondary Lead 28
V111
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CONVERSION FACTORS AND METRIC PREFIXES
To convert from
Degree Celsius (°C)
Joule (J)
Kilogram (kg)
Meter (m)
Meter3 (m3)
Metric ton
Metric ton
Metric ton
Pascal (Pa)
Watt (W)
CONVERSION FACTORS
to
Degree Fahrenheit
Foot-pounds
Pound-mass (pound-mass
avoirdupois)
Foot
Foot3
Pound-mass
Kilogram
Ton (short, 2,000 pound-
mass)
Pound-force/inch2 (psi)
British thermal units/hr
(Btu/hr)
Multiply by
= 1.8
t° + 32
0.7376
2.204
3.281
3.531 x 101
2.205 x 103
1.000 x 103
1.585 x 10~k
1.450 x lO"4
3.413
METRIC PREFIXES
Prefix Symbol Multiplication factor
Centi
Kilo
Micro
Mi Hi
c
k
y
m
103
10~6
10~3
Example
1 cm
1 kg
1 pg
1 mm
1 x 10~~2 meter
103 grams
10~6 gram
x 10~3 meter
1 x
1 x
1 x 10
Standard for Metric Practice. ANSI/ASTM Designation:
E 380-76e, IEEE Std 268-1976, American Society for Testing and
Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, February 1976. 37 pp.
IX
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This report was assembled for EPA by PEDCo-Environmental, Inc.,
Cincinnati, OH, and Monsanto Research Corporation, Dayton, OH.
Mr. D. L. Becker served as EPA Project Officer, and Dr. C. E.
Frank, EPA Consultant, was principal advisor and reviewer.
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
Lead is a toxic, heavy metal which is used in lead alkyl produc-
tion (gasoline additive), lead-acid battery manufacture, and as
pigment in paints and ceramics. Lead is present in soil, water,
food, air, and in numerous industrial products. Due to its
extensive commercial use and presence in the environment, the
health hazards of lead exposure to human populations have been
recognized.
This report presents an overview of the production, use, environ-
mental significance, and human health effects of lead. An in-
ventory of lead emissions and sources is provided along with
technology now in use to control emissions from primary and
secondary operations. Related regulatory actions concerning
lead are also described.
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SECTION 2
SUMMARY
Lead is used in the production of alkyls (gasoline additives),
storage batteries, bronze, brass, and other metallic products.
A total of 1.2 x 106 metric tons3 of lead were produced in 1974.
Secondary lead production accounted for 48% of this total.
Lead has been recognized as a human health hazard because it is
such a widely used toxic substance. The potential for lead poi-
soning is especially prominent among children, pregnant women,
and occupationally exposed workers. The major toxic effects
from lead include anemia, neurological dysfunction, and renal
impairment.
Potential sources of lead pollution include primary and second-
ary lead smelting, use of gasoline additives, waste incineration,
and coal combustion. Air emissions from operations involving
lead totaled 16,414 metric tons in 1970. Lead is also a water
contaminant. Effluent from lead storage battery production
contains lead sulfate, lead hydroxide, and small amounts of sus-
pended lead. The total amount of lead contained in the water
environment is unknown.
Primary lead smelters control lead emissions by means of bag-
houses which achieve collection efficiencies at 95% to 99%.
Secondary lead processing operations use electrostatic precipi-
tators, wet scrubbers, baghouses, and settling chambers to con-
trol lead emissions. Effluents containing lead from storage
battery production are treated with lime or caustic soda.
Lead has been classified as a priority pollutant for study under
the Federal Water Pollution Control Act. Water quality criteria
will be developed for priority pollutants by mid-1978.
Table 1 summarizes the extent of lead contamination in the en-
vironment, sources and uses of lead, and present control
technology.
al metric ton equals 106 grams; conversion factors and metric
system prefixes are presented in the prefatory material.
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TABLE 1. LEAD
U)
Source
Lead to environment,
metric tons/yr
Emissions Effluents
Controls
Regulatory action
Mining and milling
Metallurgical industries:
Primary lead
Primary copper
Primary zinc
Primary lead
Lead oxide production
Consumer product manufacturing:
Storage batteries
Gasoline additives
Pigments
Solder
Cable covering
Type metal
Brass and bronze
Metallic lead products
Other sources:
Waste incineration:
Waste oil
Municipal
Sewage and sludge
Coal
Oil
Iron and steel
Grey iron foundaries
Ferroalloy production
Cement plants
Urban runoff
TOTALS
54
1,540
1,540
220
200
435
1,700
190
100
45
180
36
80
2,900
2,200
180
590
80
1,400
2,100
64
450
16,414
226
Emissions control by
baghouses.
Baghouses, electrostatic
precipitators, and wet
scrubbers; lime and
caustic soda neutral-
ization used to treat
effluents from battery
manufacture.
EPA has proposed new
ambient air quality
standard for lead of
1.5 ug lead/m3 air
by 1982.
OSHA has proposed set-
ting a standard for
lead in the work-
place of 50 pg/m3.
Lead is listed as a
priority pollutant
under Federal Water
Pollution Control
Act. A threshold
limit value (TLV)
of 0.15 mg/m3 for
the workspace en-
vironment has been
adopted.
Baghouses, electrostatic
precipitators, and wet
scrubbers; lime and
caustic soda neutral-
ization used to treat
effluents from battery
manufacture.
4,500
4,726
Not available.
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The sources of lead pollution and the potential health effects
of human exposure to lead have been studied extensively. The
past unchecked use of lead in many consumer products has led to
higher levels of lead in the blood of U.S. children. New stan-
dards, such as the EPA-proposed ambient air quality standard for
lead are expected to reduce the potential exposure of humans to
airborne lead contamination.
Studies have been conducted concerning the environmental levels
of lead. For example, the lead concentration in street dust for
residential and commercial areas was 1,600 mg/kg and 2,400 mg/kg,
respectively. Lead in soil near a lead mine was reported to
reach 20,000 mg/kg. This concentration, however, needs further
verification due to its excessively high value. On the basis of
this report, the following information needs to be obtained:
• Water effluent data for uses of lead or lead products
other than lead-acid batteries.
• Populations affected by the various uses of lead.
• Biological and chemical pathways of lead from its
sources to the environment.
• The concentration of lead in various plant wastewaters.
• The extent of lead migration from consumer products to
humans.
• Confirmation of environmental levels of lead which have
been reported.
• The contribution of fugitive emissions to environmental
levels of lead.
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SECTION 3
SOURCE DESCRIPTION
Major lead production and consumption industries include primary
and secondary lead production, lead-acid battery manufacture,
lead alkyl production, and brass and bronze production. The
following subsections describe the physical and chemical proper-
ties of lead, its production, and use.
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Lead is a heavy metal (molecular weight, 207.14) which occurs
naturally. It is one of the most dense elements known to man.
Table 2 lists various physical and chemical properties of lead
(1).
PRODUCTION
Almost all of the primary lead production in the United States
is from domestic ore. Most is first processed in zinc smelters
where residues are sent to lead smelters for recovery. Table 3
lists the capacity and location of six United States lead
smelters. Mining of lead deposits in southeastern Missouri,
which started in 1967, now accounts for more than 80% of the ore
that is mined in the United States specifically for lead. Total
production of lead in 1974 from primary smelting amounted to
6.2 x 105 metric tons/yr (2). The secondary lead industry makes
about 48% of total domestic production. Storage battery recov-
ery accounts for 57% of this total. All lead-bearing scrap
recovery accounted for 86% of the total secondary production of
lead metal and alloys. Approximately 130 plants are in opera-
tion mainly in major metropolitan areas with a total secondary
lead production estimated at 5.9 x 105 metric tons/yr (2).
(1) Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Second
Edition, Volume 12. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
New York, 1967. pp. 207-247.
(2) Non-Ferrous Metal Data, 1974. American Bureau of Metal
Statistics, Inc., New York, New York, 1975. 143 pp.
-------
TABLE 2. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF LEAD (1)
Parameter Value
Melting point, °C 327.43
Boiling point, °C 1,740
Specific gravity
At 20°C 11.3437
At 327.43°C 10.686
At 650.0°C 10.302
At 850.0°C 10.078
Vapor pressure, kPa
At 987°C 0.0
At 1,167°C 1.3
At 1,417°C 13.0
At 1,508°C 26.0
At 1,611°C 53.0
Surface tension, Pa
At 350°C 44.2
At 400°C 43.8
At 500°C 43.1
Viscosity, 10~3
At 441°C 2.116
At 551°C 1.700
At 703°C 1.349
At 844°C 1.185
Specific heat, J/kg
At 0°C 124
At 20°C 128
At 100°C 134
At 327°C 163
At 500°C 154
Latent heat of fusion, 103 J/kg 24.5
Latent heat of vaporization, J/kg 849
Thermal conductivity, 103 W/m-K
At 20°C 0.035
At 100°C 11.3
At 327.43°C 39.6
At 600°C 44.9
At 800°C 48.7
Electrolytic soln potential (hydrogen = 0), V 0.122
Brinell hardness (cast) 4.2
Element bond length, Pb-Pb, 10~10 m
At 25°C 3.5003
TABLE 3. PRIMARY LEAD PRODUCERS IN THE UNITED STATES (2)
Company
Amax, Inc.
Asarco , Inc .
The Bunker Hill Co.
St. Joe Minerals
Location
Boss, MO
East Helena, MT
Omaha , NE
Glover, MO
Kellogg, ID
Herculaneum, MO
Capacity,
10 3 metric
tons/yr
127
172
174
82
114
208
Date plant
built
1968
1888
1870
1968
1918
1892
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PROCESS DESCRIPTION
Lead is produced by both primary smelting operations, which
begin with lead-containing ores, and secondary operations, where
lead is recovered from scrap such as lead-acid batteries. In
primary lead production, ore is mined and then milled to remove
other metals and waste materials such as silicate rock. Milling
involves crushing and grinding of the ore followed by floatation.
The resulting lead concentrate contains about 45% to 60% lead
(1). Figure 1 is a flowsheet of a typical milling process, which
also involves zinc milling (1).
After milling, lead concentrate is pressure leached to remove
copper, arsenic, and antimony, which would otherwise hinder the
smelting operation. It is then sintered (1). Sintered feed is
reduced in the blast furnace process to produce a crude lead
bullion. Specified amounts of coke, limestone, and other flux-
ing materials are charged with the sinter through a water-
jacketed shaft at the top of the furnace. The material settles
to the furnace bottom, which is supported by a thick refractory
material.
\
Air is injected into the charge through side-mounted tuyeres to
.effect a more complete formation of metallic oxides and thereby
raile the temperature of the charge. At the operating tempera-
ture of the furnace, coke and resulting carbon monoxide reduce
most of the metallic oxides to yield a molten mass of metal.
Some of the metallic impurities interact with the fluxing
materials to form a slag composed mainly of iron and calcium
silicates.
Upon completion of the process, the crude bullion is charged to
dressing kettles, and the slag is discharged to a fuming furnace
(1). A typical slag analysis is shown in Table 4 (1, 3, 4).
USES
The market for products of the lead industry continues to
decrease, principally because of public awareness that lead and
its compounds are cumulative poisons. Lead pigments are now
rarely used in paints. Although the manufacture of alkyl lead
(3) Katari, V., G. Isascs, and T. W. Devitt. Trace Pollutant
Emissions from the Processing of Metallic Ores. EPA-650/
2-74-115, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio, October 1974. 292 pp.
(4) Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitations,
Guidelines and Proposed New Source Performance Standards
for the Lead Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing
Point Source Category. EPA-440/l-75-032-a, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, February 1975.
-------
MINE ORE -30cm
STORAGE
SCREENS
PRIMARY CRUSHERS
SCREENS
SECONDARY CRUSHERS
SCREEN
( + )
STORAGE
-7.6cm
-1.9cm
CONVEYING AND WEIGHING
STORAGE
-PRIMARY GRINDING MILLS
I
CLASSIFIERS
<*) (-)
SECOND
t
CONCENTRATES
1
__ LEAD ROUGHERS,
CONCENTRATES \
1 \
STAGE LEAD CLEAN ING TAILS
FIR^T ITAnFMin1", -_,..- I
T _. 7iMr mill 1 1 Mr in »
WASTE FROM
ZINC MILLING
THICKENER
FILTER
STORAGE
RAILROAD CARS
TO SMELTER
LEGEND
( *) MATERIAL NOT PASSING A SCREEN
I -) MATERIAL PASSING A SCREEN
I SIZE OF SCREEN CAN VARY FROM
POINT TO POINT IN THE PROCESS )
Figure 1. Milling flowsheet (1).
Kirk-Othmer Encylocopedia of Chemical Technology Copyright (c)
1967. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
-------
for gasoline additives continues as a major market, its use is
being restricted. In recent years, other materials have replaced
lead in applications such as joining material for cast iron
pipe, plumbing, and construction.
TABLE 4. TYPICAL BLAST FURNACE SLAG ANALYSIS (1, 3, 4)
Component Weight percent
Silver 1.56 to 4.693
Copper 0.10b
Lead 1.5 to 3.5
Iron oxide (II) 25.5 to 31.9
Calcium oxide 14.3 to 17.5
Zinc 13.0 to 17.5
Insolubles 22.6 to 26.5
Manganese monoxide 2.0 to 4.5
Arsenic 0.10
Antimony 0.10
Cadmium 0.10
Fluorine Trace.
Chlorine Trace.
Germanium Trace.
Sulfur 0.5 to 1.0
Values for silver in grams per
metric ton.
Variable, depending on the furnace
charge.
CInsolubles include Mg) - A10 - Si02
phases.
Lead metal and alloys were consumed by 600 firms in virtually
all states. Transportation was the major end use of lead, 53%
as batteries and 16% as gasoline additives. Other major end
uses of lead and alloys included electrical materials, ammuni-
tion, paints, and construction. The flow of lead in the United
States is shown in Figure 2 (5).
There are 202 plants identified as primary producers of lead-
acid storage batteries. The states having the highest concen-
tration of plants are California, Florida, Illinois,
Pennsylvania, and Texas.
(5) Minerals Yearbook 1973. Volume 1, Metals, Minerals, and
Fuels. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.,
1975. 1383 pp.
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INDUSTRY STOCKS
( 1972 )
240,000
IMPORTS
( PIGS & BARS)
162,000
IMPORTS
ORE & CONCENTRATES
96,000
U.S. MINE PRODUCTION
548,000
U.S. SCRAP PRODUCTION
664,000
U.S. SUPPLY
1,710,000
INDUSTRY STOCKS
1973
194,000
U.S. CONSUMPTION
1,400,000
EXPORTS
115,000
*THESE SOURCES OF LEAD GO TO PRIMARY
AND SECONDARY REFINING
BATTERIES
699,000
GASOLINE ADDITIVE
249,000
METAL PRODUCTS
234,000
PAINTS
99,000
AMMUNITION
74,000
OTHER
45,000
Figure 2. Flow of lead in the United States (1973), metric tons per year (5)
1A11 figures supplied by the U.S. Bureau of Mines 1974 Mineral Industry Surveys.
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The lead-acid battery represents the type of storage cell most
widely used. The majority of these cells are used for starting,
lighting, and igniting functions in automotive and industrial
applications. Whereas production plants in the past have been
small and located close to their markets, the present trend is
toward larger plants. The industry is expected to continue its
normal growth rate of 4% to 5% over the next 10 yr. A marketing
analyst for one of the big lead-acid battery producers feels that
a high demand for this battery will continue through the year
2000. The production of over 50,000 electric or battery-powered
cars is expected between 1978 and 1983, and maintenance-free
batteries will be original equipment in - at least 50% of U.S.
passenger cars by about 1980.
Lead alkyls which constitute most of the gasoline antiknock
agents used today are manufactured primarily by a sodium-lead
alloy process in either batch or continuous reactors. Alkyl
lead production is gradually decreasing due to the increasing
use of no-lead gasolines in new cars equipped with catalytic
mufflers. Extensive process and emission test data are avail-
able on the production of lead alkyls.
In the ceramics industry, lead is used mostly in the form of
oxides and silicates in the manufacture of certain glasses,
glazes, and vitreous enamels. Glass with a high lead content has
a higher index of refraction, greater density, lower thermal con-
ductivity, and greater chemical stability than unleaded glass.
These characteristics impart greater brilliance, resonance, and
toughness to the product. Lead also imparts its radiation ab-
sorption quality in proportion to the quantity contained in the
glass. Optical glass, the finest glass tableware, most glass
for electrical purposes, and windows for radiation shielding
contain large amounts of lead.
Lead is an important part of the composition of some fusible
alloys, such as those used in sprinkler heads for spraying water
at predetermined temperatures and those used in foundries to
protect molds. It is also used as a vibration dampener. Lead-
asbestos pads are often used under building and machinery
foundations.
A growing use of lead compounds is in stabilizers for plastics.
Polyvinyl chloride is a material which softens when heated and
may be shaped into a variety of useful products. Unfortunately,
however, it not only softens but also begins to degrade chemi-
cally. The stabilizers slow down this process so that the
material is practical for usage.
In pesticides, lead arsenate is the only lead compound of
commercial importance. Litharge is reacted with arsenic acid
in the presence of an acetic acid catalyst to produce lead
11
-------
arsenate. The batch is heated to about 70°C and agitated for
approximately 2 hr. The resulting lead arsenate precipitate is
subsequently pumped to a dryer from which the dry powder is
conveyed to storage or shipping. Lead arsenate is sometimes
used in dry powder form and sometimes applied in solution.
In addition to lead metal and lead alkyl compounds used as gaso-
line additives, there are 74 other lead compounds of significance
produced in the United States. Table 5 is a listing of these
products with their end uses, producing companies, and produc-
tion sites.
12
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TABLE 5. FACILITIES PRODUCING LEAD CHEMICALS
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
Lead acetate
Lead acetyacetonate
Lead aIkyIs
Lead arsenate
Lead benzoate
Lead bisilicate
Lead bromide
Lead carbonate
Lead chloride
Mallinckrodt, Inc./Industrial Chemicals Division
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemical
MacKenzie Chemical Works, Inc.
E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Co., Inc.
Ethyl Corp.
Nalco Chemical Co.
PPG Industries, Inc./Chemical Division
Dimensional Pigments, Inc.
Los Angeles Chemical Co.
Rona Pearl, Inc.
Woolfork Chemical Works, Inc.
City Chemical Corp.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Division
City Chemical Corp.
Dimensional Pigments, Inc.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Division
Metal Division
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemical
Rona Pearl, Inc.
Smith Chemical & Color Co., Inc.
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemical
Co., Inc.
St. Louis, MO
Phillipsburg, NJ
Central Islip, NY
Antioch, CA
Deepwater, NJ
Baton Rouge, LA
Pasadena, TX
Freeport, TX
Beaumont, TX
Bayonne, NJ
South Gate, CA
Bayonne, NJ
Fort Valley, GA
Jersey City, NJ
Charleston, WV
Jersey City, NJ
Bayonne, NJ
Oakland, CA
Chicago, IL
Phillipsburg, NJ
Bayonne, NJ
Jamaica, NY
Phillipsburg, NJ
Medicine; lead salts; tex-
tiles dyeing; waterproof-
ing; varnishes; lead
driers; chrome pigments;
gold cyanidation process;
insecticide; antifouling
paints; analytical
reagent.
Includes tetraethyl lead
and tetramethyl lead.
Used as antiknock in
aviation and other motor
gasolines.
Insecticide; herbicide.
Industrial paint pigment.
Preparation of lead salts;
lead chromate pigment;
analysis.
(continued)
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TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
Lead chlorosilicate
Lead chromate
Lead citrate
Lead compounds, organic
(unspecified)
Lead cyanide
Lead dioxide
Lead 2-ethylhexanoate
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Division
Hercules, Inc./Coatings & Specialty Products
Dept.
Hydrite Chemical Co.
Mineral Pigments Corp./Chemical Color Division
Nichem, Int.
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J- T. Baker Chemical
Co., subsidiary
City Chemical Corp.
PPG Industries, Inc./Chemical Division
City Chemical Corp.
Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc./Chemicals and
Fibers
Hummel Chemical Co., Inc.
Ferro Corp./Chemical Division
Interstab Chemicals, Inc.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
Tenneco, Inc./Tenneco Chemicals
Troy Chemical Corp.
Witco Chemical Corp./Organics Division
Philadelphia, PA
Glens Falls, NY
Milwaukee, WI
Beltsville, MD
Chicago, IL
Phillipsburg, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Beaumont, TX
Jersey City, NJ
Joplin, MO
S. Plainfield, NJ
Bedford, OH
New Brunswick, NJ
Franklin, PA
Philadelphia, PA
Cincinnati, OH
Elizabeth, NJ
Long Beach, CA
Newark, NJ
Clearing, IL
Lynwood, CA
Vinyl electrical insulation
and tapes.
Pigment in industrial
paints, rubber plastics;
ceramic coatings.
Metallurgy.
Oxidizing agent; elec-
trodes; lead-acid storage
batteries; curing agent
for polysulfide elasto-
mers; textiles (mordant,
discharge in dyeing with
indigo); matches; ex-
plosives; analytical
reagent.
Lubricating greases; gel
thickeners; in paints as
dryers and flatting
agents.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Lead fluoborate
Lead fluoride
Company
C. P. Chemicals, Inc.
Harstan Chemical Corp.
Kewanee Industries, Inc./Harshaw Chemical
Pennwalt Corp . /Ozark-Mahoning
Location
Sewaren , NJ
Brooklyn , NY
Cleveland, OH
Tulsa, OK
Uses
Electronic and optical
Lead formate
Lead fumarate, tetrabasic
Lead hydroxide
Lead hydroxy neodecanoate
Lead iodate
Lead iodide
Lead isocarboxylate
Lead lactate
Lead linoleate
Lead maleate, tribasic
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
City Chemical Corp.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
Deepwater Chemical Co., LTD.
R.S.A. Corp.
City Chemical Corp.
Deepwater Chemical Co., Ltd.
R.S.A. Corp.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
City Chemical Corp.
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
Troy Chemical Corp.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Philadelphia, PA
Philadelphia, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Franklin, PA
Irvine, CA
Ardsley, NY
Jersey City, NJ
Irvine, CA
Ardsley, NY
Franklin, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Cincinnati, OH
Newark, NJ
Philadelphia, PA
applications; starting
material for growing
single crystal solid-state
lasers; high temperature
dry film lubricants in the
form of ceramic-bonded
coatings.
Reagent in analytical
determination.
Heat stabilizer for elec-
trical grade plastisols,
phonograph records; and
electrical insulation.
Lead salts; lead dioxide.
Bronzing; mosaic gold;
printing; photography;
cloud seeding.
Medicine; dryer in paints
and varnishes
Vulcanizing agent for chlo-
rosulfonated polyethylene.
Highly basic stabilizer
with high heat stability
in vinyls.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
Lead manganese naphthenate
Lead manganese tallate
Lead metaborate
Lead metavanadate
Lead molybdate
Lead naphthenate
Lead neodecanoate
Lead nitrate
Interstab Chemicals, inc.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemicals
City Chemical Corp.
City Chemical Corp.
Ferro Corp./Ferro Chemical Division
Interstab Chemicals, Inc.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
The Norac Co., Inc./Mathe Division
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
The Sherwin-Williams Co./Coatings
Tenneco, Inc./Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Troy Chemical Corp.
Witco Chemical Corp./Organics Division
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
Mallinckrodt, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemical
G. Frederick Smith Chemical Co.
New Brunswick, NJ
Franklin, PA
Phillipsburg, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Bedford, OH
New Brunswick, NJ
Franklin, PA
Lodi, NJ
Cincinnati, OH
Cleveland, OH
Garland, TX
Emeryville, CA
Elizabeth, NJ
Long Beach, CA
Newark, NJ
Clearing, IL
Lynwood, CA
Franklin, PA
Cincinnati, OH
St. Louis, MO
Phillipsburg, NJ
Columbus, OH
Varnish and paint dryer;
waterproofing paints;
lead glass; galvanoplas-
tic products.
Preparation of other
vanadium compounds;
pigment.
Analytical chemistry; pig-
ments (see molybdate
oranges); single crystals
available for electronic
and optical uses.
Paint and varnish dryer;
wood preservative; insec-
ticide; catalyst for re-
action between unsaturated
fatty acids and sulfates
in the presence of air;
lube oil additive.
Lead salts; mordant in dye-
ing and printing calico;
matches; paint pigment;
mordant for staining
mother-of-pearl; oxidizer
in the dye industry; sen-
sitizer in photography;
explosives; tanning pro-
cess engraving and lith-
ography .
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
1 • 'in , 1 I , i i 1 i. -- i. -— .— , . , , .-
Chemical
Lead nitroresorcinal , mono
Lead oleate
Lead oleate-linoleate
Lead oxalate
• •ii ••• iri • i r i • • ••! i !• ~ - — ~ - i ~ - '— i
Company
Typer Corp. /Atlas Powder Co.
The Norac Co., Inc./Mathe Division
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
Tenneco, Inc,/Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Troy Chemical Corp.
City Chemical Corp.
^^^••^^^•s ii • •^••^ •••fcia^^^^»^fc^»^»-p • i •• i
Location
Tamaqua
Lodi, HJ
Cincinnati, OH
Elizabeth, NJ
Long Beach, CA
Newark, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
1 Mil _ _ ' ' ' "—
Uses
Varnishes; laquers; paint
dryers ; high-pressure
lubricants.
Lead oxide, red
Lead oxide, yellow
Eagle-Pitcher Industries, Inc./Chemicals and
Fibers
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Metal Division
RSR Corp./RSR/Quemetco, Inc.
ASARCO, Inc.
Eagle-Pitcher Industries, Inc./Chemicals and
Fibers
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Metal Division
Joplin, MO
Charleston, WV
Oakland, CA
Philadelphia, PA
St. Louis, MO
Atlanta, GA
Chicago, IL
Dallas, TX
Los Angeles, CA
City of Industry,
CA
Indianapolis, IN
Middletown, NY
Seattle, WA
Denver, CO
Joplin, MO
Charleston, WV
Oakland, CA
Philadelphia, PA
St. Louis, MO
Atlanta, GA
Chicago, IL
Dallas, TX
Los Angeles, CA
Portland, OR
Storage batteries; glass;
metal-protective paints;
pottery and enameling;
varnish; purification of
alcohol; packing pipe
joints.
Storage batteries; ceramic
cements and fluxes, pot-
tery and glazes; glass;
chromium pigments; oil
refining; varnishes,
paints, enamels, ink,
linoleum; insecticides;
cement (with glycerin);
acid-resisting composi-
tions; match-head
compositions; other lead
compositions; rubber
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
oo
Lead oxide, yellow
(continued)
Lead perchlorate
Lead phosphate
Lead phosphite
Lead phthalate, dibasic
Lead pyrophosphate
Lead g-resorcylate
Lead salicylate
Lead sesquichloride
Lead silicate
RSR Corp./RSR/Quemetco, Inc.
G. Frederick Smith Chemical Co.
Rona Pearl, Inc.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Division
City Chemical Corp.
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
N L Industries, inc./Industrial Chemicals
City Chemical Corp.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Lead silicates, unspecified Eagle-Picher Industries, Inc./Chemicals and
Fibers
City of Industry
CA
Indianapolis, IN
Middletovm, KY
Seattle, WA
Columbus, OH
Bayonne, NJ
Philadelphia, PA
Philadelphia, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Cincinnati, OH
Oakland, CA
Philadelphia, PA
Jersey City, NJ
Charleston, WV
Joplin, MO
accelerator (dry heat
only).
Heat and light stabilizer
for vinyl plastics and
chlorinated paraffins.
As an ultraviolet screen-
ing and antioxidizing
stabilizer for vinyl and
other chlorinated resins
in paint and plastics.
Heat and light stabilizer
for general vinyl use.
Stabilizer or costabilizer
for flooring and other
vinyl compounds requir-
ing good light stability.
Ceramics; fireproofing
fabrics.
Ceramics; fireproofing
fabrics.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
Lead silicate sulfate, basic N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Lead silico chromate, basic N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Lead stannate
Lead stearate
Lead stearate, dibasic
Lead styphnate
Lead subacetate
Lead succinate
Lead sulfate
Lead sulfate, tribasic
City Chemical Corp
Diamond Shamrock Corp./Process Chemicals
Division
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
The Norac Co., Inc./Mathe Division
Smith Chemical and Color Co., Inc.
Witco Chemical Corp./Organics Division
Diamond Shamrock Corp./Process Chemicals
Division
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
The Norac Co., Inc./Mathe Division
Olin Corp./Industrial Products
Winchester Group
Allied Chemical Corp./Specialty Chemicals
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemicals
City Chemical Corp.
City Chemical Corp.
Richardson-Merrell, Inc./J. T. Baker Chemicals
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Philadelphia, PA
St. Louis, MO
St. Louis, MO
Jersey City, NJ
Cedartown, GA
Philadelphia PA
Lodi, NJ
Jamaica, NY
Clearing, IL
Pigment in industrial
paints.
Corrosion inhibitive pigment
for metal protectice coat-
ings, primers, and
finishes; high gloss in-
dustrial enamels.
Additive in ceramic
capacities.
Varnish and lacquer dryer;
high-pressure lubricants;
lubricant in extrusion
processes; stabilizer for
vinyl polymers; corrosion
inhibitor for petroleum;
component of greases,
waxes and paints.
Cedartown, GA
Philadelphia, PA
Lodi, NJ
Niagara Falls, NY Explosive
East Laton, IL
Marcus Hook, PA
Phillipsburg, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Phillipsburg, NJ
Oakland, CA
Philadelphia, PA
St. Louis, MO
Storage batteries; paint
pigments.
Electrical and other vinyl
compounds requiring high
heat stability.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 5 (continued)
Chemical
Company
Location
Uses
Lead tallate
Lead tartrate
Lead telluride
Lead tetraacetate
Lead tetrafluoride
Lead thiocyanate
Lead thiosulfate
Lead titanate
Lead tungstate
Lead zirconate
Lead zirconate titanate
Ferro Corp./Ferro Chemical Division
Interstab Chemicals, Inc.
Mooney Chemicals, Inc.
The Shepherd Chemical Co.
Tenneco, Inc./Tenneco Chemicals, Inc.
Troy Chemical Corp.
City Chemical Corp.
Thiokol Corp./Ventron Corp./Alfa Products
Syntex Corp./Arapahoe Chemicals
Pennwalt Corp./Ozark-Mahoning
City Chemical Corp.
Hummel Chemical Co., Inc.
City Chemical Corp.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
City Chemical Corp.
N L Industries, Inc./Industrial Chemicals
N L Industries., Inc./Industrial Chemicals
Transelco, Inc.
Bedford, OH
New Brunswick, NJ
Franklin, PA
Cincinnati, OH
Elizabeth, NJ
Long Beach, CA
Newark, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Danvers, MA
Boulder, CO
Tulsa, OK
Jersey City, NJ
S. Plainfield, NJ
Jersey City, NJ
Niagara Falls, NY
Jersey City, NJ
Niagara Falls, NY
Niagara Falls, NY
Penn Yan, NY
Lubricating greases; gel
thickeners; in paints as
dryers and flatting
agents.
Photoconductors and semi-
conductors in thermo-
couples.
Selectric oxidizing agent
in organic synthesis;
laboratory reagent.
Ingredient of primary mix-
ture for small-arms car-
tridges; safety matches;
dyeing.
Industrial paint pigment.
Pigment.
Used as an element in hi-fi
sets and as a transducer
for ultrasonic cleaners;
ferro-electric material in
computer memory units.
Tetraphenyllead
Thiokol Corp./Ventron/Alfa Products
Danvers, MA
-------
SECTION 4
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE AND HEALTH EFFECTS
ENVIRONMENTAL SIGNIFICANCE
Background Levels
Lead is naturally present in food and water, but it.may be clas-
sified as an unnatural component of the air at the concentration
levels common to urban atmospheres. The relative contributions
of these sources to the lead absorption of adults and children
must be addressed separately. The lead absorbed by children per
unit body weight is about two and one-half times that of adults;
furthermore, they exhibit a lower toxic threshold. Child intake
of lead, which has resulted from the ingestion of peeling lead
paint and other lead-containing products, has resulted in many
cases of lead poisoning.
The lead concentration in water supplies generally does not
exceed 50 mg/m3. However, when lead pipes or tanks are used
and when the water is soft, lead concentrations may be as high
as 2 g/m3. In a national study, the lead level in rain water
was found to have a mean of 34 mg/m3. In areas of heavy traffic,
lead in rain may exceed 100 mg/m3 . Much of the lead entering
the aquatic systems via precipitation and runoff is not water-
soluble and apparently is removed by sedimentation. The low
solubility of lead in water also is an important factor in
terrestrial systems because it affects the ability of plants
to assimulate lead.
The natural concentration of lead in soil is in the range of
2 mg/kg to 200 mg/kg with mean values of about 16 mg/kg, but
the variation from one location to another is considerable.
The concentration of lead in street dust and surface soil may
be extremely high and thus represent a hazard to children. For
example, the mean lead concentration in street dust from resi-
dential and commercial areas in 77 midwestern cities in the
United States amounted to about 1,600 mg/kg and 2,400 mg/kg,
respectively. It is also reported that lead in soil near a
lead mining area in Idaho reached 20,000 mg/kg.
Grass samples may show high lead concentrations near roads with
heavy traffic, mean values ranging from about 250 mg/kg at the
roadside to about 100 mg/kg at a distance of 25 m. This is
21
-------
mostly due to external contamination because the uptake of lead
by plants from soil does not seem to be much influenced by the
concentration of lead in soil.
Lead levels in different foods can vary widely. Levels reported
are:
mg/kg
Condiments 1
Fish and seafood 0.2 to 2.5
Meat and eggs 0.2 to 0.4
Grains and
vegetables 1.4
The amount of lead in milk is of particular concern, since milk
is the main dietary constituent for infants. Human breast milk
contains lead in concentrations of about 5 mg/m3 to 12 mg/m3.
Unprocessed cow's milk has a similar concentration. Processing
may considerably influence lead content. Whole bulk milk was
found to have about 40 mg/m3 in contrast to 200 mg/m3 in milk
that had been processed by evaporation.
Lead Emissions
Lead levels in ambient air have been found to average 1 yg/m3 to
3 yg/m3 in urban areas, 0.1 yg/m3 to 0.5ug/m3 in suburban areas,
and less than 0.05 yg/m3 in rural areas except for locations in
the vicinity of heavy traffic. The concentration of lead in
ambient air can be closely correlated with the density of vehic-
ular traffic. Based upon Figure 2, the combustion of leaded
gasoline is the largest air emission source of lead nationally
(249,000 metric tons/yr). Primary and secondary lead smelting,
brass manufacturing, and lead alkyl manufacturing may also result
in high ambient concentrations. Coal, typically containing 7
parts per million (ppm) of lead, is another potential source.
Lead emissions also result from lead smelters and foundries,
manufacture of lead products, and the processing of materials
containing lead. Table 6 shows the amount of lead emitted by
various sources (6).
An important characteristic in assessing the significance of
lead air emissions is particle size distribution. Residence
time in the atmosphere and degree of dispersion from the point
of emission are determined primarily by particle size. Also,
small particles tend to be retained by the lungs and accessory
airways when inhaled, to be absorbed or coughed up and swallowed
later.
(6) Davis, W. E. Emission Study at Industrial Sources of Lead
Air Pollutants 1970. Publication No. APTD-1543, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, April 1973. 183 pp.
22
-------
TABLE 6. LEAD EMISSIONS BY INDUSTRIAL SOURCE (1970) (6)
Emissions, Emissions,
Source metric tons/yr %
Mining and milling 54 Q.3
Metallurgical industries: 21.4
Primary lead 1,540
Primary copper 1,540
Primary zinc ' 220
Secondary lead 200
Lead oxide production 130 0.8
Consumer product manufacturing: 17.0
Storage batteries 435
Gasoline additives 1,700
Pigments 190
Solder 100
Cable covering 45
Type metal 180
Brass and bronze 36
Metallic lead products 80
Other emission sources: 60.5
Waste incineration:
Waste oil 2,900
Municipal incineration 2,200
Sewage and sludge incineration 180
Coal 590
Oil 80
Iron and steel 1,400
Grey iron foundries 2,100
Ferroalloy production 64
Cement plants 450
TOTAL 16,414 100
Water Contamination
Lead enters water systems through precipitation, lead dust fall-
out, soil erosion, soil leaching, municipal and industrial waste
discharges, and runoff from streets and other surfaces. An EPA
study indicated that approximately 4,500 metric tons/yr of lead
entered the aquatic environment as a result of urban runoff (7).
(7) Water Quality Criteria. EPA-440/9-76-023, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September 1976.
501 pp.
23
-------
Wastewater effluent from industrial processes where lead is used
can present a potential hazard of water contaminations. For
example, the sludge from the treatment systems of a typical lead-
acid battery manufacture process contains lead sulfate, lead
hydroxide, and a small amount of suspended lead. These materials
constitute a potentially severe environmental hazard due to
their relative solubilities and toxicity. The effluent factor
from a lead-acid plant producing 8,230 metric tons/yr of batter-
ies is 0.3 g lead/kg of battery manufactured. Since 6.86 x 105
metric tons of batteries are produced annually (8), and assuming
batteries weigh 14 kg, it is estimated that 226 metric tons/yr
of lead enter aquatic systems from battery manufacture.
HEALTH EFFECTS
The hazard of lead has long been recognized due to its high
toxicity and widespread use. Several lead salts have been found
to be carcinogenic in animal studies. Of special concern is the
potential for lead poisoning in sensitive populations, particu-
larly in children, pregnant women, and certain occupationally
exposed groups. Lead, a systemic poison, exhibits a wide range
of clinical effects dependent upon population groups exposed and
level of exposure. The greater sensitivity of children results
in relatively more frequent childhood poisoning especially from
ingestion of lead pigment paints. Maternal overexposure results
"in greater toxic effects on the fetus than the mother. Live-
stock and water fowl lead poisoning is also reported as a
chronic problem.
The major toxic effects of lead include anemia, neurological dys-
function, and renal impairment (7). Common symptoms of lead
poisoning are anemia, severe intestinal cramps, nerve paralysis,
loss of appetite, and fatigue (7).
A recent study revealed that 90% of the children examined because
of excessive lead absorption had pica. In children with blood
lead concentrations equal to or greater than 0.6 g/m3, 75% lived
in homes with at least one lead painted surface, but high lead
levels found in children are not always caused from painted
surfaces. High concentrations of lead in soil in the vicinity of
some houses may be another source of lead intake related either
to the weathering of lead-based paint or to the accumulation of
lead from automobile exhausts. Children may also be exposed to
lead from colored newsprint or lead-painted toys.
(8) Boyle, T. F., and R. B. Reznik. Source Assessment: Lead-
Acid Batteries. Contract 68-02-1874, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Draft report sub-
mitted to the EPA by Monsanto Research Corporation, June
1976.) 71 pp-
24
-------
Lead in illicitly distilled whiskey may contain greater than
1 g/m3 concentrations of lead. This causes chronic poisoning.
Lead content in tobacco may vary from about 3 yg to 12 yg per
cigarette, of which about 2% is transferred to the mainstream
smoke, resulting in an inhalation of about 1.2 yg to 4.8 yg lead
per 20 cigarettes.
25
-------
SECTION 5
CONTROL TECHNOLOGY
PRIMARY LEAD PRODUCTION
Primary lead smelters control particulate emissions from their
operations by using baghouses which achieve collection effi-
ciencies of 95% to 99%+. Particulate collection at higher
temperatures such as in a hot electrostatic precipitator (ESP)
prevents efficient collection of lead since it can remain in a
gaseous state. Control technology presently in use at primary
smelters is described in Table 7 (9).
TABLE 7. ATMOSPHERIC CONTROL SYSTEMS ON
PRIMARY BLAST FURNACES (9)
Plant
Control system
Bunker Hill/Kellogg, ID
Amax, Inc./Boss, MO
St. Joe/Herculaneum, MO
ASARCO/East Helena, MT
ASARCO/Glover, MO
ASARCO/E1 Paso, TX
Blast furnace gas stream joined to weak
sinter gas stream and hygiene air,
passes through baghouse and stack.
Blast furnace gases join sinter weak
gases, then to baghouse and stack.
Blast furnace gases join sinter weak
gases and other gases pass through
baghouses and stack.
Blast furnace gases join reverb and
ventilation gases, then pass through
three baghouses in parallel with
stack for each house.
Blast furnace gases to water spray,
baghouse, and three stacks.
Blast furnace and dross furnace gases
mix, then pass through a spray
chamber and a baghouse, then out six
stacks.
(9) Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary Nonferrous
Smelting Industry. Arthur G. McKee & Co. for U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C.,
June 1969.
26
-------
SECONDARY LEAD PRODUCTION AND USE
A summary of multimedia emission control information for the
secondary lead industry is shown in Table 8, Particulate control
efficiencies associated with smelting furnaces are reported to be
98.4% to 99.8%. Solid wastes that have high lead contents such
as collected particulates, furnace residues from reverberatory
smelting, and solids from zinc leaching are recycled to recover
the lead value. The solid wastes from the battery crushing pro-
cess and from furnace slags are usually disposed in open dumps.
The character of hazardous wastewater treatment sludges from a
lead-acid battery plant is determined largely by the type of
water treatment employed. Based upon a total of 202 lead-acid
battery plants in the United States, three-fourths of these
plants (75%) are currently neutralizing their wastewater efflu-
ents using either caustic soda or lime and discharging directly
to waterways or to municipal treatment plants. Of the 150
plants using neutralization, an estimated 60 plants treat the
wastewater to precipitate lead-containing sludges which are
destined for land disposal. Fourteen of these later plants are
using lime treatment to produce a calcium sulfate-lead sludge,
while the remaining plants, 46, are using caustic to produce a
lead hydroxide-sulfate sludge. The numbers of plants using
either lime treatment or caustic treatment is expected to in-
crease dramatically in 1977 and 1983 when the EPA effluent
guidelines take effect.
Production of lead alkyls results in lead particulate emissions
in the size range of 0.01 ym to 2 ym. High-energy venturi
scrubbers and cyclones with water sprays are the type of equip-
ment most often used to control particulate emissions. Based
on data from six manufacturing plants, lead emissions ranged
from 0.4 to 15 kg/metric ton of lead used, averaging 6.8 kg/
metric ton.
27
-------
TABLE 8. CONTROL SUMMARY FOR SECONDARY LEAD
Process and
pollution control
Air emissions
Aqueous effluents
Solid wastes
Battery breaking
Control
Crushing
Control
Rotary/tube sweating
to
oo
Control
Reverberatory sweating
Control
Zinc leaching
Control
Shaft furnace smelting
Control
Dirt, battery case materials,
and lead compounds.
None reported.
Dust.
None reported
Gases:
Sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, and
fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Metal fumes, dusts, soot,
and fly ash.
Baghouses.
Gases:
Sulfur oxides, nitrogen
oxides, hydrocarbons, and
fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Metal fumes, dusts, soot,
and fly ash.
Baghouses.
None reported.
Gases:
Sulfur oxides and com-
bustion products.
Particulates:
Flue dusts> and lead.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers.
Sulfuric acid, water, and
dissolved compounds of lead
None reported.
None reported.
None reported
Organic materials and
compounds.
Landfill.
None reported.
Metal and organic
residues.
None reported.
Spent leaching liquor con-
taining sulfuric acid, zinc,
antimony, lead, copper,
sulfides, and chlorides.
Chemical neutralization and
settling ponds.
Lime scrubbing and
metal cooling effluent.
Settling ponds for
scrubber effluent.
Sent to refining
processes.
Metal and organic
residues and collected
particulates.
Sent to refining
processes.
Undissolved residue.
Fed to blast (cupola)
Scrubber effluent and
particulate collection.
Landfill.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8 (continued)
Process and
pollution control
Air emissions
Aqueous effluents
Solid wastes
K)
Rotary furnace melting
Control
Reverberatory smelting
Control
Blast furnace smelting
Control
Reverberatory smelting
Control
Gases:
Sulfur oxides and com-
bustion products.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers.
Gases:
Sulfur oxides and com-
bustion gases.
Particulates:
Flue dusts such as lead.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers.
Gases:
Sulfur oxides and com-
bustion products.
Particulates:
Flue dusts and lead.
Baghouses and wet scrubbers.
Gases:
Sulfur oxides and fuel
combustion products.
Particulates:
Oxides, sulfides, sulfates,
and chlorides of lead, tin,
copper, antimony, arsenic,
and zinc.
Settling chambers,
baghouses, and
wet scrubbers.
Lime scrubbing and
metal cooling effluent.
Settling ponds for
scrubber effluent.
Lime scrubbing and
metal cooling effluent.
Settling ponds for
scrubber effluent.
Lime scrubbing and
metal cooling effleunt.
Settling ponds for
scrubber effluent.
Wet scrubber effluent.
Settling ponds.
Wet scrubber effluent
and particulate
collection.
Landfill.
Wet scrubber
effluent and
particulate
collection.
Landfill or road
surfacing.
Furnace slag, effluent
from scrubber, and
particulate
collection.
Landfill.
Collected particulate
and furnace slag.
Collected particulate
fed to leaching proc-
ess or recirculated
to the furnace and
slag fed to blast
(cupola) furnace.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8 (continued)
Process and
pollution control
Air emissions
Aqueous effluents
Solid wastes
Blast (cupola) furnace
smelting
U>
o
Control
Casting
Control
Kettle (softening)
refining
Control
Kettle (alloying) refining
Control
Gases:
Carbon monoxide, hydro-
carbons, sulfur oxides,
and nitrogen oxides.
Particulates:
Metal fumes, coke dusts,
oil, and smoke.
Afterburners, wet
scrubbers, and baghouses.
Gases:
Incinerable fumes.
Particulates:
Dust and metal oxides.
Baghouses, afterburners
and electrostatic
precipitators.
Gases:
Fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Lead and lead compounds.
Baghouses.
Gases:
Fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Lead and lead compounds.
Baghouses.
Wet scrubber
effluent.
Settling ponds.
None reported.
None reported.
None reported.
Particulate
collection and
furnace slag.
Collected
particulates fed to
leaching process
and slag is sent
to landfills.
Particulate
collection.
Landfill.
Particulate
collection skimmings.
Recycled to
refining processes.
Particulate
collection.
Recycled to refining
processes.
(continued)
-------
TABLE 8 (continued)
Process and
pollution control
Air emissions
Aqueous effluents
Solid wastes
Kettle oxidation
Control
Reverberatory oxidation
Control
Gases:
Fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Lead oxides, lead metal,
and metals.
Baghouses.
Gases:
Fuel combustion products.
Particulates:
Lead oxides.
Baghouses.
None reported.
None reported.
Collected particulates.
Recycled to
refinery process.
Collected particulates.
Recycled to refinery
process.
-------
SECTION 6
REGULATORY ACTION IN PROGRESS
Under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, as amended, lead
has been classified as a priority pollutant for study. Best
available technology and new source and pretreatment standards
are to be reviewed and revised by the end of 1979. Water qual-
ity criteria will also be developed for priority pollutants by
mid-1978.
A TLV of 0.15 mg/m3 has been adopted for lead in the workspace
environment (10). A new ambient air quality standard for lead
has been proposed by EPA. The standard would set a monthly
average of 1.5 yg lead/m3 air by 1982. Since it is expected
that most cars will be equipped with catalytic converters by
1985, virtually no leaded gasoline will be available for sale,
thus, eliminating a major source of lead pollution.
OSHA has proposed setting a standard of 50 yg/m3 for lead emis-
sions in the workplace.
(10) TLVs® Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment with Intended
Changes for 1976. American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1975. 94 pp.
32
-------
REFERENCES
Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, Second
Edition, Volume 12. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
New York, 1967. pp. 207-247.
Non-Ferrous Metal Data, 1974. American Bureau of Metal
Statistics, Inc., New York, New York, 1975. 143 pp.
Katari, V., G. Isaacs, and T. W. Devitt. Trace Pollutant
Emissions from the Processing of Metallic Ores. EPA-650/
2-74-115, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati,
Ohio, October 1974. 282 pp.
Development Document for Interim Final Effluent Limitations,
Guidelines and Proposed New Source Performance Standards ,
for the Lead Segment of the Nonferrous Metals Manufacturing
Point Source Category. EPA-440/l-75-032-a, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, February 1975.
Minerals Yearbook 1973, Volume 1, Metals, Minerals, and
Fuels. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.,
1975. 1383 pp.
Davis, W. E. Emission Study at Industrial Sources of Lead
Air Pollutants 1970. Publication No. APTD-1543, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, April 1973. 183 pp.
Water Quality Criteria. EPA-440/9-76-023, U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C., September 1976.
501 pp.
Boyle, T. F. , and R. B. Reznik. Source Assessment: Lead-
Acid Batteries. Contract 68-02-1874, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio. (Draft report sub-
mitted to the EPA by Monsanto Research Corporation, June
1976.) 71 pp.
Systems Study for Control of Emissions Primary Nonferrous
Smelting Industry. Arthur G. McKee & Co. for U.S. Depart-
ment of Health, Education, and Welfare, Washington, D.C.,
June 1969.
33
-------
10. TLVs® Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and
Physical Agents in the Workroom Environment with Intended
Changes for 1976. American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1975. 94 pp.
34
-------
TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/2-79-210h
2.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Status Assessment of Toxic Chemicals:
Lead
5. REPORT DATE
December 1979
i s siHTIP date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
T.R. Blackwood, D.R. Tierney
T.M. Briggs
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Monsanto Research Corp PEDCo Environmental Inc.
1515 Nichols Road 111*99 Chester Road
Dayton, Ohio 1*51*07 Cincinnati, Ohio
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1AB6Q1*
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2550
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Lab. - Cinn, OH
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 1*5268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Task Final 11/77 - 12/77
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/12
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
IERL-Ci project leader for this report is Dr. Charles Frank, 513-68U-M81
16. ABSTRACT
The uses of lead and the sources of lead pollution (both natural
and man-made) are identified. Long-range projections concerning
the lead usage are made and proposed new emissions standards are
examined. The current control technology is explained and areas
for future study are delineated in the report.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b. IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
Lead, Metals, Galena, Lead isotypes, Lead
ores
Type metal, bearing
alloys, Solders, Lead
azides, lead inorganic
compounds, Welding,
Lead Acid batteries,
Smelting, Lead Organic
compounds
68A
68G
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)'
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
45
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
35
-US GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1980-657-146/5507
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