EPA-R2-73-268
Environmental Protection Technology Series
JUNE 1973 a
Ground Water Pollution
in the South Central States
^ PRO^°
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
H. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment and
methodology to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and non-point sources of
pollution. This work provides the new or improved
technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards. /
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EPA-R2-73-268
June 1973
GROUND WATER POLLUTION
IN THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES
by
M. R. Scalf, J. W. Keeley and C. J. LaFevers
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Project No. 21 AIO-03
Program Element IB 1024
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
For sale by tho Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
I'rleo S2.35 domestic postpaid or $2 Gligfc Bookstore
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ABSTRACT
An investigation was conducted to determine the present and potential
ground-water pollution problems of Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, and Texas, to locate problem areas and to suggest research
and other methods to prevent or control future pollution and reclaim
contaminated areas.
Mineralization due to natural causes is the most influential factor on
ground-water quality in the five-state area. Large quantities of saline
ground waters are located throughout the region, and some of this
returns to the surface as springs over large areas of the Permian Basin.
Oil-field activities are overwhelmingly the greatest man-made cause of
ground-water pollution in the area. Disposal of oil-field brines com-
bined with hundreds of thousands of improperly completed and plugged
oil and gas wells and test holes has polluted a great, though undeter-
mined, amount of ground water throughout the region. Overpumping has
resulted in salt water intrusion of inland ground waters, as well as
ground waters along the Gulf Coast of Louisiana and Texas. Water well
construction in some areas has permitted pollutants from the surface and
from other formations to enter fresh water aquifers, and irrigation return
flows have increased the mineralization of ground waters in the Pecos
and Rio Grande Basins.
111
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CONTENTS
Section
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
III Introduction 5
IV Description of Project Area 12
Physiography 12
Population 14
Climate 15
Ground-Water Resources 15
Arkansas 15
Louisiana 22
New Mexico 27
Oklahoma 34
Texas 40
V Ground-Water Pollution Indicators 49
Arkansas 50
Louisiana 52
New Mexico 58
Oklahoma 64
Texas 71
VI Causes of Ground-Water Pollution 78
Natural Pollution 79
Oil Field Brines 83
Well Construction 88
Overpumping 92
Irrigation Return Flows 93
Land Application of Wastes 97
Solid Wastes 100
Evapotranspiration by Native Vegetation 102
Animal Wastes 103
Waste Lagoons 105
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials IQ&
Subsurface Waste Disposal 106
Artificial Recharge of Aquifers 109
Other Causes
IV
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Section Page
VII Research and Other Needs 112
General Research Needs 112
Specific Research Needs 113
Natural Leaching 113
Oil Field Brines and Other Materials 114
Well Construction 115
Overpumping 117
Irrigation Return Flows 117
Septic Tanks 117
Land Application of Wastes 118
Solid Waste Disposal 119
Evapotranspiration by Native Vegetation 119
Animal Wastes 120
Waste Lagoons 120
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials 121
Subsurface Waste Disposal 121
Aquifer Recharge 122
VIII Acknowledgements 123
IX References 124
X Glossary of Terms 136
XI Appendix A - Water Quality Standards 142
XII Bibliography 152
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18 Crude Oil Production
FIGURES
No.
1 Comparison of Ground-Water Use to Surface-Water
Use in 1970 7
2 Comparison of Ground-Water to Surface-Water
Irrigation Use in 1970 9
3 Ground-Water Regions in the South Central States 13
4 Average Annual Precipitation in Inches 16
5 Average Annual Pan Evaporation in Inches 17
6 Most Important Water-bearing Deposits in Arkansas 18
7 Approximate Well Yields in Arkansas 19
8 Major Water-bearing Formations of Louisiana 23
9 Eight Major Ground-Water Areas in New Mexico 28
10 Relative Water Yields of New Mexico Aquifers 29
11 Principal Water-bearing Formations of Oklahoma 35
12 Major Aquifers in Texas 41
13 Minor Aquifers in Texas 43
14 Location of Salt Domes in Louisiana 53
15 Location of Saline Ground Waters in New Mexico £Q
16 Approximate Boundary of the Permian Basin go
17 A Typical Cross-section of the Water Quality of the
Tularosa Basin of South Central New Mexico 32
86
19 Upward Flow and Downward Leakage Through Open,
Unsealed, or Corroded Casings go
20 Approximate Depths to the Base of Fresh Water in
Arkansas
VI
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No. Page
21 Migration of Salt Water Up Into the Fresh Water Zone
When a Well is Pumped 92
22 Potential for Horizontal Movement of Salt Water Caused
by Overpumping 92
23 Major Irrigation Areas of the Five South Central States 95
VII
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TABLES
No. Page
1 Withdrawal Use of Water v 6
2 Water Use in Conterminous United States in Billion
Gallons Per Day H
3 Population of Five South Central States 14
4 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water in the Various
Ground-Water Regions of Arkansas 51
5 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water in the Various
Ground-Water Regions of Louisiana 54
6 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water in the Various
Ground-Water Regions of New Mexico 59
7 Summary of Minerals in Ground Waters of Oklahoma 66
8 Summary of Chemical Analyses of Water from the
Boone Formation 70
9 Summary of Chemical Analyses of Water from the
Roubidoux Aquifer 70
10 Summary of Chemical Analyses of Water from the
Burgen Sandstone 71
11 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water in the Various
Ground-Water Regions of Texas 73
12 Summary of Estimated Ground Water Available in the
Tularosa Basin and Vicinity 81
13 Irrigated Acreage in 1969 94
14 Mean Annual Discharge and Dissolved Solids Concen-
trations at Successive Locations Along the
Rio Grande 95
15 Waste Disposal Wells in the Study Area 1Q8
Vlll
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. Ground water is the major source of water supply for western
Texas and Oklahoma and most of New Mexico and is the only
source of water in much of this area.
2. Many of the western aquifers are being developed beyond the
"safe yield," and water tables are falling rapidly.
3. Because of this critical shortage of water resources in the western
half of the project area, any contamination of fresh water has an
immediate and long-lasting effect.
4. More ground water in the five-state region is contaminated through
natural processes of mineralization than all other sources of pollu-
tion . Saline ground water can be found at some depth under almost
all of the region. Chlorides are the most widespread contaminant,
but sulfates, nitrates, fluorides, and iron are also common natural
contaminants.
5. Pollution from oil-field brines is the most serious form of man-made
pollution in the five south-central states. Decades of oil pro-
duction combined with inadequate well construction and minimal
limitations on brine disposal methods have grossly polluted the
ground-water resources of many areas of the five states—
especially in Texas and Oklahoma.
6. Although most or all of the subject states have for many years
required plugging and sealing of oil and gas test holes, thousands
of such improperly plugged holes blanket the region and provide
avenues of pollution from a variety of sources—most notably oil-
field brines and natural brines. Until the last few years, very
little effort has been made by the states to enforce plugging
regulations, and even now these requirements are enforced
sparingly by some states in this region. At least some of this
reluctance to enforce proper well construction and abandonment
is because the state agencies reponsible are more related to
petroleum production than to pollution control.
7. Overpumping is a serious cause of salt water intrusion in many
sections of the region. Ground waters most seriously affected
are located along the Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana—
especially the Houston and Baton Rouge areas—and along the
Pecos River in Texas and New Mexico.
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8. Irrigation return flows contribute to mineralization of ground
waters in the Pecos and Rio Grande Valleys of New Mexico and
Texas because of the close interrelationship of ground and sur-
face waters in this region and the limited water supply.
9. With the increased restrictions on air pollution and waste dis-
charge to surface waters, application of wastes—both solid and
liquid—to land is becoming increasingly popular. Care must be
exercised in locating, designing, and loading disposal or treat-
ment areas so as to prevent contamination of ground water by
known or unknown leachates. '
10. Evapotranspiration by native vegetation contributes to increased
mineralization of ground waters in the western part of the five-
state region—primarily in the Rio Grande and Pecos River Basins
11. Most large feedlots in the region are located in the Texas and
Oklahoma panhandle where water tables are deep and aquifer
recharge from the surface is small. It is unlikely that these
feedlots are a threat to large areas of ground water but animal
wastes can be a local source of contamination, depending on the
geology, soil conditions, and depth to the water table.
12. Waste lagoons may or may not be a problem, depending on the
geology and soil conditions and type of waste involved. Gen-
erally, sewage lagoon pollution is limited to increased nitrate
concentrations in the ground water unless these lagoons overlie
fractured or cavernous formations. On the other hand, indus-
trial waste lagoons may contain known and unknown chemicals
which may be highly toxic and/or highly mobile in ground water.
13. Petroleum products have been found in ground water at several
locations and represent a constant hazard because of their wide-
spread use, production, and transportation in the project area.
14. There has been little work done concerning ground water pollu-
tion by organics, metals, bacteria and viruses. Consequently,
the true pollutional potential of many of man's activities cannot
be fully evaluated.
15. The subsurface injection of fluids and other substances poses an
existing and potential threat to ground-water quality. Records
of such injection are not adequate in some states.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Conduct investigations, similar to those reported herein, to
identify ground-water pollution problems in all the remaining
parts of the United States .
2. In cooperation with the various states, the Environmental Pro-
tection Agency should identify, develop, and establish quality
control criteria to protect ground-water quality throughout the
United States.
3. A comprehensive study is needed of the Pecos and Rio Grande
Basins to evaluate water resources, uses and needs, and the
effect of these uses and natural salinity on ground and surface
water quality and quantity, and to develop a long-range plan of
water use within the "safe yield" of both ground and surface
water supplies.
4. Sources and locations of significant natural pollution should be
identified and isolated, if possible, to protect adjacent fresh
water from contamination.
5. Areas of ground-water pollution from oil field brines shduld be
located and mapped. Efforts should be made to assign responsi-
bility for the pollution, extract damages from those responsible,
and to rehabilitate the contaminated aquifers.
6. A concentrated effort should be made to locate and plug abandoned
oil and gas test holes. Some of the remote sensing techniques may
be applicable to this problem.
7. The disposal of wastes below the surface should be a responsi-
bility of the state water pollution control agency.
8. Rules and regulations for completing water wells should be
developed and enforced in those states that now have no such
regulations for protecting water supplies.
9, Areas where geology, soil conditions, or high water tables, or
any combination, are conducive to rapid ground water recharge
from the surface should be identified. Surface activities such
as feedlots and discharge of wastes to land or unlined lagoons
should be restricted.
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10. Expand research efforts aimed at solution of the high priority
needs with emphasis on those problems most likely to achieve
the most valuable impact. For detailed research recommenda-
tions, refer to Section VII herein.
11. There is a need for states to maintain detailed records of the
subsurface injection of fluids and other materials.
12. Techniques of adequately'monitor ing the travel of pollutants
through the subsurface environment should be developed and
applied to safeguard ground-water resources.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
About 97 percent of the earth's fluid fresh water is ground water and
ground water is used as a water supply by about two-thirds of the
people in the United States. 1/2/ To preserve this most valuable
natural resource, a national program of ground-water quality protec-
tion and restoration is a necessity. A major need in developing such
a program is a definition of ground-water pollution problems and
potential problems and the scope and significance of each. This report
is designed to outline the ground-water problems of five south-central
states (Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas), to
indicate the extent of the problems and their relative priority to the
region, and to suggest possible measures for the renovation of contami-
nated supplies and the protection of uncontaminated supplies. Four
southwestern states were studied in a previous report and the rest of
the United States will be covered in subsequent reports.2/
Much ground-water pollution results from natural phenomena that takes
place over long periods of time but there is also a great deal of pollution
^resulting from careless or deliberate acts of man. It is also important
to consider that ground water and surface water are hydrologically
related and interdependent and that ground water may be polluted by
surface water or ground water may pollute surface water. Whatever
the cause, ground-water pollution us'ually takes place slowly. Because
ground water movement is very slow, it may take many years to pollute
a large volume of ground water. However, once the ground water is
polluted, it may also take many years, decades, even centuries, and
untold cost to restore the quality of the water after the source of pollu-
tion is removed. Therefore, prevention of ground-water pollution is
much more desirable than renovation and both require a thorough
understanding of the uses of ground water, location of ground-water
resources, and real and potential pollution sources.
Use of Ground Water
Ground water supplied about one-fifth of all water used in the United
States during 1970. This ratio of ground water to total water use varies
widely from one region to another, with the greatest ground-water use
being in the central and western states. In the five states of this report,
57 percent of total fresh water used is ground water. Only in Louisiana
is there significantly more surface water than ground water used. Table
and Figure 1 show the use of water withdrawn from the project area. V
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Table 1. WITHDRAWAL
Arkansas
Surface Water
Ground Water
TOTAL
Public
Supply
95
71
166
USE OF
Rural
Supply
19
64
83
WATERS IN
Industrial*
200
330
530
1970 (MGD)3
Irrigation
230
1100
1330
Total
544
1565
2109
% of Total from
Ground Water
Louisiana
42%
Surface Water 240
Ground Water 140
TOTAL 380
% of Total from
Ground Water 36%
New Mexico
Surface Water 16
Ground Water 130
TOTAL 146
% of Total from
Ground Water 89%
Oklahoma
Surface Water 190
Ground Water 72
TOTAL 262
% of Total from
Ground Water 27%
Texas
Surface Water 740
Ground Water 690
TOTAL 1430
% of Total from
Ground Water 48%
GRAND TOTAL 2384
% of Grand Total from
Ground Water 46%
77%
11
78
89
87%
33
29
62
46%
50
31
81
38%
52
190
242
78%
557
62%
2900
460
3360
14%
14
72
86
84%
95
32
127
25%
1200
480
1680
29%
5783
82%
780
770
1550
49%
1500
1300
2800
46%
99
720
819
87%
2500
7800
10300
75%
16749
69%
74%
3931
1448
5379
28%
1563
1531
3094
49%
434
855
1289
66%
4492
9160
13652
67%
25523
70% 24% 69% 57%
*Does not include saline water or water used for thermoelectric power.
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— GROUND WATER
D ~
SURFACE WATER
FIGURED COMPARISON OF GROUND-WATER USE TO SURFACE-WATER USE IN 197 O-3
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Public Water Supply—includes all water entering public supply systems.
The water is used for many different purposes including industrial,
domestic, livestock, military and governmental facilities.
In 1970, ground water constituted about 35 percent of the water in pub-
lic supply systems in the United States. However, in the five states
discussed here, ground water accounted for 46 percent of the water
withdrawn for public supply. Large cities such as Albuquerque,
Amarillo, Baton Rouge, El Paso. Galveston, Lubbock, Midland, and
San Antonio relied wholly on ground water; other large cities obtained
a significant part of their supply from ground water. Houston, for
example, obtained about 75 percent of its supply from wells. A large
percentage of the smaller cities and towns have ground-water supplies.
In 1962, Texas had 1,326 municipal supplies using ground water, or
about 90 percent of all municipalities in the state.
Rural Supplies—provide water for domestic and livestock use on farms,
ranches, and residences throughout the United States. Indeed, the
development and expansion of the country has been closely related to
the availability and development of ground water to meet farm and
ranch needs. About 98 percent of the rural domestic use in the project
area is ground water. About 70 percent of all rural water used, includ-
ing that for livestock, is from this resource.
Industrial Supplies—provide water for cooling, processing, washing,
sanitizing, etc. The amounts provided for industrial use by public
supplies are not included as industrial supplies. It is estimated that
70 percent of all industrial water is used for cooling.
Thermoelectric Power Supplies—provide water for coolers, boilers,
and sanitary purposes in fossil and nuclear fueled power plants.
Approximately 97 percent is used for cooling to condense steam. Since
less than 1 percent is consumed, this use is not included in Figure 1 or
Table 1.
Irrigation Supplies—consume more water than any other use in the
United States. In 1970, irrigation use in the United States was 140
million acre-feet, of which about 60 percent or 82 million acre-feet
were consumed. Figure 2 shows the percentages of ground water and
surface water used for irrigation in the project area. In these states,
69 percent of all irrigation use is ground water.
Air Conditioning—use is not well documented since much of the water
used for this purpose is taken from supplies used for other purposes.
The quantities of water used for air conditioning are included in public
and industrial supplies.
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—GROUND WATER
—SURFACE WATER
FIGURE 2, COMPARISON OF GROUND-WATER TO SURFACE-WATER IRRIGATION USE IN 1970
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Future Use
The future use of water in the United States was projected by the Senate
Select Committee on National Water Resources in 1960.4/ Their projec-
tions are summarized in Table 2. Usage is expected to double by the
year 2000 and although the projection may lack precision, it is certain
that there will be a large increase in the use of water and that much of
the increase will come from ground water. Several predictions concern-
ing this increase have been reported by McGuiness. 5/ Even the most
conservative of these involves a threefold increase by 2000 and the
least conservative, a tenfold increase. From these predictions, the
use of ground water will more than double between I960 and 1980 and
will increase almost five times by the year 2000. Regardless of the
accuracy of these predictions, it is certain that ground water will be
of increasing importance in coming years, and care must be taken to
protect it and develop it for the maximum benefit to all.
10
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?able 2. WATER USE IN CONTERMINOUS UNITED STATES IN BILLION
1954 1980
Public Supply
Industry (Mfg)
Irrigation
Subtotal
Steam-Electric (Cooling)
TOTAL
With-
drawal
16.7
31.9
176.1
224.7
74.1
298.8
Consump-
tive Use
2.1
2.8
103.9
108.8
0.4
109.2
With-
drawal
28.6
101.6
167.2
297.4
258.9
556.3
Consump-
tive Use
3.7
8.7
104.5
116.9
1.7
118.6
GALLONS PER DAY
2000
With-
drawal
42.2
229.2
184.2
455.6
429.4
885.0
Consump-
tive Use
5.5
20.8
126.3
152.6
2.9
155.5
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SECTION IV
DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA
The project area includes the states of Arkansas, New Mexico, Okla-
homa, Louisiana, and Texas. Within this region are vast stretches of
desert, high mountain ranges, great agricultural areas, and large
swamps along the Gulf Coast. The project area is composed of 560,000
square miles, or about 16 percent of the fifty United States. Water use
in this region was over 25 billion gallons per day in 1970, of which
57 percent was taken from ground-water sources.
Physiography
The project area is characterized by the widest variation in physio-
graphic features. From the towering Rocky Mountains in New Mexico,
the project area flattens out and descends eastward as it nears the
lowland on the Gulf of Mexico.
Using the classification of Thomas who divided the United States into
ten ground-water regions, the project area includes parts of six of the
basic ground-water regions (Figure 3) .6_/
1. Western Mountain Ranges
2. Alluvial Basins
3. Colorado Plateaus
4. High Plains
5. Unglaciated Central Region
6. Gulf Coastal Plain
Only a small part of the project area is in the Western Mountain Ranges,
the Colorado Plateaus or the Alluvial Basins. However, the Alluvial
Basins are very important to New Mexico where the Rio Grande Basin
overshadows all other sources of ground water in the state. The Gulf
Coastal Plain is the ground-water region that contains the most exten-
sive ground-water reservoirs in the project area.
Once out of the foothills of the Rocky Mountains, the area becomes
topographically a series of plains. These plains gradually slope east-
ward from elevations approaching 6,000 feet in eastern New Mexico to
sea level at the Gulf of Mexico.
12
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m
GROUND-WATER REGIONS
UNCONSOLIDATED OR
SEMI CONSOLIDATED AQUIFERS
CONSOLIDATED-ROCK
AQUIFERS
CONSOLIDATED ROCK AQUIFERS
INTERBEDDED WITH OR OVER-
LAIN BY I/CONSOLIDATED OR
SEMI CONSOLIDATED AQUIFERS
WESTERN MOUNTAIN RANGES
ALLUVIAL BASINS
COLORADO PLATEAUS
HIGH PLAINS
UNGLACIATED CENTRAL
REGION
GULF COASTAL PLAIN
FIGURE 3, GROUND-WATER REGIONS IN THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES
6/
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The High Plains of eastern New Mexico, the Oklahoma panhandle, and
western Texas are relatively flat portions of a physiographic province
known as the Great Plains, which stretches north all the way to Canada
and covers a vast area of the central United States. Elevations charac-
teristically range between 2,500 and 5,000 feet and are almost completely
without erosion.
Just east of the Cap Rock Escarpment, which is the eastern boundary of
the High Plains, part of the unglaciated Central Region known as the
Osage Plains sweeps from the Edwards Plateau on the south across
part of north central Texas and most of Oklahoma. Limestone once
formed a continuous cover over all of this area, and the extent of ero-
sion determines the topography of the region. The limestone of the
Edwards Plateau on the south is intact although deeply disected and
consists mostly of brushy hills and canyons.
To the north, the limestone of the Osage Plains has been eroded away
as has much of the underlying rocks. This area is generally charac-
terized by slightly rolling, exposed beds of clay and shale and light
timber and scrub brush.
The Gulf Coastal Plain includes almost the southeast half of Texas and
Arkansas and all of Louisiana. This region is bounded on the west by
the Balcones Escarpment, a fault zone which runs east and then north
from Del Rio, Texas, all the way to the Red River. Most of the area is
gently rolling with rich-soiled prairies on the west, heavy timber
land in east Texas and northwest Louisiana, and level coastal prairie
and marshlands along the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River.
Population
The project area includes some of the largest metropolitan areas in the
United States, as well as some of the most sparsely populated desert
areas. The total population is currently almost 20 million people, as
shown in Table 3.
Table 3. POPULATION OF FIVE SOUTH-CENTRAL STATES
1960 1970
Arkansas 1,786,272 1,886,210
Louisiana 3,257,022 3,564,310
New Mexico 951,023 998,257
Oklahoma 2,328,284 2,498,378
Texas 9,579,677 10,989,123
14
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Climate
The climate of the five-state region is as variable as the elevations
within the area. Annual rainfall varies from as low as 8 inches in the
deserts of New Mexico and west Texas to as high as 64 inches in the
marshlands of Louisiana. The eastern portion is typically humid, the
western portion typically dry, and the vast midsection of the area is
characterized by alternation of humid and dry conditions.
The study region is at a juncture with two major climatic conditions —
warm, moist gulf air masses and relatively cooler and drier air masses
from the continental interior. Precipitation occurs when the warm gulf
air is forced aloft by relatively cooler air masses from the north such
as occurs over the Balcones Escarpment in central Texas.
Except in the mountains of New Mexico, snow is not very common or
persistent, but it can be a valuable source of moisture in the High
Plains of Texas and New Mexico .
Most of the western part of the study area receives less than 20 inches
of annual rainfall. The average annual precipitation is shown in
Figure 4.
Limited moisture conditions and high summer temperatures character-
istic of much of the study area have a detrimental effect on ground-water
quality, especially where natural land drainage is restricted. Temper-
atures of over 100° F are not uncommon in July and August, and the
high evapotranspiration rate results in mineral buildup in the soils and
ground water. Average annual pan evaporation, shown in Figure 5,
is indicative of the high evapotranspiration rates in the area.
Ground-Water Resources
ARKANSAS
Arkansas is roughly divided into two physiographic divisions. The
northwestern higher and more rugged half is part of the Interior High-
lands , and the southeastern half is in the Coastal Plain province.
Geohydrologically, as well as physiographically, the state is divided
sharply into two parts. The northwestern half contains ground-water
supplies that are prevailingly srtall to moderate (though ample for
domestic use) , and the southeastern half contains larger supplies.
Figure 6 shows the approximate productive areas of the most important
water-bearing deposits in Arkansas, and Figure 7 shows the approxi-
mate yields to be expected from wells.
15
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FIGURE 4, AVERAGE ANNUAL DREC!PITAT!ON IN INCHES
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FIGURE 5, AVERAGE ANNUAL PAN EVAPORATION IN INCHES
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oo
UNNAMED UNITS
COCKFIELD FORMATION
SPARTA SAND
1400 FOOT SAND
^DIFFERENTIATED
FIGURE .6.. MOST IMPORTANT WATER-BEARING DEPOSITS IN ARKANSAS -
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WASHINGTON MADISON NEWTON
CRAWFORD FRANKLIN
JOHNSON POPE VAN8UREN
WOODRUFF -ZCR
YELL / PERRY
PUCASKU f\ LONOKE
JEFFERSON- IZZAR KANSAS
CLEVELANDF LINCOI
LESS THAN 50 GALLONS PER MINUTE
MORE THAN 500 GALLONS PER MINUTE
1 50 TO 500 GALLONS PER MINUTE
Ji
II
FIGURE 7, APPROXIMATE WELL YIELDS IN ARKANSAS -'
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Ground water is one of Arkansas' most important assets. The state has
few ground-water supply problems, other than those related to unavail-
ability of large supplies in some areas, poor quality of water in sub-
stantial areas, and ground-water depletion in the Grand Prairie or
extreme eastern region. The general lack of serious water problems
has resulted in a corresponding lack of legislation controlling water
use. As water use increases and competition develops, the time may
come when the state will need to enact more restrictive legislation.
Interior Highlands
The Interior Highlands are located in the northwestern half of the state
where ground-water supplies are prevailingly small to moderate.
In most of the Interior Highlands, well yields rarely exceed 50 gpm and
are generally less than 25 gpm.7/ Thus, only domestic and stock needs
and small municipal needs can be met in most of the region. There are
several areas within the highlands where moderate and locally large
supplies are available. The most important of these are in the northern
tier of counties (the Springfield-Salem Plateaus of the Ozark Plateaus)
and the Arkansas River Valley.
Ground water in the Springfield-Salem Plateaus occurs in fractures,
many of them solutionally enlarged, and in thick strata of limestone
and dolomite. The limestone formations of Ordovician Age are the
principal source of ground water in the Salem Plateau area. The
Springfield Plateau yields ground water over most of its area and is
supplied by the Boone Formation and the Batesville Sandstone. Well
yields range from 50 gpm or less up to 500 gpm. 5/
Ground water in the Arkansas Valley occurs in two distinct environ-
ments. One includes the unconsolidated alluvial deposits of the
Arkansas River and its tributaries and the other includes the consoli-
dated rocks that underlie the entire region.
The principal aquifer in the bedrock of the Arkansas Valley section is
the Atoka Formation of Pennsylvanian Age, which consists of shale and
sandstone. Wells generally yield less than 50 gpm, but yields of this
amount or more are available locally ,TJ The most productive rock is
not sandstone but hard, fractured shale adjacent to the sandstone beds.
The bedrock is important because it underlies a large area.
The most consistently productive aquifer in the Interior Highlands is
the alluvium along the Arkansas River. The alluvium is composed of
sand, gravel, silt, and clay and grades generally from fine grained at
the surface to coarse grained at the base. Yields ranging from 300 to
20
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750 gpm have been obtained from wells tapping the alluvium.8/
Although few large capacity wells have been drilled into the alluvium
to date, large supplies could be developed in places by induced infil-
tration from the river.
Gulf Coastal Plain
The coastal plain is underlain by southward- to southeastward-dipping
(and thickening) strata of unconsolidated to slightly compacted and
cemented clay, silt, sand, gravel, shale, limestone, and lignite of
Cretaceous and Tertiary Ages. Overlying the Cretaceous and Tertiary
strata in valleys are flat-lying unconsolidated sediments of Quaternary
Age, generally sandy and gravelly in the lower part and finer grained
above. There are five major water-bearing units in this area. These
include the Cockfield Formation, Sparta Sands, Wilcox Formation
("1400 foot Sand"), Cretaceous undifferentiated deposits, and the
Quaternary Alluvium.
The primary ground-water problem in the Gulf Coastal Plain region of
Arkansas is one of depletion in the irrigated Grand Prairie area in the
Mississippi Alluvial Plain.
The .Cockfield Formation of Tertiary Age—consisting chiefly of fine to
medium-grained gray sand, in part lignitic, interbedded with light to
dark-gray lignitic clay—underlies a large area in east central and
southeastern Arkansas. The formation is an important source of water
for industrial use in the vicinity of Pine Bluff and for municipal supplies
in most of the area in which it occurs. Water from the Cockfield Forma-
tion is pumped for irrigation from about 20 or 30 wells in east central
Arkansas, chiefly in the Grand Prairie Region, and water of fair to good
quality can be obtained at most places . Locally, the upper sand beds
yield moderately mineralized water, but less mineralized water is
generally available in deeper beds of the formation.
The Sparta Sand of Tertiary Age is an important source of ground water
in south central Arkansas, where it is used extensively for industrial
and municipal supplies and in the oil fields. This formation consists
of massive beds of white to gray, fine to medium-grained sand with
beds and lenses of sandy or silty clay and some thin beds of lignite.
The Sparta Sand is a high yield aquifer yielding up to 700 gpm in some
areas.9/
In northeastern Arkansas there is an important water-bearing deposit
of Tertiary Age, known locally at Memphis, Tennessee, as the "1400
foot sand. "10/ These sands in Arkansas are part of the Wilcox Forma-
tion and occur at a depth of 1900 feet in the east central part of the
state. 7/
21
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The "1400 foot sands" are composed of a prominent bed of fine to medium
sand and forms an artesian aquifer over most of the area. The artesian
pressure has been greatly reduced as a result of excessive usage and
it is now necessary to use pumps in most of the wells.
In southwestern Arkansas there occurs a general east-trending band of
undifferentiated deposits of Cretaceous Age, consisting chiefly of sand
or crumbly sandstone overlain and underlain by sandy clay, shale, and
marl. Some of these deposits will yield good water in sufficient quantity
for domestic and small industrial or municipal supplies but most yields
are less than 500 gpm.ll/
The Quaternary Alluvium is the most important and highest yielding
source of ground water in the coastal plain, and most water is used for
irrigation. Deposits of Quaternary Age occur in a large part of the
Gulf Coastal Plain in eastern Arkansas and in the valleys of the Saline,
Ouachita, Red, and Arkansas Rivers. The upper part of these forma-
tions consist of sand and gravel and generally yield large amounts of
water to wells.
LOUISIANA
Louisiana, second only to Hawaii in total annual precipitation, is a
"water-rich" state with large supplies of ground water and large and
occasionally excessive supplies of surface water. 12/ More than three-
fourths of the state is underlain by fresh-water aquifers capable of
yielding moderate to large supplies of ground water, a considerable
part of it soft and low in mineral matter. About two-thirds of all ground
water pumped in the state is from Quaternary deposits of Pleistocene
and Recent Ages which underlie most of Louisiana, as shown in Figure 8.
Water use in Louisiana is greater than in any other southern state
excluding Texas. Even though Louisiana has a large water supply,
there is a shortage in some streams in dry weather. This shortage
leads to deficiencies in supply in inland stretches and to salt-water
encroachment in some tidal stretches. Storing the over-abundant
flood flow for dry weather use, is difficult because of the lack of good
reservoir sites in the flat terrain. Although flood-control reservoirs
retard flood runoff and provide storage, sedimentation in the reser-
voirs and streams rapidly reduce storage capacity.
Most of the previous studies on Louisiana ground-water resources have
been prepared by the United States Geological Survey in cooperation
with the Louisiana Geological Survey and the Louisiana Department of
Public Works. In this report the state has been divided into the five
geographic areas of Southwestern Louisiana, Baton Rouge Area, Baton
Rouge-New Orleans Area, Southeastern Louisiana, and Northern and
Central Louisiana.
22
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to
CO
MIOCENE DEPOSITS
Fxl QUARTERNARY ALLUVIUM
COCKFIELD FORMATION
SPARTA SAND
V| WILCOX GROUP
• •I
PLIOCENE DEPOSITS
FIGURE 8- MAJOR HATER-BEARING FORMATIONS OF LOUISIANA
-------
Southwestern Louisiana
Southwestern Louisiana is underlain by a thick sequence of southerly
and southeasterly dipping interbedded gravels, sands, silts, and clays
that have been divided into the Atchafalaya, Chicot, Evangeline, and
Jasper Aquifers. The Chicot Aquifer is the principal, most heavily
pumped source of fresh water. The Atchafalaya is a source of fresh
water only in the extreme eastern part of the area. The Evangeline
and Jasper Aquifers contain fresh water only in the northern and
central part of the area.
The sands of the Chicot and Atchafalaya Aquifers are hydraulically
connected; therefore, in the areas where they overlap they are con-
sidered to be a single ground-water reservoir designated as the Chicot
reservoir. IV The Chicot Reservoir underlies most of southwestern
Louisiana and extends an unknown distance beneath the Gulf of Mexico
and is composed of beds of clay, silt, sand, and gravel of Pleistocene
Age. These sediments dip toward the south and southeast and increase
in thickness from less than 100 feet in the northern part of the area to
more than 7,000 feet beneath the Gulf of Mexico. 13/
The geology and climate (heavy rainfall) of southwestern Louisiana
combine to form one of the largest sources of fresh ground water in
North America. Large quantities of ground water are available for
agricultural, municipal, domestic, and industrial purposes with over
three-fourths of all ground-water pumpage being used for rice irriga-
tion. However, with the decline of water levels, salt-water encroach-
ment is a local problem or potential problem in coastal streams during
dry weather periods. Thus far, major pollution has been limited to an
area along the Vermilion River.
Heavy ground-water pumpage in southwestern Louisiana, and in the
Lake Charles industrial area in particular, has caused a reversal in the
piezometric gradient south of the areas of heavy pumpage. This has
allowed salty water in the southern part of the reservoir to move slowly
northward.
The Evangeline and Jasper Reservoirs consist of unconsolidated fine to
medium-grained sand of Pliocene Age. The volume of water pumped
from these reservoirs is relatively small compared with the total pump-
age in southwestern Louisiana.
Baton Rouge Area
The Baton Rouge area is underlain by a complex sequence of continental
and marine sediments. Pumpage is from the alluvium and from the older
artesian aquifers known for their general depths as the "400-foot,"
24
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"600-foot," "800-foot," "1,000-foot," "1,200-foot," "1,500-foot,"
" 1,700-foot,11 "2,000-foot," "2,400-foot," and "2,800-foot" sands.
Alluvial deposits of Recent and Pleistocene Ages are limited to the flood-
plain of the Mississippi River near Baton Rouge. These deposits
consist of approximately 80 percent water-bearing sands and gravels
and 20 percent silt and clay.14/ In the floodplain, the deposits range
in thickness from 250 feet in northern West Baton Rouge Parish to
600 feet in the south-central part of the area.
Most water for public and industrial use is pumped from artesian
aquifers in the area which vary in thickness, grain size and depth.
The shallow sands—the "400-foot" and "600-foot"—were formerly the
most heavily pumped, and water levels were drawn rather low. In
recent years, withdrawals have been reduced and the water levels
have recovered substantially. The quality of the water is fairly good,
but encroachment of brackish water has been detected in one area of
the "600-foot" sand.
Water levels in deeper sands are declining as they are pumped more
heavily to meet demands. Salt water is encroaching toward Baton Rouge
in the artesian aquifers and poses a real or potential threat to fresh
ground-water supplies. Large scale faulting across the southern Baton
Route area acts somewhat as a hydraulic barrier to the northward move-
ment of salt water in the deeper aquifers. However, salty water has
been found north of the fault zone in the "1,000-foot," "1,500-foot," and
"2,000-foot" sands, as well as the "600-foot" sand.40/
Baton Rouge-New Orleans Area
The Baton Rouge-New Orleans area is that area south of Baton Rouge
down to and including New Orleans. It is a part of the upper deltaic
plain of the Mississippi River.
Aquifers that contain fresh water are largely limited to the upper 800
feet of sediments. Deposits making up the deltaic complex are of Pleis-
tocene and Recent Ages . Except for local problems , fresh ground water
in at least moderate quantities can be obtained throughout the area.
However, at many places careful development is necessary to minimize
upward or lateral movement of salt water into the fresh water. The
main water-bearing deposits are the "700-foot" sand which supplies
most of the New Orleans area and the Mississippi River alluvium.
Water in the New Orleans area grades from fresh to salty in a north to
south direction, but salt-water encroachment caused by declining water
25
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levels is not deemed serious, provided the current distribution of the
pumping is maintained. Wells yielding 1,000 gpm or more can be con-
structed almost anywhere. .15/
Relatively large amounts of water are available locally from shallow wells
that tap the alluvial deposits of the Mississippi River. However, in some
areas, continuous pumpage would result in salt-water encroachment
from brackish water in the basal part of the aquifer.
Southeastern Louisiana
Southeastern Louisiana is one of the most promising areas for future
development in the state. Enormous quantities of soft, fresh water are
available from sands of Quaternary and Tertiary Ages which extend to
depths exceeding 3,500 feet in some places. Water is available by flow-
ing artesian wells in large parts of the area, but some of the shallow
water is corrosive.
Northern and Central Louisiana
Northern and central Louisiana are underlain by a series of deposits
yielding from small to large amounts of ground water. Three of the
more important water-bearing formations are the Sparta Sand of the
Claiborne group, the Wilcox group, and the Quaternary Alluvium of
the Red River.
The Sparta Sand, which is the most important aquifer in north central
Louisiana, ranges in thickness from about 500 to 900 feet where it con-
tains fresh water. 12/ Ground water in the Sparta Sand is unconfined
in its sandy outcrop areas, and is under artesian conditions where
the sands are overlain by impermeable material. Water quality varies
depending on whether it is found in the outcrop area or under artesian
conditions. Pumping from the Sparta has caused water levels to de-
cline at Hodge in Jackson Parish, Monroe in Ouachita Parish, and
Bastrop in Morehouse Parish. Pumping in these areas may eventually
cause salt water to encroach from down-dip to the east.
Sands of the Wilcox group yield fresh water in northwestern Louisiana.
This aquifer is composed of a heterogenous sequence of beds of lignitic
sand, silty sand, sandy and silty clay, and clay. These fine grained
deposits form a deltaic sequence that thickens rapidly southward.
Artesian conditions prevail in much of the Wilcox Sands; however,
only a few wells have flowing water. Yields from wells tapping the
Wilcox Sands are generally small, but larger yields are sometimes
found locally.
26
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Alluvial deposits in the Red River Valley constitute a relatively un-
developed but potentially important aquifer in northwestern and central
Louisiana. The alluvium consists of an upper unit of clay and silt with
sand and gravel making up the lower half of the deposits. Ground water
in the Red River Valley generally is under artesian conditions. Other
than for stock and irrigation supplies, the water is used very little but
there is great potential for additional irrigation.
NEW MEXICO
The Major ground-water producing areas of New Mexico are located in
alluvial deposits of the Rio Grande Valley which transverse the state
from north to south and in the High Plains and Pecos Valley of extreme
eastern New Mexico. Less productive aquifers are scattered through-
out the state and many of these are of major local importance even
though their overall development is comparatively minor.
Being an area of semi-arid climate, New Mexico relies on ground water
to supply about one-half of its large and growing water needs. Irriga-
tion is a major user and in 1970 accounted for almost 85 percent of the
total ground water used in New Mexico.3/ Heavy pumping combined
with low rainfall and limited recharge of most of the aquifers has
resulted in ground-water mining.
Ground-water mining also has a profound effect on surface water
supplies in New Mexico because of the close hydraulic association
between ground and surface water along major developed streams.
New Mexico was one of the earliest states to recognize this interconnec-
tion in the adoption and administration of legislation pertaining to water
rights.
The U.S. Geological Survey and the New Mexico State Engineer's office
have conducted extensive studies concerning both the quantity and
quality of ground water and their reports are the primary source of
this summary on New Mexico. The New Mexico Bureau of Mines and
Mineral Resources, University of New Mexico, New Mexico Geological
Society and the Pecos River Commission have also contributed signifi-
cant studies of the ground-water resources of New Mexico in terms of
eight major areas: High Plains, Rio Grande Valley, Canadian and
Cimarron River Basins, Pecos River Basin, basins in central and south
central New Mexico, basins in southwestern New Mexico, Gila and San
Francisco River Basins, and Colorado Plateaus. These areas are shown
in Figure 9 and relative water yields are shown in Figure 10.
27
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CANADIAN AND
CIMARRON RIVER
BASINS
COLORADO
PLATEAUS
GILA-ond- SAN-FRANCISCO
RIVER BASINS
CENTRAL
AND
SpUTH-CENTRAL
NEW MEXICO
SOUTHWESTERN
NEW MEXICO
FIGURE 9, EIGHT MAJOR GROUND-WATER AREAS IN NEW MEXICO
28
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FIGURE 10, RELATIVE WATER YIELDS OF
LESS THAN 100 GPM/ HIGHLY
SALINE WATER AREAS/ OR AREAS FOR
WHICH DATA ARE INADEQUATE FOR
APPRAISAL
100 TO 300 GPM
MORE THAN 300 GPM
MEXICO AQUIFERS ~
29
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High Plains
The sand and gravel aquifers in the High Plains of New Mexico are the
western part of the massive series of aquifers which underlie much of
northwest Texas and parts of several states all the way to South Dakota.
The High Plains in New Mexico is an area of heavy pumping and ground-
water mining. Most water is from the Ogallala Aquifer, although along
the edges of the Plains and in basins excavated into the plains, such as
the Portales Valley, alluvium of Quaternary Age also yields heavy pump-
ing.
As with much of New Mexico, the major water resource problem in the
High Plains is the lack of natural ground-water recharge. Average
annual rainfall is less than 20 inches and there is no surface runoff to
perennial streams. Essentially, the only recharge to the ground water
is seepage from undrained depressions and arroyos during infrequent
periods of flooding and infiltration of precipitation into dune sand such
as that in the Portales Valley.
The Ogallala is heavily developed all the way from southern Quay
County to southern Lea County with the thickest and most productive
area being in northern Lea County. Individual wells yield up to
1,600 gpm but water levels are declining and pumping lifts are as
much as 400 feet. IT/
The Ogallala is thinner in southern Lea County where much of the water
is obtained from Quaternary sediments which overlie it in the east and
replace it in the west.
These Quaternary deposits are also an important ground-water source
in the Portales Valley where they lie in a broad shallow valley cut into
and through the Ogallala Formation in northern Roosevelt and eastern
De Baca counties. Individual wells yield from 300 to 1,000 gpm, but
water levels have been declining at almost three feet per year since
195p.16/
Although the overwhelming majority of water in the High Plains of New
Mexico is obtained from alluvium formations, the Santa Rosa and Chinle
Sandstones of Roosevelt, Chaves, Eddy, and Lea Counties do yield
small but important supplies for domestic and stock use.
Rio Grande Valley
i
The valley of the Rio Grande is an alluvial trough that stretches from
Colorado's San Luis Valley on the north across New Mexico to El Paso,
Texas on the south. This trough is up to 30 miles wide in some locations
and is known to reach depths of 6,000 feet near Albuquerque. 18/
30
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This alluvium produces large yields of water and beneath the river's
floodplain the water table is only a few feet below the surface but is
more than 1,000 feet deep along the margin of the trough. W Although
the Rio Grande Valley contains usable ground water to great depths.
the hydraulic interrelationship with the surface water would result in
hydrologic and legal problems if uncontrolled development of the
ground-water reservoir were permitted. Reduction of the ground-water
table would reduce the flow in the river where the surface waters are
already fully appropriated.
Canadian and Cimarron River Basins
The Canadian and Cimarron River Basins in northeastern New Mexico
overlie meager ground-water supplies. The only moderately productive
areas are the Ogallala north of the Canadian River, an area of Mesozoic
rocks near Tucumcari, and a small alluvial aquifer in Union County.
The most common sources of ground water are the sandstone formations
and one of the most productive is the Entrada Sandstone which provides
water for the city of Tucumcari.
1 Pecos River Basin
The Pecos River heads in the mountains east of Santa Fe and flows
south-southeast into Texas south of Carlsbad, New Mexico. In the
northern part of the basin, the river has cut through the Ogallala
Formation and into rock, mostly sandstone and shale of low permea-
bility . Ground-water supplies in the area are meager although
domestic supplies are available from limestone fractures in the moun-
tain region and from the Abo Sandstone farther south. From the
northern part of De Baca County on southward, alluvial fill is a pro-
ductive source of ground water. Of more importance to the basin as
a whole are the underlying limestone formations which constitute the
artesian aquifers of the Roswell and Carlsbad area. With the heavy
development for irrigation the artesian pressure has declined until
most wells in the area must now be pumped. Nevertheless, wells of
a few thousand gallons per minute are common near Roswell.
The San Andres Limestone in the vicinity of Santa Rosa contains large
supplies of ground water and discharges a considerable amount to the
Pecos River south of Santa Rosa. Much of this discharge is water
which has disappeared into the stream bed north of Santa Rosa. Ground
water in the Pecos Valley is more an essential part of the hydrologic
system than in most stream valleys. Soluble rock formations are found
almost everywhere beneath the land surface resulting in subsurface
erosion and surface sinks. These are evidenced in losses and gains of
flow at a number of locations along the river.
31
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Basins in Central and South Central New Mexico
The principal basins between the Rio Grande and Pecos include the
Estancia Valley, the Tularosa Basin, and the Jornada del Muerto.
The Estancia Valley is located in Torrance and southern Santa Fe
counties and has no surface water outlets. Precipitation either infil-
trates into the subsurface, evaporates from saline lakes, or transpires
from vegetation. The major source of water in this area is the alluvium;
but the Madera Limestone in the west, the Glorieta Sandstone in the
north, and the Yeso Formation in the southern and northeastern parts
of the valley also yield considerable water. Generally, the water in
this valley is limited and of poor quality.
Ground water in the Tularosa Basin aquifer and vicinity is of the poorest
quality in New Mexico. The Tularosa is a large alluvial basin with no
surface outlet and a large supply of saline ground water but very little
fresh water. There are a few scattered locations around the edges of
the basin where fresh water is available but only two of these are prin-
cipal water sources. One consists of a long narrow area around
Tularosa and Alamogordo; the other more productive area is in the
extreme southwestern part of the basin. Nevertheless, fresh water
is very scarce in the Tularosa Basin and current supplies are being
depleted. 19/
The Jornado del Muerto is a large alluvial basin between the Tularosa
Basin and the Rio Grande. Ground water in sufficient quantity for
watering stock can be found almost everywhere in the basin fill at
depths ranging from 30 feet to about 400 feet. However, most of the
ground water is not of sufficiently good chemical quality for human
consumption. In rare locations, sufficient water for irrigation has
been developed from the Dakota Sandstone and the underlying San
Andres Formation but this water is not potable. The few known sources
of potable water in the Jornado del Muerto are around the edges of the
basin in alluvial-fan deposits. 16/
Basins in Southwestern New Mexico
Southwestern New Mexico is an area of extensive alluvium deposits
throughout a number of scattered intermountain valleys. The principal
basins include the Mimbres Valley; the Animas Valley; the Playas,
Hachita, and Lordsburg Valleys; the San Augustin Plains; and the
Gila and San Francisco River Basins. With the exception of the San
Augustin Plains and the Gila and San Francisco River Basins, all
these basins have similar characteristics. The Mimbres Valley has
the longest history of gound-water development and large capacity
32
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wells in the alluvium commonly yield from 500 to 1,000 gpm of fair
quality water. 5/ Water levels are declining because most of the water
being pumped is taken from storage. When the water levels reach a
point where pumping is too expensive for irrigation, sufficient ground
water will remain for domestic, stock, municipal, and other uses
where pumping costs are a secondary consideration.
The San Augustin Plains is a large, almost uninhabited basin with no
external surface drainage and there is no irrigation development. Much
of the ground water is saline, but there may be areas of good water
around the edge of the surrounding mountains.
The Gila and San Francisco River Basins contain extensive ground-water
supplies in alluvial deposits. Ground water is extensively developed
for irrigation along the Gila, and well yields are as high as 2,500
gpm. 5_/ Water levels have not declined significantly because of the
shallow pumping depths and rapid recharge during periods of high
river flows. Ground water along the San Francisco River Basin has
experienced very little development and there is additional irrigable
land along both the San Francisco and Gila.
Colorado Plateaus
The Colorado Plateaus area is roughly the northwest quarter of the
state, west of the Rio Grande Valley. Most of the area drains to the
Colorado and San Juan Rivers. Generally, ground-water supplies
are small and scattered and commonly at considerable depth or of poor
quality, or both.
Despite the scarcity of ground water, the San Juan River Basin has the
largest remaining water supply available to New Mexico. However,
this supply is not expected to be adequate for increasing needs result-
ing from the population increase and the expanding oil and gas industry.
The area of heaviest pumping is in the vicinity of Gallup where coal
and uranium mining and associated industrial growth have created a
relatively heavy demand on sparse water supplies. Water is obtained
primarily from fine-grained sandstone, alluvium, and basalt. Well
yields range from 1 to 250 gpm but most yield less than 50 gpm.20/
The Rio Puerco and Rio San Jose drain the southeastern and eastern
parts of the Colorado Plateaus in New Mexico. The San Jose Basin
contains the heavily developed Grants-Bluewater irrigation area, as
well as a large proportion of the nation's uranium reserves. The most
productive aquifer in the Rio Puerco-Rio San Jose area is the San
Andres Limestone with smaller ground-water supplies coming from
33
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alluvium, basalt, and fine-grained sandstone. Well yields range
from 10 to 2,800 gpm.5/ Beginning in 1951, water used for uranium
mining and milling in the Grants-Bluewater area increased with a
corresponding decrease in irrigation pumpage so that the total with-
drawal has remained rather constant.: The maximum development has
been reached and water levels are continuing to decline.
OKLAHOMA
Ground water is not as abundant in Oklahoma as it is in some other
states, but it is an important factor in the State's economy and is capa-
ble of greater development. Ground water is Oklahoma's most valuable
mineral resource and supplies approximately 87 percent of the irriga-
tion water used in the state.21/ Various ground-water reservoirs
throughout the state are estimated to contain over 300 million acre-feet
of water. Approximately 300 towns and cities obtain their municipal
supplies from wells and springs. In fact, over half the people in the
state rely on ground-water sources for drinking water and household
supplies.
Ground water is available over most of Oklahoma in sufficient quantity
for domestic supplies; however, in some parts of the state, the water is
too high in chlorides or sulfates for most uses. In some areas where
ground water may be of better quality than surface water, industries
and commercial users have developed private supplies for their own
needs. The major aquifers used in Oklahoma are shown in Figure 11.
High Plains Area
The High Plains covers all but a small fraction of the three panhandle
counties and extends a short distance into adjacent counties of north-
western Oklahoma. The area is underlain by deposits of sand, gravel,
and minor amounts of clay and these sediments in some areas are capped
by a limy rock called caliche.
The deposits of the High Plains are composed primarily of the Ogallala
Formation, the most important aquifer in the state. This is probably
the best aquifer in Oklahoma because of its area, thickness and high
permeability, despite the fact that it is only partially saturated with
water. Because of low annual precipitation and high 'evaporation in
this area, insufficient water reaches the Ogallala to keep it sufficiently
recharged to offset pumping losses .
The Ogallala is as much as several hundred feet thick. In Oklahoma
alone, it contains more than 100 million acre-feet of available water and
supplies most of the water requirements of the panhandle. Ground water
34
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u>
DEPOSITS OF THE HIGH PLAINS
ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS
mamr
•.•.•.•.'.-.'.•.•.•.\f
ATOKA I PIMHMATAHA I M.CURTAIN
7--..V.
SIMPSON AND ARBUCKLE GROUPS/
UNDIFFERENTIATED
SANDSTONE AQUIFERS
ROUBIDOUX FORMATION
VAMOOSA FORMATION
GARBER SANDSTONE AND WELLINGTON
FORMATION
WICHITA FORMATION
WHITEHORSE GROUP
TRINITY GROUP
LIMESTONE AQUIFERS
BOONE FORMATION
DOG CREEK AND ELAINE FORMATION
6/
FIGURE 11, PRINCIPAL WATER-BEARING FORMATIONS OF OKLAHOMA -
-------
from the Ogallala is used to irrigate about 135,000 acres, for the indus-
trial needs of the Keyes helium plant and the natural gas industry in the
panhandle and for all public and domestic supplies in the area. 26/
Wells in the thickest and most permeable sections of these deposits
yield as much as 1,000 gallons per minute, and yields of several hun-
dred gallons per minute are common throughout large areas.
Western Oklahoma Area
This area includes the western half of Oklahoma, excluding the High
Plains area. It is composed of the following formations: Rush Springs
Sandstone, Garber Sandstone and Wellington Formation, Elaine Gypsum
and Deg Creek Shale, and Wichita Formation.
The Rush Springs Sandstone underlies an area of about 1,840 square
miles in west central Oklahoma. The topography is characterized by
rolling plains interrupted in places by sand dunes or deeply eroded
stream valleys. The formation is composed of fine-grained, cross-bedded
to even-bedded sandstone. It is the principal aquifer in this area and
yields moderate to large supplies for most domestic, municipal, irriga-
tion, and industrial uses. The maximum reported yield is about 1,000
gallons per minute and common yields to irrigation wells are about 400
gallons per minute . 23 /
The Garber Sandstone and Wellington Formation outcrop across the
eastern two-thirds of Cleveland and Oklahoma Counties in a north
trending belt 6 to 20 miles wide. The area of outcrop is characterized
by rolling, steep-sided hills that are forested with scrub oak and other
small, slow-growing deciduous trees. It consists of lenticular beds of
massive-appearing, cross-bedded sandstone irregularly interbedded
with shale which is, in part, sandy to silty. The sandstone layers are
fine to very fine grained and loosely cemented. The two formations
as a unit have a total thickness of 800 to 1,000 feet.24/
The Dog Creek Shale and Elaine Formation in Harmon and part of Jackson
and Greer Counties constitute the most important aquifer in these counties.
The aquifer consists principally of interbedded shale, gypsum, anhydrite,
dolomite, and limestone. Solution cavities containing large quantities of
water may yield some water high in calcium sulfate. The pattern of fresh
water is erratic, so a "dry" well may be drilled within 100 feet of a well
of high yield. Yields from wells tapping this formation range from less
than 10 to 2,000 gallons per minute.
The Wichita^ Formation of Permian age consists of fine-grained sandstone
and red shale, similar to the rocks of the Garber and Wellington Forma-
tions and of roughly equivalent age. This formation supplies water
36
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principally for industrial and municipal use in western Garvin, all of
Carter, and southern Stephens Counties. West of Ardmore, fresh water
has been reported to depths of as much as 900 feet and wells yield as
much as 250 gallons per minute. Yields of more than 100 gallons per
minute are common in other areas. The quality is suitable for municipal
and industrial purposes at many places.
Eastern Oklahoma Area
The Eastern Oklahoma Area is composed of the following aquifers:
Nelagony-Vamoosa, Boone Formation, Simpson and Arbuckle Group;
Trinity Sandstone, Roubidoux Sandstone, Washita and Kiamichi Group,
Goodland Limestone, Woodbine Formation, Tokio Formation, Ozan and
Brownstown Formations.
The Vamoosa Formation crops out in a north-south band approximately
20 miles wide extending from Seminole to Osage County and is an
important aquifer in that and nearby areas. The formation consists of
250 to 600 feet of interbedded sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. It
supplies water for municipal and industrial uses along its outcrop and
for several miles downdip to the west. The best wells seem to be in
the Seminole area where wells produce about 150 gallons per minute.25/
Elsewhere, yields range from a few gallons per minute to 100 gallons
per minute.
The Boone Formation of early and late Mississippian age consists pri-
marily of limestone and cherty limestone and is an important aquifer
over a large part of the Ozark area of northeastern Oklahoma. It aver-
ages about 300 feet in thickness and contains numerous fracture and
solution openings. The Boone forms a sizable ground-water reservoir
and is the source for many springs in that area. Springs issuing from
the Boone play an important part in maintaining the year-round flow
of streams such as Spavinaw Creek in northern Delaware County.
Spring flow from the Boone in Ottawa County has been estimated at 14
million gallons per day.
In the Arbuckle Mountain region several sandstones of the Simpson
group of Middle Ordovician Age supply potable water in the outcrop
area and for a short distance downdip. A sandstone of equivalent age
crops out in Cherokee and Adair Counties in the Ozark part of north-
eastern Oklahoma and supplies water locally to domestic and farm wells.
Little information is available on the sandstone of the Simpson, but
apparently they contain highly mineralized water at short distances
downdip from the outcrop .
Beneath the Simpson group in south central Oklahoma is the Arbuckle
group of late Cambrian and Early Ordovician Ages. This group is com-
posed of a thick section of limestone and dolomite beds which have been
37
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tilted, folded, and broken by faults. In and near the outcrop south of
Ada, fresh water occurs in solution openings to depths of more than
2,500 feet, and yields of 2,000 gallons per minute are reported from
well tests. 28/ The aquifer supplies water for municipal, industrial,
and irrigation purposes in the Arbuckle Mountains area. In the out-
crop , water is somewhat hard but contains only a moderate amount of
dissolved solids. At varying distances from the outcrop area, water
in the Arbuckle is highly mineralized.
The Trinity group is the basal division of the Cretaceous rocks in
McCurtain County, Oklahoma. The group is divided into three forma-
tions which, ih ascending order, are the Holly Creek Formation, the
DeQueen Limestone, and the Paluxy Sand. The Holly Creek is composed
of a series of red clays, thin sand beds, and gravel lenses . It yields
potable water to farm wells in east central McCurtain County. The
DeQueen Limestone consists of varicolored calcareous clays and
pinkish-gray limestones and marls in beds generally less than a foot
thick. Downdip beneath younger rocks it contains gypsum and
anhydrite beds. The DeQueen yields little ground water in McCurtain
County.
The Paluxy Sand is composed of white and yellow sands, some iron-
cemented sandstones, conglomerates, and red, yellow, purple, or blue
clays, and a few limestone lenses. The Paluxy, the most important
aquifer in McCurtain County, is the source of municipal supply at
Valliant, Millerton, and Garvin and supplies water to farmsteads
throughout its outcrop area.
The Trinity group ranges from a featheredge up to about 2,200 feet.
Water is pumped for municipal and industrial use throughout the
productive belt and is beginning to be pumped for irrigation. Properly
constructed wells penetrating the most permeable deposits yield 450
gallons per minute or more, and natural flowing wells are possible on
low ground in lightly pumped areas. The quality of the water varies
greatly from place to place. In some places, fresh water extends to a
depth of 800 feet, but locally elsewhere salt water is found at a shallow
depth.
The Roubidoux Formation consists of about 150 feet of dolomite and
interbedded sandstone. It is an aquifer of substantial importance in a
sizable area of Ottawa, northern Delaware, and eastern Craig Counties
in northeastern Oklahoma. It yields water to wells 800 to more than
1,000 feet deep in the northeast corner of Oklahoma. Although some
wells produce as much as 600 gallons per minute, the aquifer has been
38
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overdeveloped locally and water levels have declined several hundred
feet since the first wells were drilled more than 50 years ago.27/ The
water is moderately hard but low in dissolved solids. The Roubidoux
is used for both public and industrial supplies.
The Washita Group, including the Kiamichi Formation in southern
McCurtain County, crops out as an east-west belt that is only about
half a mile wide at the Arkansas State line and widens irregularly
westward. Logs of wells near the outcrop show that the formation thins
from about 200 feet on the western side of the county to less than 70 feet
on the eastern side. Only the Kiamichi, which is 20 feet thick, is pre-
sent on the south side of Little River at the Arkansas State line. It is
composed of gray fossiliferous limestones and calcareous dark-blue
shale; thins eastward and contains relatively small amounts of poor
quality water in solution openings and cracks in the limestone.
The outcrop of the Goodland Limestone crosses the McCurtain County
line from Arkansas just north of Cerrogordo and extends westward
across McCurtain County in a narrow strip one-eighth to one-half mile
wide. Along most of its length the outcrop is immediately south of
Little River, and the sinuous outcrop pattern follows the river and its
tributaries. It is -thin-bedded dense limestone at the top with soft
chalky and massive limestone in lower parts. The entire formation is
fossiliferous and does not yield much water. The presence of many
solution pits, openings, and enlarged fractures in the outcrop of the
Goodland Limestone shows that the formation is susceptible to solution
by water. However, records show that few wells tap ground water in
this formation and these yield water of poor quality.
- • ' . . !.'
The Woodbine Formation crops out across the middle of the southern
half of McCurtain County. It ranges in thickness from a featheredge
at the outcrop to more than 355 feet in the subsurface in the southeastern
part of the county. The outcrop ranges in width from a quarter of a
mile to as much as four miles. The upper member of this formation is
mostly gray to brown cross-bedded dark tufaceous sand, red clay, and
gravel lentils . The formation is not a productive aquifer; most wells
yield only sufficient water for domestic or stock use. The water is
generally of inferior quality because of the mineral matter it dissolves
from the tufaceous material.
The outcrop of the Tokio Formation in McCurtain County covers about
80 square miles in an irregular wedge, the point of which is about five
miles southwest of Idabel. It is composed of gray cross-bedded sand,
interbedded with gray and dark-gray shale. Because of clay and silt,
transmissibility is generally low resulting in yields of lesfe than 20
gallons per minute.297 The sandy matter of the Tokio Formation
39
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suggests that it might be a good aquifer but interspersed clay and silt
appreciably lower the permeability and transmissibility. Water quality
from wells in the outcrop area is poor.
TEXAS
Underground reservoirs in Texas store approximately 1.25 billion acre-
fee of potable water .30/ Of this vast amount, it is estimated that the
potential yield of all aiquifers, which would not seriously deplete
storage, is about 5 million acre-feet annually. 31/ As a result of geologic
factors, these aquifers are distributed unequally throughout the state
and do not necessarily coincide with locations of maximum need. Never-
theless, ground water furnishes about two-thirds of the more than 14
million acre-feet used annually for municipal, industrial, and irriga-
tion purposes.
The state of Texas recognizes three major problems affecting ground
water. The first is ground-water mining in the western part of the
state caused primarily from heavy irrigation pumpage. The second
major problem is the lack of sufficient quantitative information on the
maximum sustained yields of aquifers, and the third major problem is
existing or potential pollution of ground water resulting from discharge
of both natural and man-made substances. 5_/
Several studies have been conducted on the ground-water situation in
Texas, including those by the Texas Board of Water Engineers and its
successors, the Texas Water Commission and the Texas Water Develop-
ment Board, the main source of this report. In this report the aquifers
of Texas have been divided into five geographic regions: the coastal
area; the high plains; central, north central, and northeast Texas; south-
west Texas; and the west Texas area. Major and minor aquifers in these
areas are shown in Figures 12 and 13.
Coastal Area
A tremendous volume of fresh water is in transient storage in aquifers
underlying the Gulf Coast region. The aquifers are generally composed
of sand and gravel which alternate with silt and clay. This area can be
divided into three areas containing significant amounts of ground water:
the coastal sands, the Carrizo-Wilcox Sands, and the Sparta-Queen City
aquifers.
Most ground water is withdrawn in the northeastern three-fifths of this
region and these large withdrawals have caused two major problems.
They are the encroachment of salt water near the coast, such as in
40
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OGALLALA
ALLUVIUM
EDWARDS-TRINITY (PLATEAU)
EDWARDS (BALCONES FAULT
ZONE)
"ol\ TRINITY GROUP
CARRIZO-WILCOX
GULF COAST
FIGURE 12. MAJOR AQUIFERS IN TEXAS
3V
-------
N)
WOODBINE
QUEEN CITY
SPARTS
EDWARDS-TRINITY
(HIGH PLAINS)
SANTA ROSA
ELLENBURGER-SAN SABA
HICKORY
' *M*n> t
fK , ,! ,, v> -• (
• •'»*•>."-• ......— -...,-,-«. •-. V
l A •«•• '••'" /
FIGURE 13. MINOR AQUIFERS IN TEXAS
-------
Galveston County, and the subsidence of the land surface in the Houston-
Pasadena-Bay town area of Harris County.
Because the coastal sands (Goliad-Willis-Lissie-Beaumont Formations)
and the Miocene Sands (Catahoula-Oakville-Lagarto Formations) are
lithologically similar and overlap in part of the Gulf Coast region, they
are sometimes considered together as a single aquifer. They store a
large amount of water ranging from 2,000 acre-feet per square mile in
the Corpus Christi area to 13,000 acre-feet per square mile in the
Houston area. 32/
The Carrizo-Wilcox Sands which supply water for irrigation, munici-
pal, and some industrial uses, extends from the Rio Grande northeast-
ward across the entire state. These sands are actually composed of
two separate formations. The Wilcox group of early Eocene Age con-
tains sands which are good aquifers especially in the northeastern
part of the state; however, the Carrizo Sand of middle Eocene Age is
the principal aquifer of this belt and is especially productive in the
south central part where fresh water occurs at a maximum depth
exceeding 6,000 feet.5/ Ground water occurs in the Carrizo-Wilcox,
under artesian conditions, being confined by overlying beds of clay.
The eastern portion of this aquifer is full; however, in the western
portion, discharge by irrigation wells has exceeded the rate of annual
recharge and water levels are dropping.
The Sparta-Queen City aquifers, extending from southwestern Texas
into the area of the east Texas geosyncline, yield ground water of
importance to local areas. The Sparta-Queen City aquifers yield small
to moderate quantities of fresh to moderately saline water to wells in
and near outcrop areas. Both the Sparta and the Queen City are
regarded as minor aquifers, but where the two formations coincide,
they may yield fairly large volumes of ground water.
High Plains
The Ogallala Formation, consisting of interfingered and intergraded
lenses and layers of sand, gravel, silt, clay, and caliche, is the
principal aquifer in the High Plains area, which is an erosional remnant
of nearly flat country ranging from about 2,600 to 4,700 feet above sea
level. The High Plains area begins at the north edge of the Edwards
Plateau in northern Ector and Midland Counties'and widens northward
to the full width of the panhandle in the northeastern most two rows of
counties. The east edge of the Plains is deeply scalloped by the valleys
of the larger streams, and the Canadian River divides the Plains into
northern and southern parts.
43
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Large quantities of ground water are available from the Ogallala; how-
ever, pumpage from the aquifer is far in excess of the rate of replenish-
ment which is about one inch annually. This heavy pumpage, principally
for irrigated agriculture, has resulted in declines of the water table and
lowering of well yields in some areas.
Water in the Ogallala is unconfined, and the useful life of the reservoir
in each locality is determined principally by the water in storage, the
rate and distribution of withdrawals, and the character of water-bearing
strata. The total amount of water in storage in the High Plains is
estimated to be in excess of 350 million acre-feet.32/
The northern High Plains includes an area of approximately 9,300 square
miles in the Panhandle north of the Canadian River. 5_/ The zone of
saturation in most places is 100 to 500 feet thick. Irrigation has developed
slower in the northern High Plains than in the southern High Plains;
therefore, at the current rate of withdrawal, the remaining water in
storage will be adequate for many years.
The southern High Plains is the area of largest ground-water develop-
ment in Texas. It covers about 25,000 square miles between the
Canadian River and northern Ector, Midland, and Glasscock Counties.
In the southern High Plains, ground water is generally of good chemi-
cal quality and is the principal source of water for all uses, of which
irrigation is by far the largest. A large increase in irrigation has
accompanied a substantial growth in population and municipal water
demand. With the total ground-water recharge to the southern High
Plains being small in comparison to the withdrawal, the supply is being
seriously depleted. Measures such as conservative use of water,
elimination of avoidable losses, and artificial recharge are being
practiced and will prolong the life of the supply but cannot maintain
it indefinitely.
Central, North Central, and Northeast Texas
There are a variety of ground-water bearing formations underlying
central, north central, and northeast Texas. The major formations are:
the Trinity Sands located in the northeastern and north central part of
the state; the Woodbine Formation in the northeast; the Ellenberger-
San Saba and Hickory Formations in the central part; and the Seymour
Formation situated in north central Texas. The diversity of water
quality and availability make it practical to discuss each aquifer
separately.
In north central Texas, the Trinity Sands, composed primarily of the
Paluxy and Travis Peak Formations of Cretaceous Age comprise the
principal water-bearing formation. These sands are interbedded with
44
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layers of shale and thin beds of limestone. Most recharge to this
aquifer is from precipitation and surface water sources and the largest
percentage of discharge is by wells. Maximum yields of these wells
vary from 50 gpm to as much as 2,000 gpm near Dallas. The largest
user of ground water from this aquifer is the Dallas-Fort Worth area
where in 1955 about 34 million gallons of water per day was pumped
mostly from the Travis Peak Sands. 5/ The total amount of water with-
drawn from the entire Trinity Sands was about 60 million gallons per
day in 1955 and the principal use was for municipal and industrial
purposes. Water levels have been lowered so much that the cost of
pumping has increased to very near the economic limit of feasibility
and in many wells the drop in water levels has necessitated well
reconstruction to continue production.
The Woodbine Formation, a minor aquifer of late Cretaceous Age, is one
of the chief ground-water reservoirs in north central Texas. The
Woodbine supplies small to moderate quantities of water to municipal
and industrial wells in an area extending northward and northeastward
from Waco to the Red River. The heaviest concentration of pumpage is
in Dallas County where about 60 percent of the total 1960 pumpage was
located.33_/ This aquifer is a broad wedge of sand and sandy clay which
is thickest near the outcrop and thins southeastward. The Woodbine is
characterized by fine-grained sands of low permeability and low pump-
ing yields which average about 130 gpm. The upper of the formation's
two sand members generally yields saline water, and the lower yields
water of good quality.
The Ellenberger-San Saba Aquifer underlies parts of Menard, McCulloch,
San Saba, Kimble, and Gillespie Counties in central Texas. Although
two separate geologic units, the Ellenberger and San Saba both consist
of cavernous limestone and dolomite formations and are usually consid-
ered as one aquifer. This aquifer yields considerable water to springs
and wells within the Llano region and is a source of water for irrigation
and for small towns and communities, as well as for domestic and
livestock-watering purposes. Development is small and occurs mostly
in and very near its outcrop. The estimated total pumpage for 1960
was about 1,300 acre-feet with about 800 acre-feet for municipal use
and 490 acre-feet for irrigation. Thickness of the Ellenberger-San
Saba ranges from a few inches to over 2,000 feet and yields vary
greatly from one well to another. Although some wells yield more than
1,000 gpm, most yield less than 500 gpm.34_/
The Hickory Sandstone of upper Cambrian Age is the oldest ground-
water aqiofer in Texas. Although it is not a major reservoir, it is
of considerable local importance because it supplies the cities of Eden,
Mason, and Brady, and furnishes limited supplies of water for irriga-
tion chiefly in McCulloch and Mason Counties. The aquifer ranges in
45
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thickness from about 275 feet in the southeast part of the Llano region
to 500 feet in the northwestern part.30/ Total pumpage from the
Hickory in I960 was about 10.000 acre-feet, of which 3,900 acre-feet
was for municipal use, 270 acre-feet for industrial use, and 6,000
acre-feet for irrigation. Pumping rates from the Hickory range as
high as 1,500 gpm but are usually in the range of 200 to 500 gpm.34/
The Seymour Formation, consisting of scattered terrace deposits of
gravel, sand, and clay of Quaternary Age, is the principal aquifer in
the Osage Plains region of north central Texas. Most of these deposits
are small, but some are as long as 40 miles and as wide as 10 miles and
range in thickness from 0 to 85 feet.5_/ The larger deposits are in
Wilbarger, Foard, Baylor, Knox, Wheeler, Collingsworth, Hall,
Briscoe, Motley, and Dickens Counties. 35/ In 1957, this aquifer
supplied generally good quality water to about 1,600 irrigation wells
and was a source of supply for 13 municipalities. Well yields range
from 50 to more than 1,000 gpm.3_2/ Approximately 100,000 acre-feet of
water available annually from 13 areas exceeds the present total with-
drawal rate. However, pumpage in a few areas does exceed the esti-
mated average annual recharge and pumpage from these.areas may have
to be reduced in the future.31/
Southwest Texas
The Edwards and Associated Limestones, the main ground-water reser-
voir in southwest Texas, actually forms two ground-water reservoirs.
One underlies the Edwards Plateau where ground water is unconfined and
the other, an artesian aquifer, underlies the Balcones fault zone. The
hydrologic system of the plateau receives and stores large amounts of
rainfall and slowly discharges these supplies as spring flow to perennial
streams, which, in turn, recharge the artesian aquifer in the Balcones
fault zone.
Although the Edwards and Associated Limestones underlie three major
river basins (Nueces, San Antonio, and Guadalupe), it obtains about
three-fourths of its recharge from its western part which is the Nueces
River Basin.36/ Most of its discharge is through Comal Springs and
San Marcos Springs in the eastern part of the area and through irriga-
tion and municipal wells. The total discharge of the two springs in 1957
was about 210,000 acre-feet, and the total withdrawals from irrigation
and municipal wells in 1957 was also about 210,000 acre-feet.32/
Pumpage of water from either the Edwards-Trinity or the Edwards
Limestone (fault zone) where both aquifers occur directly affects the
quantity of additional water available for development from the Edwards
Limestone (fault zone) in the same basin and in adjacent basins. Because
46
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of the interrelationship of pumpage and its effect on the potential avail-
ability of additional water .from the Edwards Limestone (fault zone) ,
programs for altering or adding to the present rate of recharge will
have far-reaching effects upon the economy of the area and of the state
as a whole.
West Texas Area
Quaternary alluvium is the main aquifer in three relatively small but
important areas in west Texas. These include the El Paso area, the
Salt Basin, and the Pecos River Basin. These alluvial deposits consist
generally of interconnected lenticular layers of sand and gravel inter-
bedded with clay and silt and occur as remnants of once vast alluvial
plains and as extensive stream deposits.
The El Paso area can be divided into three areas: the upper valley,
which extends northward along the Rio Grande into New Mexico; the
lower valley, which extends southeastward from El Paso to Fort
Quitman; and the Mesa or Hueco Bolson, which extends northward into
New Mexico and continues as the Tularosa Basin. The principal water-
bearing beds are the Bolson deposits (valley fill) beneath the Mesa and
the valley, and the younger surficial alluvium of the Rio Grande beneath
the floodplain in the valley. The thickness of these deposits ranges to
more than 4,900 feet, but only a relatively small part of the El Paso
area receives ground-water supplies suitable for most uses.32/ Where
fresh water is available, it is overlain, underlain, or adjoined by
saline water, which represents an actual or potential source of contami-
nation. The total amount of saline water, most of which is in the Bolson
deposits, is probably several times as great as the amount of fresh
ground water.
The Salt Basin area is a closed depression about 150 miles long and 5 to
15 miles wide. It extends from northern Presidio County across western
Jeff Davis and Culberson Counties and northeastern Hudspeth County,
continuing into New Mexico as the Crow Flats area. It can be divided
into three main areas of irrigation called the Dell City, the Wildhorse,
and the Lobo Flats. The chief aquifer is alluvium except in the Dell
City area, where it is the highly permeable Bone Spring Limestone of
Permian Age. Water in the Lobo Flats and Wildhorse areas is generally
of good quality; however, that in the Dell City area is highly mineral-
ized and contains objectional quantities of sulfate. Between 1950 and
1960, water levels declined as much as 19 feet in the Dell City area and
14 feet in the Wildhorse area; the decline was greatest in the Lobo Flats
with declines up to 70 feet or more.5_/
The Pecos River Valley is an alluvial area of substantial size in Reeves,
Loving, Pecos, Ward, and Winkler Counties. Ground water is obtained
47
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from alluvial deposits and from troughs formed by subsidence of older
beds and recharge is principally by runoff from the mountains to the
west and southwest. Under natural conditions, water moves toward
and is discharged into the Pecos River. Movement toward the river has
been stopped or reduced in the heavily irrigated areas, and persistent
declines in water levels indicate that the rate of pumping exceeds the
maximum possible sustained yield. Irrigation development has apparently
passed its peak and the Pecos River water is already fully appropriated,
Since there are no other large sources of surface water, the Pecos Valley
is faced with a serious lack of water supplies.
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SECTION V
GROUND-WATER POLLUTION INDICATORS
Ground water is one of the most widely distributed resources of man
and one of the most important. As such, it is subject to both natural
and man-made contamination. To evaluate a ground-water pollution
problem, it is necessary to have an understanding of indicators that
reflect pollution and the concentrations at which these indicators affect
beneficial uses of the water.
The concentrations at which indicators become pollutants depends upon
the use to be made of the water but water pollution is generally indicated
by excessive concentrations of the following:
1. Chemical indicators—Total dissolved solids, chlorides,
sulfates, calcium, magnesium, fluorides, sodium, iron,
boron, nitrates, phosphates, and others.
2. Biological indicators—Coliform organisms, biochemical
oxygen demand, viruses, bacteria, etc.
3. Industrial indicators—pesticides, herbicides, acids,
arsenic, heavy metals, detergents, phenols, gasoline,
and others.
There are also many other elements that indicate pollution for a variety
of reasons. An element may be a pollutant because of its toxicity—such
as arsenic for humans and animals or boron for agricultural crops—or,
because of its undesirable characteristic for a specific use—such as
hardness in boiler waters. Standards for irrigation, domestic and a
number of uses have been formulated by various agencies and some of
these are presented in the appendix of this report.
Many pollution indicators reach the ground water because of man's
activities, but many others contaminate ground water through natural
processes not related to man. The great majority of the data referred
to in this section of the report deals with water quality resulting from
natural conditions. One exception may be over-pumping which some-
times causes intrusion of saline waters into otherwise fresh water areas.
Very little data is available concerning specific pollutant concentrations
in areas contaminated by man's activities, such as brine disposal pits
or sanitary landfills, etc. The information presented in Tables 4 through
11 on pollution indicators does not imply any level of statistical reliability
but is intended to give a general indication of the water quality param-
eters which have been detected and measured within the study area.
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ARKANSAS
Although Arkansas has a large total water supply and relatively few
water problems, limitations on ground-water availability or use are
imposed by the chemical quality in nearly all parts of the state.
Ground water throughout Arkansas is subject to some mineralization.
Much of this water has a high iron content, generally accompanied by
hardness of the calcium bicarbonate type. The largest area of hard,
irony water is the western two-thirds of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain.
The ground water is generally low in total dissolved solids, averaging
about 271 nig/1 and rarely exceeding 1,000 mg/1. The water is also
very low in chloride and sulfate. Table 4 lists the major chemical con-
stituents of the ground water in the more important water-bearing areas
of the state.
Interior Highlands
Although the northwestern half of Arkansas, the Interior Highlands,
contains limited ground-water supplies, the water is generally of good
quality. There are, however, some natural and man-made pollutants
that affect the ground-water supply.
Ground water in areas of cavernous limestone in the Ozark Plateaus, as
in similar areas elsewhere in the country, is readily contaminated from
surface sources and wells must be constructed properly to exclude the
polluted water. These surface sources include septic tank effluents
and industrial wastes.
Salt water is known to be present beneath the fresh ground water in
Arkansas. In general, salt water lies at a much greater depth in the
Highlands than in the coastal plain, probably because, the rocks are
older, higher and have had more time to have the saline water flushed
out at greater depths .
Another source of saline water is the disposal of brines from oil and gas
fields. A considerable part of the salt in ground water in the Arkansas
River Valley area has resulted from the dumping of brine from oil and
gas wells into the Arkansas River or into pits in the alluvium. 8/
Gulf Coastal Plain
Nearly all the Gulf Coastal Plain, roughly the southeastern half of
Arkansas, is underlain by one or more deposits that will yield fairly
50
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tn
Table 4.
Interior
SUMMARY OF MINERALS
location
Highlands
IN GROUND WATER IN
Total
Dissolved
Solids
fag/1)
N Range A N
THE VARIOUS
Chlorides
(mg/1)
Range A
GROUND WATER REGIONS
Sulfates
tar/i)
N flange A
OF ARKANSAS
Total
Hardness
(as CaOOs)
(mg/1)
N Range A
Arkansas River Valley
72 37-1450 393 82 1.5-378 52.2
81 0.0-255 26.4
72 0.0-1100 165
Gulf Coastal Plain
Cockfield Formation
Sparta Sand
Wiloox Formation ("1400 ft. Sand")
Cretaceous Undifferentiated Deposits
Quaternary ?lluviun
63
82
37
9
89
27-958
37-776
12-1170
124-637
80-652
212
217
157
387
262
63
82
67
97
298
2.2-58
1.0-304
0.0-540 .
3.2-2100
0.5-1190
8.6
44.2
82
195.4
27.2
63
82
67
97
278
0.0-470
0.0-218
0.0-100
0.0-560
0.0-155
22.4
7.3
4.8
78.7
15.4
63
82
67
97
276
5.0-488
4.0-288
1.0-328
4.0-396
6.0-588
47
62.7
18
70.4
170
N - Number of determinations.
Range - Pange in concentration for samples analyzed.
A - Average of concentrations for samples analyzed.
-------
large amounts of good quality water. Because the ground water is
derived chiefly from precipitation that falls as rain or snow, mineraliza-
tion results from the water passing through rocks and soil to the zone of
saturation.
The principal constituents that are picked up by this infiltration are
calcium and bicarbonate. The CaCO- hardness ranges from 1.0 to 588
mg/1 from the more productive aquifers and the average concentration
is about 86.2 mg/1.7/ Water containing between 75 and 150 mg/1 hard-
ness is considered to be moderately hard.
Iron is another constituent that is present locally in objectional
quantities. Iron is dissolved from many rocks and soils and concen-
trations range from 0.01 to 54 mg/1, generally exceeding the recom-
mended standard quantity of 0.3 mg/1 set by the U.S. Public Health
Service, ll/
Arsenic has been found in several areas including water wells near the
Pine Bluff Arsenal in Jefferson County.
LOUISIANA
Although Louisiana contains vast amounts of ground-water supplies, it
is faced with a growing number of problems. One problem is salt-water
encroachment due primarily to heavy irrigation pumpage. Along with
the problem of salt-water encroachment goes the potential problem of
contamination of fresh water by salt domes and surficial " salt licks . "
Figure 14 shows the locations of salt domes which are concentrated
largely in southern Louisiana; however, a fairly large number occur in
the parishes immediately east of the Red Rivery Valley and also in a few
parishes adjacent to the Mississippi River. In areas of shallow alluvial
and terrace deposits, surface disposal of wastes is a critical problem.
Iron and hardness are a persistent problem over much of the state.
Other constituents that are found to be present locally in the water in
objectional quantities include fluoride, silica, sulfate, and chloride.
Table 5 gives water quality data for the more important water-bearing
areas of the state. Other sources of contamination present in some
areas of the state include methane and hydrogen sulfide gas and oil
field brines.
Southwestern Louisiana
Southwestern Louisiana is one of the largest areas of ground-water and
surface water use and has several pressing problems, the most serious
of which is salt-water encroachment. The transition from fresh to salt
52
-------
U1
OJ
OESOTO RED
RIVER
WEST EAST
LICIANA>EL1C1ANA ST
ELENA
FIGURE 14, LOCATION OF SALT DOMES IN LOUISIANA
-------
Ul
Table 5. SUMMARY OF M
Location
Southwest Louisiana
Atchafalaya
Chicot
Chicot-Atchafalaya
Evangeline
Baton Rouge Area
Quaternary Alluvium
Shallow Sands (400-600 ft.)
Deep Sands (800-2800 ft.)
Baton Rouge-New Orleans Area
"700-Foot" Sand
Mississippi River Alluvium
INERALS IN GROUND WATER
Total
Dissolved
Solids
(mg/1)
N
24
32
29
29
8
11
49
30
13
Range C
300-350
220-248
121-699
333-870
172-719
184-1300 1»1000
165-5290 1>1000
382-3840 12>1000
199-2839 2>1000
N
24
29
36
35
19
13
50
34
14
IN THE VARIOUS GROUND WATER REGIONS OF LOUISIANA
Total
Hardness
Chlorides Sulfates (as 03003)
(mg/1) (mg/1) (mg/1)
Range C
16-34
4.2-20
3.0-128
2-984 4>2.50
3.8-126
3.8-113
2.5-3050 2>250
42-2160 14>250
11-1470 3>25C
N
24
33
32
32
6
11
50
34
13
Range C
0.5-13
0.0-17
0.0-13
0.0-23
0.0-1.6
0.8-8.6
0.0-12
0.0-12
0.0-23
N
26
29
34
35
19
13
49
34
14
Range
200-254
116-181
38-620
4-84
123-388
6.5-347
0.0-319
8-290
81-446
C
29>100
12>100
19>IOO
1>100
1>000
7>100
12>100
Southeastern Louisiana
Northern -and Central Louisiana
Sparta Sand
Wilcox Group
Quaternary Alluvium of
the Red River
22
165-877
32 43-1080 2>1000
48 3.5-4470 11>1000
76 51-3120 5>100C
25 2.2-222
33
56
79
20-214
2.5-1260
2.0-687
24
0.0-20
" 30 0.2-237
10>250 56 0.0-1080 5>250
3>250 54 0.0-495 1»250
25
0.0-33
32 0.0-168
56 0.0-975
79 8-1030
1>100
12>100
72>100
N - Number of determinations.
Range - Range in concentration for samples analyzed.
C - Number of determinations more than (>) or less than (<) selected concentrations.
-------
water varies throughout the area, but it usually occurs in a fairly sharp
zone. The base of fresh water is generally deepest in Northern
Beauregard Parish where the Evangeline aquifer contains fresh water
to depths greater than 3,000 feet below sea level.3_7/ The base of fresh
water is shallowest along the coast and in the Atchafalaya River Basin.
The fresh ground water in southwestern Louisiana is generally low in
chlorides and only in a few instances does it exceed 250 mg/1. The vast
areas of salty or brackish water, however, contain up to 2,000 mg/1
chloride.38/ .-"
The water varies from the calcium bicarbonate to the sodium bicarbonate
type and tends to be softer with increased depth and distance from the
outcrop areas. Some natural softening takes place due to the occurrence
of natural zeolites in the underground deposits.
Water from many wells in southwestern Louisiana contains excessive
amounts of silica. Silica concentrations in excess of 30 mg/1 are not
uncommon and occasionally concentrations of 50 to 60 mg/1 are
present. 13_/
Other constituents that are present locally in objectional quantities
include iron and fluoride. In several areas the fluoride content exceeds
1.5 mg/1, the maximum allowable concentration recommended by the
United States Public Health Service.
Another source of contamination to the,ground-water supplies is the
presence of methane gas. Methane concentrations in fresh water aqui-
fers in southwestern Louisiana range from zero to 127 mg/1.39/ The
areas of largest methane concentrations occur in the vicinity of three
oil and gas-producing fields and in some wells in the vicinity of Lake
Charles where continuous pumping has lowered water levels greatly.
Generation of methane from organic matter within the fresh water aqui-
fers and intrusion of methane into the aquifers from underlying oil and
gas sands are two possible sources of this gas.
Water from the Evangeline and Jasper aquifers is generally of better
quality than that from the overlying Chicot reservoir for uses other
than irrigation. Typically, the water is of the sodium bicarbonate
type, very soft, slightly alkaline, low in chloride content, and free of
excessive quantities of dissolved iron.
Baton Rouge Area
Ground water in the Baton Rouge area varies from hard calcium bicarbonate
type in the alluvium deposits to the soft sodium bicarbonate type in the
deeper artesian sands.
55
-------
The water typically exceeds 0.3 mg/1 of iron and ranges as high as
18 mg/1 in some parts of the alluvium. Hardness is variable according
to its location and ranges from 123-452 mg/1.14/
Water from most of the deeper artesian sands is soft, alkaline and typi-
cally contains less than 0.3 mg/1 of iron. Chloride concentrations are
generally low except in areas where heavy pumping has resulted in salt
water encroachment. 40/
The shallow sands have been subject to encroachment of brackish water
in the southern part of the Baton Rouge area. In reality, the fresh water
in the aquifers of the Baton Rouge area is the contaminant because,
initially, the aquifers were filled with salty water. The fresh water
has flushed the brackish water from the formations throughout most
of the area.
Baton Rouge-New Orleans Area
The chemical quality of the ground water in the Baton Rouge-New Orleans
area varies greatly. Except for waters having high concentrations of
chloride, all water is of the bicarbonate type. However, in some areas
the water is hard to extremely hard and commonly contains iron in
objectional quantities; in others, the hardness is low and the water
is of the sodium bicarbonate type.
With the exception of the northeastern part of Ascension Parish, most
shallow wells yield water that is very hard and relatively high in iron.
The hard water containing large quantities of iron is generally associ-
ated with the Mississippi River Alluvium. The hardness, which is
caused mainly by calcium and magnesium normally ranges from about
60 to 370 mg/1.41/ It has been noted that hardness increases with
increasing chloride concentrations, thus, salty water may have a
hardness higher than the above range. The concentration of iron
ranges widely, generally from about 1 mg/1 to more than 10 mg/1.
Except where there is local salt-water contamination, the chloride
concentration in water from wells tapping the alluvium is generally
less than 50 mg/1. Like other areas of the state, fresh ground water
in the shallow aquifers has completely or partially flushed out the
salty or brackish water from the formations. In the local areas where
the salty or brackish water is still present, the chloride concentrations
may be as high as 1,470 mg/1.15/ In general, the depth to which fresh
water has displaced the salt water increases as the head of fresh water
above sea level increases.
Deeper wells from the older deltaic deposits generally yield water that
is relatively soft except where chloride concentrations are high. The
56
-------
decrease in hardness of water from deeper wells probably results from
the greater distance the water has traveled from the source area, which
allows greater opportunity for base exchange to take place.
In the northern part of the area, the "700-foot" sand yields fresh, soft
water that is low in iron but has a distinct yellow color, generally
attributed to organic debris which is common in alluvial and deltaic
deposits.
Southeastern Louisiana
Ground water problems are not serious in southeastern Louisiana.
Large quantities of soft, fresh water are available although there is
concern about the high acidity in the northern part of the area and
some waste of water from flowing wells.
Northern and Central Louisiana
The quality of ground water in northern and central Louisiana varies
according to the area of the state and the formation it is derived from.
The three formations that supply the majority of ground water for the
area are the Wilcox Formation, Sparta Sands, and Quaternary Alluvium
of the Red River Valley.
The Wilcox Formation, the oldest water-bearing sands of Tertiary Age,
yield soft, high sodium bicarbonate water throughout much of the area.
Water from most of the wells has an iron content greater than the maxi-
mum recommended by the U.S . Public Health Service for drinking water.
Sulfate and chloride contents generally are below recommended limits,
but the fluoride content commonly is greater than the recommended limit
of 1.6 mg/1.42/ Dissolved solids concentrations usually exceed 500 mg/1
and sometimes exceed 1,000 mg/1.
Salty water in the Wilcox group is found at depths that range from about
200 feet above sea level to more than 800 feet below sea level. The alti-
tude of the base of fresh ground water ranges greatly; therefore, it is
difficult to predict accurately the maximum depth of fresh water at any
specified location.
The Wilcox group is subject to contamination by leakage from improperly
plugged oil wells, movement of salt water in the vicinity of faults, down-
ward movement of wastes in areas of surface disposal, and movement of
salt water through confining beds of clay.
The Sparta Sand is the most important aquifer in northern Louisiana. It
supplies ground water that ranges from soft to hard but generally con-
tains less than 10 mg/1 hardness. Dissolved solids content averages
57
-------
slightly more than 300 mg/1. In the unconfined aquifer, the water is
soft, has a low dissolved solids content and acidic pH. The artesian
water is alkaline and generally suitable for most uses, but iron content
usually exceeds 0.3 mg/1.
The quality of water in the Red River Alluvial aquifer greatly restricts
its use. The average hardness is 500 mg/1 and the average iron con-
tent is 6 mg/1, both far above the concentration desirable for potable
water. 43/ The high hardness and iron concentrations in the water
have their origin in the iron-bearing calcareous alluvium of the Red
River through which the water moves.
The aquifer is contaminated in a few places by upward leakage of salt
water from underlying formations. Such contamination generally is of
small areal extent. One of the larger areas of salt water contamination
is at Clarence, in Natchitoches Parish, where the water has concentra-
tions of chloride as great at 8,000 mg/1.44/ However, salinity increases
with depth and small quantities of potable water are available in the
upper part of the aquifer.
NEW MEXICO
New Mexico is the westernmost state in the study area and the major
ground-water quality problems are typical of most of the southwestern
states. As with most of the study area, mineralization of the ground
water is the most common and widespread quality problem. Nearly all
ground water in New Mexico is derived from infiltration of precipitation
and seepage from streams and is at least slightly mineralized because
of contact with soil and rock.
Few of the aquifers in New Mexico contain exclusively fresh or saline
water. Most aquifers may contain fresh water at one locality and saline
water at another. In some parts of New Mexico all ground water is
saline and in some of these areas all the aquifers yield comparatively
small amounts of water. 45/
Mineralization is normally described in terms of total dissolved solids
and water containing more than 1,000 mg/1 is classified as saline.
The ground waters in the various regions are summarized in Table 6,
and Figure 15 indicates the general areas of the state where the shallow
ground water is saline. In most areas of New Mexico, mineralization or
total dissolved solids results primarily from two specific ions—chlorides
and sulfates. However, hardness is a problem in many areas of New
Mexico as are fluorides and nitrates, and occasionally arsenic.
High Plains
The Ogallala aquifer of the High Plains contains some of the best quality
water in New Mexico. Although fluoride concentrations commonly
58
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Ul
vo
Table 6. SUMMARY OF MINERALS IN GROUND WATER IN THE VARIOUS GROUND WATER REGIONS IN NEW MEXICO
•total
Dissolved ~ Percent
Solids Chlorides Sol fa tea Fluorides Hardness Sodium
(mo/1) ta/1) (nn/1) (TO/1) ITO/D <»>
location N Range C N Range C N Range C
High Plains 25 156-3680 7>1000 89 6.0-1750 19*250 65 15.0-2250 28>200
Rio Grande Valley 195 98-26500 38>1000 233 2.0-4310 55*100 210 3.5-16500 20*1000
Canadian and Cirarrm
Mvur Bands 97 96-8210 28*1000 122 2.0-1390 17>100 123 4.9-5860 43*400
16*2000
Peoos Riwer Basin 198 105-275000 133>1000 415 4.5-158000 97>250 394 29.0-10200 333>250
Southwestern Hew Mexico 31 186-1659 3*1000 42 5.0-156 2>50 45 4.9-686 7*100
Colorado Plateaus 200 71-4470 52 » 1000 227 1.4-4650 10>250 205 0.6-2880 84>2SO
Oantral and Southomtral
New Mexioo
Tularosa Basin 529 45-112000 280*1000 670 4.0-66000 219>250 655 18.0-10270 428*250
Estancia Valley 107 207-12300 - 165 3.0-5260 - 109 9.1-3230
Cra* Flats Ares 6 400-3300 4*1000 21 2.0-275 1*250 21 72.0-2230 19»250
N Range C N Range C N Range C
22 0.3-4.4 17*1.5 55 22-2400 9>1(100 5 25.0-42
170 0.0-4.0 17*1.5 227 11-5000 36>500 141 7.0-95 19V60
50>100
80 0.1-7.0 18>1.5 105 35-5360 39.300 98 7.0-97 21>60
50>100
59 0.1-3.2 16>1.5 397 53-9330 319>500 127 0.0-79 6*60
26 0.2-13.0 18*1.5 45 11-1094 , 12>200 28 24.0-93 17*60
180 0.1-7.0 22*1.5 181 3-2680 100*120 62 1.0-98 28>60
314 0.0-20.0 4S>1.5 464 24-16200 213*500 ...
99 0.0-3.8 - 108 160-8370 - -
7 0.4-3.2 1>1.5 21 352-2500 - 10 0.0-5
H - Hxittoer of determinations.
Ranqe - Ranqe in concentration for sanples analyzed.
C - Nxntier of determinations mm than (y) or less than (<) selected concentrations-
-------
.>'iAN\jyXN ;/://>;.y^^^^
NO SALINE WATER KNOWN
/j 1,000-3,000 MG/L
3 3,000-10,000 MG/L
10,000-35,000 MG/L
OVER 35/000 MG/L
FIGURE 15. LOCATION OF SALINE GROUND WATERS IN NEW MEXICO
60
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exceed limits recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service, dissolved
solids content is typically less than 1,000 mg/1. Recharge of the Ogallala
on the High Plains is due entirely to inadequate precipitation and water
use in this area is heavy. This combination plus a high evaporation
rate leads to mining of the water supply and concentration of minerals
in the remaining waters.
A typical water from the Ogallala contains approximately 25 mg/1
magnesium, 50 mg/1 sodium and potassium, 240 mg/1 bicarbonate,
15 mg/1 sulfate, 10 mg/1 chloride, 2.5 mg/1 fluoride, and variable
concentrations of nitrates but generally less than 10 mg/1.46/
The Ogallala in some areas of the High Plains is above the water table
and the Quaternary Alluvium is the major source of ground water. In
the southern and western part of Lea County and in the Portales Valley,
the Ogallala has been replaced by the alluvium.
Ground water from these Quaternary alluvial deposits is not as good
quality as from the Ogallala and could be classified as slightly saline.
Total dissolved solids are in the 1,000-2,000 mg/1 range with chlorides
from 100 to 600 mg/1 and sulfates about 500 mg/1.45_/ Water is generally
high in silica (65-82 mg/1), moderately high in calcium-plus-magnesium,
and low in sodium-plus-potassium.
Sandstone formations underlying the High Plains, though of low yield,
are nevertheless important sources of water for stock and homes. Water
quality in these formations is extremely variable but generally is more
saline than either the Ogallala or the alluvium.
Oil is a problem in and around water in at least one location in the High
Plains. An area of about a half-section east of Hobbs contains about six
feet of oil of unknown origin covering the top of the ground-water table
which is about 30 feet below the land surface.
Rio Grande Valley
The Rio Grande Valley contains the largest supply of fresh water in
New Mexico. Because of the close interrelationship of the surface water
with the ground water in this valley and because of continued recycling
of available water, the quality of the ground water tends to decrease
from the Colorado to the Texas line.
As with most of the state, mineralization is the principal water quality
problem in the Rio Grande Valley. Most of the ground water in the
valley near Santa Fe is low in dissolved solids (less than 300 mg/1),
chlorides (less than 20 mg/1), and sulfates (less than 30 mg/1), although
it could be classified as hard (155 mg/1 CaCO3) .
61
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In the area of Albuquerque, ground-water quality is more erratic but
most wells still have less than 500 mg/1 dissolved solids, 50 mg/1
chlorides, and 250 mg/1 sulfates. Water of the alluvial aquifer is more
highly mineralized than that of the Santa Fe formation. Dissolved solids
concentrations are highest at the water table but decrease rapidly in the
upper few feet of the aquifer and then more slowly to the base of the
aquifer. 18/
Canadian and Cimarron River Basins
Ground water in the Canadian and Cimarron River Basin is scarce but
generally is of fair quality. Most of the water is hard, some of it is very
hard, but most of it is low in chlorides and free of odor and color. Sul-
fate is present in objectional concentrations in some waters. Some areas,
such as western Colfax County, have ground water high in sodium
chloride, sodium bicarbonate, and fluoride.
Pecos River Basin
Ground water throughout the Pecos River Basin is highly mineralized,
as noted earlier in Figure 12. Virtually all of the ground water in the
alluvium of the Pecos Valley south of Carlsbad is not potable. Mineral
content increases progressively toward the Pecos River and generally
downstream. Chloride concentrations range from less than 10 mg/1 in
rare instances to many thousands and even near saturation but most
wells contain several hundred mg/1. Sulfate concentrations similarly
are quite variable ranging up to several thousand mg/1.
Fluorides and nitrates may be problems in local areas but salinity is the
major ground-water problem that overshadows all others in the basin.
Basins in Central and South Central New Mexico
The quality of ground water of the Estancia Valley differs considerably
with the locality. Generally, in the alluvium, the mineral content
becomes progressively higher from the outer edges of the valley to
the central playa areas. Sulfates, chlorides, and hardness concentra-
tions all range up to over 3,000 mg/1. Di'ssolved solids range from
207 to 6,170 mg/1 and fluoride concentrations as high as 3.6 mg/1 are
found. Starting on a line about two to three miles east of Highway 41,
ground water from there west in the Estancia Valley is generally of
satisfactory quality for domestic, stock or irrigation supplies. Ground
water to the east of this line is generally of poor quality—very high in
salinity.
Salinity is also the major water quality problem of the Tularosa Basin.
Almost 98 percent of the alluvial deposits in this basin contains sodium
62
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chloride brines with dissolved solids concentrations greater than
35,000 mg/1. The best quality water is found near the mountain fronts
and generally increases in salinity with distance from the mountain
front and with depth. Fresh water, or that containing less than 1,000
mg/1 dissolved solids, is found at several locations of the Tularosa
Basin. Two of the largest include an alluvial area south of Alamogordo
and an area adjacent to the southern San Andres Mountains. 19/
The great majority of the ground water of the Jornado del Muerto is also
highly mineralized. The water is generally very hard but high chloride
and sulfate concentrations are the principal contaminants that make the
water impotable. Over 99 percent of the potential perennial yield of
the more than 11 million acre-feet per year of ground water in the
Jornado del Muerto is classified as impotable, using the definition of
more than 500 mg/1 of chloride or sulfate or more than 750 mg/1 of
both.47/
Basins in Southwestern New Mexico
Almost all the ground water used in the basins of southwestern New
Mexico is from the alluvial deposits and is generally of good quality.
In the Hachita Valley, the ground water is moderately hard and some
contains excessive sulfates and fluorides but, generally, dissolved
solids are less than 750 mg/1, sulfates less than 300 mg/1, and chlorides
less'than 50 mg/1.48/
In the Playas Valley, some of the ground water is soft but hardness and
dissolved solids concentrations increase toward the northern and east-
ern parts of the valley. Sulfate concentrations are generally less than
80 mg/1 but increase to more than 4,000 mg/1 in a well in the north-
eastern part of the valley. Sodium concentrations are somewhat high
and most wells sampled contain fluoride concentrations above the rec-
ommended maximum of 1.5 mg/1 for public water supplies.49/
All of the ground water in the Animas Valley is relatively low in hard-
ness, sulfates and dissolved solids. Sodium is moderately high, ranging
up to 93 percent and most wells contain more than 60 percent which would
be excessive in more highly mineralized water. Most of the ground water
does contain fluoride concentrations in excess of 1.5 mg/1 and one well
contains as much as 13 mg/1.
The Mimbres Valley has the longest history of ground-water develop-
ment in southwestern New Mexico and water is generally of good
quality for most uses but some of the water does have a high fluoride
content.
The San Augustin Plains is a large, almost uninhabited, basin of
internal drainage in Catron and Socorro Counties. Much of the water
63
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in the central part of the basin is saline but in the southwestern part,
ground water of relatively good quality is found.
Like the rest of southwestern New Mexico, ground water of the Gila and
San Francisco River Basins is of good quality for most purposes. Al-
though it could be classified as hard to moderately hard, dissolved
solids range from 200-400 mg/1, chlorides and sulfates are usually
less than 25 mg/1 and fluorides are generally less than 1 mg/1.
Colorado Plateau
Like southwest New Mexico, the Colorado Plateau is an area of limited
ground-water supplies but unlike the southwestern area, the widely
available small quantities are often of poor quality.
Ground-water quality data for this area is limited but it is apparent
that quality varies widely between the many different aquifers and even
at different locations in the same aquifer. Ground water from the
Gallup sandstone, the principal aquifer in the Gallup area, contains
hard water in the range from 280 to 600 mg/1. Dissolved solids range
from 740 to 968 mg/1 and sulfates from 261 to 514 mg/1.20/
Similar quality water is obtained from the Chinle formation in the Fort
Wingate area to the east of Gallup. Gound water used from both loca-
tions is generally low in chlorides although saline water is known to
be at greater depth. 50/
In the western part of San Juan County on the Navajo Reservation,
small quantities of ground water are obtained from several formations,
primarily sandstones. Most of this water is of relatively good quality
with chlorides less than 100 mg/1 and dissolved solids generally less
than 1,000 mg/1. Sulfates, hardness, and sodium are high in some of
the ground water used.
OKLAHOMA
Ground-water quality in Oklahoma varies greatly both with respect to
the properties of the water-bearing rocks and the geographical location
within the state. Quality in the west is generally inferior to that of the
east due largely to the effects of rainfall and evaporation, and to the
type of geologic formation. An exception to this generalization is
the Ogallala Formation in the High Plains region where natural recharge
is minor in relation to withdrawals.
Limestone rocks characteristic of the Arbuckle and Ozark Mountains
produce relatively hard water due to the presence of calcium carbonate
64
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Sandstones in Oklahoma generally yield a soft water containing princi-
pally sodium bicarbonate and sulfates with small concentrations of
calcium carbonate.
The rocks of western Oklahoma contain much higher quantities of solu-
ble salts than those in the east. Water from these formations is, there-
fore, more highly mineralized.
Water from terrace deposits or from stream alluvium again tends to be
more highly mineralized in the western part of the state than in the east.
Gound-water quality from these sources mirrors that of its surface
counterpart with respect to chemical character but is usually a little
higher in concentration. In these types of formations, both surface
and ground-water quality tend to correlate with rainfall and evapora-
tion with increases in mineralization occurring during prolonged
droughts.
Deep aquifer water usually becomes more mineralized both with distance
from the recharge zone and with depth. Although rare in Oklahoma, it
has been found that in the Norman area shallow water is inferior to that
found at greater depths . 28/
Exceptions to the above generalizations occur in locations where oil
field brines have contaminated both surface and ground water.
For purposes of describing ground-water quality in Oklahoma, the
state has been divided into the High Plains, Western, and Eastern
areas. The following section will discuss quality generally for those
areas while more specific information can be obtained from Table 7,
which uses the quality of municipal supplies to describe that ground-
water source from which it is taken.
High Plains Area
The Ogallala Formation, which underlies most of the Oklahoma panhandle
and much of Harper, Ellis and Roger Mills Counties, is composed mostly
of sand and gravel with small amounts of clay. It is capped by a calcium
carbonate rock called caliche.
Water from the Ogallala is of good quality with the exception of its
moderate hardness which ranges between 150-300 mg/1 expressed as
calcium carbonate. 51/ Chlorides are low and fluorides are moderately
high at some times and locations.
Redbeds underlying the Ogallala do provide some water for stock water-
ing, but it is generally very hard and high in chlorides and sulfates.
65
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Table 7. SUMMARY OF MINERALS
Total
Municipality
Source
Date
Dissolved
Solids
IN GROUND
Chlorides
lmg/1)
WATERS
Sulfatea
(mq/1)
OF OKLAHOMA
Total
Hardness
(ng/1)
Sodium
(mg/1)
Fluorides
("iq/D
HIGH PLAINS AREA
Boise City
Guymon
Shattuck
Beaver
Laverne
Woodward
WESTERN
Thomas
Hinton
Ft. Cobb
Apache
Hush Springs
Marlow
Edmond
Moore
Lexington
Ringling
Healdton
Hollis
Tipton
Ogallala
Ogallala
Ogallala
Alluvial/Terrace
(North Canadian)
Alluvial/Terrace
(North Canadian)
Alluvial/Terrace
(North Canadian)
OKLAHOMA AREA
Rush Springs
Rush Springs
Rush Springs
Rush Springs
Rush Springs
Rush Springs
Garber
Garber
Garber
Wichita
Wichita
Alluvial/Terrace
(Salt Fork)
Alluvial/Terrace
11/20/S1
12/63
11/20/51
12/64
1/18/51
8/62
8/62
8/18/51
2/65
11/29/39
?/61
11/9/52
2/64
2/20/51
6/65
7/26/51
5/65
5/65
6/30/52
6/64
8/23/51
6/64
8/22/51
6/65
8/1/51
7/63
9/8/50
4/65
12/1/49
5/65
6/30/52
7/63
6/30/52
2/64
8/21/51
6/64
12/13/51
4/65
8/10/50
12/63
6/8/53
(North Fork of Red) 9/65
Davidson
Wynnewood
Maysville
Yukon
Waynoka
Crescent
Tonkawa
Xaw City
Alluvial/Terrace
(Red)
Alluvial /Terrace
(Washita)
Alluvial/Terrace
(Washita)
Alluvial/Terrace
(North Canadian)
Alluvial/Terrace
(North Canadian)
Alluvial /Terrace
(Cimarron)
Allux-ial/Terrace
(Arkansas)
Alluvial/Terrace
(Arkansas)
1/30/52
,6/65
8/14/52
3/65
12/13/51
3/65
6/30/52
6/62
6/62
6/9/51
8/64
10/23/51
11/64
11/24/52
11/63
10/23/52
2/64
324
280
331
305
296
274
276
413
330
_
326
556
600
197
340
618
1150
1200
347
320
318
590
296
370
407
280
522
380
712
580
279
290
574
310
675
600
1060
1120
410
420
778
680
516
590
516
680
731
920
807
702
403
310
220
642
280
644
640
616
790
26
24
8.5
12
12
24
22
55
34
49
34
52
84
26
64
26
40
40
16
24
7.2
22
7.0
38
23
10
127
16
150
84
7.8
12
42
16
18
24
139
192
14
14
162
138
48
90
48
56
38
110
66
84
84
16
26
112
28
16
42
90
142
63
37
77
85
11
34
33
51
36
38
13
114
74
23
82
183
1180
1200
13
33
79
405
12
98
77
32
84
125
68
55
6.7
8
84
27
66
61
15
100
54
43
87
1
59
90
59
65
69
195
138
_
-
32
25
54
19
216
245
76
91
226
153
239
192
230
200
224
234
222
174
184
350
340
107
152
352
1048
992
192
258
220
564
254
206
288
216
266
272
82
136
222
220
398
220
3
12
12
32
250
274
336
276
334
352
334
352
590
616
505
408
156
202
232
400
158
423
466
384
412
24
20
21
20
14
48*
28*
56
26
-
54
71
18
37
70
80
100
50
35
13
25
15
31
20
7*
91
34
243
140
23
43*
58
32
277
320
437
720
39
31
160
148
56
72
56
195
50
79
103
13*
9*
76
74
76
38
50
54
65
88
1.3
1.4
1.2
, 1.98
0.0
0. 2
0.2
0.3
2.02
-
~
0.7
1.05
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.75
1.2
0.1
0.0
0.3
o.s:
0.1
o.:
0.1
0.75
-
0.52
1.4
1.0
0.1
0.45
C.>
0.38
1.3
1.2
1.5
2.86
0.75
o.-
0.75
C.7
1.05
0.7
1.47
0.3
0.45
0.5
0.7
0.7
0 . 1
0.38
0. 1
0.52
C . 1
o'.i
C . 3
0.38
66
-------
Table 7. SUMMARY
Municipality
Source
CF MINERALS IN GROUND WATERS CF OKLAHOMA. (Continued)
Total
Date
Dissolved
Solids
(mg/1)
EASTERN OKLAHOMA AREA
Drumwright
Bristow
Stroud
Prague
Boley
Seminole
Roff
Sulphur
Marietta
Kingston
Caddo
Banning ton
Bo swell
Ft. Towson
Garvin
Haworth
Stillwell
Locust Grove
Commerce
Miami
Quapaw
Afton
Davis
•Calculated
Vamoosa
Vamoosa
Vamoosa
Vamoosa
Vamoosa
Vamoosa
Arbuckle
Arbuckle
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
Trinity
Tokio
Boone
Boone
Boone
Roubidoux
Roubidoux
Roubidoux
Alluvial/Terrace
(Washita)
7/25/50
9/63
7/24/51
5/«5
7/23/51
6/64
10/24/51
1/64
7/24/51
6/65
5/1/51
6/65
10/26/51
9/64
3/9/51
9/64
3/2/51
7/65
3/19/48
3/65
12/27/52
12/63
8/16/51
12/63
12/27/52
7/63
6/11/53
12/64
8/16/51
4/65
12/27/52
2/65
9/11/51
12/63
12/63
8/30/51
4/65
9/6/51
4/65
5/15/51
2/65
9/6/51
12/64
9/6/51
12/64
8/14/52
9/64
300
350
457
680
2480
450
409
375
263
450
244
235
468
470
344
320
427
450
612
_ 570
503
420
827
870
621
427
189
195
308
305
69
52
147
150
165
129
95
159
200
217
360
152
140
758
850
646
620
Chlorides
8.2
20
54
252
400
16
11
18
12
16
4.5
12
91
95
5.0
12
13
30
21
18
20
16
74
78
83
36
11
12
16
24
17
14
6.2
12
10
5.5
12
8
22
42
102
4
8
348
379
82
94
Sulfates
63
37
44
44
1080
123
29
10
8.8
123
47
37
35
22
16
0
45
53
87
45
32
49
38
39
'70
73
11
15
42
42
0.3
5
4.1
10
20
6.5
12
16
26
15
15
ia
10
18
10
38
5
Total
Hardness
(BO/1 )
^_*li:j/ „ /
208
84
314
360
528
42
12
24
221
42
124
156
297
284
330
300
48
36
22
8
2
22
4
16
394
310
148
188
40
48
16
30
120
128
136
100
66
123
136
135
134
130
lie
172
184
388
376
Sodium
(mg/1)
.
103*
38
96
619
41
161
160
14
41
40
23
66
69
7.1
8
145
210
-
40
201
150
336
332
43
14*
6.0
4
100
92
9.6
13
3.9
2
23*
3.5
10
9.6
20
29
68
4.4
7
220
144
78
63
Fluorides
(mg/1)
.
0.05
0.1
0.0
0.9
1.64
0.3
0.45
0.1
1.64
0.3
0.52
0.3
0.75
0.0
0.52
0.1
0.82
0.1
0.6
0.1
0.45
1.3
1.36
0.0
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.9
0.68
0.0
0.45
0.0
0.38
0.12
0.0
1.36
0.5
0.2
0.3
0.52
0.3
0.2
1.8
1.3
0.0
0 .3
67
-------
Water from alluvial deposits varies greatly in its chemical composition,
ranging from that similar to the redbeds to that comparable to the
Ogallala. Alluvial deposits along the North Canadian and Cimarron
are higher in mineral composition than the Ogallala.
Western Oklahoma Area
A major source of ground water in southwestern Oklahoma is the Dog
Creek and Elaine Formations in Harmon and parts of Greer and Jackson
Counties. The aquifer consists of interbedded shale, gypsusm,
anhydrite, dolomite, and limestone. Due partly to the type of rocks
in the formation and to apparent over-development of the aquifer, water
quality is very high in sulfates (1,500-2,000 mg/1) and often high in
chlorides. 52/
As in most sandstone aquifers. water quality in the Rush Springs Forma-
tion is good except for moderate hardness, which is generally between
200-300 mg/1. This is due to patches of gypsum on the outcrop which
have contributed sulfate to Rush Springs water. Otherwise, both the
Rush Springs and Elk City aquifers are of good quality suitable for
domestic, municipal, irrigation, and industrial use.
The Garber-Wellington Formation lies principally in Oklahoma and
Cleveland Counties. It consists of sandstone, shale, and conglomerate.
The chemical quality of this aquifer is generally good and suitable for
most purposes. Dissolved solids are less than 500 mg/1 in Oklahoma
County but may go up to 1,500 mg/1 in Cleveland County. 2_5_/ Water
is moderately hard in the outcrop area and characterized by calcium
and magnesium bicarbonate. In the Norman area the water is very
soft, being of the sodium bicarbonate type. Farther downdip in
McClain County and in western Oklahoma County the sandstone grades
into shale, and the water is highly mineralized. In other areas, wells
obtain fresh water from depths of 1,000 feet.
The Wichita Formation provides small quantities of water to much of
Stephens County and parts of Garvin and Carter Counties. Being of
about the same age and composition as the Garber-Wellington, its
chemical characteristics are similar. Like most waters from sandstone,
it can be rather high in sodium bicarbonate and sulfate. The water is
moderate to high in fluorides.
In some unusual cases, private wells obtain water from the Arbuckle
in the vicinity of Lawton. In this area, the water is a soft, sodium
bicarbonate type and contains high concentrations of fluorides.
Alluvial and terrace deposits are most important along major rivers,
but some small municipalities have developed sources along tribu-
taries . Generally, these deposits are of the poorest quality in the
68
-------
western part of the area where sodium chloride and gypsum deposits
exist. Ground water, much like surface water, tends to improve
toward the east by moving away from these mineral deposits and dilu-
tion becomes effective. Alluvial and terrace deposits of the Cimarron
River, Salt Fork of the Arkansas, and Elm Fork of the Red Rivers in
the west are particularly high in chlorides. 28_/
Eastern Oklahoma Area
The Vamoosa Formation, like the Garber-Wellington, is composed of
sandstone, shale, and conglomerate. It extends as a narrow formation
from Seminole County northerly to Osage County where it outcrops.
The presence of large amounts of shale and siltstone in the outcrop
area limits its use in the northern part of the formation. Although
water quality is generally good, hardness and sulfate present the
most troublesome problems. Hardness is generally in the range from
300-1,500 mg/1 25/; however, in a 1951 sample from Stroud's munici-
pal supply, hardness was reported to be 2,480 mg/1 and sulfates
amounted to 1,080 mg/1.
Well development in the Arbuckle Formation is at the present time
sparse but it serves as a large potential water supply for parts of
Pontotoc, Murray, and Johnston Counties. Although water in the
Arbuckle is moderately hard, it is otherwise low in dissolved solids
and is considered good for most purposes. 53/
The Trinity Sands exist along the southern border of Oklahoma from
Love County to the Arkansas state line. A number of private and
municipal wells take water from this formation. Water quality is gen-
erally good and is characterized as being of the sodium bicarbonate
type with low hardness except in a few locations. A few samples
indicate that this water contains amounts of one or more constituents'
in excess of recommended limits.54/ In one instance, a fluoride con-
centration of 3.0 mg/1 was reported which exceeded the drinking
water standard of 1.5 mg/1. Mineralization in the Trinity tends to
increase slightly downdip from the outcrop area,
There are four water-bearing formations in the extreme southeastern
corner of Oklahoma, other than the Trinity and the river alluvium. These
are the Goodland, Tokio, Woodbine, and Washita. Quality data for
these formations is very scarce but indications are that these waters
are often high in dissolved solids with the Woodbine and Washita being
particularly troubled by chlorides. One sample from the Goodland was
high in sulfates with a concentration of 778 mg/1.
The Boone Formation, located in the northeastern part of the state,
consists mainly of fractured massive chert with beds of cherty lime-
stone in the lower part. It is one of three major aquifers located in
69
-------
the same general area. In addition to analyses of municipal supplies
which take water from this formation, as shown in Table 7, Table 8
presents a statistical summary of water quality in the Boone Formation.
Table 8. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF
WATER FROM BOONE AQUIFER 27/
Concentration (mg/1)
Hardness
Sulfate
Chloride
Nitrate
Total Dissolved Solids
Maximum
328
79
103
79
494
Median
154
10
10
5.2
236
Minimum
26
0.2
0.2
0.1
106
Number of
Analyses
28
28
28
25
28
Where the aquifer is more deeply buried than 200 feet, it becomes
less favorable as a water resource both from the standpoint of quality
and quantity.
The Roubidoux Formation consists of sandy and cherty dolomite. It is of
generally good quality in Ottawa County where it is characterized as a
calcium bicarbonate type, but it changes to sodium chloride farther west
in Craig and Mayes Counties and becomes unusable for most purposes.
The water in Craig County also contains hydrogen sulfide. In addition
to Table 7, which deals with municipal supplies, Table 9 summarized
water quality in the Roubidoux.
Table 9. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF
WATER FROM THE ROUBIDOUX AQUIFER *27/
Concentration (mg/1) Number of
Maximum Median Minimum Analyses
Hardness 420 146 118 32
Sulfate 124 16 0.3 32
Chloride 780 79 1.6 32
Nitrate 8.0 0.8 0.0 32
Total Dissolved Solids 1570 276 140 32
'"Includes several analyses of water from other deep aquifers.
70
-------
The Bur gen Sandstone is a third major formation in the northeastern
part of the state. It is mainly fine to medium-grained sandstone with
some shale, limestone and dolomite. Many of the wells in this formation
yield hard water but the sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates are generally
low. A summary of water quality for this formation is presented in
Table 10.
Table 10. SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF
WATER FROM THE BURGEN SANDSTONE 27/
Concentration (mg/1) Number of
Maximum Median Minimum Analyses
Hardness 404 118 9 20
Sulfate 166 16 0.6 20
Chloride 92 12 2-4 20
Nitrate 26 1.1 0.0 20
Total Dissolved Solids 900 221 118 20
The alluvium along the Arkansas River is one of the most favorable
sources of water in the northeastern part of the state. It yields rela-
tively large amounts of water of low mineral content and is chemically
suitable for most purposes .55/ Most other alluvium deposits in this
part of the state are characterized as being hard and many samples
indicate that the dissolved solids exceed 500 mg/1. Generally, sulfates,
chlorides, and nitrates of the Arkansas River alluvium are low.
Two samples from the Red River alluvium in southern McCurtain County
show that the water, at least in that location, is of good quality with
dissolved solids being less than 200 mg/1 and all other parameters
being well within the criteria for drinking water. 54/
Generally, water quality in alluvial deposits in the eastern Oklahoma
area tends to mirror that of the stream with perhaps higher mineral
concentration. Exceptions to this occur broadly over the area, a result
of the activities of man particularly with respect to contamination by oil
field brines.
TEXAS
Texas is a state plagued by many ground-water problems. The ground-
water quality is threatened by the discharge of wastes, by increases in
71
-------
mineralization as a result of recycling of irrigation return flows and
seepage losses, modification through pumping of the natural hydro-
dynamics of aquifers, just to name a few.
The chemical quality of the ground water varies from aquifer to aquifer
and from place to place within the same aquifer. Table 11 indicates the
concentration of the major chemical constituents in the various aquifers
throughout the state. Other chemical constituents that may be present
in excessive amounts include fluoride, iron, hydrogen sulfide and
methane gases, and silica.
Coastal Area
Coastal-Miocene Sands
Ground water from the coastal-Miocene sands is generally fresh to
moderately saline, with salinity increasing toward the Gulf. The con-
centrations of chemical constituents range widely. Throughout most of
the eastern part of the area, the ground water is low in dissolved solids,
generally containing less than 500 mg/1. Sodium and bicarbonate are
the principal constituents and the water is comparatively soft. The
presence of iron and dissolved gases are problems locally.
The ground water generally becomes more saline in the southern part
of the aquifer and in some areas highly saline water immediately overlies
and underlies the fresh water aquifer.5_6/ In the Rio Grande Valley,
ground water pumped from the aquifer for irrigation and municipal use
typically contains between 1,000 and 1,500 mg/1 of dissolved solids.65/
Carrizo-Wilcox Sands
The chemical quality of the ground water from the Carrizo-Wilcox Sands
varies with location and depth. Ground water that is relatively low in
mineral content and suitable for most purposes is found in and near
outcrop areas and the quality generally deteriorates downdip. The
water is generally soft; however, moderate to very hard water may be
encountered in local areas. Most water that is being used from the
aquifer contains less than 1,000 mg/1 dissolved solids. Iron, silica,
and hydrogen sulfide and methane gas may be present in objectionable
quantities locally. The Wilcox Sands have lignite stringers in some
places that impart an undesirable color to the water.
Sparta-Queen City Aquifers
The Sparta-Queen City Aquifers contain water of good chemical quality
that extends downdip for a considerable distance and remains fairly
uniform in quality. The ground water is soft and the dissolved solids
72
-------
Table 11. SUMMARY OF MINERALS IN GROUND WATER IN 1HE VARIOUS GROUND WATER REGIONS OP TEXAS
Total
Dissolved
Solids
Location
Coastal Area
Coastal Sands-Miocene Sands
Miocene Sands
Coastal Sands
Carrizo-Wilcox
Sparta and Queen City
High Plains
Central, North Central, and
Northeast Texas
Trinity Sands
Woodbine Formation
Ellenburger, San Saba,
and Hickory
Seymour Formation
Southwest Texas
Edwards-Trinity
Edwards Limestone
West Texas Area
El Paso Area
Big Bend Area
Pecos River Basin
N
83?
385
649
1130
56
189
361
91
14
286
417
20
228
317
136
(mg/1)
Range
20-14356
12-15100
217-129957
12-25342
29-1361
199-9733
104-41414
444-5650
561-598
91-55400
231-69000
311-10300
970-4807
188-2980
] 34-74300
C
92>1000
15>1000
154--1000
204=1000
7>1000
55>1000
!38>1000
72>1000
_
96>1000
-
141>1000
4>1000
2276*
227--1000
43: 1000
N
1060
380
811
1458
56
276
409
136
14
286
431
20
228
322
203
Chlorides
(mg/1)
Range
6.0-8500
0.5-3060
12-72000
0.5-15050
2.0-464
1.6-3000
2.4-2880
2.4-1540
76-101
3-35100
4-3600
18-4500
340-1990
7-1790
3.2-58600
C
63>250
22>250
383>250
206>250
2--25C
37-250
54*250
18>250
87>250
64^250
8>250
742*
178>250
M3>250
N
843
377
737
1257
56
272
405
132
14
286
424
20
228
320
190
Sulfates
(mg/1)
Range
0.0-2490
0.0-608
0.0-10870
0.0-4000
0.0-336
11-4570
5-4380
11-1460
32-105
0.0-1340
4.6-6800
10-1800
422-2390
13-2370
10-6100
C
41>250
2>250
76>250
103>250
5>250
62>250
113>250
33>250
81>250
120>250
5>250
960*
212-250
76>250
N
721
361
752
1384
56
264
400
129
14
286
419
17
341
184
Total
Hardness
(as CaCO3)
(ir.g/1)
Range
0.0-2389
1.0-1960
12-29400
0.0-3040
2-228
13-2790
1.0-3320
1.9-610
342-450
6-20000
145-2590
9-1610
37-3240
64-10400
C
32>500
35>100
101>500
461>100
6>100
55>1000
58>500
15>100
1 2>350
54' 500
34 1000
6--500
173>1000
43>1000
N - Number of determinations.
Range - Range in concentration for samples analyzed.
C - Number of determinations more than (>) or less than (<) selected concentrations.
•Average
-------
range from about 100 to less than 700 mg/1. Some excessive amounts
of iron are present locally and a number of wells tapping these aquifers
have been reported to contain hydrogen sulfide gas. Improper casing
and casing leaks in oil wells, as well as improper disposal of wastes
and inadequate protection measures, have allowed water of poorer
quality to enter the fresh water producing strata.
v ,, • •..
High Plains
The chemical quality of the ground water in the Ogallala aquifer varies
widely within relatively short distances. The ground water is generally
hard and in almost all cases its fluoride content exceeds the 1.5 mg/1 '
limit recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service for municipal
supplies. The water typically contains between 300 and 1,000 mg/1
dissolved solids, of which calcium, magnesium, and bicarbonate are
the principal constituents. In general, the water of better quality
occurs in those areas where the depth to water is greatest. Waters
that are highly mineralized because of natural causes are often asso-
ciated with areas of shallow water-table conditions, notably areas near
water-table lakes and near draws. This is evident in the vicinity of
the Lost Draw complex of Terry, Lynn and Dawson counties. In areas
where the water table is at or very near the land surface, evapo-
transpiration processes produce highly mineralized ground waters by
the concentration of residual salts . 34/
Central, North Central, and Northeast Texas
Trinity Sands
Ground water derived from the Trinity Sands formation is typical of
the sodium bicarbonate type and is generally of good quality. Dissolved
solids concentrations are usually less than 1,000 mg/1 and the chloride
and sulfate content is low. In a few limited areas near the outcrop area,
the ground water contains excessive amounts of iron.
Water in the outcrop areas is generally hard but otherwise of good
chemical quality. Eastward, downdip from the outcrop, the water
becomes softer, but total solids, sodium, sulfates, chlorides, and
fluorides increase. Toward the east, in deeper parts of the aquifer,
dissolved solids range from about 500 to 1,500 mg/1.30/
Evidence of encroachment of salt water has caused concern in some
areas underlain by the Trinity Sands. Salt water contamination in the
heavily pumped Sherman area has caused increases in chloride content
in many of the public-supply wells .3_5/ Improper plugging of oil and
water test holes has allowed saline water in overlying beds to enter
the fresh water-bearing zones of the Trinity Sands in many areas.
74
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Woodbine Formation
The Woodbine Formation supplies considerable amounts of variable
quality ground water. This water is characterized by a high sodium
bicarbonate content and generally high concentrations of iron, dissolved
solids, sulfates, fluorides, and in some places chlorides . Except for
higher iron concentrations and localized hardness, Woodbine water is
usually of best quality in the outcrop area that extends from central
Johnson County across eastern Tarrant County, eastern Cooke and
western Grayson County to the Red River. Downdip to the east, the
water becomes progressively more mineralized and exceeds U.S. Public
Health Service recommended limits in many locations.
Ellenberger-San Saba and Hickory
Ground water usually occurs in the Ellenberger-San Saba aquifers under
artesian head and is usually of good quality, although very hard. Dis-
solved solids content is consistently less than 1,000 mg/1. The chemical
quality of the ground water deteriorates rapidly away from the outcrop
areas and at distances greater than 20 miles downdip, the water is
generally unsuitable for most uses. In the northwestern part of the
aquifer, mineralization is due to sodium and chloride and in the south-
eastern part to calcium and sulfate.
The Hickory Formation contains water of the sodium bicarbonate type
and, although sometimes objectionably hard, is generally suitable for
most uses. Dissolved solids generally range from about 300 to 500 mg/1.
The poorest quality water used is found in the vicinity of Eden, in
Concho County where the dissolved solids range from about 1,000 to
1,500 mg/1.
Few contamination problems have occurred except at great distances
from the outcrop areas, where there may be a possibility of saline
waters being drawn into a cone of depression caused by excessive
pumpage. Local contamination has occurred at Melvin in McCulloch
County and into uncased wells or where salt water has entered the
well through corroded casings.34/
Seymour Formation
Ground water from the Seymour Formation is very hard, and the
dissolved solids content generally exceeds the standards recommended
by the U.S. Public Health Service. Sulfate and chloride content is
generally high, sulfates ranging up to about 1,200 mg/1.35/
Salinity has increased in much of the water from the Seymour. This is
due primarily from excessive pumpage from the ground-water sources.
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Ground water in these areas also contains relatively high concentra-
tions of nitrate, which are considered to be undesirable for human
consumption.
Southwest Texas
Edwards-Trinity (Plateau) Aquifer
Ground water from the Edwards Plateau aquifer is generally very hard
and has a wide range in dissolved solids. The dissolved solids tend
to increase in a northerly direction. Calcium, magnesium and bicarbo-
nate are commonly the principal chemical constituents. Locally, con-
centrations of fluoride range up to 2.8 mg/1.
Salinity increases toward the west where the aquifer is overlain by
younger geologic formations. The water in these younger formations
contains saline water and has probably leaked into the fresh water
aquifer. Oil field brines are another source of contamination that
contributes to the salinity of the Edwards-Trinity Aquifer.
Edwards-Balcones Fault Zone
Ground water from the Edwards and Associated Limestone (Balcones
Fault Zone) is almost uniformly calcium bicarbonate water of good
quality, except it is very hard. The hardness generally exceeds
200 mg/1. Dissolved solids are relatively low, as in Bexar County
where they average around 300 mg/1. The mineral content of the
water increases as the artesian pressure decreases along the southern
and southeastern boundary of the aquifer.
Highly saline water also containing hydrogen sulfide gas occurs in the
limestone beds south of the heavily pumped areas of the Balcones
Fault Zone. As a result, there is a possible threat of saline water
intrusion into the fresh water supplies.
West Texas Area
El Paso Area
Ground water supplies in the El Paso area range from fresh to very
saline. Fresh ground water constitutes a small fraction of the total
quantity of water in storage. Where fresh ground water is available
it is underlain, overlain, or adjoined by slightly saline water, thus,
endangering the quality of the fresh water. The water is generally
soft to moderately hard, but varies greatly areally and with depth.
76
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Salt Basin Area
The quality of ground water ranges between wide limits, but most is of
relatively good quality. The ground water occurs chiefly in deposits
of Quaternary Alluvium and is, for the most part, hard and high in
fluoride content. In many areas, the water is unsuitable for domestic
purposes because of the high sulfate content.
South of Van Horn in Culberson County, water from Quaternary deposits
is typically low in dissolved solids, chloride, and sulfate content. As
you move northward into the Wildhorse Flat area, the ground water
increases in mineralization, as well as chloride and sulfate content.
Even further northward in the Dell City area, ground water is slightly
to moderately saline. Dissolved solids range from less than 1,000 mg/1
east of the Culberson County line to nearly 8,000 mg/1 near the south-
west edge of the Salt Lakes.56J Hardness concentrations average
around 1,200 mg/1 and fluorides average about 1.4 mg/1.
The increasing salt content of the ground water is a serious problem
in the Dell City area. As irrigation continues and ever-increasing
amounts of excess water are applied in order to leach the accumulated
salts from the soil, it can be expected that the salinity of the ground
water will increase even further.
Pecos River Valley Alluvium
Ground water in the Pecos River Valley is derived mainly from alluvial
deposits of Quaternary Age. The quality of this water varies with loca-
tion and depth. Normally, wells penetrating the deeper parts of the
alluvium yield water with higher mineral concentration than wells
tapping the shallower alluvial material.
Dissolved solids range from around 200 to 13,000 mg/1 with the water
nearer the Pecos River containing the highest concentration of dissolved
solids. Water of poorer quality near the river has moved into some
fresh water areas where heavy pumpage has lowered the water levels.
The fresh water typically contains 700 to 800 mg/1 of sulfate and chloride
and usually contains less than 200 mg/1 of bicarbonate.
In some areas of the Northeastern Pecos Valley, waste water from oil
production and possibly other sources has, apparently, contaminated
the alluvial aquifer, resulting in higher mineral concentrations than
normally is expected.
77
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SECTION VI
. CAUSES OF GROUND-WATER POLLUTION
In the previous section, some of the measured parameters of ground-
water pollution were discussed and summarized for each section of the
project area. Most of the available data is related to mineral parameters
probably resulting from natural conditions although little attempt was
made previously to assign a cause of pollution.
In fact, poor quality ground water may result from a combination of
several contributing factors or sources. In this section, various condi-
tions or activities which have a known or suspected polluting effect on
ground water are discussed approximately in the order of their signifi-
cance in the project area:
Natural Pollution
Oil Field Brines
Well Construction
Overpumping
Irrigation Return Flows
Land Application of Wastes
Solid Wastes
Evapotrarispiration by Native Vegetation
Animal Wastes
Waste Lagoons
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials
Subsurface Waste Disposal
Artificial Recharge of Aquifers
Other Causes
Locations and specific pollution cases are not intended to be all-inclusive
but can serve as examples of pollution types and locations. Those cases
78
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cited are only the ones obvious enough to be noticed by a complainant
and bad enough to be investigated. Undoubtedly, there are dozens of
other cases that were noticed and investigated but did not come to the
attention of the authors. There are also probably thousands of other
instances of ground-water pollution that are yet to be recognized as
such.
Natural Pollution
Natural pollution occurs to some extent throughout the five-state area
but is especially important in several locations in Texas, Oklahoma and
New Mexico. This problem undoubtedly affects the quality of more
ground water in the project area than all other sources of contamina-
tion combined.
Mineralization due to leaching is the most common type of natural
pollution. Natural leaching may take place within a water-bearing
aquifer or within the soils and rocks of the watershed area. Natural
accumulation of soluble minerals is greatest in areas of low precipita-
tion , especially where ground water is near the surface and evaporation
and transpiration combine to concentrate the minerals in the waters left
behind. Precipitation percolating through the salt laden soils or ground-
water movement takes some of the minerals in solution and carries them
into the aquifer. Where hydrogeology permits, the resulting highly
mineralized water may even return to the surface as springs and con-
taminate surface water.
The source of much highly mineralized water in the south central states
is located in an area known as the Permian Basin (Figure 16) which
underlies large sections of Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas. Rock
formations of Permian Age are composed of red and gray gypsiferous
shale, siltstone, sandstone, gypsum, anhydrite, dolomite, and some-
times halite. Halite usually occurs as lenses in relatively impervious
shales, but thick massive beds are not uncommon. Leaching of the
salt is generally accomplished by small quantities of water which
pass through small joints and fractures.
In the Permian Basin, salt water occurs at depths of less than 100 feet
to more than 1,000 feet. In much of the area, leaching of salt-bearing
formations near the surface and regional circulation of water from out-
crop areas on the west to outcrop areas in the east result in springs
and seeps which contaminate much of the surface water of the Pecos,
Arkansas, Red and Brazos Rivers. Although flow from these springs
is small, chloride concentrations in the water range up to 190,000 mg/1
depending on the dilution by fresh water. Alluvium near these springs
is saturated with high chloride, high sulfate waters and evaporation
79
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•Arkansas River
oo
o
ST^ES OF BRINE-DISCHARGE FEATURES
AC-PROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE
c-ERMTAN BASIN
FIGURE 16, APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF THE PERMIAN BASIN
-------
from the surface causes the formation of salt crust during dry weather.
These springs are estimated to contribute over 20,000 tons of sodium
chloride per day to the waters of the Arkansas, Red, Brazos and Pecos
Rivers.
Although not as obvious at the surface as in the Permian Basin, natural
leaching of minerals into the ground water affects tremendous volumes
of ground water in other parts of the five-state area. A fairly typical
cross-section of the water quality of the intermountain valleys of south
central New Mexico is shown in Figure 17. This particular cross-section
indicates that most of the ground water of the Tularosa Basin contains
more than 35,000 mg/1 of dissolved solids. Near the basin recharge
area—the mountains on the west—ground water near the surface is
relatively fresh with less than 1,000 mg/1 of dissolved solids. However,
as the water moves into the basin through the salt laden alluvial mater-
ial, soluble minerals are dissolved, adding to the mineral content of
the water.
Where bedrock is igneous and alluvial fans are composed of detritus
from igneous rocks, percolating waters will be of calcium magnesium
bicarbonate type. Where the bedrock and alluvial deposits are moder-
ately soluble limestones and dolomites, the water in the alluvial fans is
a relatively fresh calcium bicarbonate type. Alluvial fans which receive
runoff from areas underlain by soluble evaporite deposits contain water
high in calcium sulfate and sodium chloride. 197
The effect of natural leaching can be seen in relative amounts of fresh
and saline ground waters available in parts of south central New Mexico,
as summarized in Table 12. Potable water is defined as having less
than 250 mg/1 chlorides or sulfates, inferior water has more than 250
mg/1 of chlorides or sulfates but less than 750 mg/1 of both, and
impotable water has more than 500 mg/1 of either or more than 750 mg/1
of both.
Table 12. SUMMARY OF ESTIMATED GROUND WATER
AVAILABLE IN TULAROSA BASIN AND VICINITY 47/
Potential Perennial Yield (Ac.-Ft./Yr.)
Area Potable Inferior Impotable
North Jornada del Muerto 30 200 "'JJOO.OOO
North Tularosa Basin 30 200 6,000,000
Crow Flats-Dell City Area 300 1,000 4,000,000
Southern Tularosa Basin 60,000 5,000 65,000,000
81
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WEST
EAST
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
SEA
LEVEL
-1000
-2000
-3000'
IOOO.Q.^35000
More Than 35000 mg/l Dissolved Solids
FIGURE 17, A TYPICAL CROSS-SECTION OF THE WATER QUALITY
OF THE TULAROSA BASIN
82
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Saline water from natural leaching is a common problem in all of the states
in the project area. In fact, salt water can be found at some level in
almost any part of the region and, as noted earlier, is by far the most
common contaminant of ground water. However, other natural leachates
are localized problems in parts of the project area.
In Runnels County, Texas, nitrates in extremely high concentrations
in ground water are believed the result of leaching of natural deposits.
Over 80 percent of 800 wells sampled in the area have nitrate concen-
trations above the Public Health Service recommended limit of 45 mg/1.
Many wells contain nitrate concentrations of over 500 mg/1, and some
are more than 1,000 mg/1.58/ These extremely high concentrations are
much more than can be attributed to man-related sources of the area.
Other minerals are found in localized parts of the project area. Fluorides
in excess of Public Health Service recommended limits are common in
parts of eastern New Mexico and western Texas. Iron is a common
natural contaminant in many areas, notably in the western two-thirds
of the Mississippi Alluvial Plain in Arkansas, the open pit mining areas
of southeastern Oklahoma, and the alluvium of the Baton Rouge, Louisiana
area. Zinc can be found in the ground water near Blackwell, Oklahoma.
Radioactivity is a natural contaminant around uranium mining areas such
as Karnes City, Texas; Claremore, Oklahoma; and Gallup, New Mexico.
Caustic or acid problems in ground water are notable in bauxite mining
areas such as Bauxite, Arkansas.
Organic pollutants from natural sources are also problems in some areas.
Nitrogen gas, methane, hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide gases are
found in many shallow aquifers in northeast Texas, southwest Arkansas,
and western Louisiana. The source of these gases is believed to be the
decay of lignitic or carbonaceous material naturally occurring in the
aquifer. In 1970, three well drillers in Cass County, Texas, died from
breathing gases escaping from such a source.
Because of the immense and unknown hydrological patterns associated
with natural pollution in ground water, there appears to be little oppor-
tunity of preventing such contamination. For instance, it is theoretically
possible to prevent recharge to salt-bearing formations and prevent fur-
ther leaching of brines to the surface; however, the practical problems
of finding and sealing thousands of square miles of recharge areas pre-
clude serious consideration except in very unique small areas.
Oil Field Brines
In 1969 the states of the project area produced over 70 percent of the
total United States crude oil from more than 300,000 producing wells.59_/
Each oil or gas well is a potential or actual source of pollution to
83
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aquifers because of improper control of gas, oil, salt water, or the
many chemicals used in drilling and production operations. Production
of crude oil is usually accompanied by the production of wastewater of
variable but usually high chloride content. The amount of this salt
water produced is also quite variable and may range from zero to as
much as a dozen or more barrels of brine for each barrel of oil pro-
duced. This ratio generally increases with the age of the well and is
fairly high in the south central states. In 1963 the five states of the
project area produced about 1.8 billion barrels of oil and slightly over
5 billion barrels of brine water .607 Since oil was discovered in 1902,
Texas alone has produced over 31 billion barrels of crude oil—36 per-
cent of the total U.S. production.597
Until about the last decade, the common methods of oil field brine dis-
posal consisted of discharge to streams or to "evaporation" ponds. In
both cases, brine-contaminated aquifers became commonplace in most
or all areas of oil production as infiltration from the streams and ponds
moved to the ground water. Thousands of unlined brine pits were in
use in the five state area until only a few years ago when they were
prohibited by the oil regulatory agencies of the respective states.
Texas was one of the first states to enact a state-wide ban on unlined
pits in January 1969, and other states have adopted similar regulations.
Despite this ban, and the fact that few of the brine contaminated areas
have been mapped, enough have been located to indicate a serious
ground-water pollution problem for many years to come. Because of
the slow movement of ground water, brine-contaminated ground water
is only now being discovered in many areas of oil development aban-
doned 20 or 30 or more years ago. It is probable that such discoveries
will continue for many years. It is also apparent that even if no more
brine contamination occurs, the slow ground-water movement will
require many years and even centuries for natural cleansing and
rehabilitation of the aquifers .
With the ban on unlined evaporation pits, oil companies were forced to
construct pits lined with an impervious material. Brines theoretically
must now be evaporated or injected back into the subsurface, either
back into the oil-bearing formation or into another formation far enough
removed from fresh water aquifers to prevent contamination. Neverthe-
less , there are numerous reported and suspected violations of these
regulations, primarily by economically marginal oil producers. Such
violations may be in the form of bypassing brine pits, by accidental or
deliberate rupture of pit liners, overflowing waste pits, or by leakage
from broken lines.
Another problem has been the inadequate design of brine disposal wells.
It has been common practice in the past to use abandoned production
84
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wells for brine disposal. Since the wells were not designed, cased or
cemented for brine injection, there have been numerous instances of
injection wells with undetected ruptures beneath the surface where
injected brines have seeped into fresh water aquifers for many years
before being discovered. Some state regulatory agencies have some-
what alleviated this problem by requiring injection tubing inside a
casing filled with an inhibited fluid under pressure so that ruptures
can be detected by changes in the fluid pressures.
Currently, most oil field brines are returned to subsurface formations
either for waterflooding—increasing the pressure in an oil producing
formation—or just as a disposal method. However, even with properly
designed and constructed injection wells, brine disposal is not without
real or potential problems. Much of the problem results from the nature
of early oil exploration and to abandoned and inadequately plugged oil,
gas, and injection wells. Thousands of such wells are scattered through-
out much of the project area. For many years of oil exploration, it was
a common practice to abandon test holes without proper plugging—
thereby leaving a vertical pathway of contact between the various sub-
surface formations.
The contamination problems inherent in such a ground-water environ-
ment are apparent. Whether the source of the brine is injection from
the surface or natural brines in a subsurface formation, unplugged wells
offer a connection to the fresh water aquifer. In some cases, artesian
pressure alone may be adequate to force salt water up the well and into
the fresh water aquifer. In other cases, injection of brine into the for-
mation may increase the pressure sufficiently to move formation salt
water up the well.
Some idea of the magnitude and location of oil field brine problems can
be obtained by looking at the crude oil production. Of the estimated
74,000 salt water injection wells in the United States in 1970, about
one-half of these were in Texas alone with another 15,000 in Oklahoma,
and over 1,000 in Arkansas .61/ In the five-state area, 365 of the 502
counties have produced some oil or gas. The only large nonproductive
areas are in Arkansas and New Mexico. New Mexico produces from the
northwest and southeast portions of the state—the great majority of the
production is in Lea County alone. Arkansas oil production is in the
extreme southern portion of the state with additional gas fields in a few
west central counties. One major area of oil production is along the
Gulf Coast of Texas and Louisiana. In fact, almost 95 percent of
Louisiana's oil production is along the Gulf Coast. As indicated in
Figure 18, other areas of much production include northeast Texas and
an area approximately parallel to the coast but extending from west
Texas and southeastern New Mexico across Texas and central Oklahoma.
85
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00
BARRELS PER DAY
FIGURE 18. CRUDE OIL PRODUCTION
-------
Although there are no reliable statistics on the total number of wells
drilled in the five-state area since oil production began, there were
more than 15,000 test wells drilled in Texas in 1963, and more than
half of these were abandoned without completion. 60/ The percentage
of dry holes and the more than 300,000 producing wells, plus an un-
known number of depleted wells, would indicate that more than
1,000,-000 holes may have been drilled in the five ;;tates in search of
oil and gas. If the wells were distributed evenly, there would be
almost two per square mile over the entire five states.
Many streams have been contaminated by salt water from the disposal
of oil field brines and ground water lying adjacent to these streams is
subject to salt water intrustion. Arkansas streams that have been most
affected are in the southern part of the state and include Bodcaw,
Cornie, Smackover, and Lapile Creek, Bayous Dorcheat, and the
southern reaches of the Ouachita River. 63_/ In Oklahoma, the Arkansas,
Canadian, Cimarron and Red Rivers and many of their tributaries have
been affected. Similarly, most of the major streams in Texas, especially
the Brazos and Pecos Rivers, have been contaminated by oil field brines.
Examples of ground-water pollution from oil field brines are legion in
many parts of the five-state area, especially Texas and Oklahoma, and
many cases are documented in published and open-file reports of the
respective state regulatory agencies . Brine pits, both active and
abandoned, have been implicated as sources of ground water pollution
in Baylor 64/, Cochran, Colorado, Comanche 65/, Cook, Dawson 66/,
Ector 67/, Gaines, Glasscock 68/, Harris 697, Karnes, Knox,
Montague TO/, Pecos, Matagordo, Runnels 71/, Rusk 72/, Victoria 73/,
Wilbarger 74/, Wilson and Winkler Counties in Texas, just to name a
few.
Much ground water in eastern Oklahoma has been contaminated by oil
field brine pits, notably in Garvin, Pontotoc and Seminole, Oklahoma,
Pottawatomie, Lincoln, Okfuskie and Creek Counties. Several munici-
palities in this area of Oklahoma, including Shawnee, Stroud, Meeker
and Chandler, have had to abandon ground water supplies in favor of
surface water sources. The ground water sources have either been
polluted directly by leakage from brine pits or brines entering the
Canadian River from the oil fields have recharged the aquifer along
its course and subsequently contaminated the municipal wells. 75_/
In Lea County, New Mexico, an aquifer contaminated by a leaking brine
disposal pit has been renovated by pumping the salt water from the
fresh water aquifer and using the contaminated water for waterflooding
in a nearby oilfield.76/ In Miller County, Arkansas, remedial measures
and economic damage have been examined for an aquifer contaminated
by both a brine pit and a faulty brine disposal well.77/
87
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Brine injection wells, both waterflood and disposal wells have also
demonstrated their capacity for pollution in Coleman County, Texas,78/
where salt water from a waterflooding operation has moved through
inadequately plugged oil test wells and into the Trinity Formation.
Similar problems from brine disposal wells have been noted in
Karnes, Victoria 73/, and Wilbarger 74/ Counties, Texas, and Garvin
County, Oklahoma. In Wood County, Texas, brine and gas were found
to leak through fault zones into fresh water. In Shackelford County,
Texas, salt water seeps at the ground surface resulted from brine dis-
posal wells.
Well Construction
Improperly constructed wells are a threat to the quality of ground water
throughout the project area and are sometimes considered the major
cause of ground-water pollution. Such wells offer an avenue of contami-
nation to fresh water aquifers from a variety of surface sources or from
subsurface formations of inferior quality water.
Contamination from surface sources is possible where the casing is not
properly sealed to an adequate depth below the ground surface. Such
contamination problems are prevalent in cavernous limestone areas
such as the Edwards Plateaus in Texas and the Ozark Plateaus of
Arkansas. The most serious problems result from improperly con-
structed wells that penetrate formations with undesirable quality water.
If the confining strata are not properly sealed, the poor quality water
may move up or down the well, depending on the hydraulic gradients,
and into fresh water aquifers as shown in Figure 19. Pumping of the
fresh water will increase this movement. These conditions exist through-
out the five states and some of the more notable problems are along the
Gulf Coast in both Texas and Louisiana, in the Winter garden area south-
west of San Antonio and in east Texas. The Trinity Sands in the heavily
pumped Sherman, Texas area has shown signs of salt water encroach-
ment from overlying saline formations because of improper plugging of
oil and water test holes. 35/
Uncased or unplugged wells or wells with rusted or leaky casing,
especially those abandoned, further complicate the pollution problem.
As noted in the preceding section, thousands of these wells dot the
region. Many are water wells but most are exploration and oil produc-
tion wells that may penetrate many formations of both good and bad
quality water in addition to oil and gas formations. Although the states
of the project area now have regulations calling for proper plugging of
wells to isolate zones of oil and gas and zones of good water and saline
water, thousands of abandoned, unmarked wells cannot even be
located. Because of the time elapsed, the different legal conditions
under which they were drilled, changes in property ownership, etc.,
responsibility for plugging cannot be determined for many of these
wells that are located.
-------
Pumping
Well
Corrpded
Casing
Abandoned
Unplugged Hole
;acej)f_Sgljnejygter_Agulfer
«>o0 ooo o coo °0ovc o ro 0«0o-
CSALINE WATER" FORMATION?"! fT^T ° » °'
«_-°o~_o» ~ „ '« I I °_ . o .
UPWARD FLOW THROUGH OPEN, UNSEALED, OR CORRODED
CASING
Pumping
00
o
O 0
Corroded
Cosing
Piezomefric
o ° o «
0 o o ° °.
0 ° ^^-*
o V
Abandoned
Unplugged Hole
If
Surface of Pol luteOo D0o
«%'>OLLUTED OR SALINE
^ ° . • c FORMATION <^!g-^.
IMPERMEABLE FORMATION
DOWNWARD LEAKAGE THROUGH OPEN, UNSEALED, OR CORRODED
CASING
FIGURE 19 UPWARD FLOW AND DOWNWARD LEAKAGE THROUGH OPEN,
UNSEALED/ OR CORRODED CASINGS
89
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Unplugged wells and artesian brine aquifers have resulted in reported
flowing salt water wells in Knox, Hopkins, and Young Counties, Texas.
In Hopkins County, one abandoned oil test hole was flowing between
100 and 125 barrels per day of brine water before it was plugged. Salt
water has moved into fresh water zones via poorly constructed or un-
plugged wells in Crockett, Duval 80/, Fisher 81/, Glasscock 687,
Runnels 71/, and Scurry 82/ Counties, Texas. Examples of natural
gas contamination due to faulty well construction can be found in
Caldwell 83/ , Bastrop 797, Comanche 84/, and Wharton 8_5/ Counties.
Sea water was found to move through an abandoned water well into the
fresh water zone in the Trinity Bay area of Chambers County, Texas.
' •. •
Texas and New Mexico now have water well driller licensing laws which
specify rules and regulations for plugging of wells that encounter undesir-
able water. New wells are located on maps and logs are filed with the
appropriate state regulatory agency in each state.
Overpumping
Ground-water depletion is sometimes considered the only result of over-
pumping but water quality deterioration is more often the first and major
detrimental effect on an aquifer. As discussed in an earlier section on
natural pollution, saline water can be found at some level at most loca-
tions in the five states of the project area. In many locations, there is
a direct interface between fresh and saline ground water such as beneath
the gulf coast of Texas and Louisiana. However, many inland fresh water
aquifers also are in direct contact with saline water. In most cases, the
heavier, saline water underlies the fresh water. Therefore, where
wells are too deep or where excessive pumping reverses the hydraulic
gradient, saline water may be drawn into zones formerly composed of
fresh water.
Overpumping is a common problem throughout eastern New Mexico,
western Texas and Oklahoma, and much of Louisiana and eastern
Arkansas. Figure 20 shows the depth to the base of the fresh water in
the Coastal Plain of Arkansas. Care must be taken while drilling and
pumping wells in this area to avoid pumping the saline waters which
lie below the fresh water. The flow lines in Figure 21 demonstrate how
salt water can migrate up into the fresh water zone when a well is pumped.
As Overpumping lowers the water table and the relative thickness 6f the
fresh water zone, the movement of salt water up into the well becomes
more pronounced.
The potential for horizontal movement of salt water caused by overpump-
ing is typified in Figure 22. This is a generalized section showing the
principal aquifers south of the Baton Rouge as they dip gently in the
direction of the Gulf Coast.86/ Fresh water has entered the aquifers
in the recharge area and flushed out salt water originally occurring
90
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LITTLE mvEFNSi'*'!3'fEAB> NEVADA
LESS THAN 500
500 TO 1000
1000 TO 1500
1500 TO 2000
2000 JO 2500
GREATER THAN 2500
FIGURE 20. APPROXIMATE DEPTHS TO THE BASE OF FRESH WATER IN ARKANSAS
-------
lift^SSSSSSSSS
FIGURE 21. MIGRATION OF SALT WATER UP INTO THE FRESH WATER ZONE
WHEN A WELL IS PUMPED
• Fresh Water
Salt Water
FIGURE 22, POTENTIAL FOR HORIZONTAL MOVEMENT OF SALT WATER
CAUSED BY OVERPUMPING
92
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there. Salt water fronts in each aquifer generally parallel and are
typical of aquifers along the Texas-Louisiana Coast. Excessive pumping
of these aquifers in some locations has lowered the hydrostatic pressure
so that the salt water fronts are moving inland. Salt-water encroachment
has been especially prevalent in the Baton Rouge and Lake Charles
areas of Louisiana and in the Houston, Galveston-Texas City, and
Matagorda-Lavaca Bay areas of Texas.
Heavy withdrawals for irrigation along the Pecos River Valley, espe-
cially in Pecos and Reeves Counties of Texas have caused similar gra-
dient reversals along the Pecos River. Normally, the fresh water
aquifer discharges water to the river but with the lowered water tables,
highly mineralized water from the river and adjacent formations is
recharging the aquifer.
Also in Texas, overpumping has resulted in salt water intrusion of the
Beaumont clay aquifer in Brazoria County, the Seymour Formation in
Knox County, the Chicot aquifer in Orange County 87/, and the alluvium
in Ward County. 88/
Irrigation Return Flows
Irrigation return flow is water diverted for irrigation purposes that
finds its way back into a supply. Through irrigation return flow,
salts are concentrated by evapotranspiration and other substances are
conveyed from irrigated lands to the ground water by infiltration.
Pollutants in irrigation return flows may come from many sources
before, during, and after irrigation. These sources include animals,
soils, fertilizers, pesticides, industrial and municipal wastes, and
even natural sources such as fixed nitrogen from lightening, etc.
Whenever water is diverted for irrigation use, the quality of the return
flow is degraded. In irrigation, pure water is extracted by the plants
from the water supply, resulting in a concentration of those dissolved
solids which are characteristic of all natural water supplies. In addi-
tion, much of the water applied to the soil is evaporated leaving the
dissolved minerals on or near the land surface where they may be
leached to the ground water.
All irrigation water contains dissolved minerals (salts) and some of
these salts will accumulate in the soil unless leached from it by excess
irrigation water or by natural precipitation. The major pollution prob-
lems associated with irrigation return flows in the project area are in
the arid portions of Oklahoma, New Mexico and Texas where water is
in short supply. Natural precipitation in this region is insufficient to
leach the salts from the soil and excess irrigation is generally adequate
only to move the salts from the topsoil to the subsoil or to the ground
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water. However, while increasing salt concentration, irrigation may
remove other pollutants. Nutrients and other organic wastes deposited
on land with irrigation water may be used by the crop, fixed by the
soil, or degraded so that they are not contained in the irrigation return
flow.
Irrigated agriculture provides the economic base for much of the south
central states, especially western Texas and Oklahoma and eastern and
central New Mexico. The 1969 acreages under irrigation in the five
states of the project area are given in Table 13 and the major irrigation
areas are indicated in Figure 23.
Table 13. IRRIGATED ACREAGE IN 1969 897
Arkansas 1,435,000
Louisiana 580,687
New Mexico 1,000,000
Oklahoma 619,278
Texas 8,200,000
The major area of water quality deterioration from irrigation return flows
in the project area is the Rio Grande Basin in New Mexico and Texas.
Other problem areas caused by irrigation return flows include the Pecos
River in New Mexico and Texas and the Arkansas River in Oklahoma and
Arkansas. Of possible future significance is the proposed Navajo irriga-
tion project in the San Juan River Basin of northwestern New Mexico and
the Concho irrigation project in the Canadian River Basin of northeastern
New Mexico.
There were over two million irrigated acres in the Rio Grande Basin in
1969.89/ Essentially all of this irrigation is scattered along the arid
expanse of the 1,900 miles of river from southern Colorado to the Gulf
of Mexico. Because the river water is used over and over again, each
successive use further degrades the water quality which generally
becomes progressively worse downstream. Also because of the close
interrelationship between the surface water and ground water in the
river alluvium, there is a tendency for the quality to deteriorate down-
stream both in surface water and ground water.
Diversions for irrigation occur throughout the length of the Rio Grande
both in New Mexico and Texas and a close correlation exists between
the irrigated areas, decreased discharge, and increased salt load of
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Ul
K Southwestern
Oklahomo
North-Central
Texas
(^•V^^yV-Lower Rio Grande Valley
FJOi.IRE J'i, HAJOR IRRIGATION AREAS OF THE FIVE SOURI"CFNiRA., STATIC
-------
the river. Between Otowi Bridge near Santa Fe, New Mexico and Fort
Quitman, Texas south of El Paso, there are more than 250,000 irrigated
acres. While the flow in this stretch of river is decreased to one-fifth
of its original value, the dissolved solids concentration is increased
almost tenfold and the total salt load is almost doubled, as shown in
Table 14.897
Table 14. MEAN ANNUAL DISCHARGE AND DISSOLVED SOLIDS
CONCENTRATIONS AT SUCCESSIVE LOCATIONS
ALONG THE RIO GRANDE
Dissolved
Discharge Solids
Otowi Bridge, New Mexico 1079 221
San Marcial, New Mexico 853 449
Elephant Butte, New Mexico 790 478
Caballo Dam, New Mexico 781 515
Leasburg Dam, New Mexico 743 551
El Paso, Texas 525 787
Fort Quitman, Texas 203 1691
Irrigation return flow is also one of the major reasons for the highly
mineralized ground and surface waters of the Pecos Valley in both New
Mexico and Texas. Because of the water-short climate of the Pecos
Valley, the importance of the ground water to the general hydrologic
system is greater than in most stream valleys. In most parts of the
Pecos Basin, water used for irrigation is already relatively high in
mineral content. Return of excess irrigation water to the hydrological
system further concentrates these minerals but this return flow is
critical to an already negative water balance in the basin. The major
irrigation areas in the basin are near Roswell and Carlsbad, New
Mexico and near Pecos, Texas.
The San Juan River Basin in northwestern New Mexico is a part of the
project area where irrigation return flows may seriously affect the
ground water in the future. The Navajo Indian Irrigation Project now
under construction will irrigate 110,000 acres in the San Juan Basin.
There is some concern that salts may be concentrated in the irrigation
return flows by leaching of the gypsiferous deposits of the area as well
as by the irrigation process .
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There are other large areas of irrigation in the region but return flows
from these do not pose the threat to the ground water that the aforemen-
tioned areas do. The greatest effect on quality of surface and subse-
quently ground water is during periods of low flow in the streams so
common to the Rio Grande and Pecos.
In the High Plains geographic region of Texas and New Mexico, very
little of the return flow rejoins the river systems. Most of the leachate.
rejoins the ground water but because of the high quality of the ground
water, the large storage capacity of the underground reservoirs and
the kind of geologic formations present, the effect of the return flow
on the ground-water quality has hardly been noticeable. However, as
the amount of water in the Ogallala Aquifer decreases, the effect of
irrigation return flow on quality of the ground water will increase.
There is considerable irrigation in the gulf coastal area of Texas and
Louisiana as well as the Mississippi Valley of Arkansas. However, these
are regions of excess precipitation and irrigation return flows are not a
large part of the hydrological system. Most of these return flows are
highly diluted with precipitation, with high capacity ground-water
reservoirs and by streams in the area so that the mineralization effect
on water quality is minimal or, at the worst, a local problem. An un-
known factor could be the effect of agricultural chemicals such as
pesticides and herbicides where return flows may reach the ground
water. There is very little data related to this subject but one study in
the Texas high plains indicated little pesticide or herbicide contamination
of agricultural runoff water. 90/
Land Application of Wastes
Wastewaters have been applied to land in some manner since the inception
of water carriage systems. Sometimes application to the land has been
designed such as with septic tank-soil absorption systems, infiltration-
percolating systems, spray-runoff systems and cropland irrigation
systems. Oftentimes, land application has been incidental to the waste
disposal such as seepage from sewers, waste-filled streams or just
spills.
Although land systems have been used for both municipal and industrial
wastewaters for many years, most have been relatively small scale with
major emphasis on disposal.91/ However, within the last few years,
there has been an upsurge of interest in land systems for treatment
and/or reuse of wastewaters.
Cesspools, disposal pits and sewage farms were the early methods of
land disposal. Septic tank-soil absorption systems have largely
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replaced cesspools for individual homes and remain the greatest single
use of soil for wastewater disposal at the present time. "Sewage farm"
is a term which is not used much anymore because of its repugnance to
the general population but the principal of using municipal effluents
for irrigation is very much in evidence throughout the United States.
This is demonstrated by the construction of a 90 million gallon per day
system to spray-irrigate about 6,000 acres of farmland in Muskegon
County, Michigan with municipal and industrial wastes.
Thomas and Harlin 92/ grouped the most promising approaches to land
spreading into three categories: (1) infiltration-percolation, (2) crop-
land irrigation, or (3) spray-runoff. Cropland irrigation is a well-
established practice in the project area and has developed because of a
need for water as well as a waste-management approach. According to
a 1965 survey, many municipalities in Texas have practiced cropland
irrigation continuously for over 30 years—some as long as 70 or 80
years.93_/ Over 160 towns and cities in the five south central states
use sewage effluent for land application and the great majority, includ-
ing San Antonio, Amarillo, Abilene and Lubbock, Texas, practice
irrigation of cropland, parks, golf courses and cemeteries.
Despite the long history of use, there is little information relating to the
effect on ground-water quality. The nature of wastewater irrigation is
to use much more water than is generally used from fresh water sources
and a substantial portion of the applied wastewater percolates through
the soil to the ground water. The limited data available indicate that
over-irrigation with municipal wastewater can contribute to undesirable
levels of nitrate in the ground water. Lubbock, Texas has been using
cropland irrigation of municipal effluent for several years and reportedly
has developed a mound of relatively high nitrate water under the irriga-
tion area. 94/ A similar problem has developed at Hobbs, New Mexico.95/
Despite nitrate problems, there appears to be little other ground-water
quality problems associated with irrigation with either treated or un-
treated municipal effluents but there is a general lack of quantitative
data as a basis for this judgment.
Infiltration-percolation systems have also been used for many years as
a disposal practice with little effort to maximize the treatment capability.
However, within the last few years, considerable interest and research
has been directed toward optimizing the treatment capability. Infiltration-
percolation systems are designed for high hydraulic loading rates,
require rapidly permeable soils and length of drying and wetting periods
greatly influences the treatment efficiency, especially nitrogen removal.
Since crops and plants are not involved, the treatment efficiency is
entirely dependent on the filtering and ion-exchange action of the soil.
Because essentially all of the wastewater percolates to the ground water,
the influence on ground water quality is significant.
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Except for septic tank systems, infiltration-percolation systems are not
widely used in the five-state area. However, septic tank systems are
widely used and constitute a significant ground-water problem through-
out the region. State authorities in New Mexico consider septic tanks
to be the major contributor to ground-water pollution in the Albuquerque
area as well as many rural areas. The major problem in the Rio Grande
Valley at Albuquerque is the high water tables and the high concentra-
tion of septic tanks in the valley. It is estimated that there are 25,000
septic tanks in southern Albuquerque. 95_/ Water wells in this area are
also shallow and many are contaminated with chlorides, nitrates and
coliform organisms.
Of growing concern is the tremendous growth of mountain homesites in
the Rocky Mountains of New Mexico where septic tanks are used but
soil and geologic conditions are not conducive to efficient removal of
pollutants. Similar problems occur in many other rural areas of New
Mexico as well as the other states of the project area. In 1960, 27 per-
cent of the housing units in New Mexico used septic tanks or cesspools.
The percentage was 25, 38, 24, and 28 for the states of Arkansas,
Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas, respectively.%/ It is unlikely that
these percentages have changed significantly since 1960.
The overall effect of these infiltration-percolation systems can only be
estimated but it is apparent that they can be a source of ground-water
pollution in some areas under some conditions. In areas such as the
Edwards Plateau in central Texas where porous limestone formations
predominate near the surface, septic tanks are of great concern. Also
in areas where the ground-water table is near the surface, such as the
Albuquerque Valley and the Coastal areas of Texas and Louisiana,
septic tanks are considered significant causes of ground-water problems.
Bacterial contamination from septic tanks has been noted in ground
waters of Atacosa 57/, Newton 9_?/> Jack, Montague, Travis 98/,
McLennan, Potter 99/, Stephens, and Knox Counties in Texas, as well
as Bernalillo County", New Mexico.
Certainly the soil has demonstrated a tremendous capacity for absorbing
and degrading both industrial and municipal wastewaters. Problems
with infiltration-percolation systems such as septic tanks arise when
not enough soil contact time is available before the waste reaches the
ground water. This condition results both in areas of high ground-
water tables and areas of porous rock formations.
I
Spray-runoff is a relatively recent approach to land disposal which has
found most application to industrial wastes. This technique is most
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suitable to use on tight soils where more than half of the applied waste-
water is returned directly to the surface water as controlled runoff.
Treatment efficiency depends on physical, chemical, and biochemical
processes that take place as the liquid trickles slowly along the soil
surfaces.
Of all the land treatment or disposal systems, spray-runoff probably
has the least effect on ground-water quality because most of the applied
wastewater runs off the surface and much of the remainder is lost
through evapotranspiration. In a well-operated system, the fraction
of wastewater that does reach the ground water is of good quality. The
Campbell Soup Company of Paris, Texas treats about three MGD of
cannery wastewaters on about 300 acres of specially prepared grass-
land Ithout any discernible deterioration of ground-water quality. 100/
With the increasing pressure to clean up waste effluents and the
increasing interest in recycling processes, it is probable that soil
treatment systems will increase in popularity, especially in the project
area because of suitable year-around temperatures. The limiting
factor in all these soil systems appears to be the nitrogen concentra-
tions in the effluents.
Solid Wastes
In 1967 there was an estimated 10 pounds of household, commercial
and industrial solid wastes generated each day for every man, woman
and child in the United States . Of this amount, more than half was
collected by municipal and private waste collection agencies for recycle,
processing and/or disposal. Landfilling, the most prevalent method of
disposal in the United States accounted for over 90 percent of the
collected solid waste at an estimated 12,000 individual landfill sites. 101/
The project area is rather typical of the rest of the United States in
respect to solid waste management and mismanagement. Open dumps
and burning was formerly the accepted method of disposal. The tend-
ency has been to locate dumps and landfills in abandoned gravel pits
or other low-lying areas where ground-water is in contact with or at
least in close proximity to the waste materials.
With increased emphasis on curbing air pollution and nuisance condi-
tions related to open dumps, more attention is being given to converting
such operations to sanitary landfills. A sanitary landfill can generally
be described as a disposal operation where solid wastes are dumped
into an excavated area and covered over daily without causing pollu-
tion or nuisance conditions.
Although few landfills meet this relatively simple criteria, there are very
few reported case histories of serious contamination of ground water that
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can be directly attributable to leachates from sanitary landfills. In
Harris County, Texas, a garbage dump was reported to be the source
of ammonia nitrogen contamination in ground water. 102/ There are
undoubtedly many more unreported cases of people routinely using
water contaminated somewhat by land disposal of solid wastes.
Precipitation, surface water runoff characteristics, evapotranspiration,
the location and movement of ground water, and solid waste content all
determine characteristics of leachates from landfills. However, the
literature confirms that such leachates usually contain high concentra-
tions of total dissolved solids, calcium, magnesium, BOD, acidity and
alkalinity and gases such as carbon dioxide and methane. The lack of
reported serious problems can be attributed to the great capacity of
most soils to attenuate the contaminated leachates generated from land-
fill operations and possibly to the lack of monitoring of landfill operations
The soil provides sites for the microbial degradation of the organics
as well as a surface where inorganics are adsorbed and ion exchange
reactions replace the more undesirable ones. The extremely low
velocity of ground water movement provides the time necessary for
these reactions and confines most of the degradation processes to the
immediate vicinity of the landfill. The soluble degradation products
are further attenuated by the vastness of ground-water formations
simply by dilution.
Ground-water pollution by solid wastes becomes a problem because
this attenuation process does not work efficiently for all geological
formations. In unconsolidated formations of coarse sand and gravels
with high permeabilities or consolidated formations such as limestone
or shale with fissures, faults or fractures, not enough time is available
to complete the degradation process. Ground-water flow is often fast
enough in these types of formations to permit poorly degraded and
diluted leachates to appear at considerable distances from the landfill
or dump site.
The major solid waste threat to ground-water quality in the future will
probably be from the land disposal of industrial wastes. Many such
wastes decompose slowly or not at all and can impart odor, taste, and
even toxic characteristics to ground water at extremely low concentra-
tions . With the increased amount and complexity of solid industrial
wastes produced and the trend toward more stringent surface water
quality standards, many more industries will probably look to land for
industrial waste disposal. 103/ There may be practically no basis for
establishing guidelines for disposal of many of these new compounds.
The part of the project area most likely to encounter such problems is
along the gulf coast of Texas and Louisiana where the chemical and
petrochemical industries are concentrated.
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Almost unnoticed because they are generally located in sparsely popu-
lated areas, mining and mineral processing wastes are generated in
the United States at four times the rate of municipal wastes. These
wastes include mine wastes, mill tailings, washing plant rejects, pro-
cessing wastes, and slag and fly ash.104/ Mining and milling wastes
that cannot be reclaimed are generally disposed of on the soil, thereby
creating the potential for leaching of contaminants into the ground
water.
New Mexico has considerable mining activity with uranium in McKinley
and Valencia Counties, copper in Grant County, molybdenum in Taos
County and potash in Eddy and Lea Counties. Arkansas mines sulfur
from Lafayette, Columbia, and Union Counties; bauxite from Saline and
Pulaski Counties; and mercury from Pike County. Oklahoma produces
copper from Jackson County and zinc from Ottawa County. In addition,
processing mills for zinc and associated minerals are located in Black-
well , Henryetta, Bartlesville, and Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Most of Louisiana's mining is limited to sulfur and other nonmetals.
Sulfur is mined in Plaquemines, Terrebonne, and Calcasieu Parishes.
Salt is mined in several parishes and Louisiana is one of the leading salt
producing states in the United States.
Texas has a varied assortment of mining and milling activities
scattered throughout the state. Mercury is mined in Brewster and
Presidio Counties, iron ore—usually from open pits—is mined in
Cherokee, Morris, Cass, and Nachodoches Counties. Sulfur is mined
from several counties including Liberty, Jefferson, Pecos, Culberson,
Fort Bend, Brazoria, Andrews, Ector, Hockley, Van Zandt, Wood,
Metagorda, Wharton and Franklin. As noted earlier, Karnes County
has some uranium mining. Mills for processing the different metals
are located in Calhoun, Milam, Webb, Neuces, El Paso, Morris, Harris,
Brazoria, Galveston, Potter, and Moore Counties.
Another source of solid waste is agriculture which generates nearly 10
times as much wastes as municipalities. About three-fourths of this is
animal manure which is discussed in a later section but about one-fourth
includes such items as logging debris, crop residues, and food pro-
cessing wastes. 104/
Evapotranspiration by Native Vegetation
Water-loving plants that derive their water by sending roots down to
the water table are sometimes referred to as phreatophytes, especially
if they consume large amounts of water without commensurate benefits
to man. Phreatophytes do not belong to any specific plant family but
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the common characteristic is their heavy use of a large supply of water.
They occupy about 15 million acres of land in the western states. In
New Mexico 300,000 acres of phreatophytes are estimated to use 900,000
acre-feet of water, and in Texas 262,000 acres are estimated to use about
436,500 acre-feet of water per year. IPS/
The effect of phreatophytes on ground-water quality is the same as from
evaporation—the concentration of minerals. Generally, transpiration of
water by plants is greater than evaporation from bare soil because roots
of many plants lift water much higher than it can be lifted by the capil-
lary action of the soil. Depending on the type of vegetation, mineral
content of the ground water, depth to water table, soil texture, length
of growing season, hours of daylight, temperature, rainfall and humidity,
phreatophytes may transpire as much as 10 acre-feet per acre of water
each year. Generally, water use is greatest during a long, hot growing
season, with little precipitation and low humidity and a ground-water
table near the surface.
Obviously, phreatophytes exert their greatest effect on water quality in
water-short areas such as the deserts of New Mexico and west Texas
and where the water table is near the surface. The greatest effect is
felt along the Rio Grande and Pecos Rivers of New Mexico and Texas.
It was estimated by the Pecos River Compact Commission in 1949, that
if 15,000 acres of salt cedar on the delta above Lake McMillan could be
controlled, an additional 39,000 acre-feet of water annually might be
added to the water in the Pecos River.
Phreatophytes also occur extensively in the humid sections of the pro-
ject area and use great amounts of water. However, because of the
greater rainfall, the effect on water supplies and quality is proportion-
ately less serious than in the more arid areas.
Animal Wastes
Animal waste is a relatively new environmental problem—at least on the
large scale of today. Until 10 or 15 years ago, most beef animals were
raised on pasture land where wastes were easily assimilated into the soil
without significant surface or ground-water contamination. With the
increasing demand for more and better quality meat, livestock producers
have responded with thousands of large concentrated feeding operations.
During 1972 there were over two million beef cattle in feedlots in Texas
and most of these were located in feedlots of 1,000 to 50,000 head capac-
,ity.
During a beef animal's stay of 120-150 days in a feedlot, it will produce
over a half-ton of manure on a dry weight basis. The heavy concentra-
tions of animals overtaxes the natural assimilative capacity of the
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receiving soil. Rainfall runoff that conies in contact with the manure
carries high concentrations of various pollutants into receiving ponds
and streams. Ground water can then be contaminated by leachate from
the receiving ponds and streams or from the feedlot itself.
There remains considerable controversy regarding the extent of the
effect of feedlots on ground-water quality. Nitrates in high concentra-
tions have been found under some feedlots in some soil profiles. In
Corgell County, Texas, a feedlot was considered a source of contamina-
tion to the Paluxy Aquifer.HNS/ The Texas Water Quality Board, the
state agency regulating waste discharges in Texas, is concerned enough
,to require permeability tests of soils under newly constructed feedlot
runoff collection ponds. When such soils indicate excessive permea-
bility, lining of waste holding ponds with a relatively impermeable
material is required.
Fortunately, from a ground-water standpoint, about three-fourths of the
fed cattle in the five states are located in feedlots in the panhandle area
of northwest Texas and western Oklahoma where relatively deep ground-
water tables, low rainfall amounts and impermeable soil barriers combine
to restrict the downward movement of waste leachates. Analysis of
ground-water samples from beneath 80 feedlots in this area indicated
little contamination reaching the water table. 107/ It was determined that
local surficial material and regional soils patterns are closely related to
quality of ground water beneath feedlots.
Large feedlots are scattered over much more of the project area and
several are probably located on geologic formations conducive to
ground-water pollution. For example, in the Edwards Plateau of
central Texas, relatively shallow soils overlie porous limestone forma-
tions which could recharge feedlot pollutants to the ground water before
they can be assimilated by the soil.
Permeability and depth to the water table are the major considerations
for feedlot location because permeability controls the rate of movement of
water and pollutants that might be with it and both control the time of
travel. Given time to react with the soil, most pollutants will be removed
from feedlot leachates by a combination of sorption, biodegradation and
even dilution. Even though nitrogen converted to nitrates is very
mobile in ground water, given time and the proper soil medium, bio-
logical denitrification can reduce the nitrates before they reach the
ground water.
Although the potential for localized pollution of a water table aquifer
with nitrates is great under animal feeding areas, the limited acreage
of feedlots in most areas makes widespread ground-water pollution
unlikely.
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Waste Lagoons
Lagoons or ponds are one of the oldest forms of wastewater storage and
disposal and perhaps should be rated higher as a cause of ground-water
pollution. However, the most significant pollution in the subject five
state area has been caused by so-called evaporation ponds for oil field
brines and these were discussed in an earlier section. In reality, most
"evaporation" ponds were actually seepage pits. Only in arid western
Texas and Oklahoma and eastern New Mexico is evaporation adequate to
evaporate large volumes of water.
Lagoons have been used for many other wastes in addition to oil field
brines. They have been used extensively for municipal wastes, animal
wastes, and practically every type of industrial waste, especially as
regulations concerning stream discharge have become more strict.
Thousands of sewage lagoons are scattered throughout the five state
area and undoubtedly contribute much seepage to the ground water.
Fortunately, except for nitrates, contaminants common to municipal
wastes are attenuated rapidly in most soil environments underlying
such lagoons. Exceptions could occur in fractured or cavernous lime-
stone formations such as occur in the Edwards Plateau area of Texas.
As noted earlier, nitrates move freely with the ground water and are
often found in relatively high concentrations under sewage lagoons.
Lagoons used for storage of industrial wastes are a serious threat to
ground water in industrial areas. The petrochemical industry concen-
trated along the gulf coast, especially around Houston and Baton Rouge,
produces a myriad of waste products which are often stored in lagoons.
Many of these waste products are highly toxic and highly mobile in
ground water.
Examples of ground-water contamination from waste lagoons have been
reported in Howard County, Texas at two locations. At one location,
hydrocarbons from refinery holding ponds seeped into the ground water.
At another, unlined pits used for disposal of slaughterhouse wastewaters
were indicated as sources of bacteriological contamination of nearby
wells .1087 Acid waste discharge to unlined pits were identified as a
pollution~problem in Terry County, Texas. 1097 In Andrews IIP/ and
Travis 111/ Counties in Texas, municipal oxidation ponds have been
implicated in ground-water pollution.
Fortunately, industry and regulatory officials are becoming more cogni-
zant of the threat of industrial, municipal and agricultural waste lagoons
to the ground water and many such lagoons are being lined with imper-
meable materials.
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Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials
Many materials that are normally considered as hazardous provide a
significant benefit to modern society while many materials not normally
considered hazardous can have severe damaging effects if accidentally
released. Although most attention in the past has concerned hazardous
material that was an immediate threat to human life and property,
increasing attention is being given to those materials that threaten
environmental quality such as oil spillage. > •.
Hazardous material problems are generally thought of as transportation
accidents but many spills originate from storage and production facilities,
Numerous fish kills have resulted from leaks from storage tanks and
lagoons. Most concern about spills of hazardous material has been u,
related to surface water and air pollution such as oil spills and rupture
of gas storage tanks but ground water can be severely affected, too.
The project area contains most of the petroleum and petrochemical
industry of the United States. As noted earlier, oil is produced in a
great majority of the counties of the five states involved and thousands
of miles of transmission lines for oil and gas crisscross the region and
along with petroleum storage tanks create a significant potential for
ground-water pollution. The oil contamination mentioned earlier near
Hobbs, New Mexico probably results from a leaking oil well or trans-
mission line.
}_
Because of its widespread use and its mobility in ground water, gasoline
is a common pollutant. Leaking service station storage tanks have
polluted ground waters in Childress 112/, Coleman 113/, Hamilton 114/,
Starr and Tom Green 115/ Counties in Texas.
The petrochemical industry, which is heavily concentrated along the
Texas and Louisiana Gulf Coast presents a special problem. Not only
is the production, storage, transportation and use of the thousands of
toxic products a major potential pollutant but treatment, storage and
disposal of waste by-products is even more of a threat to ground water.
Subsurface Waste Disposal
Subsurface disposal of waste has been practiced in this country for
many years beginning with oil field brines, as discussed earlier. Other
industries began using injection wells around 1950, and by 1968 there
were over 60 such wells in Texas and Louisiana alone; presently, the
number is about 175 for the project area.
The concept of subsurface injection of wastes involves the introduction
of waste into a permeable formation hydraulically isolated from both
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higher and lower formations by impervious confining layers. It is
important to note that fluids already fill the void in those formations
into which wastes are injected. In order for the receiving formation
to accept the waste, it is necessary that the injected fluid be at a
higher pressure than that naturally existing in the receiving formation
This pressure may result from an applied pressure at the well head or
may be gained by the weight of fluid standing in the injection tubing.
In either case, the pressure within the receiving formation must be
increased, and it is this increased pressure that must be considered
when evaluating the effect of a subsurface injection well on ground-
water .
Since the receiving formation contains natural fluid and a pressure
must exist in order to force waste into and through the formation, it
follows that the waste can only be accepted by compressing or dis-
placing the fluids involved or by compressing the formations contain-
ing or confining the fluids.
If an injection well is located in an area where natural or man-made
connections exist between the injection formation and other formations,
the increase in pressure may force injected or native fluids into other
formations containing fresh water or to points of surface discharge.
Even without the existence of these avenues for fluid migration, injec-
tion pressures may reach a critical point great enough to fracture
confining formations or damage parts of the injection system, allowing
fluids to escape into surface or subsurface water resources. Since
pressure increases are greatest near the point of injection, most
failures can be expected in or near the injection well.
The exact number of industrial disposal wells in the study area is
difficult to determine. The literature is not consistent in this respect
for a number of reasons including the rapid rate of growth over the
past few years, deletions when use is discontinued, and differences
in classification.
Table 15 provides a general accounting of the number of disposal wells
in the study area.
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Table 15. WASTE DISPOSAL WELLS IN STUDY AREA*
1965—/ 1968—/ 1971
1187
Louisiana 10 28 62 (includes 3
Arkansas 0
28 621W
municipal wells)
New Mexico 11 —
Oklahoma 1 4 13—/
Texas 30 35 91—/ (includes 4
municipal wells)
*Does not include wells used for disposal of oil field brines.
Disposal wells in the study area are mostly associated with the chemical
industry, oil refineries, and metal product plants. Wastes that are
injected vary greatly and include many types of organic and inorganic
compounds, acid and alkalis, salts, cooling and wash water, and in
some cases treated municipal sewage.
There have been no reported incidences of ground-water pollution
attributable to the practice of industrial waste injection in the study
area. The potential for damage is, however, evidenced by a recent
case in which a United States District Court enjoined an industrial
firm from disposing of liquid waste by means of an injection well sys-
tem until abandoned oil and gas wells within a 2\ mile radius of the
injection well were adequately plugged.
Of the five states in this study area, only Texas has specific laws and
regulations dealing entirely with the deep well disposal of industrial
wastes. 117/ The other states assume jurisdiction based on other legis-
lation related to the production of oil and gas, the disposal of wastes
in general, or laws pertaining to the protection, conservation, and
development of fresh water.
In addition to the possibilities of pollution that do exist in well disposal
of industrial waste, another complicating factor exists in the recovery of
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damages in the event such pollution does occur. By its nature, ground-
water laws have been characterized as vague, uncertain, and inade-
quate. 12V In his article, Kreiger points out: "Because what goes on
beneath the surface of the earth cannot be seen, it is difficult to compre-
hend the problems of the underground, let alone fashion meaningful and
enforceable rules to govern subsurface activities . "
Walker and Stewart 122/ summarized the legal proceedings for adjudi-
cating matters associated with injection wells. They class such matters
into the doctrines of trespass, negligence, nuisance, and strict liability.
These doctrines and the violation of state statutes prohibiting the pollu-
tion of ground water constitute the legal constraints and liabilities asso-
ciated with subsurface waste disposal. 123/
The obligation for the plaintiff to prove that damages have occurred and
that they result from subsurface injection will often be difficult, expen-
sive, and time consuming. By the nature of ground-water movement,
damages may not become apparent until long after a ground-water
resource has been polluted. A ground-water resource that has been
damaged is likely to remain damaged for a protracted period while
efforts to restore an aquifer will prove difficult and costly.
Artificial Recharge of Aquifers
With the increasing demands on the normal water resources, ground-
water recharge is gaining increasing attention throughout the United
States . In huge arid sections of the five south central states, ground
water is being mined at an alarming rate and in some locations, current
supplies are good for less than 20 years at the present rate of use. As
noted earlier, heavy ground-water withdrawals along the gulf coast
have reversed the natural hydraulic gradients and permitted intrusion
of salt water into heretofore fresh water zones. For these reasons and
because soil filtration is an economical and efficient method of tertiary
treatment of wastewaters , aquifer recharge will become increasingly
important in the recycle and conservation of water resources.
Although artificial recharge is used extensively along the California
coast to prevent, retard and reverse sea-water intrusion, there is
presently no significant adoption of this practice along the Gulf Coast.
However, with the continued overdraft of coastal aquifers around
Houston and Baton Rouge, some type of recharge may be necessary,
especially around Houston where land subsidence is a problem.
There are a number of recharge wells in the high plains area of Texas
where water is being recharged to the Ogallala Formation. Sources of
the recharge water are playas or natural lakes that dot the area and
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collect surface runoff during heavy rainfall periods. Ordinarily, the
water collected in playas is rapidly evaporated in the semi-arid climate
of the high plains.
Artificial recharge is also of interest in the high plains because of plans
to import water to the area. Water storage in the Ogallala is highly
desirable because large storage volumes are available, water is avail-
able to users wherever the aquifer exists, little or no water is lost from
the aquifer by evaporation, ground-water quality is usually good,
ground-waters are not easily polluted, and often there is no other
feasible storage site.
Despite the many apparent advantages of artificial recharge, many
questions remain concerning the introduction to the aquifer of pollut-
ants with the recharge water. Little is known of the fate of such
pollutants in the ground-water environment. Nitrates are a signifi-
cant problem, especially where municipal effluents are used as
recharge water. Nitrates are a primary constituent of such effluents
and are not appreciably altered by movement through the ground-water
environment. 124/
Where agricultural wastewaters, such as runoff collected in playas, are
recharged, pesticides and other agricultural chemicals are of concern.
However, analysis of water from 39 playas in the high plains of Texas
did not indicate pesticide concentrations that would be hazardous if
recharged to the ground-water. 9_0/ Analyses were made for six pesti-
cides in common use in the area. Of unknown importance are the dozens
of other agricultural chemicals that were not analyzed for and may be
in the runoff water.
Treated municipal effluents have been recharged for several years, both
intentionally 125/ 126/ and unintentionally, without known serious
ground-water contamination problems—except for possible nitrate
increases. Most of the recharge in the five south central states is
unintentional. It has been estimated that one-third of all sewage
effluents from western Texas towns is recharged to the ground water
by infiltration. 12 7/
Again, the major hazard may not be from contaminants routinely checked
in municipal wastewaters but from the dozens of new industrial and
household chemicals that find their way into the sewer.
There are also other physical and chemical problems related to artificial
recharge and water quality. Clogging of the soils can occur from sus-
pended sediments in the recharge water. Chemical precipitation can
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occur if the aquifer water and the recharge water are not chemically
compatible and algal or bacterial growths are often a problem near the
point of recharge.
Other Causes
There are many other activities or sources of ground-water pollution
applicable to the project area. Over-fertilization of agricultural lands
can be a source of excess nutrients, especially nitrogen, in the ground-
water. Similarly, pesticides are widely used in the region and much is
still unknown concerning their fate in the subsurface environment.
Leaking sewers are common in all areas and thermal pollution can have
serious effects in industrial areas where heated wastewaters are dis-
charged to the ground water.
Undoubtedly, there are numerous other causes of ground-water
pollution--both known and unknown. It should be borne in mind that
any material that reaches the soil or surface water has the potential to
reach the ground water.
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SECTION VII
RESEARCH AND OTHER NEEDS
Traditionally, ground-water research or related investigations have
been concerned chiefly with availability, hydrology, or simply the
measurement of inorganic quality parameters. It has only been in
relatively recent times that ground-water investigations have dealt
with the cause and effect aspects of quality alterations. Ground-water
investigators, therefore, find a great many areas for which effort is
needed in order to protect, enhance, and in some cases restore the
quality of ground-water resources.
Although this section will primarily be concerned with the technical
aspects of ground-water quality, it cannot be implied that the totality
of problems rests with technical solutions alone. Indeed, many pollu-
tional problems do rest with technical solutions alone. Many other
pollutional problems can only be eliminated or avoided by appropriate
rules and regulations soundly based and for which adequate resources
are available for their implementation.
Additionally, the solution to existing and potential subsurface water
resource problems will depend greatly on the cooperation of public,
private, and academic institutions. For example, industry and govern-
ment may be required to marshal their resources to eliminate natural
salts which contaminate both surface and subsurface water resources.
Municipalities, irrigators, and industry must work together to control
the overdevelopment of aquifers and the resulting intrusion of waters
of poor quality. The development of river basin plans must incorporate
subsurface water resources because of their inseparability. Universi-
ties and consultants should work actively to assure that wastewater and
solid waste treatment facilities are designed in the interest of ground-
water quality protection.
Above all, the makers of policy and the public in general must contin-
ually be informed of the value and magnitude of our ground-water
resources and that the natural restoration of ground water may take
hundreds or thousands of years after a single introduction of polluting
material.
General Research Needs
Basic to the needs of ground-water research are the development of
reports such as this for the rest of the country. One such report has
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been completed for the southwestern United States 2/ and, at this writing,
another is just beginning for the North Atlantic States. These should
be prepared regionally by experts familiar with particular geographical
areas so that their knowledge of that area and their association with
consultants, universities, water resources agencies, and regulatory
agencies in that area can be combined to produce the most comprehen-
sive assessment of existing and potential ground-water pollution
problems.
The development of technology is a necessary and first step to any
successful attack in the unusually complicated area of ground-water
investigations. In order to predict, with some certainty, the fate of
pollutants in the subsurface environment, it is necessary to understand
the environment itself as the receptor of those pollutants. New drilling
techniques should necessarily be developed so that physical, chemical,
and biological measurements of the subsurface environment can be made
accurately. A difficult example would be the measurement of the oxida-
tion-reduction potential.
Another area where technology is needed is that of pollutant identification.
Information is particularly lacking in organics and in indicators of organic
pollution. The use of stable isotope ratios shows great promise in char-
acterizing the source of pollutants while coprostinol or its degradation
products could possibly be developed as indicators of fecal pollution.
Additionally, the general aspects of collecting, handling, and analyzing
samples from the subsurface environment should be standardized to the
extent possible so that comparability between different investigators can
be established.
The results of basic or applied research are for little purpose unless an
avenue is developed by which these results can be made clearly and
simply available to those who will eventually put them into practice. The
National Ground Water Quality Symposium held in Denver in August of
1971 presented such an avenue of technology transfer by its composition
of actual case histories followed by detailed discussions by those in
attendance.
Specific Research Needs
Natural Leaching
While this is the greatest single problem in the study area affecting both
surface and subsurface waters, it is also one of the most difficult to
attack. It is a natural phenomena extending in most cases over broad
geographical areas . Some work is being done by the U .S . Corps of
Engineers particularly as the problem affects surface water. The prob-
lems are probably of more concern to surface supplies than ground
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water because once the subsurface flows emerge at the surface, the
damage becomes much more widespread. The phenomena is, nonetheless,
subsurface in origin and should be addressed here in terms of alleviating
predominantly surface pollution.
1. Technology associated with demineralization has been
advanced to a considerable degree. Work remains to be
done on the application of these techniques to waters of
this chemical composition so that the economics of providing
at least small quantities of water can be established.
2. The development of technology to collect small heavily
mineralized alluvial flows should be pursued along with
ways to lower alluvial water tables in order to prevent
surface accumulation of brine crystals which are washed
into streams during periods of runoff.
3. Opportunities for secondary oil recovery by water-
flooding exist in many of the areas where natural brines
are present. Since the volume of water needed for water-
flood greatly exceeds that available from natural brine
springs, the possibility of using these natural brines for
this purpose should be investigated. Collection facilities
and incompatibility due to high sulfate concentration in
the natural brines may present obstacles that will have
to be resolved.
4. Deep well disposal of natural brines is being studied
by the U.S . Corps of Engineers . This work should be
encouraged particularly in view of the disposal of brines
into formations which naturally discharge into the sea.
5. In situ evaporation rates should be established for the
various natural brines encountered in the study area. This
would allow for optimizing systems of disposal or use which
are a function of volume.
Oil Field Brines and Other Materials
The practice of disposing of oil field brines has changed over the last
decade. The use of evaporation pits has almost been abandoned in favor
of subsurface injection either for waterflood or disposal. The protracted
use of pits has resulted in the discharge of large volumes of brines to
both the saturated and unsaturated subsurface environment and is likely
to remain a problem for many years even though the use of pits is gen-
erally abandoned. Technology for brine injection either for disposal
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or waterflooding is generally available but the consequences of these
types of brine disposal on ground-water resources has not been fully
evaluated. Ideally, brines should be returned to the formation from
which they were extracted.
1. Techniques for locating areas of subsurface brine
pollution should be developed so that these areas can be
investigated. Remote sensing and resistivity techniques
show promise.
2. Aquifer restoration should be demonstrated and
encouraged particularly in areas where polluted ground
water can be used for waterflooding.
3. The geologic and hydraulic relationship between fresh
water aquifers and brine disposal formations must be
evaluated in order to establish sound disposal criteria
in forms of disposal volume and pressure. Economic tech-
niques for making these appraisals should be improved
and demonstrated so that regulatory agencies could
regulate disposal activities more soundly and in individ-
ual fields, if necessary.
4. Existing inspection and monitoring techniques should
be evaluated and, if necessary, modified to assure that
the pollution potential to ground water is minimized.
5. A conceptual appraisal of the pollutional hazards of
using oil field drilling fluids and chemicals should be
made. The results of such an appraisal would dictate
future studies, if required.
6. A handbook should be developed by a firm with
exceptional expertise in the field of design, construc-
tion, and operation of disposal or waterflood wells.
The handbook should dwell on techniques. materials,
treatment, operation, monitoring, and training.
Well Construction
As pointed out in the previous section, well construction is a major
source of ground-water pollution. Well construction pertains both to
water wells and to other man-made penetrations particularly associated
with the oil and gas industry. In all cases, these problems should not
exist in the future because technology is available for their control.
f '
1. With respect to water wells, any additional research
that is needed would be primarily in their location with
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respect to either subsurface or surface sources of pollu-
tion . These items will be covered at least in concept in
other sections pertaining to research needs.
2. State regulatory agencies should license drillers,
review design, and inspect completed wells to assure
that the latest drilling and completion techniques are
practiced.
3. Opportunities for continuing education should be
made available to drillers. Perhaps this could be done
in cooperation with the National Water Well Association
where adequate state programs are lacking.
4. Well owners should be encouraged to receive periodic
inspections to assure that the integrity of their well contin-
ues to provide pollution protection.
5. Intermixing between aquifers can result from improper
cementing. Procedures should be developed by which
this type of pollution can be discovered before extensive
damage is done. This should be followed by reworking
the well or abandoning and plugging to prevent further
pollution.
Many problems of pollution result from existing wells, particularly in
the oil and gas industry, which were inadequately constructed or aban-
doned many years ago. Most research will be associated with the loca-
tion of these penetrations when unknown and evaluating the pollutional
potential of those for which the location is known.
1. Develop technology for locating abandoned oil
and gas test wells. Remote sensing shows some
promise while pollutant concentration vectors may
be considered.
2. Tracer techniques should be developed to
describe the extent and manner of pollution resulting
from abandoned wells.
3. Technology should be improved to describe
hydraulic conditions in an area where a pollutional
potential exists in connection with abandoned wells.
This will establish criteria by which the potential
can be evaluated.
4. Technology should be improved to adequately plug
wells which have been located as described above.
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Overpumping
When overpumping occurs, water levels decline and the movement of
mineralized water into the aquifer is possible. In other cases, fresh
water may be over brackish water and pumping can cause intermixing.
In the first case, state water resource agencies can regulate overpumping
by using available technology. In the second case, technology should be
developed which will permit the pumpage of fresh water overlying miner-
alized water. Some success might be gained using two pump techniques
or, in rare cases , the creation of separatory barriers.
Irrigation Return Flows
The practice of irrigation has detrimental effects on water quality mostly
in terms of mineralization. Irrigation can have beneficial aspects such
as denitrification, phosphate removal in the subsurface return flows,
and biological improvement.
1. Investigations should be undertaken to define
specific pollutants reaching ground water and the
magnitude of each.
2. Conduct basic studies of the precipitates and
exchange reactions which occur as water moves
through mineralized soil.
3. Conduct basic studies related to adsorption of
phosphates, heavy metals, and various agricultural
chemicals which may be carried into the soil with
irrigation water.
4. Subsurface return flow quality prediction tech-
niques should be developed along with economic
evaluations which might result from control measures
imposed on irrigative systems.
5. Research and demonstration projects should be
initiated to determine the response to various
practical quality control measures for subsurface
return flows.
Septic Tanks
Septic tanks have received a great deal of study over a long period of
time mostly with respect to design and efficiency. In recent years,
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many people have moved out of the cities either to summer homes or
retirement communities, many of which are located near streams or
reservoirs. This practice has again given rise to the need for addi-
tional research of septic tanks but of a somewhat different nature. The
pollution of ground water is gaining importance, as well as the contri-
bution of nutrients to reservoirs, often after the effluent has passed
through the ground water.
1. As in other types of waste treatment, a need exists
for the identification of persistent pollutants in both the
unsaturated soils and in the ground-water table.
2. The use and development of stable isotope ratios
shows promise in tracing septic tank effluents into and
through the ground water and often to surface reservoirs.
3. Investigations should be made leading to decision
criteria for the allowable density of septic tanks before
collection and central treatment facilities are required.
Land Application of Wastes
The practice of applying liquid and solid waste to the land for treatment
and disposal is gaining momentum in the study area. These practices
include spray irrigation, flooding, and spray runoff. The latter poses
the least threat to ground water since it is confined to areas where the
infiltration rate is low. While the theory of these practices shows
considerable promise with respect to the removal of pollutants, care
must be taken to assure that design and operation are not abused and
ground water is not polluted.
1. A handbook should be prepared outlining the design
criteria for these systems particularly with respect to
ground-water hydrology and the necessity for an under-
drain network.
2. Stable isotope ratio techniques or other means of
waste identification should be perfected by demonstration
in these types of waste disposal systems. These tools are
needed in order to accurately monitor the ground-water
quality and detect failures at an early stage.
3. Vertical soil and moisture profiles above the saturated
zone should be studied to identify the presence and define
the characteristics of movement of pollutants, particularly
those of a recalcitrant nature.
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4. Ground-water samples would be collected below and
down gradient from disposal sites to define, at least by
class, those pollutants which persist over time and dis-
tance either in the form of the parent parameter or its
degradation products.
5. Criteria must be developed which dictates the need
for underdraining based on water quality criteria.
Solid Waste Disposal
Most research to date has been confined to the contribution of Inorganics
from landfills and dumps. Generally, it is suggested that future research
deal with organics and their degradation products and the establishment
of regulations limiting the types of waste that may be disposed of in this
fashion.
1. Vertical soil and moisture profiles above the
saturated zone should be studied to identify the
presence and define the characteristics of move-
ments of pollutants, particularly those of a recalci-
trant nature.
2. Ground-water samples should be collected below
and down gradient from solid waste disposal sites to
define, at least by class, those pollutants which per-
sist over time and distance either in the form of the
parent parameter or its degradation products.
3. Those pollutants which prove to be particularly
persistent and toxic must be identified so that they can
be handled in a separate fashion and not allowed to
enter ground water.
4. The contribution to and solubility of heavy metals
in ground water should be studied.
Evapotranspiration by Native Vegetation
The prospect of salvaging valuable water now being wasted by compara-
tively useless vegetation, while at the same time decreasing the accom-
panying mineralization of the water supply, has provided an attractive
goal for many engineers and scientists. Various programs of vegeta-
tion eradication have been attempted with very limited success. The
growth usually returns within a short period of time. Erosion resulting
during the eradication period has created serious soil loss problems in
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the eradication areas and sedimentation problems in the nearby stream
channels. Nevertheless, the authors believe that research along the
following lines could be fruitful:
1. Development and evaluation of replacement vege-
tation having lower water use characteristics than the
water-loving phreatophytes.
2. Investigation of the possibilities of leveling areas of
phreatophyte growth and utilizing the areas for agricul-
tural production. Such a program should involve consid-
eration of subsidization because of the intermittent flooding,
poor soil conditions and low yield potential.
Animal Wastes
The study area contains a number of agricultural operations where large
numbers of either cattle, chickens, and, less frequently, hogs are placed
in small areas. These pose a pollutional threat to both surface and ground
water. Some work has been completed covering cattle feeding in the
High Plains of Texas and other investigations are underway for both'
alluvial deposits and limestone areas. These studies are concerned with
the effect of cattle feeding operations on ground water.
1. These studies should be continued until various
waste handling techniques are investigated for the
types of geologic conditions that exist in the study
area. The work should identify the organic and
inorganic pollutants that reach ground water under
the various geologic conditions encountered.
2. Research should particularly address the fate and
movement of hormones and antibiotics into and through
the ground water.
3. Work should be done concerning the possibility of
waste treatment lagoons sealing after a period of use.
If sealing does occur, its mechanism should be deter-
mined for the geological conditions encountered. If
sealing does not occur in a reasonable time, efforts
should be made for artificial sealing.
Waste Lagoons
Waste lagoons have been constructed for many types of wastes on many
types of soils and, in most cases, little consideration has been given to
protecting the underlying ground water. Research needs here are
similar to those suggested for other means of waste treatment.
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1. The identification of persistent pollutants and their
degradation products is needed for both unsaturated and
saturated zones.
2. Stable isotope ratio techniques or other means of waste
identification should be perfected and demonstrated for
those types of waste facilities.
3. Research should be conducted concerning the capac-
ities of various soil types to seal after a period of use.
Techniques should be developed to accelerate natural
sealing when possible and assure that such seals remain
intact.
4. Decision criteria is needed which dictates the need
for artificial lagoon seals.
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Material
Accidental spills are both diverse and numerous. Although data are not
readily available to describe the magnitude of these types of problems,
it is evident that detection and control technology is needed. Because
of the diverse nature of this type of potential pollution, the following
are only suggestions of the types of work needed.
1. The concept of continuous monitoring of pipelines
should be investigated so that failures can be detected
early and the extent of pollution can be minimized.
2. Techniques should be developed to detect leaks in
buried gasoline storage tanks.
3. Research is needed which will lead to the in situ
degradation or treatment of spilled hydrocarbons which
have entered the subsurface environment.
Subsurface Waste Disposal
With more stringent regulations covering the discharge of effluents to
the environment, the use of injection wells may provide an attractive
alternative to more conventional techniques. Research is needed to
assure that the subsurface disposal of waste is a true alternative with
respect to environmental protection.
1. Develop a manual covering the design, construction,
operation, monitoring, and maintenance of well disposal
systems. Such items as material selection for various
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wastes should be included. The manual should be developed
by a company with considerable experiences in the field.
Provisions should be made to add to the manual as new
technology is developed.
2. Since many problems would be based on pressure
increases, projects should be initiated which evaluate the
effects of pressure increases in the subsurface.
3. Efforts are needed to relate hydraulic formation
fracturing to subsurface waste injection.
4. A model should be developed to serve as a tool in the
appraisal of the effects of each subsurface waste injection
project.
5. Research is needed to define the movement and
degradation of wastes in an environment such as that
found in deep formations .
6. A compilation of existing laws and regulations of the
states should be made.
7. Methodology should be developed for monitoring the
effects of subsurface waste injection projects.
Aquifer Recharge
Aquifer recharge is accomplished both intentionally and as a result of
other activities discussed in this section such as septic tanks, irriga-
tion , and lagoons. Intentional recharge may be accomplished in a
number of ways, including spreading, ponding, or the use of wells.
Research needs suggested here are confined to water quality aspects
and, as such, are much like those in other research suggestions.
Research needs on the physical aspects of recharge are better addressed
by others and are not included.
1. Pollution identification techniques are needed to
assure that the aquifer is not degraded by recharge.
2. Both the saturated and unsaturated zones should
be investigated to assure that no parameter present in
the recharge water is accumulating or otherwise
persistent in undesirable concentrations.
3. The fate of any constituent of the recharge water
should be determined to assure degradation products
are non-polluting or synergistic.
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SECTION VIII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This report is based on assistance and information from many agencies
and individuals. Much of the water resource and water quality informa-
tion was obtained from reports of the U.S. Geological Survey and various
state agencies. Additional information was supplied by many other pub-
lications and most of these and some of the private individuals are listed
in the bibliography.
Appreciation is extended to the Arkansas Department of Pollution Control
and Mr. Ladd Davies; Arkansas Geological Survey and Mr. Norman
Williams; Louisiana Geological Survey and Mr. Leo Hough; Louisiana
State Health Department and Mr . John Trigg; New Mexico State Engi-
neers Office and Messrs. Joe Yates, P. D. Akin, Jim Williams and Fred
Hennighausen; New Mexico Environmental Improvement Agency and
Messrs . John Wright and Mike Snavely; Texas Water Development Board
and Messrs. Fred Osborne, Bruce Fink and Wayne Wyatt; Oklahoma
Water Resources Board and Messrs. Lee Burton and Alan Haws;
Dr. Frank Titus of the New Mexico Institute of Mines and Mineral
Resources; Drs. John Hernandez and John Clark of the Water Resources
Research Institute at New Mexico State University; Mr. George Cardwell
of the U.S. Geological Survey in Baton Rouge; Mr. Dick Peckham of the
EPA Regional Office in Dallas, Texas; and, Mr. Marvin Wood of EPA,
Ada, Oklahoma.
The authors of this report are Sanitary Engineer, Program Chief, and
Research Assistant, respectively, of the National Ground Water Research
Program, Robert S . Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory, Ada,
Oklahoma. Special appreciation is extended to several other staff mem-
bers who contributed significant time and effort to the project. Mrs.
Linda Harmon was instrumental in the data collection and format and
final preparation of the report. Mr. Montie Fraser aided in data
collection and reduction, and Mr. Leslie McMillion provided much
assistance with information, references, and comments. Appreciation
is also extended to Mrs. Joan Elliott for the final typing of the manu-
script and to Mr. Tom Redman for preparation of the illustrations.
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES CITED
1. Mack, L. E., "Ground-water Management in Development of a
National Policy on Water," National Water Commission Report
NWC-EES-71-004, Jan. 31, 1971.
2. Fuhriman, D. K. and J. R. Barton, "Ground-water Pollution in
Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah," Environmental Protec-
tion Agency, Water Pollution Control Research Series 16060 ERU,
Dec. 1971.
3. Murray, C. R. and E. B. Reeves, "Estimated Use of Water in the
United States in 1970," U.S. Geological Survey Circular 676,
1972.
4. Select Committee on National Water Resources, United States
Senate, "Water Resources Activities in the United States,"
Committee Print No. 32, 1960.
5. McGuinness, C. L., "The Role of Ground Water in the National
Water Situation," U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper
1800, 1963.
6. Thomas, H. E., "Ground Water Regions of the United States—
Their Storage Facilities," U.S. 83rd Congress, House Interior
and Insular Affairs Committee—The Physical and Economic
Foundation of Natural Resources, Vol. 3, 1952.
7. Baker, R. C., "Arkansas' Ground-water Resources," Arkansas
Geological and Conservation Commission Water Resources Circu-
lar No. 1, 1955.
8. Bedinger, M. S., L. F. Emmett and H. G. Jeffery, "Ground-water
Potential of the Alluvium of the Arkansas River Between Little
Rock and Fort Smith, Arkansas," U.S. Geological Survey Water-
Supply Paper 1669-L, 1963.
9- Albin, D. R., "Geology and Ground-water Resources of Bradley,
Calhoun, and Ouachita Counties, Arkansas," U.S. Geological
Survey Water-Supply Paper 1779-G, 1964.
10. Ryling, R. W., "Ground Water Potential of Mississippi County,
Arkansas," Arkansas Geological and Conservation Commission
Water Resources Circular No. 7, I960.
124
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11. Counts, H. B ., et al., "Ground-water Resources in a Part of
Southwestern Arkansas," Arkansas Geological and Conservation
Commission Water Resources Circular No. 2, 1955.
12. Rollo, J. R. , "Ground Water in Louisiana," Louisiana Geological
Survey Water Resources Bulletin No. 1, August I960.
13. Whitman, H. M. and Chabot Kilburn, "Ground-water Conditions
in Southwestern Louisiana, 1961 and 1962," Louisiana Geological
Survey Water Resources Pamphlet No. 12, Sept. 1963.
14. Morgan, C. O., "Ground-water Conditions in the Baton Rouge
Area, 1954-1959," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources
Bulletin No. 2, December 1961.
15. Rollo, J. R., "Ground-water Resources of the Greater New Orleans
Area, Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources
Bulletin No. 9, July 1966.
16. Hale, W. E., L. J. Peiland and J. P. Beverage, "Characteristics
of the Water Supply in New Mexico," New Mexico State Engineer
Technical Report 31, 1965.
17. Nicholson, A., Jr., and A. Clebsch, Jr., "Geology and Ground-
water Conditions in Southern Lea County, New Mexico," New
Mexico State Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources Ground-water
Report 6, 1961.
18. Bjorklund, L. J. and B . W. Maxwell, "Availability of Ground Water
in the Albuquerque Area, Bernalillo and Sandoval Counties, New
Mexico," New Mexico State Engineer Technical Report 21, 1961.
19. Department of the Interior, "Saline Ground-water Resources of the
Tularosa Basin, New Mexico," Research and Development Progress
Report No. 561, July 1970.
20. West, S. W., "Availability of Ground Water in the Gallup Area,
New Mexico," U.S. Geological Survey Circular 443, 1961.
21. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Reported Water Use in Okla-
homa, 1971," Oklahoma Water Resources Board Publication 41,
Sept.'1972.
22 Bureau of Water Resources Research and Oklahoma Water Resources
Board, "Water, Oklahoma's No. 1 Problem," 3rd Edition, Dec. 1961.
125
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23. Tanaka, H. H. andL. V. Davis, "Ground Water, Rush Springs
Sandstone," Oklahoma Geological Survey Circular 61, 1963.
24. Wood, P. R. and L. C. Burton, "Ground-water Resources in
Cleveland and Oklahoma Counties, Oklahoma," Oklahoma Geologi-
cal Survey Circular 71, 1968.
25. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Region Eight," Oklahoma
Water Resources Board Publication 19, 1968.
26. Murphy, R. S., et al., "Soil Survey of Cimarron County, Okla-
homa," U.S. Department of Agriculture Series 1956, No. 11,
June 1960.
27. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Region Nine, " Oklahoma
Water Resources Board Publication 36, 1971.
28. Dole, R. H., "Ground-water Supplies in Oklahoma and Their
Development."
29- Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Regions Five and Six,"
Oklahoma Water Resources Board Publication 27, 1969.
30. United States Study Commission on the Neches, Trinity, Brazos,
Colorado, Guadalupe, San Antonio, Nueces, and San Jacinto
River Basins and Intervening Areas, "The Report of the U.S.
Study Commission-Texas, Part II: Resources and Problems,"
March 1962.
31. Texas Water Development Board, "Additional Technical Papers on
Selected Aspects of the Preliminary Texas Water Plan," Texas
Water Development Board Report 38, Feb. 1967.
32. McMillion, L. G., "A Review of the Major Ground-water Formations
in Texas," Presented at the Western Resources Conference,
Boulder, Colorado, August 1960.
33. Peckham, R. C., et al., "Reconnaissance Investigation of the
Ground-water Resources of the Trinity River Basin, Texas,"
Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6309, Sept. 1963.
34. Mount, J. R., et al., "Reconnaissance Investigation of the Ground-
water Resources of the Colorado River Basin, Texas," Texas
Water Development Board Report 51, July 1967.
126
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35 - Baker, E. T ., et al., "Reconnaissance Investigation of the Ground-
water Resources of the Red River, Sulphur River, and Cypress
Creek Basins, Texas," Texas Water Commission Bulletin 6306,
July 1963.
36. Texas Board of Water Engineers, "A Plan for Meeting the 1980
Water Requirements of Texas," for submittal to the 57th legis-
lature, May 1961.
37. Harder, A. H., et al., "Effects of Ground-water Withdrawals on
Water Levels and Salt-water Encroachment in Southwestern
Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources
Bulletin No. 10, Oct. 1967.
38. Jones, P . H., "Water Resources of Southwestern Louisiana, " U.S.
Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1364, 1956.
39. Harder, H. H. , H. M. Whitman and S. M. Rogers, "Methane in the
Fresh-water Aquifers of Southwestern Louisiana and Theoretical
Explosion Hazards," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources
Pamphlet No. 14, Feb. 1965.
40. Rollo, J. R., "Salt-water Encroachment in Aquifers of the Baton
Rouge Area, Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water
Resources Bulletin No. 13, August 1969.
41. Cardwell, G. T. and J. R. Rollo, "Interim Report on Ground-
water Conditions between Baton Rouge and New Orleans.
Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources
Pamphlet No. 9, Aug. I960.
42. Page, L. V., R. Newcome, Jr. and G. D. Graeff, Jr., "Water
Resources of Sabine Parish, Louisiana," Louisiana Geological
Survey Water Resources Bulletin No. 3, May 1963.
43. Newcome, R., Jr., "Ground-water Resources of the Red River
Valley Alluvium in Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water
Resources Pamphlet No. 7, April 1960.
44. Newcome, R., Jr., "Water Resources of Natchitoches Parish,
Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water Resources Bulletin
No. 4, July 1963.
45 Hood, J. W. and L. R. Kister, "Saline-water Resources of New
Mexico," U.S. Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1601, 1962.
127
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46. Howard, J. W., "Reconnaissance of Ground-water Conditions in
Curry County, New Mexico," New Mexico State Engineer Techni-
cal Report 1, Dec. 1954.
47. Herrick, E. H. , "Appraisal of Ground-water Resources of the
Tularosa Basin and Adjoining Areas, New Mexico and Texas,"
U.S. Geological Survey Open-file Report 246.
48. Trauger, F. D. and E. H. Herrick, "Ground Water in Central
Hachita Valley Northeast of the Big Hatchet Mountains, Hidalgo
County, New Mexico," New Mexico State Engineer Technical
Report 26, 1962.
49. Doty, G. C., "Reconnaissance of Ground Water in Playas Valley,
Hidlago County, New Mexico, " New Mexico State Engineer Techni-
cal Report 15, 1960.
50. Callahan, J. T. and R. L. Cushman, "Geology and Ground-water
Supplies of the Fort Wingate Indian School Area, McKinley County,
New Mexico," U.S. Geological Survey Circular 360, 1955.
51. Marine, I. W. and S. L. Schoff, "Ground-water Resources of
Beaver County, Oklahoma," Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin
97, May 1962.
52. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Region 1," Oklahoma Water
Resources Board Publication 17, 1967.
53. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Region 3," Oklahoma Water
Resources Board Publication 23, 1968.
54. Davis, L. V., "Geology and Ground-water Resources of Southern
McCurtain County, Oklahoma," Oklahoma Geological Survey Bulletin
86, 1960.
55. Oklahoma Water Resources Board, "Appraisal of the Water and
Related Land Resources of Oklahoma, Region 7," Oklahoma Water
Resources Board Publication 29, 1970.
56. Texas Water Commission, "Reconnaissance Investigations of the
Ground-water Resources of the Rio Grande Basin, Texas," Texas
Water Commission Bulletin 6502, July 1965.
128
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57. Mason, C . C.. "Ground-water Geology of the Hickory Sandstone
Member of the Riley Formation, McCulloch County, Texas," Texas
Board of Water Engineers Bulletin 6017, Feb. 1961.
58. Osborne, Fred, "An Investigation of the Nitrate Contamination of
the Ground Water in Runnels County, Texas Using the Nitrogen
Isotope Ratio Technique," Submitted to the Texas Water Develop-
ment Board, Publication Pending.
59. Minerals Yearbook, United States Bureau of Mines. 1969.
60. Subcommittee on Water Problems Associated with Oil Production
in the United States, "Water Problems Associated with Oil Produc-
tion in the United States," Interstate Oil Commission Compact,
June 1967.
61. Smith, W. W., "Salt Water Disposal: Sense and Dollars,"
Petroleum Engineer, Vol. 42, No. 11, pp. 64-72, Oct. 1970.
62. Texas Oil and Gas Fields (Map) , Distributed by Oil Information
Committee, Texas Mid-Continent Oil and Gas Association.
63. U.S. Geological Survey, "Water For Arkansas," U.S. Geological
Survey in Cooperation with the Arkansas Geological Commission,
1969.
64. Wood, L. A., et al., "Reconnaissance Investigation of the Ground-
water Resources of the Gulf Coast Region, Texas, " Texas Water
Commission Bulletin 6305, June 1963.
65. Texas Water Development Board, "The Texas Water Plan," Texas
Water Development Board Unnumbered Report, November 1968.
66. Raynor, F. A., "Alleged Contamination of Irrigation Wells in
Northern Dawson Co.," Texas Water Development Open-file
Report, Sept. 1959.
67. Ginn, R. F., "Goldsmith Community Park, Ector Co., Texas,"
Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report Cl-7111, March
1972.
68 Bayha, D., "Investigation of Water Well Reports Contamination
by Salt Water in the Area of the Howard-Glasscock Oil Field,
Glasscock Co., Texas," Texas Water Development Board Open-
file Report, April 1969.
129
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69. Evans, Daniel, "Ground-water Contamination in the Vicinity of
Pierce Junction Salt Dome, (Stevens, M. T.) Harris County,"
Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report Cl-6601,
Sept. 1971.
70. Cooper, Wallace, "Field Investigation of Ground-water Contamina-
tion in the Bowie Area, Montague County, Texas," Texas Water
Development Board Open-file Report, March 27, 1967.
71. Shamburger, V. M., Jr., "Reconnaissance of Water Well Pollu-
tion and the Occurrence of Shallow Ground Water, Runnels Co.,
Texas," Texas Water Development Board Contamination Report
No. 1, July 1958.
72. Burnitt, S. C., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination,
Henderson Oil Field Area, Rusk Co., Texas," Texas Water
Development Board Memorandum Report LD-0262 MR, Oct. 1962.
73. Thornhill, J. T., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination
Coleto Creek Oil Field Victoria County, Texas," Texas Water
Commission Report LD-0564-MR, March 1964.
74. Stearman, Jack, "A Reconnaissance Investigation of Alleged
Contamination of Irrigation Wells near Lockett, Wilbarger Co. ,
Texas," Texas Board of Water Engineers Report No. 8, I960.
75. Burton, Lee, Private Communication, Oklahoma Water Resources
Board, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
76. McMillion, L. G., "Ground-water Reclamation by Selective Pump-
ing," American Soc. of Mining Engineers Reprint No. 70-AG-55,
Feb. 1970.
77. Fryberger, J. S., "Rehabilitation of a Brine-Polluted Aquifer,"
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Water Pollution Control
Research Series 14020 DLN, March 1972.
78. Cooper, Wallace, "Investigation of Reported Ground-water
Contamination, Novice Area, Colemon Co., Texas," Texas Water
Development Board Open-file Report, July 1970.
79. White, D. J., "Contamination of the W. W. Osburn Water Wells in
the Vicinity of the Hilbig Oil Field, Bastrop Co., Texas," Texas
Water Development Board Open File Report, November 15, 1972.
130
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80. White, D. J., "Improperly Completed and Plugged Water Wells,
Duval Co., Texas," Texas Water Development Board Open-file'
Report Cl-6604, October 1970.
81. Burnitt, S. C. . "Reconnaissance of Soil Damage and Ground-water
Quality, Fisher County, Texas," Texas Water Commission Memo-
randum Report No. 63-02, Sept. 1963.
82. Muller, D. A. and H. E. Couch, "Water Well and Ground Water
Chemical Analysis Data, Schleicher County, Texas," Texas
Water Development Board Report 132, August 1971.
83. Evans, D. S., "JohnC. Young Water Well Problems (Lockhart)
in the Vicinity of the Luling-Branyon Field, Caldwell Co., Texas,"
Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report, Sept. 1971.
84. White, D. J., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination in
Northern Comanche Co., Texas," Texas Water Development Board
Open-file Report, August 1970.
85. Bayha, David, "Investigation of the Presence of Natural Gas in
a Ground-water Aquifer, Menefee Field Area, Wharton Co.,
Texas," Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report,
Feb. 1967.
86. Meyer, R. R. and J. R. Rollo, "Salt Water Encroachment Baton
Rouge Area, Louisiana," Louisiana Geological Survey Water
Resources Pamphlet No. 17, Nov. 1965.
87. Wesselman, J. B., "Geology and Ground-water Resources of
Orange Co., Texas," Texas Water Commission Bulletin No. 6516,
July 1965.
88. White, D. E., "Water Resources of Ward. County, Texas," Texas
Water Development Board Report 125, Feb. 1971.
89. Skogerboe, G. V. and J. P. Law, Jr., "Research Needs for
Irrigation Return Flow Quality Control," U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency Water Pollution Control Research Series 13030,
Nov. 1971.
90. Wells, D. M., E. W. Huddleston and R. G. Rekers, "Potential
Pollution of the Ogallala by Recharging Playa Lake Water-
pesticides ," U .S . Environmental Protection Agency Water
Pollution Control Research Series 16060 DCO, Oct. 1970.
131
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91. Law, J. P., "Agricultural Utilization of Sewage Effluent and
Sludge, An annotated Bibliography," Federal Water Pollution
Control Administration, 1968.
92. Thomas, R. E. and C. C. Harlin, Jr., "Experiences with Land
Spreading of Municipal Effluents," Prepared for presentation at
the First Annual IF AS Workshop on Land Renovation of Waste
Water in Florida, 1972.
93. Thomas, R. E., "Applying Wastewaters to the Land for Treatment,"
Prepared for presentation at the 23rd Oklahoma Industrial Waste
and Advanced Water Conference, Oklahoma State University,
April 1972.
94. Wells, D. M., "Ground-water Recharge with Treated Municipal
Effluent," Municipal Sewage Effluent for Irrigation, The Louisi-
ana Tech. Dept. of Agricultural Engineering, July 1968.
95. Snavely, Michael, Private Communication, New Mexico Environ-
mental Improvement Agency, Santa Fe, New Mexico.
96 . United States Department of Agriculture, "Status of Water and
Sewage Facilities in Communities Without Public Systems,"
USDA Agricultural Economic Report No. 143.
97. Webster, Richard, "Ground-water Contamination (Grady Woods)
from Nitrate Near Newton, Newton Co., Texas," Texas Water
Development Board Open-file Report Cl-7112, Nov. 1971.
98. Jorgasen, D. M., "Contamination of the Roland Bloomquist and
Other Water Wells at Ford Oaks, Travis Co., Texas," Texas
Water Development Board Open-file Report Cl-7110, April 10,
1972.
99. Cooper, Wallace, "Possible Ground-water Contamination in the
Rolling Hills Addition, Potter Co., Texas," Texas Water
Development Board C1-68Q2, August 1970.
100. Law, J. P., et al., "Cannery Wastewater Treatment by High-rate
Spray on Grassland," WPCF Journal, Vol. 42, No. 9, Sept. 1970-
101. Environmental Science and Technology, "Solid Wastes, " Environ-
mental Science and Technology„ Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 384-391,
May 1970.
132
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102. Beffort, J. D., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination
Hazards in the Vicinity of Tanner Red Garbage Dumps, Harris
Co., Texas," Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report
Cl-6906, July 1970.
103. Zanoni, A. E., "Ground-water Pollution and Sanitary Landfills—
A Critical Review," Presented at the National Ground-water
Quality Symposium, Denver, Colorado, Aug. 1971.
104. Hershaft, Alex, "Solid Waste Treatment Technology," Environ-
mental Science and Technology, Vol. 6, No. 5, pp. 412-421,
May 1972.
105. Fletcher, H. C. andH. B. Elmendorf, "Phreatophytes~A Serious
Problem in the West," Water: The Yearbook of Agriculture, 1955,
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 423-429, 1956.
106. Hill, Robert, "Influence of Erwin Feed Lot Wastes on Ground Water
in Fort Gates, Coryell Co., Texas," Texas Water Development
Board Open File Report, Dec. 1967.
107. Texas Tech University, "Infiltration Rates and Ground-water
Quality Beneath Cattle Feedlots, Texas High Plains," Environ-
mental Protection Agency Water Pollution Control Research Series
16060 EGS, Jan. 1971.
108. Holloway, H. D., "Bacteriological Pollution of Ground Water in
the Big Spring Area, Howard County, Texas," Texas Water
Commission Report LD-0163-MR, June 1963.
109. Fink.B.E., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination by
Cotton Seed Delinting Acid Waste, Terry County," Texas Water
Commission Report LD-0864, October 1964.
110. White, D. J., "Investigation of Ground-water Contamination in
Southeast Andrews , Andrews County, Texas," Texas Water
Development Board Open-file Report, April 1970.
111. Hill, Robert, "Investigation of the Presence of Coliform Organisms
in Ground Water in Walnut Creek Area, Travis Co., Texas,"
Texas Water Development Board Open-file Report, Nov. 1968.
112 Hill Robert "Ground-water Contamination from Gasoline,
Childress, Childress Co. , Texas," Texas Water Development
Board Open-file Report, March 1967.
133
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113. White, D. J., Investigation of Contamination by Gasoline of Water"
Wells in Valera, Coleman Co., Texas," Texas Water Development
Board Open-file Report, Aug. 1972.
114. Bayha, David, "Investigation of All Ground-water Contamination
Carlton Area, Hamilton Co., Texas," Texas Water Development
Board Open-file Report, Jan. 1966.
115. Ginn, R. F., "San Angelo Gasoline Problem (D. C. Cuningham),
Tom Green Co., Texas," Texas Water Development Board Open-
file Report Cl-7109, July 1971.
116. Warner, D. L., "Deep-well Injection of Liquid Waste, " U.S.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health
Service, Division of Water Supply and Pollution Control,
Cincinnati, Ohio, April 1965.
117. Interstate Oil Compact Commission, "Subsurface Disposal of
Industrial Wastes," Interstate Oil Compact Commission, June
1968.
118. Louisiana Geological Survey, "Underground Industrial Waste
Disposal in Louisiana," Submitted to Senate Subcommittee on
Air and Water Pollution, New Orleans, Louisiana, April 1971.
119. Oklahoma Water Resources Board (Private Conversation) .
120- Texas Water Quality Board (Private Conversation) .
121. Kreiger, J. H., "The Law of the Underground," Civil Engineering.
pp. 52-53, March 1969.
122. Walker, W. R. and R. C. Stewart, "Deep Well Disposal of Wastes,"
Am. Soc. Civil Engineers Proc. Paper 6171, Jour. Sanitary Eng.
Div., Vol. 94, No. SA 5, pp. 945-968.
123. Cleary, E. J. and D. L. Warner, "Perspective on the Regulation
of Underground Injection of Wastewaters," Ohio River Valley
Water Sanitation Commission, Dec. 1969.
124. Scalf, M. R., et al., "Fate of DDT and Nitrate in Ground Water,"
U.S. Department of the Interior, April 1968.
125. Bouwer, Herman, et al., "Renovating Secondary Sewage by
Ground Water Recharge with Infiltration Basins," Environmental
Protection Agency Water Pollution Control Research Series 16070
DRV, March 1972.
134
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126. Doen, D. F., et al., "Study of Reutilization of Wastewater Recycled
Through Ground Water, Vol. 1," Environmental Protection Agency
Water Pollution Control Research Series 16060 DDZ, July 1971.
127. Woods, Calvin (Private Communication), Texas A&M University,
1973.
128. National Technical Advisory Committee, FWPCA, "Water Quality
Criteria," U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C.,
1968.
129- U.S. Public Health Service, "Drinking Water Standards, 1962,"
USDHEW Publication No. 956, 1962.
130. McGauhey, P. H., "Engineering Management of Water Quality,"
McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1968.
131. Economic Research Service, "Major Uses of Land and Water in the
United States," Agricultural Economic Report No. 13, Economic
Research Service, U.S . Department of Agriculture, July, 1962.
132. American Society for Testing Materials, "First National Meeting
on Water Quality Criteria," ASTM Publication No. 4-6, 1966.
135
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SECTION X
GLOSSARY OF TERMS
Aquifer - A geologic formation which contains water and has the capa-
bility of transmitting it from one point to another in quantity to permit
economic development.
Aquifer Restoration - Restoration of the water quality in a polluted
aquifer to its normal quality, usually by removing the source of pollu-
tion and the polluted ground water.
Artificial Recharge - The addition of water to the ground-water reservoir
by activities of man, such as irrigation or induced infiltration from
streams, wells, or spreading basins .
Beneficial Use of Water - The use of water for any purpose from which
benefits are derived, such as domestic, irrigation, or industrial supply,
power development, or recreation.
Brackish Water - Water containing dissolved minerals in excess of
acceptable normal municipal, domestic, and irrigation standards, but
less than that of sea water.
Cambrian Age - Oldest period of geological history in the Paleozoic Era.
Cenozoic Age •- Era of geological history from the beginning of the
Tertiary (first period in the Cenozoic Era) to the present.
Cretaceous Age - Youngest period of geological history in the Mesozoic
Era.
Closed Basin - A basin is considered closed with respect to surface flow
if its topography prevents the occurrence of visible outflow. It is closed
hydrologically if neither surface nor underground outflow can occur.
Confined (Artesian) Aquifer - An aquifer which is bounded above and
below by formations of impermeable or relatively impermeable material.
Connate Water - Sea water held in the interstices of sedimentary deposits
and sealed in by the deposition of overlying beds.
Deep Well Disposal - The disposal of waste materials by injection into a
subsurface formation, usually at much greater depth than known fresh-
water aquifers.
136
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Degradable - Capable of being decomposed, deteriorated, or decayed
into simpler forms with characteristics different from the original. Also
referred to as biodegradable.
Degradation of Water Quality - Decrease in water quality due to in-
creased concentration of any substance classified as a pollutant.
Demineralization - The process of removing the mineral salts from water.
Depletion (Ground-Water) - The withdrawal of water from a ground-
water source at a rate greater than its rate of replenishment, usually
over an extended period of several years.
Dissolved Solids - Chemicals in true solution.
Evaporation Pits - Ponds commonly used to store wastewaters, theoreti-
cally for evaporation. In most cases, there is probably more water lost
through infiltration than by evaporation.
Evapotranspiration - The sum of the quantity of water used by vegetative
growth in transpiration or building of plant tissue and the quantity
evaporated from adjacent soil or plant surfaces in a given specified time.
Ground Water - Underground water that is in the zone of saturation.
Ground Water Basin - A ground water reservoir together with all the
overlying land surface and the underlying aquifers that contribute water
to the reservoir. In some cases, the boundaries of successively deeper
aquifers may differ in a way that creates difficulty in defining the limits
of the basin.
Ground Water Mining - See Depletion (Ground-Water) .
Ground Water Recharge - Inflow to a ground water reservoir.
Ground Water Reservoir - An aquifer or aquifer system in which ground
water is stored. The water may be placed in the aquifer by artificial or
natural means.
Ground Water Storage Capacity - The reservoir space contained in a
given volume of deposits. Under optimum conditions of use, the usable
ground water storage capacity volume of water that can be alternately
extracted and replaced in the deposit, within specified economic limita-
tions .
137
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Hydrologic Cycle - The circuit of water movement from the atmosphere 1
to the earth and return to the atmosphere through various stages or
processes as precipitation, interception, runoff, infiltration, percola-
tion, storage, evaporation, and transpiration.
Igneous Rock - Rock formed by volcanic action or great heat.
Infiltration - The process whereby water passes through an interface,
such as from air to soil or between two soil horizons.
Land Subsidence - The lowering of the natural land surface in response
to: earth movements; lowering of fluid pressure; removal of underlying
supporting material by mining or solution of solids, either artificially
or from natural causes; compaction due to wetting (Hydrocompaction);
oxidation of organic matter in soils; or added load on the land surface.
Mesozoic Age - The geological era after the Paleozoic and before the
Cenozoic eras.
Metamorphic Rock - Rock formed by a change in structure due to
pressure, heat, chemical action, etc.
mg/1 - Abbreviation for milligrams per liter.
Milligrams Per Liter - The weight in milligrams of any substance con-
tained in one liter of liquid. Approximately equivalent to parts per
million.
Mineralization - The process of accumulation of mineral elements and/or
compounds in soil or water. See also Salinization.
Mining of Ground Water - See Depletion (Ground-Water) .
Natural Brines - Highly mineralized water resulting from percolation of
ground water through soils or rocks containing soluble minerals.
Natural Leaching - The process whereby percolation of water through
soils and rocks dissolves material from the formation.
Nutrients - Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements
essential for plant growth.
Overdraft - The amount by which pumpage of ground water exceeds the
safe yield of the ground water aquifer or basin.
Oxidation-Reduction Potential - Denotes the potential required to trans-
fer electrons from the oxidized form to the reduced form.
138
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Perched Ground Water - Ground water supported by a zone of material
of low permeability and located above an underlying main body of ground
water with which it is not hydro static ally connected.
Percolation - The movement of water within a porous medium such as soil.
Perennial Yield (Ground Water) - The amount of usable water of a
ground water reservoir that can be withdrawn and consumed economi-
cally each year for an indefinite period of time. It cannot exceed the
natural recharge to that ground'water reservoir.
Permeability - The property of a material which permits appreciable
movement of water through it when actuated by hydrostatic pressure of
the magnitude normally encountered in natural subsurface water.
Pesticides - Chemical compounds used for the control of undesirable
plants, animals, or insects . The term includes insecticides, weed
killers, rodent poisons, nematode poisons, fungicides, and growth
regulators.
Phreatophyte - A plant that habitually obtains its water supply from the
zone of saturation, either directly or through the capillary fringe.
PI ay as - Flat floored lakes formed in undrained natural depressions.
Pleistocene Age - The first epoch of the Quaternary Age of geological
history.
Pliocene Age - Most recent epoch of Tertiary Age and just prior to
beginning of the Quaternary Age.
Pollution - The presence of any substance (organic, inorganic, bio-
logical, thermal, or radiological) in water at intensity levels which
tend to impair, degrade, or adversely affect its quality or usefulness
for a specific purpose.
Quaternary Age - Division of recent geological history from the end
of Tertiary Age in the Cenozoic Era to the present.
Recharge - See Ground Water Recharge.
Recharge Basin - A basin provided to increase infiltration for the pur-
pose of replenishing ground water supply.
Return Flow - That part of a diverted flow which is not consumptively
used and which returns to a source of supply (surface or underground) .
139
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Safe Ground-Water Yield - The annual pumpage that can be sustained ,v
without permanent change in ground water storage. .i:
Saline Water - Water containing dissolved salts. See also Brackish
Water.
Salinity - Salt content concentration of dissolved mineral salts in water
or soil. '"
Salinization - The process of accumulation of soluble salts in soil or
water. See also Mineralization.
Salt Balance - A condition in which specific or total dissolved solids
removed from a specified field, stratigraphic zone, political area, or
drainage basin equals the comparable dissolved solids added to that
location from all outside sources during a specified period of time.
Salt Water Barrier - A physical facility or method of operation designed
to prevent the intrusion of salt water into a body of fresh water. In
underground water management, a barrier may be created by injection
of relatively fresh water to create a hydraulic barrier against salt water
intrustion.
Salt Water Intrusion - The invasion of a body of fresh water by salt
water. It can occur either in surface or ground water bodies.
Secondary Oil Recovery - The injection of water into an oil producing
formation to increase pressure so as to increase the percent of recover-
able oil.
Seepage - The gradual movement of a fluid into, through, or out of a
porous medium.
Suspended Solids - Solids which are not in true solution and which can
be removed by filtration.
Sustained Yield - Achievement and maintenance, in perpetuity, of a
high-level annual or regular periodic output or harvest of the various
renewable land and water resources.
Stable Isotope Ratio - Refers to the tendency of isotopes of different
mass of the same chemical species to react at different rates when under-
going the same chemical biological reaction.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - The total dissolved solids in water,
usually expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/1) .
140
-------
Waste Water Reclamation - The process of treating salvaged water from
municipal, industrial, or agricultural waste water sources for beneficial
uses, whether by means of special facilities or through natural processes.
Waterflooding - See Secondary Oil Recovery.
Water Quality - A term used to describe the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of water, usually in respect to its suitability
for a particular purpose.
Water Right - A legally protected right to take possession of water
occurring in a water supply and to divert that water and put it to
beneficial use.
Water Table - The surface in a ground-water body at which the water
pressure is atmospheric.
141
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX A
Page
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS 143
Table A-l. Surface Water Criteria for Public
Water Supplies 144
Table A-2. Chemical Standards of Drinking Water 146
Table A-3. Guides to the Quality of Water for
Livestock 147
Table A-4. Suggested Guidelines for Salinity in
Irrigation Water 148
Table A-5. Trace Element Tolerances for Irrigation
Water 149
Table A-6. Levels of Herbicides in Irrigation Water
at Which Crop Injury Has Been Observed 150
Table A-7. Preferred Limits for Several Criteria of
Water for Use in Industrial Processes 151
142
-------
2/
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS -'
The extent of undesirability of a given level of pollution in water is
dependent upon the use or intended use of the water. Standards of
quality of water used for domestic water supply have been established
by the National Technical Advisory Committee on Water Quality
Criteria 128/, and the U.S. Public Health Service 129/ . Tables A-l
and A-2 presented herein, are taken from their reports.
Various agencies have set standards of quality for waters used for
other purposes. Table A-3 gives standards for livestock watering as
reported by McGauhey 13Q/ . Tables A-4, A-5 and A-6 present irriga-
tion water quality standards as suggested by the Economic Research
Service 131/. Table A-7 gives standards for water used in various
industrial processes as reported by the American Society for Testing
Materials 132/.
143
-------
Table A-l. SURFACE WATER CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES
128/
a
Constituent or Characteristic
Physical:
Color (color units)
Microbiological:
Coliform organisms
Fecal coliforms
Inorganic Chemicals:
Ammonia
Arsenic
Barium
Boron
Cadmium
Chloride
Chromium, hexavalent
Copper
Dissolved Oxygen
Iron (filterable)
Lead
Manganese (filterable)
Nitrates plus nitrites
pH (range)
Selenium
Silver
Sulfate
Total dissolved solids,
(filterable residue)
Uranyl ion
Zinc
Permissible
Criteria
75
10,000/100 ml
2,000/100 mlc
mg/1
0.5 (as N)
0.05
1.0
1.0
0.01
250
0.05
1.0
4 (monthly mean)
3 (indiv. sample)
0.3
0.05
0.05
10 (as N)
6.0 to 8.5
0.01
0.05
250
500
5
5
Desirable
Criteria
<100/100 ml
< 20/100 mlc
mg/1
<0.01
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
<25
Absent
Virtually absent
Near Saturation
Virtually Absent
Absent
Absent
Virtually Absent
Variable
Absent
Absent
<50
<200
Absent
Virtually absent
d
Permissible criteria—Those characteristics and concentrations of sub-
substances in raw surface water which will allow the production of a
safe, clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing, and acceptable public
water supply which meets the limits of Drinking Water Standards after
treatment.
Desirable criteria—Those characteristics and concentrations of sub-
stances in the raw surface waters which represent high-quality water
in all respects for use as public water supplies. Water meeting these
criteria can be treated in the defined plants with greater factors of
safety or at less cost than is possible with waters meeting permissible
criteria.
144
-------
Table A-l (cont'd) SURFACE WATER CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC WATER
SUPPLIES 128/
Constituent or Characteristic
Permissiblea
Criteria
Organic Chemicals:
Carbon chloroform
extract (CCE)
Cyanide
Methylene blue active
substances
Oil and Grease
Pesticides:
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane
Mathoxychlor
Organic phosphates plus
Carbamates
Toxaphene
Herbicides:
2, 4-D plus 2, 4, 5-T
plus 2, 4, 5-TP
Phenols
(mg/1)
0.15
0.20
0.5
Virtually Absent
0.017
0.003
0.042
0.017
0.001
0.018
0.018
0.056
0.035
O.ld
0.005
0.1
0.001
Radioactivity:
Gross beta
Radium-22 6
Strontium-90
1,000
3
10
(pc/1)
Desirable
Criteria
(mg/1)
<0.04
Absent
Virtually Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
(pc/1)
<100
<1
<2
aSee Previous page.
See Previous page.
CMicrobiological limits are monthly arithmetic averages based upon an
adequate number of samples. Total coliform limit may be relaxed if
fecal concentration does not exceed the specified limit.
Expressed as parathion in cholinesterase inhibition. It may be neces-
sary to resort to even lower concentrations for some compounds or
mixtures.
145
-------
Table A-2. CHEMICAL STANDARDS OF DRINKING WATER 1297
Category A — Maximum allowable concentrations where other more
suitable supplies are, or can be made available:
Substance Concentration
in mg/1
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) 0.5
Arsenic (As) 0.01
Chloride (Cl) 250
Copper (Cu) 1
Carbon Chloroform Extract (CCE) 0.2
Cyanide (CN) 0.01
Iron (Fe) 0.3
Manganese (Mn ) 0.05
Nitrate (NO,) a 45
Phenols 0.001
Sulfate (S04) 250
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 500
Zinc (Zn) 5
Category B --Maximum concentrations which shall constitute grounds
for outright rejection of the supply:
Substance Concentration
in mg/1
Arsenic (As) 0.05
Barium (Ba) 1.0
Cadmium (Cd) +6 0.01
Chromium (Hexavalent) (Cr ) 0.05
Cyanide (CN) 0.2'
Fluoride (F) 0.6 to 1.7b
Lead (Pb) 0.05
Selenium (Se) 0.01
Silver (Ag) 0.05
in areas in which the nitrate content of water is known to be in excess
of the listed concentration, the public should be warned of the poten-
tial dangers of using the water for infant feeding.
Varies with water temperature.
146
-------
Table A-3, GUIDES TO THE QUALITY OF WATER FOR LIVESTOCK ISO/
Quality Factor
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)C
Cadmium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Arsenic
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Fluoride
Nitrate as NO,
Nitrite
Sulfate
Range of pH
Threshold
Concentration
2500
5
500
250
1000
1
500
1500
1
200
None
500
6.0 to 8.5
Limiting
Concentration
5000
1000
500
2000
500
3000
6
400
None
1000
5.6 to 9.0
Threshold values represent/concentrations at which poultry or sensitive
animals might show slight effects from prolonged use of water. Lower
concentrations are of little or no concern.
h '''*••
Limiting concentrations based on interim criteria, South Africa studies.
Animals in lactation or production might show definite adverse reaction.
°Total magnesium compounds plus sodium sulfate should not exceed 50
percent of the total dissolved solids.
147
-------
Table A-4. SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR SALINITY IN IRRIGATION
WATER 131/
Crop Response TDS in mg/1 ECa
Water for which no detrimental
effects will usually be noticed less than 500 less than 0.75
Water which can have detrimental
effects on sensitive crops 500-1000 0.75-1.50
Water that may have adverse effects
on many crops and requiring careful
management practices 1000-2000 1.50-3.00
Water that can be used for salt-
tolerant plants on permeable soils
with careful management practices 2000-5000 3.00-7.50
Electrical Conductivity expressed in millimhos per centimeter.
148
-------
Table A-5. TRACE ELEMENT TOLERANCES FOR IRRIGATION WATER 131. /
For Water Used For Short-term Use
Continuously on on Fine-Textured
All Soils Soils Only
Element mg/1 mg/1
Aluminum 1.0 20.0
Arsenic 1.0 10.0
Beryllium 0.5 1.0
Boron 0.75 2.0
Cadmium 0.005 0.05
Chromium 5.0 20.0
Cobalt 0.2 10.0
Copper 0.2 5.0
Lead 5.0 20.0
Lithium 5.0 5.0
Manganese 2.0 20.0
Molybdenum 0-005 0.05
Nickel O-5 2.0
Selenium 0.05 0.05
Vanadium 10.0 10.0
Zinc 5.0 10.0
149
-------
Table A-6. LEVELS OF HERBICIDES IN IRRIGATION WATER AT WHICH
CROP INJURY HAS BEEN OBSERVED 131/
Herbicide
Acrolein
Aromatic Solvents
(Xylene)
Copper Sulfate
Amitrole-T
Delapon
Dequat
Enothall Na and K
salts
Dimethylamines
2, 4-D
Dichlobenil
Fenac
Picloram
Crop Injury Threshold in Irrigation
Water, expressed in mg/1
Flood or Furrow: beans-60, corn-60, cotton -
80, soybeans-20, sugar beets-60.
Sprinkler: corn-60, soybeans-15, sugar
beets-15.
Alfalfa >1600, beans-1200, carrots-1600, corn-
3000, cotton-1600, grain sorghum >800, oats-2400,
potatoes-1300, wheat >1200.
Apparently, above concentrations used for weed
control.
Beets (rutabaga) >3.5, corn >3. 5.
Beets >7.0, corn <0.35
Beans-5.0, corn 125.0.
Corn-25, field beans <1.0, alfalfa >10.0.
Corn >25, soybeans >25. sugar beets-25.
Field Beans >3.5 <10, grapes-0.7-1.5, sugar
beets-3.5.
Alfalfa-10, corn >10, soybeans-1.0, sugar beets-
1.0-10.
Alfalfa-1.0, corn-10, soybeans-0.1, sugar beets-
0.1-10.
Corn >10, field beans-0-1, sugar beets <1.0.
Note: Where the symbol ">" is used, the concentrations in water cause
no injury. Data are for furrow irrigation unless otherwise
specified.
150
-------
Table A-7. PREFERRED LIMITS FOR SEVERAL CRITERIA OF WATER
FOR USE IN INDUSTRIAL PROCESSES 132/
Process
Aluminum (hydrate Wash)
Baking
Boiler Feed:
0 to 150 psi
150 to 250 psi
250 to 400 psi
400 to 1000 psi
Over 1000 psi
Turbidity
Max.
Ppm
10
80
40
5
2
Brewing 10
Carbonated beverages 2
Confectionery
Dairy
Electroplating and finishing, rinse
Fermentation low
Food Canning and Freezing 10
Food Processing, general 10
Ice Manufacturing
Laundering
Oil Well Flooding
Photographic process low
Pulp and Paper:
Groundwood paper 50
Solda and Sulfate pulp 25
Kraft paper, bleached 40
Kraft paper, unbleached 100
Fine paper 10
Sugar Manufacture
Tanning Operations 20
Textile Manufacture 0.3
PH
Min. Max.
8.0
8.4
9-0
9.6
6.5
7.0
7.5
6.0
7.0
7.0
TDS
Max.
mg/1
low
3000
1500
2500
50
0.5
1500
100
500
low
850
170 to 1300
6.8
500
250
300
500
200
low
6.0
8.0
Note: The values in this table are taken from summaries in the compre-
hensive review by McKee and Wolf, cited in the ASTM report 131/, and
are presented here only as a general guide. They should be used only
after study of the original references cited in the ASTM report.
151
-------
SECTION XII
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181
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Wo.
w
GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN THE SOUTH CENTRAL STATES,
r. Report Lste
S.
Scalf, M. R., Keeley, J.W., and LaFevers, C. J.
..
RepcrtNo.
21 AIO-03
National Ground Water Research Program
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Environmental Protection Agency
Ada, Oklahoma
12. S; vitsorin* Orgutuxation
Environmental Protection Agency report number EPA-R2-73-268, June 1973,
If Type .-Rep-:, md
Cz street
A study was conducted to determine the ground-water pollution
problems in the states of Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma,
and Texas. Information was obtained through review of the literature
and through interviews with engineers, scientists, and governmental
officials concerned with water pollution in the five states of the
project area.
Natural salinity was the greatest factor affecting the quality
of ground water of the region. Disposal of oil-field brines was the
most widespread source of man-made pollution. Other causes of ground -
water pollution included poor well onstruction and abandonment
procedures, over-pumping, irrigation return flows and land disposal
of solid and liquid wastes.
11s. Descriptors
*Ground water, *water pollution, water resources, natural pollution,
oil-field brines, over-pumping
17b, I den? ifi
*South-Central United States, Arkansas, Louisiana, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, Texas
05B
/?. St'i'-T/f» Class,
"'!). Se>, ztty Ci- ,?s.
___W*_____V__1
Marion R. Scalf
21, No. of
2, Pi!,..:
Send To :
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 2O24O
ftU.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:!973 5H-156/346 1-3
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