COLUM          HERMAL EFFECTS STUD

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                ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

                          WATER QUALITY OFFICE

                          WASHINGTON, D.C. 20242
MEMORANDUM                                        JUN  29 1971

TO:       See Below

FROM:     Chief, Technical Studies Branch
          Division of Technical Support
          Office of Water. Programs

SUBJECT:  Technical Study Reports
This memorandum transmits to you copies of two technical study
reports as outlined in the Technical Study Reporting System of
September 18, 1970.  The two reports are as follows:

     1.   Columbia River Thermal Effects Study,
          Volume I  Biological Effects Studies

     2.   Columbia River Thermal Effects Study,
          Volume II Temperature Prediction

The reports originated from EPA Region X and are primarily a product
of work conducted at the Pacific Northwest Water Laboratory.  We
trust that the information contained in these reports will be of value
to your office.
                                     Lowell E. Keup

Enclosures

Addressees:
  Office of the Administrator
  Office of Media Programs
  Office of Categorical Programs
  Office of Standards and Enforcement and General  Counsel
  Office of Research and Monitoring
  R & D Project Reports System
  EPA Public Information Office
  Office of Water Quality Library
  EPA Library
  Interim Regional Coordinators
  National Water Laboratory Libraries
  WRSIC
  Commerce Clearing House
  Library of Congress

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COLUMBIA RIVER THERMAL EFFECTS STUDY
VOLUME I:  BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS STUDIES
 Environmental Protection Agency
       in cooperation with
     Atomic Energy Commission
             and the
National Marine Fisheries Service,
   U.S. Department of Commerce
          January 1971

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                               FOREWORD







     The Columbia River Thermal Effects Study was  undertaken  in pur-




suit of the policies  and  objectives  of the Federal Water Pollution




Control Act, particularly as amended by the Federal Water Quality




Act of 1965, which required the establishment of water quality stan-




dards for the protection and enhancement of water  quality throughout




the United States.  In the process of establishing standards  during




the period 1965-1968, the State and  Federal water  pollution control




agencies recognized water temperatures as an important factor affect-




ing water uses, both  directly, as in the case of aquatic life, and




indirectly, as in the synergistic effects of temperature with other




parameters such as dissolved oxygen.  In attempting to define temperature




requirements in the standards, however, pollution  control authorities




encountered insufficient scientific knowledge and  agreement on the




precise limits needed to protect water uses.




     The Columbia River Thermal Effects Study was  initiated in




July, 1968, in response to the specific problem of two inconsistent




temperature standards adopted for the Columbia River by the




States of Oregon and Washington,  which share it as a border.   Before




attempting to resolve these inconsistencies,  the State and Federal




pollution control agencies could benefit from improved knowledge on




the temperature requirements and tolerances of the Columbia's  Pacific




salmon and improved techniques for evaluation and prediction of the




temperature in the Columbia system.   The report of the study  con-




sists of two volumes.   The first concerns  the biological effects  of




water temperature on Pacific anadromous fish in the Columbia  River

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system.  The second describes the application of mathematical models




to the Columbia River for prediction of water temperatures.




     In the Pacific Northwest, standards were generally required to




protect the economically important Pacific salmon, a cold-water




anadromous species.  The upriver runs of Columbia River fish resources




have been reduced  and endangered by the physical alteration and blockage




of migration routes by  the Nation's largest system of dams and




reservoirs.  The quality of the aquatic environment has also been




modified by the discharge of pollutants and impoundment of the river's




flow in a series of reservoir lakes reaching into Canada.  Particularly




regarding temperature quality, the Columbia River temperatures have




been both spatially and temporally altered by man's activities and




use of the water resources of the Region.




     At about  the  time  standards were established, public and




private electric power  interests in the Northwest announced forecasts




of vastly increased power demands.  The hydroelectric power potential




of the Northwest is nearly exhausted, and thermal power sources are




planned to meet future  needs.  This presented further potential for




modification of the thermal regime of the Columbia River system.




Initially, power producers assumed the possibility of using Columbia




River system waters for once-through cooling at thermal power plants.




The prospect,  however,  of numerous discharges of large quantities of




heated effluents to inland waters has since prompted the Region's




water pollution control agencies to issue policy statements which




require complete offstream cooling for thermal power plants located

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on inland waterways in the Basin.  Power planners have accepted this




policy of offstream heat controls throughout the Basin.




     Among the remaining environmental problems associated with in-




creased thermal power production is the projected use of the




existing hydroelectric system for power-peaking, with thermal units




providing the baseload, or firm power.  The potential water quality




effects of exaggerated flow modification caused by these peaking




operations emphasizes the need to understand the existing thermal




regime of the Columbia River system.   The prospects of industrializa-




tion, upon which the power demands are based,  hold further potential




for environmental impacts which would require  sound standards and




controls.

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                              CONTENTS


Chapter                                                          Page

   I.     INTRODUCTION 	      1

          Purpose	      1
          Scope	      1
          Authority and Participants 	      5
          Report Organization	      7
          Fish Species Studied 	      8
          The Physical Environment 	     10

  II.     SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS	     17

          General	     17
          Adult Anadromous Fish	     17
          Juvenile Anadromous Fish 	     19
          Non-Salmonid Fish	     21
          Secondary Production Organisms 	     21

 III.     GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS  	     23

  IV.     ADULT ANADROMOUS FISH	     31

          Adult Migration	     31
             Adult Migration Timing	'	     31
             Thermal Block 	     31
             Location in Stream Cross-Section	     34
             Infectious Diseases  	     35
             Gas Bubble Disease	     38
             Adult Thermal Resistance	     40
          Spawning	     42
             Effects of Temperature on Spawning	     42
             Ability to Spawn Volitionally  	     44
             Egg Incubation	     45
             Importance of Natural Temperature
              Fluctuation	     45

   V.     JUVENILE ANADROMOUS FISH	     49

          Rearing	     49
             Growth Rate of Juvenile Salmonids  	     49
             Attraction of Juveniles to Warmed  Water  	     53
          Juvenile Migration 	     53
             Juvenile Migration Timing 	     53
             Distribution of Juvenile Migrants  in
              Stream Cross-Section 	     58

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                          CONTENTS (Cont.)

Chapter                                                          Page

             Passage of Juvenile Migrants Through
              Thermal Plume	    59
             Thermal Resistance of Migrating Juveniles ....    61
             Predation	    68
             Infectious Diseases 	    69
             Gas Bubble Disease	    70
             Toxicity	    72
             Beneficial Effects	    73

  VI.     THERMAL EFFECTS ON NON-SALMONID FISH 	    75

 VII.     SECONDARY PRODUCTION ORGANISMS 	    77

          Specific Foods 	    77
          Plankton	    78
          Thermal Effects on Secondary Organisms 	    78

BIBLIOGRAPHY	    81

APPENDIX A.  Manuscripts	    89

APPENDIX B.  Membership of the Technical Advisory
             Committee for Biological Effects, Columbia
             River Thermal Effects Study 	    97

APPENDIX C.  State Water Temperature Standards 	    99

APPENDIX D.  Scientific Names of Fish and Other
             Aquatic Organisms 	   101

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                              FIGURES


Number                         Title                             Page

  1       Columbia Basin Map 	      2

  2       General Timing of Salmonid Activities,
           Columbia River	     11

  3       Temperature-Flow Profiles of Columbia
           River, 1967	     13

  4       Schematic Representation of Temperature
           Requirements for Life Processes of the
           Pacific Salmon	     26

  5       Thermal Response of a Hypothetical Cold-Water
           Fish	     27

  6       Timing and Relative Abundance of Adult  Anadromous
           Fish Migrations Past Prescott,  Oregon  	     32

  7       Relative Abundance of Young Anadromous  Fishes and
           Sturgeon in the Lower Columbia  River,  in Relation
           to Season and Water Temperatures	     57

  8       Thermal Resistance of Juvenile Salmonids  	     64

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                          I - INTRODUCTION







                              Purpose




     The purpose of this report is to present the available knowledge




on temperature requirements and tolerances of anadromous fish in the




Columbia River.  The material is intended for use by State and Federal




water quality agencies in their ongoing programs for prevention,




control and abatement of pollution, particularly in connection with




water quality standards.







                               Scope




     The information and data presented in this report are limited to




conditions and species found in the main stem Columbia River in those




areas remaining accessible to anadromous fish.  Figure 1 presents a




map of the area.   The material includes information from the literature




and from the files of Northwest fisheries agencies,  with particular




emphasis on new knowledge developed by the research studies conducted




as part of the Columbia River Thermal Effects Study (CRTES).   Although




related scientific work is reported in the literature on thermal




effects on salmonids and other fish,  much of it is not directly




applicable to Columbia River conditions or fish.  Therefore,  references




shown in the bibliography are limited to studies having direct




application to the Columbia River species and habitat.




     The research studies conducted as a part of the CRTES, and listed




in Appendix A, were designed to develop immediate answers to  the needs




of water quality  agencies of the Northwest in considering the adequacy of

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      FIGURE I
Columbia  River Basin

   Shading  indicates
present  spawning areas

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water quality  criteria  limits and goals  for water temperatures




in the Columbia River.  In  all the temperature criteria adopted




in the Northwest, two conditions were set:  maximum upper limits




for protection of aquatic life, and incremental increases within




those upper  limits.  Therefore, the studies were oriented to more




specifically define both the maximal temperatures for salmonids




and the tolerances of those fish to changes in temperatures within




that range.  The studies were further oriented to the particular




temperature-modifying influences found or anticipated in the Columbia




Basin:  impact of impoundment and reservoir releases and discharges




from thermal power plants.  Although the latter thermal source has




since been obviated by water quality agency preventive policies,




much of the  study emphasis  related to questions of large thermal dis-




charges, and this material is included for academic value.




     The field studies were limited to the most critical aspects of




the lethal and sublethal thermal effects at various life stages of




the anadromous fish.  It was recognized  that two years is not




adequate time  to conclude research of a  subject of this complexity.




However, by  concentrating efforts on those areas of immediate concern,




much could be  learned upon which to base the needed decisions.  By




their nature,  many of the projects conducted as a part of the study




are site-specific to conditions in the lower Columbia River near




Prescott, Oregon and in the Hanford reach of the Columbia River.




Prescott is the proposed site of the first privately-developed nuclear




power plant in the Northwest; the Hanford reach is the last

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                                                                   5

unimpounded  reach of  the  river  above  the estuary  and  the  site  of  the

only existing nuclear plants in the Region,  operated  by the Atomic

Energy Commission.


                     Authority  and Participants

     The CRIES was authorized by the Secretary of the Interior in

February,  1968.—'  In his approval of the water quality standards

for the State of Washington, the Secretary recognized that the temp-

erature criteria set by the State for the Columbia River were in-

consistent with those set by the State of Oregon for  the same waters.

Rather than  disapprove the temperature criteria portion of Washington's

standards, or reconsider approval of Oregon's standards, the Secretary

directed that the Thermal Effects Study be completed to provide

further knowledge with which to reconsider the adequacy of temperature

criteria on  the Columbia River.

     The Northwest Regional Office of the Environmental Protection

Agency was directed to provide leadership in those studies. To take
     _!_/  Two Presidential Orders for reorganization took effect in the
interim between study initiation and report publication.  The first
was effective October 3, 1970, and created the National Marine Fisher-
ies Service in a new National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
in the Department of Commerce to replace the former Bureau of Commercial
Fisheries in the Department of the Interior.  The second was effective
December 3, 1970, and created an independent Environmental Protection
Agency to incorporate many Federal programs concerning the environment
and abolishing the Federal Water Quality Administration (formerly the
Federal Water Pollution Control Administration)  in the Department of
the Interior.  The water pollution control responsibilities and author-
ities of the Secretary of the Interior were thus transferred to the
Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency.

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full advantage of the expertise, programs, and facilities already




devoted to research on the effect of heat and anadromous fish in the




Columbia, the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and the




Atomic Energy Commission were included as participants in the research




studies.  The Atomic Energy Commission's  (AEC) research was conducted by




Battelle Northwest (BNW) which operates the AEC's Pacific Northwest




Laboratory (PNL) at Richland, Washington.  The research program was




developed by the three agencies, with many ongoing studies and research




projects used or adapted as part of the CRTES.  At the conclusion of




each project, the research report was furnished to the Environmental




Protection Agency (EPA) for incorporation into the biological effects




report.  These studies are referenced as appropriate to the subject




and scope of this report and are not summarized in total.  EPA has not




assumed responsibility for publication of the individual research reports,




The author agency should be contacted for copies or further information




on any of the contributing manuscripts, listed in Appendix A.




     To advise in the conduct of the research program, the ad hoc




Technical Advisory Committee on Biological Effects was organized.




Advisory Committee membership (Appendix B) includes State and Federal




fisheries and water quality agencies, power company representatives,




and Federal power and water management agencies.  The Advisory Committee




reviewed research study proposals, which improved the studies and




avoided duplication of effort.

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                        Report Organization




     Chapter II presents a summary of the major conclusions




bearing on the water quality requirements of the Columbia River




fish resources.  Chapter III, entitled "General Considerations,"




develops a framework of concepts and definitions which are




applicable to the biological information presented in this report




and which transcend the various life history stages which are




discussed in subsequent chapters.  The remainder of the report




presents the compilation of available knowledge pertinent to the




temperature requirements of Columbia River fish.  It is organized




into four chapters:  adult anadromous fish, juvenile anadromous




fish, non-salmonid fishes, and secondary production organisms.




Discussion of thermal tolerance and temperature effects is presented




in each chapter as appropriate.




     The discussion in Chapters III and IV roughly corresponds




with the succession of activities of an anadromous fish:  e.g.,




juvenile migration timing, rate of movement, distribution, etc.




The relevance of some of the subjects to thermal effects may not




be obvious to the reader.  If one were considering the effects on




a migrating salmon of a single point source of heat or a general




warming of a river, one would ask a variety of questions regarding




the fish's activities.  This report presents information to answer




many of these questions.

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8

                        Fish Species Studied^/

     To meet the immediate study needs, the Biological Effects Report

and studies center upon the fish of commercial and sports value in

the Columbia system, particularly the Pacific salmon.  The Columbia

River is inhabited by four species of Pacific salmon:  sockeye salmon,

chum salmon, coho salmon, and chinook salmon.  The chinook salmon

has distinct spring, summer, and fall races, while the other species

do not.  Another significant anadromous member of the salmonid family

is the steelhead trout, which has both summer and winter races.  Other

anadromous fish of the Columbia Basin include several other species

of trout, smelt, and American shad.

     As anadromous species, these fish seek out Columbia system waters

far inland from the Pacific Ocean, historically reaching as far as

Canada.  They may presently be found in nearly all accessible tribu-

taries where water quality conditions allow.  Figure 1 shows the areas

which remain accessible to anadromous fish since construction of the

system of dams and reservoirs on the river.  The area of concern for

these studies was limited to the main stem, which is important princi-

pally as the migration route to all available spawning ground in the

Basin and for seaward migration to the Pacific Ocean.  Spawning also

occurs in the only remaining unimpounded waters of the main-stem

Columbia, the fifty-mile reach below Priest Rapids dam, which produces

large numbers of chinook salmon.
     2j  Scientific names of fish and other organisms mentioned in
this report are listed in Appendix C.

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                                                                  9

     The size of the Columbia River fish resource is most easily de-

scribed in terms of the fish count over Bonneville Dam.  In addition,

it should be remembered that the Willamette River, Cowlitz River and

smaller tributaries produce significant additional numbers of fish,

and that the commercial and sports catch of these fish in the River

and Pacific Ocean from Alaska to California should be added to the

Bonneville count.  The thirty-one year record of fish passing over

Bonneville Dam gives an annual average count of 705,875 salmon and

steelhead of all species.   The populations of the various species

can be summarized as shown in the following table.  The total numbers

of fish entering the Columbia River in recent years is considered

by fisheries agencies to be as high as in the 1930's.  However,  the

size of the fish resource is now largely dependent upon artificial

production.  Also, the distribution of species and races making up

the total has been changed by man's alteration of the river system.


       AVERAGE ANNUAL FISH COUNTS AT BONNEVILLE DAM BY SPECIES
                              1938-1968
Chinook salmon	385,252
Sockeye salmon	100,777
Coho salmon (Three-year average 1965-1968)  	  77,289
Chum salmon	1,214
Steelhead trout	141,343
Source:  Annual Fish Passage Report,  Columbia River Project,  U.  S.
         Army, Corps of Engineers,  North Pacific Division,  Portland,
         Oregon.

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10
     All of the salmonids have similar life histories or cycles, but


each species and race matures at different rates, presenting differ-


ences in the duration and time of occurrence for the various stages of


activity:  spawning and incubation, rearing, juvenile migration,


growth at sea, and adult migration.  For example, salmon fry spend


from a few weeks to over a year in fresh water before beginning sea-


ward migration, depending upon the species and race.  Similarly, the


amount of time spent at sea also varies from less than one year for

           o /
jack salmon^'  to over five years, depending upon the species and race


of fish.  Figure 2 illustrates the time of occurrence during the year


of the various stages of activity for the chinook, coho, and sockeye


salmon, and for steelhead trout.  As can be seen, migrating adults or


juveniles can be found in the Columbia River throughout the entire


year.  (See also Figure 6.)



                      The Physical Environment


     The Columbia River remains accessible to anadromous fish as


far as Chief Joseph Dam, river mile (RM) 545.  Throughout this


length, two reaches are unimpounded:  the estuary to Bonneville Dam


(RM 145) and the Hanford reach between the head of McNary Pool (RM


347) and Priest Rapids Dam (RM 397).  The remainder of the river


is impounded behind nine run-of-the-river dams, with shallow reservoirs


ranging from 54 to 165 feet in depth (Figure 1).
     3/  Jack salmon are sexually precocious males.

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ADULT MIGRATION
SPAWNING * INCUBATIOM
REARING
JUVENILE MIGRATION

ADULT MIGRATION
SPAWNING fc INCUBATION
REARING
JUVENILE MIGRATION

ADULT MIGRATION
SPAWNING * INCUBATION
REARING
JUVENILE MIGRATION

ADULT MIGRATION
SPAWNING * INCUBATION
REARING
JUVENILE MIGRATION

CHINOOK £23 = period of actvity
; mm^mmm *;xx. • 3z%Sm--M * > ;x;$; x ;; W$Z m '•• i#£ 1 S < ^mm ;•#.: j
11! \ 1 :S ? 1 I ( j P i • :• i. £ ; &; = £ -Si: £ i ; ;i ::fe;Hil ;:;;ii;x:i;i:l^|||
ill 1 1: ill | :;i;||:llp|l II ; || llli; i 1 :: If 1 ? i i ; ; ;i;Ni i! • 1 '11 i i ! iillll !:;liP;:ii^^i;^l
ililL Jllil 111 ISillii II i i;:|lllll|i ! S ; l|i: ;;; li! ;;|l;i;i;l 1: 11! 1 iiliiiilliliiiilll! :^|:;||||
COHO
1 1 ^ s c
* 1 i i
^ * r j ^ ^
sxwxxx^-xx^oxo.^x:;:::;:::;:;:::;:^-::;^;:. I 1 1 |
SOCKEYE
•' i i < » " ^
/. ^
j
.-.•.•. •.•.•.!• ...'•>. 1
STEELHEAD
SsS;iii:;i:: •;:;x;ixSx;^;?S &P i^: i^: :; SH; :-^;: :; i ;>:;^x:xx::x:^:>x^ iSigx^in&Sxivl];;^
j | -;i^ :;i- ;;:-!i:; ;i :;!x::;|:; ^i^N^P^ j j 1 j j
•.•-•.•.•.•. . .".'.• •.'.•-• •.' •-•,'.• "- . <* '- ' '-' • •'•' '-' '• •' • '•' '• • ' X* ' ' • "•'." «' ' '•'• -"•' "• • "• • -'• '"'I"" '• * - "•'• " '• XM~. ^ '.' *. •'-" ' ' f '-' ' '."'.*-"• ." ' •'• •"•'• •'-" ' f- •' '-'•' ' •'• '•' '-'\
111 111 xiilf!!i il|| ill iii i ; 1 i I- ; • ;l|! 11 iill Jli^liilliilill^llsliillii;^^^
JAN FEB MAR APR IWXY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
Figure 2. General Timing of Salmonid Activities,
Columbia River

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12


     Flow reversals in the tidal reach of the Columbia River are com-

mon at least as far upstream as Prescott (RM 72.8) and occur most

frequently during the minimum flow period, August to October (Battelle

Northwest, anon 1969; Snyder and McConnell, ms 21)-^/.  The effect of

a flow reversal is to accumulate effluents which may be adverse to

fish.

     The surface runoff in the Columbia Basin is characterized by a

typical snowmelt regime, with low flows during the late summer and

winter and high flows during the spring and early summer.  The volume

of runoff in the Columbia ranks it as the fourth largest in the North

American Continent; the average annual runoff at The Dalles, Oregon

is 140 million acre-feet.  Mean annual flow is 195,400 cubic feet per

second (cfs); mean monthly discharges range from 95,700 cfs in

January to 494,700 cfs in June.

     With minor exceptions, the water quality of the Columbia River—

other than temperature and dissolved nitrogen—is not considered

detrimental to the fish resources.  Water temperatures in the main

stem Columbia River to Priest Rapids Dam range from maximums in the

70's during warm summer months to lows in the 40's and occasionally

in the 30's during winter.  Figure 3 shows water temperature and dis-

charge profiles for various points on the Columbia River to

illustrate general temperature and flow conditions.
     _4/  To enable the reader to determine whether a reference in the
text pertains to a study done in the CRTES or to other work, manuscripts
prepared as part of the CRTES are referred to by author's name and a
manuscript number which is listed in Appendix A.

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                                                                            13
      JAN  FEB  MAR  APR  MAY  JUN  JUL  AUG  SEP  OCT  NOV  DEC
                                                           600
                                       -MAX. MONTHLY MEAN TEMP
      JAN  FEB  MAR  APR  MAY  JUN JUL  AUG  SEP OCT NOV  DEC
V)  80
UJ
UJ
CC  7O

LU
Q  6O
UJ 50
or
ID
CC
UJ
£L  3O
      BONNEVILLE DAM
                                        MAX. MONTHLY MEAN TEMP
                    600


                    500


                    400


                    300

                    200


                    100
    UJ
    t9
    o:
    <
    I
    u
     <
     LU
UJ
I-  80
   70


   60


   50-


   40'


   30
     JAN  FEB  MAR APR  MAY  JUN   JUL  AUG  StP  OCT NOV  DEC
      BEAVER ARMY
        TERMINAL
MAX. MONTHLY MEAN TEMR
     JAN   FEB' MAR  APR  MAY  JUN JUL  AUG  SEP  OCT NOV  DEC
600


500


400


300


200


100


0
                        K
                        Z
                        O
      Figure 3.   Temperature-Flow Profiles of
                   Columbia River,  1967

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14





     Changes in the temperature regime of the Columbia River in terms




of time of occurrence of seasonal temperature shifts and location of




temperature peaks have been noted.  Analysis by the U. S. Geological




Survey of temperature data at Bonneville Dam in the period 1938 to 1966




indicates that a man-caused increase in Columbia River temperatures




has occurred beginning in the mid-1950's (Moore, 1968).  Other studies




by Jaske and Goebel (1967) and Davidson (1969) have reported changes




in the natural temperature regime in the Columbia River main stem,




with the most significant changes being above the confluence of the




Columbia and Snake Rivers.  The principal effect has been the shifting




of water temperature maximums so that they occur later in the year.




The shift in seasonal temperature pattern has been attributed to the




construction of numerous dams in the Basin.  The Hanford works is




one of the largest identifiable sources of advective heat on the




Columbia River.




     Potential for further modification of the temperature regime




of the river is offered by proposals for construction of a third




powerhouse at Grand Coulee Dam, additional storage in the Columbia




River treaty dams, proposals to construct Ben Franklin Dam to impound




the Hanford reach of the Columbia, effects of power peaking, and the




potential for numerous small thermal discharges accompanying the




economic growth predicted for the Region.  Use of the Columbia system




of reservoir releases for temperature management has been demonstrated




by cooperative use of the Grand Coulee release program to lower




Hanford water intake temperatures (Jaske, 1966).  The use of

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                                                                  15







mathematical models for temperature prediction in the Columbia River




offers potential for developing limited temperature enhancement by




the water management system.  The AEG simulation model COL HEAT is




reported by Jaske (op. cit.).  The temperature prediction capability




developed by the EPA as a part of the Thermal Effects Study is




presented in Volume Two.

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                     II - SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS







     This summary presents the generalized conclusions drawn  from




studies described in the literature and those conducted as part  of




the CRIES.







                              General




     Many variables influence the thermal tolerance of Pacific salmon.




However, within broad ranges, the fisheries agencies of the Pacific




Northwest have recommended optimum temperatures which are conducive to




the production of fish resources in the Columbia Basin.  These ranges




are:




          Migration routes:  45 to 60 F (7.2 to 15.6 C)




          Spawning areas:    45 to 55 F (7.2 to 12.8 C)




          Rearing areas:     50 to 60 F (10 to 15.6 C)




Individual races of salmonids may have adapted to a wider range  of




temperatures and other factors may ultimately affect the optimum range.




Nevertheless, these temperature ranges remain accepted as the most




desirable conditions which can be considered conducive to enhancement




of the fish resources of the Columbia Basin.







                       Adult Anadromous Fish




     There is an increasing tendency for adult salmon and steelhead




trout to cease upstream migration at temperatures of 70 F (21.1 C)




and above.  Existing evidence is not conclusive on whether migration




would be blocked or curtailed at temperatures below that level.

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18






     Adult salmon and steelhead appear to have specific rather than




random migration routes and prefer to be close to the shoreline in




shallow water.




     The frequency of infection from fish diseases endemic to the




Columbia River increases with increasing temperatures.  Temperature is




but one of the stresses which may interact to instigate the effects of




disease organisms.  Warm water infectious diseases are less likely to




cause mortalities at temperatures below 60 F (15.5 C).




     Under conditions of nitrogen supersaturation, any temperature




rise increases the chance of producing gas bubble disease in salmon




and steelhead.  Fish stressed by nitrogen supersaturation are more




susceptible to the effects of thermal stress and infectious diseases.




     Laboratory experiments have shown that water temperatures at




69.8 F  (21 C) and above are considered to be directly lethal to




more than half of adult salmon and steelhead exposed to that level;




that is, temperature alone would kill the fish at that level.  However,




the effects of temperature in combination with other stresses (disease,




nitrogen supersaturation, etc.) can be considered more important




than direct temperature effects in terms of ultimate fish survival.




     The discharge of heated effluents from the Hanford Atomic Works




has not been demonstrated to have a detrimental effect on salmon




spawning downstream or upon migrating adults.




     Temperature stresses placed upon adult salmon and steelhead may




indirectly and adversely affect reproduction through excess energy




costs, disease, and increased toxicity

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                                                                   19





     The initial egg incubation period is critically sensitive to




temperature, and requires a range of 42 to 61 F (5.5 to 16.1 C)




although a lower upper limit is preferable for general application.




     Diurnal temperature fluctuation at temperature levels within




the range 42 to 65 F (5.5 to 18.3 C) is of significant benefit




to the growth and survival of eggs and fry—as opposed to constant




temperature levels.






                      Juvenile Anadromous Fish




     The growth of juvenile salmonids is enhanced at temperatures




within the range of 41 to 62.6 F (5 to 17 C).  Heat additions to




colder waters which would bring the water temperatures within this




range might be considered beneficial, while heat additions which




would result in temperatures above this range would be considered




detrimental to juvenile growth.  The optimum temperature for growth




changes with seasons and depends on food availability.




     The timing of juvenile downstream migration has been signifi-




cantly delayed due to impoundment by dams; the delay has many adverse




effects on the fish, including subjection to unfavorable temperatures.




Fall chinook produced in the Hanford reach apparently maintain their




historical migration pattern (March until mid-June) from that point,




although their fate downstream has not been determined.  The period




of peak outmigration for all species in the lower Columbia River is




from March to June, with smaller numbers moving throughout the year.




     The smaller juveniles migrate closer to shore, while some larger




fish and selected species are found more evenly distributed throughout




the stream or in mid-channel.

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20
     Based on Hanford area research, the number of downstream juvenile

migrants affected by the Hanford thermal plumes is probably small.

The risk of a directly lethal dose is also small, due to the velocity

of the stream and rapid mixing.

     In defining the thermal resistance of juvenile salmonids, the

principles of thermal dose and acclimation apply:  the effect of

rapid temperature increase is directly proportional to duration of

exposure.  Acclimation to higher temperatures within the tolerance

zone significantly increases thermal resistance.  Fish stressed by

nitrogen supersaturation, toxicants, or disease have reduced

temperature resistance.

     The upper allowable temperature for any species of juvenile

salmonid should be a minimum of 5.4 deg. F (3 deg. C)—' below the

ultimate upper lethal temperature to avoid significant curtailment

of activity.  Temperatures above 68 F (20 C)  are considered to be

adverse for juvenile salmonids.  Temperatures near 62.6 F (17 C) may

be considered to be at the upper end of the optimum temperature

range.  Between 62.6 and 68 F (17 and 20 C),  any increase in temper-

ature probably is of little benefit to juvenile salmonids and

increases the likelihood of disease infection and other indirect

effects .
     5_/  To distinguish between temperature changes and actual degrees
of temperature, "15 deg. C" means a temperature change by that amount
from some base temperature; "15 C" refers to exact temperature on a
temperature scale.

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                                                                   21







     Under controlled laboratory conditions, predators were shown  to




selectively prey upon fish whose behavior has been altered by temper-




ature stress as compared to unstressed control fish.




     Nitrogen supersaturation in the river is a significant detrimental




factor weighing against successful downstream migration of juveniles,




and the degree of supersaturation is accentuated by temperature




increases.  At nitrogen saturation levels over 115 percent, any




increase in temperature could be damaging due to temperature-gas




solubility relationships.







                         Non-Salmonid Fish




     Columbia River smelt have a lower temperature preference than




salmonids.  The adult females may be more susceptible to detrimental




effects of temperature than other fish.




     Yellow perch and three-spine stickleback have a higher thermal




tolerance than salmonids; however,  they require a chill period.







                   Secondary Production Organisms




     Aquatic insects form a major part of the diet of chinook fry




in the Hanford reach of the Columbia River and of all salmonid




species migrating through the Lower Columbia in spring and fall




months.  Zooplankton are the dominant food organisms from July




through October in the lower river.




     The most abundant plankter (Daphnia pulex),  which is an




important salmon food in the Lower  Columbia River,  is relatively




resistant to thermal shock (30 C for 15 minutes).   Below the Hanford

-------
22




discharges, the maturity of an aquatic insect (Caddis fly) was




advanced two weeks due to a temperature increase of about 1 deg. C,




No changes in the growth pattern could be observed in another




bottom invertebrate, the Columbia River limpet.

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                    Ill - GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS


     A discussion of the general effects of temperature on aquatic

life is presented in this chapter; that is, those concepts of thermal

effects which transcend the discussions of various life stages in the

following chapters.  The material developed here will establish a

framework of definitions and concepts which will make succeeding

chapters more understandable.

     The significance of water temperatures to aquatic life is better

understood if it is remembered that fish are cold-blooded; they

depend upon their environment to provide a livable temperature

range to allow their normal life functions without internal bodily

regulation.  The extent of influence of temperatures upon the fish

has been described by Brett (1956).

     Temperature sets lethal limits to life; it conditions the
     animal through acclimation to meet levels of temperature
     that would otherwise be intolerable;  it governs the rate of
     development; it sets the limits of metabolic rate within
     which the animal is free to perform;  and it acts as a
     directive factor resulting in the congregation of fish
     within given thermal ranges or movements to new environ-
     mental conditions.

In the evolution of the species, the Pacific salmon and steelhead trout

have adapted their life activities to the naturally occurring conditions

in the Columbia Basin, so that the flow and water quality (including

temperature) characteristics of the Columbia River and its tributaries,

or even small creeks, have become the environmental requirements for

particular species and races of salmon and steelhead.

     The anadromous fish exhibit a more complex pattern of life

activities than do resident fish that do not migrate.  In their unique

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24





journey  from  the  inland  spawning  ground  downstream to  the Pacific and




their  return,  years  later,  to  spawn and  die,  the  salmonids must adapt




to  a variety  of environmental  changes  and stresses.  Their migratory




nature takes  them from the  clear  and cold creeks  with  relatively




small  volume  into the mighty Columbia  and finally into the saline




estuary  and Pacific  Ocean.  The adaptation from fresh  to salt water




alone  is a physiological strain.




     Thus,  it should be  remembered that,  while  temperature can be a




stress in itself, it may be of more importance  to the  survival of




the fish species  as  a synergistic agent,  an influence  upon the success-




ful adaptation to other  water  quality  and physical changes which the




fish must face to fulfill their migratory instincts.   Temperature




influences  the levels of dissolved oxygen and nitrogen in the water,




the incidence of  disease in the fish,  their susceptibility to preda-




tion,  as well as  directly affecting their ability to migrate, spawn,




and develop.   Thus,  temperatures  which may be within the thermal




tolerance zone, i.e., the temperatures "...  at which the  animal




will never die from  the  effects of temperature  alone"  (Fry,  1947),




can profoundly influence the impact of other  environmental factors




upon the productivity of the fish resources.




     The thermal  requirements  and tolerances  of Pacific salmon and




steelhead cannot  be  precisely  defined  except  in terms  of several




variables:  the species  and race  of fish,  the stage of development,




previous or concurrent exposure to factors which  interact synergistically




with temperature  (e.g.,  disease,  toxicity,  nitrogen supersaturation),




previous acclimation temperatures,  and duration as well as degree of

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                                                                  25




exposure to a given temperature.  The graphic generalization presented




in Figure 4 (Brett, 1960) depicts the concepts employed by biologists




in defining the thermal requirements of Pacific salmon.  As can be




seen, the tolerance zone of temperatures which are conducive to repro-




duction is narrower than the range of temperatures necessary for  growth




of the fish.  Outside the tolerance zone, the resistance of the fish




to lethal temperatures (represented by the undulating line) is dependent




upon several factors mentioned above.




     An important concept defining the resistance of fish to lethal




temperatures is acclimation.  Fish acclimated to higher temperatures




within the tolerance zone are most resistant to temperatures above




that zone.  In other words, acclimation of a fish to a warm tolerance




temperature will result in a higher lethal limit for that fish, and




vice versa.  The influence of acclimation on thermal tolerance can be




seen in Figure 5.  (For purposes of comparability among investigators,




the incipient lethal temperatures are generally defined as the levels




at which fifty percent of the test population would die.)   As can be




seen from the figure,  the upper level of the tolerance zone rises  as




the temperature to which the fish has been acclimated rises.   However,




in all cases there is  an ultimate level at which the influence of




acclimation gives way  and the temperatures become lethal regardless of




previous acclimation.   This level is termed the ultimate incipient




lethal temperature.   The diagonal line in Figure 5 is a reference  line




to provide a ready indication of where the lethal temperature and  the




acclimation temperature are the same.

-------
80
70
60-
SO-
40
32
   25
   20-
10
                             LETHAL ZONE
                             TOLERANCE   ZONE
                          RESISTANCE    ZOh/E
                               LETHAL    ZONE
                                         2
                                                                                            N>
                             RESISTANCE   ZONE
o  J.  _
P  F  f
o  >  £

3  o  a
o     ~
o:
a.
ui
v.

I
                                                                                AGE-YRS
    EGG-HATCH-EMERGE-MIGRflrE   —   YEARUNG     	     GRILSE   — MATURING ADULT-SPAWNING    STAGE

    FALL  WN. SR  SU.  FA.   WN.  SP   SU.  FA.   WN.  SP  SU.   FA.  WN.  SR  SU.  FA.   WN.   SEASON



     Figure  4.  Schematic representation of  temperature  requirements for life

               processes of the Pacific salmon (adapted from Brett, 1960).

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                                                                  27
   30 -
  25
o
o
  2O
   15

o
c
   IO ~
                Temperature
                          of "instantaneous" Death
UPPER ZONE OF THERMAL RESlSTANC

  \\N\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\
  Ultimate  Incipient Let no I Temperature
                    so%

                    Mortality
      X:XZONE OF THERMAL TOLERANCE
                                    \ LOWER ZONE
                                     OF THERMAL
                                     RESISTANCE \
                5         10        15

               Acclimation Temperature  °C
       Figure 5.  Thermal  response of a hypothetical

                  cold water fish (adapted  from Brett,

                  I960,  by Coutant, 1968).

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28




      The levels  of temperature which will be lethal to a fish are




 further influenced by the time of exposure.   The resistance to an




 abrupt increase  in temperature is a function of both the degree of




 temperature rise and the time of exposure to that temperature—referred




 to as the thermal dose.   Exposure to a lethal temperature for a sublethal




 time  will not result in fish death.




      The fisheries agencies of the Pacific Northwest recognize the




 influences of these many variables upon the thermal tolerance of




 Pacific salmon.   Within broad ranges, however, a committee of these




 agencies has recommended optimum temperatures which are conducive to




 the production of fish resources in the Columbia Basin (Snyder et al.,




 1966).




           Migration routes:  45 to 60 F (7.2 to 15.6 C)




           Spawning areas:    45 to 55 F (7.2 to 12.8 C)




           Rearing areas:     50 to 60 F (10  to 15.6 C)




 The committee developed their recommendations after considering natural




 temperatures for fish activities throughout the basin, as well as at




 fish  hatcheries  where temperature problems have developed.




      The technical committee's recommendations reinforced the work  of




 Burrows (1963) in which he similarly defined the optimum temperatures




 for Pacific salmon, with one added stage.  During egg and fry incubation,




 after the 128-cell stage of development is reached, Burrows concluded




 that  temperature ranges  may vary but should remain within 32 and 55 F




 (0 and 12.8 C).   The effect of fry size and time of migration on sur-




 vival in different areas makes it impossible to define the optimum




 temperature range during this stage more precisely.

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                                                                  29




     Although individual races of salmonids may have adapted to a




wider range of temperatures and other factors may ultimately affect




the optimum range, these recommended temperatures remain accepted by




the fishery agencies as the most desirable conditions which can




be considered conducive to enhancement of the fish resources of




the Columbia Basin.  Even though temperatures which occur in the Columbia




River now exceed these optimums for periods during the year, those




conditions must be considered detrimental to the fish.




     A number of adverse effects of existing river conditions have




been noted, as will be seen in succeeding chapters.  The remainder




of this report concentrates primarily upon studies of the effects




of temperatures outside these optimum ranges and of abrupt changes




in temperature within these ranges.  The optimum temperature levels




and concept should be borne in mind as these studies are reviewed.

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                     IV - ADULT ANADROMOUS FISH







     The material presented in this chapter concerns the effects of




temperatures on adult anadromous fish from the time they enter the




Columbia River from the Pacific Ocean to the completion of spawning




in the upper reaches of the Columbia River and its tributaries.




The discussion centers first upon the migration period, then turns




to spawning conditions.







                          Adult Migration







Adult Migration Timing




     Few studies have related temperature to the migration of adult




anadromous fish, although a number of biologists believe there is




evidence that temperature is an important factor.  The timing of




migration and relative abundance of adult anadromous fish at




Prescott, Oregon, was developed by Coutant and Becker (1968) and is




shown in figure 6.  Fish counts at the dams on the Columbia River




and major tributaries also show timing of migration.




Thermal Block




     The question of whether increased water temperatures could creat<




a block to inland migration of adult fish has been raised.  A number




of observations seemed to indicate a relationship between temper-




atures and migration.




     In an extreme temperature year (1941), sockeye and chinook




salmon and steelhead trout were observed congregating in small,




hitherto unused, cold creeks near Bonneville and Rock Island Dams

-------
                                           water Tempt., Bonneville Dam 1965
                     JAN  FEB   MAR  APR  MAY  JUN  JUL   AUG  SEP  OCT   NOV  DEC
    Figure 6.   Timing  and relative abundance of  adult  anadromous fish migrations  past

                Prescott,  Oregon (Adapted from Coutant  and Becker 1968).

a/
~~ Broken portion of  temperature line represents  levels  above established criteria.

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                                                                   33






when  temperatures  in  the  Columbia  rose  to  71  to  75  F  (21.7  to 23.9 C)




 (Fish and Hanavan,  1948).   Similarly, high water temperature  has




been  attributed as  a  major  cause of delayed migration of  sockeye




salmon into the Okanogan  River.  When the Okanogan was  70 F (21.1  C)




or  rising above that  level, the fish would not leave  the  cooler




Columbia River to  enter their natal Okanogan.  Migration was  resumed




when  the temperature  began  to fall.  Below 70 F  (21.1 C) migration




was not blocked by  rising or stable temperatures  (Major and Mighell,




1967) .




      To test the influence  of temperatures on the selection or




avoidance of migration routes, the National Marine Fisheries  Ser-




vice  conducted tests  at the Fisheries Engineering Research Laboratory




at Bonneville Dam.  Although the results were not conclusive  in




defining the existence of a temperature block, the adult salmon




and steelhead did show a preference for ambient or cooler temperatures




over  migration channels whose waters were above 70 F  (21.1 C).  No




preference or avoidance of either cooler or warmer waters was  shown




as long as the ambient water temperatures remained between 50




and 70 F (10 to 21.1 C)  (Anon,  1965-1968).




      It has been speculated that large thermal discharges to the




Columbia might cause a thermal block similar to that noted above




for natural situations.  Tracking sonic tagged steelhead trout




and summer chinook salmon at Hanford has shown no such block,




however,  at that location (Coutant, MS 35).   Fish apparently




avoided the warmest areas of the river and travelled through




the section essentially unimpeded.   There were no statistically

-------
34
significant  differences  in migration rates  between downstream reaches




heated  3.6 to 5.4  deg.  F (2 to 3 deg.  C)  above normal and the cooler




upstream reaches at  times when summer water temperatures  remained




generally below 68 F (20 C).   Some fish changed course of migration




when they entered  shoreline seepage areas of warmed water.




      From available evidence it is concluded that there is an in-




creasing tendency  for salmon and steelhead trout to cease upstream




migration at temperatures of 70 F (21.1 C)  and above.  Existing




evidence is  not conclusive on whether migration would be blocked




or curtailed at temperatures below that level.






Location in  Stream Cross-Section




      To provide a  sounder basis for water quality management




decisions,  the question was raised whether salmon and steelhead




trout exhibit a preferred location in the stream cross-section,




either in distance from shore or in depth.  Little data are avail-




able to relate fish location to the temperature stratification




which occurs in reservoirs and the mixing and dispersion patterns




of heated discharges.




      Sonically-tagged adult steelhead traced upstream through




Ice Harbor  Reservoir during the fall of 1969 usually travelled




relatively  close to the reservoir shore in waters forty-feet




deep or less.  The fish followed a fairly specific route through




the reservoir with distinct travelling, milling and resting areas.

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                                                                   35






The  fish  favored  the bottom area during September and October




but  were  surface  oriented during November and December.  The




slower rate of travel through the reservoir in November and




December  is presumed to be due to lower water temperature (Monan,




Liscom and Smith, ms 2).  Other studies of migration of sonic-tagged




fish in the unimpounded Hanford reach of the Columbia indicated that




both steelhead trout and chinook salmon migrated principally along




shorelines, in water less than 5 meters deep.  Throughout the dis-




tance between Richland and Priest Rapids Dam, fish selected the




north (or east) shoreline.  This selection was most pronounced in




the  area  of operating reactors which were located on the opposite




shoreline.  The pattern was essentially the same in two years,




1967 and  1968 (Coutant 1969).  The reason for the shoreline specificity




has  not been determined.




     Although the knowledge of migration routes in the Columbia




is sparse, the available evidence indicates that adult salmon and




steelhead appear to have specific rather than random migration




routes and that they prefer to be close to shoreline in shallow




water.




Infectious Diseases




     Three diseases endemic to the Columbia River are recognized to




be the most serious to adult salmon and steelhead trout:  columnaris,




furunculosis and ceratomxya.  The first two are bacterial diseases




while the latter is due to a protozoan.   High mortalities of the

-------
36


adult fish prior to spawning, particularly where they are confined,

e.g., a spawning channel, have been attributed to one or more of

these diseases.  Pathogenic agents appear to be more of a problem

to adults than to juveniles during migration (Fujihara, 1968).  Columnaris

has been subjected to the greatest investigation, especially with

regard to adult salmon.  The relationship of disease incidence and

severity to water temperature conditions has been demonstrated by

several investigations  (Ordal and Pacha, 1963).

     Natural outbreaks  of columnaris disease in adult salmon have

been linked to high water temperatures in the Fraser River, British

Columbia.  Adult sockeye salmon were exposed to columnaris as they

entered the river, with resident fish probably providing the source

of infection.  The pathological effects of the disease became

evident when water temperatures along the migration route, and in

spawning areas, exceeded 60 F (15.5 C).—   Prespawning mortality

reached 90 percent in some tributaries.  Columnaris in the infected

sockeye spawners was controlled when temperatures fell below 57-58 F

(13.9-14.4 C) and mortalities were reduced (Colgrove and Wood, 1966).

     In laboratory experiments using Columbia River water, adult sockeye

and coho salmon were examined for columnaris infection after being

held at temperature levels of 50, 62, 68, and 73 F (10, 16.7, 20, and

22.2 C).  At 68 and 72  F (20, 22.2 C) dead fish frequently showed

the lesions typical of  columnaris infection which are sufficient to
     _7/  Pathological effects is the identification of disease
organisms by the technique of streaking from suspected areas of
infection onto nutrient plates for incubation and examination.

-------
                                                                   37


account for death.  Columnaris and other diseases were believed  to

be responsible for the death of many of these fish, although 72  F

(22.2 C) was considered directly lethal to most of the adult salmon over

a period of a week.  Adult sockeye and coho were thoroughly exposed

to columnaris disease at all temperature levels but infections failed

to develop at the 50 F (10 C) level, and were not lethal at 62 F

(16.7 C) (Bouck, et al., ms 1).

     Other studies of the occurrence of columnaris in the Columbia

River fish recognize the influence of higher temperatures on in-

fection, but also emphasize that many factors interact to cause

infection.  Battelle Northwest studies in the Hanford area draw attention

to the resident infection carrier:

     "The presence of immune carrier fish capable of releasing large
     numbers of C^ columnaris organisms to the water is probably
     the primary cause of salmonid infection in the Columbia River.
     Fish ladders with high population density of coarse fishes
     during migration of salmonids are the most likely sites of
     exposure and infection (Fujihara, 1967).  Since non-exposed
     fish appear to be very susceptible to infection,  the release
     of heavy concentrations of the pathogen with the correspond-
     ingly low water flow in ladders would create ideal conditions
     for infection."  (Fujihara and Nakatani, ms 43).

     Data collected on antibody levels in Columbia River fish "...suggest

peak yearly effective infection of at least 70 percent to 80

percent of most adult river fish species"  (Fujihara and Hungate,

ms 42).  Occurrence of the disease was generally associated with

temperatures above 55 F (12.8 C);  the authors further  suggest that

the incidence of columnaris may be increased more by extended periods

of warm temperatures than by peak summer temperatures.  Incidence of

columnaris was generally most severe in the Snake River and in the

-------
38






Columbia River for some distance below its confluence with the Snake




River.  This may be due to Snake River temperatures being 1.8 to




5.4 deg. F (1-3 deg. C) higher than the Columbia River (Fujihara




and Hungate ms 42).




     The above studies demonstrate that certain diseases endemic to the




Columbia River become more infectious with increasing temperatures.




However, the disease cause and effect relationship is understood only




in general terms of stress factors, one of which is temperature.




Other factors including the general condition of the fish, nutritional




state, size, presence of toxicants, level of antibody protection,




exposure to nitrogen supersaturation, level of dissolved oxygen,




and perhaps other  factors interrelate in the infection of fish




by diseases.  However, the diseases discussed here are of less




importance at temperatures below 60 F (15.5 C) ; that is, in most




instances mortalities due to  columnaris are minimized or eliminated




below that level.




Gas Bubble Disease




     Gas bubble disease occurs when the river water is supersatur-




ated with dissolved nitrogen  gas.  The disease is characterized by




the appearance of  macroscopic gas bubbles under the skin or in




the fins and in the blood.  Early observations of this phenomenon




were related to hatchery water supply systems (Rucker and Hodgeboom,




1953).  The histopathology of gas bubble disease has been described




as interruption of the blood  supply to an organ when gas bubbles




(embolism) form in the blood  vessels.  An embolism reaching the




heart can cause death (Pauley and Nakatani, 1967; Bouck, et al., 1970).

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                                                                  39
     Nitrogen supersaturation has been recognized as a critical
problem in the Columbia River and, during severe periods, essentially
all impounded areas and certain free flowing sections of the Columbia
and Snake Rivers which are accessible to salmon and steelhead are
significantly supersaturated.  The condition occurs when the release
of water over the spillways at dams forces the normal nitrogen levels
(100 percent equilibrium with air) to rise to supersaturation.
     Some reduction in dissolved nitrogen levels would result from
passage of more water through turbines and less over the spillway.
Investigations into possible methods of reducing spill at the
dams on the Columbia and Snake Rivers and consideration of
other methods for controlling nitrogen leave little hope for
a significant reduction of the problem in the near future.
     During the fall and winter, water is generally not spilled
over the dams and nitrogen saturation levels are normal;  during
the spring and summer, spilling from the dams causes nitrogen
supersaturation of 120 to 146 percent (Ebel, 1969;  Ebel,  1970,
A and B).
     The harmful effects of high water temperatures on adult sal-
mon are worsened by prior or simultaneous exposure to nitrogen super-
saturation.   Survival time of jack chinook acclimated to  62.6 F
(17 C)  which were subjected to 71.6 water (22 C)  was drastically
shortened when the warmer water contained dissolved nitrogen gas
levels  in excess of 115 percent of saturation (Coutant and Genoway,
1968).   Acclimation of the fish to water supersaturated with nitro-
gen reduced  subsequent survival time at  71.6 F (22  C),  regardless
of the  nitrogen levels in the warmer water.

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40





     During a period of high nitrogen supersaturation in the




Columbia River, adult sockeye salmon were removed from the river




and subjected to air equilibrated water at temperatures varying




between 50 and 72 F (10-22.2 C).  Loss of eyes or blindness,




which was attributed to gas bubble disease, occurred in a third




of the fish at the 50 and 62 F  levels (10-16.7 C), but increased




to one-half to two-thirds of the fish when temperatures were 68




and 72 F, respectively (20, 22.2 C) (Bouck, et al., ms 1).




     The scope and exact nature of this nitrogen-temperature interaction




in fish is not well understood; however, sufficient evidence exists




to warrant the conclusion that  any temperature increase intensifies




harmful effects of gas bubble disease, primarily due to temperature-




gas solubility relationships.   Further, fish stressed by nitrogen




supersaturation are more susceptible to the effects of thermal




stress and infectious diseases  (Bouck, et al., op cit.).  Although the




full impact of nitrogen supersaturation upon fish is not completely




understood, evidence indicates  that the condition results in signi-




ficant mortality of both adult  and juvenile salmon and steelhead.




In addition, the disease can cause sub-lethal damage, such as blind-




ness, which may be essentially  equivalent to death in terms of




damage to natural reproductive potential (Westgard, 1964; Bouck,




et al., ms 1).




Adult Thermal Resistance




     For the purposes of this report, the concept of thermal




resistance refers to the resistance of fish to temperature levels

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                                                                   41
outside their preferred or optimum range, and  to abrupt  changes

in temperature within that range.

     The precise temperature level which would cause direct  thermal

death to adult Pacific salmon has not been defined, due  in part  to

the difficulties in testing such large animals.  The physiological

causes of direct thermal death to fish are still unknown, but are

presumed to involve a complex disruption of the cellular processes

by purely thermal (physical) means.  One hypothesis suggests that

oxygen delivery to the nervous tissue lags behind metabolic  usage

at the lethal temperature.  In one study, 69.8 F (21 C) was  esti-

mated to be near the ultimate incipient lethal temperature for

adult coho (Coutant, ms 38).  (The incipient lethal level of water

temperatures in these studies was defined as the level at which

fifty percent of the animals died but the remainder survived for

an indefinite period of time.)   For steelhead, the incipient lethal

level was estimated to be near 69.8 F (21 C),  and for chinook,

near 69.8-71.6 F (21-22 C) (Coutant,  op.  cit.).  These studies

"...suggest that elevation of general environmental temperatures

above 21 C would be directly lethal to adult salmon and steelhead"

(Coutant,  op.  cit.).

     In other studies designed to determine the effects of temper-

ature during simulated migration of adult sockeye salmon, (Bouck,

et al.,  ms 1)  the fish were subjected to  four  temperature levels:

     a.   50 F (10 C),  a theoretical optimum temperature;
     b.   62 F (16.5C),  Columbia  River temperature on July 1,  1969;
     c.   68 F (20 C),  Columbia River  legal temperature  limit;
     d.   72 F (22 C),  an estimated  directly lethal  temperature.

-------
42
In these studies, adult sockeye salmon survived an average of 3.2




days at 72 F (22.2 C) and 11.7 days at 68 F  (20 C).  Because of the




sudden onset and rate of mortality, 72 F (22.2 C) was considered




to be directly and acutely lethal to adult sockeye salmon.  Survival




of a few adult sockeye salmon for about one month indicated that




68 F (20 C) is not directly lethal.




     However, as will be emphasized throughout this report, the




effects of temperatures in conjunction with other stresses is




equally or more important than direct lethal effects in terms of




ultimate fish survival.  For example, in the studies above, 68 F




(20 C) was not considered an ultimately safe level for adult sockeye




salmon because the effects of other stresses such as gas bubble




disease and infectious diseases were aggravated at that temperature.




The added stress of holding the fish was no doubt an additional factor.







                              Spawning




Effects of Temperature on Spawning




     The effects of water temperatures upon salmon spawning have




not been well defined in the literature, although the preferred




range is considered to be similar to that for egg incubation, 42-55 F




(5.5-12.8 C) .  The range reported by the Columbia River Fishery




Technical Committee for spawning of all species in the Columbia River




tributaries is 34-67 F (1.1-19.4 C) (Snyder, et al., 1966).




     Since the Hanford reach has been subjected to the possible




detrimental effects of heated effluents of the atomic reactors

-------
                                                                  43







and is the only Columbia River main stem section remaining suitable




for salmon spawning, more studies have been directed to the con-




ditions in that area than elsewhere.  Nakatani (1969) states that




most of the local fall chinook spawn in water temperatures about




50-59 F (10-15 C) but the late spawners in a cold year may deposit




their eggs in temperatures of about 41 F (5 C), well below the op-




timum .




     Some of the conclusions reported by Watson (ms 39) on studies




of fall chinook salmon spawning in the Hanford reach of the Col-




umbia River over the period 1947-69 are:  (1) Throughout this




period, no apparent relationship existed between numbers of fall




chinook salmon spawning in the Hanford reach and river temperature,




flow, or elevation during the spawning season.  (2) Closure of




reactors immediately upstream from major spawning areas did not




alter the general distribution of the spawning fish.  (3)  The




assessment of any subtle biological effects of the reactors on




local salmon populations was not possible in the study. (4) Other




changes in the ecology of the river, such as produced by dams,




appear to be of greater influence on the numbers of locally spawn-




ing salmon than the reactor operation.




     The major spawning areas between RM 363 and RM 376 (km 585-




605)  lie downstream from heated effluent outfalls and have been sub-




jected to incompletely mixed effluents.  In several years,  salmon




spawning was observed within a hundred meters downstream from effluent




outfalls,  but the exact nature of the temperature profile  in this

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44






region of incompletely mixed thermal plume was not known.




     A study in an area of incompletely mixed effluent during




the winter of 1954-55 showed the temperature difference between




water above and below the gravel surface was usually less than




1 deg. C.  The distribution of spawning salmon in the river down-




stream from the effluent of four reactors showed little change after




the reactors were no longer in operation.  The location of spawning




areas appears to be primarily influenced by gravel size, current




velocity, and water depth (Nakatani, 1969).




     Overall, these studies indicate that there is no evident




relationship between the operation of the Hanford reactors and




numbers of fish spawning in the Hanford reach of the river.




Ability to Spawn Volitionally




     The effect, if any, of water temperatures upon the ability




of the salmon to spawn has been subjected to only limited study.




Information gained by Bouck et al. (ms 1) in adult salmon studies




at Bonneville showed no apparent adverse effects to eggs in




utero of coho salmon from prolonged exposure of the adult fish




to 62 F (16.7 C).  At 68 F (20 C), prespawning mortalities were




sufficiently high to preclude judgment of temperature effects on




eggs in utero.  Aside from the more direct effects of disease on




maturing salmon, it was observed that the increased metabolic rate




at higher temperatures manifests itself in abnormal body weight




loss and a corresponding decrease in weight of sex products.




These changes cannot be viewed as beneficial to migration or survival




of the fish to spawn.

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                                                                   45
     The additional stresses placed on  a  fish by higher  temper-




atures may indirectly and adversely affect  reproduction  in  terms




of excess energy costs, disease, and increased tpxicity.  In  other




words, although the exposure of the adult female to adverse tempera-




tures may have secondary effects which  cause prespawning mor-




talities, the detrimental effects on the eggs in utero have not




been demonstrated.




Egg Incubation




     Biologists concerned with hatchery production in particular




have been concerned with the effects of water temperatures on




salmon eggs at various stages of development.  Several investigators




have explored the effects of high or low temperatures on salmon egg




incubation (Combs and Burrows, 1957; Combs, 1965; Olson and Foster,




1955) .




     In studies of embryonic development, the order of appearance




of anatomical features in the embryo and certain meristic character-




istics of fish were shown to be dependent on temperature of incubation




(Hayes, et al., 1953; Hubbs, 1922).   Premature hatching at low




temperatures increases the proportion of abnormal fry produced.  The




number of vertebrae also depends on temperature.




     Burrows (1953) found that egg and fry incubation temperatures,




after the 128-cell stage of development is reached,  may vary but should




remain within the range of 32-55 F (0-12.8 C).   A number of researchers




have reached the same general conclusion:  to avoid excessive mortali-

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46






ties of eggs and resulting fry the initial egg incubation should not




be at a temperature higher than 59-61 F  (15-16.1 C).  The Columbia




Basin Fishery Technical Committee reached the following conclusions




after review of the results of several investigators  (Snyder, et al.,




1966):




     1.  Differences in results of the several investigations on




temperature limits for incubation of salmon eggs are  not too impor-




tant from a practical standpoint.




     2.  Temperature during initial incubation is critical.




     3.  If initial incubation temperature is below 42.5 F  (5.8 C)




or above 55 F (12.8 C) less than normal  survival can  be expected.




     4.  Mortality attributable to temperature is also a function




of duration of exposure.




     Experiments at Hanford in 1965 (Olson and Nakatani, 1968)




showed higher mortalities in eggs incubated in cold river water than




in lots incubated in water warmed by addition of reactor effluent.




Nakatani (1969) believes that warming the colder waters of  the




Columbia River in early winter might actually be beneficial for




egg incubation.




     From the many studies of egg incubation and temperatures, it




is generally agreed that the initial egg incubation temperature is




critical and should be within the range  of 42-55 F  (5.5-12.8 C) and




should remain below 58 F (14.4 C) at all times but may go as low as




32 F (0 C) after the 128-cell stage.

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                                                                   47





 Importance of Natural Temperature Fluctuation




      Many of the laboratory studies  to define the necessary tempera-




 ture  range for egg incubation were conducted at controlled constant




 temperature levels.   Since  natural temperatures in the stream




 fluctuate daily under the influence  of solar radiation,  the signifi-




 cance of  fluctuating  temperatures should  also be noted,  although




 studies of this aspect  of egg incubation  have been limited.




      Olson and Nakatani (ms  45)  investigated the effect  of fluctuating




 temperatures  on incubating  chinook salmon eggs  and fry at  increments




 ranging 1,  2,  and  3 deg.  F  above  and below  the  basic  river temperature.




 No difference  in survival was  found as  compared to nonoscillating




 temperatures.




      The  Oregon Fish  Commission  and National Marine Fisheries Service




 in 1969 cooperated on experimental incubation of  fall  chinook eggs




 (Fulton,  unpublished  manuscript).  On a simulated  natural  diurnal




 temperature regime, peak  temperatures were  from 60  to  65 F  C15.5-18.3 C)




 with  a 4  deg.  F fluctuation.  The  results in both  constant and




 fluctuated  temperature  groups generally agreed with other investi-




 gators; that is, above  the optimum range  the warmer the water, the




 lower the  egg  survival. However, there was  a  significantly greater




 survival  in eggs incubated at fluctuating temperatures with peaks




 above 63  F  (17.2 C) and a significantly better survival for fry at all




 temperatures (with one exception)  in the  fluctuated temperature group




when  compared with constant temperature groups.  This indicates that




 there may be significant benefit to eggs and  fry from a diurnal




 temperature fluctuation at all levels within the zone of tolerance




 42 to 65  F  (5.5  to 18.3 C).

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                    V - JUVENILE ANADROMOUS FISH







     The temperature requirements and tolerances of juvenile




anadromous fish, from the fry stage through seaward migration to the




Pacific Ocean, is the subject of this chapter.  The discussion




centers first on the rearing stage in fresh water, a period which




may vary from one week to over a year depending upon the fish species




and race. Juvenile migration to the sea is then discussed in terms




of temperature effects.







                               Rearing







Growth Rate of Juvenile Salmonids




     Two aspects of the relationship between juvenile growth and




water temperatures require attention.  First,  the effect of incre-




mental increases in water temperature over natural conditions should




be known; and second, the desirable range of temperatures for




enhancement of juvenile growth should be defined.




     The effect of incremental increases in temperature over the




Columbia River seasonal pattern has been observed on young salmon and




trout (Olson and Foster, 1955;  Olson and Nakatani,  1968).  Increased




water temperatures clearly accelerated fish growth in all lots.




Fish in the warmest lots were as much as eight times heavier than




those in the coldest lots at the conclusion of the tests.  Excessive





mortalities resulted from temperature increases in excess of 4 deg. F




over the river temperature for the lots  spawned on October 30;  but




an incremental increase of 12.5 deg.  F over the base temperature for

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50






lots spawned on December 8 produced a mortality of only 12.4 percent.




The significance appears to be that 4 deg. F over the October 30




temperature results in the water being over 60 F, while 12.5 deg. F




added to the December 8 temperature produces 60 F or below.  The




researchers believe their studies indicate that young fall chinooks




can safely withstand greater thermal additions during the winter and




suggest, further, that elevated temperatures will favor the survival




of the eggs spawned in the colder late months of the year over those




spawned earlier.




     In other studies the effect of incremental increases of 2, 4,




and 4.7 deg. F  (1.7, 2.2, and 2.6 deg. C) above Columbia River




temperatures was tested on the growth of juvenile steelhead (Olson




and Templeton, ms 46).  The warmest of these heat increments tended




to slow the rate of growth when added to summer maximum temperature




waters (average of 70 F, 21.1 C) but favored the growth during the




colder seasons of the year.




     Brett- et al. (1969) studied growth of fingerling sockeye salmon




in relation to water temperature and the metabolic rate of food




utilization.  The most favorable range for growth was found to be




between 41 and 62.6 F (5-17 C), with a physiological optimum in the




vicinity of 59 F (15 C).  The amount of food necessary to maintain




the fishes weight increased rapidly as temperatures rose above




53.6 F (12 C), with no growth occurring at approximately 73.4 F




(23 C), despite the presence of excess food.

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                                                                  51
     In field and lab studies with juvenile coho at Oregon  State




University, Averett  (1969) found that the range of temperatures at




which maximum efficiency of food utilization for growth appears,




changes with season  and depends upon the range of consumption rates




being considered within a season.  His findings show the most




efficient growth, within consumption ranges believed to occur in




nature, is at the temperature of 41 to 57.2 F (5 to 14 C) in early




spring, 51.8 to 57.2 F (11 to 14 C) in early summer, 57.2 to 62.6 F




(14 to 17 C) in late summer, 51.8 to 62.6 F (11 to 17 C) in fall,




and 41 to 46.4 F (5  to 8 C) in late winter.




     Additional laboratory studies, also at Oregon State University,




compared growth rates of juvenile coho salmon kept at different




fluctuating temperatures (L. B. Everson, MS Thesis).  Temperatures




were incrementally increased approximately 6.3 and 12.6 deg. F




(3.5 and 7.0 deg C)  from control temperatures that followed the daily




and seasonal temperature changes of a natural stream.   Relationships




were established between rates of food consumption and growth during




short-term (30 day) and long-term (8 month) studies.  At comparable




ration sizes the growth rates of fish kept at elevated temperatures




were generally lower than those kept at control temperatures.  The




response to elevated temperature was markedly influenced by ration




size;  the greater the ration, the more nearly were growth rates




comparable at all temperatures studied.   Comparison of results of




short and long-term studies indicated that the fish did not benefit




from long-term acclimation to elevated temperatures.  Seasonal

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52




differences in food consumption, and consequently growth, that are




not directly related to temperature are indicated from comparison of




results obtained during different seasons but over similar ranges




of temperature.




     Studies with juvenile coho salmon at control and elevated




temperatures 9 deg. F  (5 deg. C) increment in two large outdoor




model streams at Oregon State University have shown that heating




enhanced growth only during  the winter of the first year of operation.




Growth subsequently has been greater in the control than in the




treatment stream.  The level of abundance of benthic invertebrates




appears to be closely  related to the differences in growth of the




coho (R. A. Iverson, personal communication).




     Becker (ms 40) studied  the food, feeding, and growth of juvenile




chinook salmon at stations above and below nuclear reactor effluent




discharges in the Columbia River.  He found a lack of detectable




thermal effects which  he attributed to the fact that the thermal dis-




charge plumes are in mid-river and the effluents are well mixed before




reaching inshore feeding areas.  The transient nature of the fish




populations, and the availability of food organisms in the river




drift complicated efforts to evaluate any subtle thermal effects.




     To summarize, the growth of juvenile salmonids is enhanced at




temperatures within the range 41-62.6 F (5-17 C) depending on season




and availability of food.  Heat additions to colder waters which




would bring the water  temperatures within this range might be




considered beneficial, while heat additions which would result in




temperatures above this range would be considered detrimental to




juvenile growth.

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                                                                  53






Attraction of Juveniles to Warmed Water




     During cold-water periods in the Hanford reach of the Columbia,




seining in the inter-gravel seepage area near the B-C reactor showed




that small numbers of chinook fry were present in the area which




was warmed by the seepage to 50 to 53.6 F (10-12 C).   The warming of




the areas is the result of seepage from an effluent disposal ditch.




No fry were available in the other areas of the river where the river




temperatures during March remained at 35.6 to 39.2 F (2 to 4 C).




Becker (ms 40) speculates that the young chinook select the warmer




areas when the river temperature is below a lower thermal preferendum




53.6 to 57.2 F; 12 to 14 C).   He postulates that, because the river




temperatures in early spring are well below the preferred level for




juvenile salmon,  the addition of heat by the Hanford discharges during




early spring is not harmful and may actually be beneficial to the




emergent fry (Becker, op. cit.).






                         Juvenile Migration






Juvenile Migration Timing




     Although the annual timing of seaward migration of juvenile




salmonids varies  according to species and race of fish,  each, does




exhibit distinct  timing patterns which are preferred  and beneficial




to successful downstream migration.   Migration has historically been




timed to coincide with favorable temperature and flow conditions




during the year.   The construction of dams and reservoirs in the




Columbia system has altered the historical migration  patterns.

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54






     On the Columbia and Snake Rivers, studies have been made of the




time of juvenile salmonid migration under both pre- and post-




impoundment conditions.  Mains and Smith (1964) found that before




impoundment the migration of zero-age chinook from the upper Columbia




River occurred during March through July.  After construction of four




dams, Park (1969) found that the migration period had shifted to




April through August at Priest Rapids Dam, with peak numbers in




August during 1965 and 1966.  However, since juvenile chinook were




found by Becker (ms 41) to be in the Hanford reach of the Columbia




from March until mid-June, he concluded that the progeny of fall




chinook spawning in the Hanford reach retain the historical migration




pattern detected by Mains and Smith (1964) above.




     The migration rates of yearling chinook salmon in the Columbia




and Snake Rivers were measured by Raymond (1968, 1969).  Marked fish




took 32 days to travel from the Salmon River to Bonneville Dam in




1966, a distance of 415.6 miles (669 km).  He predicted that, with




additional impoundment of the Snake River, an additional 36 days




(total of 68 days) would be required for salmon to migrate from the




Salmon River and Grand Ronde River to Bonneville Dam.




     Park (1969) observed that the peak movement of juvenile chinook




in 1966 at Bonneville Dam occurred two months later (June versus




April)  than in the period 1946-1953.  He also indicated that the peak




movement at Bonneville was influenced by the late release of many of




these fish from upstream hatcheries.




     From these studies,  it appears the time of downstream migration

-------
                                                                   55






of juvenile salmonids  through  the upper and mid Columbia River has




been significantly delayed due to impoundment of the river by dams.




Migration of fall chinook produced in the Hanford reach of the




Columbia appears to commence in the same period as the historical,




pre-impoundment pattern—although whether delays in migration of




these fish occur in reservoirs downstream has not been considered.




     The effect of delays in juvenile migration is to subject the




fish to increased stresses and adverse conditions.  The detrimental




aspects of delay in migration and of the alteration of the physical




condition of the migration route into a series of reservoir environ-




ments have been described by a number of studies (Park, 1969;




Davidson, 1965; and Raymond,  1970,  B).  Juvenile salmon and steelhead




that are delayed in downstream migration may be forced to migrate




during an unfavorable time period in terms of seasonal temperature




rises in the Columbia River.   Downstream juvenile migrants have




historically migrated during periods of high flows and moderate




temperature; delays in this pattern bring them into peak summer




temperatures and curtailed flow conditions.




     Delayed entry into salt  water  also is considered detrimental.




Baggerman (1959) has  suggested that the disposition for seaward




migration of juvenile Pacific salmon is directly related to an




observed salt-water preference.  "Juvenile salmon exhibit  a preference




for salt water prior to,  during,  and after the normal period of down-




stream migration."  Therefore,  it has been suggested that  delays  in




reservoirs  could adversely affect production,  since  either premature

-------
56




or delayed  entry  into  salt water appears  to  reduce  the survival  rate




 (Andrew  and Geen,  1960).




     When delayed in the  reservoir,  the migrants  encounter  increased




temperature conditions caused by seasonal warming characteristics.




Several  related studies support this theory.  Apparently, salmonids




stop  their  migration when they encounter  a temperature gradient




upon  entering a reservoir from a stream (Durkin,  et al.,  in press).




Other  observations at  storage reservoirs  are unpublished.   Juvenile




salmon and  steelhead that are delayed may lose their desire,  or  even




 ability, to migrate and become residual in the reservoir  where they




 are  subjected to unfavorable temperature, nitrogen supersaturation,




 increased predation, and  disease.




      The relative abundance  of young anadromous fish in the lower




 Columbia River in relation to season and  temperature is discussed by




 Coutant  and Becker (1968) and is shown in Figure  7.




      The generalized conclusions relative to juvenile migration




 timing,  are that the downstream migration from the upper  and mid-




 Columbia has been significantly delayed due  to impoundment  by dams;




 the  delay has many adverse effects on the fish, including subjection




 to unfavorable temperatures.  Fall chinook produced in the  Hanford




 reach  apparently maintain the historical  migration pattern  of




 departure from that point.   Although inconsistent with the  above




 information, the period of peak outmigration in the lower Columbia is




 from March  to June, with  smaller numbers  moving throughout  the year




 (McConnell  and Snyder, ms 12).  Water temperature during  this period




is within the optimum  range  for migration.

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   I Chinook Salmon




    Coho Salmon




    SocKeye Salmon



    American 'Shod



    Ste«lhead Trout
 20
  19
 o
 o
 "10
 n


I
ft 5
Vertical Dimensions Indicate
RelativeAbundance Only
                                            WATER TEMP BONNEVILLE DAM. 1965
     JAN   I  FEB   I  MAR  I  APR   I  MAY   I  JUN   I  JUL  I   AUG   I  SEP   I  OCT    I NOV   I  DEC
                                                                                               32
Figure 7.   Relative abundance  of young anadromous fishes and sturgeon in the
             lower  Columbia River, in relation  to season and water  temperatures
             (Coutant and  Becker,  1968)

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58







Distribution of Juvenile Migrants in Stream Cross-Section




     The distribution of seaward migrant Chinook salmon in the stream




cross-section was studied by Mains and Smith  (1964) near the con-




fluence of the Columbia and Snake Rivers.  The horizontal distribution




was similar on both rivers, with some preference for the shore at




both locations.  Vertical distribution favored the surface on the




Columbia, but there was more general distribution in the Snake River.




     From several years of sampling in the Columbia River estuary,




the National Marine Fisheries Service has generally established




the migration patterns of juvenile salmon migrants from the mouth




of the river to Bonneville Dam.  Although each species is different,




generally the smaller fish which migrate in their first year (fall




chinook, chum) are found in shallow water near the beaches.  The




yearling migrants (spring chinook, coho, sockeye, and steelhead) are




most abundant in deeper water and more evenly distributed or, in




the case of sockeye, concentrated in mid-channel.  A proportion of




the fall chinook has been found to hold for varying but extended




periods of time throughout the year in the vicinity of Puget




Island (RM 44).




     The cross-section studies generally indicate that smaller




downstream migrants move closer to shore, while some larger fish




and selected species are found more evenly distributed or in




mid-channel.

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                                                                  59







 Passage  of  Juvenile Migrants  Through  Thermal  Plume




     When the  current  studies were  being  planned, the  question  per-




 haps uppermost in  the  minds of  fishery biologists considering thermal




 effects  was  the fate of  downstream  migrating  salmonids who might pass




 through  a thermal  plume  created by  a  thermal  power plant discharge.




 Since  the Hanford  Atomic Works  had  been discharging heated effluents




 to  the Columbia for many years  and  the AEC had contracted for studies




 of  the biological  effects of  the discharges,  attention centered upon




 those studies.   Few others had  seen the plumes and none had access to




 the classified  information concerning the temperature of the effluent




 or  its mixing  characteristics.  The AEC researchers subsequently




 submitted papers for publication describing studies designed to answer




 some of  these questions  (Becker and Coutant, ms 36;  Becker,  Coutant




 and Prentice, ms 37).




     Theoretically, an unknown portion of the downstream migrating




 salmonids would pass through  the mixing zones below the heated dis-




 charges.  To test  the effects of this theoretical occurrence,  a float-




 ing trap was "fished" in the effluent plume (K reactor) for  four days




 in May 1968.  Water temperatures in the trap ranged from 52.7  to 59.9




 F (11.5  to 15.5 C)  during this period.  The catch consisted  of 174




 small chinook;  eight mortalities occurred in this group which, were




 attributed to mechanical injury.  In a similar effort in October and




November of the same year,  no fish were trapped.




     Additional tests of thermal effects in 1968  and 1969 involved




 drifting of caged juvenile  salmon through the center of a plume.




Most drifts resulted in no  loss  of fish;  however,  one drift  through

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60
the main K-reactor plume in mid-river  resulted in  total mortality.




Most drifts  through  the K-reactor plume  resulted in  low thermal




"doses" because  the  exposure  duration  was  too short  to cause excessive




mortality even though  77 F (25  C) was  exceeded.  The researchers




concluded from the two years  of study  that,  under  certain  environ-




mental  conditions  (low river  flow-high river temperature), the




potential clearly exists for  lethal  exposure to migrating  juvenile  fish.




     The proportion  of the juvenile  salmonid migrants which would




enter the mixing zone  in the  mid-stream  plume is not known.  However,




it is considered to  be small  due to  the  disproportionately low ratio




of effluent  volume to  total water mass.  The velocity of river flow




through the  plume is 0.16 to  3.3 feet  per  second CO.5 to 1 meters per




second), and the lethal temperatures within  the plume exist for only




a relatively short distance in  the mixing  turbulence before dispersal




to sublethal levels  even at low flows.  Approximately 80 percent of




the difference between plume  temperature and background river tempera-




ture is lost within  five seconds of  discharge as measured  at the




surface (Becker, Coutant, and Prentice,  ms 37).




     The area of perhaps greater potential danger  is the inshore K-




reactor shoreline leakage area  where total mortalities occurred on  two




drifts  of salmon through the  area.   The  lower velocities and reduced




mixing  rate  make this  area and  any similar situations of potentially




greater concern.




     General conclusions regarding the effects of  thermal  plumes in




the Hanford  area upon  downstream juvenile  migrants,  are that the




number  of fish affected is probably  small, as is the risk  of a

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                                                                  61






directly lethal dose, due to the velocity of the stream and rapid




mixing.  The sublethal, or indirectly lethal, effects of plume




exposure are discussed under predation and gas bubble disease.






Thermal Resistance of Migrating Juveniles




     As in the case of adults, the thermal resistance of juvenile




salmonids to temperatures outside their tolerance range, or to drastic




changes in temperature within their tolerance range, is a factor of




both the degree of temperature difference and the length of exposure.




In fact, thermal dose (time and temperature)  is more significant in




the case of juveniles since their smaller mass allows the fish tissues




to heat up quicker.  The preferred temperature range for juvenile




salmonids is 41 to 62.6 F (5 to 17 C) (Brett, et al., 1969;  Averett,




1969).




     The maximum swimming performance of juvenile coho salmon after




exposure to abrupt thermal changes was tested by Groves (ms  14);




temperature changes were within the range from 41.4 to 73 F (5 to 23 C)




He concluded that, if temperature alone is considered, a thermal




change does not reduce the ability of the fish to make maximal swim-




ming efforts.  "Migrant juvenile coho salmon probably could routinely




experience sudden prolonged thermal changes spaced anywhere within




their acceptable thermal range and still be able to make the maximal




swimming efforts demanded by such life emergencies as rapid evasion




and defense."




     In studies to further define the lethal effects of thermal  shock,




four species of juvenile salmon plus steelhead were used in thermal

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62
shock studies by the NMFS (Snyder and Blahm, ms 8).  Fish were ex-
posed to shock temperatures of 78.8 and 84.2 F  (26 and 29 C) from
acclimation temperatures ranging from 39.2 to 68 F (4 to 20 C) .
One hundred percent mortality occurred in less  than three hours at
78.8 (26 C) and in twenty-five minutes at 84.2  F (_29 C) .  Fifty
percent mortality was recorded in less than two hours at 78.8 F (26 C)
and within eight minutes at 84.2 F (29 C).  The death process was
found to be reversible at 78.8 F (26 C) but not at 84.2 F (29 C) if
the fish were returned to the control water temperature as soon as
loss of equilibrium was noticed.
     A program of research on thermal resistance using Columbia River
water for experimentation has been conducted by the National Marine
Fisheries Service.  Water pumped from the river was thermally adjusted
to simulate temperature conditions (Snyder, Blahm, and McConnell, ms 29).
All fish were acclimated in the river water at  the experimental facility
prior to the test.  Acclimation temperatures in the tests ranged be-
tween 50 and 68 F (10 and 20 C).  In some cases, little or no mortality
occurred at a temperature below 73.4 F (23 C), while in a few cases
significant mortality occurred at temperatures  as low as 62.6 F (1.7 C)-
The investigators concluded that:
     1.  Water quality other than temperature played a critical role
in these tolerance tests.
     2.  High nitrogen (No) gas saturation probably produced the most
important indirect effect with imposed temperature increases.
     3.  Resistance levels were reduced in most cases 5.4 to 9 deg. F
(3 to 5 deg. C)  from perviously published laboratory findings and time
to death was shortened.

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                                                                  63
     4.  Mortalities occurred at test temperatures which were similar
to naturally occurring river water temperatures.
     The ultimate upper lethal temperature for juvenile salmon is
apparently between 73.4 and 77 F (23 and 25 C) if other stresses are
minimal.  (Refer to Chapter III and Figure 5.)  However, in the
presence of additional stresses (e.g., sublethal nitrogen supersatura-
tion), a temperature of 68 F (20 C) or lower may be lethal within one
week.  Temperature in excess of 68 F (20 C) ".  . . may be considered
suboptimum for survival of juvenile salmonids in river ecosystems"
(Becker, Coutant, and Prentice, ms 37).
     In order to summarize the results of the many studies of thermal
resistance of juvenile salmonids, the pooled data was used to construct
the minimum mean thermal resistance curves in Figure 8.  Data are in-
cluded from Brett (1952), Coutant and Dean (ms 33), Mighell (ms 17),
Blahm and McConnell (ms 3), Blahm and Parente (ms 4), Snyder and
Blahm (ms 5), Snyder and Craddock (ms 6), Blahm and McConnell (ms 7),
and Snyder and Blahm (ms 8) from tests on chinook,  sockeye, coho, and
steelhead.  Mean survival time (in minutes) is scaled on the ordinate
with temperature on the abscissa.
     In thermal resistance tests it is standard procedure to measure
the median resistance time (time to 50% mortality)  of test animals
exposed to a given temperature.  Survival time increases at an ex-
ponential rate at progressively decreasing test temperatures.  Connecting
most of the points on a graph of the logarithm of time plotted against
temperature produces a straight,  sloping line (Figure 8).   A point

-------
64
10,000-





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                                               Pooled data from several
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    Prescott Studies
                                  -4-
      ' 0       22       24-       26       28

                              TEMPERATURE  °C
      30
       Figure  8.   Thermal  Resistance  of Juvenile Salmonids

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                                                                  65
is reached at the upper end of a line (for a given acclimation

temperature of test animals) at which 50% mortality will never occur

regardless of time of exposure.  This is termed the "incipient lethal

temperature."

     Figure 8 was constructed by plotting the results on semi-log
graph paper of all comparable studies for a given acclimation temper-

ature and drawing a line (by inspection) through most of the points.

While this method gives an approximation, the error is not signifi-

cant from a practical standpoint and permits simplification of a

complex subject.  Some results, particularly those of the National

Marine Fisheries Service at the Prescott Laboratory, were noticeably

different from the others and are shown by the dashed line.  Reasons

for these differences are discussed on page 60.

     For every degree of temperature increase it is noted that the

survival time is decreased from 50 to 75 percent regardless of the

acclimation temperature.  It is also apparent that as the temperature

increases the difference in acclimation temperatures is less signifi-

cant (the resistance lines become closer together).

     To test the element of time of exposure to juvenile thermal
resistance, fall chinook fry which were acclimated to 48.2 F (9 C)

were abruptly exposed to 86 F (30 C) waters over intervals ranging

from 5 to 35 seconds (Groves and Mighell, ms 15).   The fish were

affected in direct proportion to the duration of exposure.  At 5

seconds exposure, no loss of equilibrium or mortality was observed.

At a 10 second exposure, equilibrium loss occurred in 16 percent of

the fish and increased at a linear rate up to where 100 percent showed

equilibrium losses at 35 seconds exposure.

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66




     Yearling sockeye, coho and steelhead were tested to determine




the effects of their previous temperature acclimation upon their




resistance to high lethal temperature (Mighell, ms 17).  Fish




acclimated at 41, 50, 59, 68, and 73.4 F (5, 10, 15, 20, and 23 C)




were tested at exposure to 82.4, 86, and 89.6 F (28, 30 and 32 C) .




Results showed that, at all test temperatures, the trend was for




increased resistance to loss of equilibrium and death as acclimation




temperatures increased.  The author notes the mean survival time  in




relation to previous acclimation temperature increased markedly at




82.4 F  (28 C), particularly for coho and steelhead, and suggests




that this may be a critical upper limit in order for acclimation




to significantly influence resistance to heat.  Resistance was




greatest in steelhead, followed by coho and sockeye.  Size of the




fish within the ranges tested did not affect resistance times to




death or loss of equilibrium.




     Using a test flume and actual passage through a condenser tube,




Kerr (1953) tested thermal resistance of juvenile chinook salmon  at




the Contra Costa stream plant on the Sacramento River.  In flume  tests,




fish ranging from 1.34 to 2.4 inches long were exposed for ten




minutes without acclimation to temperature rises in increments from




0 deg to 27 deg F (0 - 15 deg. C) and from a minimum water temperature




of 55-56 F (12.8-13.3 C) to a maximum water temperature of 83 F




(28.3 C).  "It was found from these experiments that small yearling




salmon  could withstand an instantaneous temperature rise of 25 deg. F




(13.9 deg. C) without loss of life and that their maximum temperature

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                                                                  67





tolerance was approximately 83 F  (28.3 C) "  (Kerr, op. cit.).  In




condenser tests, fish were exposed to 16  deg. F  (8.8 deg. C) temper-




ature rises for 3.5 to 5 minutes with no  mortalities.  No mortalities




occurred in flume-tested fish held for 24 hours; a three percent




mortality occurred to condenser-tested fish held for ten days.  (The




fish in these experiments did not receive a lethal dose).




     Generalized conclusions regarding the thermal resistance of




juvenile salmonids indicate that the effects of a rapid temperature




increase is directly proportional to duration of exposure.  Acclimation




to higher temperatures significantly increases temperature resistance.




Differences between species are small, and all investigators using




fish that were not prestressed achieved essentially the same results.




Fish stressed by nitrogen supersaturation, toxicants, or disease have




reduced temperature resistance; therefore, temperatures should desirably




be maintained well below the upper lethal limits to insure ultimate




survival.  Brett (1960) recommended that  the upper temperature limit




"required" for any species be 5.4 deg F (3 deg C) below the ultimate




upper lethal temperature to avoid significant curtailment of activity.




Temperatures above 68 F (20 C)  are considered to be adverse for




juvenile salmonids, while temperatures near 62.6 F C17 C)  may be




considered to be a maximum optimum temperature.   Between 62.6 and




68 F (17 and 20 C), any increase in temperature  is of no benefit to




juvenile salmonids while increasing requirements for food,  the




possible synergistic action with toxic materials, and the liklihood




of disease infection.

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68






Predation




     Increased  susceptibility  to  predation of  juvenile  salmonids has




been assumed  to occur when  the fish have been  subjected to  the  debili-




tation  or  shock of  adverse  water  temperatures.   Several studies to




define  the relationship between temperature and  predation have  been




conducted.




     Coutant  (ms 31) speculated that,  since loss of  equilibrium was




an  obvious behavioral response to a sublethal  dose of a lethal  temper-




ature,  then smaller doses would also have  a behavioral  effect.  A




series  of  laboratory experiments  were  designed to test  the  differential




predation  rates at  varying  temperature levels.   The  tests sought to




determine  if  non-detectable behavioral changes would be reflected in




predator success when compared with untreated  control fish.  Thermally




shocked juvenile rainbow  trout and chinook salmon were  selectively




preyed  upon by  larger fish  when shocked and unshocked fish were




subjected  simultaneously  to the predators  (large rainbow trout).




Statistically significant increases in predation rates  occurred at




thermal doses which were  a  fraction of the dose  which, causes visible




equilibrium loss—ten percent  in  the case  of chinook and 20 percent




in  the  case of  rainbow.




     Further  experiments were  conducted to determine if the predator




response paralleled thermal dose  responses of  visible equilibrium loss




and death  (Coutant,  ms 32);  that  is, is predation response a function




of  temperature  and  exposure time?  Rainbow trout fingerlings ac-




climated to 59  F (15 C) were subjected to  three  levels  of lethal




temperature for various lengths of time.   The  fish were removed from

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                                                                  69





 the shock  temperatures at intervals and immediately exposed to  the




 large predator rainbow trout along with control fish.  A statistically




 significant difference in predation on the two groups was evident




 in 0.55 minutes at 30 C, at two minutes at 28 C, and 32 minutes at




 20 C.  The treated fish were more readily captured by the predators.




     Similar results were found by Sylvester (ms 18) using coho for




 predators and underyearling sockeye for prey, although no control




 groups were used.  In a series of experiments at acclimation temper-




 atures of 44.5, 53.6, and 62.6 F (7, 12, and 17 C) he found that a




 thermal dose of 18 deg. F (10 deg. C) for sixty seconds significantly




 increases a prey's susceptibility to predation.  The results were




 similar for five second exposure to incremental temperatures ranging




 from 23.4 to 41.4 deg. F (13 to 23 deg. C).




     It should be remembered that the prey fish in these laboratory




 experiments had no opportunity for excape as would be available in




 natural conditions.  However,  the general conclusion that predators




 select fish whose behavior has been altered by temperature stress




 appears well substantiated.







 Infectious Diseases
     Infectious diseases of juvenile salmonids have been extensively




studied in connection with hatchery operations, but less work has




been done relating disease incidence with higher temperature than




has been done with adults.




     Studies with hatchery-reared juvenile rainbow trout showed that




a number of factors are involved in the relationship between temperature

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70






and columnaris, including immunity, species, age, condition, other




disease, crowding and difference in columnaris strain virulence




(Fujihara, Olson, and Nakatani, ms 44).  They pointed out that the




highest mortalities occurred during the initial temperature rise and




not during the peak temperatures of the summer.




     Recent studies on the relationship between water temperature and




mortalities of rainbow trout caused by Ceratomyxa shasta, a myxospor-




idian, have been conducted at Oregon State University.  Little




evidence was found for a trend between temperature and total percent




infectivity due to C^. shasta.  A strong relationship, however, was




found between temperature and survival time of the host.  One hundred




percent mortality of exposed fish  occurred in 17 days at 69 F (20.6 C)




and 95 percent mortality in 56 days at 54 F (12.2 C) (Udey and Fryer,




unpublished).  The full significance of these findings cannot be




appreciated without further study.






Gas Bubble Disease




     Gas bubble disease is considered to be one of the most signi-




ficant water quality problems causing mortalities of downstream




migrating salmonids in the Columbia River.  (For a description on the




disease and the nitrogen conditions in the Columbia River, see the




chapter on adults.)  Although much of the evidence is as yet circum-




stantial, the physical extent of the problem has been defined by Ebel




(1970 C).  Of the downstream migrants arriving at Ice Harbor Dam on




the Snake River, 25-45 percent of  the chinook and 30-58 percent of

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                                                                  71





 the steelhead fingerlings  exhibited visible  gas  bubble disease




 symptoms.   These observations  support  those  of Raymond (1970)  that




 70  percent  of the population of  downstream migrant  chinook from the




 Salmon  River  was lost between  Whitebird  and  Ice  Harbor Dam.  An




 estimate  for  steelhead produced  from Dworshak hatchery indicated a




 25-30 percent loss to Ice  Harbor Dam and about a 70 percent  loss to




 McNary  Dam.   Dissolved nitrogen  supersaturation  levels during  the




 period  of downstream  migration reached a peak of 146 percent satura-




 tion in the forebay of Lower Monumental  Dam  in 1970.




     Preliminary studies have  been  reported  by Coutant (ms 34)  in




 which he explores  the possible effects of  nitrogen supersaturation




 upon juvenile salmonids passing  through  the  Hanford thermal plumes.




 He  attempted  to  define the levels of gas supersaturation and temper-




 ature change  required to produce identifiable synergistic effects




 resulting in  mortality of  juvenile  salmonids.  His results show  that




 fish prestressed with high nitrogen saturation levels  (115 percent)




 suffered higher  mortalities  from a  thermal shock than  did fish




 subjected to  the thermal shock at normal saturation values.  However,




 since the rate of  passage  through the plume  is relatively rapid




 (0.5-1.0 meters  per second), he concludes that the juvenile migrants




would be exposed to temperature increases greater than 5.4 deg. F




 (3  deg. C) for only a  few minutes,   resulting in sublethal doses.




Coutant concludes  from his lab studies  that fish passing through the




Hanford plumes would not experience stresses  from temperature-induced




supersaturation  sufficient to cause significant mortalitites, either




immediate or  thirty days after the experience.

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72







     Studies conducted by Ebel et al.  (ms 13) verify the detrimental




effects of nitrogen supersaturation  and  temperature conditions.  The




data indicate:




     1.  Supersaturation of nitrogen drastically affects the tolerance




of juvenile coho,  chinook and steelhead  to temperature increases.




     2.  Acclimation  to higher temperatures is of some value to the




fish in withstanding  nitrogen supersaturation.  However, the 50




percent mortality  level will be reached  in less than 18 hours at all




acclimation temperatures when nitrogen supersaturation levels are




125-130 percent.




     3.  When supersaturation of nitrogen is present, depth is an




important compensating factor when fish  are able to "sound".




     4.  During periods of nitrogen  supersaturation, any increase in




temperature will be detrimental to migrating juvenile salmonids.




     The concern of the fisheries biologists is substantiated that




supersaturation of nitrogen is a significantly detrimental factor




weighing against successful downstream migration of juveniles and




that the effects of supersaturation  are  accentuated by temperature




increases.  At saturation levels over  115 percent, any increase in




temperature could  be  damaging due to temperature-gas solubility




relationships.






Toxicity




     The relationship of temperature to metal toxicity was shown by




Bouck et al. (ms 1) in laboratory bioassay studies.  Juvenile steel-




head and rainbow trout were exposed  to toxicant concentrations

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                                                                  73






ranging from existing (control) levels in Willamette and Columbia




River waters to 100 percent concentration of the allowable levels of




ten toxicants.  Results show the 96 hour TLm (tolerance limit median)




concentrations were inversly related to increasing temperatures.  As




the test temperature rose from 5 C to 20 C the 96 hour TL  dropped




to about half the former value.







Beneficial Effects




     The beneficial effects of rearing catfish, shrimp, and oysters




in thermal effluents have been demonstrated in several small scale




experiments but only two references to rearing salmonids in heated




water are reported (Matthiason, in press;  Wallis, in press).   Carton




and Chriastianson, (in press)  and Coutant  (in press) pointed out




some problems to the use of waste heat for aquaculture including




demonstration of economic feasibility, design of a system to maintain




proper temperatures,  and public acceptance of a product cultured in




an environment containing traces of radioactivity.

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             VI - THERMAL EFFECTS  ON NON-SALMONID FISH







     While salmonid  fish were  the  prime  target  of the biological




effects studies and  review as  a part of  the Columbia River Thermal




Effects Study, other species of cold-water fish are found in the




Columbia River which would be  pertinent  to th.e  over-riding concern




for water quality standards to protect and enhance aquatic life.  The




following discussion presents  a brief summary of the limited infor-




mation available on  the temperature requirements and tolerances of




these non-salmonid fish.




     The National Marine Fisheries Service, in studies of the




occurrence of fish in the vicinity of its research barge on the




Columbia River (RM 68), found  twenty-seven species of fish CMcConnell




and Snyder, ms 12).  Twenty-one of these species were non-salmonid




and accounted for 43 percent of their total catch.  The non-salmonid




species which were captured throughout the year included three-spine




stickleback,  Columbia River chub,  and starry flounder.   The non-




salmonid fish of commercial and sport value were American shad, white




sturgeon,  and eulachon (smelt).




     In temperature studies on the eulachon,  Smith and Saalfeld (1955)




reported the fish entered the Columbia River when the temperature was




between 33.8 and 50 F (2 and 10 C)  but they migrate up  to and beyond




the Cowlitz River (RM 68)  when the Columbia is approximately 40 F




(4.4 C).  The smelt run was delayed five weeks from entering the




Cowlitz River because of low water temperatures during December 1968

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76
and January  1969  (Snyder,  ms  27).   Eulachon eggs  appear  to  be  more


tolerant  than  adults  to  temperature increases.  The eggs  can with-


stand  a temperature  of 25.2 F (14  C)  from a base  temperature of  39.2


to 46.4 F (4 to  8 C)  without  appreciable  mortalities (Parente  and


Ambrogetti,  ms 26),  but  a  5.4 deg.  F (3 deg.  C) increase halts


maturation of  adult  females.   In tests  in 1968  and  again in 1969,


it was observed  that  female smelt  exposed to water  heated 7 deg. F


(3.89  deg. C)  above  river  temperatures  were reluctant  to spawn.


The studies  on smelt  indicate that  those  fish have  a lower  lethal


temperature  limit than do  the salmonids and a lower optimum temper-


ature  preferendum.   Adult  female smelt  are less tolerant  of temperature


changes than other fish.


     Thermal tolerance tests  on yellow  perch showed a  50  percent


mortality level  at 89.6  F  (32 C) in 2.4 hours (Blahm and  Parente,


ms 10).   A chill period  at about 42.8 F (6 C) for an undefined


period of time is important to induce reproductive  development and

                          o /
spawning  in  yellow perch.—'   Thermal tolerance  studies on three  spine


stickleback  indicate  a 50  percent mortality level at 78.8 F (26  C)


in about  6 days  (Blahm and Parente,  ms  10).   Thus,  both  yellow perch


and three-spine  stickleback have a  higher thermal tolerance than do


the salmonids.
     J5/  Mr.  Bernard  Jones  at  the National Water Quality Laboratory,
Duluth, Minnesota.

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                VII - SECONDARY PRODUCTION ORGANISMS







     Limited studies in other areas of the world have shown the




potential for adverse effects of a large thermal discharge upon




elements of the food chain.  In terms of the ecology of the river




system, disruption of the food chain through destruction of the




smaller organisms could have serious consequences to the fish




resources of the Columbia River.  Little information is available




on the secondary food organisms in the Columbia River or the thermal




effects on those organisms.







Specific Foods




     Among some fishery biologists, there has been a popular concep-




tion that certain particular foods are required by juvenile salmonids




at various stages of their development (Davidson, 1965).  Zooplankton




(Daphnia pulex) was found to be the dominant food organism of




juvenile echo in Lake Merwin, while insects were the dominant food




in Speelyai Creek, a tributary (Hamilton et al., 1970).  Insects




formed a major portion of the diet of juvenile chinook migrating




through the lower Columbia River in spring and fall months, whereas




zooplankton were of major importance from July through October




(Craddock and Parente,  ms 24).  Fish were highly selective on the




larger plankton (Daphnia).  Availability of insects was not studied




so it was not known if this was a matter of preference or avail-




ability.

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78





     Becker (ms 40) found that larval and adult forms of aquatic




insects (Tendipedidae) were the primary food of even the smallest




chinook fry in the Hanford reach of the Columbia River.  His opinion,




and that of most investigators, is that salmon are opportunistic




feeders and take whatever food is most readily available to them.




There is reason to believe this holds true throughout their life.




     Food requirements are more specific for some non-salmonid fish




residing in the Columbia River estuary (Haertel and Osterberg, 1967) .






Plankton




     Plankton populations in  the Columbia River vicinity of Prescott,




Oregon, were studied by Craddock and Parente (ms 24) in 1968 and




1969.  Daphnia and Bosmina were found to be the dominant genera of




cladocerans, the most abundant plankton organism.  Daphnia was most




abundant at the surface and its peak of abundance occurred simul-




taneously with maximum water  temperature in August.  Bosmina was




uniformly distributed from 5  to 15 meter (16.4 to 49.2 foot) depths




and peak abundance was in June or July, with a second peak in October




and November.






Thermal Effects on Secondary  Organisms




     From observations of the thermal effects in the Hanford reach of




the Columbia River, Coutant (1968) indicates caddis flies emerge




about two weeks earlier at a  point 14 kilometers below the lowermost




Hanford thermal discharge when compared to caddis flies at a point




16 kilometers above the discharges.  Temperatures at the two points




were 54.5 and 52.3 F respectively (12.5 and 11.3 C).

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                                                                  79




     Thermal shock studies were conducted on the plankton Daphnia by




Craddock (ms 23).  He found that a fifteen minute exposure to 86 F




(30 C) seemed to have little effect on survival of the plankton,




which had been previously acclimated to 59 F (15 C).   Continued




exposure caused a fifty percent mortality in about twenty-four hours,




and a hundred percent mortality in about forty-eight hours.




     Studies on the opposum shrimp, an important plankton of the




Sacramento River, by Hair (1971) showed that it can stand




a rapid temperature rise of 25 deg. F (13.9 deg. C),  provided the




exposure time is short and that the ultimate temperature does not




reach a critical maximum of 87 F (30 C).




     From the limited information available, then, it can be




generally concluded that the planktonic  organisms are more resistant




to thermal shock than are the fish species that feed  upon them.

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                                                                  83

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      Fishes," Trans.  Amer.  Fish Soc.,  73,  pp. 32-36, (1943).

*Fry, F.  E., "Effects of the Environment on  Animal Activity," Univ.
      of Toronto Studies, Biol.  Ser. No.  55,  Publ of  the  Ontario
      Fisheries Lab.,  No. 68, (1947).

Fry,  F. E. J., J. S.  Hart,  and  K.  F. Walker, "Lethal Temperature
      Relations for a Sample of  Young Speckled Trout  (Salvelinus
      fontinalis)," Univ. Tor.,  Stud. Biol.,  Ser. No. 54;  Pub.  Ont.
      Fish. Res. Lab., 66:5-35,  (1946).

 *Fujihara, M. P., "Columnaris Exposure and Antibody  Production in
      Seaward to Upstream Migrant Sockeye Salmon." In:  Annual
      Report, 1967.   Battelle Memorial Institute, Pacific Northwest
      Laboratories,  Richland, Washington, pp. 14-19,  (1968).

 *Fujihara, M. P., "Immune Response of Salmonids and  Exposure  of River
      Fishes to Chondrococcus Columnaris,"  Annual Report for  1966.
      Battelle Memorial Institute,  Pacific Northwest  Laboratories,
      Richland, Washington,  pp.  183-185,  (1967).

*Fulton,  Leonard  A.,  "Effect of Fluctuating  Diurnal  Temperatures
      on Incubating Chinook Salmon Eggs," Bureau of Commercial
      Fisheries Biological Laboratory, unpublished manuscript.

 Fulton, Leonard A., "Spawning Area and Abundance of  Chinook Salmon
      (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) in the Columbia River Basin—Past
      and Present," tJ. S^. Fish ^ Wildlife Service,  Special Scientific
      Report, Fisheries No.  571, (1968).

*Garton,  Ronald R., and Alden G. Christiansen,  "Beneficial  Uses of
      Waste Heat—An Evaluation."  In:  Proceedings of a  Conference
      on Beneficial Uses of Thermal Discharges,  sponsored by New York
      State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany,  New York,
      Sept. 17-18, (1970), (in press).

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                                                                  85

*Haertel, Lois, and Charles Osterberg, "Ecology of Zooplankton, Benthos
     and Fishes in the Columbia River Estuary," Ecology, 48:3,
     (1967) .

*Hair, Ralph, "Upper Lethal Temperature and Thermal Shock Tolerances
     of the Opossum Shrimp, Neomysis  awatschensis, from the Sacramento-
     San Joaquin Estuary, California," California Fish and Game,
     57 (1):  17-27.  (1971) .

^Hamilton, J. A. R., L. 0. Rothfus, M. W. Erho, J. D. Remington,
     "Use of a Hydroelectric Reservoir for the Rearing of Coho
     Salmon (C). kisutsch) ," Washington Department of Fisheries
     Research Bulletin 9, 65 pp., (1970).

Harvey, H. H. and A. C. Cooper, "Origin and Treatment of a Super-
     Saturated River Water," International Pacific Salmon Fish
     Commission Progress Report No. 9^ 19 pp.,  (1962).

*Hayes, F. R., D. Pelluet, and E. Gorham, "Some Effects of Temperature
     on the Embryonic Development of the Salmon (Solmo salar),"
     Canadian Journal of Zoology, 31: 42-51, (1953).

*Hubbs, C. L., "Variations in the Number of Vertebrae and Other
     Meristic Characters of Fishes Correlated with the Temperature
     of Water During Development," American Naturalist, 56:360-372,
     (1922).

*Jaske, R. T., An Evaluation of the Use of Selective Discharges to
     Cool the Columbia River,  BNWL-208.  Battelle Northwest,  Richland,
     Wash., (Feb., 1966).

*Jaske, R. J., and J. B. Goebel,  "Effects of Dam Construction on
     Temperatures of the Columbia River," Journal of American
     Waterworks Assoc.,  59 pp. 935-942, (August 1967).

*Kerr,  James E., "Studies on Fish Preservation at the Contra Costa
     Steam Plant of the PGE Company," California Department of Fish
     & Game, Fisheries Bulletin No.  92, pp. 36-38, (1953).

*Mains, Edward M., and John M. Smith, "The Distribution,  Size, Time
     and Current Preferences of Seaward Migrant Chinook Salmon in
     the Columbia and Snake Rivers," Washington Department  of
     Fisheries Research Paper, 2:  No. 3,  pp. 5-43, (1964).

*Major, Richard L.,  and James  L.  Mighell,  "Influence of Rock Reach
     Dam and the Temperature of the Okanogan River on the Upstream
     Migration of Sockeye Salmon," U. S_.  Fish &  Wildlife Service,
     Fisheries Bulletin,  66: 131-147, (1967).

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86

 *Matthiason,  Mathias,  "Beneficial Uses  of Waste  Heat  in Iceland."
      In:   Proceedings  of  a Conference  on Beneficial Uses of Thermal
      Discharges,  sponsored by New York  State  Dept. of Environmental
      Conservation,  Albany, New York, Sept.  17-18,  (1970),  (in press).

 *Moore,  A. M.,  "Water  Temperatures in  the Lower  Columbia River,"
      U.  S_. Geological  Survey, Circular  551, U. S.  Govt.  Printing
      Office,  45 pp.,  (1968).

 *Nakatani, R. E.,  "Effects of the Heated Discharges on  Anadromous
      Fishes," Biological  Aspects  of Thermal Pollution,  Vanderbilt
      Univ. Press,  pp.  294-317, (1969).

 Nebeker,  Alan V.,  and  Ormond  E. Lamke,  "Preliminary Studies on  the
      Tolerance of Aquatic Insects to Heated Waters,"  Journal of
      Kansas Entomological Society, 41:  413-418,  (1968).

 *01son,  P. A.,  and R.  E.  Nakatani, "Effect  of Elevated  Temperatures
      on  Mortality and  Growth  of Young  Chinook Salmon."   In:  Pacific
      Northwest Laboratories Annual Report,  1967, to U.  S.  Atomic
      Energy Commission, Div.  of Bio. &  Medicine, Vol. 1, ed. by
      R.  C. Thompson, P. Teal, and E. G. Swezea,  p. 9:3-9-10.
      Richland, Washington, Biol.  Sci.  BNWL-714,  (1968).

 *01son,  P. A.,  and R.  F.  Foster,  "Temperature Tolerance of Eggs and
      Young of Columbia River  Chinook Salmon," Trans.  of Amer. Fish.
      Sac., 85:  pp 203-207, (1955).

 *0rdal,  Erling J.,  and Robert E.  Pacha, "The  Effects  of Temperature
      on  Disease in Fish," Proceedings  of the  Twelfth  Pacific
      Northwest Symposium  on Water Pollution Research, Corvallis,
      Oregon,  pp. 39-56,  (1963).

 *Park,  Donn L., "Seasonal Changes in Downstream  Migration of Age-Group
      0  Chinook Salmon  in  the  Upper Columbia River," Trans. of
      American Fisheries Society,  98: 315-317, (1969).

 *Pauley,  Gilbert B.,  and  Roy  E. Nakatani, "Histopathology of 'Gas
      Bubble'  Disease in Salmon Fingerlings,"  Jour. Fish, Res. Bd.
      ^f_Can., Vol.  24, No. 4, pp. 867-871,  (1967).

 *Raymond, H.  L., "Migration Rates of Yearling Chinook Salmon in
      Relation to Flows and Impoundments in  the Columbia and Snake
      Rivers," Trans. of Amer. Fish. Soc., 97: 386-389,  (1968).

 Raymond,  H. L., "Effect of John Day Reservoir on the  Migration  Rate
      of  Juvenile Chinook  Salmon in the  Columbia  River," Trans.  Amer.
      Fish. Soc.,  98: 513-514, (1969).

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                                                                  87


Raymond, H. L., "Branded Juveniles Indicate Dams Destructive,"
     Fish. Business Weekly, (January 19, 1970A).

*Raymond, H. L., "A Summary of the 1969 and 1970 Outmigration of
     Juvenile Chinook Salmon and Steelhead Trout from the Snake
     River," Bur, of Commercial Fisheries Biological Lab.,  Progress
     Report, Seattle, Wash., 11 pp., (September 1970B).

Rees, William H., "The Vertical and Horizontal Distribution of
     Seaward Migrant Salmon in the Forebay of Baker Dam,"  Wash. Dept.
     of Fisheries Research Papers, 2: No. 1, pp. 5-17, (1957).

Royal, Lloyd A., "The Effects of Regulatory Selectivity on the
     Productivity of Frazer River Sockeye," The Canadian Fish
     Culturist, pp. 1-12, (October 1953).

*Rucker, R. R., and K. Hodgeboom, "Observations on Gas Bubble Disease
     of Fish," Progressive Fish Culturist,  15: 24-26, (1953).

*Smith, Wendell E., and Robert A. Saafield, "Studies on the Columbia
     River Smelt (Thaleichthys pacificus)," Wash.  Dept.  Fisheries,
     Fisheries Research Paper 1(3): 3-26, (1955).

*Snyder, George R., Donald C. Greenland, Gerald E. Monan,  and Anthony
     J. Novatny, "Temperature Standards Conducive  to Optimum
     Production of Salmonids in Columbia Basin Waterways,"  prepared
     for the Col. Basin Fishery Tech. Comm., 21 pp., (1966).

*Udey, L. R.,  and Fryer, J. L., "Effects of Temperature on Diseases
     of Salmonid Fish," Oregon State University, unpublished manu-
     script.

*Wallis, Joe "An Indoor Burrows Reuse System and Rearing Fish In
     Powerplant Cooling Ponds," In:  Proc.  Northwest Fish  Cultural
     Conference, Portland, Oregon, Dec. 3-4, (1970) (in press).

Westgard, Richard L., "Physical and Biological Aspects of  Gas Bubble
     Disease in Impounded Adult Chinook Salmon at  McNary Spawning
     Channel," Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc., 93: 306-309, (1964).

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                             APPENDIX A

                             MANUSCRIPTS

Manuscript
  Number          FEDERAL WATER QUALITY ADMINISTRATION

    1        Bouck,  G.,  G. Chapman,  P.  Schneider,  D.  Stevens,  and
                  J. Jacobson,  "Initial Studies  of Temperature
                  Requirements  of Adults Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus
                  nerka), Adult Coho Salmon (Onocorhynchus  kisutch),
                  and Thermal-Chemical  Requirements of Juvenile
                  Steelhead Trout (Salmo gairdneri) in the  Columbia
                  River", October 1970.

                  NATIONAL MARINE FISHERIES  SERVICE

           Adult Salmon  Behavior in  River

    2        Monan,  Gerald E.,  Kenneth  L.  Liscom,  and  Jim R. Smith,
                  "Sonic Tracking of Adult Steelhead  in Ice Harbor
                  Reservoir,  1969",  July 1970.

           Thermal Tolerance  of Juvenile Salmonids

    3        Blahm,  Ted  H.,  Robert J. McConnell,   "Effect of Increase
                  Water  Temperatures on the  Survival  of Spring and
                  Fall Juvenile Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus
                  tschawytscha)  from the Lower Columbia River",
                  August 1970.

    4        Blahm,  Ted  H.  and  William  D.  Parente,  "Survival of
                  Juvenile  Chum Salmon  Exposed to Elevated  Tempera-
                  tures  in  Columbia  River  Water", July  1970.

    5        Snyder,  George R.  and Ted  H.  Blahm, "Mortality of
                  Juvenile  Chinook Salmon  Subject to Elevated Water
                  Temperatures",  August 1970.

    6        Snyder  George  and  Donovan  R.  Craddock, "Effect of
                  Temperature Increases  on Juvenile Steelhead Trout
                  (Salmo  gairdneri)  from the Columbia River",
                  August  1970.

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90
 Manuscript
   Number     Thermal Shock of  Juvenile  Salmonids

      7        Blahm, Ted H.  and Robert  J.  McConnell,  "Survival of
                   Juvenile  Coho Salmon Exposed to  Sudden Water
                   Temperature Increases", August 1970.

      8        Snyder,  George R. and  Ted H. Blahm, "Survival Times
                   of Juvenile Salmonids Exposed to Water Temperatures
                   Causing Thermal  'Shock'",  August 1970.

            Thermal Tolerance  of Non-Salmonids

      9        Blahm, Ted H.  and Robert  J.  McConnell "Mortality of
                   Adult Eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus) Subjected
                   to Sudden Increases  in  Water Temperature",
                   July  1970.

     10        Blahm, Ted H.  and William D. Parente, "The Effect of
                   Increased Water Temperatures on  the Survival of
                   Adult Threespine  Stickleback (Gasterosteus
                   aculeatus)  and Juvenile Yellow Perch  (Perca
                   flavescens)  in the Columbia River", August 1970.

     11        Blahm, Ted H.  and William Parente, "A Record of the
                   Development of the Shad Egg (Alosa sapidissima)",
                   August,  1970.

            "On Site" Timing of Movement of Juvenile  Fish at
            Prescott,  Oregon

     12        McConnell, Robert J. and  George R. Snyder, "Occurrence
                   of Fish in  the Vicinity of Proposed Sites of Two
                   Nuclear Electric  Plants on the Lower Columbia
                   River", August 1970.

            Effect  of Supersaturation of Nitrogen on  Juvenile
            Salmonids  in the Columbia River

     13        Ebel,  Wesley J.,  Earl  M.  Dawley, and  Bruce Monk,
                   "Thermal  Tolerance of Juvenile Salmon in Relation
                   to  Nitrogen Supersaturation", September 1970.

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                                                                  91
Manuscript
  Number   Effects of Temperature Acclimation on Resistance to
           Thermal Challenge

    14       Groves,  Alan B., "Maximal Swimming Performance of
                  Juvenile Coho Salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch)
                  Following Abrupt Thermal Change",  August 1970.

    15       Groves,  Alan B. and James L.  Mighell,  "Thermal Dose
                  and Equilibrium Loss in Chinook Salmon Fry
                  (Oncorhynchus tschawytscha)  (Summary)",
                  August 1970.

    16       McConnell, Robert J.  and Ted E.  Blahm,  "Resistance of
                  Juvenile Sockeye Salmon (Oncorhynchus  nerka) to
                  Elevated Water Temperatures",  September 1970.

    17       Mighell, James L., "Effects of Acclimation  on
                  Resistance of Juvenile Salmonids to High Lethal
                  Temperatures", September 1970.

    18       Sylvester, J. R., "Thermal Dose and Predator
                  Avoidance in Sockeye Salmon",  July 1970.

           Limnological Survey of  Lower Columbia River

    19       Clark,  Shirley M. and George  R.  Snyder,  "Limnological
                  Study of Lower Columbia  River, 1967-68",
                  February 1970.

    20       Clark,  Shirley M. and George  R.  Snyder,  "Timing
                  and Extent of a  Flow Reversal  in the Lower
                  Columbia River",  November 1969.

    21       Snyder,  George R. and Robert  J.  McConnell,  "Frequency
                  and Duration of  the Reversal  of  Direction of
                  River Flow in the Lower  Columbia  River,  April
                  1968 - March 1970",  August  1970.

    22       Snyder,  George R. and Robert  J. McConnell,  "Subsurface
                  Water Temperatures of the Columbia  River at
                  Prescott,  Oregon (River  Mile  72),  1968-69",
                  April 1970.

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92
 Manuscript
   Number    Thermal Tolerance of Zooplankton of Lower
             Columbia River

    23         Craddock,  Donovan R.,  "Thermal Effects  on an Important
                    Zooplankter (Daphnia pulex)  of the Columbia
                    River", July 1970.

    24         Craddock,  Donovan R.  and William D. Parente,
                    "Utilization of Columbia River Zooplankton
                    by Juvenile Chinook Salmon", August 1970.

             Physiological Effect of Temperature Increase on
             Anadromous Fish of Lower Columbia River

    25         Anonymous, "The Effect of Water Temperature Increase
                    on Spawning of Columbia River Smelt",  (Working
                    Paper) , May 1969.

    26         Parente, William D. and Walter J. Ambrogetti,
                    "Survival of Eulachon Eggs (Thaleichthys
                    pacificus) at Different Water Temperatures",
                    August 1970.

    27         Snyder, George R., "Thermal Pollution and the
                    Columbia River Smelt", July 1970.

             Prediction of Environmental Conditions in John Day
             Reservoir

    28         Novotny, Anthony J. and Shirley Miller Clark,
                    "Preliminary Predictions of Water Temperatures
                    in John Day Reservoir".

             General

    29         Snyder, George R., Theodore H. Blahm, and Robert
                    J. McConnell, "Floating Laboratory for Study
                    of Aquatic Organisms in their Environment".

    30         Snyder, George R., Donovan R. Craddock, and Ted
                    H. Blahm, "Thermal Effects Studies on the
                    Lower Columbia River, 1968-70", August 1970.

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                                                                  93
Manuscript
  Number          ATOMIC ENERGY COMMISSION

           Performance of Thermally Shocked Young Salmon

    31       Coutant, C. C., "Relative Vulnerability of Thermally
                  Shocked Juvenile Salmonids to Predation",
                  January 15, 1970.

    32       Coutant, C. C., "Relative Vulnerability of Thermally
                  Shocked Juvenile Salmonids to Predation.  II.
                  A Dose Response in Rainbow Trout",
                  February 4, 1970.

    33       Coutant, Charles C.  and John Mark Dean, "Relationships
                  Between Equilibrium Loss and Death as Responses
                  of Juvenile Chinook Salmon and Rainbow Trout
                  to Acute Thermal Shock".

           Gas Bubble Disease of  Young Salmonids

    34       Coutant, Charles C., "Exploratory Studies  of the
                  Interactions of Gas Supersaturation and
                  Temperature on  Mortality of Juvenile
                  Salmonids,  September 28, 1970.

           Sonic Tracking of Adult Salmonids

    35       Coutant, C. C., "Behavior of Sonic Tagged  Chinook
                  Salmon and Steelhead Trout Migrating  Past
                  Hanford Thermal Discharges (1967)",

           Effect of Thermal Shock from Effluent Discharges  on
           Young Salmon

    36       Becker,  C.  D.,  C.  C.  Coutant,  "Experimental Drifts
                  of Juvenile Chinook Salmon through Effluent
                  Discharges  at Hanford in 1968",  September,
                  1970.

    37       Becker,  C.  D.,  C.  C.  Coutant,  and E.  F.  Prentice,
                  "Experimental Drifts  of Juvenile Salmonids
                  through Effluent Discharges  at Hanford,
                  Part  II.   1969  Drifts and Conclusions",
                  July  15, 1970.

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94
Manuscript
  Number   Temperature Tolerances  of Adult Salmon

     38        Coutant, Charles  C.,  "Thermal Resistance  of Adult
                  Coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch) and Jack Chinook
                  (0. tschawytscha) Salmon,  and Adult  Steelhead
                  Trout  (Salmo gairdneri) from The Columbia
                  River", October  1970.

           Hanford  Chinook Salmon  Population Studies

     39        Watson, D.  G.,  "Fall  Chinook Salmon Spawning in
                  the Columbia River near Hanford 1947-1969",
                  October 1970.

           Relationship  of Thermal Discharge to Food and Feeding
           of Juvenile Chinook Salmon

     40        Becker, C.  D.,  "Food  and Feeding of Juvenile Chinook
                  Salmon in  the Central Columbia River in Relation
                  to Thermal Discharges and  Other Environmental
                  Features', August 1, 1970.

     41        Becker, C.  D.,  "Temperature, Timing and Seaward
                  Migration  of Juvenile Chinook Salmon from the
                  Central Columbia River", July 1970.

           Effects  of Temperature  on C. Columnaris, Dermocystidium
           Salmonis, and A.  Salmonicida Fish Disease

     42        Fujihara, M. P- and F. P. Hungate, "Seasonal
                  Distribution of  Chondrococcus columnaris
                  Disease in River Fishes:   A Procedure Using
                  Antibody Synthesis in Fishes as a Survey
                  Technique",  October 1, 1970.

     43        Fujihara, M. P. and R. E. Nakatani, "Antibody
                  Production and Immune Response of Rainbow
                  Trout  and  Coho Salmon to Chondrococcus
                  columnaris",  October 1, 1970.

     44        Fujihara, M. P.,  P- A. Olson, and R.  E.  Nakatani,
                  "Chondrococcus columnaris  Disease of Fishes:
                  Influence  of Water Temperature,  Age  and Size
                  on Susceptibility", June 15, 1970.

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                                                                 95
Manuscript
  Number    Effects of Fluctuating Temperatures on Survival and
            Growth of Juvenile Chinook Salmon

   45         Olson, P. A. and R. E. Nakatani,  "Effects of
                   Chronic Variable Water Temperatures on
                   Survival and Growth of Young Chinook Salmon".

   46         Olson, P. A., R. E. Nakatani and T.  Meekin, "Effects
                   of Thermal Increments on Eggs and Young of
                   Columbia River Fall Chinooks".

   47         Olson, P. A. and W. L. Templeton, "Effects of
                   Fluctuating Temperatures on Fall Chinook
                   Eggs and Young".

   48         Olson, P- A. and W. L. Templeton, "Effects of
                   Temperature Increments on Juvenile Steelhead".

            Thermal Effects on Secondary Production Organisms

   49         Coutant,  Charles C., "Thermal Pollution - Biological
                   Effects a Review of the Literature of 1969",
                   February 15, 1970.

   50         Coutant,  Charles C., "Thermal Pollution - Biological
                   Effects a Review of the Literature of 1968",
                   February 17, 1969.

   51         Coutant,  C.  C.  and C. D.  Becker,  "Growth of Columbia
                   River Limpets, Fisherola Nuttalli (Haldeman),
                   in Normal and Reactor-Warmed Water",  August  15,
                   1970.

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                             APPENDIX B


MEMBERSHIP OF THE TECHNICAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Columbia River Thermal Effects Study

                       State Representatives

H. J. Rayner, Ph. D.              Oregon State Game Commission

James B. Haas                     Fish Commission of Oregon

Glen D. Carter                    Oregon Department of Environmental
                                    Quality

Emanuel H. LeMier                 Washington Department of Fisheries

Jack Ayerst                       Washington Department of Game

Roland E. Pine                    Washington Department of Ecology

Monte Richards                    Idaho Department of Fish and Game

Robert P. Olson                   Idaho Department of Health

Ralph W. Boland                   Montana Department of Fish and Game

                      Federal Representatives

L. Edward Perry, Ph. D.           Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife,
                                    Department of the Interior

Vernon C. Bushnell, Ph. D.        Bureau of Reclamation,  Department of
                                    the Interior

Fred Limpert                      Bonneville Power Administration,
                                    Department of the Interior

Edward M. Mains                   Corps of Engineers, Department of the
                                    Army

                 Power Organization Representatives

George Eicher                     Portland General Electric Company

Roy Hamilton, Ph. D.              Pacific Power and Light Company

Sam Billingsley                   Washington Public Power Supply System

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                             APPENDIX C
                 State Water Temperature Standards
     The water temperature standards adopted for the Columbia River

by the States of Oregon and Washington are as follows:
            Oregon

No waste discharge or activity
will cause any measureable in-
crease when river temperatures
are 68 F. or above, or more
than 2 F. increase when river
temperatures are 66 F. or less.
           Washington

No measurable increase shall be
permitted within the waters desig-
nated which result in water temp-
eratures exceeding 68 F. nor
shall the cumulative total of all
such increases arising from un-
natural causes be permitted in
excess of t=110/ (T-15); for pur-
poses here, "t" represents the
permissive increase and "T" rep-
resents the resulting water temp-
erature .

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                             APPENDIX  D




         Scientific Names  of Fish  and  Other Aquatic Organisms
Salmon
  chinook                            Oncorhynchus tschawytscha




  coho                               Oncorhynchus kisutch




  sockeye                            Oncorhynchus nerka




  pink                               Oncorhynchus gorbuscha




  chum                               Oncorhynchus keta




Trout




  steelhead                          Salmo gairdneri




  speckled                           Salvelinus fontinalis




  Atlantic salmon                    Salmo salar




Other Species




  smelt (Columbia River) (eulachon)  Thaleich.th.ys pacificus




  shad (American)                    Alosa sapidissima




  sturgeon (white)                   Acipencer transmontanus




  yellow perch                       Perca flavescens




  three-spine stickleback            Gasterosteus aculeatus




Plankton




                                     Daphnia pulex




                                     Bosmina sp.




Opossum shrimp                       Neomysis awatschensis

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102
                         APPENDIX D  (CONT.)
Bacteria
  Columnaris                         Chondrococcus  columnaris
  Furunculosis                       Dermocystidium salmonis
                                     Aeromonis  salmonicida
Protozoans
  Ceratomyxa                         Ceratomyxa shasta
Insects
  Midges                             Tendipedidae
  Caddis  fly                         Tricoptera

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