United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Corvallis OR 97330
EPA-600 3-79-100
September 1979
Research and Development
&EPA
A Study of Winter
Air Pollutants at
Fairbanks, Alaska
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
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The nine series are:
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2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
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5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
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This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
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This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
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EPA-600/3-79-100
September 1979
A STUDY OF WINTER AIR POLLUTANTS
at
FAIRBANKS, ALASKA
Harold J. Coutts
Arctic Environmental Research Station
Con/all is Environmental Research Laboratory
College, Alaska 99701
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or recom-
mendation for use. '
ti
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific data on
pollutants and their impact on environmental stability and human health.
Responsibility for building this data base has been assigned to EPA's Office
of Research and Development and its major field installations, one of which is
the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the ef-
fects of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems; the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lake systems;
and the development of predictive models on the movement of pollutants in the
biosphere. CERL's Arctic Environmental Research Station conducts research on
the effects of pollutants on Arctic and sub-Arctic freshwater, marine water
and terrestrial systems; and develops and demonstrates pollution control
technology for cold-climate regions.
This report presents findings from several winter investigations of air
pollutants in and near Fairbanks, Alaska.
Thomas A. Murphy
Director, CERL
lii
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ABSTRACT
It has been well documented for the past ten years that Fairbanks, Alaska
has an air pollution problem with carbon monoxide (CO), particulates and ice
fog, but there are other pollutants that have not been routinely monitored.
In addition, the theory has been raised that the low temperature and low
insolation at this latitude may enhance conversion of precursory pollutants
into their more toxic forms, e.g., nitric oxide into nitrogen dixide.
Consequently an air pollution monitoring program was initiated by the
Arctic Environmental Research Station (AERS). Ambient monitoring was done
throughout the winters of 76-77 and 77-78 at the old downtown Fairbanks Post
Office and also on the AERS roof during the winter of 76-77. Indoor-outdoor
monitoring was done at the new State Building during January 1979. Lead data
obtained by the Fairbanks North Star Borough is also presented.
Pollutants measured during the first winter were nitric oxide (NO),
nitrogen dioxide (N02), sulfur dioxide (S02), total suspended particulates
(TSP), sulfate (SOf), nitrate (N0§), and lead (Pb). During the second winter,
only the gaseous forms were measured. At the State Building NO, N02, and CO
were measured.
High values, compared to those measured in the contiguous states, were
found for NO and Pb. Most S02 levels were below the analyzer sensitivity of
0.004 ppm. The health effects of the measured levels of NO are not known, but
Pb levels exceeded EPA standards. More monitoring for Pb is needed and, if
the high concentrations are found to be area wide, then local authorities may
want to consider restrictions on use of leaded gasoline during the winter
months.
The garage under the new State Building with attendant air infiltration
appeared to be responsible for higher indoor than outdoor CO levels. There
was no evidence found that the natural environment hastened the transformation
of NO and S02 to their more toxic forms.
IV
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
Abstract ' iV
List of Figures and Tables vi
Acknowledgments vii
1. Introduction 1
2. Summary and Recommendations 6
3. Systems and Procedures 9
Sites and Setups 9
Urban Site 9
Rural Site 12
Indoor-outdoor Site 13
Other Sites 13
Gases 15
Particulates 17
Measurement Accuracy 18
4. Pollutant Sources and Dispersion 24
Sources 24
Dispersion 27
5. Ambient Levels 29
Data Listing 29
Gases 29
Particulates 37
Reactions 40
6. Indoor-outdoor Levels 45
7. Fairbanks Air Quality and the National
Air Quality Standards 51
Winter Air 51
Air Quality Standards 51
Carbon Monoxide, Ice Fog, and Particulates 52
Sulfur Dioxide 53
Nitrogen Oxides 54
Mobile Source Emission Control Effects 55
Lead 56
Oxidants 56
Hydrocarbons 57
Photochemical Smog 58
Section Summary 58
References 60
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
Number
1. Chronological Estimate of Maximum Probable Errors 23
2. Urban Site Air Quality Data, February 1977 30
3. Rural Site Air Quality Data, February 1977 31
4. First Winter Fairbanks Area Monthly
Average Values of Air Pollutants 32
5. Second Winter Fairbanks Urban Site Monthly
Average Values of Air Pollutants 33
6. Fairbanks Area Lead Data 39
FIGURES
1. Fairbanks Area Monitoring Sites 10
2. Chart Record of Air Quality Data for
the Rural Site, February 9, 1977 42
3. Carbon Monoxide Content of Air at New
State Building, Fairbanks, Alaska 46
4. Nitric Oxide Content of Air at New
State Building, Fairbanks, Alaska 48
5. Nitrogen Dioxide Control of Air at New
State Building, Fairbanks, Alaska 49
vt
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study could not have been accomplished without the assistance from
the following individuals and organizations.
Louis Lindsey and George Delamater of the General Services Administration
arranged for use of the Federal Building (old post office) and for electric
power for the monitoring instruments.
Dr. William Zoller, University of Maryland provided assistance with
nitric oxide calibration, loaned a nitric oxide calibrator, and performed some
of the lead analyses.
Jerry Fisher, Richard Joy and Barry Corel 1 of the Fairbanks North Star
Borough assisted with instrument maintenance, data analyses, loaned monitoring
and test instruments, and provided the Fairbanks carbon monoxide data, the
North Pole data, and the lead data at sites other than the Federal Building.
Norman Sefer of North Pole Refining permitted our use of their NO , 03
calibrator.
Robert Jackson checked and calibrated the monitoring instruments.
Frank Butler and the Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park supplied the High
Volume filters and conducted nitrate, sulfate and lead analyses.
Kendal Adams and the Alaska Department of Buildings and the staff of the
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation provided access to and assis-
tance in setting up monitors at the new Alaska State Building.
vii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
A major objective of this investigative program was to
measure the various air pollutants and their interactions
and to compare results with the present primary air quality
standards.
As the urban population in Alaska has increased, there has
been much concern over air pollution in what would seem to
be a relatively pristine area. Air pollution becomes a
serious problem when people attempt to live in urban regions
in this climate. The most visible urban air pollution
problem in this northern region is ice fog which occurs
during the colder, dark winter months. Ice fog is composed
of minute ice crystals that are produced when water vapor
is released into ambient air that is too cold to .hold it in
solution. Interference by ice fog has reduced visibility
which increased automobile accidents and limited commerce
by closing airports.
The presence of other pollutants i,n ice fog has been acknow-
ledged for over ten years (1). One researcher has reported
that ice fog, and associated atmospheric thermal inversions,
1
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increase the ambient levels of lead compounds and toxic
gases including nitrogen and sulfur oxides, aldehydes, and
halides (2). Several other investigators (3), (4), and (5)
have measured levels of these pollutants in the Fairbanks
area. The highest levels of carbon monoxide, a major pol-
lutant in Fairbanks, Alaska, were not necessarily present
during ice fog. Carbon monoxide, since it is emitted at
ground level, is more easily trapped in surface based ther-
mal inversions. Carbon monoxide is a known health hazard;
the others are a potential health hazard. When considering
nitrogen and sulfur oxides their emitted (primary) forms are
nitric oxide (NO) and sulfur dioxide (SO,,). Low temperature
atmospheric interaction of these primary pollutants might
increase their toxicity. For example:
Over 90 percent of the nitrogen oxide (NO ) emission is NO.
X
In the atmosphere it slowly oxidizes at 25°C to nitrogen
dioxide (NO-). Under normal, warm conditions (>0°C) NO may
be dispersed before it can be significantly converted to
N0?. The NO oxidation rate with oxygen increases as tem-
perature decreases (6). It is therefore expected that a
much larger fraction of the urban NO exists as NO- during
J\ ^
low ambient temperatures. There also is a differential
health effect. Of the two nitrogen oxides, N0» is reported
as the more toxic (7). The possibility of higher levels of
the more toxic form at low temperatures warrants investiga-
tion. That investigation is part of this report.
2
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SO- air quality criteria are based upon warm temperature
(lower 49 state) health effects data. SO- is the major
precursor of sulfate (SOT). The ambient air SO- to SOT
ratio is affected by temperature. Of these two forms, SOT
is considered to be the more toxic (8). The present SO- air
quality standard may not be applicable to cold climates
where the SO- to SOT ratio could be much different. It was
planned to evaluate that ratio in this study-
In high latitude regions such as Alaska the ambient ozone
(0-,) levels are expected at times to be naturally high due
to stratospheric downwelling. The stratosphere contains
high concentrations of 0.,. 0, level readings at Fairbanks,
Alaska in 1950 showed several months during the spring when
all daily values exceeded the EPA oxidant standards (9).
Recent NOAA data (1974) for Barrow, Alaska shows values
lower than the standard (10). To investigate this apparent
discrepancy 0-, measurements were planned.
The levels of aldehydes and halides were not felt to be sig-
nificant so there was no attempt to monitor them.
The in situ atmospheric forms of nitrogen and sulfur oxides
were continuously monitored and correlated with other air
pollutants. Continuous measurements for 0,, SO-, NO, and
N0_ were performed with electronic instrumentation.
Lead (Pb), SOT and nitrate (NO,) weje captured as par-
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ticulates and determined by wet chemistry. Carbon monoxide
data was furnished by the Fairbanks North Star Borough and
the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. Pb
data at sites other than the Federal building were also sup-
plied by the Borough.
It was planned to conduct the air quality measurements daily
for one full year at an urban and a rural site. The major
urban site was the old Federal building in downtown Fair-
banks, Alaska. Other urban sites were monitored.
The new Fairbanks, Alaska State Building has its air intake
for the heating and ventilating unit (HVU) located on the
roof. This is not conventional design, but is recommended
to reduce the intake of automotive exhaust gases. However,
the building has a parking garage as its basement. Leakage
from the garage into the HVU would impair the indoor air
quality. To investigate this possibility, indoor-outdoor
air quality monitoring was conducted at the State Building
during January 1979.
The rural site was on the West Ridge of the University of
Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska. More detail on the sampling
sites is in Section 3.
The measurements were accomplished during the winters of
1976 - 77, 77 - 78 and 1979. Because the winter of 76 - 77
was unusually warm it yielded very little ice fog data.
4
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Particulates, including ice fog, were not sampled during the
second and third winters.
Most of the data was obtained during the winter because that
has been the air pollution season in Fairbanks. But as the
population and number of pollution sources increases, so
does the potential for summer season air pollution.
Therefore, the future possibility of summer time air pollu-
tion will also be discussed.
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SECTION 2
SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This report summarizes a limited winter study of some of the
less commonly monitored air pollutants in the Fairbanks,
Alaska area. This investigation found some things as ex-
pected and some surprises.
It is well known that mobile sources are responsible for
over 90 percent of the Fairbanks CO levels; the EPA air
quality standard for which is often exceeded during the
winter months. Mobile sources are also major emitters of
hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and lead. Therefore as ex-
pected, the Fairbanks urban area has high winter time levels
of nitrogen oxides and lead.
Oxidation of nitric oxide (NO) to nitrogen dioxide (N07) ap-
peared to be controlled more by the concentration of ozone
(0-,) than by temperature. NO readings at the Alaskan urban
site were generally higher than those in the other states.
Over 80 percent of the nitrogen oxides (NO ) was NO. the,
NO concentration was found to closely track the carbon
x
monoxide (CO) concentration. Most probably because they
both come from mobile sources.
6
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Because of comparatively high NO readings in the urban area,
the health effects of NO need to be determined to see if
Fairbanks has a problem.
The few pollutant measurements performed outside urban Fair-
banks indicate that the air pollution problem may be more
widespread in other areas of high automobile use such as the
City of North Pole, Alaska. Also, the downwind oxidation
of NO to N0~ may be of significance when considering pol-
lutant transport. The rural air was found to be much richer
in the 0-, that oxidizes the NO to NO-. For these reasons
pollutant measurements should be taken over the entire
populated air basin. The Fairbanks air basin roughly cor-
responds to the Chena River flood plain.
The Fairbanks downtown atmospheric lead (Pb) values were
found to be very high - four times the U. S. EPA air quality
standard of 1.5 micrograms per cubic meter. The complete
phase out of leaded gasoline in the 1980's should alleviate
this problem. Meanwhile more monitoring for Pb is needed,
particulary at elementary schools since children are more
susceptible to its toxic effects. If high Pb concentrations
are found, then local authorities may want to consider
restrictions on automobile use on school grounds or restric-
tions on use of leaded gasoline during the winter months.
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Leakage of air pollutants from a parking garage into an ad-
jacent building can be a serious problem. This is ap-
parently the case with the new Fairbanks State Building. In
cases with such construction (adjacent garage) it is impera-
tive that the building ventilating system be designed and
operated so as to prevent intrusion of automotive exhaust
gases .
The number of automobiles is rapidly increasing in this
growing northern region. Despite the mobile source control
efforts, there will probably be an accompanying increase in
NO , hydrocarbon (HC), and CO emissions. NOY and HC are
X A
precursors to photochemical (eye smarting) smog. Their in-
creased levels may result in smog on some warm, sunny,
summer days.
8
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SECTION 3
SYSTEMS AND PROCEDURES
SITES AND SETUPS
Two sites in the Fairbanks air shed were initially chosen
for locating the monitoring equipment. The more polluted
urban site was the Fairbanks station of record; where for
several years, the Fairbanks North Star Borough has
monitored ambient carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations. This
station is at the old Fairbanks Post Office between 2nd and
3rd streets on Cushman Street. At this site EPA data could
be directly correlated with Borough CO because all analyzers
were sampling the same air parcel. The more rural site was
located on the West Ridge, University of Alaska, Fairbanks,
Alaska. Each site was felt to be representative for its
area. Indoor-outdoor air quality was monitored at the new
Fairbanks State of Alaska Building which is located on Bar-
nette Street between 7th and 8th Avenues. All sites are
located on Figure 1.
URBAN SITE (FAIRBANKS POST OFFICE)
From November 8, 1976 to March 12, 1977 two 6.4 mm (0.25 in)
diameter teflon sample inlet tubes were routed from
9
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post office
/foolworths
borough biilding
slate ouildlng Q
23 km (14 mi) lo north pole
Figure 1. Fairbanks Monitoring Sites
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3 m (9.5 ft) above the sidewalk and 1 m (3 ft) out from the
front of the post office through a window into the basement
monitoring room. The nitrogen oxide (NO ) and sulfur
/\
dioxide (SO,,) instruments shared one of the 11.2 m (36.8 ft)
long by 6.4 mm (0.25 in) teflon tubes w'hich had a tee
fitting about 2 m (6 ft) from the NO analyzer. From the
X
tee, a 3.2 mm (0.125 in) teflon tube side arm ran to the 50^
instrument. The other 6.4 mm (0.25 in) teflon tube sample
line, which was 9 m (3 ft) long, ran to the ozone (0,)
monitor- One high volume particulate sampler was located
adjacent to the inlet ends of the sample tubes.
All air quality monitoring instruments were shut off from
March 12, 1977 to April 7, 1977. During that time the
sample inlet tubing to each instrument was shortened. It
was felt that these long sample lines were absorbing - ad-
sorbing some of the NO before it reached the analyzer.
This line loss was estimated at 25 percent using nitric ox-
ide (NO) span gas. The long lines were replaced by a
3.1 m (10 ft) length of 7.5 cm (3 in) diameter poly vinyl
chloride (PVC) sewer pipe running through the window.
Slipstreams to each instrument were tapped into the PVC
pipe, 2.0 m (6.5 ft) from the inlet (window) end. The tap
to the NO instrument was 1.5 m (4.9 ft) of 6.4 mm (0.25 in)
/\
teflon tubing. The 3.2 mm (0.125 in) teflon tubing tap to
the SO analyzer was 1.1 m (3.5 ft) long. And the
11
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6.4 mm (0.25 in) teflon tubing tap to the 0, monitor was
0.94 m (3.1 ft) long.
The inlet end of the 7.5 cm PVC pipe was about 1 m (3 ft)
above sidewalk level and 0.2 m (0.6 ft) out toward Cushman
Street from the post office wall. A small "muffin" fan was
attached to the inside (discharge) end of this pipe to draw
a fresh sample. It was initially intended that the air
stream be laminar flow to reduce contamination from the PVC
pipe walls. But warm air rising to the top of the post of-
fice building created such a draw through the pipe that
there was turbulent flow even without the fan running.
RURAL SITE (ROOF OF ARCTIC ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH STATION
(AERS))
The instruments for gaseous monitoring at this site were set
up in the penthouse on top of the AERS building. The AERS
building is located on the south rim of the west ridge of
the University of Alaska campus. More specifically, the
site is located in Universal Transverse Mercator Zone 6,
459780 meter Easting coordinate and 7193430 meter Northing
coordinate .
The sample inlets were 13.3 m (43.5 ft) above sidewalk
level. Two 6.4 mm (0.25 in) teflon tubes were run from the
instruments through the skylight adjacent to the high volume
sampler inlet, 1.0 m (3.3 ft) above the penthouse roof. One
12
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of the tubes 5.3 m (17 ft) long ran to the 0, monitor. The
tube for the S09 and NO analyzers was teed at the S07
fc X ^
analyzer. Its total length was 6.6 m (22 ft) to the NO
X
analyzer and 5.3 m (17 ft) via the tee to the S02 analyzer.
INDOOR - OUTDOOR SITE (STATE BUILDING)
The indoor air was sampled at the heating ventilating unit
(HVU) duct which supplied air to the interior of all rooms.
The duct carried about two thirds of the total air supplied
to all rooms. From January 16 through January 25, 1979, a
6.4 mm (0.25 in) diameter teflon tube about 0.6 m (2 ft)
long was routed from the HVU duct (at the first floor level)
to the analysers. One tube to the NO analyser and the other
to a CO analyser.
The outdoor ambient air sampling was at the same location
as the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation CO
monitor. From January 16 to January 25, 1979, a 6.4 mm
(0.25in)diameter teflon sample inlet tube about 4 m (13 ft)
long was routed from a point about 4.7 m (15.5 ft) above the
sidewalk and 1 m (3 ft) out from the exterior wall, through
the wall into the northeast corner monitor-ing room to a NO
monitor.
13
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OTHER SITES
Some of the data that was obtained from the North Star
Borough, Department of Environmental Services was taken at
several different sites. For participate lead data they
were :
1. On the roof of the Borough building approx-
imately 6 m (20 ft) above street level. The Borough
building is located between 4th and -5th streets near Lacy
Street.
2. On Woolworth's roof approximately 5 m (15 ft) above
Cushman Street. That store is located between 3rd and 4th
streets on Cushman Street.
3. On the North Pole elementary school roof approximately
3.7 m (12 ft) above ground. The school is the corner of 4th
avenue and Snowman Lane near the fire house.
The gaseous data for North Pole was taken at the water
supply plant which is just across Snowman Lane from the fire
station .
Meteorological data were obtained from the national weather
service station at the Fairbanks International Airport.
That station is 7.9 km (4.9 mi) southwest of the urban site
and 5.2 km (3.2 mi) south of the rural site. The urban site
was 6 m (18 ft) above the airport elevation. The rural site
was 70 m (230 ft) above airport elevation but was seldom
14
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above the atmospheric inversions which often top out at 200
to 2000 m (600 to 6000 ft) above Fairbanks.
GASES
Concentrations of the following gases were continuously
measured by electronic instruments attached to chart
recorders .
NO-NO
x
A Monitor Labs Inc. model 8440 analyzer was used for
measuring NO and NO concentrations in the atmosphere. The
analyzer measured the light given off by the chemilumenes-
cent reaction of NO with 0, to determine the NO concentra-
tion. The NO (which is NO + N0?) concentration was deter-
/\ £
mined by first quantitatively reducing, over a molybdenum
catalyst, the NO- to NO. The total NO was then measured by
the above chemilumenescent reaction. The N0? concentration
was reported by electronically substracting NO from NO .
X
During the first winter, calibration was accomplished using
a Monitor Labs model 8500 calibrator as a dilution source
and NO in nitrogen (N») span gas which was verified against
a National Bureau of Standards reference. The first
calibration was on February 3, 1977. Later calibrations the
first winter were not on any set schedule due to limited ac-
cess to the calibrator. However, four more calibrations
were conducted.
15
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A Bendix model 8861DA calibration system was used as the
dilution source during the second and third winter and
calibration was performed at least twice a month. Zero
checks were performed daily Monday through Friday during all
winters .
A Meloy Laboratories Inc. Model SA 185-2A analyzer was used
to determine ambient sulfur dioxide (S0?) concentration by
the Flame Photometric Detection technique. This technique
involves measuring the intensity of the light emitted by the
sulfur species as it passes through a hydrogen flame.
Detection specificity for S0» is attained by use of a 394
nanometer narrow band pass filter and a hydrogen sulfide
scrubber. Calibration was performed weekly with a Meloy
Model CS10-2, S0? permeation tube calibration source.
°3
Ozone (0-,) was measured with a Dasibi Model 1003-AH 0,
monitor, which employs the principle of ultraviolet (UV) ab-
sorption .
The monitor's response was checked by the Bendix 8861DA
calibration system which has a built-in 0, generator. The
0, generator was calibrated by gas phase titration. Gas
phase titration is the use of the quantative reaction:
16
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NO + 0, ->- 0 + N0_ to measure the 0, concentration. The
drop in NO concentration (as measured by the NO monitor) ex-
actly equals the 0, concentration generated by the Bendix
calibrator -
CO
The CO data at the old Federal Building were obtained by the
Fairbanks North Star Borough, Department of Environmental
Services (DES) with a Beckman model 865 non-dispersive in-
frared (NDIR) analyzer. The outdoor CO values at the new
State Building were obtained by the Alaska Department of En-
vironmental Conservation (ADEC) with a Beckman model 866
NDIR analyser. Both environmental departments (DES and
ADEC) zeroed and spanned their NDIR analysers daily. The
indoor CO values at the State Building were obtained with
an Ecolyzer Model #7000. The Ecolyzer was spanned (checked
and adjusted) with 50 ppm CO span gas at about 0900 and 1600
daily-
PARTICULATES
Total suspended particulates (TSP) were measured by use of
a General Metal Works, Inc., high volume air sampler (Hi
Vol) which is essentially a vacuum cleaner motor and blower
with a 20 X 25 cm (8 X 10 in) glass fiber filter mounted on
its inlet. The Hi Vol's outlet was an orifice for flow
measurement.
17
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Sulfate (S0~), Nitrate (N03), and Lead (Pb) were determined
by leaching them from the filter surface. SCT was deter-
mined by the Automated Chloranilate method (11). N0~ was
determined by the Cadmium Reduction - Diazo coupling
method (11); Pb was determined by the Atomic Absorption
method (11).
MEASUREMENT ACCURACY
When sampling air at one location, it is very difficult to
extrapolate the data to say, this is representative of the
air people are actually breathing. The sample inlets at the
urban site (Fairbanks Post Office) were, until March 1977,
located 3 m (9.5 ft) above sidewalk level, well above the
location of most human nostrils. Also, the inlet was ap-
proximately 3 m (9 ft) in (toward the post office) from the
street curb. On April 6, 1977 the sample inlet was lowered
to 1 m (3 ft) above sidewalk level. At the new State
Building the outdoor sample inlet was 4.7 m (15.5 ft) above
the sidewalk and 8.2 m (27 ft) in from the street curb. In
all cases pedestrian traffic was between the sampler inlet
and the curb . These factors indicate that people on the
sidewalks were probably breathing air more contaminated with
auto exhaust than that sampled.
An error analysis for some of the various measuring uncer-
tainties follows.
18
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NO - NO
x
The NO span gas concentration was verified against a stan-
dard reference material related to a National Bureau of
Standards standard. Maximum probable error -1 percent.
The accuracy and/or precision of the Bendix calibrator was
-5 percent It was initially calibrated and later rechecked
by timed water displacement in a volumetric flask.
There was considerable span drift (drop in response) on the
NO - NO analyzer during the first winter- Its first check
/\
with span gas showed that it was onl'y indicating about 30
percent of the actual NO and NO concentrations. During
those times when the instrument response was that low the
data were not taken off the chart record.
In the second winter period the NO - NO analyzer was
calibrated weekly, so the calibration error was never more
than 5 percent. Three to six hours were required for each
span during which time data was not recorded. Quite often
even at full gain the NO - NO analyzer couldn't indicate
/\
the span gas strength although its response was always
proportional. Therefore, span curves of actual NO concen-
tration vs instrument response were utilized to correct
data. The maximum drop in response amounted to 15 percent
during January 1979. Checks indicated that as much as
25 percent ofthe NO span gas was depleted in the long inlet
19
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line used before March 1977. So the analyzer was calibrated
through this line which allowed the span curve to account
for this loss. The analyzer detection limit is 0.002 parts
per million (ppm) NO, NO or NQ?. Considering the author's
s\ £
feel for instrument precision and all the above inac-
curacies, the maximum probable error dropped from -40 per-
cent for the first winter to -20 percent for the second and
third winter .
The Meloy SO- analyzer had a manufacturer's specified sen-
sitivity of 0.004 ppm and a precision of 0.005 ppm. All of
the readings were at or below this level , so the estimated
accuracy is -50 percent or 0.004 ppm, which ever is greater.
The manufacturer's specified sensitivity for the 0, monitor
was 0.001 ppm. It was not calibrated during the first
winter, but gas phase titration the second winter showed 100
percent response. Therefore, the only error is 0-j loss in
the inlet lines. Since 0, is a very unstable gas, the error
is estimated to be as high as 50 percent during the first
winter (with long inlet lines); down to 10 percent during
the second winter with the shorter line.
20
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The error for the CO measurement with the NDIR analysers is
low because they are stable instruments and the span gas
strength was easily verified and could be used at full
strength. Also, CO is a chemically non-reactive gas and as
such is not affected by dirty or long inlet lines. The er-
ror for NDIR CO measurement is expected to be less than
10 percent. The Ecolyzer was subject to considerable drift,
so its measurement accuracy is believed to be only within
2 ppm CO.
Particulates
Accuracy with the High Volume sampler is hard to estimate
because of flow measurement, recycling, and semi volatile
particulates. Flow calibration and measurement is estimated
to be within - 15 percent. High Volume samplers tend to
resample some of the air they have just exhausted. That
amount has not been quantified, but it is assumed to be in
the order of 15 percent. Volatiles such as heavy hydrocar-
bons (oily soot) on the filters would partially evaporate
in a dessicator before weighing and cause a lowering of the
readings. Filter clogging with ice fog particles was not
a problem because the winter of 76-77 was too warm for ice
fog.
21
-------
In summation, many of the particulates, SO" NO,, and Pb
values may be from 30 percent low to zero percent high.
A chronological summary of the estimated maximum probable
errors is listed in Table 1. The actual errors are unknown.
Therefore, the table is quite subjective. But the estimates
are felt to be conservative. Easier access to the calibra-
tion equipment during the second and third winter greatly
decreased the analytical errors for NO-NO and 0,. The er-
/\ J
rors for other sites is expected to be: +20 percent for
N0-N0x, +1Q percent for o ancj _3Q +g percent for all par-
ticulates .
22
-------
TABLE 1
CHRONOLOGICAL ESTIMATE OF MAXIMUM PROBABLE ERRORS
DATE
1976
NOV
DEC
1977
JAN
FEB
MAR
APR
MAY
SEPT
OCT
NOV
DEC
1978
JAN
FEB
1979
JAN
SITE
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Rural
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Urban
Outdoor
Indoor
NO-NO
/\
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±40%
±30%
±25%
±25%
±25%
±20%
±20%
±20%
±20%
03
-20%
-25%
-30%
-40%
-50%
-50%
-50% OR
±0.001
-50%
-50%
-50%
±20%
-50%
±20%
-50%
±10%
±10%
±15%
±15%
±10%
±10%
-
S02
-
-
±0.
±0.
±0.
ppm
±0.
±0.
±0.
±0.
±0.
-
-
±0.
±0.
±0.
±0.
-
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
004
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
PARTICULATE
(TSP), NO 3,
SOJ, Pb
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-30%
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
+0%
Note: A negative percentage means the value may be that percentage low.
23
-------
SECTION 4
POLLUTANT SOURCES AND DISPERSION
The two important elements that determine air pollution are
emission sources and dispersion. The sources, usually com-
bustion exhaust gases, contain the pollutants in high con-
centrations. After emission, the pollutants are diluted by
dispersion. Atmospheric dispersion equations are used to
estimate the concentration of a particular pollutant at a
given distance from any source under various meteorological
conditions .
SOURCES
When discussing the Fairbanks air pollution problem, the
sources can be broken down into two general types: mobile
and stationary. The mobile sources are automobiles and
trucks. Their gasoline engines are the major sources of
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NO ), lead (Pb), and
/\
ice fog in the Fairbanks air. Also, a considerable fraction
of the total suspended particles comes from dust entrainment
by traffic on sanded streets.
24
-------
In gasoline engines the CO is a result of incomplete combus-
tion. Gasoline engines operate at such a low air to fuel
ratio that there is not enough oxygen (0~) to completely ox-
idize the carbon in the gasoline to carbon dioxide (C0«).
NO will be used as the general formula for mixtures of
nitric oxide (NO) plus nitrogen dioxide (NO-)- NO is the
major component of NO from combustion processes. It is
/\
created by the high temperature combination of atmospheric
nitrogen (N-) and 0?. The NO is then oxidized to N0~;
slowly by atmospheric 07, or rapidly by ozone (0,). Automo-
tive lead (Pb) emissions ars released because of leaded
gasoline. Water vapor for ice fog formation is created when
the hydrogen in the hydrocarbon fuel (gasoline or diesel
oil) is burned. Mobile sources are usually cited by the
motoring public as being the major source of ice fog.
Stationary source emissions are mainly flue gases from power
and heating plants. These flue gases are rich in NO , sul-
X
fur dioxide (SO-), total suspended particles (TSP), and
water vapor (ice fog).
Home heating units burning distillate oils are not a sig-
nificant source of S0_ because the local fuel oil contains
less than 0.02 percent sulfur.
In comparison to the home heating furnaces and mobile
sources, the" power plant flue gases are emitted with such
25
-------
a plume height that their gaseous emissions are usually well
diluted before reaching ground level. The sulfur content
of the Healy, Alaska coals is quite low, around 0.2 percent,
which means that the impact of the Alaskan coal fired power
plants is nowhere near as great as if they were to burn
eastern United States coals with greater than 1 percent sul-
fur .
The coal fired power plants are significant sources of the
total suspended particles which settle around and downwind
of each power plan.t. The fly ash concentration is most evi-
dent on the surface of old snow near the power plants.
The present stoker fired power plants have no flue gas fly
ash removal devices such as scrubbers, electrostatic
precipitators or bag houses. For gross fly ash control they
use a sedimentation chamber and multicyclones, a major pur-
pose of which is to prevent downstream equipment such as in-
duced draft fans from being severely eroded by the fly ash.
However, when properly operated the stoker fired power
plants are usually able to meet the Alaska state (1977) air
quality emission regulations.
Heating and power plants are significant sources of ice fog,
but because of high plume height, the ice fog from power
plant stack gases does not always contribute to the Fair-
banks ground level visibility problem. Ice fog from their
cooling waters is more often a problem.
26
-------
Ozone (0,) is not emitted directly into the atmosphere from
any particular pollution source. It comes from two sources
(1) occasional down welling to terrestrial levels from a
naturally occurring 0, rich layer in the stratosphere, and
(2) a complex chain of photochemical Reactions initiated
when hydrocarbon (HC) and NO emissions are exposed to sun-
light.
DISPERSION
For estimating atmospheric dispersion the method of Pasquill
with Gifford's conversion is recommended by EPA (12). It
is used to estimate ground level concentration of a gaseous
pollutant from a remote source. It assumes the plume
dispersion is defined by Gaussian distributions. A major
problem with this method is that during arctic winters the
lower atmosphere is at times more stable than any of Gif-
ford's stability categories. The steep but shallow winter
temperature inversions that exist over the Fairbanks area
usually make the Pasquill-Gifford estimates unreliable.
Typical temperature inversions over Fairbanks usually begin
at ground level (surface based) and terminate at less than
500 m (1500 ft). However, normal adiabatic lapse rates may
not be reached until 1 to 2 km (3000 to 6000 ft) above
ground level. An inversion gradient of 1°C per meter in the
lowest seven meters has been measured at the Fairbanks air-
27
-------
port- However, inversion strengths of 5 to 50°C per 100
meters at the airport are much more common. For the past
four years the average surface based inversion strength was
8°C per 100 meters during times when the downtown post of-
fice (urban site) 8 hour maximum CO average was 15 ppm or
greater. Temperature inversions measured by the Weather
Service were found to exist in over 50 percent of the sur-
roundings during the winter months. Without these per-
sistant winter inversions, Fairbanks would not have an air
pollution problem caused by exhaust gases. However, air
pollution caused by particulates could still be a problem.
28
-------
SECTION 5
AMBIENT LEVELS
DATA LISTING
For the first two winters the ambient levels of the gaseous
components were integrated from the data strip chart records
to calculate a daily one hour highest value and a 24 hour
(nominal) daily average. The particulates were listed as
24 hour daily averages. The February 1977 daily data for
the urban (Fairbanks Post Office) and the rural site (AERS
roof) are listed in Tables 2 and 3. All monthly averages
are listed in Tables 4 and 5. February contains some of the
highest pollutant levels recorded for the winter of 1976 -
77.
GASES
*
NO is the arithmetic sum of NO (nitric oxide) and NO-
X £
(nitrogen dioxide). For the urban data (Tables 2, 4,
and 5), notice that usually less than 20 percent of the NO
is oxidized to NO^- This is especially true when the
NO > 0.2 ppm. The rural NO (Tables 3 and 4) is approx-
X ^
imately 50 percent oxidized to NO,,. The reason for this
difference will be discussed under reactions in this se'c-
29
-------
CO
o
TABLE 2
URBAN SITES AIR QUALITY DATA. FEBRUARY 1977
Column
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
ppfim
24 hr 1 hr
ave. high
(1)
<5
~5 11
25 70
18 52
38 80
32 67
31 95
19 80
26 74
12 30
8 23
22 54
>30 >100
11 34
29 106
13 76
5 23
13 120
31 140
8 31
21 57
51 180
13 44
8 25
8 45
11 38
N02
pphm
24 hr
ave.
(Z)
3
1
3
2
5
3
4
3
5
2
1
0
1
0
2
...
1 hr
high
4
1
._.
6
2
1
0
0
2
0
NOg
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(3)
0.3
1.7
1.9
2.6
2.2
1.7
3.8
3.2
1.3
2.5
2.4
3.4
1.5
0.4
0.7
1.4
1.0
1.0
03
ppb
24 hr
ave.
(4)
8
1
1
2
2
1
1
<1
1
...
Fairbanks, AK
CO
ppm
1 hr
high
18
3
5
8
10
5
2
2
2
...
8 hr
high
(5)
5
6
7
18
10
17
15
17
15
15
15
13
9
15
28
9
16
22
5
13
17
14
6
20
17
5
4
7
24 hr
ave.
3
3
5
9
6
11
11
11
8
9
11
8
6
9
13
7
11
10
4
8
10
6
4
12
4
3
2
5
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(6)
8.9
6.1
9.4
5.8
5.8
5.3
5.8
6.3
5.6
5.2
5.7
5.9
4.6
5.4
6.2
5.6
5.9
5.7
TSP
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(7)
48
60
96
79
77
57
82
95
62
88
76
no
58
32
42
74
41
53
Inversion
Strength at
Airport
°C/m
(8)
snow
snow
13/1100
7.5/75
7.9/33
9.8/23
11/54
12/44
9.8/61
2.6/25
12/36
8.8/66
7.9/52
1.4/8
^*
ppnm
24 hr
ave.
(9)
13
24
32
16
7
11
3.9/33 32
7.3/7
5.3/35
14/77
6.1/74
21
25
8
6
10/80 i 7
3.6/101
10/52
9/1000
5.2/26
9/86
2. 9/90
4.7/69
10
8
11
11
8
6
11
7
Northpole, AK
CO
ppm
8 hr 24 hr
high ave.
(10)
9 6
8 2
8 4
9 5
8 2
8 4
7 2
11 5
8 2
4 3
4 1
1 1
2 1
5 4
5 1
4 1
4 2
4 1
1 1
1 0
1 1
NOTE: A tabulated value of zero (0) for the following gases means a value less than listed below:
NO, N02 - 0.002 ppm - 0.2 pphm - 2 ppb
03 - 0.001 ppm - 1 ppb
S02 - 0.004 ppm - 0.4 pphm - 4 ppb
ppm - parts per million
pphm - parts per hundred million
ppb - parts per billion
ug/m3 - micrograms per cubic meter at 76 cm of H and 25°C
9
-------
TABLE 3
RURAL SITE AIR QUALITY DATA. FEBRUARY 1977
NO
ppB
24 hr 1 hr
ave. high
Column
Date
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
(1)
15 64
37
>27
>35
22
1
3
42
68
15
9
5
0
8
86
>100
>100
>100
>1
70
106
310
130
70
25
0
70
_
N£a
ppb
24 hr 1 hr
ave. high
(2)
10 29
12
14
>16
12
0
7
23
28
11
3
_._
36
68
>41
0
30
41
90
65
70
25
20
___
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(3)
0.2
0.5
0.6
1.1
0.5
0.4
03
ppb
24 hr 1 hr
ave. high
(4)
14 42
32 45
41 49
36 45
37 52
39 48
11
27
28
36
33
42
16
23
42
45
42
46
39
37
39
37
33
35
43
33
41
47
47
52
48
49
42
49
49
47
51
45
44
48
45
44
47
49
S04
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(5)
2.2
1.3
1.8
2.7
1.2
1.4
S02
pphm
24 hr 1 hr
ave. high
(6)
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0.5
1.0
0
0
0
0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
TSP
ug/m3
24 hr
ave.
(7)
7
8
7
15
8
7
NOTE: A tabulated value of zero (0) for the following gases means a value less than listed below:
NO, N02 - 0.002 ppm 0.2 pphm 3 ppb
03 0.001 ppm 1 ppb
S02 0.004 ppm - 0.4 pphm - 4 ppb
ppm - parts per million
pphm parts per hundred million
ppb - parts per billion
ug/m3 - micorgram per cubic meter at 76 cm of Hg and 25°C
31
-------
TABLE 4
FIRST WINTER
FAIRBANKS AREA MONTHLY AVERAGE VALUES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Location
Sample
(Site)
1976
Nov Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
Dec Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
1977
Jan Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
Feb Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
Mar Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
Apr Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
May Rural
Urban
Ratio U/R
NO
24 hr 1 hr
0.17
0.002
0.21
18
0.007
0.15
21
0.01
0.18
18
0.003
0.15
50
0.004
0.11
28
0.005
0.02
4
N02
24 hr 1 hr
(All gases are in
0.43 0.04 0.08
0.043
0.46
11
0.028
0.34
12
0.055
0.65
12
0.021
0.38
18
0.013
0.29
22
0.019
0.06
3
0.023
0.06
3
0.010
0.039
4
0.01
0.01
1
0.017
0
0
0.003
0
0
0.004
0.01
0
0.081
0.09
1
0.030
0.079
3
0.033
0.01
0.3
0.049
0
0
0.011
0
0
0.026
0.01
0
(
24 hr"
h SOi NQi
1 hr 24 hr 1 hr 24 hr
parts per million)
0.005 0.014
0.004
0.008
2
0.011
0.007
0.6
0.034
0.002
0.06
0.037
0.004
0.1
0.032
0.010
0.3
0.014
0.015
1
0.004
0.019
5
0.019 0.00
0.016
0.8
0.046 0.00
0.006
0.1
0.049 0.00
0.008
0.2
0.041 0.00
0.021 -
0.5
0.050 0.00
0.025
0.5
(All
per
0.6
1.2
2
0.3
1.1
4
0.00 0.3
1.5
5
0.00 0.6
1.8
3
0.00 0.6
1.1
2
0.00 0.4
0.6
1.5
0.00 0.1
0.3
3
24~hr
TSP
24~hr
Pb
24 hr
% of
TSP
That
Is Pb
solids are in milligrams
cubic meter)
2.3 16 0.25 1.7
6.9 210 5.8 3.5
3 13 23
1.9
7.3
4
1.7
8.5
5
1.8
6.1
3
2.2
4.1
2
2.1
3.8
2
1.4
2.4
2
7
115
16
8
90
11
9
68
8
18
53
3
35
500
14
42
300
7
0.11
6.0
55
0.12
6.0
50
0.18
4.3
24
0.19
2.3
12
2.0
5.0
1.8
6.5
2.2
6.1
1.4
4.3
A tabulated value of zero (0) for the following cases means a value less than that listed below:
NO, N02 - 0.002 ppm
03 0.001 ppm
S02 ~ 0.004 ppm
32
-------
CO
CO
TABLE 5
SECOND WINTER
FAIRBANKS URBAN SITE MONTHLY AVERAGE VALUES OF AIR POLLUTANTS
NO N02 03 S02
24 hr 1 hr 24 hr 1 hr 24 hr 1 hr 24 hr 1 hr
1977
Sept 0.081 0.25 0.021 0.045 0.007 0.018
Oct 0.09 0.31 0.019 0.030 0.007 0.014
Nov 0.19 0.41 0.032 0.044 0.008 0.018 0.0 0.01
Dec 0.20 0.51 0.024 0.033 0.010 0.019 0.007 0.014
1978
Jan 0.29 0.69 0.031 0.045 0.011 0.021 0.00 0.00
Feb 0.20 0.51 0.035 0.067 0.013 0.025 0.00 0.00
AVERAGE
Ratio
CO/NOV
24 lxhr
hr high
-130
45
82
24
29
21
34
-140
56
34
30
30
24
34
Correlation
Coefficient
24 1 hr
hr high
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
40
69
16
85
62
88
69
i
-0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
0.
(-
22
55
69
30
61
71
67
A zero (0) value for S02 means <0.004 ppm
-------
tion. Also note that the urban monthly average NO is about
/\
10 times that measured for the rural site. The maximum one
hour high NO values measured in Fairbanks rival those
measured in Los Angeles (13).
The reasons for these high NO values are: the concentra-
x\
tion of mobile sources in downtown Fairbanks and the strong
atmospheric temperature inversions. The radiosonde
soundings of temperature versus height above the Fairbanks
International Airport, Table 2, column 8 show that there
were only 3 days in February 1977 without a temperature
inversion. The strongest inversion strength of 1°C per
meter for the lowest 7 meters occurred on the 16th. Even
though the radiosonde launch site is about 7.9 km (4.9 mi)
from the Fairbanks post office, it is on the same flood
plain and can therefore be expected to give some indication
of the meteorology at the urban site-. However, the strong
anthroprogenic heat island over Fairbanks prevents direct
extrapolation of airport data to the urban site. The heat
island tends to allow some atmospheric mixing within the
inversion layer (14).
The North Pole data follows the same trend as the Fairbanks
data, i.e. the NO and CO peak on the same day. Even though
/\
North Pole is less than 1/5 the size of Fairbanks and is
located 23 km (14 mi) south east of Fairbanks, it most
probably sits under the same temperature inversion. And as
in Fairbanks, mobile sources are the main generators of CO.
34
-------
What is the ultimate fate of the reactive nitrogen and sul-
fur oxides? Sandberg et al . (15) suggest they usually
precipitate from the atmosphere as salts. One of the major
inorganic end products of NO is the nitrate ion (N0~). For
/\ J
example, the nitrate ion would combine with any cation (M )
to form the nitrate salt (MNO,). Stoichiometrically, it
would take approximately 0.0007 parts per million (ppm) of
NO to form the 1.8 micrograms per cubic meter (yg/m ) NO,
February 1977 average. Since the NO average amounts to
0.18 ppm, only about 0.4 percent of the NO makes it to the
NO-, end product. A conversion of about 1 percent is
achieved at the rural sits if it is assumed all NO, is of
anthropogenic origin. However, the natural background NO,
may be high enough to make the rural site NO conversion ap-
/\
pear higher than it really is.
Sulfur dioxide (S0?) is likewise further oxidized to at-
mospheric sulfate (SOT). Stoichiomstric calculations show
that the complete oxidation of 0.001 ppm of SO^ should yield
4 yg/m of SOT. Since over 99 percent of the SO,, readings
were below the minimum detectable limit of 0.004 ppm, no
conclusions can be drawn concerning S0« oxidation.
The very low S0? concentration indicates that little if any
stack gases from the local coal burners was mixing into the
lower atmospheric layer- When ice fog gets deep enough it
has been obse-rved to incorporate these power plant plumes.
35
-------
During the two winter sampling periods, ice fog did not
build up enough to entrap the plumes and cause ground level
S0_ concentration to increase.
Holty in 1972 (2) compared pollution levels with and without
ice fog near downtown Fairbanks and found that the concen-
tration of nitrogen oxides including nitrate plus nitrites
and sulfates and lead were increased by a factor of two to
three during ice fog. His S02 readings also increased by
slightly more than 50 times.
During this (AERS) program there were only six days with ice
fog during December 1977. The ice fog apparently did not
increase the levels of the gaseous pollutants when compared
to days adjacent to the ice fog period. However, six days
is too short a time for comparison.
Since, in the Fairbanks area, automobiles and trucks are the
major sources of NO and carbon monoxide (CO), it follows
/v
that there should be a close correlation between the two
gases. The average ratio of CO to NO (CO/NO ) from October
X /\
through February of the second winter (urban) data was 34
for both the 24 hour average values and the one hour high
values. The average linear correlation coefficients for
this ratio (CO/NO :34/l) were 0.69 for the 24 hour average
and 0.67 for the 1 hour high. These coefficients are high
enough to state definitely that CO and N0x are proportional
to each other.
36
-------
The CO and NO emissions for the most predominant stationary
A
sources in Fairbanks - coal burners and domestic oil fur-
naces - is listed in EPA's AP-42(16). The emission ratio
of CO to NO for both these fuels is less than 1. Environ-
x
ment Canada (17) measured CO and NO emissions in the range
of -30 to +20°C from two 1975 automobiles. The ratio of CO
to NO ranged from 41 at -30°C to 16 at 0°C. This emission
x ^
ratio (CO/NO ) range brackets the ambient ratio of 34, which
would tend to indicate that the principal sources of NO
must be internal combustion engines. If stationary sources
were the major NO emitter, then the ambient ratio (CO/NO )
X X
would be about 1 or less.
PARTICULATES
The total suspended particulate measurements (TSP) that were
performed during the first winter are listed in Table 4.
Generally the particles appeared as soot on the Hi Vol
filters. The exposed filters from the urban site had a
characteristic odor of coal tar. Those from the rural site
had little or no odor and at times had so few particles that
a two day collection was necessary to get enough to weigh.
The urban site particulates averaged 190 yg/m . And the
rural site particulates averaged 19 yg/m . The urban site
monthly averages were from 3 to 6 times the rural site par-
ticulate concentration. During breakup in April the road
dust increased the urban site particulate levels by a factor
of 10 over those in March.
37
-------
The particulates data on Table 4 allows comparison between
the total particulates, NO" and SO^. The rural site par-
ticulates have a higher fraction of N0~ and SO^ than do the
urban site particulates.
The lead (Pb) data is presented in Table 6. The AERS data
is monthly average values. For the rural averages the Pb
concentration ranged from 0.1 to 0.25 yg/m and from 2.3 to
6 ug/m for the AERS urban averages. The urban to rural
ratios varied from 16 to 50 showing that the urban area has
over 10 times the rural Pb concentration. The Fairbanks
North Star Borough data is listed as daily averages. Their
Pb data for Fairbanks is comparable to the old post office
(AERS urban site) data even though the Borough's Hi Vol
samplers were located from 2 to 4 m (6 to 12 ft) higher than
the AERS sampler. Pb concentrations should be higher nearer
the ground because the major source of Pb (automobile tail-
pipes) emits it at less than 1 m (3 ft) above street level
and temperature inversions inhibit upward dispersion.
Pb is a substantial constituent of the total suspended par-
ticulates (TSP) measured in the populated air basin. The
urban TSP contain more Pb than the rural TSP. For example,
the AERS urban site TSP contained from 3.5 to 6.5 percent
Pb , while the rural TSP contained only 1.4 to 2.2 per-
cent Pb. The Borough (all urban) data also fits in with the
AERS urban site data. The Pb content for the Borough data
ranges from 1.9 to 6.8 percent of the TSP.
38
-------
TABLE 6
FAIRBANKS AREA LEAD (Pb) DATA
CO
Arctic Environmental
Date
1976
Nov.
Dec.
1977
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Location
Rural (R)
Urban (U)
Ratio (U/R)
Rural
Urban
Ratio
Rural
Urban
Ratio
Rural
Urban
Ratio
Rural
Urban
Ratio
Research Station Data
Pb ug/m3
0.25
5.8
(23)
0.11
6.0
(55)
0.12
6.0
(50)
0.18
4.3
(24)
0.19
2.3
(12)
Pb(100)/TSP
1.7
3.5
2.0
5.0
1.8
6.5
2.2
6.1
1.4
4.3
Fairbanks North Star Borough Data
Date
12-9-77
1-14-78
1-20-78
2-2-78
2-7-78
2-13-78
2-19-78
2-25-78
11-8-75
11-14-78
11-20-78
11-26-78
2-12-76
2-18-77
2-24-76
11-3-77
11-9.-77
11-15-77
12-3-77
Location
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Borough Bldg.
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
Woolworths
North Pole School
Pb ug/m3
3.6
4.6
3.7
4.7
0.6
4.2
2.6
1.0
6.5
4.7
12.3
1.0
6.8
2.1
1.8
1.9
3.8
1.5
2.8
Pb(100)/TSP
4.3 *
6.8
6.3
5.2
1.9
6.8
3.6
2.7
3.5
5.3
6.3
1.9
3.2
3.3
3.0
2.6
3.7
3.6
5.0
NOTE: Pb(100)/TSP is the percent of the total suspended particles that is lead.
ug/m3 - micrograms per cubic meter at 76 cm of Hg and 25°C.
-------
All of this atmospheric Pb must be of anthroprogenic origin
since the natural background Pb concentration is less than
0.01 yg/m . Since there are no Pb related industries in the
Fairbanks area, combustion of leaded gasoline is the major
source of atmospheric Pb at all sites.
REACTIONS
Literature indicates that the SO- oxidation to SO, and on
to SOT is enhanced by high temperatures (flue gas) and the
presence of such catalysts as iron and vanadium in fly
ash (7). On the other hand, research supported by the Elec-
tric Power Research Institute (18) indicated that the oxida-
tion of SO,, to SOT on High Volume filters (loaded with par-
ticulates) is accelerated by low temperature. The low tem-
perature effects were not noticed", probably because the SO-
levels were below instrument sensitivity.
NO is the major emitted form of NO , (N0+N0?) from combus-
J\ £m
tion sources. When considering the nitrogen oxide data the
extent of NO oxidation to NO- is determined by calculating
the ratio of N09 to NO . That ratio (NO /NO ) times 100 is
L. X ^ X
the percentage NO oxidized to NO-- For the urban winter
data (exclusive of May) the percentage varied from 0 to 22
while it ranged from 43 to 85 percent for the rural data.
Why was a larger fraction of the NO composed of NO- at the
/\ "
rural site, but composed of NO at the urban site? This was
40
-------
probably due to the high concentration of NO and compara-
tively limited ozone (0,) level at the urban site. Ozone,
a very strong oxidant, is believed to be the main oxidizing
agent for NO, via the following reaction:
NO + 0-, -»- N0? + 0_. In the polluted urban air, it is
hypothesized that the reducing particulates such as soot and
fly ash readily react with the 0,, reducing its levels to
practically zero. Thus, because of the lack of oxidants
such as 0,, the Fairbanks winter air can be considered to
be rich in reducing agents. In contrast, photochemical
smog, because it contains considerable 0, and N0_, is an ox-
idizing form of air pollution. The high ratio of NO to N0~
at the urban site indicates that the oxidation rate (to NO-)
with atmospheric oxygen is probably insignificant.
The 0-, - NO reaction can best be illustrated by looking at
the rural site (AERS roof) chart record for February 9,
1977, Figure 2. Beginning at 0900 hours the temperature,
0, and NO are at their undisturbed (background) levels of
J i\
-14°C, 0.028 ppm and 0.005 ppm. At 0930 hours it is assumed
that an eddy draws some cooler, more polluted air up from
the parking areas surrounding the AERS building. The air
temperature at .ground level is lower than on the roof - see
airport data on Figure 2. This polluted air parcel is about
4°C cooler, and contains approximately 0.03 ppm NO which ac-
counts for the low, <0.01 ppm 0,. The polluted (imported
41
-------
-TIME
Q800
O9OO
1000
1100
12OO
130O
t
1
-O.O6 ppm I
w 1
e
S 1
X 0 |
.I1
c o ~
o i i:
-0.05 ppm O z z
-O.O4ppm(-lo°)
£
l^^C^^v
g. 1
-O.O3 ppm (-20°) O3
*«* *.,
>
0.02 ppm
0.01 ppm
I
1
l| National Weather Service (NWS) Data
|| at Fairbanks International Airoort:
II
1 P Time Temperature Wind . Sky
i 1 1 °C Knots Cover %
\.\ I 0800 -19 0 80
I II lj
|M i| 1100 -17 0 100
J1 1 Ij 1400 -14 6 100
| lj| NWS Station is 5.2 Km. South of
{ »l AERS Roof.
\
i Nitrogen Oxides (NOX) ppm _ i I
' Nitric Oxide (NO) ppm - - . ___ n
^L^__^jj-^\^
MK^ ^ i A
. i ! ' i ; ',
1 i , / 1 / - I
i \/\,. ,, ja\ i
' i-" /% *'. f\ ' ' /: :"
i ."* i 1 ' %-' : i; :j|; '': *
1 . i / - T If v
i: -i ^' V* 1
h -;\ A /\ /*A
/ : ; \ / \ . ^ \ 1 j \
f*"'''\j
v^^NO J
-O.OO
Figure 2. Chart Record of Air Quality for the Rural Site (AERS Roof). February 9, 1977.
42
-------
parcel) is then slowly diluted with 0, rich ambient air
which dilutes the NO , raises the temperature, and causes
A
a gradual rise in 0,. Total 0, return to unpolluted levels
(0.028 ppm) is prevented by the now higher NO (remaining for
the polluted air parcel) which reduces it to 0^. From 1000
to about 1300 about every peak in the NO curve creates a
corresponding flat or valley in the 0-, curve. The essence
of Figure 2 is that natural ambient levels of 0, cannot
exist for any time period in concentrations of NO greater
than about 0.03 ppm.
In more temperate climates, 0, that is consumed by NO is
replenished by photochemical action - the same photochemical
action that is involved in photochemical smog. The prere-
quisites for photochemical smog are warm (>25°C) tempera-
tures, insolation, and high concentrations of NO and reac-
tive hydrocarbons (HC). Fortunately for Fairbanks, during
most of the summer, winds and insolation inhibit formation
of stable, long time (>24 hour) temperature inversions which
would allow high concentrations of NO and HC. The remote
possibility of photochemical smog in this northern city is
discussed in Section 7.
When discussing the health effects of NO and N0?, NO,, is
considered to be about five times as toxic as NO (7).
Luckily, the low levels of 0, in the downtown area limits
formation of N0« from the emitted NO. However, when the NO
43
-------
rich air drifts out of town and mixes with the cleaner 0,
rich air, it should be converted to the more toxic N0~. A
compensating factor to this apparently increasing toxicity
is the accompanying dilution of the N0«.
In summary, a most surprising finding was the NO - 0,
relationship. NO will readily react with 0,, but it is
hypothesized that the dirty (high TSP) urban air limits the
available 0,. Consequently, the NO to NO ratio was higher
s J\
at the urban site than at the rural site. Because of a
higher 0, concentration in rural air the ratio (NO/NO ) is
J /\
expected to decrease downwind of the urban area. The am-
bient urban ratio of CO to NO was found to be about the
same as the mobile source emission ratio. Therefore, the
internal combustion engine is the major source of NO in
/\
Fairbanks. Also, the urban site atmosphere had winter
average particulate levels exceeding 100 yg/m which con-
tained, on a monthly average, up to 6 ug/m lead.
44
-------
SECTION 6
INDOOR - OUTDOOR LEVELS
The short term indoor-outdoor air quality study at the new
State Building yielded interesting results. Readings on the
chart recorder for each CO analyzer were integrated to yield
1/2 hour CO averages for the major part of the working day
(1000 to 1600 hours). Spanning the Ecolyzer (indoor CO) at
0900 and 1600 prohibited data collection before 1000 and
after 1600 hours. The averages for January 16 through 18
and 22 through 25 are plotted on figure 3.
In all seven days, the indoor air heating ventilating unit
(HVU) had about the same or greater level of CO than did the
outside ambient air- It appears from the data for the 16th
and 24th that, when the outside CO values averaged more than
8 ppm, the indoor CO values averaged more than 15 ppm. On
the other hand, when both the indoor and outdoor CO values
were low, as on the 17th and 18th, they were about the same.
The combined maximum measurement inaccuracy of ±3 ppm CO
would not affect the basic interpretation.
The building HVU was designed to take in fresh makeup air
from the top of the building. Air at the higher elevation
45
-------
Indoor Mr, From Heating Ventilating Duct
-~ Outdoor Air, ADEC Monitor
I I
I I I I
I I
I
I ± I
I
M
V-rir
Hour
Date
[TO12
1-16-79
10 12 Ik
1-17-79
]G
10 i? n
1-18-79
TO I?- l>i 16
1-22-7')
ID 12 n Tel
1-23-79
TO i?. IT?
1-2*4-79
TO 12 14
1-25-79
Figure 3. Carbon monoxide content of air (ppm, one-half hour average); at new State Building
Fairbanks, Alaska.
-------
should contain less pollution than air at ground level
because of the greater distance from automobile exhaust
pipes. But at times, as shown in figure 3, the air in the
building contains as much or more CO than outside ambient.
There could be many reasons for this, but orobably most of
the CO is from automotive cold starts in the parking garage
below the building. Located in the lowest level of the
mechanical room is a large louvered fan assembly which ex-
hausts into the garage when the building pressure exceeds
atmospheric by a preset amount. The louvers do not seal
tightly and during cold weather, considerable air from the
garage leaks through into .the mechanical room, which is also
the return air plenum for the HVU. This leakage is probably
enhanced by the chimney effect (hot air rises) of the
building .
The NO values are one hour averages from 0800 to 1800
hours. The results are plotted in figures 4 and 5. The
nitric oxide(NO) trend, figure 4,is considerably different
from the CO trend. The outdoor NO levels are either higher
or about the same as the indoor levels. This seems
reasonable, because automobiles in the cold start or near
idle mode emitt very little NO when compared to road speeds.
Cold start or near idle mode emissions are the only type of
emissions found in the garage.
47
-------
Indoor Air, From Heating Ventilating Duct
Outdoor Air, ADEC Monitor
-P.
00
i.
c.
O)
X
c
u
«r-
P
0.8 -
0.6
0.4
0.2
Hour
Date
1216
1-16-79
8 12 16
1-17-79
8 12 16
1-18-79
12 16
1-22-79
8 12 16
1-2L3-79
8 12 16
1-24-79
B 12 1$
1-2S-79
Figure 4. Nitric oxide content of air at new State Building, Fairbanks, Alaska.
-------
IO
a.
0.
en
o
-P
Indoor Air, From Heating Ventilatinfl Duct
Outdoor Air, ADEC Monitor
Hour
Date
2 ...
1-16-79
1-17-79
1-22.-7.9
1-23-79
1-24-79
12 16
1-25T-7J
Figure 5. Nitrogen dioxide content of air at new State Buildinq, Fairbanks, Alaska.
-------
The nitrogen dioxide (NO-) data, figure 5, follows the NO
trend. The outdoor levels are higher than indoor levels.
It is interesting to note that the outdoor to indoor ratios
for N02 are generally higher than the same ratios for NO.
This is as expected because the HVU air filters remove most
of the 0, from the intake air, and without 0,, the oxidation
of indoor NO to N02 is inhibited.
50
-------
SECTION 7
FAIRBANKS AIR QUALITY AND
THE NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
WINTER AIR
The stagnant winter air over Fairbanks is not a problem
peculiar to Fairbanks because long lasting winter tempera-
ture inversions are not uncommon to all cold regions. These
inversions inhibit vertical dispersion. Horizontal disper-
sion is also inhibited because Fairbanks sits on a flood
plain surrounded by hills on the north and west which block
win te r winds .
Mobile source emissions that accumulate in this stagnant air
are the major source of air pollution in Fairbanks (19).
The concern over these pollutants is their possible adverse
effect on public health. This concern on a national level
has resulted in the primary air quality standards.
AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
The primary air quality standards specify the maximum al-
lowable ambient concentration of the more common air pol-
lutants. These standards were first published by EPA in the
51
-------
Federal Register on April 30, 1971 (20). The following is
an excerpt from that publication:
"National primary ambient air quality standards are those
which in the judgement of the Administrator (of EPA), based
on the air quality criteria and allowing an adequate margin
of safety, are requisite to protect the public health."
Those standards as promulgated in 1971 have,except for ox-
idants,remained basically unchanged to this date (February
1979), although there has been considerable debate as to the
concentration of the pollutants where adverse health effects
first begin to appear. A recent review by the Harvard
School of Public Health, on the health effects of the
regulated air pollutants (21) concludes (1) that the present
primary standards seem adequate to protect public health and
(2) until more data are available the standards should not
be changed. A discussion of each pollutant's ambient con-
centration in relation to its regulated standard follows:
t,
The EPA ambient air quality standards do not apply to air
inside buildings. In non-domestic buildings, the Oc-
cupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regula-
tions apply.
CARBON MONOXIDE, PARTICIPATES, AND ICE FOG
The ice fog, carbon monoxide (CO) and Total Suspended Par-
ticulate (TSP) problems are well known and will not.be
discussed here. An EPA summary on CO and TSP is published
52
-------
in the Alaska Environmental Quality Profile (19). More up-
to-date CO data has been summarized by the Fairbanks North
Star Borough (22). A monitoring program for these pol-
lutants is being carried out by the Fairbanks North Star
Borough, Department of Environmental Services and by the
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation. The air
quality standards for CO and T,SP have been exceeded in Fair-
banks in over 20 percent of all the daily readings (19).
%
There is no air quality standard for ice fog. Efforts are
being taken to reduce the levels of these three pollutants
by the state, borough and city (Fairbanks) governments.
SULFUR DIOXIDE
The sulfur dioxide (S0?) standard is 0.03 ppm maximum al-
lowable concentration for an annual arithmetic mean and/or
0.14 ppm for a 24 hour average. During the sampling periods,
over 90 percent of the urban site daily average readings
were less than 0.005 ppm which is about 20 percent of the
standard. Therefore, S07 was not found to be an air quality
problem with the present emission sources. During long cold
spells, ice fog can accumulate to a considerable depth.
When ice fog builds up deep enough to entrap the taller
power plant plumes, an increase in ambient S0? levels will
result. But, based upon Holty's monitoring (2), that in-
creased level is still not expected to exceed the S0~ air
quality standard.
53
-------
NITROGEN OXIDES
The N0« standard is 0.05 ppm maximum allowable concentra-
tion, annual arithmetic mean. Only the urban site data for
December 1976 has exceeded 0.05 ppm N02. And several other
winter months have exceeded 0.02 ppm N0_. This winter data
coupled with the fact that air is more turbulent during the
summer makes it doubtful that the annual mean would be ex-
ceeded in the near future .
In a recent report by the National Research Council (13),
it is stated that based upon animal studies the biological
toxicity of NO is much less than that of NQ_. Also, NO and
N0« seldom occur separately so effects sometimes attributed
to either may actually be a combined effect.
As of February 1979, there was no air quality standard for
NO. But if there were, it would probably have come close
to being exceeded during the observation periods. The
reason for that conjecture depends on the relative toxicity
ratio of 1 to 5 for NO to N02 as stated by Stern (7).
Therefore, using the 1 to 5 ratio the 0.05 ppm standard for
N0? would be comparable to 0.25 ppm NO. The urban monthly
averages were more than 50 percent of that (0.25 ppm) for
November through February - both winters. But because of
unstable air during the summer, it is doubtful if a NO con-
centration of 0.25 ppm as an annual arithmetic mean would
54
-------
be exceeded. However, effects of a short term exposure may
be more significant. NO and NO- are respiratory irritants,
the effect of which shows up with short term exposure to
high concentrations. The necessity for a short term N0~
standard is recognized by many health effects
authorities (21). The maximum one hour integrated high
value for NO was 1.8 ppm which is 7 times the extrapolated
conjectural standard. Exposure to these peak values could
result in much more adverse health effects than longer term
exposures to lower concentrations.
MOBILE SOURCE EMISSION CONTROL EFFECTS
In Fairbanks mobile sources are major emitters of CO, NO,
and lead (Pb). State implementation plans are being drafted
to control CO. Some mobile source emission control efforts
can be counterproductive. Techniques to reduce one pol-
lutant can increase emissions of the others. Some CO con-
trol efforts may increase NO and Pb emissions. For example,
use of leaner idle mixtures reduces automotive CO emissions,
but it also increases NO emissions. In reducing the fuel
to air ratio to lower CO from 1 to 1/2 percent an increase
in exhaust NO of about 20 percent will result.
The present major automotive NO control technique, first
widely used in 1973, depends upon exhaust gas recirculation .
The exhaust gas recirculation system does not operate until
55
-------
the vehicle speed exceeds about 25 mph. That average speed
is not reached in the Fairbanks urban area; hence there is
little NO control where it is really needed. But there is
plenty of NO control in the rural areas where it is not as
badly needed .
Emissions during automotive cold starts are the major source
of the Fairbanks CO problem (23). Allowing a vehicle to
continuously idle to eliminate the large CO output from a
cold start will also increase the NO emissions. Pb emis-
sions would also increase if leaded gasoline (regular or
ethyl) is used.
LEAD
The recently adopted ambient air quality standard for Pb is
1.5 yg/m maximum allowable three month average concentra-
tion (24). All five monthly average urban site samples
during the first winter exceeded this value. The Pb levels
nearer the sidewalk, closer to automobile exhaust pipes, are
higher than those measured 3 m (9 ft) above the sidewalk
(High Volume sampler inlet level). This is unfortunate
because children breathe the air closer to the sidewalk.
The standard was proposed to protect children since Pb is
less toxic to adults.
OXIDANTS
The air quality standard for oxidants, measured as
56
-------
ozone (0,) has recently been raised to 0.12 ppm maximum al-
lowable one hour concentration not to be exceeded more than
once per year (25). This concentration was not exceeded in
any of the winter measurements. However, during spring and
summer in arctic regions, naturally occurring stratospheric
downwelling and storm systems may cause the standard to be
exceeded (9 ) .
HYDROCARBONS
The HC standard is only a guide for air quality plans to
achieve the oxidant (0,) standard. It is not required to
meet the HC standard if the 0, standard has not been ex-
ceeded. The nonmethane hydrocarbon (HC) air quality stan-
dard is 0.24 ppm maximum three hour (6 to 9 a.m.) concentra-
tion. Gasoline engine operation that emits high concentra-
tions of CO also emits high concentrations of HC.
Therefore, the HC standard has by association with CO,
probably been exceeded. This is of little health sig-
nificance because most HC, at low concentrations (<10 ppm)
are nontoxic.
Both the 0-, and HC standard were devised to control
photochemical smog. Photochemical smog is the eye smarting
form of air pollution for which the Los Angeles air basin
is so famous. It has not yet been observed in most cold re-
gions, so the oxidant and HC standard have at present little
meaning.
57
-------
PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
Whether or not photochemical smog could ever form in cold
regions is a subject of debate. All that is needed is high
NO and HC levels, warm air and strong sunshine. A study
/\
entitled, "The Effect of Latitude on the Potential for For-
mation of Photochemical Smog" (26) shows it to be possible
during warm (>25°C) , sunny, summer days with considerable
HC and NO emissions.
Any petroleum related industrial development would probably
be plants using HC for fuel and feedstock. These industries
will increase the area wide emissions of S07, HC and NO.
Also, the continued influx of automobiles into this
developing area, which may be accelerated by industrial
development, will increase HC and NO emissions. The resul-
tant increased level of emissions increases the probability
of a summer time photochemical air pollution problem in
Fairbanks. This photochemical smog could have a much more
adverse health effect than smoke from forest fires which are
fairly common during dry summers. Smoke that inundatesthe
urban areas from forest fires is irritating enough.
SECTION SUMMARY
To summarize this section, it can be said that most air pol-
lution in Fairbanks is caused by internal combustion
58
-------
(gasoline) engines. The ambient levels of CO, NO, and Pb
are very high during the winter months. The CO standard and
the proposed Pb standard have been exceeded routinely in the
winter months. There is no NO standard. The oxidant and
HC standard have, to date, little meaning' because
photochemical smog has not appeared in Fairbanks. However,
future increases in HC and NO emissions will increase the
potential for photochemical smog. S0? levels, primarily
from stationary sources, were very low - less than 20 per-
cent of the air quality standard.
59
-------
REFERENCES
1. Benson, C. S. Ice Fog Low Temperature Air Pollution.
RR 121, U. S. Army Cold Regions Research and
Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire,
June 1970. 118 pp.
2. Holty, J. G. Air Quality in a Subarctic Community:
Fairbanks, Alaska. Arctic. Journal of the Arctic In-
stitute of North America, ^6_,4 : 292-302 , Dec. 1973.
3. Ohtake, T. Studies on Ice Fog. APTD-0626 U. S. En-
vironmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle PaTfk,
North Carolina, July 1971. 177 pp.
4. Jenkins, T. F., R. P. Murrmann, and B. E. Brockett.
Accumulation of Atmospheric Pollutants Near Fairbanks,
Alaska During Winter. SR 225, U. S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New
Hampshire, April 1975. 27 pp.
5. Winchester, 3. W., W. H. Zoller, R. A. Duce , and C. S.
Benson. Lead and Halogens in Pollution Aerosols and
Snow from Fairbanks, Alaska. Atmospheric Environment
(1):105-119, 1967.
6. Latham, 3. L. Elementary Reaction Kinetics. Butter-
worth and Co. Ltd., London, England, 1964. 120 pp.
7. Stern, A. C., editor. Air Pollution, Vol. I Air Pol-
lution and Its Effects, Academic Press, New York, New
York, 1968. 694 pp.
8. Human Studies Laboratory. Health Consequences of Sul-
fur Oxides: A Report from CHESS, 1970-71.
EPA-650/1-74-004, U. S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1974.
368 pp.
9. Wilson, W. S., W. B. Guenther, R. D. Lowery and 3. C.
Cain. Surface Ozone at College, Alaska for the year
1950. Transactions Am. Geophysical Union 3:361-364,
1952.
10. Geophysical Monitoring for Climatic Change No. 3 Sum-
mary Report 1974. U. S. Dept. of Commerce National
60
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Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Boulder,
Colorado, Aug 1975. 107 pp.
11. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes.
EPA-625-/6-74-003. U. S. Environmental Protection
Agency, National Environmental Research Center, Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, 1974. 298 pp.
12. Turner, D. B. Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion
Estimates, AP-26, U. S. Environmental' Protection Agen-
cy, Office of Air Programs, Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina, 1970. 84 pp.
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cy, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1977.
495 pp.
14. Bowling, S. A. and C. S. Benson. Study of the Subarc-
tic Heat Island at Fairbanks, Alaska.
EPA-600/4-78-027, U. S. Environmental Protection Agen-
cy, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, 1978.
150 pp.
15. Sandberg, T. S., D. A. Levaggo. R. E. DeMandel, and W.
Siu. Sulfate and Nitrate Particulates as Related to
S0? and NO Gases and Emissions. Journal of the Air
Pollution Control Association 26 , 6:559-564, June
1976.
16. Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors, AP-42.
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research
Triangle Park, North Carolina, April 1973.
17. Ostrouchov , N. Effect of Cold Weather on Motor
Vehicle Emissions and Fuel Economy. Technical Paper
780084, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1978. 14 pp.
18. Meserole , F. B., K. Schwitzgebel , B. F. Jones, C. M.
Thompson and F. G. Mesich. Sulfur Dioxide Inter-
ferences in the Measurement of Ambient Particulate
Sulfates. Prepared by Radian Corp. for Electric Power
Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, 1976.
48 pp.
19. Environmental Quality Profile, 1976 Technical Supple-
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21 pp.
20. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency. Part 410
National Primary and Secondary Ambient Air Quality
Standards, Federal Register 36(84), Friday, April 30,
1971. pp. 8186 - 8201.
61
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21. Ferris, B. J. Health Effects of Exposure .to Low
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62
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing}
1. REPORT NO.
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION-NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
5. REPORT DATE -
September 1979 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
A STUDY OF WINTER AIR POLLUTANTS AT FAIRBANKS, ALASKA
7. AUTHOR(S)
HAROLD J. COUTTS
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
). PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Arctic Environmental Research Station
College, Alaska 99701
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Research Laboratory-Corvallis,,
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oreaon 97330
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final 1976 through 1979
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
An air pollution monitoring program was initiated by the Arctic Environmental Research
Station (AERS). Ambient monitoring was done throughout the winters of 76-77 and
77-78 at the Fairbanks Post Office and on the AERS roof. Indoor-outdoor monitoring
was done at the new State Building during January 1979. Pollutants measured were
nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (N02), ozone (03), sulfur dioxide (S02), total
suspended particulates (TSP), sulfate (S0|), nitrate (NOs), lead (Pb) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
High values, compared to those measured in the contiguous states, were found for NO
and Pb. Most SOg levels were below the analyzer sensitivity of 0.004 ppm. The health
effects of the measured levels of NO are not known, but Pb levels exceeded EPA stand-
ards. More monitoring for Pb is needed and, if the high concentrations are found
to be area wide, then local authorities may want to consider restrictions on use of
leaded gasoline during the winter months.
The garage under the new State Building with attendant air infiltration appeared
to be responsible for higher indoor than outdoor CO levels.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COS AT I Field/Group
Air pollution
Arctic air pollution
Winter air pollution monitoring
Indoor-outdoor air quality
Cold Regions air pollutior
13/B
08/F,L
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
71
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
63
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