&EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Research
Laboratory
Corvallis OR 97330
EPA-600/3-80-039
March 1980
Research and Development
Alaska Village
Demonstration
Projects
inal Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/3-80-039
March 1980
ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION RROJECTS
Final Report
Barry H. Reid
Freshwater Division
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
Con/all is, Oregon 97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
- U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97330
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Corvallis Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
n
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FOREWORD
Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency would be virtually impossible without sound scientific data on
pollutants and their impact on environmental stability and human health.
Responsibility for building this data base has been assigned to EPA's Office
of Research and Development and its 15 major field installations, one of which
is the Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL).
The primary mission of the Corvallis Laboratory is research on the ef-
fects of environmental pollutants on terrestrial, freshwater, and marine
ecosystems; the behavior, effects and control of pollutants in lakes and
streams; and the development of predictive models on the movement of pollut-
ants in the biosphere.
The Corvallis Laboratory also has responsibility for EPA's Cold Climate
Research Program. This report summarizes work accomplished in Alaska as a
part of the Cold Climate Program which studies the cold climate aspects of all
environmental problems including ecological effects, health effects and con-
trol technology. The experience gained in the demonstration projects covered
by this report should provide guidance to future utility projects in Alaska.
Thomas A. Murphy, Director
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
m
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ABSTRACT
Two demonstration projects were built as authorized by Section 113 of PL
92-500. Modular construction was used to provide central utility systems
which included water supply, laundry, bathing, saunas, and wastewater treat-
ment. Service to homes was by vehicular delivery. Fire destroyed the facil-
ity at Wainwright in 1973 and the project was subsequently rebuilt. Energy
conservation measures were employed to minimize costs of operation. Equipment
performed satisfactorily, but operator preparedness was lacking, thus, many
breakdowns occurred. Overall cost of operation and maintenance of the facil-
ities was transferred to the local government by the EPA. The AVDP was paral-
leled by projects built by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
(ADEC) at 11 locations. Small communities need outside support for operation
and maintenance of utility systems. Time and training will be required to
prepare local residents to assume managerial responsibilities for these
projects.
This report covers a period from 1970 to 1979 and work was completed as
of January 1980.
IV
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CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 1
Conclusions 7
Central Utility Systems 9
Project Implementation 12
State of Alaska Projects 41
References 49
Appendix 51
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
BACKGROUND
The Alaska Village Demonstration Projects (AVDP) established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency were intended to demonstrate methods of im-
proving environmental health conditions in rural Alaska. The need for such
improvements is great. Seventy percent of Alaska's natives live in small
villages where safe drinking water is not readily obtainable and where ade-
quate waste disposal is often impossible without facilities for special treat-
ment. Typical sources of drinking water are streams, shallow lakes, or rain
during the summer. Many of these ponds and streams are stagnant and contami-
nated. In areas underlain by permafrost, wells are generally unproductive.
During the winter, villagers cut ice and melt it in clean fuel drums at home.
Simple methods of waste disposal are often not possible because of unfav-
orable terrain and soil conditions.1'2 Many villages are subject to annual
flooding. Wastes from latrines and dumps re-emerge during flood periods and
are spread throughout the town. During the short summer, the stench can be
annoying and pervasive. Communities along the Arctic Ocean store domestic
waste from "honey buckets" in empty fuel drums some distance from the home.
In early spring, the drums are hauled out onto the ocean ice for disposal.
The public health hazard associated with this practice is serious.
The difficulties of arriving at practical solutions to water supply and
waste disposal problems in such locations are as great as the need. Suc-
cessful application of many conventional approaches is ruled out by high costs
and/or the severe climate. Water is frozen most of the year. The processes
by which wastes naturally tend to decompose are interrupted and seriously
retarded by the long winters. The cold also tends to preserve pathogens for
longer periods than under temperate weather conditions.3 These considerations
substantially increase associated health hazards. Health and environmental
standards can be achieved through new service concepts such as renovation and
reuse of water for other than potable purposes and through application of
unconventional or innovative technology.
These problems stimulated the legislation designed to conceive, con-
struct, install and evaluate cost and performance of prototype facilities to
demonstrate alternative methods of providing basic utility services in Alaskan
native villages.
SCOPE AND PURPOSE
The Alaska Village Demonstration Projects (AVDP) were authorized by
Section 113 of the Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500) in 1970. Subse-
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quent amendments were made to this section and are contained in PL 95-217
which extended the demonstration period for the AVDP and authorized additional
expenditures (see Appendix).
LEGISLATIVE INTENT
The Alaska Village Demonstration Projects called for the design and
construction of one or more central community facilities to demonstrate meth-
ods which "provide for safe water and the elimination or control of water
pollution in those native villages in Alaska without such facilities." Pro-
visions for bathing and laundering were to be included. Health and hygiene
related educational and training programs were authorized. Also, the projects
were to result in the development of preliminary plans to provide safe water
and control environmental pollution in all Alaskan native villages.
The intent of the legislation was to demonstrate methods of meeting the
water-related" service needs of a village by means of a central community
facility as opposed to the more conventional approach of extending full-scale
water and sewerage service to all homes. A secondary consideration was that
the facilities were to be of modular design to permit easy transport and quick
installation and to be relocatable if necessary. It was felt that this ap-
proach could reduce the construction costs and permit facility relocation if,
at some future date, the village was moved to a different site. In 1969-1970,
village relocation was a legitimate consideration. Before enactment of the
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971, the long-term existence of many
smaller villages was uncertain.
Hope was expressed that the demonstration project would be completed in
two years, that several prototype designs would be available to meet the
requirements of most Alaska villages, and that the initial authorization of $1
million would be sufficient for four or five installations. Early in the
project it became apparent that these expectations were not realistic. It was
found that additional funds would be required to complete just two installa-
tions. In 1972, another $1 million was authorized to continue the work.
The legislation did not address two pertinent questions. First, who
would own the completed facility, and second, how the facilities would be
operated and maintained in communities without sufficient resources to pay the
cost.
AVDP HISTORY
The AVDP was administered by EPA through the Arctic Environmental Re-
search Station in Fairbanks, Alaska. A staff of four full-time employees
administered contracts and grants and collected and evaluated data relating to
the projects. Several reports were published by the AVDP staff dealing with
technical, social and economic aspects of the projects. These are listed in
the references.4'5'6'7
Project sites were selected at Emmonak on the Yukon River delta near the
Bering Sea and Wainwright on the coast of the Chuckchi Sea southwest of Barrow
(Figure 1). These locations were chosen after consultation with the U.S.
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Public Health Service, the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation, the Association of Village Council Presidents and
the North Slope Native Association.
0 100 200
^™
MILES
Figure 1. AVDP locations.
After the sites were chosen meetings were held in the selected villages
to describe the project concept and to receive public comments. EPA empha-
sized from the beginning that it was not planning long term operation and
maintenance of the facilities and would grant ownership to the village(s) upon
completion of the demonstrations. In the interim, native operators were
selected by the village leadership (with the advice of project staff) to be
trained for facfifty operation, maintenance and management. Wages were paid
directly or indirectly by EPA to the operators.
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Facilities were designed and installed at both villages after selecting
optimum design concepts from several proposals received under public invita-
tion to bid. Most proposals were based upon modular structure of very con-
servative size to house the various treatment facilities and personal ser-
vices. As much as practical, processes were interfaced to recover "waste"
energy and thereby minimize operating costs. A schematic diagram of the
processes at Wainwright is presented in Figure 2. Electric power generation
was beyond the scope of the original projects so designs were based upon the
use of power from the existing village system in both cases. However, standby
power was ultimately provided.
Construction of the facility for Emmonak was done at several locations in
the "Lower 48" and the completed modules shipped to the site for final place-
ment. A similar scheme was used for the Wainwright Project.
Field assembly of the systems and start-up took place from September 1972
to February 1973. Records were kept after opening the facilities to assist in
evaluating costs and efficiencies as well as documenting use patterns.
In November 1973 fire destroyed the Wainwright facility before sufficient
operation and use information had been collected and evaluated. EPA decided
to redesign and rebuild the facility in order to complete the evaluation.
Design was accomplished by contract with an engineering firm, which worked
within the concept and scope prescribed by the EPA project engineer. Con-
struction was accomplished by fixed cost contract with a construction firm
with Alaskan experience. The method of funding the contracts by EPA led to
cost overruns. Delays ensued and as a result of insufficient inspection by
EPA and poor quality work by the construction contractor, flaws in the struc-
ture caused further delays and required extensive repairs. Agency reorganiza-
tion and program-priorities led to elimination of EPA's staff on the AVDP.
Subsequent operation and maintenance of the projects was carried out with
grants and contracts.
In 1977, ownership of the Emmonak facility was transferred to the village
after EPA made repairs and modifications to optimize the system. Simultan-
eously, a grant was made to the village to aid in obtaining operation, main-
tenance and management training and technical assistance and support no longer
available directly from EPA. A final report of performance and service pro-
vided to the village by those activities was prepared by the contractor. The
grant expired on December 31, 1978; since then full responsibility for the
facility is with the City of Emmonak.
Negotiations were held in December 1978 with the North Slope Borough
(Alaska) to assume ownership of the Wainwright facility. The Borough govern-
ment has legal utility authority for all cities within its boundaries. Owner-
ship of the Wainwright facility and full responsibility for its operation and
maintenance and management was transferred to the Borough in March 1979.
In addition to the projects built at Wainwright and Emmonak, a third
design was prepared for a much smaller community. This design was based upon
a hypothetical community and an actual site was never selected. The fire at
Wainwright necessitated the use of funds for replacement at that facility,
precluding a third project.
4
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o~o
POTA
,
BLE V)
TANK
W<
HE
IATER
TER
ATER
hut
(
x 1
ii
s5
dffwry truck
school
BIA school
collodion truck
oeua to ocrai
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of project at Wainwright.
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The EPA retains responsibility for Section 113(e) of PL 92-500 (as
amended) which requires development of a comprehensive program for achieving
adequate sanitation services in Alaskan villages in cooperation with the State
of Alaska. Finally, the EPA is required to submit recommendations for ac-
tions, procedures and legislation necessary to implement the recommendations
of the comprehensive study. These activities and responsibilities are beyond
the scope of this report and will be reported at a later date.
PROJECT REPORTS
Two comprehensive status reports on the AVDP have been published. The
first "Report to the Congress, Alaska Village Demonstration Projects"6 was
published in July 1973 and covered progress to that date. In September 1976,
a second report "Water Related Utilities for Small Communities in Rural
Alaska"7 was released. These publications dealt in detail with the conduct of
the AVDP, interim conclusions and tentative recommendations. Other reports
and publications were also prepared to address problem areas of the proj-
ects.2'4'5 This report summarizes the conduct and results of the AVDP. It
is the final report for the projects and contains conclusions and recommenda-
tions resulting from nearly eight years of effort. The results of the spe-
cific effort to integrate utility functions, including energy aspects as
requested and financed by the Department of Housing and Urban Development
(HUD), are contained in the section on Energy and Cost Conservation.
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SECTION 2
CONCLUSIONS
CENTRAL COMMUNITY FACILITY CONCEPT
The idea of coming to a community center to secure water, to do the
laundry, and to bathe (instead of performing these functions in the individual
homes) has proven acceptable to the people of Wainwright and Emmonak. In
communities where piped distribution and collection systems would be extra-
ordinarily difficult to install, or where water is especially scarce, the
central community facility concept has been demonstrated as a viable method to
meet basic water-related needs of Alaskan native villages. Combined with a
vehicular distribution and collection system, the concept can serve as more
than an interim solution.
INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS
Regional native health or housing authorities appear to be the appropri-
ate institutions for providing native villages with the technical, logistic
and administrative support they need to operate and maintain basic utilities.
At present, the village and/or regional authorities do not have the financial
and technical base for this support. An alternative to conventional financ-
ing, training and management concepts is needed if facilities of this type are
to succeed on a viable wide-use basis.
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS
With rare exception, Alaska native villages cannot pay, through service
charges, the full cost of routine operation and maintenance of water-related
utilities, especially where complex treatment is required to meet technology-
based or receiving water quality standards.
INTEGRATION OF UTILITIES
The electric power available in most Alaskan villages is of poor quality
and furnished by inefficient installations which waste large amounts of use-
able heat. Through integration of the several village utility components,
reliability could be increased, personnel costs reduced, and substantial
energy savings accomplished.
EMPLOYMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
The utility, service centers sponsored under the AVDP program are labor
intensive. In regions of very high unemployment and low incomes they add from
four to six full-time jobs for local people. Thus, when operation and main-
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tenance funds are available, these installations contribute to the economic
well-being as well as the improved sanitary conditions of the villages.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING FACILITIES
There is no single best method of constructing water-related utility
facilities in rural Alaska. Local conditions, accessibility, etc., are so
varied that a limited number of standard designs could not be expected to
effectively meet the wide range of conditions. Therefore, designs and con-
struction techniques will vary with the individual situation.
FIRE PROTECTION
Providing full fire protection for public facilities in rural Alaska is
unusually difficult and expensive. However, since fire is a major threat to
facilities in cold climate regions, a decision not to provide this protection
requires careful consideration of resources available for replacement. Insur-
ance is generally not available except at very high premiums.
EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES
Treatment processes for rural Alaska must be able to accommodate extreme
variability in the composition of raw wastes and should be designed as simply
as possible to meet requirements.
MANAGEMENT SKILLS
The management of utility systems requires skills and understanding which
are generally not well developed in Alaskan natives living in remote villages.
Managers will have to be "imported" or recruited locally and given extensive
training if utilities are to operate reliably and economically.
8
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SECTION 3
CENTRAL UTILITY SYSTEMS
The concept of the central utility system may be unique to Northern
environments. The extreme climate of the north and the high cost of construc-
tion of water-related utilities makes the concept particularly attractive
because the need for and costs of extensive distribution systems are elimi-
nated. Central systems may vary in nature with nearly as much difference
between one central utility system and another, as there is between the con-
ventional system and the central system.
Some central systems include distribution or combination of distribution
systems to certain locations within the community. Others make no provision
for distribution of water or collection of wastes. Some provide only a source
of pure water, while others include the provision for laundry and bathing
needs.
The number of people required to operate a central utility system varies
depending upon factors such as the type of distribution system, the hours of
operation, and if other services are provided. At least one full-time skilled
operator is normally required to operate water and wastewater treatment equip-
ment and maintain the heating system, water storage facilities, standby gener-
ators and other equipment. If a vehicular distribution system is provided at
least one driver will be required to deliver water to homes and other water
customers. If sewage is collected by vehicle, a second driver probably will
be required to make wastewater collections. The water distribution vehicle
for Wainwright is shown in Figure 3 while a typical "utiliduct" cross-section
is shown in Figure 4. Depending upon the size of the piped delivery system,
additional full-time maintenance people will be required. In addition, a
general manager will be needed and one or more clerks to maintain records and
billings if these duties cannot be combined with those of other employees.
Hours of operation will further dictate the personnel requirements for a
central utility system. A system which operates for only a limited number of
hours per week can be operated reliably by a single full-time person. How-
ever, valuable utility equipment must be protected through the care of skilled
personnel on a regular basis including weekends and holidays. An attempt to
operate any utility system with a single operator will undoubtedly result in
the overworking of the person and eventual decline of performance and subse-
quent system failure.
Comparing the number of personnel required to operate a central utility
system with requirements of a conventional system in a similar community is
difficult. Only very limited experience has been gained with either concept
in small rural Alaskan communities. Limited experience with piped delivery
and collection systems in Alaska indicates that system reliability is lower,
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1
Figure 3. Water distribution vehicle used at Wainwright.
Heal
Return
Shell
Poloble
Water
Raw Water
Intake
"Black Wale
Vacuum
-Gray Water"
Vacuum
Heat Trace
TYPICAL UTILIDUCT
Figure 4. Typical cross-section of a utiliduct used in the AVDP.
10
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and maintenance costs are much higher than for piped systems in temperate
areas. The capital cost of pipe delivery and collection systems in small
remote Arctic communities is extremely high and has generally precluded the
application of such systems. Cameron et aJL9 stated that capital costs for
piped delivery systems range from $200 to $350 per foot. Because of high
construction and/or maintenance costs of piped systems, even many of the
larger communities in the Canadian Arctic include a combination of delivery
techniques, ranging from self service to fully piped distribution systems.
Documentation of the personnel requirements and costs for operation and main-
tenance for the various types of utility systems is not available. Cameron
and associates9 showed that in the Northwest Territories labor accounts for 50
percent of the nine cents per gallon water delivery/sewage collection cost.
Decisions to provide fully piped distribution, vehicular, or self service
water-related utility service are based on politics which in turn is based
upon economics and other social and cultural conditions. It is relatively
simple to project the cost of construction, operation, and maintenance of a
utility delivery system of a given kind, and to compare these costs. However,
such comparisons must be made for each community and should not be general-
ized.
INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT
To be successful, projects such as the AVDP must have support from insti-
tutions outside of the community, including technical, managerial and finan-
cial resources. Obviously, not all communities will require all of these
ingredients. Indeed, some communities may require a much lower level of
support than others.
In Wainwright, the facility has reverted to ownership of the Borough
government. That entity has taxation authority and the means to operate and
maintain the facility. That is, the Borough has the financial ability to
obtain technical expertise and managerial talent for efficient and effective
utility system operation. The Borough government will become the supporting
institution relieving the city of those responsibilities.
The Emmonak situation is much different. Emmonak is a community in The
Unorganized Borough and does not have the benefit of a large governmental
body, other than the State and Federal governments, to support its utility
functions. Its tax base is limited to the city. Only by very skillful man-
agement will the City of Emmonak be able to operate the utility system without
subsidy. Technical and management assistance from outside the city will be
required from time to time. User rates at Emmonak will play a much more
important role than at Wainwright where some costs can be subsidized by the
larger governmental institution.
Technical and managerial assistance is the greatest need of rural cold
climate communities. Because of the long lines of communication, and the
logistics of supply, the supporting institution will have to provide those
services for many.communities. Similarly, because of the lack of managerial
expertise it will be necessary for the supporting institution to assist in the
training of potential managers and to foster attitudes which will lead to
career position for qualified people.
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SECTION 4
PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
WAINWRIGHT
Wainwright is a relatively old community on the Arctic coast. The choice
of the village site appears to have been dictated by the conditions of the sea
ice and the need for a good landing site when materials for construction of a
school were delivered by boat in 1904.15 When the AVDP was initiated,
Wainwright had a population of 330 and the community seemed to be stable. A
broad range of skills is represented by the residents, but there is no local
industry. Therefore, workers travel away from home for (usually) seasonal
employment. In 1970, the single school included kindergarten through grade 8
with an average attendance of about 100 pupils. Recently (1978), a high
school was built to prove education to grade 12. Total school enrollment in
Wainwright is about 135 now (1979). There are no paved roads and only a few
wheeled vehicles. Transportation is by "snow machine" in the winter and foot
in the summer. There were about 60 houses in Wainwright in 1970, but the
North Slope Borough has pursued a housing construction program so today there
are nearly 100 homes.
Following the fire in November 1973, which destroyed the original
Wainwright AVDP, designs were prepared and contracts let which led to con-
struction of a second project in Wainwright which was accepted from the con-
tractor in October 1976. Figure 5 shows the new structure. The new facility
incorporated several changes from the original in an effort to improve the
design. Different contracting procedures were used in the construction pro-
cess to give more project office control and provide a basis for comparison
with the previous method. However, budget cutbacks and manpower shortages
required the elimination of a full-time on-site EPA inspector. As a result,
deficiencies occurred in the construction which required repair later.
During the first winter of operation after reconstruction, defects in the
structure were found. The primary defect was a faulty vapor barrier which
allowed moisture to penetrate insulating material resulting in poor insulation
and contributing to high fuel consumption and marginal comfort in the build-
ing. The importance of an effective vapor barrier, especially in severely
cold climates, is explained by Rice11 and Carlson.12
Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC) personnel were
consulted for an evaluation of the new facility. In addition to correcting
the insulation defects, they recommended that blackwater (wastewater contain-
ing body waste) treatment be modified to a biological rather than a physical/
chemical process. Many other small units throughout the state employ biologi-
cal treatment. This would tend to standardize and simplify the provision of
assistance by ADEC personnel if that becomes necessary in the future.
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Figure 5. Exterior of process and vehicle storage
Buildings for Wainwright AVDP.
AVDP project staff was reduced by attrition and changing EPA priorities
so that by the spring of 1977 only one EPA person was available to work on the
AVDP. As a result the operation, maintenance, training, and necessary modifi-
cations had to be provided by non-EPA personnel. A grant was made to the City
of Wainwright as an expedient way to provide funds for operation and mainten-
ance of the facility and to obtain management training for the operators.
Subsequently the city contracted with an experienced engineering firm to pro-
vide operation and maintenance (0 & M) guidance and to design and implement
modifications and repair to make the facility fully operational and efficient.
To repair damaged insulation and install vapor barriers where the con-
struction contractor had failed to ao so, it was necessary to remove the
exterior "skin" of the building, install the vapor barrier, replace insulation
and reinstall the "skin". This work was accomplished late in the 1978 con-
struction season.
Changes to the blackwater treatment plant were designed and subcontracts
for equipment manufacture were let in 1978. Due to manufacture delay ana
delivery schedule problems, installation was not completed until June 1979.
To improve reliability and system capability, other subsystems which had
not initially been provided or which had deteriorated were installed or re-
paired. These subsystems included: a backup boiler for the heating system,
repair of the utiliduct which serves the elementary school and overhaul of the
electrical generation equipment.
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The contractor to the City of Wainwright provided technical help to the
plant operators as necessary. Management guidance and instruction was also
provided by the contractor under the terms of the grant.
During the period between September 1977 and February 1979 significant
personnel problems arose which seriously hampered 0 & M and made management of
the project virtually impossible. The principal plant operator who had been
associated with the project from the beginning lost interest in the job and
retired in the spring of 1978. Personnel turnover left the plant without a
deputy operator. The new plant operator became overworked and discouraged.
Many essential tasks simply were not done because of lack of time or interest
on the part of the operator.
One important task which was left undone was that of seeing that the
water storage tank was filled prior to the onset of winter. When the fact was
discovered it was too cold to successfully pump water from the lake to the
tank. As a result the entire community was placed on a water rationing pro-
gram. A further complication resulting from this was the lack of facility
income from the sale of water and the use of showers and laundry. Moreover,
public reliance upon the facility as a dependable source of potable water and
a place for bathing and laundering is now questionable and will take a long
time to reestablish.
Another error on the part of the operator led to one of the electrical
generators being allowed to operate without lubricating oil resulting in
siezed bearing and ruined crankshaft. Previously, the generator engine block
had cracked because the operators had failed to put antifreeze solution in the
engine cooling system.
Other problems occurred because the operators failed to re-order spare
parts when existing spares were used for repair or replacement.
Failures to meet expectations are as much the result of inexperienced
judgement on the part of EPA and project personnel as from inexperienced
managers and mechanics in the villages. McGarry10 stated there is a tendency
for agencies which lack firsthand experience in rural villages to attempt
innovation of technologicl solutions to what they feel are the highest prior-
ity problems of the community. Being hurried to meet artificial deadlines
with inadequate preparation is difficult for both the EPA and the village.
Appropriate technology should consist not only of the hardware, but also of
intangibles such as organization, education, extension services, supportative
institutions and surrounding economic considerations.
In fairness, it should be pointed out that the operator(s) are basically
competent. They do understand the processes and they have operated the facil-
ities under some very adverse conditions. They have put in long hours, days
and months on end and never feel as though any job is completed.
Communications are a problem between the "bush" and the center for 0 & M
and management support. Facilities for voice communication to and from the
"bush" are minimal, overcrowed and unreliable. Written communication is slow
14
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and ineffective. Shipment of supplies and repair parts is often slowed by
irregular flight schedules and bad weather.
Pel to8 summarized this phenomenon in the following statement:
The sudden growth in technical and economic complexity
produces economic specialization in such things as
mechanics, electronics, retail and wholesale sales.
Most often "southerners" are needed to fill these
roles. Increased costs of imported energy sources
raises the cost of living as well as local definitions
of an acceptable standard of living, resulting in the
out-migration of young people.
This implies also that potential management skills in the younger generation
are not developed or available in rural Alaskan communities.
As pointed out in earlier reports, native operators have demonstrated an
ability to improvise in the face of adversity and keep machinery operating.
Their mechanical aptitude is high. However, it is becoming clear that manage-
ment of sophisticated systems involves attitudes which have been alien to the
culture of Alaskan natives. In all probability, it will require a period of
some years for adjustment, acceptance and understanding of the notions which
are necessary for management of modern community service enterprise to pervade
the native culture. In the interim, management of systems in the bush commun-
ities will be tedious, expensive and plagued with higher failure rate than
would normally be expected.
Following the reconstruction of the Wainwright AVDP, the Borough School
System, in an unrelated action, planned for a high school facility to be built
in Wainwrigt. Design of the high school began in 1976 and AVDP project staff
advised both Borough personnel and the architect of the need to conserve
water. However, the high school was designed and built with a water require-
ment more than 5 times that which could be assured by the AVDP. As a result,
the AVDP is unable to meet the demand for water at the new school.
In similar fashion the Borough Government has begun building houses and
multiplex dwellings. Again, although advised of the absolute limit on the
amount of water available, the housing units incorporate plumbing fixtures and
appliances with water demands which cannot be met by the AVDP facility.
Since these actions were taken with full knowledge that the existing
water supply will not meet demands, there must be plans for a supplementary
supply in the future. Two options exist for supplementing the existing facil-
ities. The first is to provide additional water storage tanks. This would
permit increased water use since available water is the problem more than
treatment plant capacity. Existing treatment capacity is adequate for 3-5
times the existing storage capacity. The second option is to develop an
entirely new source of water supply, and a new treatment and delivery system.
It is not yet known how the local government plans to eliminate the apparent
conflict between available supply and requirement.
15
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Electrical Power
As noted in previous reports, electric power at many, if not most, remote
Alaskan villages is unreliable, expensive and of questionable quality. How-
ever, electrical power is essential in providing water related utilities and
the maximum reliability of those services can only approach the reliability of
the electrical service. Similarly, the cost of electrical service is re-
flected in the cost of other services which depend upon it. Low quality elec-
tricity, that is electricity with variable and undependable voltage or fre-
quency, will further increase the cost of other functions which depend upon it
because of motor damage, more rapid light burn out, and the like.
Electrical power at Wainwright is no exception to this rule. Difficul-
ties in maintaining engine generators has been significant. Both frequency
and voltage fluctuations have caused extensive and repeated damage to AVDP
equipment. Motors, capacitors, relays, and magnetic starters have been
ruined.
The major problem with the local electrical utility is identical to the
major problem of the AVDP, i.e., poor management. Operators are basically
able to care for machinery but are not supervised by higher management and do
not have sufficient technical knowledge to recognize their own limitations.
Occasionally, problems are amplified by the need to improvise short range
solutions to problems which over a longer time can lead to more serious equip-
ment damage. The need to improvise is caused by the failure to seek outside
support or assistance.
An example of this type of problem would be with motor capacitors.
Because of over-voltage surges a capacitor may be destroyed. If replacement
is made with an incorrect capacitor the motor may be damaged and if the motor
drives a critical piece of equipment then a whole process or the entire pro-
ject may be jeopardized. The remedy to this is simply to maintain an inven-
tory of spare parts and to reorder them as they are used. Native operators
and managers have not yet been thoroughly convinced of the importance of this
type of activity.
Transfer of Ownership
The North Slope Borough is the municipal authority with utility responsi-
bility for the City of Wainwright. As such, the Borough codes clearly state
an intent to provide utility services where none exist and to acquire owner-
ship where they presently do exist. Under Alaska Statutes as 43.18.010-045,
State Air to Local Governments Municipal Services Revenue Sharing Program, the
borough is entitled to and has received from the State $2 per capita for the
Wainwright sewer area for 0 & M of air and water pollution control.
The EPA demonstration at Wainwright has been completed and it was in the
best interests of the Agency and the Borough to transfer ownership to local
authority. Consequently, negotiations were held with Borough authorities in
December 1978 to arrange for transfer of ownership of the facility to the
Borough. Formal transfer to local ownership was completed in March 1979.
16
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Energy and Cost Conservation Efforts
AVDP staff recognized that life cycle cost for the projects was of ex-
treme importance. Capital costs in rural Alaska are extremely high because of
remoteness, communication, transportation and lack of a local skilled labor
pool. Operation costs for utilities in Alaska are high because of the cold
environment and the high cost of fuel. It was recognized that the cost of
operation and maintenance would have a greater impact upon a village that the
capital costs which are borne by or shared by State and Federal governments.
The major costs for 0 & M are for fuel and labor. Prudent design can
minimize both. Designs for the projects incorporated energy and labor conser-
vation where feasible.
An energy cascade is used to recover heat where possible. For example,
exhaust heat from diesel-electric generators is recovered to be used in build-
ing and utiliduct heating. Also, heat exhausted from clothes dryers is recov-
ered for building heating. Utiliducts employ counterflow heat transfer by
placing cold water pipes and warm distribution and wastewater pipes in the
same protective conduit.
Throughout much of Alaska low grade coal is available although the means
of extracting and transporting it is not. A brief examination of coal sources
and systems for efficiently and economically using them was made for
Wainwright. It was determined that a coal-fired system to provide central
power and heat in addition to water and wastewater treatment is feasible, but
beyond the scope of the AVDP.
The modular integrated utility system (MIUS) promoted by the Department
of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) was employed in the AVDP. At
Wainwright HUD contributed to the expense of providing interface between the
VDP and a new high school and power plant complex in the village. The MIUS
involves interfacing as many of the unit processes as possible in such a
manner as to maximize overall system efficiency.
For example, the raw water tank which must be heated to prevent freezing
requires 141,000 BTU/hr. If that heat must be produced by an oil-fired heater
of 70% efficiency about 35.8 gal/day of fuel is required. However, the 50 kw
generator exhausts about 170,000 BTU/hr in exhaust gases and an exhaust gas
heater exchanger of 70% efficiency recovers 119,000 BTU/hr. By using the heat
exchanger to interface and integrate the two functions a saving of 30.2 gal of
fuel/day is realized and overall thermal efficiency of the system is raised
13% by this single interface. Similarly, the clothes dryers exhaust enough
heat through an air-to-air heat exchanger to heat the building when the dryers
are in operation. A number of such possiblities exist in utility systems.
The energy source is not important to the MIUS concept except that as the cost
of the energy increases the value of the MIUS investment is increased.
Specific components of the Wainwright system which were added by use of
HUD funds were:
1. Design, procurement and installation of exhaust gas heat exchanger
for 50 kva diesel generator.
17
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2. Design of utilidor and heat lines for transmission of "waste" heat
from city power plant.
3. Design of heat exchangers and pumps to permit use of excess waste
heat from city power plant in VDP building and tanks.
4. Design and procurement of air-to-air heat exchanger to recover heat
from building exhaust air and clothes dryers.
Although the designed facilities have been installed, they have not been
formally evaluated. The heating and ventilation flow diagrams for the project
are shown in Figure 6 which appears as'a fold out at the back of this publica-
tion.
One of the primary ingredients of successful application of the MIUS
concept must be integration of operations. This mutual interdependence of one
utility upon another allows significant overall increases in efficiency, but
demands coordination between the subsystems and a higher level of skill and
understanding for the operators.
For example, a city generator plant may have an output of 300 kw with a
fuel input of 24 gallons per hour (3.07 x 106 BTUh), (subsystem efficiency is
approximately 33%). In the same city the water related utility has a heating
requirement of 750,000 BTUh which is equivalent to about 8 gallons of fuel per
hour if the heater is 70% efficient. However, if the electrical generators
are equipped with heat scavenger on cooling systems and exhaust gas systems at
least 1,000,000 BTUh (assuming 50% heat recovery) will be available for water
utility heating purposes. The integrated system has a total fuel requirement
of 24 gallons per hour whereas individual subsystems have a combined fuel
requirement of 32 gallons per hour. The efficiency of the combined subsystems
is:
750,000 BTUh + 1,024,000 BTUh
x 100 = 43%
1,014,000 BTUh + 3,070,000 BTUh
The efficiency of the integrated system is:
750,000 BTUn + 1,024,000 BTUh
x 100 = 58%
3,070,000 BTUh
Coordination is demanded because, in order to recover heat from the
generators, the engine radiators have been replaced with heat exchangers. If
the engine heat is not carried away, the engine will be damaged. Similarly,
unless engines are running, there is no heat for other uses and no electri-
city.
Coordination of facilities in the design phase is difficult. Coordina-
tion during operation may be more difficult. In typical remote communities, a
18
-------
workforce with a pool of management skills is not currently available to
coordinate the activities of MIUS projects. If such projects are to succeed,
the managers will have to be "imported" until local skills can be developed.8
To date there has been little incentive for people in remote communities
to acquire skills in management. Hardware has been the emphasis of most
public projects and the intangible facets of project operation and maintenance
have been overlooked. Wages for construction workers are typically higher
than for people in other occupations which has also tended to discourage the
development of managers. Also, there has not yet been a significant demand
for a long enough time to attract capable young people to management in vil-
lage utilities.
Another condition which contributes to instability of the labor and
management force at public utilities in native communities is the absence of
the concept of career employment to the native culture. People are generally
willing to learn to do new jobs, but do not seem interested in pursuing those
jobs in career fashion. This is not peculiar to utility employees, but is
true of all municipal employees such as city clerk, police, airfield mainten-
ance in addition to utility operators and managers.
The MIUS concept provides efficiency not only in energy, but in personnel
use as well. In a typical remote Alaskan community one might expect to find
several electrical generating plants which would provide electrical power for
school, public building, homes, and commercial enterprises. Using the MIUS
concept, the several generating stations would be combined to a single sta-
tion, and rather than having a number of individuals responsible for opera-
tion, maintenance, and management of electrical power generation, a single
team would have that responsibility. This may involve an equal number of
operational personnel overall, but the necessity to duplicate support person-
nel would no longer exist and thereby reduce personnel costs and the number of
trained personnel required.
The concept also lends itself to more efficient coordination of the
various aspects of the MIUS concept. For example, to integrate the energy
system within a village which is not totally involved in the MIUS system it is
necessary to integrate the individual systems at the school, the public build-
ings and the village at large, whereas with an overall MIUS concept it is
necessary only to coordinate the integration of systems with a single manage-
ment team. This can also lead to greater reliability since one authority
holds responsibility for management of the utility system.
Potable Water
Potable water at Wainwright is provided by treatment of surface water
stored in a 1 million gallon heated tank. This volume of water was estab-
lished as adequate based upon the foreseeable future at the time of original
design in 1971.6 The quantities agreed to by project and village personnel
are presented in Table 1.
19
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TABLE 1. DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS
Personal Home Use
Showers (2/showers/person/week)
Laundry (2 loads/family/week)
School
5 gpcd (1875)
3 gpcd (125)
1.5 gpcd (565)
1000 gals/day
Figure 7 shows the actual amount of water used in Wainwright for individ-
ual home use and for the school. It can be seen that water use in the home is
increasing steadily. Water use was h gpcd in January 1974 and was about 1.8
gpcd in May 1979.
Water treatment at Wainwright is in the form of filtration, organics
removal and disinfection using sodium hypochlorite. A schematic of the water
treatment equipment is presented in Figure 8.
Wastewater Treatment
The limited water supply at Wainwright makes conservation and water
renovation and re-use attractive. Graywater (water from laundry and showers)
is treated by a physical/chemical system (Figure 9) and re-used in the laun-
dry. To minimize the buildup of impurities and reduce the load on the treat-
ment system, the first exchange of soapy water from the washers is discharged
to the blackwater treatment system. Subsequent exchanges of water during the
wash cycle are returned to the graywater system for retreatment and re-use.
Table 2 presents results of tests on the physical/chemical treatment of
graywater at the original Wainwright community utility center. Similar tests
have not been conducted since reconstruction of the system, but it is felt
that plant modifications will simplify achievement of similar results.
TABLE 2. RESULTS OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF GRAYWATER
AT THE ORIGINAL WAINWRIGHT UTILITIES CENTER
Color, PCU
Turbidity, JTU
COD, mg/1
Total Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Total Volatile Solids, mg/1
Volatile Susp. Solids, mg/1
Raw
Graywater
35
200
840
1910
503
624
281
P-C
Plant
Effluent
25
16
284
1670
25
304
16
Carbon
Column
Effluent
5
10
25
1240
10
162
4
Reduction
Percentage
86
95
97
35
98
74
99
20
-------
r\>
-J
I
35,000
30,000
25,000
20,000
1
Uj
5
15,000
10,000
5,000
TOTAL SALES
TO HOMES ONLY
JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFM AMJJ AS 0N DJ FM AMJ J AS 0ND
1974 1975 1976 1977
Figure 7. Water sales at Wainwright.
-------
Figure 8. Schematic of water treatment process at Wainwright.
Figure 9. Schematic of graywater treatment process at Wainwright.
22
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Facility Layout
Figures 10 and 11 show the arrangement of the public area and the process
area respectively. Experience to date has been satisfactory with this ar-
rangement. Adequate room for equipment maintenance has been provided to help
encourage regular inspection and prevention maintenance.
EMMONAK
Emmonak is a recently established community which settled at its present
location during the last 30 years. The population of the community at the
outset of the AVDP was about 440 and it was recognized that because of the
availability of work in the salmon fishing industry the population would
probably grow. A locally owned co-op freezes salmon caught by local fisher-
men. There was a single grade school in Emmonak when the AVDP was built, but
today there is also a State operated high school. Emmonak is located on a
slough of the Yukon River near its mouth and is subject to occasional flood-
ing. As in Wainwright, there are few wheeled vehicles and no paved roads.
Access is by air from the outside world with occasional shipments of heavy
materials by river or ocean vessels.
Following the fire at the Wainwright project, a thorough safety inspec-
tion of the Emmonak facility disclosed the need for improvements both for
safety and routine repair and improvement.
The Emmonak AVDP was designed for a modular building consisting of six
modules each approximately 9 feet wide by 9 feet high by 38 feet long. Three
modules housed the public use facilities such as laundromats, showers, and
sauna. The other three provided space for tankage, treatment processes and
building maintenance functions such as heating and ventilation. A lean-to
garage attached to the rear of this structure, provided space for maintenance
and storage of the delivery vehicle. This layout is shown in Figure 12.
Conditions at Emmonak required construction on a matt foundation and
maintenance of the soil beneath the structure in a thawed condition. Prelimi-
nary site investigations had determined that permafrost did not exist at this
building site and to prevent frost-heave, the ground must be kept unfrozen.
The facilities contained in the Emmonak project included four washing
machines, three dryers, four showers each for men and women, and sauna baths
for men and women. The treatment processes included were potable water treat-
ment, wastewater treatment, and solid waste and sludge disposal by incinera-
tion. The potable water treatment process is a typical "package" treatment
plant which user coagulation, sedimentation and filtration to produce potable
water, which is then disinfected prior to use by the people of Emmonak. The
first wastewater treatment process was a physical/chemical treatment system
which used powdered activated carbon, coagulation sedimentation, filtration
and disinfection before disposal in the Yukon River.
The original incinerator designed for the Emmonak project could not be
produced in time, for installation. The contractor was required to provide an
alternative type incinerator which is used to dispose of sludge from the
23
-------
Figure 10. Layout of laundry and shower area at Wainwright.
24
-------
CO
01
VT/UDUCT
sfe wtu. .
7KA T/OAJ OSTWi.
Figure 11. Arrangement of process area.
-------
treatment plants and the small amounts of solid waste materials generated in
the community center facility. Heat recovery equipment has been attached to
the incinerator in an attempt to recover as much usable heat as possible and
thereby reduce operating costs for the incineration process. However, because
of the high rate of fuel consumption the operators are reluctant to use the
incineratory any more than is absolutely necessary.
The Emmonak project has been in continual use since it was opened to the
public in early 1973. Local acceptance and use of the facility has grown so
that at this time the demand on the facility is nearly equal that of the
design figures estimated in 1972. This high use emphasizes the need in future
projects of this nature to modify design to allow for greatly increasing
demands for water and laundry and shower facilities. It is also advisable to
provide more than the minimally required space in order to make these public
buildings less austere and more plesant. Also, the provision of adequate
space for treatment processes in necessary in order to achieve proper opera-
tion and maintenance of facilities. In the case of Emmonak, processes were
crowded into spaces which under many conditions would be termed totally inade-
quate, resulting in extreme difficulty in the maintenance of equipment.
Perhaps 10-20% additional cost for structure is easily justified by the im-
provement in attitude and performance of operational personnel.
Although the original concept for the Emmonak project included a vehicu-
lar distribution system to provide potable water to the homes, the system has
never operated successfully. Townspeople do not appear to desire such a
service and operational personnel are reluctant to provide such a service
under any circumstances. Each household assumes responsibility for obtaining
its own water. Containers of water are hauled on sleds, wheelbarrows, and
other such means. The costs for a delivery system significantly increased the
cost of providing water to the homes. This aspect will be discussed in the
cost section of this report.
The showers and saunas are the real heart of the Emmonak AVDP. The sauna
bath has become nearly as popular as the Bingo Hall as a social gathering
place for men of the town. Saunas were provided as a water conservation
device whereby bathing is accomplished with minimal water. The social aspects
of the sauna popularized it in Emmonak. Records show that more than 10,000
uses of the sanua/shower facilities were made in 1978.
The laundry facilities at Emmonak are also extremely popular. Records
show that each family on the average washed 70 loads of clothes during 1978 or
approximately 1% loads per family per week.
The economic foundation for the Emmonak project comes from the contract
to provide potable water for the elementary and high schools in the city and
subsequently to provide wastewater treatment after that water has been used.
The charges for water and wastewater treatment are greater than the actual
cost of those processes and thus provide a subsidy for the other services
provided by the utility system. Water is delivered to the schools through a
"utiliduct" and wastewater is returned through a similar duct. The quantities
involved make vehicular distribution to the schools impractical. Moreover,
the labor costs for a vehicular distribution system would far exceed the
maintenance costs of the utiliduct.
26
-------
36'-
ro
Slicmeri X-U
f Saui
Bench || Bench
-36'-
Waitewatsr Treatmant Area
o
Potable Water Treatment Area
)O Pressure
oCoi"
Q Pump
Dryer
Dryer
Bench Heot
Gray Water
Tank
Combustion and Mechanical Area
Air-Air Heal
Exchanger
Auxiliary
Boiler
Ramp
Overhead Door
Load-
ing
Dock
Drive Thru Area
Overhead Door
Figure 12. Layout of Emmonak project.
-------
The operators and managers of the Emmonak project have been successful in
learning and carrying out their jobs. However, significant training has been
required to achieve that mark. It has been observed both by EPA personnel and
by contractors that enough time is rarely alloted for job training. Training
should cover an extended period of time in years and be relatively low key.
In many places the people are not thoroughly convinced of the need for pro-
jects of this type. The people of the community must believe in the need for
the service before the operators will be receptive to training. The need for
training cannot be overemphasized. Skills available in rural Alaskan communi-
ties simply are not adequate to manage and maintain projects such as these
without assistance, training and continual reinforcement. People are a part
of the technology employed in a project such as this and it is wrong to assume
that they as an intangible aspect of technology, are immediately and continu-
ously available without training and support. In fact, experience has shown
that poor success with projects in the "bush" is more a result of failure to
develop and support people than a direct failure of hardware.
Potable Water Treatment
The water supply system is shown in Figure 13. Raw water is pumped from
the Yukon River by a 1-hp submersible pump. In summer the pump is suspended
from a raft and in winter it is suspended through a hole in the ice and cov-
ered with a heated enclosure.
The submersible pump replaced two centrifugal pumps which originally had
been installed in a small heated hut on the bank above the river. For a
variety of reasons, these pumps would not hold prime. The present arrange-
ment, although somewhat makeshift, has the desirable aspect of avoiding place-
ment of permanent obstructions in the river bed or the bank and has performed
satisfactorily.
The choice of the Yukon River as the source of raw water was made after
reviewing available information regarding ground water at Emmonak. Wells
constructed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs produced water of high organic
content and saltwater beyond a certain depth. The river water has been rela-
tively easy to treat.
Potable water treatment is accomplished with a package unit manufactured
by Keystone Engineering, Inc. of Seattle, Washington. The plant has been in
operation since November 1972 and has functioned well with a minimum of opera-
tor attention. Treatment consists of alum coagulation, multi-media filtration
and chlorination. The rated capacity of the plant is 10 gallons per minute
(gpm). Actual capacity has been about 7% gpm.
Table 3 presents the raw water and potable water characteristics at
Emmonak.
Figure 14 presents a record of the potable water consumption in Emmonak
since the beginning of record keeping in 1973. There has been no significant
increase in the amount of water for personal home use, but an obvious trend
exists toward an increasing amount of water used by schools and other institu-
tions in Emmonak.
28
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WATER TREATMENT PLANT
ALUM"
INJ
10 gpm an. vt^o—
FLOW CONTROL^"*"
2000 gal.
RAW WATER
TANK
6000 gal.
POTABLE WATER
STORAGE TANK
40gpm J
RIVER PUMP
BACKWASH WATER
TO SUMP
DRY PIPE
FIRE
SPRINKLER
SYSTEM
PRESSURE
CELLS-Tx
AUXILIARY HEAT
TRACE HX a PUMP
DRY PIPE VAtVE
FIRE PUMP-^
94 gpm 0 40psi
AIR
COMPRESSOR
COLD WATER
UTILIDUCTS
IN-PLANT DISTRIBUTION
PRESSURE
PUMP
INDIVIDUAL PICKUP-
HOME DELIVERY-
BIA SCHOOL
COMMUNITY CENTER
HIGHSCHOOL
Figure 13. Schematic of water treatment system at Emmonak.
-------
90,000
CO
o
AMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASOND
1973 1974 1975 1976 1977
Figure 14. Water sales at Enimonak.
-------
TABLE 3. RAW WATER AND POTABLE WATER CHARACTERISTICS AT EMMONAK1
# Samples
pH2
Conductivity, UMHO
Turbidity, JTU
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Hardness, mg/1, CaC03
Color, PCU
# Samples
PH
Conductivity
Turbidity, JTU
Total Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Hardness, mg/1 CaCO
Color, PCU
Winter Sampling Period
Raw Water
24
*
5.9 - 7.8
350 (56)
16 (13)
3.5 (2)
168 (17)
4 (2)
Summer Sampling Period
Raw Water
9
7.3 - 8.5
190 (13)
118 (42)
275 (42)
148 (21)
110 (22)
36 (5)
Finished Potable Water
25
6.0 - 7.6
430 (86)
2.8 (1.7)3
3 (2.7)3
168 (20)
0 (0)
Finished Potable Water
9
6.2 - 8.2
290 (29)
3.0 (2.5)3
197 (35)
4.3 (3.9)2
131 (35)
4.0 (l.O)3
1 Mean value with standard deviation in parenthesis.
2 Range of values.
3 Mean and standard deviation obtained from probability plot.
31
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Blackwater/Graywater System
At the outset of the original Alaska Village Demonstration Project at
Emmonak, treatment of graywater was in a conventional packaged physical/chemi-
cal (P/C) type treatment plant. As time passed, the process was modified in
many attempts to improve the system.
During this period, the collection, grinding, settling, dewatering,
disinfection of sewage soilds and incineration of sludges of blackwater from
the AVDP Building and the Bureau of Indian Affairs School was identified by
the operators as unsatisfactory because the incineration of sludge required a
large amount of fuel to dispose of a relatively small amount of sludge.
An attempt to use waste heat from incineration to preheat boiler feed
water proved ineffective and of no marked economical advantage. Eventually,
the incineration process was abandoned and for a period of time the blackwater
generated was collected, stored, macerated, disinfected, mixed with disin-
fected graywater and discharged through the outfall some distance downstream
in the Yukon River.
As a segment of the 0 & M portion of the contract a new attempt to solve
the gray and blackwater treatment problem was attempted. Using most of the
equipment already installed, contractors designed a system that:
collected graywater as before.
collected blackwater as before.
allowed the blackwater sludges to settle, while keeping the super-
natant moving.
overflowed blackwater supernatant so that it could be transferred to
the graywater collecting/holding tank.
provided continuous aeration of the graywater holding tank.
added a carbon contact step in graywater physical/chemical treat-
ment. This improved the reduction of BODs, color and odor, in the
mixed collected waters.
provided for addition of a concentrated lime solution of the black-
water collection/settling tank to raise pH to a level of 11.5 to
12.0 as a means of disinfection.
pumped off the settled, disinfected sludge with a solids grinding,
progressive cavity pump to a centrifuge for dewatering.
transfered dewaterd sludge to a tank trailer and supernatant to the
graywater collection/holding tank.
provided a landfill for the disinfected sludges.
32
-------
This system was built and installed using funds provided by the U.S.
Public Health Service. In start-up, a number of difficulties became apparent:
The addition of lime to the blackwater collection/settling tank
provided the disinfection required; however, the pH of the super-
natant was too high to be neutralized by mixing with graywater and
flocculation was inhibited as a result.
The amount of sludge collected created a hardship on disposal during
the wet season because landfill areas were inaccessible due to mud.
After evaluating the overall processing and disposal problem, additional
modifications were made utilizing the same equipment, plumbing and most mater-
ials.
Since the powdered carbon did not reduce BOD loadings, color and odor to
anticipated levels and because the real cost of the material in the future
would create an economic burden on the facility; and probably shorten the life
of the mixed media filter bed, it was removed from the process.
The blackwater disinfection with lime at the collection/settling tank was
discontinued. The supernatant continued to be transferred to the graywater
collection/holding tank, was aerated as before, treated by flocculation,
filteration and disinfection as the P/C process had done previously, and
discharged to the Yukon River.
Disinfection by concentrated lime addition was done at the point of
transfer/grinding of the sludges to the centrifuge. The centrate from the
centrifuge that was transferred to the graywater collection/holding tank was
not of sufficient volume of high pH waters to upset the normal P/C process.
The dewatered sludge (approximately 25% solids) was then transferred by
progressive cavity pump into the graywater discharge line to the river.
At the time the utility center was turned over to the local operators,
the plant was operating within limits required by the existing discharge
permit requirements.
Figure 15 shows the present relationship of treatment processes at
Emmonak.
Transfer of Ownership
The City of Emmonak agreed* to accept ownership of the AVDP facilities
providing the needed repairs and improvements were made at no cost to the
city. Consequently, EPA negotiated with the city to assume ownership while
repair and improvement work was in progress. Subsequently, a grant was made
to the city to assist in operation and maintenance of the facility and to
provide management training and technical support for personnel.
Support and training was obtained by the city through contract with the
same engineering firm as the City of Wainwright.
33
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(AJ
DISCHARGE
TO RIVER
GRAYWATER
BLACKWATER SUPERNATANT \ MIXED GRAY/ BLACKWATER
BLACKWATER AERATED
SETTLING GRAYWATER
\" ~/ HOLDING TANK
CENTRATE
e/ iinac JL
^C^^y ^. ^x
GRINDER-
PUMP ^ Dj
\ i
0 0 0
!5 g t
3 f t
O _J 2
o \>- <£
_J Q
u.
INTRIFUGE SLUDGE
'
1
TO
1
^
i
BLACKWATER
SINFECTION SETTLING
DISINFECTED SLUDGE TO RIVER DISCHARGE
Figure 15. Schematic diagram of modified wastewater treatment system at Emmonak.
-------
The utility system in Emmonak seems to be somewhat more successful than
in Wainwright. System management is fraught with problems, but they appear to
be of lesser magnitude and shorter duration than at Wainwright. Emmonak is
not experiencing the same pressures from outside sources as the North Slope
communities and has begun to develop a degree of dependence upon local initia-
tive to establish an economic base. People involved in the fishing industry
which provides significant cash and subsistance support in the area seem to
have a better grasp of the importance of management.
The chief operator obtained assistance in establishing a parts inventory
control system and has been able to do a reasonable job of maintaining the
system. There is still some scavenging from one system to support another,
but not to a critical extent. Orderly parts storage has yet to be organized
and maintained, but the system in use seems to be acceptable for the opera-
tors.
EVALUATION AND PROJECT COSTS
Previous reports 6'7 provide technical evaluations of the various subsys-
tems in each project. Modifications were made where necessary to upgrade
process performance to achieve required results. It has been demonstrated
that equipment which is readily available can be used and achieves the same
degree of performance in rural Alaskan villages as in any other location.
However, it has been explained that reliability of these systems is lower in
isolated villages because of the increased logistics problems and lack of
attention to proper operation, maintenance and management given by the opera-
tors under conditions which would be considered hardship elsewhere.
As in most communities, system performance is directly proportional to
the value placed on the product by the community and the operators. Water
treatment is generally quite reliable and the product is generally excellent
because the operators and the community value that commodity highly. However,
wastewater treatment is of limited quality because operators feel that this is
relatively unimportant. In Wainwright where graywater is treated and reused
for laundry, it carries a slightly higher priority than it might elsewhere.
Reliability is related to a number of items such as:
1. equipment.
2. reliability of electricity.
3. operator attitude.
4. dependence upon and importance to other processes.
Of these, operator attitude and reliability/quality of electricity are most
important.
Cost effectiveness is a difficult subject when related to remote Alaskan
communities (or any Alaskan communities for that matter). Costs are higher
for all aspects of production. However, charges made for products and ser-
vices are higher and tend to balance production costs. A projection for
income and expenses for Emmonak are given in Table 4 as an example of balanc-
ing production and product/service costs.
35
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It will be noted that some services or products seem to provide financial
support for others. Water, for example at $0.07 per gallon is as much as 125
times as expensive as water in metropolitan areas of the "lower 48" and is
further supported somewhat by saunas/showers. The integrated system both
allows and requires a certain amount of give-and-take between process costs
since some aspects such as operator time and building heat and light are
shared.
Table 5 presents the projected operating budget for Wainwright as pro-
posed by the City Council. The unbalanced budget is based upon the presumed
ability of the Borough Government to subsidize the system. The Borough policy
is to adhere to a wage scale which keeps the salary cost for the project very
high. There is also unwritten policy that the cost for utility services to
the community should be limited. An additional factor in the high operating
costs for the Wainwright system is the electric power cost of 31«t per kilowatt
hour.
Previously, it was reported7 that sludge incineration is very expensive.
Alternative solutions are not much more attractive either from economic, sani-
tation or operation aspects. Alternative sludge disposal methods considered
were disinfection with lime coupled with land disposal at the town dump, or,
simple land disposal. Neither alternative is without the risk of incurring
operating difficulties.
Although the operational costs of the project at Emmonak appear to be
balanced by the income, one very important consideration, amortization of
construction costs, has been omitted since the facilities were provided to the
villages at no capital cost. Using the $1 million cost and assuming a life of
25 years, revenue of about $94,000 per year would be required to amortize an
8% loan. This is in addition to all other operating expenses. The Wainwright
facilities which cost about $1.6 million represent the need for about $150,000
per year for amortization of the capital cost at 8% in 25 years. Capital
costs must be a major consideration in developing a comprehensive statewide
program.
Cost effectiveness must be related to some benefit level which is not yet
clearly established in Alaska. The alternatives to the central utility con-
cept range from no service at all to fully piped systems for water distribu-
tion and sewers for collction. Moreover, the services provided must be needed
and acceptable to the community they serve. Most communities would prefer the
fully piped system, but the AVDP has shown that central facilities are highly
acceptable as an alternative means of providing sanitation facilities.
In the Northwest Territories (NWT) of Canada, policy has been developed
which overrides cost effectiveness. The Canadians have determined that a
certain level of service is essential and affordable by all households and
will be provided at fixed cost. Above that cost, customers pay the going
economic rate. In locations where delivery is by vehicle the customer pays $5
per month for the first 800 gallons of water, $5 per month for the next 400
gallons and the economic rate for all additional service. Collection of
wastewater is at the same rate. Where piped systems exist, $15 per dwelling
per month provides up to 40 (Imperial) gallons per person per day. No addi-
tional charge is made for sewerage.
36
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TABLE 4. OPERATING BUDGET — EMMONAK
Source
Income
Washers
Dryers
Sauna/shower
Misc.
Home Water
School Water Contract
Expense
Salaries
Fuel
Power
Supplies and Materials
Equipment Repair
Misc.
$ 8,400
5,800
34,125
105
2,520
50,000
$100,950
Amount
$ 62,000
22,000
6,200
4,200
4,200
2,350
(4800 loads @ 1.75)
(9667 loads @ .60)
(17,500 users @ 1.95)
(36,000 gal @ .07)
$100,950
TABLE 5. OPERATING BUDGET — WAINWRIGHT
Source
Income
Laundry (wash and dry)
Showers/sauna
Home Water
School Water Contract
$ 12,000
35,000
48,000
9,800
$176,800
(3000 loads @ 1.50)
(17,500 users @ 2.00)
Expense
Amount
Salaries
Fuel
Power
Supplies and Materials
Equipment Repair and Replacement
Misc.
$164,800
43,200
70,000
16,000
15,000
5,000
$314,000
37
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NWT policy also prescribes the extent of service to be provided based
upon the population of the community.
Population Service
0-50 none
50 - 150 trucked delivery and sewage pickup
150 - 700 partially piped system
over 700 completely piped water and sewerage system
EPA personnel participated in the preparation of a design manual for
utilities in cold climate regions.13 This text has been cooperatively pub-
lished by the Environmental Protection Service of Canada and EPA. Technical
information is now available under a single cover that, when combined with
engineering experience gained in other regions, will allow design of techni-
cally successful utility projects in cold climates. Clearly, this guidance
does not apply to the social and economic aspects, the intangible segments of
technology. Policy is needed to guide the designers of hardware. Village
projects are very expensive, but they are extravagant only if the capital
costs are not supported by 0 & M funding and appropriate support for the
people involved in 0 & M.
Since 1970, several changes in accounting procedures have occurred in
EPA. The project costs shown are based on project office records which may,
in fact, reflect small errors.
As previously noted, IMS and HUD contributed to the facility at
Wainwright. Non-EPA contributions are indicated by asterisks on the indivi-
dual item and are included unidentified in the totals. Entries are rounded to
the nearest $100.
All these costs are substantial, and the question arises whether such
Federally sponsored central community facilities are costing more than they
should. The recent establishment of commercially sponsored communities at
Prudhoe Bay makes possible some comparisons. Atlantic Richfield Company
(ARCO) and Exxon have made available capital and operating cost information
for sewage treatment and water treatment plants in their joint operations
center on the North Slope.1 Before mid-1975, the design size of these plants
was similar to that of the ADVP facilities. They served a population of 300
to 400 people in a boarding house type arrangement.
As of December 1, 1974, gross investment in the ARCO-Exxon Operations
Center water and sewage treatment plants was $1,173,021 and $1,025,754, re-
spectively, making a total of $2,199,775. Building plumbing fixture costs are
not included. Yearly gross operating costs are reported as follows:
1972 1973 1974
Water Treatment $131,000 $162,400 $147,200
Sewage Treatment 74,900 121,000 120,500
38
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Neither property taxes nor prorated Anchorage office administrative support
costs are included. Average monthly operating costs thus come to $12,240 for
water treatment and $8,790 for treatment of sewage. The total average monthly
cost of operating the Emmonak AVDP facility ($6,300) compares favorably with
•the above. AVDP capital costs have also generally been lower.
In a study prepared for the U.S. Public Health Service and the North
Slope Borough of Alaska14 the cost for an underground utilidor system for
Barrow, Alaska was estimated at $1000 per lineal- foot. The project to provide
service to 168 points would have a capital cost of $52 million and an annual 0
& M cost of $990,000. This estimate was for the utilidor system alone and did
not include the construction and operation of the treatment systems.
These examples are cited to demonstrate the generally high cost of pro-
viding and maintaining utility service in Alaska. It is necessary to design
systems of appropriate technology for each place where utility systems are to
be installed. A fixed policy may tend to stifle individuality, but it may
also provide the foundation for establishment of appropriate technology.
39
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CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Emmonak Facility (1972-1976)
Design
Construction
Safety Modifications and Facility (Completion to date)
Additional Work Required, est.
Grant for Repair (Operation and Maintenance)
Estimated Total
Wainwright I Facility (1972)
Design
Construction Contract
Misc. Direct Support
Water Storage Tank (IMS)
Total
Wainwright II Facility (1975-1979)
Design and Inspection
EPA Procurements
Construction Contracts:
Phase I
Phase I (HUD contribution)
Phase II
Extension of Award Period
Contract Modifications, est.
Shipping of Equipment and Materials
Force Account Work
Generator Shelter
Vehicle Shelter (IHS)
Vehicles and Trailers (IHS)
Grant for Repair (Operation and Maintenance)
Estimated Total
Design for Smaller Villages
$ 63,700
514,300
181,600
25,000
127,068
$906,668
$ 52,900
508,600
15,000
335,000*
$911,500
$ 49,500
210,500
529,500
50,000*
495,000
85,000
10,000
75,700
10,000
8,000
50,000* (1974)
54,000* (1972, FOB
Anchorage)
887,000
$2,514,200
$60,233
OPERATING EXPENSES
Village Personnel Training
Operation and Maintenance - Emmonak
(April 1, 1973 to October 1, 1975)
Revenues
EPA Support
Operation and Maintenance - Wainwright
(April 11. 1973 to October 1. 1975)
Revenues
IHS Support
EPA Support
EPA Administration (1971 through FY 1975)
Personnel
Travel
Miscellaneous
Total
Total
Total
Grand Total
$33,000
$ 78,400*
110,800
189,200
$ 34,700*
2,000*
79,500
$116,200
$497,600
144,700
51,400
$693,700
$5,424,701
40
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SECTION 5
STATE OF ALASKA PROJECTS
Since 1970, the State of Alaska has had a rather ambitious program to
provide sanitation facilities for rural villages. References 16 and 17 have
very briefly documented the early progress of this program. The State is
actively pursuing the accelerating this activity to improve village sanitation
conditions.
THE VILLAGE SAFE WATER ACT
The Village Safe Water Act of 1970 was passed for the purpose of provid-
ing "safe water and hygienic sewage disposal facilities in villages in the
State", and to assure that there will be at least one facility for safe water
and hygienic sewage disposal, and bathing and laundry services. A village is
defined as "an unincorporated community which has between 25 and 6000 people
residing within a two-mile radius; or a second class city". The VSW act is
administered by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation (ADEC).
A village receiving a VSW project is not required to contribute toward
costs of construction. The State may "provide for construction by contract or
through grants to public agencies or private non-profit organizations, or
otherwise".
When a VSW facility is completed the recipient village must be given
title to it. The village must agree to accept ownership of the facility and
be responsible for its operation and maintenance. The State at the discretion
of the Commissioner may assist a village with operation and maintenance ex-
penses when the local governing body lacks sufficient financial resources.
VSW CONSTRUCTION EXPERIENCES
By the end of fiscal year 1979, Village Safe Water sanitation facilities
will have been constructed in 11 Alaskan villages. Table 6 lists these vil-
lages along with data concerning population, location, climate, costs and year
of construction. All VSW projects are central facilities. Figure 16 shows
VSW project locations.
Northway and Chevak
In late 1972 and early 1973 the villages of Northway and Chevak requested
assistance under the VSW program in finishing central facilities they had
begun to construct on their own initiative. Since Northway and Chevak had
committed their own resources and thus demonstrated a sincere desire to im-
prove sanitation in the villages, they were granted VSW assistance.
41
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TABLE 6. VILLAGE SAFE WATER PROJECT DATA
Village
Northway
Chevak
Nulato
Selawik
Alakanuk
Pitkas Point
Koyukuk
Beaver
Kongiganak
Tanana
Council
Location
N. Lat. W. Long. Population
62°58'
61°32'
64°43'
66°36'
62°41 '
62°02'
64°53'
66°22'
59°52'
65°10'
64°40'
141°56'
165°35'
158°06'
160°00'
164°34'
163°17'
157°42'
147°24'
163°02'
152°04'
163°40'
40
447
330
521
512
85
124
101
200
350
Mean Jan.
Temp °F
-24
+2
-16
-16
-3
-3
-16
-20
+2
-20
-8
Mean Annual
Temp °F
+22
+29
+25
+22
+28
+28
+25
+30
+30
+23
+24
Constr.
Cost X1000
60
75
860
1100
1000
350
440
450
1100
1400
118
Operating Year of Initial
Cost X1000 Operation
28
37.5
109
109
109
38
25
25
1972
1972
1974
1975
1975
1976
1976
1976
1979
1979
1979
-------
Figure 16. Location of Village Safe Water Projects built by
the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation.
Before the VSW project began, Northway had a one-story wood frame build-
ing of about 700 square feet situated over a well. The building housed a
one-room health clinic, a watering point for the village and a room for com-
munity gatherings. The VSW project consisted of improving the watering point,
and adding laundry equipment and showers. Wastewater from the facility (con-
taining no toilet waste) is discharged to a small natural pond. Chemical
toilets used in the facility are emptied into a Federal Aviation Administra-
tion sewage treatment facility several miles away.
Nulato, Selawik and Alakanuk
In early 1973 the Alaska Department of Education, lacking funds to pro-
vide water and sewer services for new schools scheduled for construction in
Nulato, Selawik and Alakanuk, asked ADEC to install VSW facilities in those
villages. The VSW facilities were to provide sanitation services for both the
new schools and the villages. ADEC agreed to this arrangement in return for
promised operation and maintenance support from the schools.
In each village the school and VSW facility were designed and constructed
under joint contracts administered by the Alaska Department of Public Works.
All three VSW facilities were patterned after the AVDP projects in Emmonak and
Wainwright. They are two story structures approximately 55 feet square and
built on piles. The facilities contain washers and dryers, showers, saunas,
rest rooms, solid waste disposal bins, honey bucket dumps and a watering
point.
43
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Nulato
At Nulato the water source is a well, water from which contains more than
28 mg/1 iron and 5 mg/1 manganese. Water treatment is pre-chlorination fol-
lowed by alum and lime coagulation/flocculation, rapid sand filtration, and
post-chlorination. The water treatment plant is a standard Met-Pro physical/
chemical package plant with 14,000 gpd capacity.
The sewage treatment plant is also a 14,000 gpd Met-Pro physical/chemical
package plant, in which the unit processes are alum and lime coagulation/floc-
culation, carbon sorption, rapid sand filtration, and chlorination. Treated
effluent is discharged to the land surface through an elevated, insulated and
heated conduit.
Sludge from both the water and sewage treatment plants is dewatered by
centrifugation and then hauled to a landfill. Originally the plant had an
incinerator with a heat exchange unit, but operating problems caused this to
be discarded.
Although the treatment plants have had problems, they are now performing
adequately. Sludge build-up has been a problem in both plants.
A hot water boiler is the heat source, and a hot air furnace is the
secondary source of building heat in case the boiler fails or is inadequate.
The boiler and hot air furnace are interconnected through a complex control
system which has been very difficult to keep operating properly.
Selawik and Alakanuk
The water and sewage treatment plants at Selawik and Alakanuk are the
same as the plants at Nulato — Met-Pro physical/chemical package plants with
14,000 gpd capacity. For these villages, however, the water is obtained from
surface sources, and product water has been of good quality since the facili-
ties were completed (Selawik in October, 1975, and Alakanuk in December,
1975). The sewage treatment plants also seem to be operating well. Treated
effluent is discharged to the land surface.
The floor plans, mechanical systems, and methods of providing sanitation
services in the Selawik and Alakanuk facilities are very nearly the same as in
the Nulato facility.
All three of these plants require constant operator attention.
Pitkas Point
The Pitkas Point VSW facility was completed in February, 1976. It is a
wood frame structure of about 1300 square feet resting on a post and pad
foundation and containing a watering point, honey bucket dump, washers and
dryers, rest rooms, showers and saunas. The water source is a collection
gallery in the bed of a creek. Water treatment is rapid sand filtration and
carbon sorption on an as-needed basis, followed by chlorination and fluorida-
tion. Sewage is treated in a secondary biological system which consists of
44
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four 1000 gpd extended aeration package plants interconnected through a split-
ter box. The backage plants are Multi-Flo units with an aeration chamber, and
solids separation through a filter membrane. Treated effluent is discharged
to an underground leach field. The Pitkas Point school will be plumbed into
the VSW facility to receive water supply and sewage disposal services.
Koyukuk
Design of the Koyukuk VSW facility was completed in February, 1976 and
the well intended for its water source was drilled in September of 1975. This
facility is similar in size and configuration to the one in Pitkas Point
except that it contains no saunas and has a pile foundation system. The low
capacity well (6 gpm) produces good quality water, so water treatment is only
chlorination and fluoridation. Treated sewage effluent from three 1500 gpd
(Multi-Flow) plants is discharged into a stream channel which has intermittent
flow. The new school to be constructed in Koyukuk will receive water supply
and waste disposal services from the VSW facility.
Beaver
This facility provides the same services as the one in Pitkas Point,
including service for the village school. The water source is two wells in
the thaw bulb of the Yukon River. Sewage treatment is extended aeration in a
5000 gpd Bio-Pure package plant. Treated effluent is discharged to a sub-
surface leach field in the thaw bulb of the Yukon.
Kongiganak
The facility is basically similar to the ones in Pitkas Point, Koyukuk,
and Beaver; and it also serves the village school.
The water supply is the river, with a roof catchment system serving as a
back-up source for the summer months. Kongiganak is located close to the
coast and storms back up salt water into the river for 3-4 days at a stretch.
25,000 gallons of water storage is provided in order to provide water through-
out these periods. A second problem is the varying water quality in the
river. The late summer shows turbidities over 200 and color over 500. In the
winter, the color and turbidity go down, but the iron content goes up as high
as 15 mg/1. This necessitated installing a bank of multi-media, greensand and
carbon filters, which sequence of use is varied throughout the year.
Wastewater treatment is accomplished by aeration with discharge to a salt
water lake adjacent to the village.
Waste heat from the school generators is utilized to heat the building.
Council
Council has a watering point. Electricity for the well pump is provided
by a wind generator which charges a bank of storage batteries. The electric-
ity is used to run a submersible pump which feeds 1000 gallons of storage.
The watering point is designed to operate for 2 weeks with no wind. A back-up
generator is provided.
45
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Tanana
Tanana uses a well in the thaw bulb of the Yukon River for its water
supply. Chiorination and floridation are provided. The waste disposal is to
an aerated lagoon which then discharges to a leach field. The lagoon also
serves as the wastewater treatment facility for a hospital, school, and FAA
facility located at Tanana.
COSTS
Table 6 contains a summary of capital construction costs for the VSW
projects. The costs shown include both design and construction. The table
also lists the estimated annual operating budgets for VSW facilities. The
figures exclude amortization of capital costs.
Sources of revenue in the villages are limited. Individuals who use the
VSW facilities pay fees, but fees cannot be so high people no longer can
afford to use the facilities. One to two thousand dollars per month might be
raised through users' fees in larger villages (400 to 500 residents) and pro-
portionately less in smaller towns. Public health clinics, some owned by the
U.S. Public Health Service and some owned by the villages, might receive water
supply and waste disposal services from VSW facilities and thus become sources
of revenue, but not more than a few hundred dollars per month. Fees paid for
school water and sewer services represent a third source of revenue which
could routinely amount to about 25 percent of the VSW facility operating
budget. Hence as a general rule, more than half of the money needed to oper-
ate VSW facilities will have to come from outside the villages.
CONTINUING PROGRAM
ADEC has a continuing responsibility for VSW projects. Not only does
ADEC assist in the design and construction of new facilities, but in the
operation and maintenance of existing facilities. Because of the complex
problems faced by VSW and all other organizations involved in building and
maintaining sanitation services in the bush, a comprehensive Statewide plan-
ning effort was initiated. It was hypothesized that by bringing the major
participants together, workable solutions to common problems like operation
and maintenance could be developed, thereby increasing the effectiveness of
existing programs and improving sanitation conditions in the villages. How-
ever, after nearly two years of intense effort, VSW staff concluded that this
statewide comprehenstve approach was not feasible. As a result, the plan of
study was recently revised to focus solely on the VSW program. When com-
pleted, this planning effort would:
1) Prescribe a future role for VSW in relation to the other rural
sanitation programs like the Public Health Service;
2) Recommend a rate at which new VSW facilities should be built, esti-
mate funding levels and describe a method for setting construction
priorities;
46
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3) Recommend a "strategy for operating and maintaining VSW facilities,
estimate what it will cost and suggest how this support should be
provided.
Hopefully, this revised approach will provide State policy makers with a
strategy for dealing with two key issues: 1) the rate of capital construc-
tion; and 2) whether or not the State should continue to subsidize operation
and maintenance of sanitation facilities.
47
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REFERENCES
1. Alter, Amos J. "The Polar Palace". The Northern Engineer Vol. 5 No. 2.
p. 4, 1973.
2. Reid, Barry H. "Village Sanitation". The Northern Engineer Vol. 4 No.
1. p. 9, 1972.
3. Gordon, Ronald C. "Winter Survival of Fecal Indicator Bacteria in a
Subarctic Alaskan River". EPA-R2-72-013. USEPA, Arctic Environmen-
tal Research Laboratory, College, Alaska.
4. Puchtler, Bertold. "Social and Economic Implications of the Alaska
Village Demonstration Projects". Working Paper No. 20, Arctic
Environmental Research Station, USEPA, College, Alaska. 1973.
5. Reid, Barry H. "Alaska Village Demonstration Project: First Generation
of Integrated Utilities for Remote Communities". Working Paper No.
22. Arctic Environmental Research Station, USEPA, College, Alaska.
1973.
6. "Alaska Village Demonstration Projects". Report to the Congress, Office
of Research and Development, USEPA, July 1973.
7. Puchtler, Bertold, Barry Reid and Conrad Christiansen. "Water-Related
Utilities for Small Communities in Rural Alaska". EPA-600/3-76-104.
Arctic Environmental Research Station, USEPA, College, Alaska.
8. Pelto, Perlli J. Ir\ "Consequences of Economic Change in Circumpolar
Regions", ec. by Ludger Muller-Wille, et. al. Boreal Institute of
Northern Studies, Univ. of Alberta. 1977. 269 pps.
9. Cameron, J. J. , V. Christensen and D. J. Gamble. "Water and Sanitation
in the Northwest Territories". The Northern Engineer Vol. 9 No. 4,
1977.
10. McGarry, M. G. "Appropriate Technology in Civil Engineering" J.n
Environmental Impacts of Civil Engineering Projects and Practices.
American Society of Civil Engineers, 1978.
11. Rice, E. "Vapor Barriers - The Ideal Arctic House IV". The Northern
Engineer. Vol. 5 No. 4. 1974.
12. Carlson, A. R. "Heat Loss and Condensation in Northern Residential
Constructions" Univ. of Alaska Cooperative Extension Service publi-
cation. # p. 558.
49
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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Smith, D. W. , S. Reed, J. Cameron, G.
and J. Scribner. "Cold Climate
Report EPS3-WP-79-2. March 1979.
Heinke, F. James, B. "eid, W. Ryan
Utilities Delivery Design Manual".
Environment Canada.
Leman, L. D. "Water and Sewer Utilities for Barrow, Alaska". Second
International Symposium on Utility Delivery in Northern Regions.
Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. March 1979.
Milan, Frederick A. "The Aculturation of the Contemporary Eskimo of
Wainwright, Alaska". Anthropological Papers of the University of
Alaska. Vol. XI, No. 2, 1964.
Sargent, J. W. and J. W. Scribner, "Village Safe Water Projects in
Alaska - Case Studies". Utilities Delivery in Arctic Regions Report
EPA-3-WP-77-1, Environment Canada. January 1977.
Sargent, J. W. "Operation, Maintenance and Management Assistance for
Rural Sanitation Facilities". Utilities Delivery in Northern Re-
gions. Environment Canada, March 1979.
50
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APPENDIX
PL 92-500 Section 113 as amended by PL 95-217
ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS
Sec. 113.(a) The Administrator is authorized to enter into agreements
with the State of Alaska to carry out one or more projects to demonstrate
methods to provide for central community facilities for safe water and elimi-
nation or control of pollution in those native villages of Alaska without such
facilities. Such project shall include provisions for community safe water
supply systems, toilets, bathing and laundry facilities, sewage disposal
facilities, and other similar facilities, and educational and informational
facilities and programs relating to health and hygiene. Such demonstration
projects shall be for the further purpose of developing preliminary plans for
providing such safe water and such elimination or control of pollution for all
native villages in such State.
(b) In carrying out this section the Administrator shall cooperate with
the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare for the purpose of utilizing
such of the personnel and vacilities of that Department as may be appropriate.
(c) The Administrator shall report to Congress not later than July 1,
1973, the results of the demonstration projects authorized by this section
together with his recommendations, including any necessary legislation, relat-
ing to the establishment of a statewide program.
(d) There is authorized to be appropriated not to exceed $2,000,000 to
carry out this section. In addition, there is authorized to be appropriated
to carry out this section not to exceed $200,000 for the fiscal year ending
September 30, 1978, and $220,000 for the fiscal year ending September 30,
1979.
(e) The Administrator is authorized to coordinate with the Secretary of
the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Secretary of the Depart-
ment of Housing and Urban Development, the Secretary of the Department of the
Interior, the Secreatry of the Department of Agriculture, and the heads of any
other departments or agencies he may deem appropriate to conduct a joint study
with representatives of the State of Alaska and the appropriate Native organi-
zations (as defined in Public Law 92-203) to develop a comprehensive program
for achieving adequate sanitation services in Alaska villages. This study
shall be coordinated with the programs and projects authorized by sections
104(q) and 105(e)(2) of this Act. The Administrator shall submit a report of
the results of the study, together with appropriate supporting data and such
recommendations as he deems desirable, to the Committee on Environment and
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Public Works of the Senate and to the Committee on Public Works and Transpor-
tation of the House of Representatives not later than December 31, 1979. The
Administrator shall also submit recommended administrative actions, proce-
dures, and any proposed legislation necessary to implement the recommendations
of the study no later than June 30, 1980.
(f) The Administrator is authorized to provide technical, financial and
management assistance for operation and maintenance of the demonstration
projects constructed under this section, until such time as the recommenda-
tions of subsection (e) are implemented.
(g) For the purpose of this section, the term "village" shall mean an
incorporated or unincorporated community with a population of ten to six
hundred people living within a two-mile radius. The term "sanitation ser-
vices" shall mean water supply, sewage disposal, solid waste disposal and
other services necessary to maintain generally accepted standards of personal
hygiene and public health.
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
{Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/3-80-039
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Alaska Village Demonstration Projects Final Report
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NC.
5. REPORT DATE
March 1980 issuing date
7. AUTHOR(S)
Barry H. Reid
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Corvallis Environmental Research Laboratory
200 S.W. 35th Street
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
U.S. EPA Office of Research and Development
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
inhouse - final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
Concludes project descriptions reported in "Report to the
Congress Alaska Village Demonstration Projects" (July 1, 1973) and "Water Related
Utilities for Small Communities in Rural Alaska" EPA-600/3-76-104.
16. ABSTRACT
Two demonstration projects were built as authorized by Section 113 of PL 92-500.
Modular construction was used to provide central utility systems which included water
supply, laundry, bathing, saunas, and wastewater treatment. Service to homes was by
vehicular delivery. Fire destroyed the facility at Wainwright in 1973 and the project
was subsequently rebuilt. Energy conservation measures were employed to minimize
costs of operation. Equipment performed satisfactorily, but operator preparedness
was lacking, thus, many breakdowns occurred. Overall cost of operation and main-
tenance of the facilities nearly exceed the financial capacity of the communities.
Ownership of the facilities was transferred to the local government by the EPA. The
AVDP was paralleled by projects built by the Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation (ADEC) at 11 locations. Small communities need outside support for
operation and maintenance of utility systems. Time and training will be required to
prepare local residents to assume managerial responsibilities for these proiects.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
COSATI Field/Group
Alaska
Water Supply
Wastewater Treatment
Vehicular Delivery
Costs
Energy Conservation
AVDP
Village Safe Water
Program
Central Utility
Systems
06/F, I
13/B, M
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
62
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
53
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