&EPA
              United States
              Environmental Protection
              Agency
              Environmental Research
              Laboratory
              Corvallis OR 97330
EPA-600/3-80-039
March 1980
              Research and Development
Alaska Village
Demonstration
Projects
  inal  Report

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                RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES

Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology.  Elimination  of traditional grouping was  consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:

      1.  Environmental Health Effects Research
      2.  Environmental Protection Technology
      3.  Ecological Research
      4.  Environmental Monitoring
      5.  Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
      6.  Scientific  and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
      7.  Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
      8.  "Special" Reports
      9.  Miscellaneous Reports

This report has been assigned to the ECOLOGICAL RESEARCH series. This series
describes research on the effects of pollution on humans, plant and animal spe-
cies, and materials. Problems are assessed for their long- and short-term influ-
ences. Investigations include formation, transport, and pathway studies to deter-
mine the fate of pollutants and their effects. This work provides the technical basis
for setting standards to minimize undesirable changes in living organisms in the
aquatic, terrestrial, and atmospheric  environments.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.

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                                        EPA-600/3-80-039
                                        March  1980
   ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION RROJECTS

               Final Report
               Barry H.  Reid
            Freshwater Division
Corvallis Environmental  Research Laboratory
         Con/all is,  Oregon  97330
CORVALLIS ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
    OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
 -  U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         CORVALLIS, OREGON  97330

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                                  DISCLAIMER

     This  report  has  been  reviewed by  the Corvallis  Environmental  Research
Laboratory, U.S.  Environmental  Protection  Agency,  and approved  for publica-
tion.   Mention  of  trade names  or  commercial  products  does  not  constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
                                      n

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                                   FOREWORD

     Effective regulatory and enforcement actions by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency  would be  virtually  impossible without  sound scientific  data on
pollutants  and  their   impact  on  environmental  stability  and human  health.
Responsibility for building  this  data base has  been  assigned  to  EPA's Office
of Research and Development and its 15 major field installations,  one of which
is the  Corvallis  Environmental Research Laboratory (CERL).

     The  primary mission of the  Corvallis Laboratory is research  on  the ef-
fects  of  environmental  pollutants  on  terrestrial,   freshwater,   and  marine
ecosystems;  the  behavior,  effects and  control   of  pollutants  in   lakes  and
streams; and the development of  predictive models on  the movement  of pollut-
ants in the biosphere.

     The  Corvallis Laboratory  also has responsibility for EPA's  Cold Climate
Research  Program.  This report summarizes  work accomplished  in  Alaska  as  a
part of the Cold Climate Program which studies the cold climate aspects of all
environmental  problems  including  ecological effects,   health effects and con-
trol technology.   The experience  gained  in the demonstration projects covered
by this report  should provide guidance to  future utility projects in Alaska.
                                   Thomas A. Murphy, Director
                                   Corvallis Environmental  Research Laboratory
                                      m

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                                   ABSTRACT

     Two demonstration projects  were built as authorized by Section 113 of PL
92-500.  Modular  construction was   used  to  provide  central  utility  systems
which  included  water supply,  laundry, bathing,  saunas,  and wastewater treat-
ment.  Service  to  homes  was  by vehicular delivery.  Fire destroyed the facil-
ity  at Wainwright in  1973 and the  project was  subsequently rebuilt.   Energy
conservation measures were employed  to minimize  costs of operation.  Equipment
performed satisfactorily,   but operator preparedness was  lacking,  thus,  many
breakdowns occurred.  Overall  cost   of operation and maintenance of the facil-
ities  was transferred to the local government by the EPA.  The AVDP was paral-
leled  by projects built by the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation
(ADEC) at 11  locations.   Small  communities need outside support for operation
and  maintenance of  utility systems.  Time and  training will  be  required to
prepare  local  residents  to  assume  managerial  responsibilities  for  these
projects.

     This report  covers  a period from 1970  to  1979 and work was completed as
of January 1980.
                                      IV

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                                   CONTENTS
                                                                          Page

Introduction 	  1

Conclusions  	  7

Central Utility Systems  	  9

Project Implementation 	 12

State of Alaska Projects	41

References	49

Appendix	51

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                                   SECTION 1

                                 INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

     The Alaska Village  Demonstration  Projects (AVDP) established by the U.S.
Environmental Protection  Agency were  intended to demonstrate  methods  of im-
proving environmental  health conditions  in rural Alaska.  The  need for such
improvements  is  great.   Seventy  percent  of  Alaska's  natives   live  in small
villages where  safe drinking water  is not readily obtainable  and where ade-
quate waste disposal is often impossible without facilities for special  treat-
ment.  Typical sources of  drinking water are  streams, shallow  lakes,  or rain
during the  summer.  Many  of  these ponds and streams are stagnant and contami-
nated.  In  areas  underlain  by  permafrost,  wells  are  generally unproductive.
During the winter, villagers cut ice and melt it in clean fuel drums  at home.

     Simple methods of waste disposal are often not possible because of unfav-
orable terrain  and soil  conditions.1'2   Many villages are subject  to  annual
flooding.   Wastes from  latrines and  dumps re-emerge during flood  periods and
are  spread  throughout the town.  During the short summer, the  stench  can  be
annoying  and pervasive.   Communities  along the  Arctic  Ocean  store  domestic
waste  from  "honey buckets"  in  empty fuel  drums some distance  from  the home.
In early  spring,  the  drums  are  hauled  out onto the ocean ice  for disposal.
The public health hazard associated with this practice is serious.

     The difficulties of  arriving at practical solutions to water supply and
waste  disposal  problems  in  such  locations  are as great  as  the  need.   Suc-
cessful application of many conventional approaches is ruled out by high costs
and/or the  severe  climate.   Water is frozen most of the year.   The processes
by which  wastes  naturally tend  to  decompose  are interrupted  and  seriously
retarded by  the  long  winters.   The cold also  tends to preserve pathogens for
longer periods than under temperate weather conditions.3  These  considerations
substantially increase  associated health  hazards.   Health and  environmental
standards can be  achieved  through new service concepts such as  renovation and
reuse  of  water  for other than  potable purposes  and  through  application  of
unconventional or innovative technology.

     These  problems stimulated  the   legislation  designed  to  conceive,  con-
struct, install  and evaluate  cost and performance of prototype  facilities  to
demonstrate alternative methods  of providing basic utility services in Alaskan
native villages.

SCOPE AND PURPOSE

     The  Alaska  Village  Demonstration  Projects  (AVDP)  were   authorized  by
Section 113 of  the Water  Pollution  Control Act  (PL 92-500)  in 1970.   Subse-

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quent  amendments were  made to  this  section and  are contained  in  PL 95-217
which extended the demonstration period for  the AVDP  and authorized additional
expenditures (see Appendix).

LEGISLATIVE INTENT

     The  Alaska  Village  Demonstration  Projects  called  for  the  design and
construction  of  one or more central community facilities  to demonstrate  meth-
ods  which "provide  for safe  water and  the elimination  or control  of  water
pollution  in  those native  villages  in  Alaska without such facilities."  Pro-
visions  for  bathing  and  laundering were to be  included.   Health and  hygiene
related  educational  and training programs were authorized. Also, the projects
were  to  result in the  development  of  preliminary plans to provide safe  water
and control environmental pollution in all Alaskan native villages.

     The  intent  of the legislation was  to demonstrate methods of meeting the
water-related" service  needs   of  a village  by means of  a  central  community
facility  as  opposed to the more conventional approach of  extending full-scale
water  and sewerage service to all  homes.   A secondary consideration was that
the  facilities were  to  be of modular design  to permit easy transport and  quick
installation  and to  be relocatable if  necessary.   It was felt that this ap-
proach  could  reduce the construction costs  and permit facility relocation if,
at  some  future date,  the  village was moved to a different  site.   In 1969-1970,
village  relocation was  a  legitimate consideration.   Before  enactment of the
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of  1971, the long-term existence  of many
smaller villages was uncertain.

      Hope was expressed that  the  demonstration project  would  be completed  in
two  years,  that several  prototype designs would  be  available to  meet the
requirements  of  most  Alaska villages, and that the  initial authorization  of  $1
million  would be sufficient  for  four  or  five  installations.   Early  in the
project  it became apparent  that these  expectations  were  not  realistic.  It was
found  that additional funds would  be  required  to complete just  two installa-
tions.  In 1972,  another $1  million was authorized  to continue the work.

      The  legislation  did  not address  two  pertinent  questions.   First, who
would  own  the   completed  facility, and  second,  how the  facilities  would  be
operated  and  maintained in  communities  without sufficient  resources to  pay the
cost.

AVDP  HISTORY

      The  AVDP was  administered by  EPA through the  Arctic  Environmental Re-
search Station  in  Fairbanks, Alaska.    A  staff of  four  full-time employees
administered  contracts  and  grants  and  collected and evaluated  data relating  to
the  projects.   Several  reports were published by  the AVDP staff dealing with
technical,  social and economic  aspects  of the  projects.  These are listed  in
the references.4'5'6'7

      Project  sites were selected  at Emmonak on the Yukon  River delta near the
Bering Sea and Wainwright on the coast  of the Chuckchi Sea southwest of Barrow
(Figure   1).   These   locations were chosen  after  consultation with  the U.S.

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Public Health Service, the  Bureau  of Indian Affairs,  the Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation, the Association  of  Village Council  Presidents and
the North Slope Native Association.
                                              0    100  200
                                                   ^™
                                                 MILES
                          Figure 1.   AVDP locations.
     After the sites were  chosen  meetings  were held in the  selected  villages
to describe  the  project concept  and to receive public comments.   EPA  empha-
sized  from  the beginning  that it was  not planning long  term operation  and
maintenance of the facilities and  would grant ownership  to  the  village(s)  upon
completion  of the  demonstrations.   In the  interim,   native  operators  were
selected  by  the  village leadership  (with  the  advice of project staff) to  be
trained for  facfifty  operation,  maintenance and management.  Wages were  paid
directly or indirectly by EPA to the operators.

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     Facilities  were  designed and installed  at  both villages after selecting
optimum  design  concepts from several proposals  received under public invita-
tion to  bid.   Most proposals were based upon modular  structure  of very con-
servative  size  to house  the various treatment  facilities and  personal  ser-
vices.    As much  as  practical,  processes were  interfaced  to  recover "waste"
energy  and thereby  minimize  operating  costs.   A  schematic  diagram of the
processes  at  Wainwright is presented in  Figure  2.  Electric  power generation
was beyond the  scope  of the  original projects  so designs were based upon the
use of power  from the  existing  village  system in  both cases.  However, standby
power was ultimately provided.

     Construction  of the facility  for Emmonak was  done at several locations in
the "Lower 48"  and the completed  modules shipped  to the site for final place-
ment.   A similar scheme was used for the  Wainwright Project.

     Field assembly of  the systems and  start-up took place from September 1972
to  February 1973.  Records were kept after opening the facilities to assist in
evaluating costs and efficiencies  as well as documenting use  patterns.

     In  November  1973  fire destroyed the Wainwright  facility before sufficient
operation  and use information  had been collected and evaluated.   EPA decided
to  redesign  and  rebuild  the facility in  order  to complete  the evaluation.
Design  was accomplished  by  contract with  an engineering  firm,  which worked
within  the concept and scope  prescribed  by the  EPA  project engineer.   Con-
struction  was accomplished  by  fixed cost  contract  with a  construction firm
with  Alaskan  experience.  The  method of funding  the contracts  by  EPA led to
cost  overruns.   Delays ensued  and as  a  result  of insufficient inspection by
EPA and  poor  quality work by the  construction contractor, flaws in the struc-
ture caused further delays and  required extensive repairs.  Agency reorganiza-
tion  and  program-priorities  led  to  elimination  of EPA's  staff  on the AVDP.
Subsequent operation  and  maintenance  of the  projects  was  carried  out with
grants and contracts.

     In  1977, ownership of the  Emmonak  facility was  transferred to the village
after  EPA  made  repairs and  modifications  to optimize the system.  Simultan-
eously,  a grant was made  to  the  village  to  aid  in  obtaining operation, main-
tenance  and management training and technical assistance and support no  longer
available  directly from EPA.   A final  report of  performance  and service pro-
vided  to the  village  by those  activities was prepared  by the  contractor.  The
grant  expired on  December 31, 1978;  since  then  full  responsibility for the
facility is with the City of Emmonak.

     Negotiations  were  held  in  December  1978  with the North  Slope Borough
(Alaska) to assume ownership of  the  Wainwright  facility.  The Borough govern-
ment has legal  utility authority  for  all  cities  within  its  boundaries.  Owner-
ship of  the Wainwright facility  and  full responsibility for  its operation and
maintenance and management was transferred to  the Borough in  March 1979.

     In  addition  to   the  projects built at  Wainwright and  Emmonak,  a third
design was prepared for a much smaller community.  This design was based upon
a  hypothetical  community and an  actual  site was  never selected.  The fire at
Wainwright necessitated the  use  of  funds  for replacement at that facility,
precluding a third project.


                                      4

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                         o~o
POTA



	 ,
BLE V)
TANK

W<
HE

IATER

TER
ATER



hut


(







x 1
ii
s5
                                            dffwry truck
                                              school
                                            BIA school
                                            collodion truck
                                            oeua to ocrai

Figure 2.   Schematic diagram of project at Wainwright.

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     The  EPA  retains  responsibility for  Section  113(e) of  PL  92-500  (as
amended) which  requires development of a  comprehensive  program for achieving
adequate sanitation services in Alaskan villages in cooperation with the State
of Alaska.   Finally,  the  EPA  is  required  to submit  recommendations  for ac-
tions,  procedures  and  legislation  necessary  to  implement the recommendations
of the  comprehensive  study.   These activities and responsibilities are beyond
the scope of this report and will be reported at a later date.

PROJECT REPORTS

     Two  comprehensive  status  reports  on  the AVDP  have been published.  The
first  "Report  to  the  Congress,  Alaska  Village Demonstration  Projects"6  was
published  in July  1973 and covered progress  to that date.  In September 1976,
a  second  report  "Water   Related Utilities  for Small  Communities  in  Rural
Alaska"7 was released.  These publications  dealt in detail with the conduct of
the  AVDP,  interim  conclusions  and tentative  recommendations.   Other reports
and  publications  were  also prepared to address problem areas of  the  proj-
ects.2'4'5   This  report summarizes  the  conduct and  results  of the AVDP.  It
is the  final report  for the projects and contains conclusions and recommenda-
tions  resulting from  nearly  eight years of  effort.   The  results  of the spe-
cific  effort  to  integrate  utility  functions,  including energy  aspects  as
requested  and  financed by  the  Department of Housing  and  Urban Development
(HUD), are contained in the section on Energy and Cost Conservation.

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                                   SECTION 2

                                  CONCLUSIONS

CENTRAL COMMUNITY FACILITY CONCEPT

     The  idea  of  coming to  a community  center  to secure  water,  to  do  the
laundry, and to bathe (instead of performing these functions in the individual
homes)  has  proven  acceptable to  the people  of  Wainwright and  Emmonak.   In
communities where  piped distribution  and  collection systems  would  be extra-
ordinarily  difficult to  install,  or  where water  is  especially scarce,  the
central community facility concept has been demonstrated as a viable method to
meet  basic  water-related needs  of Alaskan native  villages.   Combined with a
vehicular distribution  and  collection system,  the concept can serve  as  more
than an interim solution.

INSTITUTIONAL NEEDS

     Regional  native health or housing authorities appear to be the appropri-
ate  institutions  for providing  native villages with the  technical,  logistic
and  administrative  support they  need to  operate and maintain basic  utilities.
At present, the  village and/or regional  authorities do  not have the financial
and  technical  base for this  support.  An alternative to  conventional  financ-
ing, training and management  concepts is  needed if facilities of this type  are
to succeed on a viable wide-use basis.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE COSTS

     With rare exception, Alaska native  villages cannot pay,  through  service
charges, the full  cost of  routine operation and maintenance  of water-related
utilities, especially where complex  treatment  is  required to meet technology-
based or receiving  water quality standards.

INTEGRATION OF  UTILITIES

     The electric  power available  in most Alaskan villages is of poor quality
and  furnished  by  inefficient  installations which  waste large  amounts  of  use-
able  heat.   Through  integration  of the  several  village  utility  components,
reliability  could  be   increased,  personnel  costs  reduced,   and  substantial
energy savings  accomplished.

EMPLOYMENT AND  ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

     The  utility, service centers  sponsored under the AVDP program  are labor
intensive.  In regions of very high unemployment and low incomes they add from
four  to  six full-time  jobs  for local  people.  Thus, when  operation  and main-

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tenance  funds  are  available,  these installations  contribute to the economic
well-being as well as  the improved sanitary conditions of the villages.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTING FACILITIES

     There  is  no  single  best  method  of  constructing water-related utility
facilities  in  rural  Alaska.   Local  conditions,  accessibility,  etc.,  are so
varied  that a  limited number  of  standard designs  could not  be expected to
effectively  meet the  wide range of  conditions.   Therefore,  designs and  con-
struction techniques will  vary with the individual situation.

FIRE PROTECTION

     Providing  full fire  protection for  public  facilities  in rural Alaska is
unusually  difficult and expensive.   However,  since  fire  is  a major threat to
facilities  in  cold climate regions, a decision not  to  provide  this  protection
requires  careful  consideration of resources available for replacement.  Insur-
ance is generally not available except at very high premiums.

EQUIPMENT AND PROCESSES

     Treatment  processes  for rural  Alaska  must be able to accommodate extreme
variability  in  the composition  of  raw wastes and should  be designed as simply
as possible to meet requirements.

MANAGEMENT SKILLS

     The  management of utility systems requires skills  and understanding which
are  generally not well  developed in Alaskan natives  living in remote villages.
Managers  will  have to  be  "imported"  or  recruited locally and  given extensive
training  if utilities are to operate reliably and economically.
                                      8

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                                   SECTION 3

                            CENTRAL UTILITY SYSTEMS

     The  concept  of  the central  utility  system  may  be unique  to  Northern
environments.   The extreme climate of the north and the high cost of construc-
tion  of  water-related  utilities  makes  the  concept particularly  attractive
because the  need  for and costs  of extensive distribution  systems  are elimi-
nated.  Central  systems  may  vary  in  nature with  nearly as much  difference
between one central  utility  system and another, as  there is  between the con-
ventional  system and  the central system.

     Some central  systems  include  distribution  or combination of distribution
systems to  certain  locations  within the community.  Others make  no provision
for distribution of water or collection of wastes.   Some provide only a source
of  pure water, while others  include  the provision  for laundry  and  bathing
needs.

     The  number of people required to operate a central utility system varies
depending upon  factors  such  as the type of  distribution  system,  the hours of
operation, and  if other services are provided.  At least one full-time skilled
operator is normally required to operate water and wastewater treatment equip-
ment and maintain  the heating system, water storage facilities,  standby gener-
ators and other equipment.   If a vehicular distribution system  is provided at
least one driver  will be required  to  deliver water to homes and  other water
customers.  If  sewage is  collected by vehicle,  a second  driver  probably will
be  required  to make  wastewater  collections.  The water  distribution  vehicle
for Wainwright  is shown in Figure 3 while a typical  "utiliduct"  cross-section
is  shown  in  Figure  4.   Depending upon the size of  the  piped delivery system,
additional  full-time maintenance  people will  be required.   In  addition,  a
general  manager will  be needed and one or more clerks to maintain records and
billings if these duties cannot be combined with those of other employees.

     Hours of  operation  will  further dictate the  personnel  requirements for a
central  utility system.   A system  which operates  for only a limited number of
hours per week can  be  operated  reliably by  a  single  full-time  person.   How-
ever, valuable utility equipment must be protected through the care of skilled
personnel  on a  regular  basis  including weekends and  holidays.  An  attempt to
operate any utility  system with  a single operator will  undoubtedly result in
the overworking of the  person and eventual  decline  of  performance and subse-
quent system failure.

     Comparing  the number of  personnel  required to operate a central  utility
system  with  requirements of  a conventional  system in  a  similar  community is
difficult.  Only very  limited experience has been gained with  either concept
in  small  rural Alaskan  communities.   Limited experience with  piped delivery
and collection systems in Alaska indicates that system reliability is lower,

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                                                                        1
     Figure  3.   Water distribution vehicle  used at  Wainwright.
                     Heal
                     Return
                                               Shell
                                              Poloble
                                              Water
                                                Raw Water
                                                Intake
                                                "Black Wale
                                                 Vacuum
                                                -Gray Water"
                                                 Vacuum

                                               Heat Trace
                           TYPICAL  UTILIDUCT
Figure 4.   Typical  cross-section of  a utiliduct  used in  the AVDP.
                                   10

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and  maintenance  costs  are much  higher  than  for  piped systems  in temperate
areas.   The  capital  cost  of  pipe  delivery and  collection systems  in small
remote Arctic  communities  is  extremely  high and  has  generally precluded the
application of  such systems.  Cameron  et aJL9 stated  that  capital  costs for
piped  delivery  systems  range  from $200  to $350  per  foot.   Because  of high
construction  and/or maintenance  costs  of  piped  systems,  even  many  of  the
larger communities  in the Canadian  Arctic include a  combination of delivery
techniques, ranging from  self service  to  fully piped  distribution systems.
Documentation  of the  personnel  requirements and costs for operation and main-
tenance for the  various types of utility  systems  is  not  available.  Cameron
and associates9 showed that in the Northwest Territories labor accounts for 50
percent of the nine cents per gallon water delivery/sewage collection cost.

     Decisions to provide fully piped distribution, vehicular,  or self service
water-related  utility  service  are based  on politics  which  in  turn is based
upon economics  and other  social  and cultural  conditions.   It  is  relatively
simple to  project  the  cost  of construction,  operation, and maintenance of a
utility delivery system of a given kind, and to compare these costs.  However,
such comparisons must be made for each  community and  should not be general-
ized.

INSTITUTIONAL  SUPPORT

     To be successful, projects such  as  the AVDP must  have  support from insti-
tutions outside  of  the community, including technical,  managerial  and finan-
cial resources.   Obviously,  not  all communities  will  require all  of these
ingredients.    Indeed,  some  communities  may  require   a much  lower  level  of
support than others.

     In Wainwright,  the facility has  reverted to ownership  of the  Borough
government.  That entity has taxation authority and the means  to  operate  and
maintain  the  facility.  That  is, the  Borough has the financial  ability  to
obtain technical expertise and managerial  talent for  efficient  and effective
utility system  operation.  The Borough  government will  become  the  supporting
institution relieving  the city of those responsibilities.

     The Emmonak situation is  much  different.   Emmonak is  a community  in  The
Unorganized Borough and does  not have  the benefit  of a  large  governmental
body,  other than the  State  and  Federal  governments,  to support  its  utility
functions.  Its tax base is  limited  to  the city.  Only  by  very skillful man-
agement will  the City  of Emmonak be  able to operate the utility  system without
subsidy.   Technical and  management  assistance  from  outside the  city  will  be
required  from  time to time.  User  rates  at  Emmonak will   play a  much  more
important  role  than at Wainwright where  some  costs  can be  subsidized  by  the
larger governmental  institution.

     Technical  and  managerial  assistance  is  the greatest need  of  rural  cold
climate communities.   Because of the  long lines  of  communication,  and  the
logistics   of  supply,  the  supporting  institution will  have  to  provide those
services  for many.communities.   Similarly,  because of  the lack  of  managerial
expertise it will be necessary for the supporting institution to assist in the
training  of  potential  managers  and  to  foster attitudes which will  lead  to
career position for  qualified people.


                                     11

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                                   SECTION 4

                            PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION

WAINWRIGHT

     Wainwright  is a  relatively  old community  on the Arctic coast.  The choice
of the village site appears to have been dictated by the conditions of the sea
ice and  the  need for a good landing site when materials for construction of a
school  were  delivered  by boat in  1904.15  When  the  AVDP was  initiated,
Wainwright had  a population of  330 and  the  community  seemed to be stable.  A
broad range  of  skills is  represented by  the residents,  but there is no local
industry.  Therefore, workers  travel  away  from  home for  (usually)  seasonal
employment.  In  1970,  the single school  included kindergarten through grade 8
with  an  average attendance  of  about  100  pupils.   Recently (1978),  a  high
school was  built to prove  education to  grade  12.   Total  school  enrollment in
Wainwright is  about 135 now (1979).  There  are  no  paved  roads and only a few
wheeled  vehicles.   Transportation  is  by  "snow machine" in the winter and foot
in  the  summer.   There  were about  60  houses  in Wainwright  in 1970,  but  the
North Slope  Borough has pursued a housing construction program so today there
are nearly 100 homes.

     Following   the   fire   in  November  1973,   which  destroyed  the  original
Wainwright  AVDP, designs  were  prepared  and contracts let which  led to con-
struction  of a  second project in Wainwright which  was accepted from the con-
tractor  in  October 1976.  Figure 5 shows  the  new structure.  The new facility
incorporated several  changes from  the original  in  an effort  to  improve the
design.   Different contracting  procedures were used  in  the construction pro-
cess  to give more project office control and provide a  basis for comparison
with  the  previous method.  However,  budget cutbacks and  manpower shortages
required  the elimination of a full-time  on-site  EPA inspector.   As a result,
deficiencies occurred in the construction which required repair later.

     During  the  first winter of  operation  after reconstruction, defects in the
structure  were   found.   The primary defect  was  a faulty  vapor  barrier which
allowed moisture to penetrate insulating material resulting in poor insulation
and contributing to high  fuel consumption and marginal  comfort in the build-
ing.   The importance  of an effective vapor barrier, especially  in  severely
cold climates, is explained by Rice11 and Carlson.12

     Alaska  Department  of Environmental  Conservation (ADEC)  personnel  were
consulted  for an  evaluation  of the new  facility.   In addition to correcting
the insulation  defects,  they recommended  that blackwater (wastewater contain-
ing body waste) treatment  be modified to  a  biological rather than a physical/
chemical  process.  Many  other small units  throughout the state employ biologi-
cal treatment.   This  would tend to standardize and  simplify  the provision of
assistance by ADEC personnel if that becomes necessary in the future.


                                     12

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              Figure 5.   Exterior of process and vehicle storage
                         Buildings for Wainwright AVDP.
     AVDP project staff was  reduced  by attrition and  changing  EPA priorities
so that by the spring of 1977 only one EPA person was available to work on the
AVDP.   As a result the operation, maintenance,  training,  and necessary modifi-
cations had to be provided by non-EPA personnel.  A grant was made to the City
of Wainwright as  an  expedient way to provide funds for operation and mainten-
ance  of  the  facility and to obtain management  training for  the operators.
Subsequently the  city  contracted with an experienced engineering firm to pro-
vide  operation  and  maintenance  (0 & M)  guidance and  to  design  and implement
modifications and repair to make the facility fully operational and efficient.

     To  repair  damaged insulation and  install  vapor  barriers  where  the con-
struction  contractor  had  failed to  ao   so,  it was  necessary to  remove  the
exterior "skin"  of the building, install  the vapor barrier,  replace insulation
and reinstall  the "skin".   This  work was accomplished late  in  the 1978 con-
struction season.

     Changes to  the  blackwater  treatment plant  were designed and subcontracts
for equipment  manufacture were  let  in   1978.   Due  to manufacture  delay  ana
delivery schedule problems, installation was not  completed until June 1979.

     To  improve  reliability  and system capability, other subsystems which had
not initially  been  provided  or which had deteriorated were  installed  or re-
paired.  These  subsystems  included:   a backup  boiler  for the heating system,
repair of the utiliduct which serves  the  elementary school and overhaul  of the
electrical generation equipment.
                                     13

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     The contractor  to  the City of Wainwright  provided technical  help to the
plant  operators  as  necessary.   Management guidance  and  instruction was also
provided by the contractor under  the terms of the grant.

     During  the  period  between  September  1977  and February 1979 significant
personnel problems arose which seriously  hampered 0 & M and made management of
the  project virtually impossible.  The principal plant operator who had been
associated  with  the  project  from the beginning lost interest  in  the job and
retired  in the  spring  of 1978.   Personnel turnover  left  the plant without a
deputy  operator.   The new plant operator  became  overworked and discouraged.
Many essential  tasks simply were not done  because of lack of time or interest
on the part of the operator.

     One  important  task which  was  left  undone was  that  of seeing that the
water  storage tank was  filled prior  to  the onset of winter.  When the fact was
discovered  it was too  cold  to  successfully pump water from the  lake to the
tank.  As  a result the  entire community  was  placed on a water  rationing pro-
gram.   A further complication  resulting from  this  was the  lack  of facility
income  from the sale of  water and  the use of  showers  and  laundry.  Moreover,
public  reliance  upon the  facility as a dependable source of potable water and
a  place for  bathing and laundering is now questionable and  will  take a long
time to reestablish.

     Another  error  on the part  of the operator led  to one of  the  electrical
generators  being  allowed  to operate  without  lubricating  oil  resulting  in
siezed  bearing and ruined crankshaft.  Previously, the generator engine block
had  cracked because  the  operators had failed  to  put antifreeze solution in the
engine cooling system.

     Other problems   occurred  because  the  operators  failed to  re-order spare
parts when existing spares were used for repair or replacement.

     Failures to meet  expectations  are  as much the  result  of inexperienced
judgement  on  the  part  of EPA  and  project  personnel  as  from inexperienced
managers  and mechanics  in the villages.   McGarry10 stated there is  a tendency
for  agencies  which   lack  firsthand experience  in  rural  villages  to attempt
innovation  of technologicl solutions to  what they  feel are the  highest prior-
ity  problems  of the community.  Being  hurried to meet  artificial  deadlines
with  inadequate preparation  is  difficult  for  both the EPA  and the village.
Appropriate technology  should  consist  not only of the hardware,  but also of
intangibles such as   organization, education, extension services, supportative
institutions  and surrounding economic considerations.

     In  fairness,  it should  be  pointed out that the  operator(s) are basically
competent.   They do  understand the processes  and they have operated  the facil-
ities  under some very adverse conditions.  They have put  in long hours, days
and months on end and never feel  as though any  job is completed.

     Communications  are  a problem between  the  "bush" and the center for 0 & M
and  management  support.   Facilities  for  voice  communication to and from the
"bush"  are minimal,   overcrowed  and  unreliable.  Written communication is slow
                                      14

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and  ineffective.   Shipment of  supplies  and repair  parts is  often  slowed by
irregular flight schedules  and bad weather.

     Pel to8 summarized this phenomenon in the following statement:

            The sudden growth in technical and economic complexity
            produces  economic   specialization  in  such things  as
            mechanics,  electronics,  retail  and wholesale  sales.
            Most  often  "southerners"  are  needed  to  fill  these
            roles.   Increased   costs  of  imported  energy sources
            raises the cost of living as well as local definitions
            of an  acceptable standard  of living, resulting in the
            out-migration of young people.

This implies also  that potential  management skills  in  the younger generation
are not developed or available in rural Alaskan communities.

     As pointed  out  in earlier reports,  native operators  have demonstrated an
ability to  improvise  in the  face  of adversity  and  keep  machinery operating.
Their mechanical aptitude  is high.   However, it is  becoming clear that manage-
ment of sophisticated  systems  involves  attitudes which have  been alien to the
culture of Alaskan natives.  In all  probability, it will require a  period of
some years for  adjustment, acceptance  and understanding  of the  notions which
are necessary for management  of modern  community service enterprise to pervade
the native culture.  In the interim,  management of  systems in  the bush commun-
ities will  be  tedious,  expensive  and  plagued  with  higher failure  rate than
would normally  be expected.

     Following the reconstruction  of the Wainwright AVDP, the  Borough School
System, in an unrelated action, planned for a high  school  facility to be built
in Wainwrigt.  Design  of the high  school began in  1976 and AVDP project staff
advised both Borough  personnel and  the architect  of the  need  to  conserve
water.   However, the high  school was designed and  built with  a water require-
ment more than  5 times that  which could be assured by the AVDP.  As  a result,
the AVDP is unable  to meet the demand for water at the  new school.

     In similar  fashion  the  Borough  Government has  begun building houses and
multiplex dwellings.   Again,  although advised  of  the  absolute  limit  on the
amount of water available,  the  housing  units incorporate plumbing fixtures and
appliances with water demands which cannot be met by the AVDP facility.

     Since  these  actions  were taken  with full knowledge  that  the  existing
water  supply will not meet demands, there  must be  plans for  a supplementary
supply in the future.  Two options  exist for supplementing the existing facil-
ities.   The  first is  to  provide  additional water storage tanks. This would
permit  increased  water  use  since available  water  is  the  problem more than
treatment plant  capacity.   Existing  treatment capacity  is  adequate  for 3-5
times  the existing  storage  capacity.    The second  option  is  to develop  an
entirely  new source  of water  supply, and a new treatment  and  delivery system.
It is  not yet  known how the local government  plans  to eliminate the apparent
conflict between available  supply and requirement.
                                     15

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Electrical Power

     As noted in previous reports, electric power at many, if not most, remote
Alaskan villages is  unreliable,  expensive and  of  questionable quality.  How-
ever, electrical  power is essential in  providing water related utilities and
the maximum reliability of those services can only approach the reliability of
the  electrical   service.   Similarly,  the  cost  of  electrical  service  is re-
flected in the  cost  of other  services  which depend upon it.  Low quality elec-
tricity,  that is  electricity with  variable  and undependable  voltage or fre-
quency, will  further increase the  cost of other  functions which depend upon it
because of motor damage, more  rapid light burn out, and the like.

     Electrical  power  at Wainwright is  no  exception to this rule.  Difficul-
ties  in maintaining engine  generators  has  been significant.   Both frequency
and  voltage  fluctuations  have  caused extensive and repeated  damage  to AVDP
equipment.   Motors,   capacitors,  relays,  and  magnetic  starters   have  been
ruined.

     The  major  problem with the local electrical  utility is identical to the
major  problem  of  the  AVDP,  i.e., poor management.  Operators  are basically
able to care for machinery but are  not  supervised by higher management and do
not  have  sufficient technical  knowledge to  recognize  their own limitations.
Occasionally,  problems  are  amplified  by the  need  to  improvise  short range
solutions to  problems  which over a longer time can lead to more serious equip-
ment damage.  The need to improvise is  caused  by  the  failure to seek outside
support or assistance.

     An example  of this type  of  problem  would be  with  motor  capacitors.
Because of over-voltage  surges a  capacitor  may be destroyed.   If replacement
is made with an  incorrect capacitor the motor may be damaged and if the motor
drives  a  critical piece  of equipment  then  a whole process or the entire pro-
ject may  be  jeopardized.   The remedy  to this is simply to maintain an inven-
tory  of spare  parts and to  reorder them as  they are  used.   Native operators
and  managers  have not yet been thoroughly convinced of the importance of this
type of activity.

Transfer  of Ownership

     The  North  Slope Borough  is the  municipal authority with utility responsi-
bility  for  the  City of Wainwright.  As  such, the  Borough codes clearly state
an intent to provide  utility services where  none exist and to acquire owner-
ship where they presently do exist.   Under  Alaska Statutes  as 43.18.010-045,
State Air to  Local Governments Municipal Services Revenue Sharing Program, the
borough is  entitled to and has  received from the State $2 per capita for the
Wainwright sewer area for 0 & M of air and water pollution control.

     The  EPA demonstration at Wainwright has been completed and it was in the
best  interests  of  the Agency and the Borough  to  transfer ownership to local
authority.   Consequently, negotiations  were  held  with  Borough authorities in
December  1978  to  arrange for  transfer  of ownership  of the facility  to the
Borough.  Formal transfer to local  ownership was completed in March 1979.
                                      16

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Energy and Cost Conservation Efforts

     AVDP  staff  recognized that  life  cycle  cost for the  projects  was of ex-
treme importance.  Capital costs in rural Alaska are extremely high because of
remoteness, communication,  transportation and  lack of  a  local  skilled labor
pool.  Operation  costs  for utilities  in Alaska are high  because  of the cold
environment and  the high  cost  of  fuel.   It was recognized that  the cost of
operation and maintenance  would have a greater impact upon a village that the
capital  costs  which  are borne by or shared by  State and Federal governments.

     The  major  costs for  0  &  M  are for fuel  and  labor.   Prudent  design can
minimize  both.  Designs for the projects incorporated energy and labor conser-
vation where feasible.

     An energy cascade  is  used to recover heat  where  possible.   For example,
exhaust heat from diesel-electric generators is recovered to be used in build-
ing  and utiliduct heating.  Also, heat exhausted from clothes dryers is recov-
ered  for  building  heating.   Utiliducts  employ  counterflow heat  transfer  by
placing cold  water  pipes  and  warm distribution  and wastewater pipes in the
same protective conduit.

     Throughout much of  Alaska  low grade coal is available although the means
of extracting and transporting  it is not.  A brief examination  of coal sources
and  systems  for  efficiently  and  economically  using  them   was  made  for
Wainwright.   It  was determined  that  a  coal-fired  system  to  provide central
power and  heat in addition to water and wastewater treatment is feasible, but
beyond the scope of the AVDP.

     The  modular  integrated  utility system  (MIUS) promoted by the  Department
of  Housing  and  Urban  Development  (HUD)  was  employed   in   the  AVDP.   At
Wainwright HUD contributed to  the expense of providing  interface  between the
VDP  and  a new high  school and  power plant complex  in  the village.   The MIUS
involves  interfacing as  many  of  the  unit  processes  as  possible  in  such  a
manner as  to maximize overall system efficiency.

     For  example, the  raw water tank which must be heated  to prevent freezing
requires  141,000 BTU/hr.  If that heat must be produced by  an oil-fired heater
of 70% efficiency about 35.8  gal/day of fuel is required.   However, the 50 kw
generator  exhausts  about 170,000  BTU/hr in  exhaust gases  and  an  exhaust gas
heater exchanger of 70% efficiency recovers  119,000 BTU/hr.  By using the heat
exchanger to interface and integrate the two functions a saving of  30.2 gal  of
fuel/day  is  realized and  overall  thermal efficiency of the system is raised
13%  by  this single  interface.   Similarly,  the clothes  dryers  exhaust enough
heat through an air-to-air heat exchanger to heat the building  when the dryers
are  in  operation.   A number  of such  possiblities  exist  in utility systems.
The energy source is not important to the MIUS concept except that  as the cost
of the energy  increases the value of the MIUS  investment is increased.

     Specific components of the Wainwright system which were  added by use of
HUD funds  were:

     1.    Design, procurement  and installation of exhaust gas  heat exchanger
          for 50  kva diesel generator.


                                     17

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     2.    Design of utilidor  and  heat lines for transmission  of  "waste"  heat
          from city power plant.

     3.    Design of  heat  exchangers  and  pumps to permit use  of  excess waste
          heat from city power plant in VDP building and tanks.

     4.    Design and procurement  of  air-to-air heat exchanger to recover heat
          from building exhaust air and clothes dryers.

     Although the  designed  facilities have been installed,  they have not been
formally evaluated.  The heating and ventilation flow diagrams for the project
are shown in Figure 6 which appears as'a fold out at the back of this publica-
tion.

     One  of the  primary   ingredients of  successful  application  of  the  MIUS
concept must be integration of operations.  This mutual interdependence of one
utility upon  another  allows significant overall increases  in  efficiency,  but
demands coordination  between the  subsystems  and a higher  level  of  skill  and
understanding for the operators.

     For example,  a city  generator plant may  have  an  output of 300 kw with a
fuel input  of  24  gallons  per hour (3.07 x 106 BTUh), (subsystem efficiency is
approximately 33%).  In the  same  city the water related utility has a heating
requirement of 750,000 BTUh which is  equivalent to about 8 gallons of fuel  per
hour if the heater  is 70% efficient.  However, if  the electrical  generators
are equipped with  heat scavenger on cooling systems and exhaust gas systems at
least 1,000,000 BTUh  (assuming 50% heat recovery) will be available for water
utility heating purposes.  The  integrated system has a total fuel requirement
of  24   gallons  per hour  whereas  individual  subsystems  have a combined  fuel
requirement of 32  gallons per hour.  The efficiency of the combined subsystems
is:

      750,000 BTUh + 1,024,000 BTUh
     	x 100 = 43%
     1,014,000 BTUh + 3,070,000 BTUh

The efficiency of the integrated system is:

     750,000 BTUn + 1,024,000 BTUh
                                   x 100 = 58%
             3,070,000 BTUh
     Coordination  is demanded  because,  in order  to recover  heat from  the
generators,  the  engine  radiators have been  replaced  with heat exchangers.  If
the engine  heat  is not carried  away,  the engine will be damaged.  Similarly,
unless  engines  are running,  there  is  no heat for  other  uses  and no electri-
city.

     Coordination  of facilities in  the  design phase is difficult.  Coordina-
tion during  operation may  be  more difficult.   In typical remote communities, a
                                     18

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workforce  with  a  pool  of  management  skills  is  not currently  available to
coordinate the activities of  MIUS projects.  If such projects are to succeed,
the managers  will have to be "imported" until  local skills can be developed.8

     To date there  has  been little incentive for people in remote communities
to  acquire skills  in  management.   Hardware has  been  the  emphasis  of most
public projects and the intangible facets of project operation and maintenance
have  been overlooked.   Wages  for construction  workers  are  typically higher
than for  people  in  other  occupations which  has  also  tended  to discourage the
development  of  managers.   Also,  there  has not yet been a  significant demand
for a  long enough  time  to attract capable  young people  to management in vil-
lage utilities.

     Another  condition  which   contributes  to instability  of  the  labor  and
management force at  public  utilities in native  communities  is  the absence of
the concept  of  career  employment to the native culture.   People are generally
willing to learn to  do  new jobs, but do not seem interested in pursuing those
jobs  in  career fashion.  This  is not  peculiar  to utility  employees,  but is
true of all  municipal  employees such as city clerk, police,  airfield mainten-
ance in addition to utility operators and managers.

     The MIUS concept provides efficiency not only in energy, but in personnel
use as well.  In a  typical  remote Alaskan  community  one might expect to find
several electrical  generating plants  which would provide electrical  power for
school, public  building,  homes,  and  commercial  enterprises.   Using the MIUS
concept,  the  several generating  stations  would  be combined to  a  single sta-
tion,  and rather than  having  a number of  individuals responsible  for opera-
tion,  maintenance,   and management  of  electrical  power  generation,  a  single
team  would have that  responsibility.   This  may involve  an equal  number  of
operational personnel overall,  but  the necessity to duplicate support person-
nel would no longer exist  and thereby reduce personnel costs  and the number of
trained personnel required.

     The  concept  also  lends  itself  to more  efficient coordination of  the
various aspects  of   the MIUS  concept.   For  example,  to  integrate  the energy
system within a village which is not totally involved in  the  MIUS system it is
necessary to integrate  the individual systems at  the school,  the public build-
ings and  the village at  large, whereas with  an overall  MIUS concept  it is
necessary  only to coordinate  the integration of  systems  with a single manage-
ment  team.   This can  also lead to greater  reliability  since  one  authority
holds responsibility for management of the utility system.

Potable Water

     Potable water  at  Wainwright is  provided by  treatment  of  surface  water
stored in a  1 million  gallon  heated  tank.   This  volume of water was  estab-
lished as  adequate  based  upon  the foreseeable future at the time of original
design in 1971.6   The  quantities agreed to by project and  village  personnel
are presented in Table 1.
                                     19

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                      TABLE 1.   DAILY WATER REQUIREMENTS
          Personal  Home Use
          Showers (2/showers/person/week)
          Laundry (2 loads/family/week)
          School
   5    gpcd    (1875)
   3    gpcd     (125)
   1.5  gpcd     (565)
1000 gals/day
     Figure 7 shows the actual amount of water used in Wainwright for individ-
ual home use and for the school.  It can be seen that water use in the home is
increasing steadily.  Water  use  was  h gpcd in January  1974  and was about 1.8
gpcd in May 1979.

     Water treatment at  Wainwright  is  in the  form of  filtration,  organics
removal and  disinfection  using sodium hypochlorite.  A schematic of the water
treatment equipment is presented  in Figure 8.

Wastewater Treatment

     The  limited  water  supply  at  Wainwright makes  conservation and  water
renovation and  re-use  attractive.   Graywater  (water from laundry and showers)
is treated by  a physical/chemical  system  (Figure  9)  and re-used in the laun-
dry.  To minimize  the  buildup of impurities and reduce the load on the treat-
ment system, the  first exchange of soapy water from the washers is discharged
to the  blackwater  treatment system.   Subsequent exchanges of water during the
wash cycle are  returned  to the graywater system for  retreatment and re-use.

     Table 2 presents  results of tests  on the physical/chemical  treatment of
graywater  at the  original  Wainwright community utility center.  Similar tests
have not  been  conducted  since  reconstruction  of  the system,  but  it is  felt
that plant modifications will simplify achievement of similar  results.
         TABLE 2.  RESULTS OF PHYSICAL-CHEMICAL TREATMENT OF GRAYWATER
                   AT THE ORIGINAL WAINWRIGHT UTILITIES CENTER


Color, PCU
Turbidity, JTU
COD, mg/1
Total Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Total Volatile Solids, mg/1
Volatile Susp. Solids, mg/1
Raw
Graywater
35
200
840
1910
503
624
281
P-C
Plant
Effluent
25
16
284
1670
25
304
16
Carbon
Column
Effluent
5
10
25
1240
10
162
4
Reduction
Percentage
86
95
97
35
98
74
99
                                     20

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r\>
        -J
        I
          35,000
          30,000
   25,000
          20,000
1
Uj
        5
15,000
   10,000
           5,000
                             TOTAL SALES
                             TO HOMES ONLY
                 JFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFM AMJJ AS 0N DJ FM AMJ J AS 0ND
                         1974                1975                1976                1977
                                      Figure 7.  Water sales at Wainwright.

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 Figure 8.  Schematic of water treatment process at Wainwright.
Figure 9.   Schematic of graywater treatment process at Wainwright.
                               22

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Facility Layout

     Figures 10 and 11 show the arrangement of the public area and the process
area  respectively.   Experience to  date has  been  satisfactory with  this ar-
rangement.   Adequate  room  for  equipment maintenance has been provided to help
encourage regular inspection and prevention maintenance.

EMMONAK

     Emmonak is a  recently established community which settled at its present
location during  the  last  30  years.  The  population  of the  community  at the
outset  of  the  AVDP was  about 440  and  it was recognized that  because  of the
availability of  work  in  the  salmon  fishing industry  the  population  would
probably grow.   A  locally  owned  co-op freezes salmon  caught  by local  fisher-
men.  There was a  single grade school in Emmonak when the AVDP was built, but
today  there  is also  a State  operated  high  school.   Emmonak is  located  on a
slough  of  the  Yukon River near its mouth  and is subject to occasional  flood-
ing.  As  in  Wainwright,  there  are few  wheeled  vehicles and no  paved  roads.
Access  is  by air  from the outside  world with  occasional  shipments  of heavy
materials by river  or  ocean vessels.

     Following the  fire  at the Wainwright project, a  thorough  safety inspec-
tion  of the  Emmonak   facility  disclosed the  need  for improvements  both for
safety and routine  repair and improvement.

     The Emmonak  AVDP was designed for a modular building consisting  of six
modules each approximately 9  feet wide by 9  feet high by 38 feet long.   Three
modules housed  the public use facilities  such  as  laundromats,  showers,  and
sauna.  The  other  three  provided  space for  tankage,  treatment processes and
building  maintenance   functions  such as  heating and  ventilation.  A  lean-to
garage  attached to  the rear  of this structure, provided space for maintenance
and storage of the delivery vehicle.  This layout  is shown in  Figure 12.

     Conditions  at Emmonak  required construction  on  a  matt  foundation and
maintenance of the soil beneath the structure in a thawed condition.   Prelimi-
nary site  investigations  had  determined that permafrost did not exist at this
building site and to prevent frost-heave, the ground must be kept  unfrozen.

     The  facilities  contained  in  the  Emmonak project included  four washing
machines,   three dryers,  four  showers each for men and women,  and sauna baths
for men and women.  The treatment processes included were potable water  treat-
ment, wastewater treatment, and  solid waste  and sludge disposal  by  incinera-
tion.   The  potable water  treatment  process  is  a typical  "package" treatment
plant which  user coagulation,  sedimentation and  filtration to produce potable
water, which is  then  disinfected  prior to  use by  the people  of Emmonak.   The
first wastewater  treatment process was a  physical/chemical  treatment  system
which  used powdered  activated  carbon,  coagulation sedimentation,  filtration
and disinfection  before disposal in the Yukon River.

     The original  incinerator designed  for the  Emmonak project  could  not be
produced in  time, for  installation.   The contractor was required to provide an
alternative type  incinerator which is used to dispose of sludge from the
                                     23

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Figure 10.   Layout of laundry and shower area  at Wainwright.
                             24

-------
CO
01
                                                                                                         VT/UDUCT
                                                                                                         sfe wtu. .
                                                                                                        7KA T/OAJ OSTWi.
                    Figure  11.   Arrangement of  process  area.

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treatment plants  and  the small amounts  of  solid waste materials generated in
the community  center facility.  Heat recovery  equipment  has  been attached to
the incinerator  in an attempt to  recover  as much usable heat as possible and
thereby reduce operating costs for the  incineration  process.  However, because
of  the  high rate  of  fuel consumption the  operators  are  reluctant  to use the
incineratory any more than is absolutely  necessary.

     The  Emmonak  project has  been  in continual  use  since it was opened to the
public  in early  1973.  Local  acceptance and use of the facility has grown so
that  at  this  time the  demand on  the  facility  is  nearly  equal that  of the
design  figures estimated in  1972.   This  high use emphasizes the need  in future
projects  of this nature  to  modify  design  to  allow  for  greatly increasing
demands for water and laundry and shower  facilities.   It is also advisable to
provide more than the minimally  required  space in order to make these public
buildings less  austere   and  more  plesant.   Also, the provision  of adequate
space for treatment processes in  necessary in  order to achieve proper opera-
tion  and  maintenance  of facilities.   In the case of Emmonak,  processes were
crowded into spaces which under many conditions  would be termed totally inade-
quate,  resulting  in  extreme difficulty   in the  maintenance  of  equipment.
Perhaps  10-20% additional  cost  for structure  is easily  justified  by the im-
provement in attitude and performance of  operational personnel.

     Although  the original concept for  the Emmonak  project included  a vehicu-
lar distribution  system to provide potable water to  the homes, the system has
never  operated  successfully.   Townspeople do   not  appear to  desire  such  a
service   and  operational  personnel  are reluctant to provide  such  a service
under any circumstances.  Each household assumes responsibility for  obtaining
its own  water.   Containers  of water  are   hauled  on sleds,  wheelbarrows, and
other such means.  The costs  for  a delivery system significantly increased the
cost  of  providing  water to the  homes.  This aspect will  be  discussed in the
cost section of this report.

     The  showers  and saunas are  the real heart  of the Emmonak AVDP.   The  sauna
bath  has  become  nearly   as  popular as  the Bingo Hall as  a  social  gathering
place  for  men of  the  town.   Saunas were provided as  a  water conservation
device  whereby bathing is accomplished with minimal  water.  The social aspects
of the  sauna  popularized it  in  Emmonak.   Records show that  more than 10,000
uses of the sanua/shower facilities were  made in  1978.

     The  laundry  facilities  at  Emmonak are also extremely popular.  Records
show that each family on the  average washed 70  loads of clothes during 1978 or
approximately 1%  loads per family per week.

     The  economic foundation  for  the  Emmonak project comes  from the contract
to provide potable water  for  the elementary and  high schools  in the city and
subsequently to  provide wastewater treatment after  that  water has been  used.
The charges for  water  and  wastewater  treatment  are  greater  than the actual
cost  of  those  processes  and  thus provide  a subsidy for the  other services
provided  by the  utility  system.   Water  is  delivered to the schools  through a
"utiliduct" and  wastewater is returned through  a similar  duct.  The quantities
involved  make vehicular distribution  to  the schools impractical.   Moreover,
the labor  costs   for a  vehicular distribution system would  far  exceed the
maintenance costs of the utiliduct.


                                     26

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                                                           36'-
ro
                                                         Slicmeri       X-U
                                                                      f         Saui

                                                         Bench           ||   Bench
                                                                                                                           -36'-
                                                                                                     Waitewatsr Treatmant Area
                                                                                                    o
                                                                                                                                 Potable Water Treatment Area
)O Pressure
oCoi"
Q Pump
                                                                       Dryer
                                                                                   Dryer
                                                                            Bench       Heot
                                                                                                        Gray Water
                                                                                                         Tank
                                                                                                        Combustion and  Mechanical Area
                                                                                             Air-Air Heal
                                                                                              Exchanger
                                                                                                            Auxiliary
                                                                                                             Boiler
                                                                                                                                                                    Ramp
                                                                                                                                                                   Overhead Door
             Load-
              ing
             Dock
                                                                                                                                                                    Drive Thru Area
                                                                                                                                                                    Overhead Door
                                                                    Figure   12.    Layout  of   Emmonak  project.

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     The operators and managers of the Emmonak project have been successful in
learning and  carrying  out their jobs.  However, significant training has been
required to achieve that  mark.  It has been observed both by EPA personnel and
by contractors  that  enough time is  rarely alloted  for job training.  Training
should  cover  an extended  period  of  time in years  and be  relatively low key.
In many places the people are not thoroughly convinced of  the  need for pro-
jects of this type.   The people of  the community must believe in the need for
the  service before the operators will be receptive to training.  The need for
training cannot be overemphasized.   Skills available in rural Alaskan communi-
ties  simply  are  not  adequate to  manage and maintain projects  such as these
without  assistance,  training  and  continual  reinforcement.   People  are a part
of the  technology  employed in  a project such as this and it is wrong to assume
that  they  as  an intangible aspect of technology, are immediately and continu-
ously  available without training and support.   In  fact,  experience has shown
that  poor  success with projects in  the  "bush"  is more a result of failure to
develop and support people than a direct failure of hardware.

Potable Water Treatment

      The water  supply system  is shown in Figure  13.  Raw water is pumped from
the  Yukon  River by a  1-hp submersible pump.   In summer  the pump is suspended
from  a  raft and in winter it is  suspended through a hole in the ice and cov-
ered with a heated enclosure.

      The  submersible  pump replaced  two centrifugal pumps which originally had
been  installed  in a  small heated  hut  on  the  bank  above the  river.   For a
variety of reasons,  these pumps would  not  hold prime.   The present arrange-
ment, although  somewhat makeshift, has the desirable aspect of avoiding place-
ment of permanent obstructions in the river bed  or the bank and has performed
satisfactorily.

      The  choice of the Yukon  River  as  the  source  of raw water was made after
reviewing  available  information  regarding  ground  water  at  Emmonak.   Wells
constructed  by the  Bureau of  Indian  Affairs  produced water  of high organic
content and  saltwater beyond  a certain  depth.  The river water has been rela-
tively  easy to treat.

      Potable  water treatment  is accomplished with  a package unit manufactured
by  Keystone  Engineering,  Inc. of  Seattle, Washington.  The  plant  has been in
operation  since November  1972 and  has functioned  well with a minimum of opera-
tor  attention.  Treatment consists of alum coagulation, multi-media filtration
and  chlorination.  The  rated capacity of the plant  is  10 gallons per minute
(gpm).  Actual capacity has been about 7% gpm.

      Table 3  presents the raw water  and  potable water  characteristics at
Emmonak.

      Figure  14 presents a record  of the potable water consumption  in Emmonak
since the  beginning of record keeping  in  1973.   There has been no  significant
increase  in  the  amount  of water for personal home use,  but an obvious trend
exists  toward an  increasing amount of water  used  by schools  and other institu-
tions in Emmonak.
                                      28

-------
                                                                     WATER TREATMENT PLANT
                                                                   ALUM"
INJ
                                                        10 gpm    an. vt^o—
                                                     FLOW CONTROL^"*"
                                               2000 gal.
                                              RAW WATER
                                                TANK
                                                                                             6000 gal.
                                                                                           POTABLE WATER
                                                                                           STORAGE TANK
 40gpm    J
RIVER PUMP
BACKWASH WATER
TO SUMP
                                                                   DRY PIPE
                                                                   FIRE
                                                                   SPRINKLER
                                                                   SYSTEM
                                                                                               PRESSURE
                                                                                               CELLS-Tx
                                           AUXILIARY HEAT
                                           TRACE HX a PUMP
                                             DRY PIPE VAtVE
                                         FIRE PUMP-^
                                         94 gpm 0 40psi
                                                                   AIR
                                                                   COMPRESSOR
                                                                          COLD WATER

                                                                          UTILIDUCTS
                                                     IN-PLANT DISTRIBUTION
                                                                                                                           PRESSURE
                                                                                                                           PUMP
                                                          INDIVIDUAL PICKUP-

                                                            HOME DELIVERY-
                                                                                      BIA  SCHOOL

                                                                                      COMMUNITY  CENTER

                                                                                      HIGHSCHOOL
                                     Figure 13.    Schematic of  water treatment  system  at Emmonak.

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         90,000
CO
o
                 AMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASONDJFMAMJJASOND

                     1973               1974               1975               1976                1977
                                            Figure 14.   Water  sales at Enimonak.

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       TABLE 3.   RAW WATER AND POTABLE WATER CHARACTERISTICS AT EMMONAK1



# Samples
pH2
Conductivity, UMHO
Turbidity, JTU
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Hardness, mg/1, CaC03
Color, PCU


# Samples
PH
Conductivity
Turbidity, JTU
Total Solids, mg/1
Suspended Solids, mg/1
Hardness, mg/1 CaCO
Color, PCU
Winter Sampling Period
Raw Water
24
*
5.9 - 7.8
350 (56)
16 (13)
3.5 (2)
168 (17)
4 (2)
Summer Sampling Period
Raw Water
9
7.3 - 8.5
190 (13)
118 (42)
275 (42)
148 (21)
110 (22)
36 (5)

Finished Potable Water
25
6.0 - 7.6
430 (86)
2.8 (1.7)3
3 (2.7)3
168 (20)
0 (0)

Finished Potable Water
9
6.2 - 8.2
290 (29)
3.0 (2.5)3
197 (35)
4.3 (3.9)2
131 (35)
4.0 (l.O)3

1 Mean value with standard deviation in parenthesis.
2 Range of values.
3 Mean and standard deviation obtained from probability plot.
                                     31

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Blackwater/Graywater System

     At  the  outset of  the original  Alaska Village  Demonstration  Project at
Emmonak, treatment of graywater was in a conventional packaged physical/chemi-
cal (P/C)  type  treatment plant.  As  time  passed,  the process was modified in
many attempts to improve the system.

     During  this  period,  the  collection,  grinding,   settling,  dewatering,
disinfection of sewage  soilds and  incineration  of sludges of blackwater from
the AVDP Building and  the Bureau of  Indian  Affairs  School  was identified by
the operators  as unsatisfactory because the  incineration  of  sludge required a
large amount of fuel to  dispose of a relatively small amount of sludge.

     An  attempt to use waste  heat  from  incineration  to  preheat boiler feed
water  proved ineffective  and  of  no marked economical  advantage.  Eventually,
the incineration process was abandoned and for a period of time the blackwater
generated  was  collected,  stored,  macerated, disinfected, mixed  with disin-
fected  graywater and discharged through the  outfall  some distance downstream
in the Yukon River.

     As  a  segment of the  0 &  M portion of the contract a  new attempt to solve
the  gray and  blackwater treatment problem was  attempted.  Using  most of the
equipment already installed, contractors  designed a system that:

           collected graywater as before.

           collected blackwater as before.

           allowed  the blackwater sludges  to  settle,  while keeping the super-
           natant moving.

           overflowed  blackwater supernatant so that it  could  be transferred to
           the graywater collecting/holding tank.

           provided continuous aeration of the  graywater  holding tank.

           added a carbon  contact step  in graywater physical/chemical treat-
           ment.  This  improved the reduction of BODs,  color  and odor, in the
           mixed collected waters.

           provided  for  addition of a concentrated lime solution of the black-
           water collection/settling  tank  to  raise pH  to a  level  of 11.5 to
           12.0  as a means of disinfection.

           pumped off the  settled,  disinfected  sludge with a solids grinding,
           progressive cavity pump to a centrifuge for dewatering.

           transfered  dewaterd sludge  to a tank  trailer and supernatant to the
           graywater collection/holding tank.

           provided a landfill for the disinfected sludges.
                                      32

-------
     This  system was  built and  installed  using  funds  provided by  the U.S.
Public Health Service.  In start-up, a number of difficulties became apparent:

          The  addition of  lime  to the  blackwater collection/settling tank
          provided the  disinfection required;  however,  the pH  of  the super-
          natant was too  high  to be neutralized by  mixing  with  graywater and
          flocculation was inhibited as a result.

          The amount of sludge collected created a hardship on disposal during
          the wet season because landfill areas were inaccessible  due to mud.

     After evaluating the  overall  processing  and disposal problem,  additional
modifications were made utilizing the same equipment, plumbing and most mater-
ials.

     Since the powdered carbon  did not reduce BOD loadings, color and odor to
anticipated  levels  and because  the real  cost  of  the material  in  the future
would create an economic burden on the facility;  and probably shorten the life
of the mixed  media filter bed,  it was removed from the process.

     The blackwater disinfection with lime at  the collection/settling tank was
discontinued.  The  supernatant  continued  to  be  transferred to  the  graywater
collection/holding  tank,   was  aerated  as  before,  treated by  flocculation,
filteration  and  disinfection  as  the  P/C  process  had  done previously,  and
discharged to the Yukon River.

     Disinfection  by  concentrated  lime  addition  was  done at  the  point  of
transfer/grinding  of  the  sludges  to the centrifuge.  The  centrate  from  the
centrifuge that  was  transferred to the graywater  collection/holding  tank  was
not of sufficient volume of high pH waters to upset the normal P/C  process.

     The dewatered  sludge  (approximately  25%  solids) was then transferred  by
progressive cavity pump into the graywater  discharge line to the river.

     At  the  time the utility center was  turned over to  the  local  operators,
the  plant  was  operating  within  limits  required  by  the  existing  discharge
permit requirements.

     Figure  15  shows  the  present  relationship  of treatment  processes  at
Emmonak.

Transfer of Ownership

     The City  of Emmonak  agreed* to accept ownership  of the  AVDP  facilities
providing  the  needed repairs  and  improvements  were made  at  no cost  to  the
city.  Consequently,  EPA  negotiated with the city to assume  ownership while
repair and improvement work was in progress.   Subsequently, a grant  was made
to  the  city to  assist  in  operation  and  maintenance of  the facility  and  to
provide management training  and technical support for personnel.

     Support and training  was  obtained by the city  through contract with the
same engineering firm as the City of Wainwright.
                                     33

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(AJ
DISCHARGE
TO RIVER

GRAYWATER


BLACKWATER SUPERNATANT \ MIXED GRAY/ BLACKWATER

BLACKWATER AERATED
SETTLING GRAYWATER

\" 	 ~/ HOLDING TANK
CENTRATE
e/ iinac JL


^C^^y ^. ^x
GRINDER-
PUMP ^ 	 Dj
\ i

0 0 0
!5 g t

3 f t
O _J 2
o \>- <£
_J Q
u.
INTRIFUGE SLUDGE

'



1




TO

1


^
i




BLACKWATER
SINFECTION SETTLING
                                                         DISINFECTED SLUDGE TO RIVER DISCHARGE
                  Figure  15.  Schematic diagram of modified wastewater treatment  system  at  Emmonak.

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     The utility  system  in Emmonak seems to  be  somewhat more successful than
in Wainwright.  System management is fraught with problems, but they appear to
be of  lesser magnitude  and shorter duration than  at Wainwright.   Emmonak is
not  experiencing  the same  pressures  from outside sources as  the  North Slope
communities and has begun to develop a degree of dependence upon local initia-
tive to  establish an economic base.  People  involved  in  the  fishing industry
which provides  significant cash  and  subsistance support in the area seem to
have a better grasp of the importance of management.

     The chief  operator  obtained  assistance in establishing a parts inventory
control   system  and  has  been  able  to  do a reasonable job of  maintaining the
system.   There  is still   some  scavenging from one system  to  support another,
but  not  to  a critical  extent.  Orderly parts storage  has  yet to be organized
and  maintained,  but the system in  use  seems  to be acceptable  for  the opera-
tors.

EVALUATION AND PROJECT COSTS

     Previous reports 6'7 provide  technical  evaluations of the various subsys-
tems  in  each  project.   Modifications  were  made where  necessary  to  upgrade
process   performance  to  achieve  required results.   It has been  demonstrated
that equipment  which is  readily  available  can  be used and achieves  the same
degree of  performance  in rural   Alaskan  villages as  in any  other location.
However,  it  has  been explained that reliability of these  systems  is lower in
isolated villages because  of the  increased logistics  problems  and  lack  of
attention to  proper  operation, maintenance  and management given by the opera-
tors under  conditions which would be considered hardship elsewhere.

     As   in  most  communities,  system  performance is  directly  proportional  to
the  value  placed on the product  by  the community and  the  operators.   Water
treatment is  generally quite  reliable and the product is  generally excellent
because  the operators and the community value that commodity highly.  However,
wastewater treatment is of limited quality because operators  feel  that this is
relatively  unimportant.   In  Wainwright  where graywater  is treated  and reused
for laundry, it  carries a slightly  higher priority than  it might elsewhere.

     Reliability is related to a number of items such as:

     1.    equipment.
     2.    reliability of  electricity.
     3.    operator attitude.
     4.    dependence upon and  importance to other processes.

Of these,  operator attitude  and  reliability/quality  of electricity  are most
important.

     Cost effectiveness  is  a  difficult  subject when related to remote Alaskan
communities  (or  any Alaskan  communities  for that matter).  Costs  are higher
for  all  aspects  of  production.   However, charges made  for products  and ser-
vices are  higher  and  tend  to balance  production  costs.   A  projection  for
income and  expenses  for  Emmonak  are given in Table  4 as  an example of balanc-
ing production and product/service costs.
                                     35

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     It will be noted that some services or products seem to provide financial
support for  others.  Water,  for example at $0.07 per gallon is as much as 125
times  as  expensive as  water in  metropolitan areas of the  "lower 48"  and is
further  supported  somewhat  by  saunas/showers.  The  integrated  system  both
allows  and  requires a  certain amount  of  give-and-take  between process costs
since  some   aspects  such  as operator  time  and  building  heat and  light are
shared.

     Table  5 presents  the  projected operating budget for  Wainwright as pro-
posed  by  the City Council.  The  unbalanced budget  is  based upon the presumed
ability of  the  Borough  Government to subsidize  the  system.  The Borough policy
is to  adhere to a wage scale which  keeps  the salary cost for the project very
high.   There is also  unwritten policy that  the  cost  for  utility services to
the  community  should be limited.  An additional  factor  in  the high operating
costs  for the Wainwright system  is the  electric power cost of 31«t per kilowatt
hour.

     Previously,  it  was reported7 that sludge  incineration is very expensive.
Alternative  solutions are  not much more attractive  either from economic, sani-
tation or operation aspects.   Alternative sludge disposal  methods considered
were disinfection  with lime coupled  with  land  disposal  at the town dump, or,
simple land disposal.   Neither  alternative  is without  the risk of incurring
operating difficulties.

     Although  the operational  costs of the  project at Emmonak  appear to be
balanced  by  the  income,  one very  important  consideration,  amortization of
construction costs,  has been omitted since the  facilities were provided to the
villages  at no  capital  cost. Using  the $1  million  cost and assuming a life of
25 years,  revenue of about  $94,000  per year  would be required to amortize an
8%  loan.  This  is  in addition to all other operating expenses.  The Wainwright
facilities  which cost about  $1.6  million represent  the need for about $150,000
per  year for  amortization  of the  capital cost  at 8% in  25  years.   Capital
costs  must   be  a  major consideration in  developing a comprehensive statewide
program.

     Cost effectiveness must be  related to some benefit level which is not yet
clearly established in Alaska.   The  alternatives  to  the  central  utility con-
cept range  from no service  at  all  to  fully  piped  systems  for water distribu-
tion and  sewers for  collction.   Moreover,  the services provided must be needed
and  acceptable  to  the  community they serve.   Most communities would prefer the
fully  piped system,  but the AVDP has shown that  central facilities are highly
acceptable as an alternative means of providing sanitation facilities.

     In the Northwest  Territories (NWT) of Canada, policy  has been developed
which  overrides  cost  effectiveness.   The Canadians  have  determined  that a
certain level   of  service  is essential and  affordable by  all households and
will   be  provided  at fixed  cost.  Above  that  cost,  customers pay  the going
economic  rate.  In locations where delivery is  by vehicle the customer pays $5
per  month for the first 800 gallons of water,  $5  per month  for  the next 400
gallons and the economic   rate  for all  additional  service.   Collection of
wastewater  is  at the same  rate.   Where piped systems  exist, $15 per dwelling
per  month provides up to  40 (Imperial) gallons per person per day.  No addi-
tional charge is made for sewerage.

                                      36

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                     TABLE 4.  OPERATING BUDGET — EMMONAK
       Source
Income
Washers
Dryers
Sauna/shower
Misc.
Home Water
School Water Contract

Expense
Salaries
Fuel
Power
Supplies and Materials
Equipment Repair
Misc.
$ 8,400
5,800
34,125
105
2,520
50,000
$100,950
Amount
$ 62,000
22,000
6,200
4,200
4,200
2,350
(4800 loads @ 1.75)
(9667 loads @ .60)
(17,500 users @ 1.95)

(36,000 gal @ .07)









                                   $100,950
                   TABLE 5.   OPERATING BUDGET — WAINWRIGHT
             Source
      Income
Laundry (wash and dry)
Showers/sauna
Home Water
School Water Contract
     $ 12,000
       35,000
       48,000
        9,800

     $176,800
  (3000 loads @ 1.50)
(17,500 users @ 2.00)
            Expense
      Amount
Salaries
Fuel
Power
Supplies and Materials
Equipment Repair and Replacement
Misc.
     $164,800
       43,200
       70,000
       16,000
       15,000
        5,000

     $314,000
                                     37

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     NWT policy  also prescribes  the extent  of service to  be provided based
upon the population of the community.

          Population                         Service

            0-50                           none
           50 - 150              trucked delivery and sewage pickup
          150 - 700                   partially piped system
          over 700            completely piped water and sewerage system

     EPA  personnel  participated  in  the  preparation  of  a  design  manual  for
utilities  in  cold  climate  regions.13  This  text  has  been cooperatively pub-
lished  by  the Environmental Protection Service  of Canada and EPA.  Technical
information  is  now  available  under  a  single cover that,  when combined with
engineering experience  gained  in other regions, will  allow design of techni-
cally  successful  utility projects  in cold  climates.   Clearly, this guidance
does not apply  to the  social and economic aspects, the intangible segments of
technology.   Policy is  needed to  guide  the designers of hardware.  Village
projects  are very  expensive,  but  they are  extravagant  only  if  the capital
costs  are  not  supported  by 0 & M  funding  and appropriate  support  for the
people involved in 0 & M.

     Since  1970,  several  changes  in accounting procedures  have  occurred in
EPA.  The  project costs shown are  based  on  project office records which may,
in fact, reflect small  errors.

     As  previously  noted,  IMS  and HUD  contributed  to  the  facility  at
Wainwright.   Non-EPA contributions are indicated  by  asterisks on the indivi-
dual item  and are included  unidentified  in the  totals.  Entries are rounded to
the nearest $100.

     All  these  costs  are  substantial, and  the question  arises  whether such
Federally  sponsored central community facilities  are  costing more than they
should.   The recent establishment  of commercially  sponsored communities at
Prudhoe  Bay  makes  possible  some   comparisons.   Atlantic  Richfield Company
(ARCO)  and Exxon  have made available  capital  and operating cost information
for  sewage  treatment   and  water treatment  plants in  their joint operations
center  on  the North Slope.1  Before  mid-1975,  the  design  size of these plants
was  similar to  that of  the  ADVP  facilities.   They served a population of 300
to 400 people in a boarding house type arrangement.

     As  of December 1, 1974,  gross  investment in the ARCO-Exxon Operations
Center  water and  sewage treatment  plants was  $1,173,021  and $1,025,754, re-
spectively,  making a total  of  $2,199,775.  Building plumbing fixture costs are
not included.  Yearly gross  operating  costs are reported as  follows:


                                1972                1973                1974

Water Treatment              $131,000           $162,400            $147,200
Sewage Treatment                74,900             121,000             120,500
                                      38

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 Neither property  taxes  nor prorated  Anchorage office  administrative  support
 costs  are included.  Average monthly  operating costs  thus  come to $12,240 for
 water  treatment and $8,790 for treatment of sewage.  The total  average  monthly
 cost of operating  the Emmonak  AVDP facility ($6,300)  compares  favorably  with
•the above.  AVDP capital  costs have  also generally been  lower.

      In a  study prepared  for  the U.S.  Public Health  Service  and the North
 Slope   Borough  of  Alaska14  the cost  for an underground  utilidor system  for
 Barrow, Alaska was estimated at $1000 per lineal- foot.   The project to  provide
 service to  168 points  would have a  capital  cost of $52 million  and an annual  0
 & M cost of $990,000.  This estimate  was  for the utilidor system alone  and did
 not include the construction and operation of the treatment systems.

     These  examples are cited  to  demonstrate  the generally high  cost  of  pro-
 viding and  maintaining utility  service  in  Alaska.   It  is necessary to  design
 systems of  appropriate technology  for  each place where  utility  systems  are to
 be installed.  A  fixed  policy  may tend to  stifle  individuality, but  it  may
 also provide the foundation for  establishment of appropriate technology.
                                     39

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                                  CAPITAL INVESTMENTS
Emmonak Facility (1972-1976)
     Design
     Construction
     Safety Modifications and Facility (Completion to date)
     Additional Work Required, est.
     Grant for Repair (Operation and Maintenance)
                                             Estimated Total
Wainwright I Facility (1972)
     Design
     Construction Contract
     Misc. Direct Support
     Water Storage Tank (IMS)
                                             Total
Wainwright II Facility (1975-1979)
     Design and  Inspection
     EPA Procurements
     Construction Contracts:
          Phase  I
          Phase  I (HUD contribution)
          Phase  II
          Extension of Award Period
          Contract Modifications, est.
     Shipping of Equipment and Materials
     Force Account Work
     Generator Shelter
     Vehicle Shelter  (IHS)
     Vehicles and Trailers (IHS)

     Grant for Repair (Operation and Maintenance)

                                             Estimated Total

Design  for Smaller Villages
  $ 63,700
   514,300
   181,600
    25,000
   127,068

  $906,668
  $ 52,900
   508,600
    15,000
   335,000*

  $911,500
$   49,500
   210,500


   529,500
    50,000*
   495,000
    85,000
    10,000

    75,700
    10,000
     8,000
    50,000* (1974)
    54,000* (1972, FOB
             Anchorage)
   887,000
$2,514,200

   $60,233
                                   OPERATING  EXPENSES
 Village Personnel  Training
 Operation and Maintenance -  Emmonak
 (April  1, 1973 to October 1,  1975)
      Revenues
      EPA Support
 Operation and Maintenance -  Wainwright
 (April  11. 1973 to October 1.  1975)
      Revenues
      IHS Support
      EPA Support
 EPA Administration (1971  through FY 1975)
      Personnel
      Travel
      Miscellaneous
                                             Total
                                              Total
                                              Total
                                              Grand  Total
   $33,000
  $ 78,400*
   110,800

   189,200
  $ 34,700*
     2,000*
    79,500

  $116,200
  $497,600
   144,700
    51,400

  $693,700

$5,424,701
                                          40

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                                   SECTION 5

                           STATE OF ALASKA PROJECTS

     Since 1970,  the State  of  Alaska has  had a  rather  ambitious  program to
provide sanitation  facilities  for rural  villages.  References 16 and  17 have
very  briefly  documented  the early  progress  of  this  program.   The State is
actively pursuing the accelerating this activity to improve village  sanitation
conditions.

THE VILLAGE SAFE WATER ACT

     The Village  Safe Water  Act of 1970 was passed for the purpose  of provid-
ing  "safe  water  and  hygienic  sewage  disposal  facilities in villages  in the
State", and to  assure  that there will be at least one facility for  safe water
and  hygienic  sewage  disposal,  and bathing and laundry services.   A  village is
defined as "an  unincorporated  community  which has between 25  and 6000 people
residing within  a two-mile  radius;  or a second class city".  The  VSW  act is
administered by the Alaska Department of Environmental  Conservation (ADEC).

     A  village  receiving a  VSW project  is not required  to  contribute  toward
costs of construction.  The State may "provide for construction by contract or
through grants  to  public agencies  or  private  non-profit  organizations,  or
otherwise".

     When  a  VSW  facility is completed  the recipient  village  must be  given
title to it.  The village  must  agree to accept ownership of the facility and
be responsible for its operation and maintenance.   The State  at the  discretion
of the  Commissioner may  assist a village with operation  and  maintenance ex-
penses when the  local governing body lacks sufficient financial resources.

VSW CONSTRUCTION EXPERIENCES

     By the end  of  fiscal  year 1979, Village Safe Water sanitation  facilities
will have  been  constructed  in  11 Alaskan villages.  Table 6 lists  these vil-
lages along with data concerning population, location, climate,  costs and year
of construction.  All  VSW projects  are  central  facilities.  Figure  16 shows
VSW project locations.

Northway and Chevak

     In late 1972 and early 1973 the villages of Northway and Chevak requested
assistance under  the  VSW program  in finishing  central  facilities they had
begun to  construct  on their own initiative.   Since  Northway and  Chevak had
committed  their  own resources  and  thus  demonstrated a sincere  desire  to im-
prove sanitation in the villages, they were granted VSW assistance.
                                     41

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TABLE 6.   VILLAGE SAFE WATER PROJECT DATA

Village
Northway
Chevak
Nulato
Selawik
Alakanuk
Pitkas Point
Koyukuk
Beaver
Kongiganak
Tanana
Council
Location
N. Lat. W. Long. Population
62°58'
61°32'
64°43'
66°36'
62°41 '
62°02'
64°53'
66°22'
59°52'
65°10'
64°40'
141°56'
165°35'
158°06'
160°00'
164°34'
163°17'
157°42'
147°24'
163°02'
152°04'
163°40'
40
447
330
521
512
85
124
101
200
350

Mean Jan.
Temp °F
-24
+2
-16
-16
-3
-3
-16
-20
+2
-20
-8
Mean Annual
Temp °F
+22
+29
+25
+22
+28
+28
+25
+30
+30
+23
+24
Constr.
Cost X1000
60
75
860
1100
1000
350
440
450
1100
1400
118
Operating Year of Initial
Cost X1000 Operation
28
37.5
109
109
109
38
25
25



1972
1972
1974
1975
1975
1976
1976
1976
1979
1979
1979

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         Figure 16.   Location of Village Safe Water Projects built by
                     the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation.
     Before the VSW  project  began,  Northway had a one-story wood frame build-
ing of  about 700  square  feet situated  over a well.   The building  housed  a
one-room health clinic, a  watering  point for the  village  and a room for com-
munity gatherings.  The VSW project consisted of improving the watering point,
and adding  laundry equipment and showers.   Wastewater from the facility (con-
taining  no toilet waste)  is  discharged to  a  small natural  pond.   Chemical
toilets used  in the  facility are emptied into  a  Federal  Aviation Administra-
tion sewage treatment facility several miles away.

Nulato, Selawik and Alakanuk

     In early 1973 the Alaska Department of  Education,  lacking  funds to pro-
vide water and  sewer  services  for  new schools scheduled  for construction in
Nulato, Selawik  and  Alakanuk, asked ADEC  to install VSW  facilities  in those
villages.   The VSW facilities were to provide sanitation services for both the
new schools and the  villages.   ADEC agreed to  this  arrangement  in return for
promised operation and  maintenance support from the schools.

     In each village  the school and VSW facility were designed and constructed
under joint contracts  administered  by the Alaska  Department  of  Public Works.
All three VSW facilities were patterned after the AVDP projects in Emmonak and
Wainwright.  They  are  two story  structures approximately  55 feet square and
built  on  piles.   The facilities  contain washers  and dryers,  showers, saunas,
rest  rooms,  solid waste   disposal  bins,  honey bucket  dumps and  a watering
point.
                                     43

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Nulato

     At Nulato the water source is a well, water from which contains more than
28 mg/1  iron  and 5 mg/1 manganese.  Water  treatment is pre-chlorination fol-
lowed  by alum and  lime coagulation/flocculation,  rapid sand filtration, and
post-chlorination.  The water  treatment plant is a  standard Met-Pro physical/
chemical package plant with 14,000 gpd capacity.

     The sewage  treatment  plant is also a 14,000 gpd Met-Pro physical/chemical
package plant, in which the unit processes are alum  and  lime coagulation/floc-
culation,  carbon sorption, rapid  sand filtration,  and  chlorination.  Treated
effluent is  discharged to the land surface through  an elevated, insulated and
heated conduit.

     Sludge  from both  the water and  sewage  treatment  plants  is dewatered by
centrifugation  and then  hauled  to a  landfill.   Originally the plant  had an
incinerator with a heat exchange unit, but  operating  problems caused this to
be discarded.

     Although  the treatment plants have had  problems, they are now performing
adequately.  Sludge build-up has been a problem in both plants.

     A  hot water boiler  is  the  heat  source,  and  a  hot air  furnace  is the
secondary  source of building  heat in  case  the boiler fails or is inadequate.
The  boiler and  hot air furnace are  interconnected  through a complex control
system which has been very difficult to keep operating properly.

Selawik  and Alakanuk

     The  water  and  sewage treatment  plants  at Selawik  and  Alakanuk are the
same  as  the plants at  Nulato  — Met-Pro physical/chemical package plants with
14,000  gpd capacity.   For these villages, however,  the  water  is obtained from
surface  sources, and product  water has been  of  good quality since the facili-
ties  were  completed  (Selawik in  October,  1975,  and  Alakanuk  in  December,
1975).   The sewage treatment  plants also  seem to  be operating well.  Treated
effluent is discharged to the  land surface.

     The  floor plans, mechanical  systems, and methods of providing sanitation
services in the  Selawik and Alakanuk facilities  are  very nearly the same as in
the Nulato facility.

     All three of these plants require  constant operator attention.

Pitkas Point

     The Pitkas  Point VSW facility was completed  in February, 1976.  It is a
wood  frame  structure  of  about 1300  square  feet resting  on a post  and pad
foundation and  containing a  watering  point,  honey bucket  dump,  washers and
dryers,  rest  rooms,   showers  and  saunas.  The  water source  is  a collection
gallery  in the  bed of  a  creek.  Water treatment is rapid sand filtration and
carbon  sorption  on an  as-needed basis, followed by  chlorination and fluorida-
tion.   Sewage is  treated  in   a secondary  biological system which consists of
                                      44

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four 1000 gpd extended aeration package plants interconnected through a split-
ter box.  The backage plants are Multi-Flo units with an aeration chamber, and
solids  separation  through a filter  membrane.  Treated  effluent is discharged
to an  underground  leach  field.   The Pitkas Point  school  will  be plumbed into
the VSW facility to receive water supply and sewage  disposal services.

Koyukuk

     Design  of  the Koyukuk  VSW facility was completed  in  February,  1976 and
the well  intended for its water source was drilled in September of  1975.  This
facility  is similar  in   size  and  configuration to the  one in  Pitkas  Point
except that  it  contains  no saunas and  has a  pile  foundation system.  The low
capacity  well (6 gpm)  produces  good quality water, so water treatment is only
chlorination and fluoridation.   Treated  sewage  effluent from  three  1500 gpd
(Multi-Flow) plants is discharged into a stream channel  which has intermittent
flow.   The  new  school  to be constructed  in Koyukuk will  receive water supply
and waste disposal services from the VSW facility.

Beaver

     This  facility  provides  the  same  services  as the  one in  Pitkas  Point,
including  service  for the  village  school.   The  water source is  two  wells  in
the thaw  bulb of the  Yukon River.  Sewage treatment is  extended aeration in a
5000 gpd  Bio-Pure package  plant.   Treated effluent  is  discharged to  a sub-
surface leach field in the thaw bulb of the Yukon.

Kongiganak

     The  facility is  basically  similar to the ones in  Pitkas  Point, Koyukuk,
and Beaver; and  it also serves the  village  school.

     The  water  supply  is the river, with a roof catchment system serving as a
back-up  source   for  the   summer months.   Kongiganak is  located close to  the
coast and storms back  up salt water into the river for  3-4 days at a stretch.
25,000 gallons  of water storage is provided in order to  provide water through-
out these periods.  A   second  problem is  the  varying  water  quality in  the
river.   The  late summer  shows turbidities over 200 and color over 500.  In the
winter, the  color and  turbidity go down,  but the iron content  goes up as high
as 15 mg/1.  This necessitated installing a bank of multi-media, greensand and
carbon filters,  which sequence of use is  varied throughout the year.

     Wastewater treatment is accomplished by  aeration  with discharge to a salt
water lake adjacent to the village.

     Waste heat  from the  school generators is utilized to heat the building.

Council

     Council has a watering  point.   Electricity  for the well pump is provided
by a wind generator which charges a bank of storage batteries.  The electric-
ity is  used to  run  a submersible  pump which feeds 1000  gallons  of storage.
The watering point is designed to operate for 2 weeks with no wind.  A back-up
generator is provided.
                                     45

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Tanana

     Tanana  uses  a well  in the  thaw bulb  of the Yukon  River for its water
supply.  Chiorination  and  floridation are provided.  The waste disposal is to
an  aerated lagoon  which  then discharges  to a  leach field.  The lagoon also
serves  as  the wastewater  treatment facility  for  a hospital,  school,  and FAA
facility located at Tanana.

COSTS

     Table  6  contains a  summary of  capital  construction  costs  for  the VSW
projects.   The costs  shown  include both  design and construction.  The table
also  lists the  estimated annual  operating budgets  for  VSW facilities.  The
figures exclude amortization of capital costs.

     Sources  of  revenue in the villages  are limited.   Individuals who use the
VSW facilities  pay fees,  but fees  cannot be  so  high people  no longer can
afford  to  use the  facilities.  One  to two thousand dollars  per month might be
raised  through users'  fees in  larger  villages  (400 to  500 residents) and pro-
portionately  less in  smaller towns.   Public  health clinics, some  owned  by the
U.S. Public Health  Service and  some  owned  by the villages, might receive water
supply  and waste  disposal  services from VSW facilities  and thus become sources
of  revenue, but not more  than  a  few hundred dollars  per  month.  Fees paid for
school  water  and  sewer  services represent  a third source of revenue which
could  routinely  amount to  about  25  percent  of   the  VSW  facility operating
budget.  Hence as a general rule,  more than half  of  the  money  needed to oper-
ate VSW facilities will have to come from outside the villages.

CONTINUING PROGRAM

     ADEC   has a  continuing responsibility  for VSW  projects.   Not  only does
ADEC  assist  in   the  design  and   construction  of  new  facilities,  but   in the
operation   and  maintenance of  existing  facilities.   Because   of  the complex
problems  faced by  VSW and all  other organizations  involved  in building and
maintaining sanitation services  in  the  bush, a comprehensive Statewide plan-
ning  effort was  initiated.   It  was  hypothesized   that by  bringing the major
participants  together, workable  solutions to  common problems like operation
and maintenance  could be developed,  thereby increasing the effectiveness of
existing  programs  and improving  sanitation conditions in the  villages.  How-
ever,  after nearly two years  of  intense  effort, VSW  staff concluded that this
statewide  comprehenstve approach  was  not  feasible.   As a result,  the plan of
study  was  recently revised  to  focus solely on the VSW program.  When com-
pleted, this planning effort would:

      1)    Prescribe a future  role  for  VSW  in  relation to  the  other rural
           sanitation programs like the Public Health Service;

     2)    Recommend a rate at which  new  VSW facilities should  be  built, esti-
           mate funding levels and describe a method for setting  construction
           priorities;
                                      46

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     3)   Recommend a "strategy for operating and  maintaining  VSW facilities,
          estimate what  it will  cost  and suggest how this  support  should be
          provided.

     Hopefully, this revised  approach  will  provide State policy makers with a
strategy for  dealing  with  two key issues:   1)  the rate  of  capital  construc-
tion; and 2)  whether  or not the  State  should continue  to subsidize  operation
and maintenance of sanitation facilities.
                                    47

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                                  REFERENCES

 1.   Alter, Amos J.  "The Polar Palace".  The Northern Engineer  Vol. 5 No. 2.
          p.  4,  1973.

 2.   Reid, Barry H.  "Village  Sanitation".   The  Northern Engineer  Vol. 4 No.
          1.  p. 9, 1972.

 3.   Gordon,  Ronald  C.   "Winter  Survival  of Fecal  Indicator Bacteria  in  a
          Subarctic Alaskan River".  EPA-R2-72-013.  USEPA, Arctic Environmen-
          tal Research  Laboratory, College, Alaska.

 4.   Puchtler,   Bertold.   "Social  and  Economic  Implications  of the  Alaska
          Village  Demonstration  Projects".   Working Paper   No.  20,  Arctic
          Environmental Research Station, USEPA, College,  Alaska.  1973.

 5.   Reid, Barry H.  "Alaska Village  Demonstration Project:   First Generation
          of  Integrated Utilities  for  Remote Communities".  Working Paper No.
          22.  Arctic Environmental Research  Station,  USEPA,  College, Alaska.
          1973.

 6.   "Alaska  Village Demonstration  Projects".   Report to the Congress, Office
          of  Research and Development, USEPA, July 1973.

 7.   Puchtler,   Bertold,  Barry  Reid and Conrad  Christiansen.   "Water-Related
          Utilities for Small  Communities in Rural Alaska".  EPA-600/3-76-104.
          Arctic Environmental  Research Station, USEPA, College, Alaska.

 8.   Pelto,  Perlli  J.   Ir\  "Consequences  of Economic  Change  in Circumpolar
          Regions",   ec. by  Ludger Muller-Wille,  et.  al.   Boreal  Institute of
          Northern Studies,  Univ. of Alberta.  1977.  269 pps.

 9.   Cameron, J. J. , V. Christensen and D.  J.  Gamble.   "Water and Sanitation
          in  the Northwest  Territories".  The Northern Engineer  Vol. 9 No. 4,
          1977.

10.   McGarry,  M.  G.   "Appropriate  Technology  in  Civil  Engineering"   J.n
          Environmental Impacts  of Civil Engineering  Projects and Practices.
          American Society of Civil Engineers, 1978.

11.   Rice, E.   "Vapor  Barriers -  The Ideal  Arctic  House IV".   The Northern
          Engineer.   Vol. 5  No.  4.   1974.

12.   Carlson,  A.   R.   "Heat  Loss  and  Condensation  in   Northern Residential
          Constructions"  Univ. of Alaska Cooperative Extension Service publi-
          cation.  #  p. 558.
                                     49

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13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Smith, D. W. ,  S.  Reed, J. Cameron, G.
     and J.  Scribner.   "Cold Climate
     Report EPS3-WP-79-2.   March 1979.
 Heinke,  F.  James,  B. "eid, W.  Ryan
Utilities Delivery Design Manual".
 Environment Canada.
Leman,  L.  D.   "Water and  Sewer  Utilities for  Barrow,  Alaska".  Second
     International  Symposium  on  Utility  Delivery in  Northern Regions.
     Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. March  1979.

Milan,  Frederick  A.   "The  Aculturation  of  the  Contemporary  Eskimo of
     Wainwright,  Alaska".   Anthropological  Papers of the  University of
     Alaska. Vol. XI, No.  2,  1964.

Sargent,  J.   W.  and J.  W.  Scribner,  "Village  Safe  Water  Projects in
     Alaska  -  Case Studies".   Utilities Delivery  in Arctic Regions Report
     EPA-3-WP-77-1,  Environment Canada. January  1977.

Sargent,  J.  W.   "Operation,  Maintenance  and Management  Assistance for
     Rural  Sanitation  Facilities".   Utilities Delivery in  Northern Re-
     gions.  Environment Canada, March  1979.
                                      50

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                                   APPENDIX

                 PL 92-500 Section 113 as amended by PL 95-217


                     ALASKA VILLAGE DEMONSTRATION PROJECTS

     Sec.  113.(a)   The  Administrator  is  authorized to  enter  into  agreements
with the State of  Alaska to carry  out one  or  more projects  to  demonstrate
methods  to provide  for  central  community facilities for safe water and elimi-
nation or control of pollution in those native villages of Alaska without such
facilities.  Such  project shall  include  provisions for  community  safe water
supply  systems,   toilets,  bathing  and  laundry  facilities,  sewage  disposal
facilities, and  other similar  facilities,  and educational  and informational
facilities and programs relating  to  health  and  hygiene.   Such demonstration
projects shall be  for the further purpose of developing preliminary plans for
providing such safe water and such elimination or control of pollution for all
native villages in  such State.

     (b)  In carrying out  this  section the Administrator shall  cooperate with
the Secretary  of  Health,  Education,  and Welfare for the purpose of utilizing
such of the personnel and vacilities of that Department as may be  appropriate.

     (c)  The  Administrator  shall report  to Congress  not  later than  July 1,
1973,  the  results of the demonstration projects  authorized by this  section
together with his recommendations, including any necessary legislation, relat-
ing to  the  establishment of a statewide program.

     (d)  There is  authorized to  be  appropriated not to  exceed $2,000,000 to
carry  out  this  section.   In  addition, there  is authorized  to  be appropriated
to  carry out this section not  to exceed $200,000 for the  fiscal year ending
September  30,  1978,  and $220,000 for the  fiscal  year ending  September 30,
1979.

     (e)  The Administrator  is  authorized  to coordinate with the Secretary of
the Department of Health, Education,  and Welfare,  the Secretary of the Depart-
ment of  Housing  and Urban Development, the Secretary of the Department of the
Interior, the Secreatry of the Department of Agriculture, and the heads of any
other departments or agencies he may deem appropriate to conduct a joint study
with representatives of the State of Alaska and the appropriate Native organi-
zations  (as defined  in  Public Law 92-203) to develop  a comprehensive program
for  achieving  adequate  sanitation services  in  Alaska  villages.   This study
shall  be coordinated with the  programs and  projects  authorized by  sections
104(q) and 105(e)(2)  of this Act.  The Administrator shall  submit a report of
the results of the study, together with appropriate supporting data and such
recommendations  as  he deems  desirable,  to  the  Committee on  Environment and
                                     51

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Public Works  of  the Senate and to the Committee on Public Works and Transpor-
tation of  the House of Representatives not  later than December 31, 1979.  The
Administrator  shall also  submit  recommended administrative  actions,  proce-
dures, and any proposed legislation necessary to implement the recommendations
of the study no later than June 30, 1980.

     (f)  The  Administrator  is authorized to provide technical, financial and
management  assistance  for  operation and  maintenance  of  the  demonstration
projects  constructed under  this  section, until such time  as the recommenda-
tions of subsection (e)  are implemented.

     (g)   For the  purpose  of this section,  the term "village"  shall  mean an
incorporated  or  unincorporated  community  with a  population of  ten  to six
hundred  people  living  within a  two-mile radius.   The  term "sanitation ser-
vices"  shall  mean water  supply, sewage disposal,  solid waste  disposal and
other  services necessary to maintain  generally accepted standards of personal
hygiene and public health.
                                      52

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            {Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
1. REPORT NO.
     EPA-600/3-80-039
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
 Alaska Village Demonstration  Projects Final Report
                                6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NC.
                                                           5. REPORT DATE
                                                            March  1980 issuing date
7. AUTHOR(S)

  Barry H.  Reid
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS

  Corvallis Environmental Research  Laboratory
  200 S.W.  35th Street
  Corvallis,  Oregon  97330
                                                           10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
                                11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
                                                           13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
  U.S.  EPA Office of Research and  Development
  401 M Street, S.W.
  Washington, D.C.  20460
                                                            inhouse - final
                                14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                                 EPA/600/02
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
                         Concludes  project descriptions reported  in  "Report to the
  Congress Alaska Village Demonstration  Projects" (July 1, 1973)  and  "Water Related
  Utilities for Small Communities  in  Rural  Alaska" EPA-600/3-76-104.	
16. ABSTRACT
       Two demonstration projects were  built as authorized by Section  113 of PL 92-500.
 Modular construction was used to  provide central utility systems  which included water
 supply, laundry, bathing, saunas,  and wastewater treatment.  Service to homes was by
 vehicular delivery.  Fire destroyed the facility at Wainwright  in 1973 and the project
 was  subsequently rebuilt.  Energy  conservation measures were employed to minimize
 costs of operation.  Equipment performed satisfactorily,  but operator preparedness
 was  lacking, thus, many breakdowns occurred.   Overall cost  of  operation and main-
 tenance of the facilities nearly  exceed the financial capacity  of the communities.
 Ownership of the facilities was transferred to the local government  by the EPA.  The
 AVDP was paralleled by projects built by the Alaska Department  of Environmental
 Conservation (ADEC) at 11 locations.   Small communities need outside support for
 operation and maintenance of utility  systems.  Time and training  will  be required to
 prepare local residents to assume  managerial  responsibilities for these proiects.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
                                              b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
                                                COSATI Field/Group
 Alaska
 Water Supply
 Wastewater Treatment
 Vehicular Delivery
 Costs
 Energy  Conservation
AVDP
Village Safe Water
  Program
Central Utility
  Systems
06/F, I

13/B, M
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
 Release to public
                                              19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
                                                unclassified
                                              21. NO. OF PAGES
                                                 62
                   20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
                     unclassified
                                                                         22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)   PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
                                             53

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                                                                                                                                                                                      55

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