NATO
CDSM
OTAN CCMS
NATO-CCMS
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Drinking Water
Washington DC, 20460
EPA 570/9-82-007
CCMS-130
Water and Waste Management
Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society
(NATO/CCMS)
Drinking Water Pilot Study
Summary
NATO/CCMS Drinking Water
Pilot Project Series
CCMS 130
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COMMITTEE ON THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN SOCIETY
(NATO/CCMS)
DRINKING WATER PILOT STUDY
SUMMARY
Edited by:
Ervin Bellack and Joseph A. Cotruvo,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
NATO/CCMS Drinking Water Pilot Project Series
Joseph A. Cotruvo, Chairman
CCMS I 130
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FOREWORD
Many of the industrialized Nations face problems such as
population, energy, and protection of the environment. In
order to -optimize the use of the scientific and technical
expertise from different countries, the Committee on the
Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS) was created between the
Allied Nations of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
This international society of scientists strengthens ties
among the members of the North Atlantic Alliance and permits
NATO to fill a broader social role with non-member countries.
CCMS has been responding to the increasingly complex, technolog-
ical problems facing modern society.
The Drinking Water Pilot Study was initiated by the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency in order to address a broad
spectrum of drinking water quality and health related issues.
Six subject areas have been studied by a number of groups
representing individuals from eleven NATO countries and
three non-alliance countries with technical participation
from many others. The topic areas include Analytical Chemistry
and Data Handling (Area I), Advance Treatment Technology
(Area II), Microbiology (Area III), Health Effects (Area IV),
Reuse of Water Resources (Area V) and Ground Water Protection
(Area VI).
I. Analytical Chemistry - Pilot country, United Kingdom;
Chairman, Lawrence R. Pittwell, British Department of the
Environment.
This report consists of the present practices as well as
the research being conducted by the participating nations.
This includes the sampling frequencies and methods, the
national laws and regulations, the analytical methods used
and the present analytical and related research in progress.
The report is intended to serve as a data base for others
involved in similar work, or who have common problems, and to
be a basis for collaboration to avoid unnecessary duplication
of research and improve the quality of drinking water through-
out the world.
II. Advanced Treatment Technology - Pilot country,
Federal Republic of Germany; Chairman, Heinrich Sontheimer,
University of Karlsruhe.
Two international symposia, entitled, "Oxidation Techniques
in Drinking Water Treatment" at Karlsruhe, Federal Republic
of Germany and "Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water
Treatment" at Reston, Virginia, form the basis for the report.
Herein are two comprehensive surveys of the practical applica-
tion of adsorption and oxidation techniques for removing
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organic chemicals from drinking water. Both of these symposia
represented the most up-to-date technical assessments of the
state-of-the-art for those technologies and provide data from
working installations in a number of countries.
III. Microbiology - Pilot country. United States;
Chairman, Dean O. Oliver; University of Wisconsin, Food
Research Institute.
The intent of the microbiology group was to incorporate
into the project a survey of virtually all aspects of drinking
water microbiology that have practical significance. Their
report includes sections on raw water microbiology, water-
borne pathogens, indicator systems, testing and standards,
treatment processes, distribution systems and technological
aspects of potable water microbiology.
IV. Health Effects - Pilot country, United States;
Chairman, Joseph Borzelleca, Medical College of Virginia.
The Area IV report includes information on toxicological
issues, carcinogenicity and mutagenicity, chemical constituents
physical constituents, and epidemiological considerations
associated with drinking water. The proceedings of a compre-
hensive symposium on Drinking Water and Cardiovascular Disease
is also included. This latter area is the most up-to-date
analysis of the controversial and potentially significant
role of drinking water quality factors on cardiovascular
disease risk factors in consuming populations.
V. Reuse of Water Resources - Pilot country. United
Kingdom; Chairman, Albert Goodman, Department of the Environment.
A summary of the reuse laws and practices in the parti-
cipating countries forms the basis for the report. Also
included is a symposium entitled, "Protocol Development:
Criteria and Standards for Potable Reuse and Feasible
Alternatives". This examined the technical status of methods
for producing high quality water from poor quality sources,
and techniques for determining the safety of consuming recycled
water, as well as social and economic aspects of the decision.
VI. Ground Water Protection - Pilot country, Federal
Republic of Germany; Chairman, Horst Kussmaul, Institut fur
Wasser, Soden-und Lufthygiene.
This is a report on the quality and quantity of ground
water resources, with emphasis on recharge and production
from contamination.
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This volume is a summary of the efforts in all six areas
of the NATO/CCMS Drinking Water Project.
This report is a tribute to the efforts for all the
participants involved. It is hoped that the ties established
and the good spirit of international cooperation that has
prevailed.through the completion of this report will continue
in the development of future related projects.
Joseph A. Cotruvo, U.S. EPA
Chairman, Drinking Water Pilot Project
NATO/CCMS
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TABLE OP CONTENTS
I. Executive Summary
II. Introduction
a. The Drinking Water Pilot Study
b. Study Outline - Participating Countries
III. Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations
b. Part ic ipants
IV. Advanced Treatment Technology - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations
b. Participants
V. Microbiology - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations
b. Participants
VI. Health Effects - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations
b. Participants
VII. Reuse of Water Resources - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations - Study
Group and Workshop
b. Participants - Study Group & Workshop
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VIII. Ground Water Protection - Summary
a. Conclusions & Recommendations
b. Participants
IX. Appendix - The NATO Committee on the Challenges
of Modern Society - Work Program - 1982
a. Pilot Studies - Current
b. Pilot Studies - Follow-up Phase
c. Pilot Studies - Completed
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CHAPTER I
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The HATO/CCMS Drinking Hater Pilot Study was initiated in the
hope of achieving a better understanding of the drinking
water problems that are shared by all countries and to consider
possible solutions to those problems. The aim of the pilot
study is to produce a comprehensive report on state-of-the-
art matters relating to drinking water in the participating
nations, including evaluations of existing technology and
practice from the points of view of effectiveness, public
health protection, practicality, costs, general availability
and association by-product hazards.
The study has been organized by the United States of America
with the assistance of the copilots the United Kingdom and
the Federal Republic of Germany, into six individual topics,
which were assigned as follows:
1. Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling - Lawrence R.
Pitwell, Department of the Environment, United Kingdom
2. Advanced Treatment Technology - Dr. Heinrich Sontheimer,
Engler-Bunte-Institut der Universitat Karlsruhe, Federal
Republic of Germany
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3. Microbiology - Professor Dean 0. Oliver, Food Research
Institute, Department of Bacteriology, University of
Wisconsin, United States
4. Health Effects - Professor Joseph F. Borzelleca,
Division of Toxicology, Medical College of Virginia,
United States
5. Reuse of Water Resources - Albert Goodman, Department
of the Environment, United Kingdom
6. Ground Water Considerations - Dr. Horst Kussmaul, Institut
fur Wasser-, Boden - und Lufthygiene des Bundesgesundheitsamtes,
Federal Republic of Germany
Dr. Joseph A. Cotruvo of the Office of Drinking Water, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, was overall chairman of the
pilot study on behalf of the pilot country, the United States
of America.
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Each of these study groups has prepared a final report and
arrived at a number of conclusions and recommendations.
These represent the thoughts of the individual participants
and do not necessarily represent national policies. The
recommendations include both suggestions for actions to be
taken in specific areas and suggestions for further study.
Some of the significant features of the individual study
group reports are summarized in the following sections.
Full summary reports and recommendations are in later chapters
and the full reports of each group are published separately
in this series.
The CCHS mechanism has been a most effective mechanism for
international contact and information exchange in the rapidly
developing area of the science and technology of drinking
water. Since it operates in the absence of a regulatory
contextr it has provided direct access to the latest concepts
in an unrestricted forum that has encouraged free interchange
and rapid acceptance. Since the field is developing rapidly,
the program should continue in specific areas with a follow-
up mechanism for the application of findings.
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Area I, Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling,
Laurence R. Pittwell, Chairman
The ultimate aim of chemical analysis in the drinking water
industry is to provide data which are useful in the safeguarding
of the quality of water intended for human consumption.
There is no need or desire to analyze water for analysis
sake, nor is there a need or desire to identify or quantify
every possible constituent in drinking water. The parameters
to be measured, the frequency or monitoring, the analytical
and sampling methods used and the national analytical quality
assurance procedure of each country are determined by specific
needs. The needs in turn are determined by the characteristics
of the water being studied.
The Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling study group
wrote their report on the basis of a survey of present
practice and problems in interested nations. Some problems,
and thus some conclusions and recommendations, are common
to virtually all countries. These include the need for
monitoring in accordance with specific requirements, the
need for the establishment of data handling requirements,
and the need for adaptation of analytical chemistry, in
all of its aspects, to future developments in industry,
treatment processes and public health.
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In the area of monitoring, the study concluded that, if public
health is to be safeguarded, the minimum requirement for even
the purest water is a periodic check of the quality of the
source water as well as the water at the consumer's tap. The
monitoring should take into account the risks likely to be
encountered by the consumer and where practicable, source
monitoring and should be done in such a way that in the event
that contamination is discovered there is ample time for
remedial action to be taken before the water is processed.
Process control monitoring is needed to ensure that the
quality of water leaving the treatment plant is satisfactory,
and distribution system monitoring is needed to assure that
the quality of water reaching the consumer has not deteriorated
en route.
The study group paid particular attention to the status of
analytical methods used in drinking water analysis, and they
recommended that only proven accurate standardized methods be
used, methods must be suitable for use with the water analytzed
and the situation in hand. Because it is often impossible or
undesirable to choose one single method for a parameter which
will suit all water types, which will suit every laboratory
situation, or which will suit every budget, there should be
a choice of methods of known performance for each parameter.
Where the analysis for a particular parameter is time-consuming
or costly, an appropriate rapid empirical test should be de-
vised and used routinely. In fact, the study group felt that
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there is a need for quicker, cheaper methods for many para-
meters, as well as for continuous monitoring methods for
some methods for distinguishing the form in which a chemical
is present. For the hundreds of organic chemicals that have
been identified in some waters, the study group recommended
the development of rapid simple methods, but noted that there
is little point in identifying increasing numbers of microtrace
impurities unless there is an indication that a real hazard
exists. The group also noted that little attention has been
paid to the natural organic matter which constitutes the bulk
of the total organic content of drinking water.
Since even use of a method of proven accuracy does not
completely guarantee the validity of the result, the study
group emphasized the need for adequate control of analytical
quality both within and between laboratories. Other areas
explored included sampling methods, storage and preservation
of samples, training of laboratory techniques, reproducibility
and reliability characteristics of analytical methods, test-
ing of waters for additives from water-contact materials,
record keeping and exchanges of information. The group
considered mentioning certain parameters for which analytical
methods are inadequate, but declined to do so on the basis
of rapid changes in analytical research and analytical
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requirements. The group noted that their potential list
changed several times while their report was being drafted.
Their final recommendation was that information exchanges in
the fields covered by their report should be arranged at
intervals in the future.
Some of the key concepts arrived at by the analytical chemistry
study group are:
o Process control analyses need to be adequate to
ensure that the quality of water leaving the water-
works is satisfacory, and that, in addition, samples
should be collected at representative points through-
out the distribution system to assure that the
water reaching the consumer is of the same quality.
o When the analysis for a specific hazardous substance
is time-consuming or costly, an appropriate rapid
empirical test should be devised and used routinely;
but sufficient full determination should be made at
regular intervals to assure the continued validity
of the control analysis.
o There should be adequate control of analytical
quality both within and between laboratories. It
is realized that interlaboratory tests are very
difficult to to organize in such a way that meaningful
results are obtained, hence, such interlaboratory
tests should be used sparingly but thoroughly.
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Some of the major conclusions and recommendations of the
analytical chemistry study group are:
o Monitoring must be adequate, the results
must be obtained in time to be of use, and
be of assured quality. In order to be assured
of the quality of data generated, the laboratory
must be certified as being capable of performing
the analyses, there must be an effective
system of quality control, and there must
be a continuing program for quality assurance
which includes interlaboratory testing and
methods evaluation.
o Monitoring procedures should be tailored
to the individual raw water and treatment
process, be of a quality to reflect the
probability of contamination existing, and
consider the relative risks from the contaminants
being monitored. The potential for contamination
being introduced from components of the
distribution system must be recognized,
and sampling at the consumers' taps must
be a part of the monitoring scheme.
o The ultimate aim of chemical analysis in
the drinking water industry is to provide
data to safeguard the quality of the water
drunk, or used in cooking and cleaning,
rather than the provision of a historic
record of past events, even though such
a record may have a place in the assessment
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of seasonal changes or gradual trends necessary
to the setting of future operational policy.
There is no point in identifying increasing
numbers of microtrace impurities unless
there is an indication that a real hazard
exists, while quite large amounts of some
other classes of substances remain unidentified.
For example, although hundreds of organic
chemicals have been identified in some waters
at microgram or nanogram levels, very little
is known about the humics, fulvics and lignins
that may constitute 80% of the total organic
carbon in water.
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Area II, Advanced Treatment Technology
Professor Heinrich Sontheimer, Chairman
During the past ten to fifteen years, water treatment technology
has changed considerably. Many improvements have been made/
such as the use of multi-layer filters for more efficient and
economical filtration, and important changes have been
introduced regarding new concepts of process design, especially
in conjunction with more frequent use of technologies such as
oxidation and adsorption. There are two important reasons
for the incorporation of such methods in the treatment process.
First, analytical methods have shown that many surface and
ground water are being polluted with synthetic organic
chemicals that cannot be removed effectively by standard
treatment methods. Second, breakpoint chorination, while in
many respects effective from both technical and economic view-
points, has certain significant disadvantages. Through the
reactions of free chlorine with organic constituents, chlorinated
organic compounds such as chloroform and many other chemicals
are formed. This can occur under conditions necessary for
safe disinfection of the drinking water if precursor concentra-
tions are high, and can potentially contribute health risks,
especially if these contaminants have formed in higher
concentrations.
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Chlorine has been and will probably continue to be the most
widely used oxidant and disinfectant for drinking water. Its
use has been remarkable for controlling waterborne transmission
of disease-producing organisms. The discovery of potentially
hazardous chlorinated by-products has led to scrutiny of
uncontrolled or excessive use of chlorine. Oxidants, such as
ozone and chlorine dioxide, as well as technologies to reduce
the amount of oxidant that is needed, have been widely used
in many countries. It should be recognized that all oxidants
produce chemical by-products, and that we have insufficient
information at time to determine whether the by-products of
the other oxidants are of more or less concern than the by-
products of chlorine use.
The types, variety and quantity of contaminating chemicals
found in surface and ground waters differ and the treatment
would also differ. Surface water affected by industrial or
municipal waste discharges may contain a variety and large
number of synthetic organic chemicals, usually each at very
low concentrations (fractions of parts per billion). The
majority of organic substances are of natural origin (e.g.,
humic and fulvic substances) and these will react with oxidants
such as chlorine or ozone to produce a variety of chemicals.
On the other hand, when ground water becomes contaminated it
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is often by a few substances and often at higher concentrations
than found in surface waters. The most frequently detected
organic chemicals in ground water are the volatile halogenated
solvents such as trichloroethylene and tetrachloroethylene.
These are commercially produced in very high volumes, widely used
in industry, and chemically and biologically stable.
The present study has concentrated on oxidation and adsorption
technologies that deal with organic chemical contamination.
A similar study on coagulation technology would definately be
in order.
Even the most sophisticated analytical methods currently avail-
able cannot identify all contaminants in drinking water.
Thus, water systems should emphasize source protection and
comprehensive treatment to assure consistent finished water
quality.
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Member states should conduct monitoring surveys of ground
waters to determine if they are being contaminated by waste
disposal practices. This should include analyses of at least
the volatile organic chemicals (halogenated and other).
There should be regular monitoring of raw water, treatment
processes, final water quality and distribution systems. In
addition, there is a need for quality control and quality
assurance mechanisms to insure the validity of the monitoring
and analytical processes.
The Advanced Treatment Technology study group of the NATO/CCMS
Drinking Water Pilot Study presented their report on the
results of international studies concerning the state of the
art of the application of oxidation and adsorpton techniques
(including granular activated carbon) in the treatment of
drinking water in the form of two conferences - the first
held in Karlsruhe, Germany, in September 1978, and the
second in Reston, Virginia, USA, April 30 - Nay 2, 1979.
These conferences, sponsored, respectively by the Federal
Republic of Germany and by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency jointly with NATO/CCMS, did not attempt to pre-
scribe general rules for the utilization of oxidative
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and adsorptive treatment processes, but rather were intended
to draw attention to the potential benefits to be attained
and to the problems remaining to be solved, as well as
provide detailed information on the performance and costs
of various technologies.
The major concepts evolving from the conferences included:
o Treatment of surface waters for drinking
water purposes must include flocculation
and filtration.
o In order to avoid possible disadvantages
of breakpoint chlorination, additional treatment
steps may be required to achieve a greater
reduction in overall organics concentration.
o Pretreatment before flocculation, including
the use of storage basins or ponds, prechlorination
with dosages under the breakpoint, preozonation
and riverbank filtration often enhances
finished water quality.
o When breakpoint chlorination is omitted,
an alternative process should be used to
achieve reliable disinfection. The alternatives
include ozonation, biological treatment
particularly in conjunction with granular
activated carbon filters, and disinfection
with chlorine or chlorine dioxide at the
end of the treatment process.
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o While breakpoint chlorination is effective
for ammonia removal, another method for
nitrification may be necessary if chlorination
cannot be used. Biological ammonia oxidation
may be a viable alternative.
o Granular activated carbon filters have been
used for many years for taste and odor removal,
but there is still a widespread lack of
knowledge concerning this treatment step,
however, several facilities are successfully
operating.
o Carbon filters can be used for (1) removal
of specific organics such as chloro compounds
and aromatic hydrocarbons, (2) reduction
of total organic carbon and chlorine demand,
(3) biological oxidation of ammonia, (4)
taste and odor removal, and (5) dechlorination.
o Biological activity in carbon filters can increase
time and throughput between carbon reactivations two
to five times without sacrificing water quality, especially
if preozonation is being used.
Other processes for organics removal discussed at the conferences
included adsorption with synthetic resins, the removal of
humics by microreticular anion exchange resins, aeration
for removal of volatile contaminants, and membrane processes.
The conclusion reached by the study group was that it is
not possible to propose one preferred combination of treatment
options that can replace the standard treatment configuration.
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However, the oxidation and adsorption processes discussed
offer many possibilities as part of a complete treatment
requires that can be tailored to cope with each treatment
problem that is encountered in the wide variety of water
v
that are used as drinking water supplies.
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Area III, Microbiology.
Dean 0. Oliver, Chairman
Potentially the most significant constraint upon the scope
of the microbiology project was that it was to address
the drinking water supply problems of industrialized nations.
Significant features of drinking water supplies in industrialized
nations are high volume usage, both for consumption and
other applications, and the potential for microbiological
contamination of source water because of water reuse.
The Microbiology study group incorporated into their project
a survey of virtually all aspects of drinking water microbiology
that have practical significance to the water microbiologist.
Their report includes sections on (1) raw water microbiology,
(2) water-borne pathogens, (3) indicator systems, (4) testing
and standards, (5) treatment processes, (6) distribution
systems, and (7) technological aspects of potable water
microbiology. In addition to specific recommendations
pertinent to each section, the following were among the
major recommendations provided by the group:
Every public water supply should begin with
the highest quality raw water that is available
in quantities sufficient to meet the community's
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needs. Efforts to protect and improve the
quality of source waters are important;
both waste discharges and non-point sources
of pollution should be considered in attempts
to prevent or alleviate contamination.
Where possible, water to be used for irrigation,
or for industrial purposes other than food,
drug, or cosmetic manufacture, should usually
be drawn from less pure sources than those
from which the public supply derives.
Disinfection is necessary, but not always
sufficient, to ensure the safety of drinking
water from virtually any source.
Complete treatment of drinking water, including
at least coagulation and sedimentation with
sand filtration or alternatively dual filtration
including effective slow sand filtration,
followed in all cases by disinfection, is
essential in all cases where source waters
are unprotected and is highly desirable
even with protected sources.
Sound engineering practice is required to
produce safe drinking water; microbiologic
laboratory testing performed on a routine
basis, according to standardized methods,
and by properly trained and supervised staff,
is an important basis for assessment of
drinking water quality. Indicator systems
for use in these tests may be selected for
any one of the following purposes: (i)
to signal fecal contamination; (ii) to detect
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any abnormal and probably undesirable conditions
that may occur; or (iii) to warn of the
probable presence of specific pathogens.
Larger waterworks, at least, should develop
microbiologic quality control procedures
and baseline data for all stages of treatment
from raw water through distribution. Prompt
corrective action should be taken when norms
are exceeded. At least one microbiology
laboratory in each country should have the
ability to detect waterborne pathogens,
either for spot-checking or for investigating
outbreaks, both from water samples and from
clinical specimens. Results of tests for
both indicators and pathogens should be
shared on an international basis.
In addition to the well-established research
on waterborne bacterial pathogens, considerably
more research is needed concerning viruses
and protozoa transmissible by drinking water,
in the areas of the dose-dependence of peroral
infectivity and pathogenicity, the detection
of these agents in water, and their removal
or destruction by water treatment and disinfection
processes.
Materials of which water treatment and distribution
facilities are constructed should be pretested
for chemical and biological stability.
Testing methods, as well as results, should
be shared internationally as much as possible;
however, it is also best to test materials,
before use in a given system, with the very
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water with which they will, in fact, be
in contact.
Finished water in distribution, in both
public and semipublic systems, should be
sampled at representative locations and
tested microbiologically with a frequency
that depends on the size of the population
served. Private water supplies should be
tested at least annually. In all instances,
the presence of coliforms, thermo-tolerant
coliforms, or £. coli in a 100-ml sample
should be treated as unacceptable, or at
the very least, undesirable.
To minimize aftergrowth or other technological
problems and to provide a means of determining
whether cross-contamination has occurred,
water in a public supply distribution should
wherever possible contain a measurable residual
level of disinfectant (e.g., free chlorine at
all points.
Means are needed to control cross-connections,
to ensure both that the consumer does not
degrade publicly-supplied water to the detriment
of his own health and that his use of the
water does not cause contamination that
threatens the health of.others. Aspects
of particular concern include water attachment
devices that use water, and point-of-use
treatment units attached to the consumer's
tap.
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Area IV, Health Effects
Professor Joseph Borzelleca, Chairman
The committee addressed two major topics; the chemical and
physical contaminants in drinking water. A list of 744
chemicals, their country of origin, concentrations, source
and treatment was compiled.
The origin of these contaminants, natural, man-made or as the
result of water treatment was discussed. Naturally occurring
contaminants included organic and inorganic chemicals. The
anthropogenic chemicals included atmospheric, industrial,
agricultural, landfill, surface runoff and household chemicals.
Contaminants formed as the result of water treatment included
trihalomethane and chlorinated aromatic and non-aromatic compounds
Contaroinnats contributed from the distribution system included
leachates from piping, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and
corrosion products. The committee identified the following
substances as worthy of further study: halogenated methanes,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, asbestos, chlorinated
phenols and cations. An additional eleven chemical classes
and one physical class were identified for further evaluation.
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The committee concentrated on the question of whether drinking
water contamination could result in adverse health effects of
the chemical contaminants.
Various methods of disinfection are successfully used to
control water-borne diseases due to biological contaminants
in water (viruses, bacteria). Varying methods of chemical
control add chemical contaminants to the drinking water. For
example, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride have been found
as contaminants in chlorine gas. Trihalomethanes may be
formed by the interaction of chlorine with humic and/or fulvic
acids. In addition, chemical contaminants may arise from
natural, agricultural, industrial or distributional sources.
Acute or chronic exposures to these chemicals could theoretically
result in adverse health effects that are immediate or delayed,
reversible or irreversible. Since these contaminants rarely
occur singly, chemical interactions (additives, synergistic,
antagonistic) must be considered. The nature of adverse
health effects can usually be determined from properly designed
tried animal experiments or human epidemiological studies.
Potentially toxic agents may also be identified by the use or
short term or in vitro tests. Other methods of identification
of potentially toxic agents include chemical structure similarity
to known toxicants.
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Attempts should be made to reduce the number of potentially
toxic chemical contaminants, but the microbiological quality
of drinking water must not be comprised.
o In general, no adverse health effects have been
observed from the consumption of drinking water
generated from a controlled public supply (i.e.,
adequate source protection, treatment methods and
distribution system) and which met drinking water
standards. Nevertheless potential hazards exist.
o Epidemiologial studies should be encouraged, but
only when they are expected to be of a sensitivity
sufficient to detect the predicted effect or when
they are clearly acknowledged to be hypothesis
generating in intent. The most rigorous methods
and standards of design and interpretation must be
used.
o When estimating hazards of chemicals to humans, it
is essential to consider exposure from all sources
(air, food, water, occupational exposure, lifestyle,
etc.). In general, drinking water is a minor source
of total daily and lifetime exposure to most environ-
mental chemicals.
o Where risk of toxic effects is estimated
for various levels of exposure, the acceptance
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of a particular level of risk is a socio-
political judgement.
A means for monitoring the toxic potential
of the chemicals in tap water in a rapid
and comprehensive manner should be sought.
Studies aimed at the development of simple
assay methods are strongly endorsed. Similarly,
a flexible and reliable strategy for the
application of such methods should be developed.
The NATO/CCMS Master List of Organic Chemical
Contaminants should be kept current. Participation
by all NATO countries is strongly encouraged.
Study of the role of chemical constituents
in potable water in the etiology and expression
of human disease should concentrate on those
where they may be factors in common diseases
(for example, cardiovascular disease, cancer),
should be considered as part of the overall
strategy of disease investigations and should
deal with possibilities of benefit as well
as harm.
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Area V, Reuse of water Resources,
Albert Goodman, Chairman
The reuse study group examined current practices in the
direct or indirect recycling of water for potable use from
a number of aspects, including the regulatory and legislative
control of discharges of pollutants to surface waters in
the participating countries, the different methods for
assessing the percentage of indirect reuse, the purification
systems which are available for reuse applications, the
health aspects associated with both direct and indirect
reuse, the non-potable applications of reused water, the
public acceptance of renovated wastewater, and the trends
in water resources management with respect to reuse. Several
case studies involving indirect reuse were presented.
As an adjunct to the study group report, the proceedings
of a workshop entitled, "Protocol Development: Criteria
and Standards for Potable Reuse and Feasible Alternatives"
are included in the report appendix. The latter, a contribution
by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, with
participation by representatives of local. State, federal
and international government agencies, consultants and
universities, contains presentations on reuse aspects of
toxicology, chemistry, microbiology, engineering, ground
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water rechange and non-potable applications, as well as on
the broad issues of water reuse. The final section of the
proceedings highlights a panel discussion on the question of
future direction for examination of the feasibility and
practicality and safety of potable waste water reuse.
The potential health risks of direct potable reuse are not
fully understood. In particular/ there is a need to learn
more about the effects of long-term exposure to low levels of
contaminants. Until there is more scientific information on
this subject, direct reuse cannot be judged safe for drinking
water and should be avoided. Where water demand outstrips
existing supplies, direct reuse should be reserved for low
order uses; dual water systems may be considered where feasible
Performance reliability of reuse systems is essential to
practical consideration of potable reuse.
Current drinking water standards have not been formulated on
the expectation that significant direct reuse would occur.
These existing standards are not directly transferable to
direct reuse situations.
Not only surface waters are subject to a degree of indirect
reuse. Ground waters also receive percolates from where
industrial or domestic aqueous wastes are disposed on the
surface of the soil. While the situation is usually not
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now serious, it can no longer always be assumed that ground
waters do not require treatment, as increasing incidents of
ground water contamination are being detected in many countries.
Some specific treatments may be required to eliminate, as far
as possible, organic compounds, particularly those used as
solvents, and some metals which are often natural contaminants.
There is little direct evidence of the maximum percentage of
indirect reuse that should be considered safe under normal
circumstances. "Safe level" of reuse are a function both of
the percentage of reuse and of the time interval between use
and reuse (during which a degree of self-purfication occurs).
Nevertheless, prudent standards might strive for a maximum of
25% indirect reuse under most conditions.
On the basis of their survey of present practices, the Reuse
study group concluded:
o The indirect reuse of surface waters must carefully
managed to ensure the maintenance of the water
quality of the source monitored to ensure that the
percentage of reused water in abstracted supplied
is kept at acceptable levels.
o Existing technology is capable of protecting
consumers of reclaimed water from known dangers;
however, the knowledge regarding the toxicity for
the wide range of chemical and microbiological
contaminants is limited.
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o The most important argument ^against direct
potable reuse is the lack of knowledge regarding
the toxicological effects of the innumerable
organic and inorganic chemical contaminants
found in wastewater.
o The economics of treating wastewater for
direct reuse are not generally attractive
when compared to the cost of conventional
sources of potable water, but when conventional
sources are limited, reuse may be a competitive
alternative.
o Water should be reused first for industrial,
agricultural and recreational purposes.
o Reused water should be used for potable
supply only as a last resort.
The Potable Reuse workshop generated the following conclusions
and recommendations:
o A single set of drinking water standards
should be developed for all waters regardless
of source.
o A thorough characterization of potential
source waters for chemical and microbiological
constituents should be accomplished.
o A major effort should be made to examine
the unknown or inadequately known organic
fractions and a data base developed.
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Toxicology/concentrate studies may prove
to be the logical tool for decision making
instead of complete chemical analyses and
synergistic studies.
There should be no detectable pathogenic
agents in potable reuse water..
Any ground water recharge system which might
result in increased contamination of the
ground water should be tried only for research
and demonstration purposes.
Non-potable options should be considered
ahead of potable reuse.
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Area VI, Ground Water Quality Considerations,
Dr. Hoist Kussmaul, Chairman
The ground water study group examined the following aspects
of ground water quality:
o Sources of ground water pollution
o Changes in water quality during underground
travel
o Artificial recharge
o Ground water protection
Ground Water
Ground water forms an important drinking water source in
all the NATO countries. Ground water has many advantages
over surface waters as a source of supply, such as normally
consistent good quality, local availability and low treatment
cost. However, the increasing rate of ground water withdrawal
and the spread of urbanization have resulted in a reduction
of both the quantity and quality of the available ground
water in some areas.
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The major source of ground water recharge is rainfall
infiltration through the overlying soil zone, with smaller
contributions from induced recharge (from surface water bodies)
and from of water through the unsaturated zone changes its chemical
composition. Models have been used to project the effect of
underground travel on water quality and the nature and extent
of pollution, bu the mechanisms controlling pollution move-
ment through aquifers are as yet not fully understood.
Ground water can become polluted in many ways. Some of these
are disposal of domestic and municipal wastes, discharge of
untreated or partially treated sewage effluent, leaky sewers,
leachates from solid waste disposal sites and disposal of
municipal sludge to landfills. Other sources of contamination
are the disposal of industrial wastes, both solid and liquid,
and accidential spillage.
The study group concluded:
o The prime concern for the future should be to retain
ground water quality and to control actions which
may lead to the deterioration of natural good
quality ground water so as to render it unacceptable
for 5ts intended use.
o In order to achieve ground water protection,
more knowledge is needed on the pathways of
natural recharge of aquifers, the persistence
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or attenuation of pollutants in the unsaturated
zones of aquifers, the persistence or attenuation
of pollutants in saturated zones and the
natural distribution of chemical and biological
constituents in ground water.
o A suitable data collection system is necessary
to monitor ground water quantity and its
possible changes with time.
The study group recommended the following areas for future
research:
o Studies should be conducted on the natural
variations in ground water quality and how
these depend on input, flow, interactions
and the influence of microorganisms.
o Studies should be conducted on the movement
of individual organic and inorganic constituents
of ground water.
o Studies should be conducted on the effects
of flow through saturated zones on degradable
and water-soluble substances.
o Studies should be conducted on the absorption
capacity and other properties of strata
relevant to persistent chemical substances.
o Studies should be conducted on the changes
in the constituents of ground water flowing
through different rock types by the use
of laboratory simulations.
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o Studies should be conducted on the effects
of biological and chemical clogging acguifers.
o Studies should be conducted on improved
methods of abstraction from, and recharge
to, aquifers.
o Studies should be conducted on the residence
and passage of time of bacteria and viruses
in ground water required to achieve removal
and/or disinfection
o Studies should be conducted on the potential
impact of urban, industrial and recreational
activities on ground water development.
Consideration should be given to the development of comprehensive
strategies for the protection of ground water sources.
The goal of the strategy ought to be to assess, protect,
and enhance the quality of ground waters to the levels
necessary for current and projected future uses and for
the protection of the public health. One of the objectives
of a ground water protection strategy is to provide a process
whereby individual government and the public can set priorities
among competing activities which may use or contaminate
ground water.
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CHAPTER II
INTRODUCTION
Drinking Water Problems - Initiation of the Drinking Water
Pilot Study
The Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS)
was created in 1969, the same year the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) celebrated it twentieth anniversary.
The committee's function is to explore ways in which the
experience and resources of the Western nations can most
effectively be used to improve the quality of life. The
committee is part of NATO's third dimension - a social
dimension that joins a strong military dimension and a
profound political dimension. The CCMS program consists
of pilot studies on topics proposed by the member countries.
At the Spring CCMS Plenary in Dusseldorf, Federal Republic
of Germany, on February 8-9, 1977, the United States proposed
a Pilot Study on Drinking Water for adoption by the NATO
Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. The United
States, through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's
Office of Drinking Water offered to serve as pilot country
for the study and all the Allied nations were encouraged
to participate actively.
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The problem of providing potable drinking water that is
bacteriologically and chemically safe, as well as esthetically
acceptable, is becoming considerably more complex, particularly
in industrial nations. As the quantity of available water
resources is reduced by population growth, urbanization
and industrialization, the availability of clean, uncontaminated
water for human consumption also declines.
Providing safe drinking water in industrialized nations
present'considerably different problems than are usually
encountered in developing countries, where supply and microbiological
quality are the major concerns. Industrialized nations
have generally been able to control waterborne disease
transmission, as evidenced by the extremely low incidences
of typhoid and chloera since the advent of widespread disinfection
practices. But new and potentially serious questions are
raised for all nations by the proliferation of industrial
chemical discharges into drinking water sources by urban
runoff, by water polluted with human waste (both treated
and untreated), contamination of ground waters with industrial
chemicals because of inadequate waste disposal practices,
and finally by the formation of new chemicals in drinking
water from the interaction of disinfectant chemicals like
chlorine, with the natural chemicals commonly present in
drinking water.
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The United States submitted the initiative for the new
pilot study in the hope of achieving a better understanding
of the drinking water problems that are shared by all countries
and of the solutions to these problems. The pilot project
was planned to provide the most up-to-date information
on the possible technological approaches for dealing with
the problems.
The proposal was presented in preliminary form in the 1976
CCMS Plenary meeting in Brussels. Subsequently, experts
from nine Allied nations met in December 1976 and prepared
a detailed revised outline of the project. The outline
cut across the major generic subjects of water supply technology
and included analysis and detection of pollutants, instrumentation,
microbiology, treatment processes, engineering, health
science, data handling and dissemination, water reuse and
ground water problems.
It was neither appropriate nor possible to design and carry
out each subject area with the same degree of detail.
Some of the topics were highly technologically oriented,
whereas others concentrated on surveying prevalent thought
and activities in various countries.
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The aim of the proposed pilot study was to produce comprehensive
reports on current problems relating to drinking water in the
participating nations. The report would include evaluations
of existing technology and practice from the points of view
of effectiveness, public health protection, practicality,
costs, general availability, and associated by-product hazards.
The project would also explore emerging technology and make
recommendations for further technical efforts. Furthermore,
identifying ongoing activities and disseminating information
between participants allows national programs to focus on
specific areas of water supply research without duplicating
work being done elsewhere. This also encourages national
adoption of the most up-to-date technologies and practices.
The pilot project group invited involvement from other
international organizations such as CEC, OECD, and WHO,
to assure that overlaps would be avoided and benefits maximized,
The United States believed that drinking water problems
would be an appropriate issue to be treated by CCMS since
the problems are common to all the Allies. It was particularly
timely, and all would be able to benefit from a more detailed
understanding of how each of them has dealt with the issues
affecting water supplies.
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The following work program was considered for the Pilot
Study although modified as the study proceeded.
!• Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling
A. Monitoring Methods and Standard Testing Procedures
1. What is being analyzed
2. How is it being analyzed
3. Mandatory or recommended
4. Frequencies
5. Publications and cooperative activities
B. Automated Process Control and Stream Monitoring
Technology and Methods (Sensors and Telemetry)
C. Data Handling and Resolution
D. Use of Data in Decision Making
£. Information Format Design
II. Advanced Treatment Technology
A. Technology Description
1. Activated carbon (powdered and granular),
carbon and ozone, and reactivation
2. Other adsorption media (sand and resins)
3. Disinfection treatment
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4. Others (desalination, ion exchange, flotation
and flocculation technology, denitrification)
5. Membrane treatment (osmosis and electrodialysis)
B. Evaluation of Technology
1. Cost data (capital and operating)
2. Effectiveness of each technique in removing
the element targeted for removal
3. Quality of treatment chemicals
4. Residues and byproduct formation
C. Emergency response measures when appropriate
III. Microbiology
A. Sampling and Assessment (monitoring frequencies,
indicators, etc.)
B. Treatment Modification and Variation in Risks
from Bacteria and Viruses
1. Reduction of quantity of disinfectant and
results of reduction
2. Build-up of endotoxins from adsorbant use
IV. Health Effects
A. Significance of Contaminants to Human Health
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1. Identification and Concentration of Contaminants
(a) Chemicals (organic and inorganic)
(b) Microbiological (bacteria, virus, protozoans)
(c) Particulates (asbestos, turbidity)
2. Location of Contaminants
(a) Raw water
(b) Distribution systems
(c) Treatment process
B. Health Effects Evaluation of Contaminants in
Drinking Water
1. Waterborne Disease
2. Toxicology (protocols) for assessment and
current activities)
3. The role of Epidemiological studies (prospective
and retrospective); identifying populations
for future studies
C. Contaminants and their levels of seriousness
D. Information Format Design
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V. Reuse of Water Resources
A. Epidemiological Aspects of Reuse
B. Appropriate Treatment Technology for Various
Reuse Situations)
C. Composition of Recycled Water
VI. Ground Water Considerations
A. Protection
B. Recharge
C. Other
The Committee on the challenges of Modern Society approved
the United States proposal for a drinking water pilot study
and on March 1, 1977, the Chairman of the Committee (Joseph
M.A.H. Luns) issued the following note:
In approving the proposal, the Committee noted
that this would be the most comprehensive study
ever undertaken on this subject, and that a number
of member countries would participate actively.
The objective of the pilot study is to achieve
a better understanding of the drinking water
problems that industrialized countries share
and to seek solutions to them. The study will
include evaluations of existing technology and
practice from the points of view of effectiveness,
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the public health protection, practicality, costs,
general availability and associated by-product
hazards.
Although certain aspects of the drinking water
problem are under study in other international
forums, no other organization has undertaken
a study of this comprehensive nature. In order
to avoid any duplication from the outset, the
Commission of European Communities, which is
also doing work in this area, participated in
the expert meeting held in December last year,
where the detailed work programme was prepared.
The C£C, as well as other interested international
organizations, will continue to be invited to
expert meetings of this pilot study in order
to ensure co-ordination of any on-going work.
The United Kingdom and the Federal Republic of
Germany were named as copilots for the study. Leadership
of individual topics was accepted as follows:
Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling - United
Kingdom (Laurence R. Pittwell)
Advanced Treatment Technology - Federal Republic
of Germany (Prof. H. Sontheimer)
Microbiology-United States, (Prof. Dean 0. Oliver)
Health Effects - United States, (Prof. Joseph
Borzelleca)
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Reuse of Water Resources - United Kingdom (Albert
Goodman)
Ground Water Considerations - Federal Republic
of Germany (Dr. Horst Kussmaul)
Each of the study groups prepared a final report, except
for Area II, Advanced Treatment Technology. The latter
group's report is in the form of the proceedings of two
symposia - one on oxidation techniques and the other on
adsorption techniques. The completed project has taken
the form of an extended series of published volumes, as
follows:
Area I. Laurence R. Pittwell, United Kingdom, Chairman
o Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling
Area II. Prof. H. Sontheimer, Federal Republic of Germany,
Chairman
o Oxidation techniques in Drinking Water Treatment
(Karlsruhe)
o Adsorption Techniques in Drinking Water
Treatment (Reston, Virginia, USA)
Area III. Prof. Dean Cliver, United States, Chairman
o Microbiology
Area IV. Prof. Joseph Borzelleca, United States, Chairman
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o Health Effects
o Drinking Water and Cardiovascular Disease
(proceedings of a symposium held in Massachusetts,
USA)
o Proceedings of a Symposium on Water Supply
and Health (Netherlands)
o Bumic Acids in Water (Norway and DSA)
Area V. Albert Goodman, United Kingdom/ Chairman
o Reuse of Water Resources (includes proceedings
of U.S. EPA Water Reuse Workshop)
Area VI. Dr. Horst Kussmaul, Federal Republic of Germany,
Chairman
o Ground Water Considerations
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CHAPTER III
AREA I
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY AND DATA HANDLING
SUMMARY
LAURENCE R. PITTWELL, UNITED KINGDOM, CHAIRMAN
The report is chiefly a survey of present practice and
problems in interested nations, the parameters and frequency
of monitoring, the analytical and sampling methods used,
and the national analytical quality assurance procedures,
though no details of the latter are given. Consequent
problems in the choice of methods are discussed. Factors
influencing such choices are:
i. Range required;
ii. Degree of accuracy required;
iii. The speed and frequency with which results
are required;
iv. Interferences;
v. Equipment available and labor required;
vi. Sample stability and sample utilization;
and
vii. Local legislation on the use of chemicals.
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Information is also given on the legislative aspects, testing
the suitability of materials, and on applications of data
processing.
The Need for Monitoring
The ultimate aim of chemical analysis in the Drinking Water
Industry is to provide data to safeguard the quality of
water intended for consumption or used in cooking and cleaning.
Water pure enough to drink without any treatment at all is
becoming scarce. Much of the available water contains some
quantity of sewage or factory effluent the degree of treatment
of which varies from negligible to very thorough. Even when
there are not such effluents, risks may still be present.
Several epidemics have been traced to infection from wild-
life in the catchment area; pesticide and herbicide spraying
of upland catchments is not unknown and there is often the
possiblity of chemical spillage during transport, even in
remote aras. Preparation of safe water under such circum-
stances can be a complex operation which needs adequate
analytical control throughout the process to the final product.
Distribution systems ought, ideally, to be capable of deliver-
ing water to the consumer in the same state in which it was
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discharged from the waterworks, but water is a reactive
solvent quite capable of leaching trace amounts of material
from the pipework and equipment; furthermore, for convenience
and protection in inhabited areas, distribution systems are
buried underground and so are liable to serious contamination
in the event of a break in the pipe.
In consequence, if public health is to be safeguarded,
the minimum requirement for even the purest water is a
periodic check of the quality of the incoming water as
well as the water at the consumer's tap. Most water supplies
will require more efficient monitoring than this, depending
first, on the usual quality of the incoming water and the
risks to which it is exposed; second, on the complexity
of the treatment required; and third, on the distribution
system.
Experience has shown that standards of quality inspection
vary, dependent on the skill and experience of the analyst
and the equipment available. It is, therefore, advisable for
the appropriate authorities to monitor the various water quality
control laboratories and their sampling-programs to ensure
that the control is adequate.
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Before embarking on the design of a new water installation,
a thorough analysis, both of the quality of water available
and of potential risks to the catchment area, will be of
use in designing the plant and in establishing the routine
monitoring program.
Records of analyses are useful for detecting seasonal or
continual trends in water quality which can be used as
guidelines for plant control purposes. Such records can
also be used to help assess the adequacy of the existing
plant and decide when additions or replacement will be
required. Adequate care of records is, therefore, necessary.
Monitoring Requirements
Monitoring must be adequate enough to assure consumer protection
and the results must be obtained in time to be of use.
The monitoring procedures used must be tailored to the
individual raw water and treatment process, and the analyses .
must be of assured quality. These requirements present
a problem for which the ideal solution is often impossible
or impracticable. Many of the specific determinands are
complex substances present in a mixture of similar substances
requiring separation and purification prior to identification
and quantification. Such analytical processes often take
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much longer to carry out than the complete process of water
treatment, so that by the time the analysis of the raw
water is available, the water may already be in the distribution
system, and is often consumed before the finished water
leaving the treatment plant has been analyzed for the more
specific determinands. Consumer's tap samples are almost
always received too late for any remedial action, but are
usually the only safe practicable way of controlling quality
in the final stages of the distribution system. Rapid
general tests such as chlorine residual measurements are,
therefore, necessary for the routine control of water quality.
These tests need to be related to the specific determinand
and periodic checks should be made to ensure that their
relationship ie still valid.
Although rivers are capable of a degree of selfpurification
(by action of a substance with the riverbed, the river
itself, or with organisms in the river), it is easier to
detect potential hazards by analysis of waste effluents
at the point of discharge, where the concentration of contaminants
will be far higher, than at the point of abstraction.
Due allowance will have be be made for the effects occurring
within the river, but at least the waterworks will have
warning of what to expect in its incoming raw water.
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Rivers are usually far from homogeneous, especially in
the vicinity of confluences or discharges, and thorough
mixing may take quite a considerable distance. At the
same time, variation in flow rates in different channels
round islands, reactions with the bed, and other variables
can further complicate the pattern, so that it is often
impossible to predict the representativeness of a sample
point without considerable testing to establish a flow
and load profile and its variability to river conditions.
Even ground waters can vary in quality with time and depth
in the aquifer. Yet, however carefully such a program
is carried out, it can rarely safeguard against an accident
unless the sampling is continuous and truly representative.
On the other hand, money is not unlimited, thus, the sampling
and analytical programs used must be a compromise designed
to give the best available protection with the funds available,
Data Handling Requirements
Most of the information from monitoring is immediately
used for control purposes. There is no need to store all
of this information, but a suitable record should be kept
of trends for long term assessment of supply operations.
In addition, it is possible, by use of continuous and semi-
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continuous monitoring devices, to have a degree of automatic
process control.
Public access to a summary of the available data is desirable
as a means of reassuring them, or alerting them to the
need for improvement.
Besides keeping a record of the actual results, it is essential
to keep a record of the method used to obtain them. This
will allow subsequent assessment of their worth, should
their validity be questioned.
Requirements for the Future
Future requirements for analytical method development cannot
be accurately predicted on a long range basis. Much depends
on trends in treatment process development, both for drinking
water and for effluents discharged above abstractions or
leaking into aquifers. Much also depends on future developments
in public health and analytical methods research. There
are, however, some identifiable needs:
i. There is a need for quicker, cheaper methods
of quality control, even if these methods
are empirical, especially when a full determination
of the factor being controlled requires
a semi-research type analytical procedure.
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In such cases, there is also the need to
correlate the two determinations locally.
ii. Further attention should be given to continuous
monitoring methods, especially for incoming
water quality and process control operations.
Use of automated methods should be extended,
as such methods not only save manpower,
but are often of greater reproducibility
than manual methods provided the accuracy
and limit of detection are sufficient.
iii. Methods are needed for the rapid identification
of trace substances in water, especially,
the 80% of non-volatile organic matter;
however, there is little point in identifying
increasing numbers of microtrace impurities
unless there is an indication that a real
hazard exists.
While hundreds of organic chemicals have
been identified in some waters at nanogram
levels, little attention has been paid to
the humics, fulvics, and lignins that constitute
the bulk of the total organic content.
iv. Methods are needed for determining the actual
forms in which several substances, currently
reported as total substances, may be present.
Toxicity often varies with the form in which
a substance is present, thus, when interconversion
is slow or negligible, the form in which
it is present may be important.
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v. Sampling methods and storage or preservation
still need further study. There is no point
in carrying out an expensive analysis on
a sample which is not typical of the material
being analyzed or in which the determinand
has decomposed during transit or storage.
vi. Laboratory technicians require adequate
training, and supervision and periodic updating
of skills.
/
vii. The equipment needed for the detection and
quantification of some compounds in raw waters
is scarce and expensive, so there is a need for
cooperative use of such equipment. Few, if any,
laboratories can afford to own every instrument
they might possibly use.
viii. The working group considered mentioning
certain specific determinands for which
methods were inadequate, but so rapidly
has analytical research developed and as
equally rapidly have the analytical requirements
changed, that the list of determinands requiring
methods has completely changed several times
while this report was being drafted. The
group suggests, because of this, that information
exchanges in the fields covered by their
report should be arranged at intervals
in the future.
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Choice of methods presents a problem. Group I prefers
harmonization of proven accurate methods, with the local
laboratory at liberty to choose the method most suited
to their needs. It is often impossible to choose one single
method which will suit all water types, or which will suit
every laboratory situation. Futhermore, use even of a
method of proven accuracy does not completely guarantee
the accuracy of the result. The harmonization test should
be carried out by the actual laboratory using the method,
and include samples of a type similar to their own raw
water. Thereafter, reliable analytical quality assurance
procedures should be used.
Recommendations
i. Commensurate with the risk to health, water supplies
should be monitored at or before the source or
point of abstraction and, where practicable, this
should be done in such a way that there is ample
time for remedial action to be taken before the
water is processed. Such monitoring should
take, into account the risks likely to be encountered
by the consumers.
ii. Process control analyses need to be adequate
to ensure that the quality of water leaving
the waterworks is satisfactory and that,
in addition, samples should be collected
at representative points throughout the
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distribution system to assure that the water
reaching the consumer is of the same quality.
iii. When the analysis for a specific hazardous
determined is time-consuming or costly,
an appropriate rapid empirical test should
be devised and used routinely; but sufficient full
determinations should be made at such regular
intervals as will assure the continued validity
of the control analysis.
iv. There should be adequate control of analytical
quality both within and between laboratories.
It is realized that interlaboratory tests
are very difficult to organize in such a
way that meaningful results are obtained,
hence, such interlaboratory tests should
be used sparingly but thoroughly.
v. Adequate performance characteristics on
the reproducibility and reliability of analytical
methods need to be obtained and published
(accuracy, precision, limit of detection,
bias, interference effects, etc.); the methods
used for quality control monitoring also
need to have adequate reliability. Because local
variations in water quality may affect the interferenc
effects; because of differences in equipment avail-
ability, laboratory work loads and sample types
submitted, all of which affect the choice of methods;
and because familarity with a method enhances relia-
bility of results provided harmonization tests
show that the test data are adequate;
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laboratories should be free to use acceptable methods
of their own choice.
vi. Adequate tests should be made using local
waters to ensure that pipes and other equipment
are made from materials suited to the water.
Care may be necessary when making these
tests to allow for variations in water quality,
either with season or when several types
of water are supplied to a grid network.
vii. Adequate records of water quality data need
to be kept and should include information
on the analytical method used. These
should not be a complete record of all analyses,
but should indicate trends and variations.
When planning such a system, provision for the possible
use of such data for control purposes, and for
international data exchange, should be made.
viii. Exchanges of information, such as are given
in the full report, should be made periodically.
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PARTICIPANTS
AREA I
BELGIUM
CANADA
FRANCE
GERMANY
ITALY
J. Bouquiaux
Inst. D'Hydgiene et d1 Epidemiologie
14 Rue Juliette Wytsman
1050 Brussels
V. Armstrong
Environmental Standards Division
Dept. of National Health and Welfare
Brooke Claxton Building
Ottawa, Canada RIA OL2
P. Toft
Department of National Health and Welfare
Pasture
Ottawa, Ontario KIA OL2
R. Ferrand
CERCHAR
60550 Verneiul en Halette
M. Rapinat
Compagnie Generale des Eaux
52 Rue d'Anjou
75008 Paris
F. Frimmel
Institut fur Wasserchemie
Marchloninistrasse, V7
D-8000 Munchen 70
W. Kuhn
Engler-Bunte Institute
Universtat Karlsruhe
Postfach 6381
R. Kussmaul
Institut" fur Wasser--f Boden-, und
Lufthygiene
Kennedyallee 97
600 Frankfurt 70
S. de Fulvio
Institute Superiore de Sanita
Viale Regina Elena 299
Roma
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NETHERLANDS
NORWAY
SPAIN
SWEDEN
F. Brinkmann
National Institute for Water Supply
Chemical Biological Division
P.O. Box 150
Leidschendam
C. Pries
Dutch Organization "TNO" for Applied Scientific
Research
P.O. Box 217, DELFT
G. E. Carlberg
Central Institute for Industrial Research
Forskningsveien I
P.O. Box 350 Blindern
Oslo 3
G. Lunde
Central Institute for Industrial Research
Forskningsveien I
P.O. Box 350 Blindern
Oslo 3
J. Myrhstad
Statens Instituut for Folk ehelse
National Institute of Public Health
Geitmyrsveien 75
Oslo 1
H. M. Seip
Central Institute for Industrial Research
Forskningsveien I
P.O. Box 350, Blindern
Oslo 3
A. Urtiaga
Centre de Investigaci ones del Agua
La Poueda
Arganda del Rey
Madrid
T. Stenstrom
Swedish National Environment Protection
Board
Department of Environmental Hygiene
Fack
Stockholm
111-14
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TURKEY K. Ilal
Imar ve Iskan Bakanligi
Planlama ve Imar Genel
Muder Yardicisi
Demirtepe, Ankara
UNITED KINGDOM T.A. Dick
Department of the Environment
2 Marsham Street
London, SWIP 3EB
L.R. Pittwell, Project Leader
Department of the Environment
2 Marsham Street
London, SWIP 3EB
UNITED STATES E. McParren
MERL
Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, OH 45268
G. Robeck
MERL
Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, OH 45268
A.A. Stevens
MERL
Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, OH 45268
R. Stern
Chemical Systems
747 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
J. Symons
MERL
Environmental Protection Agency
26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, OH 45268
111-15
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CHAPTER IV
AREA II
ADVANCED TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
SUMMARY *
PROF. HEINRICH SONTHEIMER, CHAIRMAN
During the past ten to fifteen years, water treatment technology
has changed considerably. Many improvements have been
made such as the use of multilayer filters for more efficient
and economical filtration, and important changes have been
introduced regarding new concepts of process design, especially
in conjunction with more frequent use of technologies such
as oxidation and adsorption. There are two important reasons
for the incorporation of such methods in the treatment
process. First, analytical methods have shown that many
surface waters are polluted with potentially hazardous
organic chemicals that cannot be removed effectively by
standard treatment methods. Second, breakpoint chlorination,
while in many respects effective from both technical and
economic viewpoints, has certain significant disadvantages.
Through the reactions of free chlorine with organic constitutents,
chlorinated organic compounds such as chloroform are formed.
This can occur under conditions necessary for safe disinfection
of the drinking water if precursor organic concentrations
are high, and can lead to certain health risks, especially
if these contaminants have formed in higher concentrations.
IV-1
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* Reprinted from Journal AWWA. Vol. 71. No. 11 (November 1979), by permission.
Copyright, 1979, the American Water Works Association.
-------
It is becoming obvious in many countries that the standard
treatment scheme is inadequate for future treatment of
surface waters because the problems posed by organic contamin-
ation and breakpoint chlorination cannot be solved.
The standard treatment sequence consists of breakpoint
chlorination, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration,
and safety chlorination and pH adjustment. This treatment
method provides a low turbidity drinking water, and satisfactory
removal of ammonia even at low temperatures. There is
a reasonable certainty that the drinking water at the consumer's
tap does not contain excessive numbers of pathogenic bacteria
or viruses, and this generally indicates a safe drinking
water. The standard process is easy to operate and sensitive
to water quality changes, and there is abundant experience
available concerning the operational aspects of this type
of treatment. This treatment process is still being used
internationally by numerous waterworks, sometimes with
certain minor changes, but normally with success.
Consequent to observations by many waterworks in Europe
and North America indicating the serious disadvantages.
inherent in the standard treatment process for many types
of water, studies were initiated in several countries under
the auspices of the NATO/CCMS. A number of innovative treat-
ment schemes have been tested in pilot plants and in large
waterworks.
IV-2
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The alternate process schemes being proposed are often
very different from each othen and the results of the research
work have clearly indicated that no single treatment process
combination can be substituted universally in place of
the standard treatment. The special conditions at the
plant, the surface water quality, and the type of pollutants
encountered all must be considered to determine the optimal
treatment method and process combination for each case.
After intensive discussions of current drinking water treatment
problems native to the different countries participating
in the study, it became obvious that the best way to present
all of the available knowledge and experience would be
to organize two international conferences.* During the
course of these meetings it became apparent that two types
of processes offer the greatest promise of solving potable
water treatment problems. These processes are (1) oxidation
processes using chemical oxidants such as ozone or chlorine,
or biological oxidation alone or in combination with chemical
* The results of international studies concerning the
state-or-the-art of the application of oxidation and absorption
techniques (including granular activated carbon) in the treatment
of drinking water were presented at two separate conferences
- the first held in Karlsruhe, Germany in September of 1978, .
sponsored by the Federal Republic of Germany and the second in
Reston, VA, April 30-May2, 1979 - sponsored by the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) and the North American Treaty Committee
on the Challenges of Modern Society (NATO/CCMS). Participating
countries were Belgium, France, Federal Republic of Germany,
United Kindgom, the Netherlands, Switzerland and the United States,
IV-3
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oxidants; and (2) adsorption processes, especially those
using granular activated carbon filters, and often
combining adsorption and biological oxidation. This paper
represents an overview of the salient points of the -two
conferences with regard to the utilization of oxidative
and adsorptive treatment processes. The intention of this
discussion is not to prescribe general rules, valid in
all cases, but rather to draw attention to the potential
benefits to be obtained and the problems remaining to be
solved.
Possible Changes in the Standard Treatment Process
It is obvious that the treatment of surface waters for
drinking water purposes must include flocculation and filtra-
tion and, in most cases, intermediate floe separation
by sedimentation or flotation. Potable water must have
a low turbidity and should be low in colored substances.
Both criteria can be achieved with the processes mentioned
above; in this respect the standard treatment scheme remains
unchanged.
However, in order to avoid possible disadvantages of breakpoint
chlorination, additional treatment steps may be required
to achieve better removal of micropollutants and a greater
IV-4
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reduction in the overall organics concentration. This
is currently the most important problem in drinking water
treatment and is the central issue of discussion. Other
problems such as high concentrations of heavy metals or
nitrate are less widespread, and although they must be
considered as they arise are not included in this summary.
Pretreatment Before Flocculation
When using the standard treatment procedures, breakpoint
chlorination is usually the only pretreatment employed.
Aside from ammonia oxidation, this pretreatment normally
promotes a better operation of the flocculation and sedimenta-
tion units by hindering an aerobic decomposition of the
settled sludge and biological growth within the operating
units.
Many studies have been conducted on how to avoid the drawbacks
of omitting breakpoint chlorination on the one hand and
to achieve better treatment results after flocculation
and sedimentation on the other. The best course to adopt
depends largely on the quality of the raw water, so general
rules valid for all cases cannot be made. Several alternatives
to pretreatment are worthy of consideration.
IV-5
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Pretreatment by means of storage basins. The most important
advantages of this well-known and widely used process are
the removal efficiency for suspended solid^ and the biological
purification that takes place within such basins. Problems
that can occur as a result of this type of pretreatment
are anaerobic decomposition of the settled sludge; and
growth of algae. Some waterworks have found limiting the
retention time to two to three days and increasing the
pH via lime dosage to be useful in avoiding these problems.
If placed properly in the treatment process and operated
correctly, storage basins or ponds can be very helpful
for improving the raw water quality.
Prechlorination with dosages under the breakpoint. The
formation of chlorinated organic compounds can be avoided
if chlorine dosages are controlled so that any chlorine
residual is in the form of chloramines rather than free
chlorine. According to experience this can best be achieved
by controlling the chlorine dose in proportion to the results
of continuous monitoring of the ammonia concentration.
Changes in the concentration and composition of organics
in raw water also affect chlorine demand, but the changes
usually do not lead to high amounts of chlorinated substances
in the water, so long as the chlorine residual is maintained
in the combined form.
IV-6
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Note important for this type of treatment was the observation
that complete ammonia oxidation can be achieved in carbon
filters following flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration.
Sometimes a stepwise addition of chlorine can be helpful
for ease of control.
Pilot plant data have shown further that such pretreatment
increases the permissible run time of granular activated
carbon (GAC) filters between regenerations by promoting
intensive biological regeneration within the filters.
These effects are very similar to those of ozonation, which
can be used at this point in addition to prechlorination.
If this procedure is used, ozone should be applied after
flocculation.
Until recently very few studies have been performed on
this type of pretreatment, which can be used in connection
with storage basins. Additional pilot plant and full-scale
studies are necessary to gather data for this promising
treatment step.
Preozonation before flocculation. Tests with different
waters have shown that preozonation can improve flocculation
efficiency. Dosages necessary for this type of treatment
are usually in the range of 0.2 to 1.0 g/m3, optimal dosage
for most waters must be evaluated experimentally.
IV-7
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Frequently preozonation is combined with the removal of
the residual ozone in the offgas of main ozonation basins,
thus enhancing the overall efficiency of ozone utilization.
Preozonation sometimes enhances biological oxidation in
the flocculation plant, too, especially when sludge blanket
clarifiers are used.
Riverbank filtration. This well-known way of withdrawing
river water also serves a pretreatment function. It can
be used only in cases where hydrologic conditions permit
and usually has more advantages than disadvantages. The
advantages include a 50-75 percent reduction of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC), substantial removal of heavy metals
pathogenic bacteria and viruses, which more than compensate
for the potential disadvantages such as dissolution of iron
and manganese. Instead of riverbank infiltration, spreading
basins or other techniques for ground filtration can also be used.
The degree of disinfection attained by the pretreatment
processes discussed here, as well as by other methods such
as microstraining, is lower than with breakpoint chlorination.
This can lead to problems in controlling some microorganisms
in the subsequent treatment and will have to be controlled
by means such as more frequent backwashing of the filters.
IV-8
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It is obvious that pretreatment is not necessary in all
cases and for all raw waters, but the processes discussed
often enhance finished water quality.
Disinfection and Oxidation
When omitting breakpoint chlorination, and thereby losing
its contribution to disinfection, another treatment step
where reliable disinfection is achieved through chemical
or biological oxidation should be used to ensure a safe
drinking water. There are many different possibilities
for this purpose whereby the same oxidation process can
be used at different points in a treatment train.
Ozone disinfection. Many studies have been made and ample
experience is available for the use of ozone to inactivate
viruses and to kill bacteria. Ozone treatment has been
used (most notably in France) as a final treatment step
prior to safety chlorination to ensure wholesome and safe
drinking water. A residual ozone concentration of 0.4
mg/L is maintained over a 5-min retention time. Recent
studies have shown that when treating water of low turbidity,
the necessary time for disinfection, especially for virus
inactivation, can be much shorter.
IV-9
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While there is excellent practical information available
on this type of treatment, some problems have been encountered.
Ozone oxidation leads to a change in molecular weight and
structure of the organic substances, resulting in higher
biodegradability and faster bacterial growth in the distribution
system. As a result the required postchlorination dose
must be increased. These changes in the composition of
residual organics may have other effects that have yet
to be recognized.
Recently, more and more waterworks have taken advantage
of the efficient disinfection and higher biodegradability
through ozonation by changing the point of application
in the treatment train. Ozone oxidation can be used after
flocculation and sedimentation, prior to filtration, or
after the sand or multimedia filters, if granular activated
carbon filters are the subsequent step. By this
mode of operation biological oxidation of the degradable
substances within the filters can be promoted. This avoids
excessive bacterial growth in the distribution system and
allows better organics reduction. The combined chemical
and biological oxidation processes, often used together
with adsorption, seem promising. This can be concluded
from many pilot plant results and from the positive experience
gained in waterworks using the processes.
IV-10
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There are still many unanswered questions concerning this
process combination that can only be answered by further
research. As a first step, pilot plant studies should
be conducted on different types of raw water to find the
optimal process conditions. The dependence of process
performance on design and operating factors and raw water
composition are not yet fully understood. Biological oxida-
tion can also be carried out in low sand filters or during
ground passage, a combination that may become more widely
used.
Biological treatment. Slow sand filters and ground infiltra-
tion have been used successfully in potable water treatment
for more than 150 years. Recently it has been found that
similar results are obtained by biological treatment in
granular activated carbon ' filters. Aside from organics
and turbidity removal, properly operated biological treatment
also is effective in disinfection. Moreover, only a slight
amount of chlorine or chlorine dioxide is required for
safety disinfection after the biological treatment.
The most important disadvantages of biological treatment
are the large space requirement and, in some instances,
the high operation costs for filter cleaning. Recent exper-
ience has shown that it is possible to operate slow sand
IV-11
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filters at much higher filter rates (up to 1 m/hr) with
good disinfection results, provided adequate pretreatment
by flocculation and filtration is applied.
Sometimes it is advantageous to oxidize with ozone ahead
of filtration, especially if combined with ground passage.
Biological oxidation occurs not only at the surface of
slow sand filters, but also within the ground. Ozonation
can help in reducing the underground retention time required
to attain a given degree of water quality.
Slow sand filters with high filter rates have proved successful,
especially for removal of bacteria after biological treatment
in activated carbon filters. Here the DOC and ammonia
removal occurs mainly in the carbon filters, while the
sand filters reduce the bacteria counts. The effluent
quality provided by this combination is relatively indepen-
dent of raw water quality changes and attains high finished
water quality.
Although a very old process, biological treatment seems
on the verge of becoming modern once again, especially
in conjunction with GAC filters.
IV-12
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Disinfection at the end of the treatment process. After
the removal of suspended, and part of the dissolved, organics,
disinfection can be performed at the end of the treatment
process with chlorine without formation of excessively
high concentration of chlorinated organics. Chlorine dioxide
also can be used for the same purpose, with the advantage
that it remains longer within the distribution network.
However, in some cases there may be increased turbidity
at the tap if the distribution network includes old pipes
coated with corrosion products. Chloramines also can be
used as disinfectants. Practical data are available concerning
the use of chloramines in treatment processes in -the
United Kingdom.
Generally, disinfection at the end of the treatment process
can be as safe a practice as breakpoint chlorination if
it is used properly after careful studies. There are no
accepted general rules for deciding which chlorine species
should be preferred for a given water. The special conditions
in each case must be considered. For this purpose it is
advisable to study the oxidation kinetics for each water
and oxidant.
IV-13
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Ammonia Removal
Many surface waters contain ammonia that must be removed
during treatment. This can be accomplished easily and
effectively through breakpoint chlorination, even at very
low temperatures. If this treatment cannot be used, the
only alternative for practical purposes is the biological
oxidation of ammonia to nitrate, which can be a problem
in rare cases where nitrate concentrations increase above
the maximum permitted level.
Another problem lies in the slow oxidation rate at low
temperatures, which leads to difficulties below 3°C. Under
these conditions long reaction times are necessary. Ample
reaction time is afforded in ground filtration, but difficulties
may be encountered with conventional filters. This problem
can be overcome to some extent through preozonation.
The most important processes used for nitrification are:
(1) slow sand filters,
(2) rapid sand filters,
(3) dry filters with air flowing in parallel
with the water through the filter,
(4) filters with countercurrent flows of air
and water,
IV-14
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(5) fluid!zed bed reactors, and
(6) granular activated carbon contactors.
Most of the processes are applied for nitrification only,
but they also provide some other purifying effects. The
removal efficiency for other constituents in the process
may be decisive in choosing the optimal nitrification process.
Biological nitrification usually requires an acclimation
period of two to four weeks or even longer to start full
operation. Thereafter, problems may still arise through
heavy metals, especially when treating the raw water directly.
Therefore, in many cases, flocculation and filtration are
necessary pretreatment steps to prevent heavy metals poisoning,
especially if the metal concentrations fluctuate widely.
After the initial period, nitrification usually works without
problems, if retention times are high enough and if the
oxygen concentration and the pH are maintained sufficiently.
The dosage of pure oxygen into the water has proved useful
to maintain a minimum oxygen concentration at higher ammonia
concentrations. It is important to note that aside from
oxygen demand there is usually no competition between ammonia
oxidation and DOC removal. But nitrifying bacteria grow
slowly, and care must be exercised to avoid excessive losses
when backwashing filters. Thus far, in most waters studied,
IV-15
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preozonation enhances nitrification, so long as the residual
ozone is removed? e.g., by a small layer of granular activated
carbon. Biological ammonia oxidation works well in many
waterworks, but care must be taken to assure a good plant
operation, especially at low water temperatures.
Adsorption on Activated Carbon
Activated carbon has been used for some decades in waterworks
for taste and odor removal. The majority of waterworks
have used powdered carbon and there is a wealth of practical
experience available for this type of treatment. The advantage
of powdered carbon lies in the possibility of adjustment
to type and concentration of the disturbing substances
and in low investment costs.
Apart from powdered carbon, filters with granular activated
carbon became more important during the last decade. This
originates from the fact that very often it is necessary
to remove organic chemicals other than those causing taste
and odor. An interesting new development is the use of
carbon filters for biological treatment in combination
with the removal of hazardous synthetic organic chemicals.
IV-16
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While activated carbon filters have been used in some countries
for more than 25 years, there is still widespread lack
of knowledge concerning this important treatment step.
Extensive research is now being conducted.
Purpose and Design of Carbon Filter Plants
Filters for carbon treatment can be used for several purposes
in drinking water treatment:
(1) removal of specific organics such as nitrcv
and chloroj-compounds and aliphatic, aromatic,
and polyaromatic hydrocarbons;
(2) reduction of TOC and chlorine demand;
(3) biological oxidation for ammonia and organics
removal;
(4) taste and odor removal; and
(5) dechlorination.
Often, different treatment objectives are desired simultaneously,
which may induce different optimum operation conditions.
Therefore, proper design of an activated carbon filter
plant is sometimes difficult. One well-known problem is
competitive adsorption, sometimes leading to desorption
of certain compounds and to an increase in their effluent
concentrations. These chromatographic effects are among
the reason^ why haloform removal can be difficult^and costly
with granular carbon filters.
IV-17
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Proper design of carbon filters calls for an exact definition
of the treatment goal, and the evaluation and application
of analytical methods well suited for the particular purpose.
This is one of the reasons pilot plant work frequently
will be necessary for obtaining design and process cirteria.
Carbon tests usually are performed in such a way that the
water to be treated is used in the procedure. Special
methods have been developed for this in several countries.
At the moment this type of study seems to be the only way'
to overcome the problems of design and operation of carbon
filters. Pilot tests will also permit the study of possible
biological effects, which are very important for filter
running times between regenerations. Most tests with model
substances have proven poorly suited as guides for design
and operation of water treatment processes.
Biological Treatment in Carbon Filters
Most carbon filters now used for drinking water treatment
employ biological regeneration to achieve more economical
treatment, in effect combining adsorption with biological
treatment. This type of process is a natural one, as nearly
always, after weeks of operation, microorganisms will grow
in a carbon filter and oxidize biodegradable organics into
CO2 and H20. This leads to a reduction of the carbon loading
IV-18
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and thus to a better carbon filter efficiency. The effective-
ness depends on the quality and degradability of the organics
in the treated water, the carbon quality, the empty bed
contact time (EBCT), the concentration of the organics,
and the relation of biogradable and nonbiodegradable substances,
In most filters, 50 to 150g TOC per m3carbon per day can
be oxidized through microorganisms. Water throughput per
cubic meter of carbon then can be two to five times higher
without sacrificing water quality because of the regeneration
effect.
The most important advantages of the combined biological
and adsorption processes lie in their ability to maintain
effluent quality in spite of the concentrations of impurities.
There is always enough residual adsorption capacity if
the biological efficiency is controlled by monitoring oxygen
consumption and pH decline in the filters.
It should also be mentioned that biological oxidation in
carbon filters can be enhanced by chemical oxidation using
ozone or chlorine, if care is taken to avoid reaching the
breakpoint when using chlorine. Usually, 0.5 g of ozone
per g of organic carbon is necessary to achieve a good
effect, but there is no general rule for this. While the
ozone dosage can be changed very easily, this is not possible
IV-19
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with chlorine, due to the need to avoid free chlorine with
respect to haloform formation. Usually, optimum oxidant
dosages have to be found in pilot plant studies or through
investigations performed at full-scale plants.
Control of Carbon Filters
Besides monitoring the biological efficiency of the filter,
other analytical measurements should be used. One possibility
is the use of UV absorbance or TOC, but they should be
monitored only in cases where parallel tests have shown
a relation to other more important analytical data such
as dissolved organic chlorine (DOC1), or the concentration
of defined substances. It is nearly impossible to to postulate
rules for carbon filter control, filter design, and carbon
quality that will be valid for all waters. The general
guidelines that follow provide some information on the
problem, but there are exceptions that depend upon the
water being treated.
(1) Chromatographic effects in carbon filters
should not produce conditions where the
effluent concentration of a single substance
or a group of defined substances of the
same structure exceeds the inlet concentration.
Very often chloroform or trichloroethylene
are good substances to be used for such
control.
IV-20
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(2) The overall reduction of organics can be
controlled in such a way that the UV-absorbing
substances undergo a reduction of at least
50 percent. This usually goes along with
a DOC removal of 30-40 percent. If this
criterion is observed, the removal of dangerous
and toxic substances, with the exception
of trihalomethanes, will be reasonably certain
in most instances.
(3) Most raw waters contain certain types of
organics that can be defined as typical
of most surface water pollutants. These
organics should be monitored by using specific
analytical methods.
(4) Biological efficiency can be controlled
by measuring oxygen depletion and C02 increase
in the filters. This should be done as
a control method for all carbon filters,
as biological activity is important for
most carbon filter plants.
(5) Activated carbon quality should be tested,
preferably under typical conditions for
the water that is to be treated. Spiking
with selected specific organic contaminants
may enhance the information obtained from
the tests. Special methods have to be developed
for this.
Although these guidelines cannot cover all aspects of carbon
filter control, they do provide some information for decision
making in specific instances.
IV-21
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Reactivation of Granular Activated Carbon
The use of granular activated carbon filters implies carbon
regeneration. This reactivation can be done by the manufacturer
in central plants or at the waterworks. Several types
of furnaces have been used sucessfully. It can be said
with confidence that there are no difficult problems with
this treatment step.
One of the most important aspects of regeneration is the
need for a method to control the quality of the reactivated
carbon, using procedures suitable to drinking water purposes.
Other Treatment Processes for Organics Removal
Besides flocculation, oxidation, and adsorption a few other
processes can be used for organics removal. They are discussed
briefly. Macroreticular anion exchange resins can be used
for the removal of humic acids. The contact times for
this treatment are quite short. The used regenerant can
be recycled several times, but a waste treatment problem
still remains. This process can be helpful in special
cases such as high humic acid concentrations.
IV-22
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Adsorption resins have also been tried for the removal
of specific substances, e.g., for the removal of volatile
organic chlorine compounds. Regeneration with solvents
can lead to some problems.
Another possibility for the removal of volatile organics
is aeration, used in conjunction with air cleaning through
activated carbon and air recycling. This treatment can
be very economical at higher concentrations of trace organics
if adopted only when no nonpurgeable organics have to be
removed from the water.
The final alternatives are membrane processes that combine
the removal of organic and inorganic compounds. They will
be effective if inorganic salts as well as high molecular
weight organic pollutants have to be removed.
Conclusions
The treatment options show that there are many possibilities
for new types of processes using oxidation and adsorption
in combination with established treatment processes. Presently,
it is not possible to propose one preferred combination
that can replace the standard treatment configuration.
The situation is not bleak, however, as the treatment trains
IV-23
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now proposed offer many possibilities to select a specific
design for each treatment problem. This can aid the water
industry in devising more effective and economical water
treatment combinations to assure safe drinking water.
IV-24
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Chairmen
BELGIUM
CANADA
FRANCE
FEDERAL
REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY
AREA II
LIST OF AUTHORS, ADSORPTION CONFERENCE
Dr. Joseph A. Cotruvo, Dr. Heinrich Sontheimer
Dr. W. J. Masschelein
Director, Brussels Intercommunal
Waterboard
Manager of the Laboratories
764 Chaussee de Waterloo
B-1180, Brussels
Dr. A. Benedek
Associate Professor
Dept. of Chemical Engineering
McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7
F. Fiessinger
Societe Lyonnaise des Eaux,
et de L'Eclairage
45 Rue Cortambert,
70516 - Paris
P. Schulhof
Manager of the Equipment Department
Compagnie Generale des Eaux, Siege Social
52 rue d'Anjou
F-75384 Paris Cedex 08
Dr. G. Baldauf
Engler-Bunte-Institue d. Universitat
Karlsruhe, Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe 1
B. Fokken
Bauassessor Diplomingenieur
Gas-, Elektrizitats-, and Wasserwerke
Postbox 100890, 5000 Cologne
IV-25
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Federal Republic B. Frick
of Germany (cont'd) Engler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
Dr. F. Fuchs
Engler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
G. Bolzel
Engler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
E. Heilker
Technical Director, R.W.W., Amx Schloss
Broich 123, 433 Mulheim
Prof. Dr. H. Juntgen
Berbau-Forshung GMBH
Franz-Fisher-Weg 61
4300 EssenKray
Dr. J. Klein
Berbau-Forshung GMBH, Franz-Fisher-
Essen-Kray Franz-Fisher-Weg 61
4300 Essen-Kray
M. Klotz
Institut fur Rygien und Mikrobiologie
Universitat des Saarlandes, Bau 43
D-6650 Homburg/Saar
Dr. W. Kolle
Chief Chemist, Hanover Waterworks
Stadtwerke Hanover Ag.
Postfach 55747
3000 Hanover 1
Dr. R. Kurz
Dipl. Chem., GEW-Werke Koln AG
Augustasta 4a
5000 Konl 50
H. Martin
Wuppertaler Stadtwerke AG
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
IV-26
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Federal Republic
of Germany (corit'd)
NETHERLANDS
Dr. W. Merk
Ingler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
W. Poggenburg
Stadtwerke Dusseldorf AG
Luisenstrasse 105
D-4000 Dusseldorf 1
R. Sander
Engler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
R. Schweisfurth
Institut fur Hygiene and Mikrobiologie
Universitat des Saarlandes, Bau 43
D-6650 Homburg/Saar
Prof. Dr. H. Sontheimer
Engler-Bunte-Institut d. Universitat
Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380
D-7500 Karlsruhe, 1
Dr. B. Strack
Wuppertaler Stadtwerke AG
Postfach 20 16 16
5600 Wuppertal 2
P. Werner
Institut fur Hygiene and Mikrobiologie
Universitat des Saarlandrs, Bau 43
D-6650 Homburg/Saar
Dr. A. P. Meijers
Research Chemical Engineer
KIWA N.V., Postbus 70, Rijswijk 2109
Wiers 17, Nieuwegein
C.L.M. Poels
Toxicologist
KIWA N.V., Postbus 70, Rijswijk 2109
Weirs 17, Nieuwegein
IV-27
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NETHERLANDS
Con't
Dr. J. J. Rook
Chief Chemist
Drinkwaterleiding Rotterdam
Postbus 1166
Rotterdam
Dr. B. Schultink
Chemist, Provincial Waterworks of Holland
van Essenlaan
10 Postbus 5, 2060 BA
Bloemendaal
J.G.M. Smeenk
Senior Chemist
Amsterdam Municipal Water Works
Condensatorweg 54
Postbus 8169, 1005 AD
Amsterdam
t
Dr. J. van der Laan
Chief Chemist, Waterworks
Midden-Haber and Utrecht, Holland
Reactorweg 47 Postbus 2124
3500 GC Utrecht
Dr. D. van der Kooij
The Netherlands Waterworks
Testing and Research Institute
KIWA Ltd.
2280 ab Rijswijk, Postbus 70
M. Schalekamp
Director, Zurich Waterworks
Wasserversorgung Zurich
Bahnhofguai 5, CH-8023
Zurich 1
UNITED KINGDOM C. A. Rennett
Lower Trent Division
Severn Trent Water Authority
Mapperley Hall, Lucknow Avenue
Mapperley, Nottingham, NG3 SBN
D. J. Osborne
Humphreys and Glasgow, Ltd.
22 Carlisle Place
London SW 1, P1JA
Dr. J. B. Goodall
Water Research Center, P.O. Box 16
Medmenham, Marlow, Bucks. SL7 2HD
R. A. Hyde
Water Research Center, P.O. Box 16
Medmenham, Marlow, Bucks. SL7 2HD
SWITZERLAND
IV-28
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UNITED STATES D. G. Argo
Chief Engineer, Orange Co. Water District
10500 Ellis Ave., P.O. Box 8300
Fountain Valley, California 92708
B. A. Beaudet
Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 13454
Gainsville, Florida 32604
K. L. Blackburn
Toxicological Assessment Branch
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
N. Brodtmann
Director, Jefferson Parish Dept. of Water
P.O. Box 10007
Jefferson, Louisiana 70181
Dr. R. J. Bull
Toxicological Assessment Branch
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
P. R. Cairo
Chief, Research and Development Division
Philadelphia Water Dept.
1180 Municipal Service Bldg.
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19107
J. K. Carswell
Research Engineer, MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
IV-29
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UNITED STATES Dr. R. M. Clark
Con't Chief, Economics Analysis Section
MERL-WSRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
R. L. Culp
Vice-President, Culp-Wesner-Culp
P.O. Box 40
El Dorado Bills, California 95630
J. DeMarco
Research Sanitary Engineer, MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Dr. F. A. DiGiano
Associate Professor of Civil Engineering,
Marston Hall
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01002
P. Dorsey
Research Assistant, MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
A. L. Ervin
Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 13454
Gainesville, Florida 32604
T. Everhart
Water Quality Control Research Laboratory
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
S. J. Gage
Assistant Administrator Research & Development
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M. Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20406
IV-30
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UNITED STATES J. Graydon
Water Quality Control Research Laboratory
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Standord University
Stanford, California 94305
Dr. R.C. Gumerman
Vice-President, Culp-Wesner-Culp
2232 S.E. Bristol, §210
Santa Ana, California 92707
W. R. Inhoffer
General Superintendent and Chief Engineer
Passaic Valley Water Conun.
1525 Main Avenue
Clifton, New Jersey 07011
T. C. Jorling
Professor of Environmental Science
Williams College
Williamstown, Massachusetts, 01267
V. Kimm
Deputy Assistant Administrator for Drinking
Water
Office of Drinking Water
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M. Street S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20406
Dr. O.T. Love, Jr.
Research Engineer, MERL-DWRD
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Dr. P. L. McCarty
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
R. Miller
Superintendent of Water Works
4747 Spring Grove Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45232
IV-31
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UNITED STATES R. J. Miltner
Ohio River Valley Water Sanitation Comm.
414 Walnut Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45202
L. Moore
Chemist, MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
R. H. Moser
Assistant Director, System Water Quality
American Water Works Service Co., Inc.
Haddon Heights, New Jersey 08035
M. A. Pereira
Toxicological Assessment Branch
Health Effects Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati Ohio 45268
Dr. M. Reinhard
Senior Research Associate
Department of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
Dr. P. V. Roberts
Adjunct Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
J. E. Schreiner
Water Quality Research Laboratory
Department of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
D. R. Seeger
Research Chemist, MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Dr. J. E. Singley
Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 13454
Gainesville, Florida 32604
IV-3 2
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UNITED STATES Dr. A. A. Stevens
MERL-DWRD
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
R. S. Summers
Department of Civil Engineering
Stanford University
Stanford, California 94305
Dr. I. H. Suffet
Environmental Studies Institute
Dept. of Chemistry, Abbott Building
Drexel University
32nd and Chestnut Streets
Philadelphia, PA 19104
Dr. J. M. Symons
Chief, Physical and Chemical Removal
Branch, Water Supply Research Div.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
26 West St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Y. Takahashi
Research and Applications Manager
Dohrmann Division, Envirotech Corp.
3240 Scott Blvd.
Santa Clara, California 95050
P. R. Wood
Associate Professor, Division of
Environmental and Urban Systems
Florida International University
Miami, Florida 33199
W. C. Zegel
Environmental Science and Engineering, Inc.
P.O. Box 13454
Gainesville, Florida 32604
IV-33
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AREA II
LIST OP AUTHORS, OXIDATION CONFERENCE
Chairmen Dr. Heinrich Sontheimer, Dr. Wolfgang Kuhn
H. Bader
Dr. L. Berglind
Prof. Dr. H. Bernhardt
Dr. A. Bousoulengas
J. Chedal
Dr. L. Coin
Dr. J. A. Cotruvo
Dr. T. A. Dick
K. Eimhjellen
Dr. E. Gilbert
Eidg. Anstalt fur Wasserversorgung,
Abwazsserreinigung und Gewasser-schuss
(EAWAG), CH-8600 Dubendorf
Switzerland
Norwegian Institute for Water
Research, Postbox 333, Blindern,
Oslo 3, Norway
Wahnbachtalsperrenverband,
Postfach 27, D-5200 Siegburg 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Scientific Research and Technology
Agency, Vassileos Constantinou 48,
Athens 501, Greece
Compagnie Generale des Eaux,
Siege Social, 52 rue d'Anjou,
F-75384 Paris Cedex 08, France
Ministers de la Sante et de la
Direction Generale de la Sante
20 rue d'Estrees, F-75007 Paris,
France
Office of Drinking Water, United
States Environmental Protection
Agency, 401 M. Street, S.W.
Waterside Mall, WH 550, Washington,
D.C. 20460, U.S.A.
Department of the Environment,
2 Marsham Street, London, S.W.
England
1,
SINTEF-Dept. of Chemical Technology,
University of Trondheim-NTH,
N-7034 Trondheim, Norway
Institut fur Radiochemie,
Kernforschungszentrum Karlsruhe,
Postfach 3640, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
IV-34
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Dr. E. Gjessing
Dr. C. Gomella
Dr. J.B. Goodall
Dr. £. De Greef
G. Ha lino
Dr. T. Bedberg
Dr. E. Heinonen
A.G. Hill
Dr. J. Hoigne
Dr. O. Hoyer
Dr. J. Hrubec
Norwegian Institute for Water
Research, Postbox 333, Blindern,
Oslo 3, Norway
S.E.T.U.D.E., 27 Boulevard des
Italiens, F-75002 Paris, France
Medmenham Laboratory, Water Research
Centre, P. 0. Box 16, Medmenham,
Marlow, Bucks. SL7 2HD, England
National Institute for Water Supply,
Chemical Biological Division,
P.O. Box 150, AD 2260 Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
SINTEF-Dept. of Chemical Technology,
University of Trondheim-NTH,
N-7034 Trondheim, Norway
Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage, Chalmers Tekniska
Hogskola, Sven Hultins Gata 8,
Goteborg, Sweden
Belsinki City Waterworks,
Pasilankatu 41, SF-00240 Helsinki,
Finland
Department of Chemical Engineering,
College of Engineering, Louisiana
University, Ruston, Louis. 71270,
U.S.A.
Eidg. Anstalt fur Wasserversorgung,
Abwasserreinigung und Gewasserschutz
(EAWAG), CH-8600 Dubendorf,
Switzerland
Wahnbachtalsperrenverband, Post-
fach 27, D-5200 Siegburg 1, Federal
Repubic of Germany
National Institute for Water Supply,
Chemical Biological Division,
P.O. Box 150, AD 2260 Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
IV-3 5
-------
Dr. M. Jekel
Dr. B. Josefsson
Dr. V. J. Kimm
Dr. N. Kirmaier
M. Klotz
Dr. K. Kotter
Dr. D. van der Kooij
Prof. Y. Kott
Dr. J. C. Kruithof
Dr. W. Kuhn
Dr. H. Kussmaul
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Bereich
Wasserchemie, Dniversitat Karlsruhe,
Postfach 6380, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Department of Analytical Chemistry,
University of Gothenburg,
S-40220 Gothenburg, Sweden
Office of Drinking Water, United
States Environmental Protection
Agency, 401 M. Street, S.W.,
Waterside Mall, WH 550,
Washington, D.C. 20460, U.S.A.
Institut fur Biomedizinische Technik,
Museurnstr. 1, D-8000 Munchen 22,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Institut fur Hygiene und Mikro-
biologie, Universitat des Saarlandes,
Bau 43, D-6650 Homburg/Saar, Federal
Repubic of Germany
Gelsenwasser AG, Postfach 769,
D-4650 Gelsenkirchen, Federal Repubic
of Germany
The Netherlands Waterworks,
Testing and Research Institute -
KIWA Ltd., Rijswijk, The Netherlands
Environmental and Water Resources
Engineering, Technion-Israel
Institute of Technology, Technion
City, Haifa 32000, Israel
KIWA N.V. Wiers 17, Nieuwegein,
The Netherlands
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Bereich
Wasserchemie, Universitat Karlsruhe,
Postfach 6380, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Institut fur Wasser-, Boden- und
Lufthygiene des Bundesgesundheits-amtes,
Aussenstelle Frankfurt/Main,
Kennedyallee 97, D-6000 Frankfurt 70,
Federal Repubic of Germany
IV-36
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H. Lamblin
Dr. J. P. Legeron
H. Lienhard
Dr. B. Lindgren
Dr. D. Maier
J. Mallcvialle
DC. W. J. Masschelein
DC. A. P. Meijecs
G. W. Miller
C. F. Mecca
Prof. J. C. Morris
Prof. DC. Gectcud Muller
Compagnie Generale des Eaux,
Siege Social, 52 rue d'Anjou,
F-75384 Paris Cedex 08, France
Trailigaz, 29-31 Bd de la Muette,
F-95140 Garges les Gonesse, France
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Bereich
Wasserchemie, Universitat Karlsruhe,
Postfach 6380, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Swedish Forest Products Research
Laboratory, Box 5604,
S-11486 Stockholm, Sweden
Zweckverband Bodenseewasser-
versorgung, D-7770 Uberlingen-
Subenmuhle, Federal Repubic of Germany
Societe Lyonnaise des Eaux et de
1'Eclairage, 10 rue de la Liberte,
F-78230 Le Pecg, France
Laboratoires C.I.B.E., 764 Chaussee
de Waterloo, B-1180 Bruxelles,
Belgium
KIWA N.V., Wiers 17, Nieuwegein,
The Netherlands
Public Technology, Inc.,
1140 Connecticut Avenue, NW,
Washington, D.C. 20036, U.S.A.
Chemical Biological Division,
National Institute for Water Supply,
P.O. Box 150, AD 2260 Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
Division of Applied Sciences,
Harvard University, 127 Pierce Hall,
Cambridge, Mass. 02138, U.S.A.
Institut fur Wasser-, Boden- und
Lufthygiene des Bundesgesundheits-amtes,
Corrensplatz 1,
D-1000 Berlin 33, Federal Repubic of
Germany
IV-37
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Dr. J. A. Myhrstad
T. Nemeth
Sabine Normann
Dr. H. Overath
Dr. 6.J. Piet
Prof. Dr. K.-E. Quentin
Dr. R. G. Rice
Dr. Y. Richard
Prof. P.V. Roberts
Dr. C.N. Robson
Dr. J.J. Rook
C. Roos
National Institute of Public Health,
Geitmyrsveien 75, Oslow 1, Norway
Gothenburg Water- and Sewage-Works,
Pack, S-40110 Gothenburg, Sweden
Stadtwerke Wiesbaden AG, Kirchgasse
2, D-6200 Wiesbaden, Federal Repubic
of Germany
Stadtwerke Wiesbaden AG, Kirchgasse
2, D-6200 Wiesbaden, Federal Repubic
of Germany
Chemical Biological Division,
National Institute for Water Supply,
P.O. Box 150, AD 2260 Leidschendam,
The Netherlands
Institut fur Wasserchemie und
Chemische Balneologie,
Technische Universitat Munchen,
Marchionistr. 17, D-8000 Munchen 70,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Jacobs Engineering Group,
1511 K Street, N.W., Suite 835
Washington, D.C. 20005, U.S.A.
^N
Degremont Traitement des Eaux,
P.B. 46, F-92151 Suresnes, France
Environmental Engineering,
Department of Civil Engineering,
Stanford University, Stanford,
California 94305, U.S.A.
Department of Public Works,
2460 City-County Building,
Indianapolis, Indiana 46204, U.S.A.
Drinkwaterleiding Rotterdam,
Postbus 1166, Rotterdam,
The Netherlands
Department of Analytical Chemistry,
University of Gothenburg,
S-40220 Gothenburg, Sweden
IV-38
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R. Sander
Dr. K. Schmidt
P. Schulhof
Prof.Dr.R.Schweisfurth
Dr.E.Skipperud Johansen
Prof.Dr.H. Sontheimer
Dr. T. Stenstrom
Dr. A.A. Stevens
Dr. J. M. Symons
Dr. T. Thorsen
Dr. P. Toft
Dr. G. Uhlig
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Bereich
Wasserchemie, Universitat Karlsruhe,
Postfach 6380, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1,
Federal Repubic of Germany
Institut fur Wasserforschung GmbH
Dortmund, Degginstr. 40,
D-4600 Dortmund 1, Federal Repubic
of Germany
Compagnie Generale des Eaux,
Siege Social, 52 rue d'Anjou,
F-75384 Paris Cedex 08, France
Institut fur Hygiene und Mikro-
biologie, Universitat des Saarlandes,
Bau 43, D-6650 Horoburg/Saar, Federal
Repubic of Germany
National Institute for Public Health,
Geitmyrsveien 75, Oslo 1, Norway
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Lehrstuhl
und Bereich fur Wasserchemie,
Universitat Karlsruhe, Postf. 6380,
D-7500 Karlsruhe 1, Federal Repubic
of Germany
Department of Environmental Hygiene,
The National Swedish Environment
Protection Board, Fack,
S-10401 Stockholm, Sweden
Drinking Water Research Division,
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 26 West St. Clair Street,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, U.S.A.
Water Supply Research Division,
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 26 West St. Clair Street,
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268, U.S.A.
SINTEF-Dept. of Chemical Technology,
University of Trondheim-NTH,
N-7034 Trondheim, Norway
Environmental Health Centre,
Tunney's Pasture, Ottawa,
Ontario K1A OL2, Canada
Stadtwerke Duisburg AG, Postf. 100246,
D-4100 Duisburg 1, Federal Repubic
of Germany
IV-39
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J. Valenta Wasserversorgung Zurich, Hardhof 9,
CH-8023 Zurich, Switzerland
Dr. D. Weil Institut fur Wasserchemie und
Chemische Balneologie, Technische
Universitat Munchen, Marchionistr. 17,
D-8000 Munchen 70, Federal Repubic
of Germany
P. Werner Institut fur Hygiene und Mikro-
biologie, Universitat des Saarlandes,
Bau 43, D-6650 Homburg/Saar, Federal
Repubic of Germany
IV-40
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CHAPTER V
AREA III
MICROBIOLOGY
SUMMARY
PROP. DEAN 0. CLIVER, CHAIRMAN
Potentially the most significant constraint upon the scope
of the microbiology project is that it was to address the
drinking water supply problems of industrialized nations.
As was stated in the introduction to this report, industrialized
nations usually have large quantities of water or industrializa-
tion would not have been possible. Even so, the quantities
of water may not be adequate to meet anticipated needs,
>
and the quality of available water may be much degraded
by prior use. It is well, at this point, to ask what distinc-
tive features of water supply in industrialized nations
are significant to microbiology.
A major feature is high daily per capita water use. Daily
consumption of beverage water is physiologically determined:
the body's water losses must be replaced, so the total
daily use of water by ingestion is determined by the climate
and the size of the population in both industrialized and
developing countries. Other uses of water in the home,
V-l
-------
which tend to be larger in industrialized nations than
in developing countries, include flushing of water carriage
toilets and cleansing of food, clothing, the home, its
contents, and its inhabitants. Outside-the-home uses that
contribute to the highly daily per capita demand in industrial-
ized nations include a variety of applications in commerce
and industry, as well as the occasional use of water for
fighting fires.
Where the volume of water used exceeds the supply, a "reuse
factor" (e.g., perhaps 25 percent of the water available
at some point in a certain river has already been used
somewhere upstream) may be calculated. Some classes of
water reuse are of far greater microbiologic concern than
others. For example, human feces, and therefore the water
used to eliminate them from a household, are the most signifi-
cant sources of infectious agents transmissible through
water. By contrast, the direct disposal of human waste
into waterways that occurs in some parts of the world (either
from ships and boats on the water or from unsewered communities
along the banks) may decrease the calculated reuse factor,
but increase the risk of waterborne disease. Other microbiolo-
gically significant components of used water include substances
which may support the growth of organisms in the water
and heat. Project Area V of this CCMS Pilot Study addresses
V-2
-------
the broader aspects of water reuse, but reuse must also
be considered in the context of drinking water microbiology
because the majority of the infectious agents that might
be transmitted by drinking water derive from the human
intestines and are carried by wastewaterr in some proportion,
into water that may serve as drinking water sources. The
problem of preventing waterborne infectious diseases would
be greatly mitigated if an appropriate, non-polluting alterna-
tive to the water carriage toilet could be developed; such
a device would be accepted only if it met the esthetic
standards now prevalent in industrialized nations. Otherwise,
the protection of source waters demands that the wastewater
discharges be carefully supervised and that wastes be treated
and disposed of in a manner that permits water to be reclaimed
as necessary. Many features of this problem are considered
in Project Area V and, in the specific context of groundwater
protection, in Project Area VI.
Topic A of the microbiology report concerns Raw Water.
Every community or water supplier should, and ordinarily
will, select the purest available source for use in drinking
water production. Groundwater from a deep, protected aquifer
may contain only a few microorganisms, none of which is
of intestinal origin. Water of this kind may be used in
both private and public supplies with little or no treatment.
V-3
-------
Even then, chlorination may have to be used in public systems
to avoid problems in distribution. However, really well-
protected aquifers in some areas may lie at such a depth
that they are not accessible to private users. The depth
of an aquifer may be less of a problem where public water
supplies are concerned, but the quantities of water available
must be adequate to the community's needs, or less pure
raw water will have to be used.
Groundwater is frequently discharged to surface waterways
after use (and, one would hope, after treatment), but increasing
efforts are being made to dispose of wastewater in such
a way that the groundwater will be recharged. The success
and safety of this method of water reclamation depend greatly
upon the ability of soil to accomplish microbiologic purifica-
tion of the water between the point of application and
the aquifer or, at least, the point of abstraction? on
the character of the soil? and on whether recharge is under-
taken by vertical infiltration under the influence of gravity
or by pressure injection directly into the aquifer. This
artificial recharge must be done with extreme caution,
for the microbiologic purification of water by soil is
not a well understood process) and once contamination of
a groundwater source has occurred, it is extremely difficult
to correct. This is an area where a great deal of research
V-4
-------
is needed; until results are available, it will be prudent
to treat wastewater that is to be used for groundwater
recharge to a degree that does not demand too much of the
purifying capacity of the soil. The introduction of viable
organisms to an aquifer is not the only microbiologic concern
in groundwater recharge. Some microbially-induced chemical
transformations can lead to degradation of groundwater,
and toxins liberated upon the death of microbial contaminants
may also prove significant.
Surface sources of raw water are more difficult to protect
from microbial contamination and will frequently support
the growth of some of the organisms that may be introduced.
Airborne contamination and runoff from adjacent land surfaces,
in addition to discharged wastewater, may contribute undesirable
organisms or nutrients to surface waters. Surface water
quality may also be directly affected by human activities
such as recreational swimming and boating, residence in
houseboats, or navigation on waterways for commercial transport
of goods. Under optimal conditions, microbial counts in
lakes extremely rich in nutrients may exceed 10 per ml.
Many organisms in surface waters are capable of inducing
undesirable chemical transformations. Photosynthetic bacteria
and cyanobacteria (formerly called blue-green algae) can
grow to high levels, given favorable conditions and adequate
V-5
-------
light. These bacteria, as well as the true algae, can
induce off-flavors in water, bind large quantities of dissolved
oxygen under certain circumstances, and interfere physically
with water purification. Toxins produced by some cyanobacteria
may also be significant to human health. It is clear that
surface waters which serve as sources of drinking water
need more rigorous protection than many of them get, but
it is also clear that more research will be needed before (
the requisite protective measures are well understood.
Topic A also includes a survey of the microbiologic quality
of at least some of the raw water in nine different countries.
Mot surprisingly, raw water quality is generally better
where the source is groundwater and where it originates
in less densely populated areas. Even in these situations,
raw water quality is seldom so consistently excellent that
one-step treatment can safely be trusted. Where raw water
quality is poorer, more intensive treatment methods are
generally employed. Finished water of adequate quality
and safety can evidently be produced by a series of unit
processes ending with disinfection; but the community served
is, obviously, more vulnerable to any kind of event that
might even temporarily interrupt treatment of the water
before distribution.
V-6
-------
Recommendations Concerning Raw Water
(1) More research should be done on the microbial
ecology of groundwater.
(2) The microbiologic quality of source waters
should be tested routinely , especially in
those instances where the quality of the
raw water is judged so good as to require
only minimal treatment.
(3) Adequate measures to protect good groundwater
and surface water sources are required,
including provisions for proper implementa-
tion.
(4) Means of conveying good quality raw water
to areas where source water quality is deficient
should be investigated further.
Topic B surveys the specific Pathogens that may be transmitted
through drinking water. Generally, these are infectious
agents including bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and metazoa.
The proximate source of these agents in water may vary,
but most of them ultimately derive from the human intestines.
Intestines of other warm-blooded animals are an alternate
source of some waterborne agents infectious to humans*
only a few of these agents are apparently capable of living
free in the environment for extended periods of time.
V-7
-------
Although the agents discussed are all of concern to human
health, the majority of the infections caused by them are
mild or asymptomatic. This fact tends to complicate the
investigation of waterborne disease outbreaks, in that
the majority of infections may go unrecognized unless inten-
sive and widerranging laboratory testing, frequently of
fecal specimens, is undertaken.
Although quite long periods of persistence in water have
been reported for some pathogens, the aqueous environment
is not generally a favorable one for human infectious agents.
Physical and chemical factors, as well as competition or
predation by better-adapted indigenous microbial species,
combine to kill or inactivate pathogens in water with the
passing of time. Other things being equal, higher temperatures
and longer detention times favor the destruction of greater
quantities of waterborne pathogens. However, it is important
to note that most time-dependent death processes occur
as logarithmic functions of time, so that the level of
the dying agent, theoretically, never reaches absolute
^
zero. This raises the dual questions of how sensitive
a method must be for detecting a waterborne pathogen, and
what significance to human health may be represented by
some small residual level of a pathogen in water. These
two questions may or may not be intimately interrelated.
V-8
-------
It is often argued that, as difficult as pathogens frequently
are to detect in water, there is no need to develop methods
to detect them at levels below which they represent a threat
to health. However, there are those who believe that no
level of an infectious agent is so low as to be insignificant
to human health and that sample-to-sample variation offers
the possibility that water sent to the laboratory for testing
may contain less contaminant than water that someone drinks
from the same source, so there is no limit to the desired
level of sensitivity in testing for waterborne pathogens.
Further research is needed both to determine the relative
threat to human health that is presented by different levels
of a pathogen in water and to develop more sensitive methods
for detecting waterborne pathogens. However, there is
also a need for simpler methods of detecting waterborne
pathogens, in that more samples, tested by more laboratories,
may eventually produce a more useful body of information,
to aid in producing a safer supply of water, than would
be testing of a few very large water samples by the few
laboratories that are equipped to deal with them. Even
if these were available, test for pathogens could not afford
a basis for routine quality control in drinking water supply.
Given the problems inherent in detecting waterborne pathogens,
it is not surprising that microbiologic testing of water
is focused, instead, upon indicators.
V-9
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Recommendations Concerning Pathogens
(1) Even where water is protected, as is true
of many groundwater sources, disinfection
is recommended. This is especially important
where finished water is to be stored rather
than being used immediately.
(2) Aftergrowth of opportunistic pathogens during
distribution of finished water should be
prevented by maintaining a disinfectant
residual throughout the distribution network,
wherever possible, especially in large
systems.
(3) Testing rorpathogens within the distribution
water is appropriate: (a) after contamination
is found to have occurred; (b) to trace
the source of any outbreak; and (c) in analyzing
disinfection efficiency.
(4) Given the lack of correlation between viruses
and the bacterial indicator systems, more
research on the antiviral effectiveness
of various water treatment processes is
needed.
(5) Mapping of waterborne outbreaks should be
conducted in conjunction with epidemiological
surveys of the population served by the
water supply.
V-10
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Topic C of this report deals with Indicator Systems, which
are microbiologically-based quality control methods. Indicator
systems already established in use are generally based
upon enumeration of viable organisms on a selective basis.
Some, but not all, of these indicators are supposed to
correlate with the occurrence of fecal contamination and,
implicitly, with the presence of enteric pathogens. The
closeness of correlation between different established
viable indicator systems and fecal contamination varies
greatly. Where correlations are low, it is usually either
because the organisms measured may include some that are
not of fecal origin at all or some that are capable of
proliferation in the environment outside the body. Another
potential liability, where disinfection is practiced, is
that the indicator organisms may be more sensitive to the
disinfectant than are some of the enteric pathogens which
might be present. In addition to indicators of fecal contamin-
ation, there are indicator systems that gauge water quality
and others that serve to signal the presence of specific
pathogens. Finally, there is always reason to wish for
indicator systems that are more rapid or simpler to apply?
such systems could permit more replication of tests.
These considerations led to the inclusion in Topic C of
a survey of proposed alternate indicator systems based
V-ll
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' I
IK
upon viable microbes, including coliphages and animal viruses,
as well as a number of groups of bacteria. Some of these
may eventually serve special purposes on a regular basis,
but none is presently ready to supplant the "established1
indicators for routine quality control in drinking water
treatment and distribution. Other indicator systems surveyed
are not based on determining numbers of viable organisms,
or at least may not require incubation through many microbial
generation times before results are obtained. Some of
these alternate systems seem to offer significant potential
for continuous monitoring of water quality in situations
where rapidly obtained results will permit prompt remedial
action. No system considered would obviate the need for
proper sampling techniques or for adequately trained laboratory
personnel.
Topic D surveys Testing and Standards for drinking water
in various countries. For the time being, microbiologic
quality control of drinking water, in most of the countries
surveyed, is based upon the coliform group. However, in
some countries, thermo-tolerant coliforms or Escherichia
coli (based on a working definition of the species) are
determined instead of or in addition to the coliforms.
Procedures for both sampling and testing are seen to vary
from country to country, but the differences are not so
V-12
-------
great that the col if or m test results cannot be compared.
The general intention in every case seems to be that coliforms
(or thermo-tolerant coliforms or E. coli, as the case may
be) should be absent from samples of finished drinking
water taken at the treatment plant or, in many instances,
throughout the distribution system. Unfortunately, the
survey that was done did not yield adequate bases for comparing
methods of laboratory quality control; nor was it possible
to determine how corrective action is taken in the event
that indicators are found in finished drinking water.
Efforts being made by several organizations to standardize
analytic procedures in water microbiology are certainly
to be commended, whatever the analytic procedures used,
it seems clear that the ability of laboratory microbiology
to contribute to the safety of drinking water depends less
on how standards are written than on the dedication with
which they are applied or enforced.
Topic E deals with the Treatment Methods used in producing
finished drinking water. The emphasis in this case is
on how various unit processes affect pathogens and indicator
systems. However, much information on other aspects of
some of the same treatments can be found in the reports
of Project Area II: Advanced Treatment Technology. The
variety and degree of treatment used in preparing drinking
V-13
-------
water should be, and usually are, determinedly, the quality
of raw water that is available. Where the source is variable
in quantity or quality, reservoir storage may be used to
buffer some of the fluctuations. The primary function
of the reservoir may be storage but considerable changes,
for better or worse, can result from holding water in a
reservoir. This depends on whether the reservoir is managed
so as to minimize opportunities for contamination or growth
of noxious organisms and to make use of the water's tendency
for self-purification; at best, storage of water in a reservoir
can serve as a treatment step, and is regarded as such
in this report. Physical treatments, such as coagulation
and flocculation or various versions of sand filtration,
serve to remove suspended matter including many microbial
cells. These treatments are especially important in removing
protozoan cysts and metazoan eggs, as well as in eliminating
suspended matter that might interfere with disinfection.
Slow sand filtration, and often activated carbon treatment,
have an important biological component. Activated carbon
treatment is intended, primarily, to remove impurities
that are dissolved, rather than suspended, in water. To
the degree that the substances removed might have served
as substrates for microbial growth, the growth becomes
less likely to take place in the water, but more likely
on the carbon surface. This will not necessarily produce
V-14
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a health hazard, but it can lead to disinfection problems
and to a decrease in water palatability. The microflora
in slow sand filters can effect important reductions in
biodegradable dissolved substances especially in water
pre-treated with ozone.
The ultimate defense against carry-over of pathogenic bacteria
and viruses into finished water is, ordinarily, disinfection.
If pathogens were unlikely to have been present in the
raw water, disinfection may be done solely to suppress
opportunistic organisms and to avoid technical problems
during distribution of the water. This requires use of
a disinfectant such as chlorine, a residual of which can
be maintained throughout the distribution network. On
the other hand, disinfection may be needed to kill large
numbers of microorganisms, possibly including pathogens.
Ozone is seen to be a major alternative to chlorine in
this application? it is already well established as a primary
drinking water disinfectant in many areas. Other disinfectants
are also surveyed, and some of these may eventually capture
a portion of the disinfection market. It is important
to note that no disinfectant can make good water from bad,
and that disinfection may fail if water has not first been
treated in a manner appropriate to its original quality,
so that the disinfectant has only to act upon reasonable
numbers of microorganisms.
V-15
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Topic F addresses the problem of maintaining finished water
quality during Storage and Distribution. This represents
a special challenge from both the standpoints of quality
and safety. On the one hand, the quality of finished water
at the treatment plant roust be assumed to be the best that
can be achieved with the means available, so that storage
of finished water, for example, can maintain or degrade
quality, but cannot improve it as in the case of raw water
storage. On the other hand, the epidemiological record
shows that cross-contamination and back-siphonage, by introduc-
ing raw sewage or otherwise polluted water into finished
water in distribution, have been relatively important among
causes of the rare outbreaks of disease associated with
public water supplies. The most general problems are those
of avoiding growth of organisms present in the finished
water (for example, by maintaining an active level of chlorine
in water thoughout the distribution network) and preventing
contamination of the finished water from external sources
(for example, by covering service reservoirs in which finished
water is stored). The materials and the manner of construction
of the facilities are critical at every stage. Water contact
surfaces in reservoirs and in mains all too frequently
include materials which may support microbial growth.
The joints that have been well designed to exclude contaminants
from without are sometimes found to present favorable conditions
V-16
-------
for microbial growth within the system. Older materials
used in constructing water distribution systems all have
disadvantages, including increasingly high costs of production
and installation and, in some instances, exceedingly short
service lives when in contact with the water of some communities,
Newer materials and joint designs appear to offer important
advantages/ but the testing of these cannot always include
all of the conditions to which they will be subjected in
use at various places. Thus, unforeseen difficulties are
always possible, even under what may be described as routine
conditions.
Conditions in water distribution cannot always be counted
on to remain routine. Perturbations of the system may
occur through:
(1) necessary expansion of the distribution
network because of growth of the community;
(2) use of large volumes of water to fight fires;
(3) natural oar manmade disasters that disrupt
the integrity of the network; and
(4) errors by users, beyond the direct control
of a water authority, that result in back-
contamination of the water in public distribu-
tion.
If appropriate designs and materials have been used in
constructing a distribution system, water quality can be
protected, in mosty -instances, by properly organized maintenance
and surveillance. However, regulation of users connected
V-17
-------
to the system, as well as the development of effective
plans for dealing with emergencies, are important further
aspects of operation.
Recommendations Concerning Storage and Distribution
(1) Careful consideration must be given to the
siting of service reservoirs.
(2) Dead ends in pipes must be avoided and disused
apparati disconnected.
(3) Distribution and plumbing systems should
consist of materials that will not support
microbial growth. New products should be
tested for their ability to support microbial
growth before they are accepted or rejected.
(4) Control measures to prevent back-siphonage
and cross-connections should be carefully
maintained.
(5) Adequate disinfection procedures for the
construction and repair of water mains are
needed. Installers should be instructed
to follow the installation codes exactly.
Topic G discusses Technological Problems in drinking water
microbiology. A pervasive theme in drinking water microbiology
is the avoidance, suppression, or destruction of microorganisms
in water. As Topic G shows, some microorganisms have what
V-18
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might be regarded as a certain retaliatory capacity. Micro-
organisms have adapted to such a variety of aquatic environments
outside of water systems that it is probably not surprising
to find them so firmly entrenched in much of this manmade
system as well. They may cause problems both in treatment
and in distibution. Water pipes may be degraded by microbial
action, either because the organisms were able to use the
material of the pipe as substrate or because microbial
metabolism caused minerals to be eroded from or deposited
on the inner surfaces. Microbial cells themselves, and
the slimes associated with some of them, are able to coat
resins and filter media or the interiors of pipes so as
to exert a direct adverse physical effect upon the function
of the facility. It is not surprising that resin function
would be extremely susceptible to microbial growth, given
the fact that normal function of the resin depends upon
intimate interaction between the resin surface and the
water; however, it is also true that a thin microbial slime
coat can significantly interfere with the hydraulic conductivity
of a water main, even though the deposit obstructs very
little of the inside of the pipe.
Another set of technological problems involves the storage
of water aboard ships, and in containers for commercial
distribution or for use in emergencies. In a way, one
V-19
-------
might assert that 'drinking water in these contexts needs
to be even purer than that in public supplies, for these
classes of stored water will ordinarily be used in exactly
the condition that the consumer receives them. Problems
associated with ships' water supplies are discussed in
detail; some of these problems are shared with supplies
of drinking water aboard all classes of public conveyances,
but they may be more extreme with ships because longer
periods of storage and greater volumes of water are involved,
and because many opportunities exist for cross-contamination
from wastewater, water from the ship's bilge, and wash
water derived from the often-polluted water in which the
ship floats. Water sealed in containers also requires
great care, as to the initial quality of the water, the
use of preservatives (if any), and the selection of a container,
Obviously, those who must use packaged water in times of
disaster will have no opportunity at that point to reject
that which, on the basis of off-flavor, odor, or appearance,
might be suspected of being toxic. On the other hand,
those who regularly drink bottled water in their daily
lives place their trust in the safety of the commercial
product and are therefore vulnerable to any lapse on the
part of the bottler or distributor.
V-20
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This report necessarily emphasizes water treatment and
control measures for routine use. However, it must be
recognized that emergencies do arise and that plans for
dealing with them should be made beforehand, as much as
possible. Causes of emergencies, in what may be descending
order of likelihood, include undetected deterioration in
the physical apparatus, human error, power failures, adverse
weather, willful mischief, earthquakes, and war. Both
apparatus at the treatment plant and in the distribution
network may be subject to deterioration or sudden malfunction,
Human errors might include such events as construction
machinery breaking water mains. Loss of electrical power
could inactivate pumps, ozone generators, and vital control
apparatus. Adverse weather can cause power failures; or
extreme cold, floods, or windstorms may directly interfere
with water treatment or distribution. Willful mischief
would include any malicious act by which one or a few persons
abused a water system in an effort to disrupt society.
Earthquake prediction seems to be progressing, but is still
not very useful for protecting water supplies. Finally,
if war occurs, water systems may be disrupted incidentally
to general bombardment, overtaxed through excessive water
demand for firefighting, or directly targeted as a vehicle
for biological warfare.
V-21
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All communities are vulnerable to emergencies affecting
their water distribution systems. However, there are potential
differences, involving water sources and treatment, in
susceptibility to emergencies. A community that has relatively
low-quality water must use a complex treatment scheme and
is vulnerable from that standpoint. On the other hand
a community that derives very pure water from a deep aquifer
will have no water at all if it loses its pumping capacity.
Large water supply systems probably present more points
of vulnerability than small systems, and communities that
derive their water from distant sources are especially
at risk.
If treatment is interrupted, but distribution is maintained,
microbiologic safety can be achieved by drawing water from
the tap and boiling it. Otherwise, any available water
that does not contain acute toxicants may have to be boiled
and used. Restoration of treatment and distribution services
is likely to require extensive flushing and use of large
quantities of chlorine to restore a system to normal; plans
for such action should be made in advance, and key personnel
should learn their tasks. Large communities, where great
numbers of people might be unable to supply themselves
with water in the event of a system stoppage, should consider
storage of water for emergencies in moderate-sized containers
at well-distributed and marked locations.
V-22
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Industrialized nations in general share a relatively high
level of public health, as measured by long life expectancies
and low child mortalities, which is at least partly a tribute
to the technical and institutional success of drinking
water supply in these countries. Even private water supplies
in these countries are often monitored on a limited basis,
so that relatively few inhabitants use water has not been
safety tested in some manner. It is, perhaps, noteworthy
that the primary safety criteria applied, even to this
day when many other aspects of drinking water safety are
under scrutiny, are based upon microbiologic indicator
systems. This is reasonable, for a great part of the public
health gains that have been achieved in industrialized
nations have resulted from reduced incidence of infectious
diseases through sanitation. Hardly any aspect of drinking
water microbiology would not be likely to benefit from
further research, but it is important to note that presently
available treatment techniques, monitoring methods, and
other features of current drinking water supply practice
are serving their purposes remarkably well. In a general
sense, standards presently in effect must never be relaxed
because the populations of industrialized nations, accustomed
to a high level of sanitation, are likely to be quite vulnerable
to any abrupt lapse in established drinking water practice.
V-23
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Change is inevitable, however, and new classes of chemical
contaminants are being indent!fied in wastewaters and in
some raw waters from which drinking water must be produced.
Aspects of these problems are discussed in Project Areas
I and IV. Research is needed both on effective and feasible
methods that will produce fewer undesirable disinfectant
derivatives while serving the original purpose of disinfection,
which is to kill as many microorganisms as possible in
the water. The task of protecting source waters, from
a microbiolgic standpoint, will be aided when more research
results are available regarding detection methods for waterborne
pathogens, as well as the probability of infection by ingesting
different quantities of waterborne pathogens. Indicator
systems that are intended to signal fecal or other microbiologic
contamination of water might be further refined and standardized,
but it seems likely that monitoring the adequacy of water
treatment and disinfection could better be based on the
development and application of a separate set of indicator
systems. These, and indicator systems designed to detect
recontamination of finished water in distribution, probably
stand to be most improved by automation or modification
to afford shorter readout times. In this age of dramatically
improved international communication, it seems clear that
more standardization of criteria for water quality and
safety will ensue.
V-24
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If primary disinfection procedures must be modified out
of concern for interactions between the disinfectants and
chemical contaminants of water, further research will be
needed on the adequacy of alternative disinfectants. At
the same time, it will be very important to determine and
attempt to utilize the antimicrobial effects inherent in
all of the other unit processes employed in water treatment.
Research to aid in protecting the quality of finished water
during storage and distribution will, assuredly, focus
on the development of low-cost, durable materials that
are inert to the microflora in the water, but there are
also many other research needs in this area. To the degree
that microbial growth is capable of creating technolgoical
problems, which have been enumerated previously, it is
important that research contribute more to the understanding
of these microbiologic processes, for it may be that the
organisms cannot be entirely suppressed, but only minimized.
Finally, further research on the evaluation and maintenance
of water quality in closed containers is still needed.
Many new concerns about drinking water safety have been
raised in recent years. Because these-generally relate to
chemicals and may be associated with such dire effects as
cancer, they have tended to overshadow the microbiology of
drinking water. Under the circumstances, it seems fitting
to close by pointing out that:
V-25
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(1) the primary criteria of drinking water safety
and quality are based upon microbiologic
indicator systems; and
(2) in any major lapse in drinking water treatment
and distribution practices, the most immediate
consequences to consumer health are more
likely to be caused by pathogenic microorganisms
than by chemicals.
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
(1) Every public water supply should begin with
the highest quality raw water that is available
in quantities sufficient to meet the community's
needs. Efforts to protect and improve the
quality of source waters are important;
both waste discharges and non-point sources
of pollution should be considered in attempts
to prevent or alleviate contamination.
Where possible, water to be used for irrigation,
or for industrial purposes other than food,
drug, or cosmetic manufacture, should usually
be drawn from less pure sources than those
from which the public supply derives.
(2) Disinfection is necessary, but not always
sufficient, to ensure the safety of drinking
water from virtually any source.
(3) Complete treatment of drinking water, including
at least coagulation and sedimentation with
sand filtration or alternatively dual filtration
V-26
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including effective slow sand filtration,
followed in all cases by disinfection, is
essential in all cases where source waters
are unprotected and is highly desirable
even with protected sources.
(4) Sound engineering practice is required to
produce safe drinking water; microbiologic
laboratory testing performed on a routine
basis, according to standardized methods,
and by properly trained and supervised staff,
is an important basis for assessment of
drinking water quality. Indicator systems
for use in these tests may be selected for
any one of the following purposes:
(i) to signal fecal contamination;
(ii) to detect any abnormal and probably
undesirable conditions that may occur;
or
(iii) to warn of the probable presence
of specific pathogens.
Larger waterworks, at least, should develop
microbiologic quality control procedures
and baseline data for all stages of treatment
from raw water through distribution. Prompt
corrective action should be taken when norms
are exceeded. At least one microbiology
laboratory in each country should have the
ability to detect waterborne pathogens,
either for spot-checking or for investigating
outbreaks, both from water samples and from
clinical specimens. Results of tests for
both indicators and pathogens should be
shared on an international basis.
V-27
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(5) Innovative indicator systems, capable of
signaling fecal contamination, problems
in treatment efficiency, loss of integrity
of the distribution system, and perhaps
the presence of pathogens, should continue
to be sought. Rather than try to find a
single indicator system that will serve
all of these disparate functions at once,
emphasis should be placed on individual
systems offering convenience and economy
that will allow more frequent testing.
(6) In addition to the well-established research
on waterborne bacterial pathogens, considerably
more research is needed concerning viruses
and protozoa transmissible by drinking water,
in the areas of the dose-dependence of peroral
infectivity and pathogenicity, the detection
of these agents in water, and their removal
or destruction by water treatment and disinfec-
tion processes.
(7) Monitoring of raw water quality on the basis
of appropriate indicator systems is desirable
in all cases and essential in those instances
where the usual purity of the raw water
is such that less than complete treatment
is used. At least one indicator system
that is directly correlated with fecal contamin-
ation should be included; the choice of
other indicator systems to signal other
kinds of problems should be made on the
basis of knowledge about local conditions.
V-28
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(8) Materials of which water treatment and distribu-
tion facilities are constructed should be
presented for chemical and biological stability.
Testing methods, as well as results, should
be shared internationally as much as possible;
however, it is also best to test materials,
before use in a given system, with the very
water with which they will, in fact, be
in contact.
(9) Finished water in distribution, in both
public and semipublic systems, should be
sampled at representative locations and
tested microbiologically with a frequency
that depends on the size of the population
served. Private water supplies should be
tested at least annually. In all instances,
the presence of coliforms, thermo-tolerant
coliforms, or E. coli in a 100-ml sample
should be treated as unacceptable, or at
the very least, undesirable.
(10) To minimize aftergrowth or other technological
problems and to provide a means of determining
whether cross-contamination has occurred,
water in public supply distribution should
wherever possible contain a measurable residual
level of disinfectant (e.g., free chlorine) at
all points.
(11) Inasmuch as distribution systems are a potential
source of problems in all water supplies,
every system should be under continuous
surveillance. Where problems are identified,
V-29
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they should either be eliminated by modification
of the system or be mitigated by routine
maintenance procedures.
(12) Procedures for the installation and repair
of water mains should be established beforehand
and applied diligently when needed. Plans
for dealing with emergencies should be made
and communicated, in advance, to those responsible
for implementing them.
(13) Means are needed to control cross-connections,
to ensure both that the consumer does not
degrade publicly-supplied water to the detriment
of his own health and that his use of the
water does not cause contamination that
threatens the health of others. Aspects
of particular concern include water supply
systems in buildings, attachment devices
that use water, and point-of-use treatment
units attached to the consumer's tap.
(14) More intensive research and epidemiologic
surveys are needed to determine the true
health effects of microbes and their products
in finished drinking water. For this purpose,
closer cooperation and communication are
needed among practicing physicians and veterin-
arians, public health authorities, and water
microbiologists. Any proposed change in
treatment, distribution, or quality control
practice should be evaluated from the standpoint
of probable impact on public health, as
far as possible, before implementation.
V-30
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LIST OP PARTICIPANTS
PROJECT AREA III: MICROBIOLOGY
CANADA
DENMARK
Mr. J. A. Clark, Supervisor
Microbiology Section, Laboratory Services
Branch
Ministry of the Environment
P.O. Box 213
Rexdale, Ontario
Dr. B. J. Dutka, Bead
Microbiology Laboratories
Applied Research Div.
Canada Centre for Inland Waters
867 Lakeshore Rd.f PO 5050
Burlington, Ontario L7R 4A6
Dr. Paul R. Gorham
Dept. of Botany
Univ. of Alberta
Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2E9
Dr. Richard S. Tobin, Leader -
Topic C & National Contact
Criteria Section
Environmental Standards Division
Environmental Health Centre
Tunney's Pasture
Ottawa, Ontario K1A OL2
(not a participating country)
Prof. Dr. Gunnar G. Bonde
Institute of Hygiene
University of Aarhus
Aarhus
Dr. Kaj Krongaard Kristensen
Vandkvalitetsinstitute!
Agern Alle 11
2970 Horsholm
V-31
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FEDERAL
REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY
FRANCE
Professor Dr. Gertrud Muller
Leader, Topic G
Institut fur Wasser-, Boden- und
Lufthygiene des Bundesgesundheitsamtes
Postfach
D-100 Berlin 33
Dr. Peter Scheiber - National Contact
Medizinal-Untersuchungsamt
6100 Darmstadt
Wilhelminstr. 2
Postfach 11 07 61
Prof. Dr. Reinhard Schweisfurth
Universitat des Saarlandes
Institut fur Hyugiene und Mikrobiologie
Universitatskliniken, Medizinische Fakultat
D-665 Horaburg
Prof. Dr. R. Schubert
Dept. of General & Environmental Hygiene
Centre of Hygiene
Paul-Erlich-Strasse 40
6 Frankfurt a/M
Prof. Dr. Jean-Claude Block
Centre des Sciences
de 1'Environments
Universite de Metz
1, rue des Rocollets
5700 Metz
Prof. Dr. J. M. Foliguet-Leader, Topic B
Laboratoire d*Hygiene et de Recherche en
Sante Publique
Universite de Nancy 1
Faculte de Medecine "B"
Avenue de la Foret de Haye
54500 Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy
Dr. P. Hartemann - Leader, Topic B
Laboratoire d1Hygiene et de Recherche en
Sante Publigue
Universite de Nancy 1
Faculte de Medecine "B"
Avenue de la Foret de Haye
54500 Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy
V-32
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FRANCE
(cont.)
GREECE
ISRAEL
THE
NETHERLANDS
Professor H. Leclerc
Institut National de la Sante et de la
Recherche Medicale
Unite No. 146
Ecotoxicologie Microbienne
Domaine du C.E.R.T.I.A.
369, rue Jules Guesde
59650 Villeneuve-D'Ascq
P. A. Trinel
Institut National de la Sante et de la
Recherche Medicale
Unite No. 146
Ecotoxicologie Microbienne
Domaine du C.E.R.T.I.A.
369, rue Jules Guesde
59650 Villeneuve-D'Ascq
Dr. J. Vial - National Contact
Laboratoire Regional d'Hygiene
de I'Homme et de son Environment
Institut Pasteur de Lyon
77, rue Pasteur
69300 - Lyon Cedex 2
Prof. J. A. Papadakis - National Contact
Athens School of Hygiene
L. Alexandras 196
Athens
Dr. U. Bachrach
Dept. of Molecular Biology
The Hebrew Univ. - Hadassah Medical School
Jerusalem, Israel
Prof. Dr. Yehuda Kott - National Contact
Environmental & Water Resources Engineering
Technion-lsrael Institute of Technology
Technion City, Haifa 32 000
Dr. A. H. Havelaar
National Instit. of Public Health
P.O. Box 1
Bilthoven
Dr. H. J. Kool - Leader, Topic E and
National Contact
Rijksinstituut voor Drinkwatervoorziening
Postbus 150
2260AD Leidschendam
V-33
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THE
NETHERLANDS
(cont.)
NORWAY
SWEDEN
UNITED
KINGDOM
Dr. M. van Schothorst
Laboratory for Zoonoses & Food Microbiology
Rijks Instituut voor de Volksgezondheid
Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9
Postbus 1, Bilthoven
Dr. J. Kvittingen
Moholtlia 30
7000 Trondheim
Dr. Jorgen Lassen
National Institute of Public Health
Postuttak
Oslo 1
LTC. D.V.M. Jens J. Nygard - Leader,
Topic A
Assist. Chief Army Veterinarian
Norwegian Institute for Water Research
Gaustadalleen 25
P.O. Box 333 Blindern
Oslo 3
Dr. Tov Omland - National Contact
Norwegian Defence
Microbiological Laboratory
National Institute of Public Health
Postuttak
Oslo 1
Mrs. Kari Ormerod
Norwegian Institute for Water Research
P.O. Box 333, Blindern
Oslo 3
(not a participating country)
Dr. Thor Axel Stenstrom - Observer
The National Bacteriological Laboratory
S-105 21 Stockholm
Dr. Norman P. Burman - Leader, Topic F
Formerly, Manager of Thames Water Authority
Metropolitan Water Services
9, Derby Road
Surbiton
Surrey, KT5 9AY
V-34
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UNITED
KINGDOM
(cont.)
UNITED
STATES
Mrs. L. M. Evison
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Newcastle Upon Tyne
Clairmont Road
Newcastle Upon Tyne
NE1 7RU
Dr. J. W. Ridgway
District Division
Water Research Centre
P.O. Box 16, Henley Road
Medmenham, Marlow, Buckinghamshire
SL 7 2HD
Dr. J. S. Slade, Virologist
Thames Water Authority
New River Head Laboratories
177 Rosebery Ave.
London, ECIR 4TP
Miss J. Stevens - Leader, Topic F and
National Contact
Chief Microbiologist
Thames Water Authority
New River Head Laboratories
177 Rosebery Avenue
London, ECIR 4TP
Dr. Elmer W. Akin
Research Virologist
Environmental Protection Agency
HERL (Health Effects Research Lab.)
26 W. St. Clair St.
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Dr. J. D. Buck
Marine Sciences Institute
Marine Research Lab.
P.O. Box 278
Noank, Connecticut 06340
Dr. S. L. Chang
1035 Juanita Drive
Walnut Creek, California 94595
Prof. Dean 0. Cliver - Project Leader
Food Research Institute
University of Wisconsin
1925 Willow Drive
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
V-35
-------
UNITED Professor R. R. Colwell
STATES Department of Microbiology
(cont.) University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742
Professor Koby T. Crabtree
Professor of Microbiology
Chairman, Center System - Department of
Biological Sciences
University of Wisconsin
518 So. 7th Ave.
Nausau, Wisconsin 54401
Mr. Edwin E. Geldreich, Chief
Microbiological Treatment Branch
Water Supply Research Division
Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
US Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Dr. B. L. Green
Department of Environmental Sciences
Marshall Ball
University of Massachusetts.
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
Mr. Arnold E. Greenberg - Leader, Topic
D
Chief, Bioenvironmental Laboratories
California Department of Health
2151 Berkeley Way
Berkeley, California 94704
J. E. Bobbie
The Ecosystems Center
Marine Biological Laboratory
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
Dr. John C. Hoff
Microbiological Treatment Branch
Water Supply Research Division
Municipal Environmental Research Lab.
US Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
Professor Warren Litsky
Department of Environmental Sciences
Marshall Hall
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
V-36
-------
UNITED Ruth Newman - Project Editor
STATES Pood Research Institute
(cont.) University of Wisconsin
1925 Willow Drive
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Melvin P. Silverman
National Aeronautics & Space Administration
Ames Research Center
Moffett Field, California 94035
Professor Otis J. Sproul, Chairman
470 Hitchcock Hall
Department of Civil Engineering
Ohio State University
2070 Neil Avenue
Columbus, Ohio 43210
Susan Strainer
Food Research Institute - Department of
Bacteriology
University of Wisconsin
1925 Willow Drive
Madison, Wisconsin 53706
Dr. S. W. Watson
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute
Woods Hole, Massachusetts 02543
Dr. C. K. Wun
Department of Environmental Sciences
Marshall Hall
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
V-37
-------
CHAPTER VI
AREA IV
HEALTH EFFECTS
SUMMARY •*•
PROF. JOSEPH BORZELLECA, CHAIRMAN
Various methods of disinfection are successfully used to
control water-borne diseases due to biological contaminants
in water (viruses, bacteria). These methods of chemical
control add chemical contaminants to the drinking water.
For example, chloroform and carbon tetrachloride have been
found as contaminants in the chlorine gas. Trihalomethanes
may be formed by the interaction of chlorine with humic
and/or fulvic acids. In addition, chemical contamination
may arise from natural, agricul tural, industrial or distribu-
tion sources. Acute or chronic exposures to these chemicals
may result in adverse health effects that are immediate
or delayed, reversible or irreversible. Since these contam-
^
inants rarely occur singly, chemical interactions (additives,
synergistic, antagonistic) must be considered. The nature
of the adverse health effects as a result of a single chemical,
can usually be determined from properly designed and executed
animal experiments. Human epidemiological studies may
VI-1
-------
* Reprinted from Sci. Total Environ.. 18 (1981) by permission. Copyright
Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company.
-------
demonstrate the adverse health effects of complex mixtures.
Potentially toxic agents may also be identified by the
use of short term or in vitro tests. Other methods of
identification of potentially toxic agents include chemical
structural similarity with known toxicants.
Attempts should be made to reduce the number of potentially
toxic chemical contaminants, but the microbiological quality
of drinking water must not be compromised.
The charge to this group, to determine the safety of drinking
water, is an enormous one. Saftey has become an issue
because of the large number of chemical contaminants that
have been identified. The Committee critically examined
some of the problems and established a set of objectives
(Table 1).
Three major classes of contaminants were identified as
biological (viruses, bacteria, protozoa), chemical (organic,
inorganic) and physical (particulates, radionuclides).
The Committee addressed the chemical and physical contaminants,
The biological contaminants were reviewed by Group III.
Identifying and listing chemical contaminants found in
the drinking waters of the countries represented on the
VI-2
-------
TABLE 1
Objectives:
1. To list, identify and provide data on concentration
and location of contaminants.
2. To identify source of contaminants as "naturally
present" or introduced as a result of disinfection.
3. To categorize contaminants into chemical groups.
4. To critically assess available pertinent animal
data and epidemiological data.
5. To identify adverse health effects that could
follow exposure to contaminants.
6. To prioritize chemical contaminants with respect
to adverse health effects.
7. TO address issues of chronic ingestion of low
levels of contaminants.
VI-3
-------
Committee was a formidable task. A subcommittee was formed
to collect the data and prepare the list. The following
information was requested for each contaminant:
o proper identification;
o origin (naturally occurring, manmade or
the result of treatment);
o concentration(s); and location(s).
The data were computerized and a final listing was prepared.
A sample page appears as Figure 1. Data from 14 countries
were submitted; 744 entries appear in the listings. Three
lists were prepared. They are identical in content, but
the order of appearance of the contaminants differs. The
contaminants are listed in descending order of concentration;
alphabetically; and alphabetically, by country. There
are 7 columns to each list:
A. Compound
B. Location (LOG) at which sample was taken
"* C. Country of origin (France, Switzerland,
German Federal Republic, The Netherlands,
Denmark, Yugoslavia, Italy, Czechoslovakia,
U.K., Norway, Luxembourg, Austria, Canada,
D.S.A.)
D. Source of raw water (surface « river, storage
reservoir, etc.)
VI-4
-------
Ul
Compound:
Bromodichloromethane
Dibromochlorome thane
Toluene
Dibromochlorome thane
Chloroform
Br omod ich lor omethane
(Terminal)
Source of
LOCt COUNTRY t Raw Water t
Netherlands Surface
Netherlands Surface
(6erman Fed Rep
TUT Netherlands Surface
Canada
United States
Treatment
Methodt
Chlorination
Storage Reservoir
Filtration
Coagulation
Chlorination
Filtration
Chlorination
Ozonatlon
Coagulation
MAX CONi
( 100,000)
20.0
20.0
20.0
13.3
13.0
11.0
REF NUMt
149
06
239
02
130
140
Fig. 1. Computerized data - Drinking Nater Pilot Study
-------
Compound : LOG :
Olchlorobenzene Isomers
Chloroform
Tr ichloroe thane
Bromod ichlorome thane
Chloroform
Benzo(a)pyrene
Isodecane
H
o* Chloroform (Terminal)
Fulvic Acid
Chloroform (Quenched)
Source of
COUNTRY: Raw Water:
German Fed Rep Surface
Netherlands Surface
German Fed Rep
Netherlands Surface
Netherlands Surface
Netherlands
German Fed Rep
United States
United Kingdom
United States
Treatment
Method:
Filtration
Chlorination
Ozonation
Filtration
Coagulation
Chlorination
Ozonation
Filtration
Coagulation
Chlorination
Chlorination
Filtration
Chlorination
Ozonation
MAX CON:
( 100,000)
80.0
60.0
55.0
55.0
54.0
50.0
50.0
45.0
29.0
22.0
REF NUMl
239
06
239
06
149
02
239
140
98
140
Fig. 1. Computerized data - Drinking Water Pilot Study
-------
E. Treatment method (filtration, coagulation,
chlorination, ozonation, mutimedia filtration,
sand/dune infiltration, bank infiltration,
aeration, active carbon, fluoridation, storage
reservoir, other, no treatment)
F. Maximum concentration (ppb)
6. Reference number (see reference number directory)
These tables identified contaminants and provided data
on their location and concentration.
The origin of the contaminants was also addressed; i.e.,
were the contaminants naturally occurring, man made, or
the result of the treatment. The naturally occurring contam-
inants include organic (humus) and inorganic (geological
or natural weathering); the man-made ones include atmospheric,
industrial, agricultural, land-fill, surface run-off and
household. Contaminants formed as a result of treatment
include trihalomethanes. Special attention was accorded
the influence of treatment on chemical contamination of
water. The term treatment includes "everything done to
the water from the time it enters the reservoir, canal
or pipe until it flows from the customers tap" (WHO).
Some of these treatment modalities and their input are
summarized in Figure 2.
VI-7
-------
Groundwater
Surfacewater
Rainwater
Source of Water
Pretreatment
Flocculation
Sedimentation/Filtration
Disinfectant/Oxidation
pH Adjustment
Aeration
Storage
Enrichment
Flocculation
.Treatment
Distribution
Residence Time
Installation Material
Home Treatment
Corrosion
Aftergrowth
Leakage
Drinking Water
Tap Water
Figure 2. Sources of Contamination
VI-8
-------
The raw water could contain a spectrum of chemicals, from
simple ions in the solid to agricultural and industrial
chemicals. During storage in reservoirs, atmospheric pollutants
could enter the water and add to the chemicals present.
The microorganisms present in the water are also involved
in the formation of organic compounds. Some of these organics
could adsorb onto clay and from floes that settle out.
During transport, materials from piping could leach out
into the water.
The use of chemicals in the treatment train will add to
the burden of chemicals in the water. For example, the
use of Al2(SO4>3 or FeCl3 to develop floes (which adsorb
contaminants) will add to the anion and cation loads by
increasing levels of sulphate, chloride and metals. Filtering
aids, lime or sodium hydroxide to adjust pH, and softening
agents will add chemicals. Since the chemicals used in
water treatment are often technical grade, the impurities
present are also a source of contamination.
Chlorine is probably still the least expensive and most
effective disinfectant. Chlorine has been reported to
interact with various constituents of water to form a variety
of chlorinated and oxidized compounds. For example, chlorine
will react with humic acids to form trihalomethanes; with
Vi-9
-------
TABLE 2
Selection Criteria:
1. Positive identification in drinking water
2. Distribution (frequency of observation)
3. Evidence of toxicity to animals or man
4. Chemical relationship to known toxic substances
5. Potential for contamination based on production
figures
6. Listing in legislation (cited in regulations)
7. Organoleptic properties
VI-10
-------
TABLE 3
CLASSES OF AGENTS SELECTED FOR EVALUATION
Chemical Classes
1. Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons
2. Aromatic halogen compunds
3. Nitro compunds (organic, inorganic)
4. Esters
5. Aliphatic organo halogens
5.1 methane derivatives
5.2 ethane derivatives
5.3 unsaturated hydrocarbon derivatives
6. Ethers
7. Cyclic aliphatic compounds
8. Halogenated phenols
9. Benzene and substituted benzenes
10. Humic materials
11. Inorganics (metals, non-metals)
Physical Class
1. Particulates
VI-11
-------
phenols to form chlorophenols. It has been suggested that
when chlorine interacts with sewage over 50 chlorine-containing
compounds with a molecular weight less than 1000 are formed.
Treatment with chlorine dioxide may result in the formation
of both oxidation products and halogenated compounds.
Contaminants contributed during distribution include leachates
from piping (asbestos, metals, monomer), polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons from bitumen (pitch) and corrosion products.
The committee then reviewed the list to determine what other
compounds should be evaluated. Selection criteria were
established (Table 2). Eleven chemical classes and 1 class
of physical agents were identified (Table 3). Select members
of each class were identified for further evaluation. The
committee did not wish to repeat evaluations already conducted
by other groups.
VI-12
-------
The primary concern of the Committee was the health effects
of the chemical contaminants.
A number of factors should be considered in assessing the
toxic hazards of chemical contaminants in drinking water.
These include:
o exposure (concentration, route, time), toxicity
in animals and man,
o chemical-biological interactions, and
o extrapolation of animal test data to man
(Tardiff, 1976).
In the assessment of risk to human health, three types
of data are important (Figure 3):
o physical and chemical properties,
o toxicological, and
o pharmacological data and epidemiological
data.
The general outline for presentation of the data is presented
in Table 4. The adequacy of the data would then be evaluated
by the Committee and appropriate recommendations made.
Physical and chemical data were generally available. Acute
and chronic toxicological data were often limited. Acute
toxicity refers to single exposure where the response may
VI-13
-------
Chemical & Physical
Properties
Toxicological Data
Epidemiolgical Data
Contaminants-
Assessment of Risk to Human Health
Figure 3. Types of data required to assess risk to health
VI-14
-------
Table 4
GENERAL OUTLINE FOR DATA ON CHEMICAL CONTAMINANTS
I. Sources and Distribution of Contaminants
A. Concentration Range of Contaminants
1. Raw water
2. Finished water
3. Tap water
B. Physical and Chemical Properties of
Contaminants in Water
C. Sources, Occurrences
1. Production
D. Estimated Total Exposure (body burden)
1. Food
2. Industrial exposure
3. Accidental discharge into water
4. Air
II. Pharmacological Data
A. Absorption
B. Storage, Distribution
C. Biotransformation/pharmacokinetics
D. Excretion
E. Mechanism of Action
III. Toxicological Data
A. Acute Effects
1. Animal
2. Human
B. Chronic Effects (known or anticipated)
VI-15
-------
*1. Carcinogenicity
*2. Mutagenicity
*3. Teratogenicity
*4. Other toxic effects
*5. Interactions
*When applicable, should include data on:
1. Dose-response
2. Extrapolation
3. Margin of safety
4. -Morbidity and mortality
C. Epidemiological Data
D. Especially Susceptible Segments of Population
E. Beneficial Effects; Adverse Effects
IV. Analytical Procedures (not essential)
A. Drinking Water
B. Biological Samples
C. Reliability of Data
D. Identification of New Contaminants
V. Research Needs (not essential).
A. Basic Mechanisms of Toxicity
B. Analytical Methodology
C. Epidemiology
D. Priorities
VI. * Summary and Conclusions
VI-16
-------
be immediate or delayed. Chronic refers to multiple or
repeated exposure. The response assumes many forms: cancer,
mutations, birth defects, and other adverse health effects.
Epidemiologic data, retrospective and prospective, were
also very limited.
Short monographs were then prepared on the topics selected.
These were critically reviewed and recommendations offered.
A number of critical issues were identified and addressed
by the Committee. These included:
1. body burden of contaminants - assessment
of total exposure involving food, air, water.
2. role of epidemiological studies in a water
safety program. A workshop was held under
the cochairmanship of Drs. Schneiderman and
Biersteker (and this will appear as an appendix
to our full report).
3. biological monitoring program. The use
of either short term tests or combination
whole animal and short term tests were considered,
A workshop on short term testing was held
(and the proceedings appear as an appendix
to our full report).
VI-17
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A combination approach, a matrix, was proposed by Dr. Tardiff
in 1976 (Figure 4). An alternative plan was recommended
by Dr. Newell of the National Academy of Sciences. Water
is first concentrated. A sample is then assayed using
the Ames and E,. coli tests. The concentrate is then administered
by mouth to a series of mice at doses of 1, 3, 10 g/kg. Careful
observations are made of the next 5-7 days.
Three (3) days after dosing, urine is collected from the
mice and re-assayed in the Ames test. This will identify
mutagenic metabolites that may have been formed. Five
or seven days after dosing, the surviving mice are sacrificed
and examined grossly. Bone marrow is taken and examined
cytogentically.
These programs are for screening or monitoring purposes
only.
A safety evaluation program (Figure 5) is more complex
and should be considered only if a real need for these
data has been established.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS RELATED TO CHEMICALS IN
DRINKING WATER
1. In general, no adverse health effects have been observed
from the consumption of drinking water which has been
VI-18
-------
Matrix for Bio-Screen of Organic
Concentrates from Tap Water
Assay
Sample/City at 2 month Intervals
i
Range Finding
(LD5Q mouse)
Mutagenesis
(bacteria & yeast)
Mammalian Cell
Transformation
In Vivo Carcinogen
bio-assay (neonate rat)
Teratogen Assay
(rat)
Chemical Characterization
(GC/MS)
1
X
7
2
X-f
X-f
7
3
X
?
4
4
?
5
4
X-f
X-f
7
6
?
?
7
Tardiff, 1976
Figure 4
VI-19
-------
10
o
SAFETY EVALUATION PROGRAM
Identification of Contaminants
Determination of Toxicity
(Screening)
< Confirmation of Toxicity
Risk Assessment
Literature Review
Short-Term Test
Acute, in vivo Tests
In Vivo Tests
Genotoxicity
In Vivo Test
Epidemiology
Models
lutagenesis —> Microorganisms + Activatic
&
arcinogenesis
'50
Urine, Blood - Mutagenic Effects
Subchronic Exposure
*
Insects
Plants
Rodents - Skin Bioassay + Activation
Mammalian Cells - Transformation DNA Dama
p
Carcinogenesis Bioassay
Rodents 1 Chronic Exposure
Reproduction, Teratology
Figure 5
-------
generated in a controlled public water supply (i.e.,
adequate source protection, treatment methods and
distribution system) and which met drinking water
standards. Nevertheless, known contamination of
drinking water from eutrophication processes in
reservoirs, and by chemicals from some disinfection
practices, industrial discharges, hazardous waste
disposal, corrosion of piping and water softening
remain sources of potential health hazard. Health
risks have been associated with a failure to .protect
the source, to provide adequate treatment, or to
ensure the integrity of the distribution system.
Cases of acute intoxication represent a very small
number of individuals in the last decade in the NATO
countries.
2. Since present methods of disinfection are capable of
controlling most microbiological contaminants, concern
has been shifting from these to chemical contaminants.
3. Where experimental animal studies are used to predict
human risks from longterm low level exposure to chemical
in drinking water, two basic uncertainties are ever
present: one is the complexity and uncertainty of
the extrapolation from experimental animals to humans,
VI-21
-------
and the other is the shape of the dose-response curve
below the high-dose experimental range. There is
evidence that one can predict, qualitatively and quanti-
tatively, risks to humans from exposures to chemicals
by the application of results from studies using experi-
mental animals. However, in some cases (e.g., arsenic,
benzene) such a correspondence does not exist.
4. In the study of long-term effects of low-level exposures,
evidence of adverse health effects in groups of humans
exposed at environmental or occupational levels are
often quite reliable in establishing risks to the
human population. However, it must be acknowledged
that, within practical limits, epidemiology will not
be able to confirm the small increases in disease
incidence commonly predicted by animal experiments.
Epidemiological studies should be encouraged, but
only when they are expected to be of a sensitivity
sufficient to detect the predicted effect or when
they are clearly acknowledged to be hypothesis
generating in intent. The most rigorous methods and
standards of design and interpretation must be used.
5. When estimating hazards of chemicals to humans, it
is essential to consider exposure from all sources
VI-22
-------
(air, food, water, occupational exposure, lifestyle,
etc.) and also in which chemical state the pollutants
are present. In general, drinking water is a minor
source of total daily and lifetime exposure to most
environmental chemicals.
6. Where risk of toxic effects is estimated for various
levels of exposure, the acceptance of a particular
level of risk is a socio-political judgement.
7. In order to make an accurate evaluation of the exposure
to drinking water constituents, it is necessary to
consider factors such as the volume of water consumed,
the fluctuations with time of concentrations of chemicals
in tap water, modification during beverage preparation,
and the contribution made by drinking water used for
culinary purposes. Many of these factors are difficult
to evaluate, and it is recommended that studies be
undertaken to define exposure more accurately.
8. Substantial concern has been raised about the nature
and possible hazards of disinfection by-products.
Research aimed at the elucidation of the chemical
composition and toxicity of these by-products is
strongly encouraged.
VI-23
-------
9. The treatment of water for potability often requires
the use of chemicals. These should be used to maximize
the removal of contaminants from the source water
but without the addition of unnecessary amounts of
chemicals and without compromising microbiological
quality. Furthermore, these compounds added to water
should be of high purity to avoid unnecessary, and
possibly detrimental, contamination of the finished
water. Similarly, storage and distribution materials
should not adversely alter the quality of the water
stored and conveyed.
10. A means for monitoring the toxic potential of the
chemicals in tap water in a rapid and comprehensive
manner should be sought. Studies aimed at the develop-
ment of simple assay methods are strongly endorsed.
Similarly, a flexible and reliable strategy for the
application of such methods should be developed.
11. Information concerning the health effects of chemical
contaminants is growing rapidly. Periodic review
of these data is recommended.
12. The NATO/CCMS Master List of Organic Chemical Contaminants
should be kept current. Participation by all NATO
VI-24
-------
countries is strongly encouraged. Study of the role
of chemical constituents in potable water in the etiology
and expression of human disease should concentrate on
those instances where they may be factors in common
diseases (for example, cardiovascular disease, cancer);
should be considered a part of the overall strategy of
disease investigations, and should deal with possibilities
of benefit as well as harm.
VI-25
-------
AREA IV
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
CANADA
FRANCE
FEDERAL
REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY
GREECE
NETHERLANDS
NORWAY
Dr. Peter Toft
Department of Natural Health
and Welfare
Tunney's Pasture
Ottawa
Ontario KIA OL2
Dr. Louis Coin
Ministers de la Sante et
de la Famille
Direction Generale de la Sante
200 rue d'Estrees
75007 Paris
Prof. Heinz Petri
Institut fur Wasser-, Boden-und Lufthygiene
Corrensplatz
1000 Berlin 33
Prof. John Papadakis
Athens School of Hygiene
L. Alexandras 196
Athens, 602
Dr. Edward de Greef
R.I.D.
Postfach 150
Leidschendam
Dr. Egil Gjessing
Norwegian Institute for Water Research
Gaustadalleen 25
Blindern, Oslo 3
Dr. Jan Aug. Myhrstad
Statens Instituut For folk ehelse
National Institute of Public Health
Geitmyrsveien 75
Oslo 1
Dr. Jan Riise
National Institute of Public Health
Geitmyrsv 75
Oslo 4
VI-26
-------
SWEDEN
Dr. Tore Stenstrom
Swedish National Environmental
Protection Board
Department of Environmental Hygiene
Pack
Stockholm
UNITED KINGDOM Dr. Brian Commins
Water Research Centre
Henley Road
Medmenham
Malow, Bucks
Dr. Graeme Matthew
Department of Health
Elephant Castle
London NW3
UNITED STATES
Edward J. Calabrese, Ph.D.
Division of Public Health
University of Massachusetts
Amherst, Massachusetts 01003
Dr. Joseph Cotruvo
Director, Criteria and Standards Division
Office of Water Supply (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
Joseph F. Borzelleca, Ph.D.
Professor of Pharmacology
Head, Division of Technology
Medical College of Virginia
Virginia Commonwealth University
MCV Station
Richmond, Virginia 23298
Robert Tardiff, Ph.D.
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Washington, D.C. 20418
VI-27
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CHAPTER VII
AREA V
REUSE OF WATER RESOURCES SUMMARY
MR. ALBERT GOODMAN, CHAIRMAN
Introduction. "Virgin" or previously unused water, where
it exists at all, is insufficient to meet the demand for
all uses. The demand can be met by re-using water which
has already been used one or more times for some purpose.
Direct reuse is the planned and deliberate reuse of treated
wastewater for some beneficial purpose, such as irrigation,
recreation, industry, ground water recharge and, occasionally,
for human consumption. Indirect reuse occurs when wastewater
is discharged into natural surface waters (or percolates
into an aquifer) from which water supplies are drawn.
The indirect reuse of water has occurred for centuries
- communities have routinely drawn their water supplies
from rivers into which upstream communities have discharged
wastewater. However, direct reuse, particularly for human
consumption, is a relatively new phenomenon.
Direct reuse of water for human consumption can be considered
only if reliable technology for making wastewater safe
to drink exists. Existing technology is capable of protecting
VII-1
-------
consumers of reclaimed water from known dangers; however,
the knowledge regarding the toxicity for the wide range
of chemical and microbiological contaminants is limited.
The acute toxicity of some chemicals is unknown, and more
importantly, the chronic effects of long-term low-level
exposure to many contaminants, and the synergistic effects
of combinations of contaminants, have only begun to be
studied.
The economics of treating wastewater for direct reuse are
not generally attractive when compared to the cost of
conventional sources of potable water. However, when
conventional sources are limited or when water must be
transported for long distances, reuse may be a competitive
alternative. Given the uncertainties regarding the health
effects associated with direct reuse, water should be reused
first for industrial, agricultural and recreational purposes,
and reused for potable purposes only as a last resort.
A questionaire was circulated to public agency officials
in the member countries asking for information on reuse
guidelines, the extent of direct reuse, the'extent of
indirect reuse, the proportion of reused water in indirect
reuse situations, the bases used to determine the acceptable
limit of reuse, the protection afforded to consumers where
VII-2
-------
indirect reuse is practiced, the existence of studies of
populations consuming indirectly reused water, the existence
of studies of toxicity of concentrates from reused water,
and the existence of any other studies on the health effects
of reused water.
Replies to the questionnaire indicate that only the United
States has issued partial guidelines specifically on the
reuse of water. The countries of the European Community
must comply with the "Directive on the Quality of Surface
Waters Abstracted for Drinking Water" and the "Directive
on the Quality of Water for Human Consumption," both of
which establish quality standards and therefore possibly
limit the extent of reuse.
Direct reuse of wastewater for potable purposes has been
practiced only in emergencies in the United States, and
then only on a limited scale. None of the other member
countries reported instances of such direct reuse, although
some limited experimental drinking water reuse was being
carried out in South Africa.
Direct reuse of wastewater for non-potable purposes does
occur extensively in the United States, the United Kingdom
and the Federal Republic of Germany. The principal uses
of reused water are for cooling, although reused water
is sometimes used for quenching in steel mills. In the
VII-3
-------
Netherlands, direct reuse occurs regularly in the paper
industry and in the sugar refining industry. In France,
direct reuse of wastewater for industrial purposes does
not occur to any great extent. The United States also
reported the reuse of wastewater for recreational purposes
(Lake Tahoe) and reuse of sewage effluents for the irrigation
of golf courses and public parks.
Indirect reuse of both surface and ground waters occurs
in all countries. In areas of Denmark, domestic sewage
is applied to the ground where it percolates into ground
waters. A 1961 report indicated that at low flows 3.5%
to 18.5% of water consumed in the United states had been
used previously. In the Paris region of France, 50% to
70% of the water has been reused. In the Netherlands and
Western Germany, the Rhine and Meuse rivers are subjected
to considerable reuse, and the Ruhr river may contain over
40% sewage effluent. Spain and Sweden both reported extensive
reuse of the major surface water sources. The situation
in the United Kingdom varies; extensive reuse of surface
water sources occurs in England and Wales, but reuse is
less significant in Northern Ireland and virtually non-
existent in Scotland. In England and Wales, extremes of
reuse are about 20% domestic sewage effluent and 36% industrial
effluent (in different rivers). Many countries reported
VII-4
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that reuse of major river sources has been occurring for
long periods of time. Some rivers in the United Kingdom
have been reused prior to 1900. The water supplies in
the Paris region have undergone a marked deterioration
over the last decade.
Guidelines for Water use. Most European countries have
taken note of the recommendation in the WHO European Standards
for Drinking Water, but none of these countries have imposed
national standards. In the United States, guidelines for
water use depend on the type of use or reuse. The United
States has enforceable standards for drinking water quality,
but not for other uses of water. The drinking water standards
assume a high quality source water. In most other countries,
reused water is judged on the estimated degree of reuse,
the ammonia content, the chlorine demand, the amount of
coagulant needed to effect treatment, the presence of substances
affecting taste and odor, and the oxygen demand. More
recently, total organic carbon content has been used as
a measure of the extent of reuse.
Consumer Protection. In most cases, consumers of reused
water are provided protection by the period of time between
use and reuse, during which time microbiological and chemical
purification takes place in the river itself. In many
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places, the interval between use and reuse is extended
by storage in reservoirs or underground storage sites.
The period of storage required varies from a few hours
to several hundred days. River bank filtration and recharge
of underground aquifers are processes used to extend the
interval between use and reuse in other areas. Where storage
cannot be provided, most countries have developed an alternate
water source which can be used for blending when the extent
of reuse exceeds the accepted value.
Another means for protecting consumers is to provide dilution
of wastewater flows, even when river flows are at a minimum.
Regulating reservoirs, which store flood flows for release
during dry weather, have been constructed in France and
the United Kingdom, while in Germany the Ruhr river and
its tributaries are regulated to allow for sufficient dilution
of wastewater flow at all times. An alternative dilution
system being used in France and the united Kingdom involves
pumping ground water into rivers to supplement existing
flows, or, when river water quality is good, pumping river
water into underground aquifers for storage until needed.
Monitoring of water quality is also used for protection
of consumers from excessively reused water. Automatic
monitoring stations are located on the Rhine river at the
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Germany-Netherlands border, in France on the Seine and
Oise rivers, and in the United Kingdom on several rivers.
These stations measure pH, temperature, conductivity and
dissolved oxygen as a general rule, and sometimes perform
bioassays on fish. None of the automatic monitoring stations
routinely measure organic chemicals, pending adaptation
of automated gas chromatography or automated total organic
carbon. All of the systems now in use are arranged to
give warnings at manned remote control centers.
Treatment of waters containing waste effluents supplements
routine monitoring, with the type of treatment varying
in the different countries. Pre-oxidation, with chlorine
in the United States, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom
and parts of France, or with ozone in other parts of France
and in Germany, preceeds conventional coagulation and filtering.
Powdered activated carbon is used in 30% of all reuse situations
in the United Kingdom, while granular activated carbon
filters are used in France and Germany. Slow sand (biological)
filters have been used for almost a century in the United
Kingdom, and such filters are used by other countries as
well. Infiltration galleries, making use of sand dunes
and underground strata, are part of pre-treatment of reused
waters of the Seine and the North Sea coast of the Netherlands.
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Epidemiological studies of populations consuming reused
water have been conducted in several countries. Results
have varied, and no firm conclusions are yet available.
One episode of acute illness (gastroenteritis) was traced
to the Ruhr area of Germany when the water source contained
46% sewage effluent.
Extracts, prepared by chloroform extraction, reverse osmosis
or ion-exchange have been fed to rats and mice for toxicological
evaluation in France and the United States. In the United
Kingdom, the Netherlands and the United States, reused
waters have been assayed for bacterial mutagenicity by
the Ames test.
Regulatory Control of Pollutant Discharges. Seven member
countries, the Federal Republic of Germany, France, the
Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the
United States responded to questionnaire inquiries on this
topic.
In parallel with the enactment of the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972 in the United States, legislation
was introduced in the other member countries to maintain
or upgrade the quality of surface waters. In the Federal
Republic of Germany, the Federal Water Act of 1957, as
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amended in 1976, requires formal authorization of any usage
of water which goes "beyond customary practice." In France,
the Water Law of December 1964 establishes that all discharges
are subject to authorization. In the Netherlands, the
pollution of Surface Waters Act of 1970 establishes that
a license must be obtained for any water use that deviates
from customary practice. Sweden relies on a National Franchise
Board for Environmental Protection which has legal authority
to grant discharge permits on a case by case basis. The
various Public Health Acts in the United Kingdom were brought
together in the Control of Pollution Act of 1974.
In the Federal Republic of Germany, the Federal Water Act
addresses water quality control, the control of discharges,
monitoring, protection of certain areas and the designation
of water protection officers. It covers surface waters,
groundwater and coastal waters. The Waste Water Treatment
Tax Act of 1976 provides economic incentives to limit harmful
discharges, and is levied according to the amount of certain
pollutants which are discharged into waters. The Law on
Washing Agents specifies the environmental compatibility
of washing and cleaning agents, and requires that producers
notify the Federal Environment Agency of the composition
and formulas of their products. Several other federal
laws contain provisions relating to waste discharges.
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The Water Law in Prance distinguishes between discharges
into public sewers and discharges directly to the environment.
For discharges into public sewers, only piped stormwater
is exempted. Discharges from industrial facilities are
regulated on the basis of hazard, sanitary quality or nuisance
characteristics. Discharges directly to the environment
must be authorized, with the degree of "noxiousness" being
the criterion applied. The threshold for "negligible noxiousness"
may vary with local conditions, such as the water quality
objectives of the receiving waters.
The Pollution of Surface Waters Act of the Netherlands
prohibits the discharge of waste matter, pollutants and
harmful substances into surface waters unless a license
has first been obtained. The Act is based on the principle
that the polluter pays. Levies are imposed, in terms of
average daily discharge per inhabitant per day, for discharges
of heavy metals or reducing substances, for example. Polluters
may also be fined if they have taken inadequate control
measures, and contributions are required from indirect
dischargers.
The authority of Sweden's National Franchise Board extends
over all discharges of pollutants, whether to the air,
land, sea, ground water or surface water, and is not limited
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to pollution involving water. The Board consists of a
chairman, a lawyer with experience as a judge, a technologist
and a member with experience in industry or local government,
depending on the matter at hand. The decisions of the
Board regarding discharge premits have the strength of
law. Fixed standards are avoided in favor of a system
which evaluates discharges on a case-by-case basis.
Prior to the enactment of the Water Act 1973, discharge
of wastewater in the United Kingdom was under the control
of local catchment boards, river boards or other local
authorities. Under the Act, industry is required to
pay for the use of sewers for their discharges, but there
is no provision for payment for direct discharges to rivers.
Since the Act enables the attachment of strigent conditions
to permit for direct discharges, it offers industrial dis-
chargers the option of paying for sewer use or paying for
such treatment as is necessary for direct discharges.
j
Early public health acts in the United Kingdom assigned
responsibility for "wholesome" or potable drinking water
to local medical authorities, water companies or water
authorities. When the United Kingdom became signatory
to the EEO Directive on the Quality of Surface Water for
Abstraction for Drinking Water, assessment of quality became
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less subjective. Disinfection of sewage or sewage effluent
is required only in regard to treatment plants serving
hospitals dealing with infectious diseases.
In the United States, the Federal Water Pollution Control
Act Amendments of 1972 (P.L. 92-500) began a comprehensive
effort to "restore and maintain the chemical, physical,
and biological integrity of the Nation's waters". The
goals set by this Act are to achieve swimmable, fishable
waters wherever attainable by 1983, and to eliminate the
discharge of pollutants into navigable waters by 1985.
It is presumed in this legislation that ambient water quality
will be achieved by compliance with effluent limits for
pollution discharges. The Act, more recently called the
"Clean Water Act" with subsequent amendments, includes
a wide variety of provisions, among them:
Section 303, which requires the promulgation
of ambient water quality criteria for such uses
of water as swimming, aquatic life, and public
water supply intakes.
Section 402, which establishes the National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination System (NPDES), requiring
all point source dischargers of pollutants to
obtain NPDES permits.
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A requirement that all industries meet stringent
and comprehensive standards by 1983, using the
best available control technology economically
achievable (BAT).
Requirements that limitations be met for the
"priority" pollutants by July 1984.
Requirements that limitations be met for the
conventional pollutants (including, but limited
to BOD, suspended solids, acidity, fecal coliform)
be met by July 1984.
Requirements that limitations for other pollutant
be controlled within three years following the
promulgation of guidelines by EPA, but in any
case no later than July 1987.
A requirement that all municipal wastewater treatment
plants provide secondary treatment by July 1983.
Section 208, which established the Water Quality
Management Plan, a process for charting water
quality decision-making for a twenty-year period.
The effect of a Section 208 plan on the abatement
of point-source pollution will be felt through
its role in setting the conditions for individual
NPDES permits.
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Percentage of Reuse. It must be assumed that an increasing
degree of water reuse leads to a corresponding increase
in health risk. Therefore, in order to protect consumers,
the degree of reuse needs to be determined. In the United
States, degree of reuse has been calculated on the basis
of the proportion of wastewater-derived materials from
upstream discharges found in surface water supplies. In
the Federal Republic of Germany, chlorine consumption has
been used as a parameter for characterizing the organic
quality of reused water. In most European countries, attempts
have been made to define the degree of reuse on a volumetric
basis. Chloride concentrations have been used as indicators
of the degree of reuse, but examples of chloride concentrations
increasing during heavy rainfall are known, thus casting
doubt on the reliability of this measurement. Various
tracer techniques have also been tried, among them the
use of potassium dichrornate, lithium salts and radioactive
substances. More recently, total organic carbon and total
organic chlorine have been proposed as indicators of the
degree of reuse. Unfortunately, the latter parameter has
been known to reflect the degree of algal blooms rather
than the degree of reuse, since chloride may be assimilated
in the metabolism of the algae to produce an increase in
organic chlorine compounds. Boron appears to be a useful
tracer, in that there are very few natural sources, and
borates are widely used in detergents.
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Treatment Options. Treatment options for the reuse of
wastewater are as numerous as the different uses of recycled
water. This discussion is limited to two specific cases:
indirect reuse through ground water recharge, and direct
reuse for potable water production. In both cases, it
has been assumed that the water to be reused is of municipal
origin and has been subjected to classic primary and secondary
biological treatment in addition to treatment to remove heavy
metals.
Ground Water Recharge. The treatment before recharge outlined
varies from none at all to a combination of processes which
may include coagulation, flocculation, filtering, powdered
or granular activated carbon, nitrification, denitrification
and ozonation. The "no-treatment" option is considered only
for a high quality effluent, in limited circumstances, and
should be complemented by a fairly complex treatment when the
water is withdrawn. Other options depend on the quality of
the recharge water - amount of suspended matter, ammonia,
color, taste, odor, iron and manganese.
Direct Reuse. Since direct reuse for drinking purposes
has been practiced only rarely and on a small scale, general
recommendations remain largely theoretical. A wide variety
of treatment processes are available, and two general systems,
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a "semi-closed" circuit and a demineralization system,
can be considered. In the former, water is recycled until
the concentration of dissolved salts reaches limits fixed
by potability norms. Water from another source (with lower
concentration of dissolved salts) is combined with the
recycled water, and when the salt concentration is low
enough, the circuit is "re-closed".
Demineralization can be accomplished by reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, ion exchange or distillation. After demineral-
ization, the quality of the water must be corrected to
achieve potability. Partial remineralization and aeration
are essential. It should be noted that a direct reuse
plant cannot be designed a priori, but must be based on
pilot studies.
In any situation involving the reuse of wastewater to produce
drinking water, three basic problems must be considered:
o Water quality - technical and health aspects
o Psychological response
o Ecomonics.
Health Aspects of Water Reuse. Health risks from reused
water may be due to either microbiological or chemical
contaminants. The degree of risk is proportional to the
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degree of human exposure, so the most serious risk is that
associated with reuse for potable purposes. Because the
self-purication processes in natural water are highly
efficient for removal of microbiological and biodegradable
chemical contaminants, it is generally accepted that potential
health risks of direct reuse are higher than those of indirect
reuse unless adequate reliable treatment has been employed.
The microbiological contaminants of concern in wastewater
are pathogenic bacteria (Salmonella and Shigella), viruses
(polio, coxsackie, Echo, infectious hepatitis, etc.), and
parasites (amoeba, giardia, schistosoma). Viruses are
more resistant to inactivation by water and wastewater
treatment processes than are coliform bacteria, and this
fact, in addition to the difficulty in detecting viruses
at low concentrations, make viruses among the most difficult
problems associated with wastewater reuse. While studies
of advanced wastewater treatment show that pathogens,
including virus, can be removed, treatment for reuse
should contain a multiple safety barrier when potable reuse
is contemplated.
Disinfection by-products and the inadequacy of coliform
standards for reuse applications are problems which must
be solved before the microbiological quality of reused
water can be assured.
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Inorganic chemicals can usually be detected and removed
by available technology. However, only a small fraction
of the organic chemicals have been detected and quantified,
and only a smaller fraction have been evaluated for health
effects, From a practical point of view, it is impossible
to screen all individual organic compounds for toxicity.
Thus, either a data bank containing all available toxicity
data will have to be assembled, or renovated wastewater
will have to be assayed using test animals. Due to the
diversity and complexity of problems associated with the
health risk of organic contaminants in reclaimed water,
a close coordination of research on an international basis
is highly desirable.
Industrial Reuse. The water required for industrial purposes
can be classified into five general categories: boiler
feed water, process water, cooling water, service water
and potable water. Boiler feed water must have low concentrations
of organic substances and total dissolved solids, and for
high pressure steam the requirements are more stringent.
Process water requirements will vary with the process,
but in general, the contaminants of concern are those which
foul catalysts, end up in the final product, react with
raw materials, or cause scaling and corrosion of equipment.
Cooling water must be low in suspended solids, dissolved
VII-18
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solids and organic chemicals. Service water (used for
cleaning, flushing and cooling) must be low in organics
and chlorides. Potable water is usually required to meet
current drinking water regulations.
Industrial reuse system are either simple, where the renovated
wastewater is used once and then treated or discharged,
or sequential, where the same water may be used for several
purposes before being renovated or discharged. The chemical
and physical treatment processes for renovation include
primary settling, chemical classification, filtration,
activated carbon adsorption, ozonation, ammonia removal
and demineralization. Biological treatment includes biological
filters, activated sludge, stabilization ponds and disinfection,
Agricultural Reuse. Municipal waste water is preferred
for agricultural reuse, but the effluent from some industries
can also be suitable. Besides the irrigation of croplands
and pasture, effluents can be used for irrigation of parks,
golf courses, etc. The critical contaminants affecting
soil properties are settleable solids, sodium and exchangeable
cations. The critical contaminants (both beneficial and
adverse) affecting plants are plant nutrients, dissolved
solids, salinity, heavy metals and boron.
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Pathogenic organisms in municipal waste water may contaminate
crops, present a health hazard when the effluent is sprayed,
and can introduce parasites into animals which feed on
irrigated pasture land.
Public Acceptance of Renovated Waste Water. Studies conducted
in the United States indicate that acceptance of reclaimed
water depends on the particular use intended and the intimacy
of contact. The closer the contact, the lower the acceptance
rate. Approximately 50% of those surveyed would not accept
reused water for drinking or cooking, but there are variations
in response in different regions and on the bases of education,
income and other demographic variables. The most significant
factors were public knowledge and education. The results
of these studies indicate that a "sealer" approach might
be helpful - use of renovated water would start with passive
recreational uses and gradually progress to more intimate
contact uses.
Case Studies.
I. Porsuk River, Turkey. This surface water supply
is polluted by discharges from a fertilizer factory,
a sugar house, a slaughter house, and a municipality.
The city of Eskisehir needs additional water
resources for a potable water supply. None
of the waste discharges to the river receive
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treatment, and the most serious problem is that
of ammonia in the wastes from the fertilizer
factory. Ammonia is oxidized to nitrite and
nitrate in the river.
The solution: The waste discharges are treated
by conventional primary and secondary treatment.
Rather than attempt treatment of the fertilizer
factory wastes, the ammonia-rich effluent is
disposed of by land application as a fertilizer.
During periods of no fertilizer requirement,
the effluent is lagooned. The river water receives
conventional water plant treatment at Eskisehir.
II. Ruhr Valley, Federal Republic of Germany. The
Ruhr river is a major source of drinking water
for the areas, but is heavily contaminated with
industrial and municipal discharges.
The solution: The individual communities construct
and operate sewer systems, while the "Ruhrverband"
is responsible for treatment facilities. The
river water is purified by instream aeration
and by recharge basins and infiltration galleries.
The recharge basins refine water to potable quality
by mechanical and biochemical processes. Prior
to recharge, filtration and cascade aeration
may be employed.
III. Thames River, United Kingdom. Water for London
is taken near the estuary, and there are many
municipal and industrial discharges up river.
Water is pumped into reservoirs for storage before use
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The solution: The extent of reuse is calculated
on the basis of boron content of sewage effluent
and abstracted water. Boron (from synthetic
detergents) appears to be unaffected by sewage
treatment, passage down river, or by water treatment.
Average reuse is maintained at approximately
13%.
IV. United Kingdom. A severe drought occurred in
1975-76. In many cases, river flows were maintained
only be effluent inputs. After the dry period,
a heavy rainfall occurred. The effects of these
occurrences on water quality were of concern.
Results: Surprisingly, water quality remained
good during the drought period. Apparently,
the low flows and high temperatures resulted
in denitrification, increased biological activity,
reduced phosphate and, combined with the clarity
of the rivers, reduced coliform counts. Evidence
of exchange taking place between obvious surface
flow of some rivers, and the concealed, but not
inconsiderable, flows in gravels of the river bed
allowed quality changes to be less severe than had
been expected. This possible effect should be taken
into account when degree of reuse is being considered,
Water Resources Management. This report has described
the present trends in water resources management; it has
not in any way tried to establish a universal management
system.
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PROTOCOL DEVELOPMENT: CRITERIA AND STANDARDS
FOR POTABLE REUSE AND FEASIBLE ALTERNATIVES
F. A. BELL AND J. A. COTRUVO, U.S.A.
A repeated question for the last 20 to 30 years has been,
"Since we treat wastewater to such high quality, why throw
it away, why not put it to potable uses?" This question
when joined to increasing problems of water shortage, provides
a real atmosphere for considering the reuse of wastewater.
However, at this time, methods have not been devised and
accepted widely to determine the acceptability of reuse
water for potable purposes. National standards for drinking
water quality are based on the use of raw waters from the
best source and are inadequate for wastewater. In addition,
factors of time and dilution provide a degree of protection
for existing water supplies against the acute threats of
chemical spills, a protection which may not be present
in potable reuse schemes. Consequently the development
of potable reuse criteria and standards emerges as an important
national objective. Further, elements of various federal
legislation, including the Safe Drinking Water Act, provide
for attention to the health implications involved in the
reclamation, recycling, and reuse of wastewaters for drinking.
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Development of actual criteria and standards for potable
reuse involves the consideration of acceptable risks, economics
and other practical considerations as well as the scientific
and engineering aspects. Consequently such development
is a policy determination in the final analysis. However,
development of a basic protocol for answering the scientific
and engineering questions is a scientific and technical
matter. For this latter purpose, EPA called together the
most expert, talented and knowledgeable people in the pertinent
scientific and engineering disciplines to plan, present
and participate in this workshop.
The purpose of the meeting was not to develop specific
criteria and standards but to provide guidance with respect
to approaches, problems, solutions and needed research
for establishing a pathway to protocol development for
potable reuse criteria and standards and for consideration
of non-potable options. Approximately 110 people representing
a wide range of scientific and technical expertise and
coming from diverse institutional backgrounds, federal,
state, and local governments, consulting, professional
associations, academic, manufacturing, private and environmental
organizations — participated and assisted with the work
of this meeting.
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Statement of Concerns
An analysis of the various perspectives and factors relating
to potable reuse and feasible alternatives demonstrates
several general areas of concern:
Divergent philosophies can provide a substantial area for
debate whenever potable reuse is considered. One side
which suggests a hierarchy of water use says, "Let's give
priority attention to the cleanest sources, let's exhaust
non-potable options before considering potable reuse.
In fact let's give such attention to preventive public
health that potable reuse will not be considered until
all other options including conservation, dual water systems,
etc. are exhausted."
Another philosophy sets forth definitional problems. It
says, "Look, we already have reuse in many major cities
through polluted surface water streams; so why don't we
say so —why don't we just admit it and start defining
potable reuse the same as indirect reuse from a river,
for example". This approach goes on to make the point
that current advanced wastewater treatment (AWT) technology
already produces effluents which exceed national primary
drinking water standards. The consequence of this approach
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would be to approve direct potable reuse quickly with the
addition of a few monitoring and operation and maintenance
requirements.
Other philosophical variations on water reuse have been
articulated but possible pathways for solution must be
charted through these sometimes opposing philosophies.
Economic and social considerations will always be important
to decisions about potable reuse but should not necessarily
affect the scientific and engineering aspects of protocol
development for potable reuse criteria and standards.
While various studies have shown the national need for
potable reuse to be less than one percent, there are still
limited areas where the need for potable reuse would be
intense.
In such cases of intense economic need for potable reuse,
non-potable options are often considered either too unwiedly
or expensive to accomplish or development of new fresh
water sources and/or conservation options are unacceptable.
A series of institutional and legal blocks such as water
rights law, may also act to prevent the utilization of
options other than potable reuse or may negate reuse as
i
a viable option.
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A second strain of considerations have to do with the social
acceptability of potable reuse. A variety of studies and
papers have addressed this subject: these were summarized
in one of the introductory papers to this meeting.
Public health protection in the application of planned
direct reuse and in existing indirect reuse situations
represented the keystone for meeting deliberations. Since
many indirect reuse situations already exist and require
no fresh decisions at this time, the meeting was principally
focussed on problems relating to possible new potable reuse
ventures including groundwater recharge and various engineering
schemes for accomplishing potable reuse. Areas of concern
in criteria and standards development are outlined as follows:
Chemistry
A principal concern related to the definition of inorganic
and organic chemicals present in the raw source wastewater
and for assessing the impact on criteria and standards
development from the known and unknown components. The
limitations and potentials of analytical and monitoring
technology to provide needed information including possible
surrogate methods and conjunctive use of a series of measure-
ments, requires exploration. Chemical removal perspectives
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regarding various treatment schemes must also be addressed.
With particular reference to unknown organic fractions,
the availability and/or potential development of acceptable
concentration schemes to provide materials for toxicological
testing ranks as a key interdisciplary matter with the
toxicologist. Finally, the impact of water treatment chemicals
in forming toxic by-products (such as chlorine) and possible
uses of alternates should be considered.
Toxicology
The broad scope of acute and chronic health effects as
related to known chemicals in wastewater and their impact
on criteria and standards development requires exploration.
Means, including in vivo, in vitro and combination/surrogate
testing, of defining the toxicity potential of unknown
organic fractions ranks as a number one priority. Epidemiology
aspects also should be considered.
Microbiology
The potential health threat of the various microbiological
factors - viruses, bacteria, parasites - through potable
reuse requires examination. The potential impact of treatment
technology in meeting microbiological objectives must be
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considered along with the potential for using alternate
disinfectants to chlorine. The validity of traditional
indicators and possible schemes for development of micro-
biological criteria and standards for potable reuse must
be addressed.
Engineering
Engineering deals with the various physical schemes (direct
once through; direct repeated recycling; simulated indirect
reuse, etc.) for processing wastewater for possible potable
reuse: the strengths and weaknesses of these schemes and
their potential impact on criteria and standards development
need to be addressed. Monitoring and process control and
means of assuring reliability of plant performance require
examination. The role of source control to regulate wastewater
quality should be considered. Finally, the important role
of pilot plant testing for various approaches must be examined
as a key factor in criteria and standards development.
Groundwater Recharge
Feasible ways for accomplishing groundwater recharge (deep
well injection; surface spreading and infiltration; the
dedicated basin approach, etc.) require definition along
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with their potential impacts on contaminant transformations
and on criteria and standards development. Source control,
monitoring, and process control should be addressed. Finally,
any unique strengths or weaknesses of groundwater recharge
with respect to the development or implementation of potable
reuse criteria and standards are very important.
Non-Potable Options
Represent an important means by which public water supplies
can expand their total availability of water for domestic
use. The feasible non-potable options together with criteria
for decision making regarding potable/non-potable options
needs to be addressed. A review of health/aesthetic criteria
and standards for non-potable options together with considera-
tion of further need for governmental action is most important.
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KEY FINDINGS OF THE WORKSHOPS
The following findings represent the key ideas and approaches
emanating from the six technical issues papers and work
group deliberations:
Toxicology
Prevention of toxic effects from inorganic, radiologic
and particulate substances can generally be handled by
setting Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) and by application
of appropriate treatment technology. However the control
of effects from organic substances presents more serious
problems. Where adequate information is available on specific
organics of concern, additional MCLs should be set by EPA.
With respect to the non-MCL and unknown organic fractions
a two-fold approach is recommended:
1. Concentrate studies with mixed organics: concentrate
studies should be performed on not only the proposed
reuse water but also on a series of controls
—unconcentrated distilled water and organics
concentrated from a relatively pure ground water
source and from a municipal system known to be
subject to municipal, industrial and agricultural
pollution. The organics in the water should
be concentrated 1000-fold and the concentrate
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should represent the organics originally present
and not be subject to serious chemical or other
transformations. Toxicity tests should be conducted
for subchronic effects, chronic effects, teratogenicity,
reproduction, mutagenicity and immune system
effects. Animal tests would be conducted by
oral ingestion or gavage.
Results of the concentrate studies would provide
the responsible governmental offices with an
important segment of basic data for the acceptance
or rejection of waters proposed for potable reuse
or to require the provision of additional treatment
prior to the retesting.
2. A second set of basic data would be provided
by epidemiologic studies. This data should be
integrated with toxicologic data wherever possible
during decision-making processes.
The highest research and development priority
was assigned to the provision of a representative
organic concentrate for use in toxicological
testing. The technique would have to be capable
of concentrating thousands of gallons per day
in order to provide enough material for the toxicology
tests.
Chemistry
Specific analytical methods exist for 114 specific organic
priority pollutants and for other designated organic contamin-
VII-32
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ants in drinking water. Careful systems of analytical
quality control have been established for these contaminant
analyses. However, many more specific organic contaminants
remain without systematic methodology or quality control
procedures.
The available chemical data base for reuse waters remains
sparse and is not well documented. Information about non-
volatile compounds is almost non-existent and many other
organic compounds have been identified but not adequately
quantitated. Major effort should be made to examine the
unknown or inadequately identified organic fractions including
broad spectrum analytical protpcols and liquid chromatographic
screening methods for non-volatile pollutants. The data
base requires development and evaluation with respect to
variability in source water concentrations, treatment process
removal efficiencies and concentrations delivered to the
consumer. Monitoring and computer access of the data base
needs to be developed.
Non-specific organic analyses can be defined in terms of
specific goals — as surrogate parameters; as aides in
unit process design; for monitoring unit processes; and
for plant operational control. Currently no surrogate
parameters can be suggested as a substitute for specific
VII-33
-------
organic constituents of health concern but the total organic
halogens method appears to hold the most promise. However,
in the next ten years, non-specific procedures in conjunction
with chromatographic profiles will need to be used for
operational monitoring and control. Specific analyses
would be conducted as a part of the basic chemical characteriza-
tion or to check excursions in the non-specific data.
In terms of preparing organic concentrates, there is currently
no single procedure that is capable of concentrating all
of the organics for optimum toxicity testing. A system
to remove and concentrate different organic groups by varying
techniques was considered so that a representative sample
could be made available to the toxicologist. A scheme
for development and evaluation is suggested as follows:
Isolate volatiles - use purge and trap -
analyze and reconstitute
isolate non-polar and low molecular weight
organics - use XAD-2 resin
- Isolate humics and polars - use XAD-8 or
reverse osmosis
Isolate humics and others - use reverse
osmosis
Isolate intermediate molecular weight range -
methods need development.
VII-34
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Since a number of complexing factors such as artifacts,
concentrate stability, organic-inorganic interface, overlap
and the like, may be present, these approaches should be
carefully evaluated in parallel and in series.
Basic information about inorganic chemicals in reuse water
is more complete than for organics and a monitoring strategy
for inorganic chemicals could be developed which would
meet public health objectives. A mathematical analysis
of repeated reuse recycling demonstrates that an infinite
concentration for some unknown constitutent would not occur
but that such a buildup would be subject to a steady state
situation depending principally on the chemical input during
each recycle, the percent removed in treatment and the
degree (percent) of recycle.
Microbiology
Proposals for direct potable reuse require a complete reevalua-
tion of the means for biological control. There should
be no detectable pathogenic agents in potable reuse water.
Potable reuse requires stricter microbiological standards
than the current national coliform MCLs but specific criteria
for viruses, protozoa, helminths and some bacteria are
VII-35
-------
impracticable because of varying source water densities
and because of inadequacies in their detection and enumeration
methods.
Available treatment technology appears to be capable of
meeting any microbiological requirements but this does
not remove the need for analytical confirmatory data nor
the need to insure operational integrity of treatment systems.
Reliable monitoring must be available and vigorously used.
Research recommendations include developing better information
on disinfection, developing or improving analytical methods
for viruses, protozoa, helminths and some bacteria in water,
better definition of microbiological characteristics of
raw wastewaters and to other elements which would support
a satisfactory program for implementing potable reuse.
Engineering
Areas considered in workshop deliberations included: quality
of source; storage prior to treatment; specification of
treatment processes and design criteria; process redundancy
requirements; parameters affecting plant process control
and operation; types and frequencies of sampling and monitoring
for plant control; storage of treated water prior to use
VII-36
-------
(recharge or surface reservoir); operation and maintenance
criteria.
In considering the various available treatment schemes
and approaches, it was felt that treatment technology does
not appear to be a limiting factor and that maximum flexibility
should be allowed in treatment schemes and designs so that
the most cost effective approaches can be implemented which
will meet health requirements, including fail-safe operation.
One set of standards should be applied to all drinking
waters regardless of source. However, because present
national drinking water standards are incomplete for potable
reuse waters the expanded potable reuse criteria should
include:
- monitoring of source quality, the frequency
to vary with source quality.
the setting of limiting concentrations,
providing for acceptance or rejection of
the water at various points in the treatment
^ process to be determined on a case-by-case
basis.
- provision for pilot plant studies to determine
treatment and reliability requirements prior
to plant design.
VII-37
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Storage of treatment plant influent can be advantageous
for flow equalization, blending, plant reliability, spill
mitigation or for other reasons. Protected storage of
plant effluent can be helpful in providing lead time for
monitoring and controlled diversion in the event of plant
breakdown.
Operating and maintenance criteria are critical. Operation
and maintenance and operator training manuals should be
provided prior to plant start-up. Separate operator certifica-
tion programs for a new class of potable reuse plant operators
should be considered along with specific minimum qualifications
for plant operators and supervisory personnel.
Thorough characterization of potential source waters for
potable reuse was a major research recommendation involving:
Source waters for evaluation should be selected
from water short areas and priority attention
should be given to imminent need locations.
- The characterization of source waters should
be accomplished by using the limits of measure-
ment technology as contrasted to measuring
only drinking water MCLs and the listed
priority pollutants.
VII-38
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Multiple samplings should be performed to
establish frequency of occurrence variability
and calculated ranges over time for the
various contaminants.
Groundwater Recharge
Important benefits can be obtained by groundwater recharge.
In addition to providing an economical means of storage
with reduced evapotranspiration, subsurface passage removes
some contaminants and retards in the movement of others,
by means of filtration, biodegradation, volatilization,
sorption, chemical precipitation, and ion exchange. Its
use as part of a scheme to produce potable reuse water
is encouraged.
With respect to the transport and transformation of contaminants
in the subsurface environment, the following table summarizes
the current state-of-knowledge with respect to the ability
to predict impacts of groundwater recharge projects in
such a way as to protect the resource for future use.
This table obviously pinpoints organic and virus aspects
as requiring priority research attention.
VII-39
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Contaminant Class Adequate Knowledge
Yes No
Major cations and anions X
Particulates X
Nutrients (N&P) X
Metals (X)
Organics (X)
Microbiological pathogens
bacteria and protozoa (X)
viruses (X)
(The enclosing parentheses indicate that the categorization
is especially subject to uncertainity.)
A combination of pre-recharge treatment and natural groundwater
basin treatment can be used to minimize the need for treatment
after extraction. Various treatment-recharge-treatment
schemes are possible especially in a dedicated basin mode,
but any scheme involving the application of waters containing
certain classes of contaminants, the behavior of which
in the subsurface environment is not adequately understood,
should be tried only for research and demonstration purposes.
All ground water recharge projects must be adequately monitored
to confirm performance within appropriate design criteria
and standards.
VII-40
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Non-Potable Options
In the United States there are now more than 500 successful
wastewater reuse projects utilizing non-potable options:
such options are the preferred method of reuse and should
be considered in the decision-making process before the
potable reuse option. However, a variety of steps need
to be taken before non-potable options can be given maximum
utilization:
- Non-potable options should be considered
as a part of the overall water resource
in terms of planning and implementing major
projects.
Water reuse is included in the legislation,
regulations and programs of several federal
agencies: a better coordination and focus
should be provided in the federal government.
- Industrial recycling has perhaps the greatest
volume potential for reuse and should be
encouraged through federal support of engineering
studies regarding optimum water recycling
within each of the major water using industries.
Consistent and comprehensive national public
health guidance should be provided for the
various categories of non-potable use.
VII-41
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A manual of current practice should be developed
based upon existing experience regarding
the design, operation and maintenance of
reuse systems.
A comprehensive informational guide on the
economics and financing of reuse systems
should be prepared and disseminated.
VII-42
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KEY MEETING CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of the various workshops, and the
ideas and approaches advanced by the various speakers,
panelists and other participants, the key meeting conclusions
and recommendations are summarized as follows:
1. One Set of Drinking Water Standards.
Since many surface waters are indirectly polluted
with wastewater a single set of standards should
be developed for application to all waters regardless
of source. However, it was recognized that present
national drinking water standards are incomplete
for potable reuse, so that decision-making for ,
potable reuse required additional research and
investigation. Supplementary criteria are also
needed for monitoring operational reliability
and limiting concentrations for determining acceptance/
rejection at various treatment points.
2. Characterization of Potential Reuse Source Waters.
Since the data base is sparse, a thorough character-
ization of potential source waters, giving priority
attention to imminent-need areas, for chemical
and microbiological constitutents should be accom-
plished. The characterizations using all available
analytical methodology as contrasted to measuring
only priority pollutants and the like, should
VII-43
-------
be performed as multiple samplings to establish
frequency of occurrence, variability and calculated
ranges over time for the various contaminants.
Unknown Organic Chemical Components.
A substantial portion of the organic content
of wastewaters is either entirely unknown or
inadequately quantitated. Information about
non-volatile compounds is almost non-existent.
Major effort should be made to examine the unknown
or inadequately identified organic fractions,
including monitoring broad spectrum analytical
protocols, liquid chromatographic screening methods
for non-volatile pollutants and development of
a data base which can be readily accessed.
Toxicology Concentrate Studies.
With respect to delineating the unknown chemical
components and the assemblage of a satisfactory
data base, it was felt that this may prove to
be the work of more than one lifetime: toxicology/
concentrate studies may prove to be the logical
tool for decision-making instead of complete
chemical analyses and synergistic studies. Specific-
ally, a 1000-fold mixed organic concentrate from
the potential reuse water, along with three controls
would be used for comprehensive toxicological
testing. However, no single concentration procedure
is capable of concentrating all of the organics;
several schemes along with a potential list of
complexing factors are suggested as priority
items for investigation and evaluation. This
VII-44
-------
area obviously is one that should receive continuing
attention from toxicologists, chemists, and decision-
makers.
Microbiological Requirements.
Current treatment technology appears to be capable
of meeting any microbiological requirements but
this does not remove the need for analytical
confirmatory data nor the need to insure operational
integrity of treatment systems. Any train of
treatment elements, selected to meet microbiological
requirements on a case-by-case basis, should
be backed-up by reliable monitoring, using available
methodology, for the key microbiological factors
and this monitoring should be rigorously applied.
There should be no detectable pathogenic agents
in the potable reuse water.
Groundwater Recharge.
Important benefits, including storage, reduction
of contaminants and others can be obtained by
groundwater recharge and its use as part of a
potable reuse scheme is encouraged. Various
treatment-recharge-treatment schemes are possible,
especially in a dedicated basin mode, but any
steps which might result in increased contamination
of the groundwater should be tried only for research
and demonstration purposes.
Non-Potable Reuse Options.
In the decision-making process, non-potable options
VII-45
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should be considered ahead of potable reuse and
should be factored into overall water resource
planning and implementation programs. A strengthened
federal focus needs to be provided for water
reuse activities and consistent and comprehensive
national public health guidance should be developed
for the various categories of non-potable reuse.
VII-46
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AREA V
PARTICIPANTS
CANADA
FEDERAL
REPUBLIC OF
GERMANY
Dr. G. C. Becking
Environmental Health Centre
Health and Welfare, Canada
Tunney's Pasture
Ottawa
Ontario KIA 062
Dr. Peter Toft
Health and Welfare, Canada
Tunney's Pasture
Ottawa
Ontario KIA 062
Klaus Imhoff
Ruhrverband/Ruhrtalsperrenuerein
Kronpr intenstrasse
4300 Essen
Dr. Wolfgang Kuhn
Engler-Bunte-Institut, Bereich
Wasserchemie, Universitat Karlsruhe
Postfach 6380, D-7500 Karlsruhe 1
Werner Muschack
Federal Environmental Agency
Bismarkplatz 1
D 1000 Berlin 33
B. Axel Szelinski
Federal Environmental Agency
Bismarkplatz 1
D 1000 Berlin 33
Dr. Heinrich Sontheimer
University of Karlsruhe
Institute of Water Chemistry
75 Karlsruhe 1
Richard-Willstatter-Alee 5
Postfach Nr. 6380
VII-47
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FRANCE
GREECE
ISRAEL
ITALY
NETHERLANDS
Mr. G. Devillers
Sindicat Professionnel des Distributeurs
d'Eau
S .L «E.E.
27 rue de la Liberte
78230 Le Pecq
F. Fiessinger
Societe Lyonnaise des Eaux
45 rue Cortambert 75769
Paris Cedex 76
Dr. Cyril Gomella
S.E.T.U.D.E., 27 Boulevard des Italiens
F-75002
Paris
Dr. Yves Richard
Degremont Traitement des Eaux
P.B. 46
F-92151
Suresnes
D. Versanne
Compaynie Generale des Eaux
3 rue Dufey
76100
Rouen
Dr. A. Bousoulengas
Scientific Research and Technology Agency
Vassileos Constantinou 48
Athens 501
Dr. Alberto Wachs
Israel Institute of Technology
Technion City
Haifa
Mr. A. C. DiPinto
Institute di Recerca Sulle Acqua
Via Reno 1
Roma
Dr. H. Hoffman
C/0 Dr. B. C. J. Zoeteman
National Institute for Water Supply
P. O. Box 150
Leidschendam
VII-48
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NETHERLANDS
(Cont.)
SPAIN
SWEDEN
TURKEY
Dr. J. Hrubec
National Institute for Water Supply
Chemical Biological Division
P.O. Box 150
AD 2260
Leidschendam
Dr. Albert Urtiago
Centro de Investigaciones del Agua
La Poveda
Arganda del Rey
Madrid
Dr. Tore Stenstrom
Department of Environmental Hygiene
The National Swedish Environmental Protection
Board, FACK
S-10401
Stockholm
Mr. Kadri Hal
Imar ve Iskan Bakanligi
Planlama ve Imar Genel Mudur Yardicisi
Demirtepe
Ankar
Erdal Orbay
UNITED
KINGDOM
Timuciu Turner
Dr. Albert Goodman
Department of the Environment
2 Marsham Street
London SWIP 3 FB
R. White
UNITED
STATES
Dr. Russell Christman
Department of Environmental Science and
Engineering
School of Public Health
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27514
Henry Ongerth
California Dept. of Health
2151 Berkeley Way
Berkeley, California 94704
VII-49
-------
UNITED Gordon Robeck
STATES MERL — OS EPA
(Cont.) 26 W. St. Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
VII-50
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AREA V
LIST OF WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS
Roy A. Ackerman
ASTRE
Post Office Box 5072
Charlottesville, Va. 22905
(804) 977-0425
Ms. Ann Alford
Environmental Research Lab.
College Station Road
Athens, Ga. 30605
(404) 546-3525
Raymond Anderson
Division of Water Supplies
201 West Preston Street
Baltimore, Md. 20201
(301) 383-4249
David Argo
Asst. Mgr. & Chief Engineer
Orange County Water District
10500 Ellis Avenue
Post Office Box 8300
Fountain Valley, Cal. 92708
(714) 963-5661/556-8260
Ms. Jean Auer
Environmental Defense Fund
1325 Avendale Road
Billsborough, Cal. 94010
(415) 347-2025
James V. Basilico (RD-681)
Waste Management Division
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 426-4567
Elmer W. Akin
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7383
Dr. Julian Andelman
Professor of Water Chemistry
University of Pittsburgh
Graduate School of Public
Health
Pittsburgh, Pa. 15261
(412) 624-3313
Richard Arber
CH,M Hill
PoSt Office Box 22508
Denver, Col. 80222
(303) 771-0900
Dr. Takashi Asano
Office of Water Recycling
Post Office Box 100
Sacramento, Cal. 95801
(916) 924-2743
Dr. David Axelrod
Commissioner of Health
New York State Dept. of Health
Empire State Plaza
Albany, New York 12237
(518) 474-6936
Thomas D. Bath
225 M Street Northwest
Suite 504
Washington, D.C. 20001
(202) 293-6190
VII-51
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Duane Bauman
Department of Geography
Southern Illinois University
Carbondale, 111. 62901
(618) 536-3375
Thomas Bellar
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7311
Olin Braids
Geraghty and Miller, Inc.
6800 Jericho Turnpike
Syosset, New York 11791
(516) 921-6060
Dr. George Braude (HFF-424)
Food and Drug Administration
200 "C" Street Southwest
(202) 245-1152
Timothey Brodeur
Environmental Science and
Engineering, Inc.
Post Office Box ESE
Gainsville, Fla. 32602
(904) 372-3318
Edward Bryan
Directorate for Engineering
and Applied Science
National Science Foundation
Washington, D.C. 20550
(202) 347-7491
Dr. W. Dickinson Burrows
U.S. Army Medical Bioengineering
Research and Development Lab
Environmental Protection
Research Division
Ft. Detrick, Md. 21701
(301) 663-7207
Mr. Frank Bell (WH-550)
(Co-Chairman)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 382-3036
Dr. Wayne A. Bough,
Manager, Tech. Services
Special Products, Inc.
Post Office Box 1837 S.S.S.
Springfield, Missouri 65805
(417) 865-9641
Mr. Herb Brass
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-4431
Franz J. J. Brinkmann
Chemical Biological Division
National Institute for Water
Washington, D.C. 20204 Supply
Postbus 150
2260 AD Leidschendam
The Netherlands
Richard Brooks
Boeing Aerospace
505 Cypress Point Dr., #212
Mountain View, Cal. 94043
(415) 969-8831
Dr. Richard Bull
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7213
John Capito
Virginia Department of Health
109 Govenor Street
Richmond, Va. 23219
(804) 286-1766
VII-52
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Deh Bin Chan
U.S. Navy Civil
Engineering Laboratory
Code L54
Port Hueneme, Cal. 93043
(805) 982-4191/4173
Mr. William Cooper
Associate Professor
Drinking Water Quality
Research Center
Florida International Univer.
Tamiami Campus
Miami, Florida 33199
(305) 554-2826
Dr. Joseph A. Cotruvo (WH-550)
(Co-Chairman)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20450
(202) 474-5016
Mr. Russell Culp
Culp/Wesner/Culp
Post Office Box 40
El Dorado Hills, Cal. 95603
(916) 677-1695
Kenneth DeGraw
American Standard, Inc.
Wayne, New Jersey 07470
(201) 595-4484
Franklin D. Dryden
Vice President & General Mgr.
PRC Toups Corporation
Post Office Box 5367
972 Town and Country Road
Orange, Cal. 92667
(714) 835-4447
John English
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7613
James Clise
10132 South 3265 W
South Jordan, Utah
Steven Cordle (WH-682)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 426-0146
James Coulter
Department of Natural Resources
State of Maryland
Tawes State Office Building
Annapolis, Md. 21401
(301) 269-3041
Ms. Sheila D. David
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Ave., NW
Washington, D.C. 20418
(202) 389-6785
Mr. Jack DeMarco
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7209
Dr. Richard S. Englebrecht
3230 Civil Engineering Bldg.
University of Illinois
at U-C
Urbana, 111. 61801
(217) 333-3822
Lloyd C. Fowler
Goleta County Water District
Post Office Box 788
Goleta, Cal. 93017
(805) 964-6761
VII-53
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John M. Gaston
Chief, Sanitary Engineering
Section
State of California
Health and Welfare Division
Department of Health
2151 Berkeley Way
Berkeley, Cal. 94704
(415) 540-2154
Michael B. Georgeson
141 Parkside Circle
American Fork, Utah 84003
(801) 533-4207
Jerry Gilbert
Jerry Gilbert & Associates
723 "S" Street
Sacramento, Cal. 95814
Henry Graeser
Black & Veatch Engineers
Post Office Box 402004
Dallas, Texas 75240
(214) 386-0001
Hugh Hanson (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(201) 382-3034
William H. Hassett
SCS Engineers
11800 SurTrise Valley Drive
Reston, Va. 22091
(703) 471-6150
Dr. Charles Hendricks (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 426-0812
Mr. Ed Geldreich
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 94704
(513) 684-7232
Dr. Charles Gerba
Department of Virology and
and Epidemiology
Baylor College of Medicine
Houston, Texas 77030
(713) 790-4443
Dr. William Glaze
Professor of Chemistry
Post Office Box 13078
North Texas Station
Denton, Texas 76203
(817) 788-2694
Mr. Carl Harmann
Post Office Box 428
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
(503) 757-1498
Robert H. Harris
Council for Environmental
Quality
722 Jackson Place Northwest
Washington, D.C. 20006
(301) 869-7839
Richard Beaton
AWWA Research Foundation
666 West Qunicy Avenue
Denver, Colo. 80235
(303) 794-7711
Archibald Hill
Department of Chemical
Engineering
Louisiana Tech University
P.O. Box 4875 Tech Station
Ruston, Louisiana 71272
(318) 257-4077
VII-54
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Jack Hoffbuhr
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
900 Lincoln Tower Building
1860 Lincoln Street
Denver, Colorado 80203
(303) 837-2731
Riley D. Houseright
National Academy of Sciences
2101 Constitution Avenue NW
Washington, D.C. 20418
(202) 389-6747
Charles C. Johnson
C.C. Johnson & Associates
11510 Georgia Avenue
Suite 220
Silver Spring, Md. 20902
(301) 942-5600
Dr. Michael Kavanaugh
James M. Montgomery Engineers
5020 Overlook Avenue Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20032
(202) 767-5155
Thomas Klaseus
Minnesota Dept. of Health
717 Delaware Street Southeast
Minneapolis, Minnesota 55440
(612) 296-5227
Dr. K. Daniel Lindstedt
Campus Box 428
Boulder, Colorado 80309
(303) 492-7315
Weile Borne
Los Angeles County
Sanitation Districts
1955 Workman Mill Road
Post Office Box 4998
Whittier, Cal. 90607
(213) 699-7411
Walter Jakubowski
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
Health Effects Research Lab,
ADB, ED
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7385
Dr. Robert Jolley
Advanced Technology Station
Chemical Technology Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Post Office Box "X"
Oak Ridge, Tenn. 37830
(615) 574-6838
Jack Keeley
Robert S. Kerr Environmental
Research Laboratory
Post Office Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
(405) 332-8800
Dr. Fred Kopfler
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair Street
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7451
Robert Mandancy
Department of the Interior
OWRT
Washington, D.C. 20240
(202) 343-6481
VII-55
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Charles R. Malone
National Academy of Science
2101 Constitution Avenue
Washington, D.C. 20418
(202) 389-6785
Perry McCarty
Department of Civil Engineering
Stanford, Cal. 94305
(415) 497-3921
Kenneth Miller
CH,,M Hill
Post Office Box 22508
Denver, Colo. 80222
(303) 771-0900
Stanton S. Miller
Environmental Science and
Technology Magazine
1155 Sixteenth Street NW
Washington, D.C. 20036
(202) 872-4581
Margaret Nellor
County Sanitation Districts
of Los Angeles County
Post Office Box 4998
Whittier, Cal. 90607
(213) 699-7411
James A. Oliva
County of Nassau
Department of Public Works
Mineola, New York 11501
(516) 679^9000
Henry Ongerth
905 Contra Costa Avenue
Berkeley, Cal. 94707
(415) 525-9385
Robert 0. Mankes
Purecycle Corporation
1668 Valter Lane
Boulder, Colorado 80302
(303) 449-6530
B. J. Miller
State Water Resources Control
Stanford University Board
Post Office Box 100
Sacramento, Cal. 95801
(916) 445-0922
Raymond C. Miller
General Manager/Secretary
South Coast County Water
District
31592 West Street
South Laguna, Cal. 92677
(714) 499-4555
Dr. Robert A. Neal
Department of Biochemistry
Vanderbilt University School
of Medicine
Nashville, Tenn. 37232
Daniel Okun
School of Public Health
(201-H)
University of North Carolina
Chapel Hill, NC 27514
(919) 966-1023
Dr. Vincent Oliver!
Assistant Professor
The Johns Hopkins University
School of Public Health
615 North Wolfe Street
Baltimore, Md. 21205
(301) 955-3602
Herbert Pahren
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7217
VII-56
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Vincent Patton
Public Utilities Department
City of St. Petersburg
Post Office Box 2842
St. Petersburg, Fla. 33731
(813).893-7261
Mr. James Prieur
Building 12
Energy & Environmental Systems
Argonne National Laboratories
Argonne, 111. 60439
(312) 972-7474
Dr. Roy H. Reuter
Life Systems, Inc.
24755 Highpoint Road
Cleveland, Ohio 44122
Dr. Paul Roberts
Environmental Engineering
and Science
Stanford University
Stanford, Cal. 94305
(415) 497-1073
John Robertson (MS-410)
U.S. Geological Survey
National Center
Reston, Virginia 22092
(703) 860-6976
Gloria Ruggerio (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
Dr. Wesley 0. Pipes
Department of Biological
Science
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pa. 19104
(215) 895-2631/2624
John Repoff
Reedy Creek Improvement Dist,
Environmental Protection
Dept.
Post Office Box 36
Lake Buena Vista, Fla. 32830
(305) 828-2034
David J. Ringel
Orange & Los Angeles County
Water Reuse Study
Metropolitan Water District
(216) 464-3291 of Southern
California
Post Office Box 54153
Los Angeles, Cal. 90054
(213) 623-4572
Jill I. Robertson
SCS Engineers
11800 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, Virginia 22091
(703) 620-3677
Michael J. Rose
USDA Technical
Facilities, Equipment, and
Sanitation Div.
12th & Independence Ave.
SW
Washington, D.C. 20250
(202) 447-4161
Gilberto Saday Ramos
San Bernabe No. 549
San Jeronimo-Lidice
Mexico 20, D.F.
Mexico
768-42-11
VII-57
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Richard Sauer (SE3)
National Aeronautics and
Space Administration
Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
Houston, Texas 77058
(713) 483-2759
Curtis J. Schmidt
SCS Engineers
4014 Long Beach Boulevard
Long Beach, Cal. 90807
(213) 426-9544
Dr. Donald M. Shilesky
SCS Engineers
11800 Sunrise Valley Drive
Reston, Va. 22091
(703) 620-3677
Michael Sliraak (WH-553)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 426-2503
Alan Stevens
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
26 West Saint Clair
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7342
Richard Thomas
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 426-8976
Dr. Jitendra Saxena (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 382-3032
Dr. Gedahliah Shelef
Ralph M. Parson Laboratory
Dept. of Civil Engineering
Building 48-317
Massachusetts Institute of
Technology
Cambridge, Mass. 02139
(617) 253-3233
Karen Shrum (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 472-5016
Ducan Smith
Ontario Research Foundation
Mississauga, Ontario L5K1B3
Canada
(416) 822-4111
Dr. Irwin (Mel) Suffet
Chemistry Department
Drexel University
Philadelphia, Pa. 19104
(215) 895-2270
Patrick Tobin (WH-550)
U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency
401 M Street Southwest
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 755-0100
VII-58
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Rhodes Trussel
James M. Montgomery
Consulting Engineers
555 East Walnut Street
Pasadena, Cal. 91101
(213).796-9141
Dr. John Wilkins III
Dept. of Preventive Medicine
Ohio State University
410 West Tenth Street
Columbus, Ohio 43210
(614) 422-5694
Dr. Harold Wolf
Texas A&M University
Civil Engineering Department
College Station, Texas 77843
(713) 845-3011
Steven Work
Denver Water Department
1600 West Twelfth Avenue
Denver, Colo. 80254
(303) 794-7711, Ext. 251
Cecil Van Etten
Illinois Environmental
Protection Agency
2125 South First Street
Champaign, 111. 61820
(217) 333-8361
Fred Winter
National Bureau of Standards
Building 226, Room B306
Washington, D.C. 20234
(202) 921-2136
Dr. Richard L. Woodward
Camp Dresser & McKee, Inc.
One Center Plaza
Boston, Mass. 02108
(Deceased Prior to Publication)
VII-59
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CHAPTER VIII
AREA VI
GROUND WATER CONSIDERATIONS
SUMMARY
.D}f. HORST. KUSSMAUUL, CHAIRMAN
Groundwater has many advantages over surface waters as
a source of supply, such as normally consistent good quality,
local availability, low treatment cost, and in some areas,
the absence of a need for disinfection. Groundwater is,
therefore, the main source of water supply in many NATO
countries (see Table 1.2). The increasing rate of ground
water abstraction and the spread of urbanization have resulted
in a reduction of the quantity and quality of the available
ground water. Artificial recharge is often used to overcome
these problems in combination with soil protection and
optimization of ground water use.
Ground water can become polluted in many ways. Although
many instances of contamination are already known, their
occurrence is likely to increase in the future because
it often takes years before contaminated ground water reaches
a well. Since the volume of waste materials is still growing,
VIII-1
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a number of sources of ground water contamination are of
interest; these are considered below.
Disposal of domestic and municipal wastes, such as the
discharge of more or less treated sewage effluent, leaky
sewers, leachates from solid waste disposal sites, and
disposal of municipal sludge to landfill sites, constitute
major causes of ground water contamination. Also, the
application of de-icing salts on road surfaces results
in unacceptable contamination problems. Another main source
is the disposal of industrial wastes. Large amounts of
solid industrial wastes are disposed of within landfills.
Impoundments containing liquid industrial wastes are also
important. Disposal of liquid waste by means of wells
is relatively cheap, but hazardous and therefore, limited
by legal constraints. Furthermore, abandoned or unplugged
wells may form permanent conduits for fluids to move downwards.
Many thousands of such abandoned wells, boreholes and shafts
exist in the heavily populated regions of the world.
Accidental spillage from a variety of sources may contribute
a further serious hazard to ground water quality; e.g.,
leaks from gasoline service stations or fuel oil storage
tanks. Other problems have been related to acid mine drainage,
salt water coming through abandoned oil and gas wells,
VIII-2
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agricultural activities such as disposal of effluents from
animal rearing complexes, and instrusion of sea water in
coastal areas.
The major source of ground water recharge is rainfall infiltra-
tion through the overlying soil zone, with smaller contributions
from induced recharge (from surface water bodies) and from
artificial recharge. In all instances, the percolation
of the water through the unsaturated zone changes its chemical
composition. In fact, the chemical composition of the
water is constantly in a dynamic state to maintain a physico-
chemical equilibrium with its environment. These interactions
typically include:
a) dissolution processes, which tend to increase
the ionic content of ground water,
b) chemical and physical phenomena, which result,
for example, in ion exchange reactions and
adsorption, as well as
c) biological activity, commonly resulting
in the reduction of sulfates to sulfides
and in nitrification or denitrification.
Numerous models of pollution transport in porous media,
and mass transport in the unsaturated and saturated zones,
have been developed. However, many of the mechanisms controlling
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pollution movement through aquifers are not yet sufficiently
understood to allow their inclusion in a mathematical model.
In addition, the transfer of laboratory scale models to
full scale application often creates serious problems.
Thus, a great deal more work is needed in order to accurately
model and, hence, understand the changes occurring in water
quality during underground travel.
In many countries, particularly in densely populated areas,
the growth in drinking water consumption outstrips the
growth in supply. In order to increase ground water resources,
artificial recharge is of considerable importance in some
countries. The essence of this technique lies both in
the use of additional storage and the natural chemical,
physical, and biological cleaning properties of the soil
and subsoil for surface waters. Other advantages of artificial
recharge include prevention of the intrusion of saline
or otherwise polluted water into the ground water supply.
Artificial ground water recharge may be accomplished by
introducing surface water in open pits, lagoons, or trenches
into unconfined aquifers, or by vertical injection wells.
This latter technique is especially useful with partly
or completely confined acquifers. Artificial recharge
may also be induced directly through a river bank.
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Compared with the other methods of artificial recharge,
bank infiltration has the disadvantage that it cannot be
stopped in case of an accident involving hazardous substances
in the surface water. However, it does offer the great
advantage of low cost and of relatively small required
area, which may be of particular importance in highly developed
or otherwise congested areas.
For the effective protection of ground water the following
theoretical aspects should be considered:
a) the definition of possible sources of pollution
in terms of type and quality,
b) the classification of ground water systems
with regard to their vulnerability to contamina-
tion,
c) the coordination of ground water development,
waste disposal practices, and land use planning,
and
d) the implementation of remedial measures
to protect ground water resources.
Good ground water protection is provided by an undamaged,
biologically active, overlying soil zone. A widely used
approach for protecting ground water is the establishment
of control zones in which possible hazardous actions are
VIII-5
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strictly regulated, especially to protect the ground water
used by public water supplies in highly developed areas.
The main criterion in establishing such zones is the residence
time of water in the subsoil. A further important approach
to the protection of ground water is the development of
guidelines for dealing with pollution incidents, designed
to prevent the entry of pollutants into the ground water.
Technical actions for the protection of ground water require
a legal basis, however, and the extent of legal measures
differ considerably in the different countries. In most
countries, ground water use has to be permitted by public
authorities. Further, many countries have laws regulate
the discharge of substances which are able to pollute ground
water. These concern solid waste disposal as well as the
quality of waste water allowed to discharge. The delineation
of water protection areas is not yet established, by law,
in many countries, while other countries have enacted a
variety of special laws (sewage disposal, disposal of oil
waste, discharge of detergents, etc.) to support the protection
of ground water.
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Conclusions
Ground water forms an important drinking water source in
all NATO countries. In some areas, there already exists
marked contamination of this source. Our prime concern
for the future should be to retain ground water quality
and prevent any action which may lead to the deterioration
of natural good quality ground water.
Contamination has already occured in certain areas, and
it may take periods of up to several decades to correct.
In order to achieve this, we need to know more about:
a) the pathways of natural recharge of aquifers,
b) the persistence , or attenuation, of chemical
and biological pollutants in the unsaturated
zones of aquifers,
c) the persistence, or attenuation, of pollutants
in the saturated zones of aquifers, and
d) the natural distribution of chemical and
biological constituents of ground water.
A suitable data collection system is necessary to monitor
ground water quantity and its possible changes with time.
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In some NATO countries, artificial recharge is important
and techniques should be continuously improved to help
in optimizing ground water development.
Recommendations For Future Research
Studies should be conducted on the natural variations in
ground water quality and how these depend upon:
a) the input,
b) the groundwater flow,
c) the interactions between groundwater and
rock matrix,
d) the influence of microbes,
e) the movement of individual organic and inorganic
constituents of ground water,
f) the effects of flow through saturated zones
on degradable and water-soluble substances,
g) the adsorption capacity and other properties
of strata relevant to persistent chemical
substances,
h) the changes in the constituents of ground
water flowing through different rock types
by the use of laboratory simulations,
VIII-8
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i) the affects of biological and chemical clog
of aquifers,
j) the residence and passage time of bacteria
and viruses in ground water to achieve remo
and/or disinfection, and
k) the potential impact of urban, industrial,
and recreational activities on ground water
development.
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AREA VI
LIST OF PARTICIPANTS
BELGIUM
PRANCE
FEDERAL REPUBLIC
OF GERMANY
ITALY
Dr. D. Verhoeve
Instituut voor Hygien en
Epidemiologie, Sectie Hater
Jliette Wytsmanstreat, 14
1050 Brussel
M. Clouet D^Orval
Compagnie Generale des Eaux
Siege Social 52, rue d'Anjou
75384 Paris
Cedex 08
Dr. Hans Kraus
Deutscher Verein des Gas-
und Wasserfaches
Frankfurter Allee 27
6236 Eschborn
Dr. Horst Kussmaul
Institut fur Nasser-, Boden-,
Lufthygiene
Kennedyalle 97
600 Frankfurt 70
Dr. Moller
Umweltbundesamt
Bismarckplatz 1
1000 Berlin 33
Dr. Kh. Schmidt
Leiter der Hydrologischen Abt,
der Dortmunder Standtwerke AG
5840 Schwerte 1 - Geisecke
Jurgen von Kunowski
Institut Fur Wasserr
Boden - Und Lufthygiene
im Bundesgesundheitsamt
Post Fach
D-1000 Berlin 33
Ing. Carlo Terzano
ACEA
Piazzale Ostiense 2
00154 Roma
und
VHI-iO
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NETHERLANDS
Prof. Ir. L. Huisman
Techn. Rogeschool Delft
Stevinweg 1
Delft
Albert R. Roebert
Gemeentewaterleidingen
Condensatorweg 54
Amsterdam
Dr. Snoek
Gemeentewaterleidingen
Condensatorweg 54
Amsterdam
Dr. B.C.J. Zoeteman
Air Pollution Directorate
Ministry of Health and
Environmental Protection
P.O. Box 439
2260 AD Leidschendam
S. Kuleli
State Hydraulic Works
Drinking Water and Sewerage Department
Yucetepe - Ankara
UNITED KINGDOM Dr. K.J. Edworthy
Water Research Centre
Medmenham Laboratory
Marlow, Bucks. SL1 2HD
Haydn J. Richards
Central Water Planning Unit
Reading Bridge House
Reading, RG1 8PS
Dr. B. Wilkinson
Water Research Centre
Medmenham Laboratory
Marlow, Bucks. SLl 2HD
TURKEY
UNITED STATES
Dr. Joseph Cotruvo
USEPA
401 M Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
VI II-ll
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J.J. Geraghty
Geraghty and Miller, Inc.
West Annapolis Professional Center
703 Giddings Avenue, Suite M-5
Annapolis, Maryland 21401
Asif Shaikh
Gordian Ass., Inc.
1919 Pennsylvania Avenue
Suite 405
Washington, D.C. 20006
VIII-12
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CHAPTER IX
APPENDIX
NORTH ATLANTIC TREATY ORGANIZATION/COMMITTEE
ON THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN SOCIETY
The Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society (CCMS)
was created in 1969, the same year the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) celebrated its twentieth anniversary.
Meeting in Washington in a commemorative session on April
10, 1969, the NATO Foreign Ministers heard President Nixon
describe the Alliance as it entered its third decade.
It was, he said "by its nature....more than a military
alliance and the time has come to turn a part of our attention
to those non-military areas in which we could benefit from
increased collaboration."
These remarks introduced a United States proposal to create
a Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society. This
committee would explore ways in which the experience and
resources of the Western nations could most effectively
be used to improve the quality of life. This would be
NATO's third dimension—a social dimension that would join
a strong military dimension and a profound political dimension,
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The United States proposal drew on Article II of the 1949
North Atlantic Treaty through which NATO members had agreed
to contribute to peaceful and friendly international relations
by promoting conditions of stability and well-being. The
American proposal also expanded on the "Three Wise Men's"
report of 1956 in which Foreign Ministers Lange (Norway),
Martino (Italy), and Pearson (Canada) had called for greater
non-military scientific and technological cooperation within
the Alliance. The first result of this report was the
establishment of the NATO Science Committee in 1958; 11
years later, the Committee on the Challenges of Modern
Society followed in its path.
Acting on the Washington Communique of April 11, 1969,
Permanent Representatives to the North Atlantic Council
formed a preparatory committee to explore the best way
of pursuing NATO's social dimension. Based on the Committee's
report, the Council established CCMS on November 5, 1969.
The first committee meeting was held at NATO Headquarters
in Brussels, December 8-9, 1969.
At that meeting, the United States, Belgium, and Canada
proposed the first five CCMS pilot studies. The United
States representative, Dr. Daniel Moynihan, stressed that
IX-2
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the time had come for the Allies to learn to cope with
situations which were, to a greater or lesser degree, "recurrent,
predictable, manageable, and avoidable." His words have
accurately predicted the evolution of the CCMS work program,
demonstrated by the strength of the Allies" technological
and scientific resources when applied in common to a specific
problem. Today there are more than 30 CCMS pilot studies
completed or in progress.
At that first plenary, Dr. Moynihan and Candian NATO Ambassador
Campbell expressed the hope that CCMS would become a marketplace
of ideas and techniques from each member country. Over
the years, this hope has been fulfilled and the marketplace
has expanded through the Environmental Round Table, the
pilot studies themselves, the CCMS Fellowship Program,
and several major international symposia.
The remarkable success of CCMS stems from the commitment
of the Allies to respond on both national and international
levels to the growing awareness of the magnitude of environ-
mental problems. It undescores the vitality of the Allies'
national political structures and the high degree of coopera-
tion that they have come to expect from each other. It
also demonstrates how the democratic processes in the NATO
countries can be effective in translating the concerns
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of individual citizens into governmental action. As evidence
of the deterioration of the environment came to light through
a series of worldwide crises—on the Rhine, in the Sea
of Japan, and in all major metropolitan areas—citizens
reacted with demands for effective private and public measures,
At the national level, the Allies responsed by passing
important new legislation and creating new organizational
structures. Member nations took action to clean up existing
sources of air and water pollution. Major research programs
were undertaken to develop effective technology and methods
to cope with new environmental problems.
It was not only on the national level, however, that effective
measures took place. In the quarter century of NATO's
existence, the Allies had developed habits of consultation
and cooperation that paved the way for CCMS. This means
of communication enabled the Allies to recognize that environ-
mental quality was a concern common to all and deserved
their joint efforts to reduce by half, any further degradation
of the environment and to restore a safe and healthy environ-
ment.
This achievement should not be underestimated. The decision
to talk frankly and openly with each other before national
IX-4
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policies are decided could have only been made by countries
that had developed common expectations from years of mutual
problem sharing and solving. NATO's example of international
trust and reliance, as much as the concrete results of
the individual pilot studies, has been a major contribution
to international environmental cooperation.
From its beginning, the Committee on the Challenges of
Modern Society has operated differently from other inter-
national organizations. Its work is characterized by four
policies that have been essential to CCMS from its outset.
First, CCMS does not work through an international staff
and with a fixed budget; its work is undertaken by member
countries acting as pilot countries for particular projects.
Working with other interested member countries (and, over
the years, with many countries not members of the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization), each pilot country is respon-
sible for developing, conducting, and disseminating the
results of a pilot study. Co-pilot countries and other
participants share the workload according to their interests.
No member is required to participate in any study; on the
contrary, each country is free to choose where to best
apply its resources and expertise. Results, on the other
• hand, are available to all. In this way, nations whose
IX-5
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priorities might prevent them from devoting large-scale
resources to a particular problem can contribute to specific
projects while benefiting from all pilot studies.
Second, CCMS has always emphasized projects that would
guide policy formation and stimulate domestic and international
action. While often identifying new areas for research
in its "action orientation," CCMS has sought to make the
results of research accessible to policy makers. At the
same time, it has sought to make those policy makers more
sensitive to environmental concerns.
Third, CCMS is an outward-looking and open organization.
The Committee has developed complementary pilot studies
on subjects that have been the concern of specialized interna-
tional organizations before CCMS was formed. Examples
of these areas are health, meteorology, and maritime issues.
In areas where CCMS was in the vanguard of international
activity—most prominently, energy conservation and alternative
energy sources—its studies have helped define frameworks
for bilateral and multilateral international cooperation.
Finally, CCMS has developed a follow-up procedure. Each
pilot country assumes the responsibility of ensuring that
its study plays the most appropirate role in stimulating
IX-6
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national and/or international action. This furthermore
indicates the Allies1 support for CCMS role in national
and international environmental activities.
At the completion of some studies, participants may feel
there should be ongoing efforts and a formal transfer of
work to a specialized international organization. Road
Safety and Solar Energy Pilot Studies have followed this
path. Work on other pilot studies, such as Air Pollution
and Emergency Medical Services, may suggest issues for
a new pilot study under CCMS sponsorship. In still other
areas, the exchange of information through CCMS may demon-
strate that bilateral or national efforts seems the most
productive, provided that countries continue to report
to the international community on their activities. Portions
of the Geothermal Energy and Advanced Health Care Pilot
Studies are continuing in this vain.
Formal follow-up procedures require the pilot country to
report to the CCMS Fall Plenary for 2 years, following
submission of the final pilot study report, on how the
results and recommendations are being implemented. In
practice, follow-up reporting has sometimes continued longer-
notably, the four-year period following the Air Pollution
Pilot Study—and sometimes, not functioned as planned.
IX-7
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Nevertheless, 15 have been or are now in follow-up, with
more than 30 pilot studies, not all CCMS projects have
lived up to initial expectations. Successful projects,
on the other hand, have generated successful follow-up,
stimulating both national programs and the interest of
participating countries in the work of other specialized
international organizations.
These four concepts—the pilot country leadership, stimulation
of national and international action, open participation
and results, and follow-up—are the essential components
of CCMS. Together, they make it unique amoung forums for
international cooperation. The flexibility demonstrated
by the Allies in shaping such an organization demonstrates
the versatility and ingenuity with which they have approached
their other roles in NATO. They have been rewarded with
the freedom to choose to work together on issues which
none of them could adequately face alone. Nothing could
be more appropriate than the spirit of the Alliance.
As its work program developed over the years, the relationship
of The Committee on the Challenges of Modern Society with
other international organizations, with national programs
of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, and with non-
NATO countries also evolved. In its early years, CCMS
IX-8
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stimulated the establishment of national environmental
programs at a time when other international organizations
had not yet developed environmental programs. Its encourage-
ment of international cooperation and action helped to
focus the attention of member countries on major environmental
issues and problems as they developed. Through the CCMS
policy of open participation, non-NATO countries were able
to participate directly in its work, or, through ad hoc
or other organizational arrangements with individual NATO
countries, to share information and benefit from material
generated by CCMS.
This relationship has continued. Since the early 1970's,
not only has CCMS become more focused in its work program,
it has also extended its efforts to encourage the widest
possible participation by non-NATO countries. Under NATO's
"silent consent" procedure, a pilot country may invite
non-members to participate in a study if other Allies do
not object.
Within this framework, many countries, including New Zealand,
Japan, Sweden, Austria, India, the Philippines, Nicaragua,
Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia, and Spain have been able to
share in the work of CCMS. Their contributions have been
extremely valuable. Notable contributions have come from
IX-9
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Japan and Sweden in the Road Safety Pilot Study, New Zealand
in the Geothermal Energy Pilot Study, Egypt and Spain in
the Advanced Health Care Pilot Study, and Israel and Saudi
Arabia in the Solar Energy Pilot Study.
In working with other organizations, CCMS has been a catalyst
in developing both new programs and new perspectives to
existing ones. In the latter case, growing concern for
environmental quality and conservation of natural resources
has often meant that new issues arise within a long-standing
framework of cooperation. Work by the Intergovernmental
Maritime Consultative Organization (INCO), the Organization
for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World
Health Organization (WHO), and the International Labor
Organization (ILO) on hazardous waste, emergency medical
services, occupational health and safety, and toxic substances
is a new dimension to organizations originally founded
for other purposes. At the same time, new organizations
such as the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
have been created specifically to deal with environmental
issues and other challenges to contemporary society.
CCMS, both as an organization and through the Allies indivi-
dually, has remained in close contact with these organizations,
Development of CCMS pilot studies is always carried out
IX-10
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only after consultation with them. Every effort is made
to avoid duplication of work. CCMS strives to complement
the ongoing work of other organizations. For example,
faced with many more urgent global health issues, WHO has
never been able to devote a major portion of its resources
to emergency medical services (EMS). CCMS work in this
area may today apply only to a few countries. In the future,
because of EMS programs developed in the Third World, many
more countries will benefit from these efforts. The same
is true of efforts devoted to road safety, hazardous waste
disposal, and the studies on air pollution and transportation,
Finally, from the beginning, CCMS studies have pointed
the way to new modes of international cooperation within
existing organizations. Programs of the International
Energy Agency (IEA) on hot dry rock technology, high tempera-
ture ceramics, and climatic conditions have resulted from
work initiated in CCMS. Work in the United Nations on
disaster coordination and hazardous waste management predated
CCMS, but has been given new dimensions by the efforts
of the committee. The U.S./Canada work on inland water
quality, the U.S./Mexico program on geothermal reservoir
assessment, and the Greek/Italian cooperation on geothermal
electricity generation have resulted from CCMS activities.
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CCMS has the ability to foster such cooperation and to
stimulate new activities. Faced with limited financial
and technical resources, most international organizations
must restrict their scope of action either topically, geograph-
ically, or both.
Also, many urgent problems are not addressed by other organiza-
tions because not all members are interested in participating.
CCMS has been most successful in overcoming this kind of
constraint. Since the costs of its activities are borne
by the pilot and co-pilot countries, CCMS is able to conduct
studies even if all members do not wish to participate.
Each country determines the extent of its commitment, if
any, to a particular pilot study.
In addition, CCMS is not confined to issues faced by one
particular part of the world. Its one ground rule is that
it does not deal with issues that mainly affect the developing
countries. This recognizes the fact that United Nation
countries that have dealt with the global environment,
such as UNEP, WHO, FAO, and non-European regional organizations
have tended to focus on the Third World.
In carrying out its mandate from the North Atlantic Council,
CCMS cannot replace specialized organizations that have
IX-12
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permanent responsibilities for dealing with problems in
a given area. CCMS, however, has the special ability to
bring together experts from diverse backgrounds to identify
emerging issues or to tackle questions that no other organiza-
tion has the resources to undertake. Through pilot studies,
CCMS advances the common base of knowledge and broadens
the channels of cooperation through which all national
and international programs must operate.
Assessing the results of the pilot study on solar energy,
the Federal Republic of Germany commented that it "had
been given the benefit of experience and had thus gained
one year in its research program." Given the number and
complexity of problems faced by countries and international
organizations around the globe, the contribution of months,
or even days, to ongoing programs may make a crucial difference,
Complementing and supporting the work of other international
organizations is one of the most important ways in which
CCMS fulfils it obligation under the North Atlantic Treaty:
to promote peacer stability, and well-being throughout
the Alliance and around the world.
The Committee on the challenges of Modern Society (CCMS)
has undertaken more than 30 pilot studies. Their subject
matter ranges over all aspects of human existence. The
IX-13
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choice of topics is made by member countries and reflects
current national priorities. There has been no master
plan or overall organization. Instead, certain patterns
for selecting study topics have emerged.
Air pollution, from the very start, has occupied an important
place. Over the years, the broad concept of air pollution
was defined into several specific studies. The studies
grew and branched off into new directions. These have
ranged from information exchanges to the development of
new technologies and measurement techniques.
Similarly, over the last decade, there have been several
studies centered on water pollution. These began with
the Inland Water Pollution Pilot Study, concerning man's
discharges into streams and lakes. Advanced processes
for treatment of waste water were demonstrated. CCMS also
took on issues of marine water pollution, including the
effect of oil spills on coastal water. An even wider perspec-
tive is being opened in estuarine management, which encompasses
all aspects of man's impact in the regions where fresh
water meets the sea.
Although initially presented as a single study, the Advanced
Health Care Pilot Study has consisted of several projects
IX-14
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which have been diverse in subject matter and means of
accomplishment. The study included emergency medical services,
begun originally as a road safety project and has now grown
into a pilot study.
Transportation, with an emphasis on safety, has also been
a primary object of attention. As initial projects were
completed, new ones examining other aspects began. Efficient
planning of mass transportation and providing economical,
reliable transportation to the greatest number of people
became a new thrust of these studies.
Another group of studies has focused on waste management.
CCMS began its work in the area of hazardous waste disposal.
The success of the first Disposal of Hazardous Wastes Pilot
Study led to continued cooperation in a second study.
The Committee is now looking at the potential of plastic
waste recovery. A proposal to investigate the combined
disposal of solid waste and sewage sludge is also under
consideration.
Pilot studies on the energy focused international attention
on solar and geothermal energy development. Energy studies
stressed the development of integrated systems of energy
conservation, use of alternate sources, and maintenance
of environmental quality.
IX-15
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CCMS has also conducted pilot studies on other ways man
interfaces with his environment. Studies on disaster assis-
tance and seismology deal with the problems posed by natural
crises. A new study on conservation of monuments applies
the techniques of pollution monitoring and control to preserv-
ing our cultural heritage.
CCMS follows no set procedure when developing a pilot study.
The participants can work together in three main ways.
The simplest way is for each country to carry on activities
in its own fashion, and, at some point, communicate the
results to other members. This approach is often taken
in the case of projects of a major pilot study, in which
a single country carries out a specific project. The Urban
Transportation Pilot Study is an example of this type.
A second way is for the participants to work individually,
but according to a common framework. For example, as part
of the Solar Energy Pilot Study, a CCMS format was developed
for reporting the performance of solar heating and cooling
systems. This enabled the project members to then meet
and compare the merits of different systems.
Finally, two or more participants may carry out the work
jointly. For example the United States and Mexico worked
IX-16
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together to study the Imperial Valley geothermal field.
The involvement of Mexico also illustrates the fact that
non-NATO countries may actively participate in CCMS.
Most pilot studies eventually turn out to be in combination
of these three approaches. The method chosen depends upon
the particular circumstances of each pilot study. This
underscores the advantages of the flexible CCMS mode of
operation.
There is also a wide diversity in the results of pilot
studies. The outcomes can take many forms, from international
conventions to state-of-the-art reports, to computer data
banks, to the construction of equipment. Aside from tangible
products, of equal importance are the intangible results
such as the establishment of networks of experts, the changes
in national policies, or the creation or reorientation
of institutions.
(Adapted from ."CCMS: The First Decade." U.S. E.P.A., 1979)
A list of current, completed and follow-up phase studies
follows.
IX-17
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NATO COMMITTEE ON THE CHALLENGES OF MODERN SOCIETY tCCMS)
WORK PROGRAM
A. PILOT STUDIES - CURRENT
1. REMOTE SENSING FOR CONTROL OF MARINE POLLUTION
Pilot Country: France
Copilots: Greece, Turkey, US
a. Detection of Oil Spills and Hazardous Substances
at Sea - Working Group I (OS)
b. Study of Coastal Pollution Movements - Working
Group II (Trance)
c. Deferred for time being - Study of Effect of Air
Pollution on the Sea
2. DRINKING WATER
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: UK, FRG
a. Analytical Chemistry and Data Handling (UK)
b. Advanced Treatment Technology (FRG)
c. Microbiologicals (US, France)
d. Health Effects (US)
e. Reuse of Water Resources (UK)
f. Ground Water Considerations (FRG)
3. SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE LOSS REDUCTION
Pilot Country: Italy
Copilots: France, UK, US
a. Seismic Risk
(1) Estimation of Seismic Risk IUK)
(2) Seismic Risk in Heavily Populated Areas
with Emphasis on Characterization of
Strong Ground Motion (Italy)
(3) Studies of Induced Seismicity (US)
b. Earthquake Prediction (France, Italy, US)
c. Earthquake Loss Reduction (US)
IX-18
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4. HYDROLOCTCAL FORECASTING IN TOE MANAGEMENT OP WATER RESOURCES
Pilot Country: France
Copilots:
a. Phase I - Information Exchange
"V
b. Phase H - Dependent on Assessment of Initial Exchange
5. ROUE OP TRANSPORTATION IN URBAN REVITALIZATION
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots:
a. Selection of Case Studies and Limited Information Exchange
b. Analysis of Case Histories
6. MAN'S IMPACT ON THE STRATOSPHERE
Pilot Country: Canada
Copilots: US
a. Tunable Laser Diode Spectrometer (TLDS)
Development and Testing
(1) Laboratory Study of TLDS System Operation
under stratospheric Conditions to Determine
Payload Design Parameters
(2) Payload Design and Fabrication
13) Payload Integration in Flight Vehicle
14) Flight Test of TLDS System
(5) Analysis of Results
(6) Completion of Final Report (1982)
b. .Definition Phase
Canvassing of International and National Organizations
to Assemble Basic Inventory Material
c.
Assessment of Results and Formulation of Recommendations
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7. CONSERVATION/RESTORATION OF MONUMENTS
Pilot Country: Greece
Copilots: FRG, France, US
a. Documentation (France, US)
b. Environmental Factors (FRG, US)
c. Treatment Testing Methods (The Netherlands)
8. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGIES AND IMPACT MODELLING
Pilot Country: Federal Republic of Germany
Copilots: The Netherlands, US
a. Heavy Metals Emissions (FRG) - Panel 1
b. Air Quality Prediction (The Netherlands) - Panel 2
c. Environmental Impact (US) - Panel 3
*• M. Hoc Group 0° the Total Air Pollution Cycle
9. UTILIZATION AND DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL SEWAGE SLUDGE
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots:
a. Legislation, Environmental Regulations and
Administrative Aspects (FRG)
b. Disposal Methods (Land and Ocean)
c. Sewage Sludge Utilization and Processing
into Secondary Materials (France)
d. Incineration and Energy Conversion
10. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (1PM)
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: Turkey
a. Initial Information Exchange
b. Research on IPM Procedures for Following Specific
Crop Areas:
(1) Cereal
C2) Citrus
t3) Cotton
c. Under Consideration: IPM Procedures for vegetables,
potatoes, glasshouse crops, tobacco, livestock, and
urban environs
IX-20
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11. REGULATIONS CONCERNING APPLICATION AND
PRODUCTION OF PHEROMONES
Pilot Country: The Netherlands
Copilots:
12. CONTAMINATED LAND
Pilot Country: United Kingdom
Copilots:
13. LIGHTER^THAN-AIR AIRCRAFT
Pilot Country: France
Copilots:
14. PROTECTION OF MEDIAEVAL GLASS WINDOWS
Pilot Country: Federal Republic of Germany
Copilots:
a. Glass samples are made available, characterization
of the corrosion layer
b. Selection of suitable coating material and
coating
c. Open-air exposure of the coated samples
d. Assessment of coated sample behaviour
IX-21
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B. PILOT STUDIES - FOLLOW-UP PHASE
1. ADVANCED WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Pilot Country: United Kingdom
Copilots: Canada, Italy, France, FRG, DS
2. AIR POLLUTION ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY AMD MODELLING
Pilot Country: Federal Republic of Germany
Copilots: Belgium, US
3. FLUE GAS DESDLFURIZATION
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: FRG, UK
•IMPROVEMENT OF EMERGENCY MEDICAL SERVICES - CCMS/WHO/PAHO
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots:
5. RURAL PUBLIC TRANSPORTATION (or RURAL PASSENGER TRANSPORTATION)
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots:
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C. PILOT STUDIES - COMPLETED
1. ENVIRONMENTAL AND REGIONAL PLANNING
Pilot Country: France
Copilot: UK
2. DISASTER ASSISTANCE
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: Italy, Turkey
3. ROAD SAFETY
Pilot Country: United States
4. INLAND WATER POLLUTION
Pilot Country: Canada
Copilots: Belgium, France, US
5. ADVANCED HEALTH CARE
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: Canada, FRG, UK, Italy, Portugal
6. URBAN TRANSPORTATION
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: Belgium, France, FRG, UK
7. DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES - PHASE I
Pilot Country: Federal Republic of Germany
Copilots: Belgium, France, UK, US
8. AIR POLLUTION
Pilot Country: United States
Copilots: FRG, Turkey
9. COASTAL WATER POLLUTION
Pilot Country: Belgium
Copilots: Canada, .France, Portugal
10. NUTRITION AND HEALTH
Pilot Country: Canada
IX-2 3
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11. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Pilot Country: United States
Copilot: Italy
12. RATIONAL USE OP ENERGY
Pilot Country: United States
13. AUTOMOTIVE PROPULSION SYSTEMS (APS)
Pilot Country: United States
14. PLASTIC WASTES RECYCLING
Pilot Country: United States
15. DISPOSAL OF HAZARDOUS WASTES - PHASE II
Pilot Country: Federal Republic of Germany
Copilots: Belgium, Canada, France, US
16. SOLAR ENERGY IN HEATING AND COOLING SYSTEMS OF
BUILDINGS - PASSIVE SOLAR APPLICATIONS GROUP
Pilot Countrys United States
Copilots: France, Denmark
17. MANAGEMENT OF ESTUARINE SYSTEMS
Pilot Country: United States
IX-24
*U.S. OOVEHNMMT PRINTING OFFICE ! 1983 0-381-082/407
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