EPA-R2-73-168
MARCH 1973 Environmental Protection Technology Series
Prediction Modeling for
Salinity Control in
Irrigation Return Flows
National Environmental Research Center
Office of Research and Monitoring
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Corvallis, Oregon 97330
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
-»
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
.»•/'•
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION TECHNOLOGY series. This series
describes research performed to develop and
demonstrate instrumentation, equipment and
methodology to repair or prevent environmental
degradation from point and non-point sources of
pollution. This work provides the new or improved
technology required for the control and treatment
of pollution sources to meet environmental quality
standards.
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EPA-R2-73-16*
March 1973
PREDICTION MODELING FOR SALINITY CONTROL
IN IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
A State-of-the-Art Review
Arthur G. Hornsby, Ph.D.
National Irrigation Return Flow Research Program
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
P. 0. Box 1198
Ada, Oklahoma 74820
Project Number 13030 GJS
Program Element 1B2039
NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CORVALLIS, OREGON 97331
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402
Price 90 cents domestic postpaid or 65 cents GPO Bookstore
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FOREWORD
This report has been prepared to fulfill several needs expressed by
the National Irrigation Return Flow Program. A concise, up-to-date
summation of the current state-of-the-art of prediction modeling as
applied to salinity control in irrigation return flows was needed for
program planning and evaluation. Secondly, a reference source was
needed by research personnel who are interested in undertaking pre-
diction modeling related to irrigation return flows. Interdisciplinary
research is being required to solve complex water resource problems
which bridge several scientific disciplines. Participants of such
research endeavors must have a conversant understanding of some
disciplines other than their own specialties to be an effective part
of the group. This report can serve as an overview for those not
directly involved in irrigation return flow problems and assist in
bringing about the needed information exchange.
Presentation of equations is primarily meant to aid understanding of
the conceptual models and, therefore, does not include rigid mathe-
matical derivations. Details of the individual models can be found
in the original publications. Sections VII and VIII contain refer-
ences cited and a selected bibliography of related references.
Although every effort has been made to include all references
pertinent to the objectives of this report, the author recognizes
that some may have been overlooked. Comments in this regard would
be gratefully received.
iii
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ABSTRACT
A review of the current state-of-the-art of prediction modeling as
applied to salinity control in irrigation return flows is presented.
Prediction models are needed to assess the effects of proposed changes
in irrigation management practices on the quality of return flows. The
processes which affect salinity levels in return flows are enumerated
and their interactions are alluded to. Models used to predict the quan-
tity and quality of return flows are briefly discussed to show the
development of the current level of technology. The readers are referred
to the original documents for more rigid development of the models and
incumbent assumptions. It was concluded that technology of water and
salt flow in soil systems is sufficiently developed to permit formula-
tion of models using systems analysis to evaluate proposed changes in
management practices. Development of systems models to study irrigation
return flow problems and conjunctive water resource uses was recommended.
A bibliography of selected references is given in addition to the
references cited.
Key words: Irrigation return flow, prediction modeling, water quality
degradation, resource management.
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 3
III The Need for Conserving Quality in Return Flows 5
IV Processes Which Affect Salinity Levels in Irrigation
Return Flows 9
V Models Used to Predict Return Flow Quantity and Quality . 11
Surface Flow 12
Subsurface Flow 14
Mechanics of Water Movement in Soil Systems . . 14
Mechanics of Salt Movement in Soil Systems. . . 16
System Flow 23
VI The Role of Prediction Modeling in Irrigation Return
Flow Studies ; . . 33
VII References Cited 41
VIII Selected Bibliography 47
Vii
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FIGURES
Page
1 A TYPICAL IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW SYSTEM 6
2 HYDROLOGIC AND WATER QUALITY MODELS 26
3 CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF GENERALIZED HYDRO-SALINITY MODEL . . 30
4 CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF A PROCESS MODEL 34
5 CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF A SOIL SYSTEM SUBMODEL 35
6 CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM MODEL 36
ix
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. A review of the literature has shown that only recently has prediction
modeling been used to any extent for predicting the quality of irrigation
return flows. The accuracy of the prediction model depends on the ability
to define the hydrologic system flow as well as the chemical reactions and
interactions taking place within the system.
2. The theory of movement of water on the surface and in streams, through
the soil profile, and in the groundwater is highly advanced. The individual
components of flow have been intensively studied by disciplinary scientists
and mathematical models formulated for their behavior. Many of these models
have been shown to give reliable results for predicting quantity of flow
when applied to actual situations without the usual laboratory restrictions.
3. The theory of salt movement with the individual components of water flow
is not as advanced as the theory of water movement; however, the past decade
has seen a rapid increase in knowledge in this field. For irrigation systems,
the movement of salts on the surface can be modeled using a material balance
equation and the surface hydrologic model. Changes in salinity levels may
be caused by evaporation of water or dissolution of salts previously depos-
ited on the soil surface. Changes in salinity levels of waters percolating
through the soil profile are not so simple. In addition to concentrating
the salt by evaporation of water from the soil surface and transpiration of
water from the root zone by plants, the ionic composition of the percolating
water may change significantly. These composition changes result from ion
exchange with the soil colloid, and precipitation and dissolution reactions
occurring within the soil profile. Further degradation in quality of per-
colating water is caused by leaching previously accumulated salts from the
profile and salt pickup from zones of natural salt deposits below th§ root
zone. The above factors, as well as diffusion, dispersion, pore-water veloc-
ity, pore geometry and soil type have been studied in an effort to quantify
the flow of salts through soils.
4. Flow of salts in the groundwater can be predicted using groundwater
hydrologic models and the materials balance concept. Mixing the more
saline percolating water with the groundwater can be described by miscible
displacement theory. After the percolating water is thoroughly mixed with
the groundwater, the salinity level will not change significantly since
salinity is a conservative quantity.
5. Quantitative data on the quantity and quality of subsurface flows is
difficult and expensive to obtain and its meagerness will limit the appli-
cation of detailed models to this portion of the system.
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6. Systems analysis approach to prediction modeling of salinity in irri-
gation return flows has not been widely used. Orlob and Woods (1967) were
among the first to develop a prediction model with the system concept.
Walker (1970), Hyatt e_t al_. (1970), and Thomas (1971) have followed this
lead with systems models for quantity and chemical quality of irrigation
return flows. These models have been successful in predicting the quality
of return water in the test areas and can be applied to other areas to be
studied by making minor adjustments.
7. Two characteristics of prediction modeling which cannot be overstressed
are: (1) the potential of evaluating the result of proposed management
practices before they are instituted; and (2) the tremendous savings in
both time and resources over that needed to find the same answers by field
experimentation. With the pressing need to find immediate solutions to
salinity control problems in the arid west, prediction modeling is an
essential tool.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Comprehensive, systematic prediction models should be developed which
can he easily and unambiguously adapted to field areas, where knowledge of
salinity flow is necessary to institute management practices to reduce
the salinity contributed to river systems by irrigation return flow. Such
comprehensive models should be sufficiently flexible to permit inclusion
of parameters which might be unique to a given area yet would allow the
model to be generally applicable to any area needing study.
2. After adequate verification, the prediction models should be used in
lieu of expensive and time-consuming field experiments to: (a) predict
the salinity contribution of existing irrigation return flow; (b) evaluate
the influence of management practices, such as irrigation scheduling,
irrigation efficiency, application rates, irrigation water quality, etc.,
on the quality of the return flow; (c) evaluate the effect of irrigating
new lands on the quality of the return flow; (d) determine the relative
contributions of the individual processes occurring within the system,
thus identifying those processes which need to be examined closely to
effect better salinity control in return flows; and (e) develop optimal
basin-wide programs of salinity control and management.
3. Prediction models should be developed using systems methodology and
unified terminology with comprehensive user's manuals developed to permit
widespread usage of the computer programs by water resource researchers
and planners.
4. Prediction modeling of salinity in irrigation return flows should play
an important role in water resource management where conjunctive use of
the water resource is contemplated since the effect of quality degradation
caused by irrigation on other uses of water resources can be identified
and appropriate measures taken to correct or alleviate the problem.
5. An increasing commitment must be made to total water resource planning
to assure that maximum benefits are derived from that resource while pre-
serving its quality.
6. A larger data base of quantitative information on the flow of water
and salts in the groundwater system should be acquired to verify basin
model?
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SECTION III
THE NEED FOR CONSERVING QUALITY IN RETURN FLOWS
Irrigation agriculture uses more water than any other single consumer of
water resources. Ninety percent of the water diverted from impounding
structures and consumptively used goes to irrigation (Wadleigh, 1968) .
Some estimates indicate that as much as sixty percent of the total water
applied as irrigation water is. lost to evapotranspiration. Water lost by
this process is essentially salt free thus the net effect on salt concen-
tration could be a 2 1/2-fold increase in the return flow if only this
mechanism is active. Drainage waters usually have some crop producing
value remaining but, depending upon the fraction of applied irrigation
water that has been evapotranspired, their salt concentration can be from
2 to 7 times greater than that of the applied irrigation water (Utah State
University Foundation, 1969). Thus, the return of highly saline drainage
water to the stream degrades the quality of the stream for further use.
In addition, due to precipitation, dissolution, and ion exchange reactions
occurring in the soil system, the proportions of the various salt con-
stituents in the irrigation water as it becomes drainage water are
usually altered and these changes contribute to the degradation of quality
in the receiving stream.
The demand for irrigation water in areas where water resources are limited
both in quantity and quality further aggravates the problem. In many
river basins in the western states, irrigation return flow may contribute
substantially more than half the stream flow during summer low flow periods-
Nearly all of the summer flow in the lower reaches of the Yakima River in
Washington is composed of irrigation return water (Browning, 1970).
Two excellent comprehensive reviews have been published which describe
the effects and magnitude of irrigation return flows. The first was
published in 1960 entitled "Return Irrigation Water—Characteristics and
Effects" by E. F. Eldridge, USDHEW-PHS. and the second published in 1969
was entitled "Characteristics and Pollution Problems of Irrigation Return
Flow" prepared by the Utah State University Foundation for the FWPCA-USDI
(now EPA) . These publications discuss in detail the characteristics and
problems associated with irrigation return flows, document their findings
from the literature, and set forth recommendations and research needs.
A typical irrigation return flow system is presented in Figure 1.
As more new lands are brought under irrigated culture, the demand for
available water will increase and return flows will be increasingly
reused to meet these demands. The reuse of return flows and the consump-
tive nature of irrigated agriculture constitutes a major contribution to
salinity increase in western rivers and streams. The technology of
detection and measurement of these quality changes is sufficiently
advanced to permit identification and quantification of the various pro-
cesses which contribute to the increase of salinity.
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PRECIPITATION
INFLOW TO
CANALS
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
FROM CROPS
SURFACE RUNOFF
FROM NON-IRRIGATED
LAND
IND. 8 MUN.
WASTES
FIGURE l. A TYPICAL IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW SYSTEM
NATURAL
INFLOW
OTHER
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
FROM IRRIGATED LAND
UPSTREAM
APPLIED TO
IRRIGATED LAND
RIVER
FLOW
DIVERTED FOR
IRRIGATION
GROUNDWATER
CONTRIBUTION
RIVER FLOW
IRRIGATION
RETURN FLOW
DOWNSTREAM
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To anticipate the. changes in salinity that must necessarily occur with
increased use and reuse of irrigation water, prediction modeling provides
a tool to be used in order that management practices can be instituted
in time to prevent serious impairment of water quality for downstream
users. Prediction models can not only anticipate changes in salinity in
the return flows, but also aid in establishing the relative contributions
of the individual processes that lead to the salinity increase. Assess-
ment of these relative contributions leads to improved management practices
with the ultimate goal of reducing salinity levels in irrigation return
flows while maintaining a viable agricultural operation.
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SECTION IV
PROCESSES WHICH AFFECT SALINITY LEVELS IN IRRIGATION RETURN FLOWS
Irrigation return water can be subdivided into two general categories
based on potential degradation levels.. These are (1) surface return
flow and (2) percolation through the plant root zone. The processes
which affect each are varied and are reflected in their relative contri-
butions to the increased salinity of irrigation return flows.
Surface return flows contribute relatively little to the concentration
of salines. Surface overflows and resulting tailwater will retain
approximately the same levels and composition of salines as the applied
irrigation water, if relatively short application times are used. However,
if the irrigation water is not properly managed the following character-
istics may develop in the receiving stream:
1. an increase in sediment load,
2. an increase in agrichemical (pesticides, herbicides, etc.)
concentration due to adsorption onto particulate matter
carried in the sediment load,
3. a slight increase in concentration of salines due to evaporation
from the free water surface and dissolution of salts previously
deposited on the surface of the soil, and
4. an increase in the numbers of bacterial organisms present in
the surface water.
With correct management practices these contributions can be reduced to
negligible amounts. Tailwater can be eliminated by regulations of amount
and rate of application or it can be reused by pumping back to the point
of initial application or used to irrigate fields adjacent to the original
site. More propitious management can result from modeling surface flows
to optimize salinity control.
By far, the majority of the increase in salinity in return flows occurs
during percolation through the soil profile. Salts are concentrated in
this region by the evapotranspiration process. Water is in intimate
contact with the soil constituents as it passes through and can react
with these constituents resulting in degradation in the quality of the
percolating water. Processes which may contribute to some extent to
this degradation are:
1. ion exchange reactions with the soil minerals,
2. precipitation and dissolution reactions occurring within the
soil profile,
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3. ion composition change due to differential valence charges
and the lyotropic series effect,
4. dissolution and leaching of soluble plant nutrients applied
as fertilizer,
5. leaching to maintain salt balance in the soil profile,
6. salt "pickup" resulting from the presence of natural salt
deposits in the soil profile or near the aquifer which conducts
the groundwater back to the stream,
7. temperature changes which may effect the rate of reaction of
exchange, precipitation and dissolution processes, and
8. filtration and oxidation or reduction of biological and chemical
components of the applied water. This process may actually
enhance the quality of the return water in some cases.
Since many of these processes interact, the net result may not be simply
a summation of the individual process results but rather a complex
situation where the processes are simultaneously operating and interacting.
In managing such a situation, a better comprehension is needed of the
effects of each process and the degree of interaction with other processes.
This is best explored by a systematic approach which identifies and quanti-
fies the individual processes and their interactions. A deterministic
systems model needs to be developed and verified with experimental data
to predict changes in salinity level and composition of irrigation return
flow water. The results would lead to a better understanding of the
basic processes and more efficient management of the total system as a
unit.
10
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SECTION V
MODELS USED TO PREDICT RETURN FLOW QUANTITY AND QUALITY
Dissolved solids concentration is one of the major factors affecting the
quality of waters receiving irrigation return flows; therefore, it is
desirable to be able to estimate the concentration of salts in return
flows from existing and new irrigation projects. Any study of the quality
aspects of return flows must necessarily include the quantity of flow.
Mathematical models have been developed to describe many of the processes
which are active in return flows, and in a few cases they attempt to
describe the system as a whole. These systems are simulated fay either
stochastic or deterministic models. Stochastic analysis is aimed at
predicting a probable value of some observable result using statistical
theory. This approach does not consider the individual processes within
the system at a microscopic level, thus precludes elucidation of the
fundamental processes that occur within. The result is an expectation
value which is an overall time average for the entire system.
A review of stochastic models used in hydrology has been presented by
Scheidegger (1970). Investigations of growth and steady state phenomena
in hydrology have revealed that essentially two types of growth models
and one steady state model are possible. The first two are the cyclic
growth model and the random configuration model,and the third is re-
stricted to a Gaussian type with or without autocorrelation. The hazard
of extrapolating beyond the time range over which the measurements have
been made was examined.
Upton (1970) presented a stochastic model for water quality management
under uncertainty, where the variance of stream flow was considered.
Analysis has shown that problems of uncertainty may be dealt with by
selecting a critical value of stream flow and then treating the pollutants
sufficiently to maintain the desired water quality standard. The economics
of the system was also considered.
These models are concerned with stream flow, but the methods of approach
could be used to study the hydrology of irrigation return flow systems.
Although the results obtained using these models may closely approximate
the measured values, little is learned about the individual processes
within the system. For salinity control within an irrigation system,
the effect of these processes must be known in order to develop management
practices which will control their effect. The salinity levels of return
flows are not stochastic in nature in that they do not grow or decay
with time.
Deterministic models, on the other hand, consider the individual
processes within the system and their interaction. This approach leads
11
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to a clear definition of each process and its contribution to the system
as a whole. In deterministic theory, the correct prediction will simply
state the value of the observable result that will be obtained. The
accuracy of the prediction depends on how well the model represents the
components of the physical system. Leeds (1970) has described a general
characteristic of a "good" mathematical model as the simplest model that
will adequately describe the real world. For systems with both spatial
and temporal effects of importance, partial differential equations must
be used to describe the system.
Modeling hydrological systems in general and irrigation systems in par-
ticular has been primarily deterministic in nature. The model may be a
materials balance type which will account for the material mass transfer
through the system. The individual processes which contribute to the
quality of the return flows have been studied in depth and will be
presented separately in this review to facilitate development of an
overall model.
Since the flow of salts in the system is directly linked to the flow of
water, prediction of the latter is a necessary part of any prediction
model for salinity. Following the format set forth previously, prediction
models for water and salt flows will be discussed for surface flows,
followed by a more detailed treatment of deep percolation.
Surface Flow
The occurrence and magnitude of surface flows or runoff are affected by
the slope and condition of the surface, antecedent soil moisture content,
infiltration rate, intensity of precipitation or rate of irrigation applied,
vegetative cover, and management practices. In irrigation systems, sur-
face return flow can be measured and controlled such that prediction of
runoff volume is not a difficult task. However, for natural precipitation
and ungaged watersheds , prediction techniques are needed to assess the
quantity and quality of surface return flows .
Knisel et^ al. (1969) have elaborated on the model developed by Hartman
et^ aJ^. (I960) to predict runoff volume from daily climatic data. The
general equation developed for runoff computation is
Q = [P(P - P^] / [1/b + (P - P^] (1)
where Q is the daily runoff volume in inches over the watershed, P is
the daily rainfall in inches over the watershed. PI is the inches of
rainfall before runoff begins, and b is an empirical constant. Both
P. and b are functions of available soil moisture. The accumulation of
moisture in the profile is given by P - Q. Moisture loss was determined
by the decay type function
SM^ = SM Kfc (2)
t o
12
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where SM Is the soil moisture at time, t; SM is the soil moisture at
some initial time, t ; and K is the dissipation rate and is a function
of available soil moisture , pan evaporation, and season. For a reservoir
of soil water defined as the top three feet of the soil profile, the
dissipation rate is given by the expression
K = cQ + c-jSM + c2PE (3)
where SM is the inches of available soil moisture in the top three feet;
PE is the average daily open pan evaporation in inches; and cn, c, , c~
are empirically determined constants for each season. The major weakness
of this model is in predicting the soil moisture at the beginning of
rainfall. Greatest errors in prediction occurred during periods of
extremely high or extremely low soil moisture levels.
The model was revised to include a second soil moisture reservoir
(3-5 feet) and equation (2) was modified as follows
SMt = SMQ - Ct (4)
Where C is a constant depending on values of K. The revised runoff
model was tested with data for an 11-year period on a native grass-
meadow watershed. Good agreement between measured and calculated results
was found, indicating a valid model. Accumulated computed amounts for
the period agreed within 1% of the accumulated observed amounts.
Since there is only slight increase in salinity in surface waters due
to overland flow, the concentration of salinity in surface return flow
can be estimated from the concentration of the applied irrigation water
and the amount of measured or predicted runoff. This can be represented
by the equation
SL = QC± (5)
where SL is the salt load in the runoff water, Q is the daily runoff
volume, and C. is the concentration of salts in the applied irrigation
water. In areas where infiltration rates are low and water must be
ponded for extended periods to allow sufficient penetration, equation
(5) may be modified as follows
SL = Q(C± + ACE + ACg) (6)
where AC,., and AC are changes in concentration due to the evaporation
of water and dissolution of salts on the soil surface respectively.
These changes would be difficult to quantify since they would be time
variant while infiltration is taking place. AC_, would be a function of
time, evaporation rate, and infiltration rate; and AC would be a
function of time, solubility rate, and infiltration rate. The
13
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contribution of these components would need to be determined for each
particular location and condition. As a first approximation, equation
(5) can be used without great error in most irrigated regions.
Hyatt et_ al. (1970) estimated surface runoff rates, Qr, by difference
between total rate at which water is diverted from the stream or reser-
voir, Wtr, and the rate at which diverted water enters the soil through
seepage and infiltration, W^, as given by
Q -Of - W. ) . (7)
%r tr dr
Evapotranspiration losses are included in the W^ term and are accounted
for elsewhere in the overall system model. Salt carried in the surface
flow can then be estimated by the relationship
SQ = Q C (8)
r xr s
where S^ is the rate of salt flow from the area, and Cg is the average
water salinity level of the surface flow.
Subsurface glow
Mechanics of Water Movement in Soil Systems
The mechanics of flow of water through soil systems has been intensively
studied in the quest for understanding the fundamental physical and
chemical processes affecting the flow behavior of water. Comprehen-
sive treatises on this subject are given in the books Physical
Principles of Water Percolation and Seepage by Bear, Zaslavsky, and
Irmay; and Soil Water prepared by the Western Regional Research Technical
Committee, W-68, Water Movement in Soils. Since salt movement through
soil depends upon water as a solvent and vehicle of transport, an under-
standing of the behavior of water flow is tantamount to any study of
salt movement through soils.
Movement of water through soils has generally been described by the
Darcy equation given by
Q/At = -K d$/dS (9)
where Q is the quantity of flow through a cross-sectional area, A, in
time t; K is the hydraulic conductivity, and d$/d2 is the potential
gradient acting across the system. In describing steady flow, equation
(9) is strictly valid only when K is independent of time, space,
direction, pressure, flux, hydraulic gradient, and length of flow path.
These assumptions are rarely met in natural soil systems, since K is
known to be a function of water content. For a saturated soil, however,
K may be considered to be a constant and the equation used to describe
saturated flow.
14
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Using the principle of conservation of mass and the Darcy equation, an
equation describing water movement in a partially saturated soil is
given by
30 3 3¥ 9K
W = 3F + 32
where 0 is the volumetric water content, t is time, ¥ is the soil mois-
ture potential, 8 is depth, and K is the soil water conductivity. The
effects of hysteresis on ¥(0) and K(0) relationships can be accounted
for.
Recently, researchers have used numerical methods to solve this equation
to predict moisture movement in soils. Staple (1969) using an explicit
finite difference form of equation (10) computed the expected redistri-
bution of soil moisture following a period of infiltration. Agreement
between measured and computed moisture profiles was considered satis-
factory. The computational procedure required assessing the values for
conductivity and diffusivity from the ¥ vs. 0 relationships. Rubin
(1967, 1968) used implicit finite difference solutions to equation (10)
to study redistribution and transient flow of water in soils. His work
shows the importance of hysteresis in the redistribution process.
Wang and Lakshminayana (1968) developed a numerical technique to solve
equation (10) for the case of unsaturated nonhomogenous soils. This
is the situation most prevalent in natural soils in the zone of aeration.
This technique is of more general use since idealized soil conditions
are not a requisite for this solution. The simulated moisture profiles
were in excellent agreement with the experimental data of Nielsen et al.
(1964).
Hanks e£ al. (1969) described a numeric method for estimating infiltra-
tion, redistribution, drainage, and evaporation of water from soil. The
computed results were compared with measured values and found to ade-
quately predict the soil moisture behavior. Limitations caused by
natural variability of soils are recognized by the authors.
Black et al. (1969) applied a simplified flow theory to both evaporation
and drainage processes and were able to predict water storage in the soil
profile. Using daily rainfall data, the water storage in the upper 150 cm
of the profile was predicted over the season to within 0.3 cm. The
authors emphasized that evaporation from the finer textured soils may
not be described as well as for the soil used in this experiment and that
layered soils may require special treatment. However, for the soil
studied, good agreement was found between predicted and measured evapora-
tion, drainage, and storage.
15
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Freeze (1969, 1970) examined the mechanism of natural groundwater recharge
and discharge for a one-dimensional, vertical, unsteady, unsaturated flow
above a recharging or discharging groundwater flow system. The flow was
simulated with a numerical mathematical model involving transient flow.
The model was verified using both laboratory and field data. The mathe-
matical model was derived from Darcy's equation and considered both the
unsaturated and saturated zone of the soil profile. The parameters which
controlled the integrated saturated-unsaturated flow system were found
to be: the rate and duration of rainfall or evaporation at the upper
boundary; the groundwater recharge or discharge rate; the antecedent soil
moisture conditions and water-table depth; the allowable depth of ponding;
and the hydrological properties of the soil. It was also concluded that
soil moisture conditions, in general, and evaporation and infiltration
rates, in particular, show areal variations, even under homogeneous
meteorological conditions and soil type due to the influence of areal
variations in the rates of groundwater recharge and discharge.
Bhuiyan et al. (1971a,b) used dynamic simulation language to develop a
computer model that simulated the vertical infiltration of water into
unsaturated soil from both surface and subsurface sources. The net water
flux through each layer, at any particular time, was established by using
the principles of conservation of mass and Darcy's law. The water con-
tent and cumulative infiltration was then calculated using a fourth order
Runge-Kutta integration method. Results obtained compared favorably with
those of Philip (1957a,b) and field data of Nielsen et al. (1961) obtained
for Yolo light clay with surface application of water. The principle
advantage of the numerical procedure is its complete generality and the
ease with which numerical data on the hydraulic characteristics of the
soil may be used without arbitrary assumptions or function-fitting pro-
cedures. Water distribution efficiency can be evaluated for subsurface
irrigation systems.
Many other excellent research papers are available where the movement of
soil water has been studied with a variety of imposed conditions and
assumptions, allowing simplified mathematical solutions to be made. The
description of soil water movement can be considered to be in an advanced
state of development.
Mechanics of Salt Movement in Soil Systems
The movement of salt through the soil profile is affected by many
physico-chemical reactions. Among these are ion exchange, ion exclusion,
precipitation, and dissolution. In an irrigated soil system where a
salt balance is maintained, some degree of equilibrium must be obtained
to avoid degeneration of the productivity of the soil.
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Under steady-state water flow rates in an irrigated area, the salt
balance is given by
ViCi + Sm - VdCd - Sp - Sc = °
where V. and V, are the volumes of irrigation and drainage waters,
respectively, with corresponding salt concentrations C. and C,; S is
the amount of salts dissolved from soil materials; S is the amount of
salts added to the soil by precipitation from the irrigation water; and
S is the amount of salt removed by crops. To maintain viable agriculture
in an irrigated area, a favorable salt balance must exist at least in
the root zone of the soil. This concept has been in use since developed
by Scofield (1940).
Bresler (1967) modeled salt flow through soils using a salt balance
relationship applied to individual layers in the soil profile.
The basic relationship is given by
VC - VdCd - S = (C1* - CQ*) 6AX (12)
where V is the depth of irrigation water applied;
C is the salt concentration in the irrigation water;
AX is the depth of the relevant soil layer;
V, is the depth of water leached from AX;
C, is the salt concentration of drainage water;
S is the amount of salt absorbed by plants per unit area of soil;
P
9 is the volumetric water content;
Cn* is the initial average salt concentration in the soil solution
at water content 6; and
C1 * is the average salt concentration in soil solution at moisture
content 6 after irrigation water is applied.
To estimate V, and C,, it was assumed that: (a) the movement of salt was
with the mass of flowing water and in the downward direction only; (b)
water and salt movement takes place at moisture content 6 and that 0
remains relatively constant for the period of movement; (c) the average
salt concentration of the water which leaches out is the arithmetic
mean of the salt concentration before and after irrigation; and (d) the
salts are noninteracting. These assumptions are clearly not met in the
17
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field; however, the predicted salt distributions in the soil profile
agreed with measured values in direction of change, if not in magnitude.
Bresler and Hanks (1969) developed a model to handle simultaneous flow
of salt and water in a soil system. For one-dimensional flow, and
neglecting such factors as flow induced anisotropy, the distribution of
pore velocities, and diffusion, the rate of flow of salt is given by
[dQ/dt] - [-D (dC/dx) + V8C + S] (13)
x p x
where Q is the amount of a solute transferred per unit area;
t is time;
D is the effective dispersion coefficient of the solute;
x is distance in direction of flow;
V is the average velocity of the solution;
9 is the volumetric water content;
C is the concentration of solute; and
S is the rate of change with time of solute per unit area due to
all sinks and sources.
By assuming that no sources or sinks exist and that D (dC/dx) « V9C,
equation (13) reduces to "
[dQ/dt] = [V C] . (14)
Xf A
Equation (14) can be solved by a finite difference scheme.
Comparison of computed with measured data indicated that the source-
sink term, S, should not be omitted. The procedure gave good agreement
for non-interacting solute in soil. No accounting was made for evapo-
transpiration losses of moisture or for interacting salts in exchange
reactions or solution-dissolution reactions. The effects of dispersion
were also neglected but may in some instances become significant.
Hyatt et al. (1970) expressed the deep percolation rate as
G = F - ET , [M (t) = M ]
j r r r s cs ,,...
and (15)
G = 0, [M (t) < M ]
r ' s cs
18
-------
where 6r is the rate of deep percolation;
Fr is the rate of infiltration;
ET is the actual rate of evaporation;
Mg(t) is the quantity of water available for plant consumption
which is stored in the root zone at any instant of time; and
M is the root zone storage capacity of water available to plants.
Co
The assumption was made that deep percolation occurs only when the
available soil moisture is at its capacity level. No serious error
resulted from this assumption, probably due to the fact that most of
the percolation takes place shortly after irrigation application when
the zone of transmission is near saturation. It was recognized, however,
that percolation continues slowly in partially saturated soils.
The flow of salt in this system would then be given by
S? - tFr - ETcrlCga = GrCga' &B™ ' Mcs^
(16)
Sj = 0, [MB(t) < Mcg]
P
where S£ is the rate of salt flow from the plant root zone;
Cga is the average salinity concentration within the soil solution
at the lower boundary of the plant root zone;
ET r is the potential evapotranspiration rate; and
all other terms are as previously defined.
This procedure does not account for the individual ion species and thus
does not take into consideration changes in the ion composition of the
drainage water and resident soil solution.
Lai (1970) considered ion exchange reactions in a study of salt transport
through soil undergoing miscible displacement. A model was developed
which allows prediction of both the solution and exchanger phase con-
centration of the cation in question. Using both implicit and explicit
finite difference techniques, the flow equation was solved considering
exchange reactions. The predicted concentration distributions gave
good agreement with the measured values. Non-linear exchange isotherms
were found for both Mg -»• Ca and Na -»• Ca systems. The flow equation,
modified to consider exchange reactions, is given by
19
-------
C17)
where D is the dispersion coefficient;
X is the concentration of an individual ion species;
Z is the distance in direction of flow;
V" is the average interstitial flow velocity;
p is the bulk density;
Q is the cation exchange capacity per unit weight of exchanger;
a is the pore fraction;
CQ is the total cation concentration; and
f! is the slope of the adsorption isotherm.
This model requires assessment of the exchange properties of the soil
and of the flow behavior. For application to a field situation, the
spatial variation of exchange and flow properties would need to be
evaluated.
Alfaro and Keller (1970) used dimensional analysis to treat a model for
predicting the process of leaching. The prediction model was verified
for both layered and non-layered soils using physically scaled models.
The use of scaled models to predict leaching from the prototype requires
exact scaling of the soil profile since the accuracy of the prediction
depends upon the closeness by which the prototypes represent the real
world.
Oster and McNeal (1971) have presented three mathematical models which
predict the change in soil solution composition and electrical conduc-
tivity as water content is changed by evaporation or extraction by
plants. Two of the models included consideration of precipitation of
salts, bicarbonate and carbonate ion pairs of calcium, sodium, and
magnesium, and partial pressure of carbon dioxide. The third model was
similar but considered only the ion pair calcium sulfate. The reliabili-
ity of the models was evaluated by comparing calculated electrical
conductivities to those measured with in situ salinity sensors. The
best model considered the maximum number of ion pairs and used a form
of the Debye-Hiickel equation with individual ion parameters. This
model resulted in an average error of about 6% when compared to the
average measured value.
20
-------
Sadler et al. (1965) tested miscible displacement theory in a field exper-
iment designed to study reclamation of saline soil. They concluded that
both hydrodynamic dispersion and ionic diffusion contributed salt to the
effluent that was measured and analyzed during this experiment. Velocity
flow was most probably responsible for the bulk of the chlorides removed
from the soil adjacent to the centerline of the drain. Diffusion was of
increasing importance in removing salt from the soil more distant from
the drain. They indicated a need for further development of miscible
displacement theory for two-dimensional cases. However, it was found
that if proper account was taken of the two-dimensional nature of the
field leaching studies, miscible displacement theory gives a qualitative
explanation of several observed results.
Simultaneous solute and water transfer for an unsaturated soil was exam-
ined by Warrick et al. (1971). The simultaneous transfer of solute and
water during infiltration was studied both in the field and numerically.
The advance of a solute front introduced as irrigation water was shown
to be nearly independent of the initial soil moisture content, but
highly dependent upon the moisture content maintained at the soil surface
during infiltration. Field results showed that the displacement of
chloride applied in irrigation water and leached with additional chloride-
free water can be quantatively predicted by linking the equations of
solute and water movement through an unsaturated soil. The numerical
simulation provides an examination of the influence of soil moisture on
solute transfer during infiltration.
Dutt (1962a,b, 1964) and Dutt et_ al. (1962, 1963) studied the effects of
changes in the ionic composition of percolating irrigation waters. Begin-
ning with simple models for water percolating through soil containing
gypsum and exchangeable Ca*"1" and Mg"^, computer programs were developed
to predict the quality of the percolating water. The procedure for
making these predictions assumes that the total activity coefficient of
the ionic species in the soil solution can be calculated by the Debye-
Hiickel theory. Predictions made in this manner were found to be within
the experimental error of measured values found for soil systems con-
taining Ca4^, Mg^, Na+, 80*-"-, Cl~, and CaS04'2H20 at saturation
moisture content. Some deviation from the predicted values was expected
since the constants used were developed from solution chemistry and do
not consider the effects of the interacting clay surfaces. Dutt and
Anderson (1965) found that the soil solution does not differ greatly
from true solution for a range of 15-33 percent gravimetric moisture
content. This was determined by electrical conductance methods using
both true solutions and soil solutions.
Tanji e£ al. (1967a) developed a computer method to predict the salt
concentration in soils at variable moisture contents. The calculations
were based on ionic activities, solubility product constant of CaS04'2H20
21
-------
(gypsum), dissociation constant of CaSO/, and cation-exchange equations.
Five agricultural soils were used to test the procedure and excellent
agreement was found between predicted and experimental values for all
ions examined.
Precipitation of CaCO, resulting from high bicarbonate water has been
examined by Tanji and Doneen (1966). The overall reaction for precipita-
tion of CaC(>3 in an open system is
Ca++ + 2HC03~ $ CaC03+ + C02* + H20 (18)
This reaction proceeds stepwise through several equilibria stages. Using
Debye-Htickel theory and ionization constants from solution theory, the
authors developed a computer prediction model which gave excellent agree-
ment with measured values. Precipitation reactions were important in
solution composition changes which may lead to increased sodium levels
in the soil profile.
Stratified soils present a special problem in predicting the quality of
the percolating water. The complexity of flow due to changes in hydraulic
and mineralogical properties from layer to layer are difficult to model.
Tanji et al. (1967b) developed two computer models to predict chemical
changes in percolating water due to stratified soils. The first program
predicts the chemical changes induced by saturation of an initially
moist stratified profile and the second program predicts the solute con-
centration in the effluent from the stratified profile as percolation
occurs, and the subsequent changes in chemical properties of the soil
profile. These programs have been verified by laboratory studies of
a two-layered, salinized, gypsiferous soil model. The above procedure
may be extended and modified to include additional variables, reactions,
and more complex conditions. This is exemplified by Tanji (1970) where
the approach was used to predict the leaching of boron from stratified
soil columns. A Langmuir adsorption isotherm was assumed and predicted
results were in good agreement with experimental values.
Tanji and Biggar (1972) developed a specific conductance model for
natural waters and soil solutions of limited salinity levels. They
point out that specific conductance (electrical conductivity) is one of
the most widely used parameters monitored to estimate the salinity of
water and soils, thus it is appropriate to develop a model with this
parameter. One disadvantage of specific conductance as a measure of
salinity is that it is a measure of only the ionic activity of the
solute species and thus may underestimate the analytically determined
salt concentration. This would be of particular importance when ion
association or ion-pairing is prominent.
The model estimates temperature-dependent conductance from measured or
predicted solution composition in water and soil solutions. The specific
22
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conductance in multicomponent aqueous systems is given by
n n
L = I JL, « Z' A..CJ (19)
1=1 x i=1 11
where L is the conductance in micromhos/cm, and £j, AJ, and Ci are, respec-
tively, the ionic specific conductance in micromhos/cm, ionic equivalent
conductance in cm2/equiv-ohm, and concentration in meq./liter for the
ith solute species. The term A£ may be related to concentration by the
equation
X± = Xj - aCj/2 (20)
where x9 is the ionic equivalent conductance of the ith ion species at
infinite dilution in cnr/equiv-ohm, and the coefficient, a, is an
adjustable empirical coefficient for salt concentration and ion associa-
tion effects.
Equations (19) and (20) are applicable at a reference temperature,
usually 25°C. Variations caused by temperatures other than the reference
may be expressed by
LT = L25 + 0.02(T - 25)L25 (21)
where LT and L£5 are the specific conductances at some temperature T
and at 25°C, respectively.
This conductance model was tested on representative river waters and
soil solution extracts from the Western United States. Over a limited
salt concentration range, the conductance was predicted satisfactorily
by the model. For high salt concentrations, the coefficients must be
adjusted to obtain a good fit. The model has been described by the
authors as a compromise between analytical and empirical approaches.
System Flow
In an assessment of the characteristics and pollution problems of irri-
gation return flow, the Utah State University Foundation (1969) described
both the quantity and quality of irrigation return flow as dependent
variables, with the soil and soil moisture playing important roles in
the functional relationship. The quality of irrigation return flow
23
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can be described as:
IRFq = f(Qig, Cgq, Bq, Ta, Ma, Smq, Scc, ET,
V V V F*' Pa' Cf V
where IRF is the irrigation return flow quality;
q
Q. is the quality and quantity aspects of applied irrigation water;
Csq is the canal seepage quality change;
Bq is the bypass water quality;
TQ is the time of application;
3.
Ma is the method and rate of application;
Smq is the soil moisture quality;
Scc represents the additional soil characteristics such as cation
exchange capacity, basic soil compounds, bacteriological activity,
chelation, fixation, oxidation, and other factors which may
alter the soil-chemistry-bacteria-water system;
ET is the evapotranspiration;
D is the quality of water percolating below the root zone;
C_ is the crop influence on quality;
Fpq is the farm practice effect on quality;
FQ is the fertilizer application;
a,
P is the pesticide application;
Cf is the climatological factors; i.e., temperature, precipitation,
wind, radiation, etc.; and
Q± is other influences; i.e., elements carried from the air to the
farm land, by precipitation, industrial pollution of soils and
water, municipal inputs from runoff or sewage, etc.
The intricate nature of the soil-water quality complex makes prediction
of return flow quality variables very difficult. Equation (22) indicates
the complexity of the system and the possibility of interactions among
the variables which combine to effect a given quality in irrigation return
flows.
24
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A general model which will simulate the water quality in irrigation sys-
tems is needed for planning and maintenance of viable irrigated agricul-
tural areas. Such a model should include all the identifiable subsets
or units which contribute to the water quality behavior of the system as
a whole. This would result in a systemized approach for predicting the
quality response of this system of units to changes in irrigation practices.
Or lob and Woods (1967) have presented such a model where an idealized
hydrological "unit" is composed of three basic storage elements — surface,
soil moisture, and groundwater — between which water is transferred either
according to operational plan or in accord with physical relationships.
For each of the storage elements in the system it is possible to write a
continuity equation such that
f - SQ (23)
where S is She total stored water, Q is the flow into or out of the unit
by any mechanism, and t is time.
The storage elements are given by the following equations.
Surface water:
<*ci - Qco + Qs + Qg - Qd + Qi - Qp + Pf - E (24)
Soil Moisture:
3F1 ' Qsi - Qs + Qd + Qr - u + p ~ QV (25)
Groundwater :
where the subscripts c, g, and s refer to surface, ground, and soil water
storage elements, respectively; i and o refer to inflow and outflow from
the element; d refers to diversion for irrigation use; p denotes extrac-
tions from surface water element for export to other units; v denotes
vertical flow; r denotes recirculation; P1 denotes precipitation onto a
free water surface, P denotes precipitation on a land element; E denotes
evaporation from a surface element; and U denotes evapotranspiration from
a land element. A sketch of this hydrologic model is given in Figure 2.
Changes in water quality in an irrigation system are closely related to
the hydrologic behavior of that system. A water quality model which has
25
-------
Qgi
Hydrologic Model
Water Quality Model
FIGURE 2. HYDROLOGIC AND WATER QUALITY MODELS
26
-------
the same storage elements as the hydrologic model can be used. The amount
of salt in a given element is given by the product of the storage quan-
tity and the concentration of salt in that element. The flow of a salt
ion from one element to another might be at a rate defined by
fx " qXKxCx (27)
where q is the flow from the hydrologic model, Cx is the concentration
of a salt species, and K^ is the distribution coefficient. Each of these
quantities may be space and time dependent in the system. The total flow
of salt in an element would be given by
F - Z f (28)
x=l x
where the subscript x denotes the particular ion specie. The water qual-
ity model is shown in Figure 2. Subscripts are the same as for the
hydrologic model except a and e which represent salt additions or removal
from an element respectively.
Such a combined hydrologic-salinity model facilitates inclusion of the
individual processes which contribute to salinity flow in the system.
Sensitivity analysis on these individual processes can result in know-
ledge of the relative contribution made by each process to the system
as a whole. Such knowledge is necessary to make efficient management
decisions and to develop control measures which would lead to reducing
the salinity level of the return flow.
Dixon and Hendricks (1970) considered the spatial and temporal changes
in water quality within a hydrologic unit. A water quality simulation
model was developed in conjunction with a hydrologic simulation model
and verified with actual field data from a prototype system. Dissolved
oxygen concentration, biochemical oxygen demand, temperature, and dis«
solved mineral concentration were selected as the water quality parameters
to be measured. The simulation submodel for each water quality param-
eter has an input phase and an in- transit phase. The input phase simu-
lates the time distribution of the quality parameters in each component
of flow, while the in-transit phase deals with changes in the water
quality parameters as it is carried through the reach being simulated.
In irrigated agriculture, dissolved mineral concentration (salinity) is
an important measure of water quality. Because salinity, and thus
specific electrical conductance, is not subject to dissipation or decom-
position, no in-transit phase model need be developed. The conductivity
of the outflow from the reach is the sum of the conductivities and flows
of the input streams. Assuming complete mixing, the conductivity of the
27
-------
combined flows is calculated by
n n
ECI = 2 EC • q./ S q. (29)
where ECI is the conductivity of the combined flows; EC, is the conduc-
tivity of the jth hydrologic input stream; q. is the rate of flow for
that input; and n is the number of inputs to the reach being simulated.
Good agreement was found between measured and simulated values for the
parameters studied.
Margheim (1967) studied some of the major factors which affect the qual-
ity of irrigation return flows and expressed them in mathematical forms
which could be fitted into an overall computer program to predict the
quality of the return flows. The four-phase system is composed of (1)
a solution phase, (2) an exchange phase, (3) a crystalline salt phase,
and (4) a groundwater-deep percolation phase. Consideration of exchange
phase-solution phase and crystalline salt phase-solution phase relation-
ships was in the form of an extension of the theory developed by Dutt
(1962). The groundwater-deep percolation phase submodel was developed
using Maasland's (1965) data. This allowed determination of the fraction
of the flow which is groundwater at any given time. The concentration
of effluent from the groundwater aquifer was determined by the equation
Ct = C1 + f (C2 - C^ (30)
where C. is the effluent concentration at any given time in ppm; C^ is
the concentration of the recharge water at any given time in ppm; G£ is
the concentration of the groundwater in ppm; and f is the fraction of
flow which is groundwater at any given time.
The method used to calculate the volume of the return flow was developed
by Glover (1960) and later used by Hurley (1961, 1968). With the hydro-
logic characteristics of the system known, i.e., the coefficient of
permeability, k, in feet per second; the effective porosity, n; the
original saturated depth, D, in feet; and the half spacing between drains,
L, in feet; then the fraction of the original volume returned (1-P) to
the drain, in time t, is given by
(1-P) = 1 - Z ~Y- exp "m "^ ; m-1,3,5,7.. (31)
m=l mil 4L n
where P is the fraction of original volume of water remaining in transient
storage. Using data from Dutt's (1962) column studies the computer program
developed gave good agreement between theoretical and experimental results.
28
-------
The deviation present was attributed to evaporation losses. The effects
of continuous versus intermittent recharge were examined. Glover's
method has been successfully applied to field conditions by the United
States Bureau of Reclamation (Hurley, 1968) and was found to be well
suited to areas of known homogeneous aquifer characteristics and well-
defined uniform drainage patterns.
A hydro-salinity model, Figure 3, of the Grand Valley in Colorado was
developed by Walker (1970) where the various parameters of water and
salt budgets were examined. Since the budgets for the whole of the Grand
Valley are generalized, the model or budgeting procedure is simply the
adjustment of the water and salt flows according to a set of weighted
data to arrive at a fair representation of the area. The budgets are
characterized by inflows and outflows. The inflows represent the total
water available for use within an area and the salts carried with this
water. Outflows represent the total water leaving the area and the salts
carried with it.
Inflow waters may come from rivers, tributaries, groundwater, imports,
and precipitation. Outflows are in the form of evapotranspiration,
river outflow, exports, and groundwater flowing under the gauging station.
The model consists of a main program which inputs data to and controls
subroutines which compute various parameters of the water and salt bud-;
gets . The subsurface characteristics of the area must be identified in
sufficient detail to be capable of mathematically describing the entire
water system and thus detect errors in surface water flow estimates.
The time unit in the computations is on a monthly basis and as such
gives a long term average of the hydraulic conductivities. This is
sufficient for the saturated zone, however, can be very erroneous in
the unsaturated zone where conductivity is a strong function of water
content.
Hyatt et al. (1970) developed a computer simulation model of the water
and salinity flow systems within the upper Colorado River basin using an
analog computer. The model is macroscopic in scale using monthly time
increments and large space increments and is based on fundamental and
logical mathematical representation of the hydrological processes and
routing functions. The physical processes modeled are not specific, thus,
the model can be translated to another hydrologic unit. The basic con-
cept of the model is the conservation of mass in the total flow through
the system. For this study the total flow was divided into (1) surface
flows, (2) subsurface flows, and (3) groundwater flows.
Mathematical representations were developed for inflows and outflows for
each of the three components of the total flow. These representatipns
were sensitive to the physical processes which impinge upon the components
of flow and require determination of the coefficients and constants.
29
-------
WrtltK PL
<:fli T FI n
UW
W
River
Inflows
J
_ A. Canal
Evaporation Diversions
f
Canal
Seepage
i
r •
r
L
i
T
Lateral
Seepage
I
J
r
Deep
Percolation
i
T
Ground "*"
i
. ..-- . J
T 1
Lateral Spillage
Diversions
i m
•
i
T— i
Root Zone Field
Supply Tail water
•
i ,
1
Consumptive Soil Moisture
Use Storage
*|— -o — ' f
O* '
Water
Storage
i
Ground Wafer
Outflows
'
n
it
Drainage '
Return Flows |~ ~~"|
i i -
J !
Tributary
Inflows
i
j
.,
Ground Water
Inflows
i
i
1
i
Imports
i
Precipitation
<
Phreatophyte
Consumption
i
t t
Exports
i
River
Outflows
* *
Municipal
Uses
FIGURE 3- CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF GENERALIZED HYDRO-SALINITY MODEL
30
-------
The flow of salts in the system was modeled similarly so that the influ-
ence of water flow on salt flow could be properly assessed. This was
accomplished by superimposing the salinity model upon that of the hydro-
logic model. The two models are linked by relationships which express
salinity as a function of water flow rate. Thus, the rate of salt flow
at any point is the product of the water flow rate times the appropriate
concentration of total dissolved solids at that point in the hydrologic
system. The authors note that additional research is needed to relate
the role of irrigation to increased salt loading within the agricultural
system and point out that physical constants and coefficients and water
quality data must be ascertained in order to adequately verify the model
to the area simulated. Factors such as irrigation practices, soil types,
leaching of salts, ion exchange within the soil complex, efficiency of
water use, and other parameters related to the irrigation system, all
require additional investigation to provide the proper perspective of the
role of agriculture in the salinity flow system.
Comparison of computed and measured water and salt flows for the study
areas used shows good agreement, indicating that the analog simulation
technique can predict with considerable accuracy the salinity level in
the hydrologic system. Decreasing the time and space increments of the
study and better evaluation of the physical constants and coefficients
will lead to better agreement between predicted and measured results.
Thomas et al. (1971) developed a hybrid computer program to predict the
water and salt outflow from a river basin in which irrigation was the
major water user. A chemical model which predicted the quality of water
percolated through a soil profile was combined with a'general hydrologic
model to form a system simulation model. The chemical model considered
the reactions that occur in the soil, including the exchange of calcium,
magnesium, and sodium ions on the soil complex, and the dissolution and
precipitation of gypsum and lime. The chemical model was developed from
the work of Tanji £t al. (1967) and Tanji, Doneen, and Paul (1967). The
chemical composition of the outflow is a function of these chemical pro-
cesses within the soil, plus the blending of undiverted inflows, evapora-
tion, transpiration, and the mixing of subsurface return flows with
groundwater.
The quality of the outflow water was calculated from the following
relationship
n m
Qso Pso. - Z QS,PS + Z QG PG (32)
J i-1 X 1J k-1 k k
where QS. is amount of water from surface source i in the inflow;
QG, is amount of water from underground source k in the outflow;
Qso is the quantity of surface outflow;
31
-------
Pso. is concentration of chemical constituent j in the outflow;
PS. . is concentration of chemical constituent j in QS.; and
PG, . is concentration of chemical constituent j in QG~.
The j subscripts on the quality factors refer to the different ions being
modeled. The i subscripts refer to the various sources of surface inflow
and the k subscripts refer to the groundwater inflow sources.
Six^ommon ions found in western waters, namely calcium CCa++) > magnesium
(Mg""^), sodium (Na+), sulfate CS04=), chloride (Cl~) , and bicarbonate
(HCO-j"") were studied. The total dissolved solids in the outflow was
obtained by adding the individual ions. The overall model operates on
monthly time increments. In a test using data from a portion of the
Little Bear River Basin in northern Utah, the model sucessfully simulated
measured outflows of water and each of the six ions for a 24-month
period. Only sodium, which occurred in small concentrations, exhibited
significant discrepancies between predicted and observed values. All
other ions agreed within 10 percent on a weight basis for the two-year
period, with correlation coefficients ranging from 0.87 to 0.97. With
minor adjustment the model can be used in other areas.
A digital computer systems model developed by Dutt et al. (1970) describes
the dynamic soil-water system along a vertical flow line from the surface
to a nonfluctuating water table and predicts the distribution and concen-
tration of the constituents in the effluent reaching the water table.
The constituents considered were: Ca"1"1", Mg*"1", Na+, NH^+, S0^=, C03=,
HC03~, Cl~, N03~, CaS04 • 2H20, CaC03, CO(NH2)2, and Organic-N. The
processes considered were (1) moisture additions; (2) evapotranspiration;
(3) nitrogen transformations; (4) changes in solute concentration of
soil-water due to ion exchange, solubility of gypsum and lime (CaC03),
and dissociation of certain ion pairs; and (5) nitrogen uptake by crops.
Each major process was calibrated individually and the model was verified
against cropped lysimeters treated with 15N enriched fertilizers. The
computer model consists of two programs. The first is a moisture flow
program whose output serves as input data to the second which is the
biological and chemical program. The moisture flow program uses a finite
difference method to solve the moisture flow equation. The behavior of
inorganic constituents except nitrogen was developed from thermodynamic
considerations. The behavior of organic and inorganic nitrogen was
developed from statistical treatment of data found in the literature.
The model was corrected and verified by comparing its predicted output
with observed data from the literature. Comparison of computed and
measured data for Ca"*"1", Mg"**, Na+, ammonia and nitrate-nitrogen resulted
in a correlation coefficient of better than 0.97.
32
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SECTION VI
THE ROLE OF PREDICTION MODELING IN IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW STUDIES
Irrigation, return flows are the result of a multitude of natural flow
phenomena and humanly controlled management practices. The movement of
water and salts in soils is influenced by soil properties such as texture,
bulk density, water content, hydraulic conductivity, and exchangeable ions,
as well as, soil moisture and gravitation potentials. These parameters
may vary considerably from one location to another within an irrigated
area further complicating the flow behavior. The loss of water from the
surface by evaporation and from the root zone by plant transpiration not
only interrupts the flow behavior but also concentrates salts in the
remaining soil water. Thus, the characterization and prediction of the
quality of irrigation return flow waters are considerably more difficult
than quantity of water flow, although the two are closely related. Both
are dependent upon a large number of variables which may be interrelated.
Study of such a system composed of many variables and interrelationships
dictates the use of systems analysis techniques whereby the individual,
fundamental processes occurring within the system can be identified and
examined in detail and the degree of interrelationship can be assessed.
Each fundamental process occurring in the system can be represented by
the process model given in Figure 4. Associated with the model are input
variables, internal variables, model parameters, and output variables
which characterize the particular process being modeled. The sophistication
of the model depends upon the completeness of identifying these variables
and parameters as well as formulation of the mathematical equations which
represent their interrelationships. The accuracy of the model output is
dependent upon the accuracy of the input and internal variables used as
well as the accuracy with which the model parameters and mathematical
relationships represent the process being modeled.
Many processes occurring in irrigated agriculture are closely related.
Sometimes they share the same input or output variables and can be grouped
to show this close association. A conceptual diagram of a soil system
submodel, Figure 5, shows the interrelationship of several process models
which depend upon each other. The net result of this soil system submodel
is the combined responses and interactions of the individual processes to
the input variables imposed on the system. System submodels such as this
can be easily handled by digital computer programs which provide simul-
taneous output for the individual process models as well as the total
system submodel output. This capability provides insight into the cause
and effect relationships occurring within the system and individual pro-
cess which are particularly sensitive to changes in input variables can
be readily identified.
Several related system submodels may be grouped to form a system model.
An irrigation systems model is presented in Figure 6 and is composed of
33
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U)
input
variables
internal
variables
model
parameters
output
variables
FIGURE 4. CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF A PROCESS MODEL
-------
OJ
Input
Variables
Ion
Exchange
Process
Model
Dissolution
Precipitation
Process
Model
Moisture
Movement
Process
Model
Evapo -
Transpiration
Process
Model
Nitrogen
Transformation
Process
Model
Output
Variables
FIGURE 5. CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF A SOIL SYSTEM SUBMODEL
-------
GJ
Input
Variables
Surface
Water
System
Submodel
Soil
System
Submodel
I
1.
Conveyance
System
Submodel
Ground
Water
System
Submodel
Variables
FIGURE 6. CONCEPTUAL DIAGRAM OF AN IRRIGATION SYSTEM MODEL
-------
the soil system submodel given in Figure 5 as. well as other system sub-
models which are associated with irrigation systems. Each of these
submodels are composed of individual process models which simulate the
system in question.
Systematic development of a model in this manner facilitates the study
and solution of complex problems which are concerned with controlling
and abating salinity levels in irrigation return flows. Since the system
model contains individual process models, the sensitivity of the pro-
cesses to changes in input variables to the model can be assessed. In
managing a system for a desired output, the behavior of an individual
process may need to be identified and altered in order to obtain the
desired output.
Field research has long been the fount of technology development for im-
proved irrigation management practices. Methods have been developed for
increasing water use efficiency yet maintaining a desirable salt balance
in the soil profile. Depth and spacing of drain tiles for proper drain-
age has been extensively studied and the theory of drainage ±s well
defined. Movement of water in unsaturated soils has also been well char-
acterized. While the technology of water management in irrigation systems
has been investigated in depth, salinity in the return flow water has not
been studied so thoroughly.
Only recently has field research been directed toward improving the quality
of drainage or return flow waters. These studies have shown that control
and improvement of salinity levels in irrigation return flows is techno-
logically feasible. Subsurface application, scientific irrigation sched-
uling, and proper drainage offer means of reducing salinity levels while
maximizing yields. Growers are not likely to use these techniques, how-
ever, unless they can be shown that the improved methods are indeed
advantageous to them. Demonstration projects have been designed with
this aim, but the time and expense involved and the variable conditions
from one agricultural area to another prevent widespread education by
this means. A rapid, economical means of examining alternatives to pre-
sent management practices is urgently needed to facilitate implementation
of improved management practices in widespread areas.
Prediction modeling can provide the means of examining alternative
approaches for control of salinity levels. Application of systems analysis,
sensitivity analysis, and optimization procedures to irrigation return
flow problems can greatly enhance understanding the ramification of the
problems as well as provide alternative irrigation management schemes.
Freedom from the real time frame and resource outlay of field demonstra-
tion projects allows rapid, economical evaluation of proposed management
schemes.
On-the-farm water management has been cited (Skogerboe and Law, 1971)
as perhaps the area of greatest potential for improving salinity levels
37
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in return flow waters. Since changes in current management practices
may not be reflected as immediate changes in the quality of the return
water, expected long term improvements and benefits must be assessed by
prediction techniques. Knowledge of the manner in which water behaves in
soils has permitted development of prediction techniques for water move-
ment in soil. These techniques can then be used to estimate the amount
and timing of irrigation applications resulting in increased water use
efficiencies. Such increases in efficiency lead to better management of
salinity in return flows since excessive leaching can be avoided.
Models which include optimization procedures can predict the best manage-
ment schemes for reducing salinity levels and improving crop yields as
well as simulating water and salinity flow in the system. Optimization
procedures allow the system to be simulated with constraints on salinity
levels while maximizing crop yields.
The effectiveness of recent developments in methods of application of
irrigation water in reducing or controlling salinity in drainage waters
should be evaluated before they are recommended for widespread use. The
high cost of installation of subsurface and trickle irrigation systems
may make their use restrictive unless comparable benefits can be shown to
accrue as a result of their installation. Prediction modeling can be
used to evaluate their usefulness both in reducing salinity in the drain-
age waters and in improving yields as a result of better water management
and increased efficiencies. Likewise, the effects of irrigation scheduling
on both yield increases and drainage water quality can be assessed.
When the quality of applied irrigation water is marginal with respect to
specific ions or total dissolved solids, models which simulate the quality
changes resulting from ion exchange reactions and ion precipitation-
dissolution reactions in the soil can be of considerable aid in managing
such waters since the probable effects can be determined before their use.
This is especially helpful in managing high sodium and/or high bicarbonate
waters where precipitation of CaCO,. may give rise to increased "sodium
hazard." J
Drainage studies have long been made using simulation techniques, how-
ever, only recently have quality aspects been considered from the stand-
point of minimizing salinity in the return flow water. The salinity
level of drainage water which results from consumptive use, ion exchange,
salt pickup, and mixing phenomena which occur as a result of irrigation
practices can be predicted by models. In areas where poor drainage has
resulted in high salt levels in the soil profile, planning for subsurface
drains can be enhanced by use of prediction techniques which not only
handle the hydraulics but also the quality aspects of the proposed drain-
age system. Development of adequate drainage facilities is necessary in
many irrigated areas to maintain a viable agricultural industry.
38
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Irrigation return flows often constitute a major portion of summer stream
flows in many western rivers, thus their management may greatly affect
the river basin system in which they are located. In river basins such
as the Colorado where salinity levels are of prime importance in the
development of new areas and maintenance of present project areas, pre-
diction modeling is a useful tool in managing the total water resource
system. The benefits of salinity control measures implemented in a given
area may accrue to some downstream users. If an equitable sharing of the
expense of upstream improvements in control measures is to be found, then
some mechanism for identifying the benefits accruing to both areas must
be developed. Prediction modeling can be used to assess these quality
improvements and arrive at an adequate estimate of benefits accrued to
each area.
In the management of a river basin, irrigation may be only one of several
resource uses which are considered in water resource planning. The re-
lative importance of quality degradation caused by irrigation return flows
may dictate a shift in water resource uses to comply with salinity stan-
dards. To date, most planning of this nature has relied on seat-of-the-
pants estimates of the salinity contribution that can be attributed to
agriculture. Definitive prediction models are needed to impact this
level of planning.
In some states, water laws and water duties are structured such that they
may be the chief deterrent to establishing salinity control measures in
those areas. If institutional changes must be brought about to ensure
success of salinity control measures, prediction models can be very help-
ful in generating possible alternatives to present practices. Subjecting
these potential alternatives to economic analysis by optimization pro-
cedures can result in better insight to the probable success of the pro-
posed changes. Changes in water laws are not likely to occur unless the
quality benefits of doing so are considerable. Prediction models used
for this purpose must necessarily be comprehensive and reliable in
projecting the benefits of suggested changes.
Prediction modeling will play an increasingly important role in water
resource management, especially in examining alternative approaches to
irrigation management practices and to improved control of salinity in
irrigation return flows. These predictive models will impact the legal
and economic constraints to improved management practices.
39
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SECTION VII
REFERENCES CITED
1. Alfaro, J.F., and Keller, J., "Model Theory for Predicting Process
of Leaching," Transactions ASAE 13. pp 362-368 (1970).
2. Bear, J., Zaslavsky, D., and Irmay, S., Physical Principles of Water
Percolation and Seepage, UNESCO, Paris (1968).
3. Bhuiyan, S. I., Hiler, E. A., van Bavel, C. H. M., and Aston, A. R.,
"Dynamic Simulation of Verticle Infiltration into Unsaturated Soils,"
Water Resources Research 7, pp 1597-1606 (1971a).
4. Bhuiyan, S. I., Hiler, E. A., and van Bavel, C. H. M., "Dynamic
Modeling for Subirrigation System Design," ASAE Paper No. 71-716
presented at the winter meeting of the ASAE, Chicago, Illinois,
December 7-10 (1971b).
5. Black, T. A., Gardner, W. A., and Thurtell, G. W., "The Prediction
of Evaporation Drainage, and Soil Water Storage for a Bare Soil,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33. pp 655-660 (1969).
6. Bresler, E., "A Model for Tracing Salt Distribution in the Soil
Profile and Estimating the Efficient Combination of Water Quality
and Quantity Under Varying Field Conditions," Soil Sci. 104.
pp 227-233 (1967).
7. Bresler, E., and Hanks, R. J., "Numerical Method for Estimating
Simultaneous Flow of Water and Salt in Unsaturated Soils," Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 33. pp 827-832 (1969).
8. Browning, G. M., In Agricultural Practices and Water Quality. Water
Pollution Control Research Series DAST-26, EPA Report 13040 EYX
11/69, pp 46-59, Washington, D.C. (1970).
9. Dixon, N., and Hendricks, D. W., "Simulation of Spatial and Temporal
Changes in Water Quality Within a Hydrologic Unit," Water Resources
Bulletin 6. pp 483-497 (1970).
10. Dutt, G. R., Quality of Percolating Waters. No. 1 Development of
a Computer Program for Calculating the Ionic Composition of Perco-
lating Waters. Water Resources Center, Contribution No. 50, Univer-
sity of California, Davis, 35 pp (1962a).
11. Dutt, G. R., "Prediction of the Concentration of Solutes in Soil
Solutions for Soil Systems Containing Gypsum and Exchangeable Ca
and Mg," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 26. pp 341-343 (1962b).
41
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12. Dutt, G. R., "Effect of Small Amounts of Gypsum in Soils on the
Solutes in Effluents," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 28, pp 754-757
(1964).
13. Dutt, G. R., and Anderson, W. D., "Effect of Ca-Saturated Soils on
the Conductance and Activity of Cl~} Soft and Ca4"*"," Soil Sci. 98,
pp 377-382 (1965).
14. Dutt, G. R., and Doneen, L. D.,, "Predicting the Solute Composition
of the Saturation Extract From Soil Undergoing Salinization," Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 27. pp 627-630 (1963).
15. Dutt, G. R., and Tanji, K. K., "Predicting Concentrations of Solutes
in Water Percolated Through a Column of Soil," Jour. Geophys. Res. 67.
pp 3437-3439 (1962).
16. Eldridge, E. F., Return Irrigation Water—Characteristics and Effects.
USDHEW-PHS Region IX Portland, Oregon, 120 pp (1960).
17. Freeze, R. A., "The Mechanism of Natural Groundwater Recharge and
Discharge, 1. One-Dimensional, Verticle, Unsteady, Unsaturated Flow
Above a Recharging or Discharging Groundwater Flow System," Water
Resour. Res. 5. pp 153-171 (1969).
18. Freeze, R. A., and Banner, J., "The Mechanism of Natural Groundwater
Recharge and Discharge, 2. Laboratory Column Experiments and Field
Measurements," Water Resour. Res. 6. pp 138-155 (1970).
19. Glover, R. E., "Groundwater—Surface Water Relationships'," Western
Resources Conference, August 25, Boulder, Colorado, 11 pp (1960).
20. Hanks, R. J., Klute, A., and Bresler, E., "A Numeric Method for
Estimating Infiltration, Redistribution, Drainage, and Evaporation
of Water From Soil," Water Resour. Res. 5. pp 1064-1069 (1969).
21. Hartman, M. A., Baird, R. W., Pope, J. B., and Knisel, W. G.,
Determining Rainfall-Runoff-Retention Relationships. Texas Agr.
Expt. Station MP-404, 7 pp (1960).
22. Hurley, P. A., Predicting Return Flow From Irrigation. USDI-BR
Technical Memorandum 660 (1961).
23. Hurley, P. A., "Predicting Return Flow From Irrigation," Jour.
Irrigation and Drainage Div. ASAE 94 (IR1), pp 41-48 (1968).
24. Hyatt, M. L., Riley, J. P., McKee, M. L., and Israelsen, E. L.,
Computer Simulation of the Hydrologic-Salinity Flow System Within
the Upper Colorado River Basin. PRWG 54-1 Utah Water Research
Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah (1970).
42
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25. Knisel, W. G., Jr., Baird, R. W., and Har-tman,M.-A,, "Runoff Volume
Prediction From Daily Climatic Data," Water Resour. Res. 5, pp 84-94
(1969). ~~ ^ '
26. Lai, S. H., "Cation Exchange and Transport in Soil Columns Undergoing
Miscible Displacement," Ph.D. Dissertation, Utah State University,
Logan, Utah (1970).
27. Leeds, J. V,, Jr., "Mathematical Model or "Curve Fit"—Tell It Like
It Is," Water Resour. Bull. 6, pp 339-344 (1970).
28. Maaaland, D. E. L., "Rate of Quality Change of Drain Effluent From
a Saline Water Aquifer," Ph.D. Dissertation, Colorado State Univer-
sity, Ft. Collins, Colorado (1965).
29. Margheim, G. A., "Predicting the Quality of Irrigation Return Flows,"
M.S. Thesis, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado (1967).
30. Nielsen, D. R., Davidson, J. M., Biggar, J. W., and Miller, R. J.,
"Water Movement Through Panoche Clay Loam Soil," Hilgardia 35,
pp 491-506 (1964).
31. Nielsen, D. R., Jackson, R. D., Gary, J. W., and Evans, D. D., (eds.),
Soil Water, Western Regional Research Technical Committee, W-68,
Water Movement in Soils, (1970).
32. Nielsen, D. R., Kirkham, D., and van Wijk, W. R., "Diffusion
Equation Calculations of Field Water Infiltration Profiles," Soil
Sci. Soc. Ame-r. Proc. 25, pp 165-168 (1961) .
33. Orlob, G. T., and Woods, P. C., "Water-Quality Management in
Irrigation Systems," Jour, of Irrigation and Drainage Div. ASCE (IR2),
pp 49-66 (1967).
34. Oster, J. D., and McNeal, B. L., "Computation of Soil Solution
Variation with Water Content for Desaturated Soils," Soil Sci.
Soc. Amer. Proc. 35, pp 436-442 (1971).
35. Philip, J. R., "The Theory of Infiltration, 1, The Infiltration
Equation and Its Solution," Soil Sci. 83, pp 345-357 (1957a).
36. Philip, J. R., "The Theory of Infiltration, 5, The Influence of
The Initial Moisture Content," Soil Sci. 84, pp 329-339 (1957b).
37. Rubin, J., "Numerical Method for Analyzing Hysteresis-Affected,
Post-Infiltration Redistribution of Soil Moisture," Soil Sci.
Soc. Amer. PrciC. 31, pp 13-20 (1967).
43
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38. Rubin, J., "Theoretical Analysis of Two-Dimensional, Transient
Flow of Water in Unsaturated and Partly Unsaturated Soils," Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 32, pp 607-615 (1968).
39. Sadler, L. D. M., Taylor, S. A., Willardson, L. S., and Keller, J.,
"Miscible Displacement of Soluble Salts in Reclaiming a Salted
Soil," Soil Sci. 100, PP 348-355 (1965).
40. Scheidegger, A. E., "Stochastic Models in Hydrology," Water Resour.
Res. 6, pp 750-755 (1970).
41. Scofield, C. S., "Salt Balance in Irrigated Areas," Agricultural
Research 61, pp 17-39 (1940).
42. Skogerboe, G. V., and Law, J. P., Research Needs for Irrigation
Return Flow Quality Control, Water Pollution Control Research
Series, EPA Report 13030 11/71, Washington, D.C. (1971).
43. Staple, W. J., "Comparison of Computed and Measured Moisture
Redistribution Following Infiltration," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc.
33_, pp 840-847 (1969).
44. Tanji, K. K., "A Computer Analysis of the Leaching of Boron from
Stratified Soil Columns," Soil Sci. 110, pp 44-51 (1970).
45. Tanji, K. K., and Biggar, J. W., "Specific Conductance Model for
Natural Waters and Soil Solutions of Limited Salinity Levels,"
Water Resour. Res. 8, pp 145-153 (1972) .
46. Tanji, K. K., and Doneen, L. D., "A Computer Technique for Predic-
tion of CaC03 Precipitation in HCO ~ Salt Solutions," Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. Proc. 30, pp 53-56 (1966) .
47. Tanji, K. K., Doneen, L. D., and Paul, J. L., "Quality of Percolat-
ing Waters: III. The Quality of Waters Percolating Through Strat-
ified Substrata, as Predicted by Computer Analyses," Hilgardia 9,
pp 319-347 (1967b).
48. Tanji, K. K., Dutt, G. R., Paul, J. L., and Doneen, L. D., "Quality
of Percolating Waters: II. A Computer Method for Predicting Salt
Concentrations in Soils at Variable Moisture Contents," Hilgardia 9,
pp 307-318 (1967a).
49. Thomas, J. L., Riley, J. P., and Israelsen, E. K., A Computer
Model of the Quantity and Quality of Return Flow, PRWG 77-1, Utah
Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, Utah
(1971).
44
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50. Upton, C., "A Model of Water Quality Management Under Uncertainty,"
Water Resour. Res. 6, pp 690-699 (1970).
51. Utah State University Foundation, Characteristics and Problems of
Irrigation Return Flow, FWPCA-USDI, Robert S. Kerr Water Research
Center, Ada, Oklahoma (1969).
52. Wadleigh, C. E., Wastes in Relation to Agriculture and Forestry,
USDA Miscellaneous Publication No. 1065 (1968).
53. Walker, W. R., "Hydro-Salinity Model of the Grand Valley," M.S.
Thesis, Colorado State University, Ft. Collins, Colorado (1970).
54. Wang, F. C., and Lakshminarayna, V., "Mathematical Simulation of
Water Movement Through Unsaturated Nonhomogeneous Soils," Soil
Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 32, pp 329-334 (1968).
55. Warrick, A. W., Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Simultaneous
Solute and Water TRansfer for an Unsaturated Soil," Water Resour.
Res. 7, pp 1216-1225 (1971).
45
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SECTION VIII
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPEY
1. Alfaro, J. F., "Distribution of Salts in a Verticle Soil Profile
During Leaching," Ph.D. Dissertation, Utah State University Library
Logan, Utah, 132 pp (1968).
2. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Diffusion Effects in Miscible
Displacement Occurring in Saturated and Unsaturated Porous Materials,"
Jour. Geophys. Res. 65, pp 2887-2895 (I960).
3. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R,, "Miscible Displacement in Porous
Materials," Jour, of Soil Sci. 12, pp 188-197 (1961).
4. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen^ D. R., "Miscible Displacement: II.
Behavior of Tracers," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 26, pp 125-128 (1962).
5. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Some Comments on Molecular
Diffusion and Hydrodynamic Dispersion in Porous Media," Jour. Geophys.
Res. 67, pp 3636-3637 (1962) . ~~
6. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Improved Leaching Practices,"
California Agriculture 16, 5 pp (1962).
7. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Miscible Displacement: V.
Exchange Processes," Soil Sci. SOC. Amer. Proc. 27, pp 623-627 (1963).
8. Biggar, J. W., and Nielsen, D. R., "Chloride 36 Diffusion During
Stable and Unstable Flow Through Glass Beads," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Proc. 28, pp 591-595 (1964).
9. Bondurant, J. A., "Quality of Surface Irrigation Runoff Water," ASAE
Paper No. 71-247 presented at the 1971 annual meeting of the ASAE,
Chicago, Illinois (1971).
10. Bouwer, H., "Theoretical Aspects of Flow Above the Water Table in
Tile Drainage of Shallow Homogeneous Soils," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Proc. 23, pp 260-263 (1959).
11. Bouwer, H., "Salt Balance, Irrigation Efficiency, and Drainage Design,"
JOur. Irrigation and Drainage Div. ASCE 95 (IRl), pp 153-170 (1969).
12. Bower, C. A., "Prediction of the Effects of Irrigation Waters on
Soils," Proc. UNESCO Arid Zone Symposium, Salinity Problems in Arid
Zones, Teheran, Iran, pp 215-222 (1961).
47
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13. Bower, C. A., Ogata, G., and Tucker, J. M., "Sodium Hazard of
Irrigation Waters as Influenced by Leaching Fraction and by
Precipitation or Solution of Calcium Carbonate," Soil Sci. 106,
pp 29-34 (1968).
14. Bower, C. A., Spencer, J. R., and Weeks, L, 0,, "Salt and Water
Balance, Coachella Valley, California," Jour . of the Irrigation and
Drainage Div. ASCE 95 (m) , pp 55-64 (1969).
15. Brady, N. C., Agriculture arid the Quality of Our Environment, AAAS
Publication 85, Washington, B.C. (1967).
16. Bresler, E., Kemper, W. D., and Hanks, R. J., "Infiltration, Redistri-
bution, and Subsequent Evaporation of Water from Soil as Affected by
Wetting Rate and Hysteresis," Soil Sci. SOc. Arar^ Proc. 33, pp 832-
840 (1969).
17. Brooks, R. H., Goertzen, J. 0., and Bower, C. A., "Prediction of
Changes in the Cationic Composition of the Soil Solution Upon
Irrigation with High-Sodium Waters," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 22,
pp 122-124 (1958).
18. Carter, D. L., Bondurant, J. A., and Robbins, C. W., "Water-Soluble
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and Description of Water Flow Through Columbia Silt Loam and Hesperia
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48
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24. Dixon, N. P., Hendricks, D. W., Huber, A. L, and Bagley, J. M.,
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of the Water Poll. Cont. Fed. 35, pp 614-625 (1963).
31. El-Swaify, S. A., and Swindale, L. D., "Effects of Saline Water on
the Chemical Properties of Some Tropical Soils," Soil Sci. Soc.
Amer. Proc. 34, pp 207-211 (1970).
32. Franzoy, C. E., and Tankersley, E. L., "Predicting Irrigations
from Climatic Data and Soil Parameters," Transactions ASAE 13,
pp 814-816 (1970).
33. Gardner, H. R., and Gardner, W. R., "Relation of Water Application
to Evaporation and Storage of Soil Water," Soil Sci. Soc. Amer.
Proc. 33, pp 192-196 (1969).
34. Green, R. E., Hanks, R. J., and Larson, W. E., "Estimates of Field
Infiltration by Numerical Solutions of the Moisture Flow Equation,"
Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 28, pp 15-19 (1964).
35. Green, D. W., Dabiri, H., Weinaug, C. F., and Prill, R., "Numerical
Modeling of Unsaturated Groundwater Flow and Comparison of the Model
to a. Field Experiment," Water Resour. Res. 6, pp 862-874 (1970).
49
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36. Grover, B. L.f Campbell, C. B., and Campbell, M. D., "A Prediction
Equation for Vegetative.Effects on Water Yield from Watersheds in
Arid Areas." Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. Proc. 34. pp 669-673 0-970.
37. Hall, F. R., "Dissolved Solids—Discharge Relationships 1. Mixing
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* U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE • 1 973 —514-1 53/232
55
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
t. .Report No.
a -cession N
W
4, Title
PREDICTION MODELING FOR SALINITY CONTROL IN IRRIGATION
RETURN FLOWS,
S,. R&pottBsie
4.
8. f.atfarmistg Orgatu&rifoa
". Author(s)
Hornsbv. A. G.
9. Organization
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Robert S. Kerr Environmental Research Laboratory
Ada, Oklahoma
10, Pro/ectNa.
EPA 13030 GJS
11. Contract I Graat So.
•it, Type, ppO&pel* and
Period Covered
12. Sponsoring'
15. Supplementary Notes
Environmental Protection Technology series
EPA-R2-73-168
16. Absttart
A review of the current state-of-the-art of prediction modeling as applied
to salinity control in irrigation return flows is presented. Prediction
models are needed to assess the effects of proposed changes in irrigation
management practices on the quality of return flows. The processes which
affect salinity levels in return flows are enumerated and their interactions
are alluded to. Models used to predict the quantity and quality of return
flows are briefly discussed to show the development of the current level of
technology. The readers are referred to the original documents for more
rigid development of the models and incumbent assumptions. It was concluded
that technology of water and salt flow in soil systems is sufficiently
developed to permit formulation of models using systems analysis to evaluate
proposed changes in management practices. Development of systems models to
study irrigation return flow problems and conjunctive water resource uses
was recommended. A bibliography of selected references is given in addition
to the references cited.
J7a. Descriptors
Irrigation systems, surface flow, subsurface flow, salt movement, ion exchange,
system analysis, water resource management, simulation, evapotranspiration,
soil physical properties, soil moisture-
17b. Identifiers
17'-. COWRR Field & Group 02 D, E, F, G; 04 A, B; 05 B
IS. Availability
fc
t (Mepe^,
Se'QntyC} «. i *
, Pages
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 2O24O
Abstractor A. G. Hornsbv
Inttitutioi. EPA - RSKERL
• WRSIC 102 (Rev. .(UN
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