EPA-880/5-73-0 03
August 1973
Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series
Intermedia Aspects Of Air And
Water Pollution Control
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3, Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the SOCIOECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES series. This series
describes research on the socioeconomic impact of
environmental problems. This covers recycling and
other recovery operations with emphasis on
monetary incentives. The non-scientific realms of
legal systems, cultural values, and business
systems are also involved. Because of their
interdisciplinary scope, system evaluations and
environmental management reports are included in
this series.
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EPA-600/5-73-003
August 1973
INTERMEDIA ASPECTS OF AIR AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL
by
Ralph Stone and Herbert Smallwood
Contract No. 68-01-0729
Program Element 1H1093
Project Officer
Roger Don Shull, Ph.D.
Implementation Research Division
Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
WASHINGTON, D.C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20102 - Price $3.15
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication. Approval does not signify that the con-
tents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or commercial
products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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ABSTRACT
Major air and water pollutant control strategies are identified which are of current
National concern. Emphasis is on artificial transfer between air or water. Natural
transfers are not treated in depth and land is considered only as a means for residue
disposal. Discussions Include dangers of Intermedia transfer from land to air or water.
Control methods for each Intermedia pollutant are discussed; comparative costs and
expected unit process efficiencies are given. Residue disposal methods and problems
are presented.
Institutional factors, regulations and strategies for pollution control are summarized and
discussed. These are also Illustrated with a gross regional study of the Los Angeles
Metropolitan Area, which is described in perspective with the National scene.
Summary data are developed for major pollutants and residues discharged nationally
and in the California South Coast Region, along with product/pollutant ratios for
industries represented by the Standard Industrial Classification Code and other public
economic sectors.
The framework for a mathematical model is developed for the prediction of the effects
of change in any of the elements of the production-consumption-pollution-regulation
network.
Conclusions and recommendations are given.
This report is submitted In fulfillment of Contract 68-01-0729 under the sponsorship
of the Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection
Agency.
in
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CONTENTS
Section Page
I Conclusions 1
II Recommendations 6
III Introduction 8
IV Definitions of Intermedia Terms 16
V The Pollutants, Their Sources and Intermedia Relationships 20
National Sources of Pollutants 25
Major Intermedia Air and Water Pollutants (both media) 35
Major Intermedia Air Pollutant (single medium) 61
Major Intermedia Water Pollutants (single medium) 73
Intramedia or Lesser Intermedia Air Pollutants (single medium) 85
Intramedia or Lesser Intermedia Water Pollutants (single medium) 98
VI Treatment Summaries 117
Air Pollutant Treatments 117
Wastewater Treatments 122
Intermedia Impacts of Process and Treatment 139
VII Regulatory Control Strategy 204
VIII The Mathematical Model 228
IX Regional Case Study 243
X Acknowledgements 302
XI References 303
XII Appendix 333
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FIGURES
Figure
1A CATEGORY RELATIONSHIPS: AIR POLLUTANTS n
IB CATEGORY RELATIONSHIPS: WATER POLLUTANTS 12
2 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHARTS: MATERIAL FLOWAND 21
INFORMATION FEEDBACK
3 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHARTS: ORGANIZATION AND LEGEND 24
4 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: SULFUR OXIDES (GASEOUS) 36
5 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN WATER 37
6 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: NITROGEN OXIDES 43
7 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: NITROGEN COMPOUNDS 44
8 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: HEAVY METALS 48
9 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: RADIOACTIVE MATERIA LS 53
10 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: PARTICULATES 62
11 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: ORGANICS AND SUSPENDED 74
COMPOUNDS
12 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: ACIDITY-ALKALINITY 80
13 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS 83
14 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: CARBON MONOXIDE 86
15 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS 89
16 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: THERMAL POLLUTION 99
17 INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART: PATHOGENS 102
18 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: PESTICIDES (HERBICIDES) 108
19 INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART: LIQUID HYDROCARBONS 116
20 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 208
21 WATER POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM 209
22 INTERMEDIA POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY AND POLICY 210
RELATIONSHIPS
23 RELATED ELEMENTS IN POLLUTION CONTROL 224
24 STATE AND REGIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES 249
25 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA AIR QUALITY AGENCIES 250
26 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA WATER QUALITY AGENCIES 251
27 SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 252
AGENCIES
28 LBS PER CAPITA SOLID WASTE GENERATION: 298
CITY OF LOS ANGELES
29 IMPACT OF SOLID WASTE HANDLING PROCEDURES 299
ON INTERMEDIA MANAGEMENT
30 IMPACT OF NON-INCINERATION ON SOLID WASTE 300
DISPOSAL TO LANDFILLS IN LOS ANGELES
VI
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TABLES
Table Page
T POLLUTANT CATEGORIES ~W~
2 PRIMARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS 17
3 SECONDARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS 18
4 INTERMEDIA MANAGEMENT 19
5 MAJOR POLLUTANTS, SOURCES, AND PRIMARY MEDIA 22
6 NATIONAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION 26
7 NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION 30
8 SULFUR DIOXIDE WORLDWIDE GASEOUS EMISSIONS 38
9 PRIMARY PARTICULATE EMISSIONS 63
10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLLECTION
DEVICES 65
11 TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF WET SCRUBBERS 69
12 SELECTED ESTIMATED VOLUME OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
BEFORE TREATMENT, 1963 76
13 RELATIVE EFFICIENCIES OF SEWAGE-TREATMENT PROCESSES:
PERCENT REMOVAL 77
14 INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS IN AIR TREATMENTS 118
15 EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING ANNUAL OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE COSTS OF AIR TREATMENT METHODS 119
16 CAPITAL COSTS FOR PARTICULATE CONTROL 120
17 ANNUAL CAPITAL AND OPERATING COSTS FOR PARTICULATE
CONTROL 121
18 AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EXPENDITURES BY INDUSTRY 123
19 INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT 124
20 WASTEWATER TREATMENT COSTS 125
21 COOLING WATER CIRCULATION (GPM) REQUIRED PER
KILOWATT POWER CAPACITY 127
22 VALUES OF K FOR FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWERS 129
23 RESIDUE DISPOSAL COST RANGES 130
24 RESIDUE DISPOSAL COSTS AS A FUNCTION OF DISTANCE TO
DISPOSAL SITE 131
25 COSTS OF INCINERATION AND LAND DISPOSAL AS A
FUNCTION OF THE POPULATION SERVED 132
26 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BOD5 AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
PRODUCED BY INDUSTRY 134
27 RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RESIDUE QUANTITIES REMOVED BY
WASTEWATER TREATMENTS 135
28 TOTAL LEACHATE QUANTITIES FROM LANDFILLS 137
29 LANDFILL LEACHATE PRODUCTION RATE 138
30 POLLUTION CONTROL ALTERNATIVES AND QUANTIFIED
INTERMEDIA IMPACTS 140
30b AIR TREATMENT RESIDUE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES 153
30c WATER TREATMENT RESIDUE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES 154
*
VII
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TABLES (Cont.)
Table Page
31 AIR TREATMENT LIST 157
32 WATER TREATMENT LIST 181
33 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA 212
34 EXAMPLES OF ADOPTED RULES AND REGULATIONS:
SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN 215
35 FEDERAL SURFACE WATER CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES 217
36 CALIFORNIA DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARDS 219
37 REGULATORY STRATEGY CLASSIFICATIONS 221
38 CALIFORNIA LANDFILL SITE STANDARDS 227
39 SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN: COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS BY
COUNTY, 1970 255
40 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA 256
41 SUMMARY OF RULES AND REGULATIONS: SOUTH COAST AIR
BASIN APCD'S 260
42 SUMMARY OF FEDERAL PLAN FOR HYDRO-CARBON REDUCTION 267
43 POLLUTION CONTROLS AND RESIDUES: LOS ANGELES COUNTY,
CALIFORNIA 270
44 ESTIMATED WATER USE AND BOD5 PRODUCTION BY INDUSTRY
IN LOS ANGELES 276
45 SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS IN THE STUDY REGION 279
46 STUDY REGION LANDFILLS: DISTANCES AND TRAVEL TIMES 292
47 COST SUMMARY OF LONG TERM SLUDGE DISPOSAL
ALTERNATIVES 293
48 COSTS OF VARIOUS TRANSPORTATION AND DISPOSAL METHODS 295
49 ENERGY RELATED POLLUTION FOR SLUDGE DISPOSAL 296
APPENDIX
I ECONOMIC OUTPUT OF SIC-CODED INDUSTRIES 334
II PHYSICAL OUTPUT OF SIC-CODED INDUSTRIES 338
* *
VIII
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SUMMARY
1 . On the basis of emissions, toxicity, and current conditions, twenty-four pollutants
were examined and classified as follows:
Major Intermedia Air and Water Pollutants (both media)
Sulfur oxides and compounds
Nitrogen oxides and compounds
Heavy metals
Radioactivity
Major Intermedia Air Pollutant (single medium)
Particulates
Major Intermedia Water Pollutants (single medium)
Organics
Suspended solids
Acidity and alkalinity
Phosphorous compounds
Lesser or Intramedia Air Pollutants (both media)
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Fluorides
Hydrogen chloride
Arsenic
Hydrogen cyanide
Ammonia
Ethylene
Lesser or Intramedia Water Pollutants (single medium)
Thermal
Pathogens
Pesticides
Metallic salts and oxides
Chlorides
Surfactants
Liquid hydrocarbons
Their SIC Code sources and the total quantity of the aforementioned pollutants, and the
major problems created, are tabulated and discussed in the body of the report.
2. Principal physical control techniques include: (a) treatment for removal, (b) con-
version to non-pollutants (c) recovery for reuse, (d) manufacturing process changes to
achieve a change in waste materials or quantities, (e) cessation of production or non-
use of a particular polluting material.
3. Principal regulatory methods for stimulating the use of these physical methods in-
clude: (a) regulatory controls that are either restrictive or prohibitive in nature, (b)
economic controls in the form of other incentives or sanctions (taxes, etc.), and (c)
educational campaigns to stimulate changes in habits, etc.
IX
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'"'. Principle methods for the conversion of pollution discharges to an alternate medium
include incineration, wet scrubbing, solids removal with landfilling, land application
of effluents or sludges, recovery and reuse with transformed waste products.
5. Residue disposal problems include gas and leachate generation (ground and surface
water pollution) contamination through erosion, runoff, and other natural processes;
availability of land; costs of land and transportation; social and environmental accepta-
bility of the disposal methods; increasing quantities of residues requiring disposal; and
the increasing number of toxic materials in the residues.
6. Comparative cost information for various control methods has been prepared and
tabulated in the body of the report.
' t The critical factors influencing the choice of pollution control techniques and the
discharge medium are physical location of the process, concentration of other dis-
chargers, environmental acceptability of the waste products, costs of the control method,
opportunity for product recovery, established discharge standards, consequences of not
meeting these standards, and residue disposal problems already mentioned.
8. The gross regional study of the general Los Angeles Metropolitan Area (South Coast
Basin) outlines the existing State and local administrative structure for pollution control,
lists the manufacturing production processes in use, waste control facilities, waste
products produced, regulations, their implementation, and projections for the future.
9, Section VII - Strategies and Implementation-discusses a conceptual framework for
a total environmental program approach.
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are arranged in accordance with Hie Contract Task Require-
ments listed in the introduction.
TASK I INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS AND THEIR SOURCES
1. The major intermedia pollutants emitted initially to either air or water are: sulfur
compounds, nitrogen compounds, heavy metals and radioactivity. Those initially
discharged to water are: organics, suspended solids, acidity and alkalinity, and
phosphorus compounds; those discharged initially to air are limited to particulates.
2,. Intramedia or lesser intermedia air pollutants are carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons
including ethylene, fluorides, hydrogen chloride, arsenic, hydrogen cyanide and
ammonia. Intramedia or lesser intermedia water pollutants are: pathogens, pesticides,
thermal pollution, metallic salts and oxides, chlorides, surfactants, and liquid hydro-
carbons.
2. The major sources of air pollution and their respective Standard Industrial Class-
ification Codes are: mobile sources, power generation from fuel (491), chemicals
manufacture (28), metallurgical processes (33) and refuse incineration (4953). Large
contributors of particulates to the atmosphere include: the sand, clay and glass industry
(32) and non-metal mining and quarrying (14).
3. The major sources of water pollution are: agriculture (01, 02), food processing
(20), mining (10, 11, 12), paper and allied products (26), chemicals manufacture (28),
blast furnaces and basic steel production (331), and sanitary systems and sewers (4952).
TASKS II, III, IV CONTROL AND DISPOSAL PROBLEMS AND TECHNIQUES
1. Intermedia transfers include direct transfer (removal of a pollutant from one medium
and its disposal in another) or indirect (pollution created in another medium and usually
in another form by a basic change in a process or industry).
2. The principal current sources of direct intermedia transfers from water to air are:
Incineration of sewage sludge or other industrial waste residues including
radioactive wastes.
Ammonia, other gaseous and volatile emissions from wastewater aeration processes,
trickling filters, lagoons, stripping towers, sewers, etc.
Nitrous oxide emissions from chlorination for ammonia nitrogen control in water.
Sewage and industrial waste sludge digestion and drying.
1
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Removal of radioactive gases from reactor coolant water and their release
following insufficient storage time.
Direct intermedia transfers from water-to-air which are avoidable only with considerable
expense are usually of minor significance. They result from wastewater treatment
processes such as aeration, trickling filters, lagoons, stripping towers, anaerobic
decomposition and chlorination for removal of ammonia nitrogen. The air pollutants
produced are nitrogen oxides, hydrogen sulfide, methane, mercaptans and ammonia.
3. The principal current sources of direct intermedia transfers from air to water are:
The use of scrubbers to control gaseous emissions to the atmosphere.
Flushing with water to remove and carry residues from dry collection equipment
such as cyclones.
Steam regeneration of activated carbon used to control gaseous emissions,
although this depends upon the subsequent treatment of the steam condensate
and the resulting volatilized or oxidized materials.
4. The principal current sources of indirect intermedia transfers are:
Replacement of fossil fuel power generation by nuclear power generation. This
eliminates hydrocarbon, particulate, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and other
forms of air pollution from fossil fuel combustion, but it creates possible radio-
active pollution of air and water and thermal pollution of water.
Waste products created by the manufacture of pollution control equipment.
Recycling of water to reduce water usage. This seemingly Intramedial alterna-
tive may create indirect intermedia transfers by the reduction of production
efficiency from the buildup of salinity or scale in either process or cooling
equipment. A reduction in efficiency results in an increased new materials and
labor input to maintain production rates and the accompanying increased outputs
to the environment of more energy, waste materials, people, greater travel and
the additional support services required.
TASK V COMPARATIVE CONTROL COST INFORMATION
1 . A mathematical model (WARM) described in this report incorporates the interrela-
tionships between regional transportation alternatives (mass transit and private automobile}
and regional pollution control strategies. Additional factors, such as industrial zoning
and land-use planning, are important in determining transportation planning and control
strategies. A simultaneous analysis of all relevant factors is necessary for arriving at
optimal pollution-control decisions.
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2. The available data is inadequate for the effective implementation of intermedia
pollution control strategies; although considerable information is available for certain
problems of direct intermedia transfers, data insufficiencies were noted for indirect
transfers. Because of the need for coordinated planning, this data deficiency is a serious
one. While dollar input-output relationships are helpful, they are not sufficient to
evaluate the intermedia pollution relationships within the mathematical model described
in Section VIII of this report (WARM) or a similar model. Specific information concern-
ing physical input-output relationships for the various economic sectors is needed.
TASK VI CRITICAL FACTORS AFFECTING CHOICE OF CONTROL TECHNIQUE
AND DISCHARGE MEDIUM
1. Physical location of the process,
2. Concentration of other dischargers.
3. Opportunity for product recovery.
4. Environmental acceptability of waste products. Since waste treatments alter the
form or concentration of waste material, rather than destroying it, waste treatments
that are single-medium oriented many times offer incomplete pollution control, since
they may result in undetected, but significant, intermedia transfers.
5. Costs of the control method. The effectiveness of any legal strategy seeking to
provide regulatory control will depend on three factors: the costs of compliance, the
costs of noncompliance, and the probability of enforcement. Costs of the control
method, included within the costs of compliance, involve factors such as the costs of
research and development to generate new control technology, the additional capital
and operating costs of meeting regulatory specifications such as emissions standards,
and the costs associated with lag time or inconvenience while the control method is
being implemented.
6. Established discharge standards and consequences of not meeting these standards.
Strict enforcement of discharge standards depends on conscientious licensing procedures,
adequate pollutant monitoring, impartial staffing of control agencies, and sufficient
control agency funding and personnel to inhibit evasive practices as well as more obvious
violations of discharge standards. The consequences of not meeting established discharge
standards, such as fines for violation, must be severe enough so that noncompliance with
established standards is discouraged.
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TASK VII GROSS REGIONAL STUDY
1 . Air pollution control has had a much larger impact on solid waste quantities than
has water pollution control. In the City of Los Angeles, where virtually all waste-
water is discharged to the sewer system, the disposal of all sewage sludge to the land
would increase the dry weight of total solid waste disposed by only 2.5 percent. In
contrast, a return to the 1957 burning and air pollution standards would now reduce
solids disposal to landfills about 43 percent by weight.
2. Few incinerators can meet the rigorously established emission standards of Los
Angeles County; for strategic reasons, incinerators, which are a relatively expensive
form of residue treatment, should be de-emphasized and residues disposed to landfills
or reclaimed for agriculture.
TASK VIII ADDITIONAL RESEARCH REQUIRED, GENERAL CONCLUSIONS,
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK, AND STRATEGIES.
1. Systematic industrial waste data concerning air pollutants, their sources, quantities
economic and environmental effects are better documented and inventoried than those
relating to water pollutants. Available information concerning liquid industrial wastes
consists largely of unrelated case studies at various industrial plants with resulting data
estimates of low reliability.
2. The ambient standards for water have not been as well correlated with discharge
standards as those for air, since enabling data is seldom available.
3. Many toxic waste residues are the result of intermedia transfers, since historically
many toxic waste residues have been disposed broadly by dilution into the environment.
4. Since more efficient dry collection methods exist for most applications where
scrubbers are currently employed, reasonable alternatives to air-to-water transfers
are available. Where scrubbers must be used, settling basins can be utilized to
create a solid residue.
5. Indirect intermedia transfers seem to be of greater significance than direct transfers,
but the latter, when occurring between air and water should be avoided, and generally '
can be by utilizing alternative technology including land disposal in an adequately
designed and operated facility which protects the public health and prevents subsequent
intermedia pollution transfers to air and/or water.
6. Strategies to prevent intermedia pollution include avoidance of processes and
materials which produce the pollutants as well as the treatment of the waste discharges.
Elimination of potential pollution may be more efficient than treatment as a pollution
control strategy.
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7. The effectiveness of regulatory control strategy depends primarily on the relative
anticipated costs of compliance or noncompliance with legal requirements. Three sets
of factors are involved: the costs of compliance and of noncompliance, and the
probability of enforcement.
The major costs associated with compliance are: the cost of research and development
to generate approved technology; the additional capital and operating costs of meeting
emission standards or other regulatory specifications; and the inconvenience or time lag
associated with the development of or conversion to approved technology, equipment,
or devices. The major costs associated with noncompliance, or violation,are: fines,
imprisonment, withholding of licenses, unfavorable publicity, and legal expenses.
Strict enforcement depends on: conscientious licensing procedures; adequate sufficient
funding and personnel to inhibit both outright violations and evasive practices such as
dilution of emissions by increasing air/water use, selective operation of control equip-
ment when inspection is anticipated, and night discharges.
There is little economic motivation to comply with regulatory standards if the anticipated
financial penalty is equal to or less than the anticipated increase in amortization/
operating costs associated with compliance. If the penalties are set at a realistic level
for the purpose of dissuading violation, the probability of detection and enforcement
must be sufficiently high to make the anticipated cost-benefits of compliance more
attractive than those of contravention.
8. There is a need for further coordinated planning to optimize comprehensive programs
for environmental protection, including close regional coordination of transportation,
industrial zoning and land use planning, and regional pollution control strategies.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
As a result of this study and the conclusions drawn from it, the following recommenda-
tions are intended to make present pollution control strategies more effective and develop
a better understanding of intermedia pollution transfers' processes and impacts, as well
as to provide for developing better decision-making tools.
1 . Greater emphasis should be given to obtaining a balance in the programs and
control strategies which are directed either toward the regulation of pollutional
activities or toward the financial and/or technical assistance given to reducing, abating
or preventing pollution. To accomplish this balance, it is necessary to develop and/or
perfect a means for assessing the consequences of any intended action within a control-
ling geographical area including the effects of additional production, consumption,
importation, exportation, or transfer of materials, energy, and waste products.
2. The mathematical model (WARM) outlined in this report should be further developed
and expanded along with the necessary inventory of input information to assist in the
assessments described above. The information concerning physical input-output relation-
ships is particularly necessary. Although a complete physical input-output representa-
tion of the economy may not be feasible in the near future, enough information should
be developed to evaluate the pollution control strategies on an incremental basis. This
approach, while not able to evaluate all indirect implications of the strategy, would
be a step in the right direction.
3. Specific intermedial regional studies are needed along with better and more complete
inventories of pollution strategies, processes, products, controls, discharges and pollutants
for the establishment of reliable mass balances within each area. These intermedial
regional studies should be representative of areas of weak, average, and strong pollution
control programs. The study areas would also be candidates for application of the math-
ematical model noted in Recommendation 2.
4. There should be further investigations of the detailed composition of industrial waste-
water discharges to augment the sparse information presently available.
5. More data should be gathered concerning the fate of pesticides and heavy metals
present in incinerated wastes.
6. Further studies should be made of the fate of heavy metals and other toxicants present
in waste sludges disposed to the land.
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RECOMMENDATIONS (Cent.)
7. Further research is needed to improve the technology for controlling intermedia
transfers of many of the pollutants. Those presently existing are largely the result of
expeditiously solving an immediate and obvious problem, and do not necessarily offer
satisfactory control.
8. Further research is needed concerning the conversion of waste materials to non-
pollutants and how they may be recovered and reused.
9. Alternative methods for residue control are limited essentially to source reduction,
environmental diffusion, land burial, or burning. As residues continue to increase
rapidly in volume and weight, further studies should be directed toward reclamation,
improved treatment, transportation and process of disposal.
All of the above recommendations are directed toward providing a wider range of inter-
media pollution control strategies, social-economic benefits, and the means for choosing
optimum system alternatives.
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SECTION 111
INTRODUCTION
Objectives and Scope
As set forth in the contract,the program objectives were summarized in 8 tasks:
1 . List the major intermedia pollutants to air and water, their source by Standard
Industrial Classification Code, and the problems they cause.
2. Describe the principal control and residue disposal techniques.
3. Describe the method(s) which could convert discharges to the alternate medium.
4. Describe residue disposal problems.
5. Develop comparative control cost information.
6. Identify the most critical factors affecting choice of control technique and
discharge media.
7. Perform a gross regional case study of intermedia pollution management.
8. Draw conclusions, suggest additional research, and develop a conceptual frame-
work for a total environmental protection program approach.
The study's primary concern is with the intermedial impact of air and water pollution
control strategies and to a lesser extent the environmental management of residues
created by removing pollutants from air and water. The analysis has evaluated factors
such as inputs required, products created and costs that influence choices of controls
or alternative processes. Particular efforts have been made to study the intermedia
effects of control alternatives.
Previous pollution control strategies have had poor overall coordination with the result
that intermedia impacts have been neither predicted nor assessed. For example,
formerly many products of incineration have been diverted by control programs from
the air to the water and the land without consideration of the consequences. His-
torical ly,emphasis on removal rates or dilution capability has been used to control
pollution/as illustrated in water quality control by the stress placed on percent removal
of suspended matter and 6005. Percent removal is a partial and simplistic considera-
tion. The most relevant questions are these: Into what form are the major pollutants
converted? What will be done with the new residues? What environmental impacts
result, or what are the intermedia implications of this pollution control strategy?
This report has attempted to focus on significant variables of man-made pollution as
contrasted with natural pollution. It does not treat to any large degree problems
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that are not of major importance in the total national pollution program, nor with
situations which we cannot now practically affect. Natural processes will be des-
cribed only where man's activities are significantly interrelated.
Area of Study
The work program has emphasized nationwide considerations. A secondary activity
has involved a gross regional evaluation. The national technological and institutional
framework of intermedia pollution has been applied to the gross regional study of the
South Coastal Basin of Southern California. The peculiarities of the region have been
noted insofar as they depart from national data in economic activities, costs, plant
and treatment processes used, etc. For example, coal combustion is a major source of
power and heat nationally, and is a major source of air pollution. However, in
Southern California coal is a minor consideration and natural gas, water, and nuclear
energy are the prime sources of power and heat. Included in the South Coast Region
are the metropolitan and agricultural flatlands of Ventura, Los Angeles, San Bernar-
dino, Orange and Riverside Counties; the mountainous zones which surround the air
basin are excluded.
Method of Analysis
All national economic sectors have been considered as potential pollution sources.
These activities are presented in accordance with the United States Department of
Commerce's 2-digit Standard Industrial Classification (SIC) categories. Consumer and
public activities have also been evaluated as major pollution sources. An input-out-
put structure has been designed to describe economic activities and the resultant major
pollution loads within one large matrix. To determine which were the major intermedia
pollutants a candidate list of all major air and water pollutants was first developed,
based on extensive studies of available national pollution data. Each identified poll-
utant was evaluated for intermedia relationships to yield the list of major intermedia
pollutants.
Terminology
Significantly, it was necessary to re-orient the conventional knowledge of single
media "tunnel" viewpoints to overall environmental "intermedia" viewpoints. Common
terminology was confused and considerable effort was expended to define major
intermedia pollutants and other related language.
Presentation of Data
The estimates of total quantities of pollutants discharged into the air and water are
expressed in consistent terms, such as tons/yr. For the input-output matrix these re-
lationships are reduced to lbs/$ value of the product produced by each industrial
sector. The ambient pollutant concentration levels are expressed in mg/l for water
and in ppm for air. The unit "ppm" is independent of temperature and pressure in air,
whereas mg/l is not since it is an expression of weight per volume of air.
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Data Sources
Data for this project was obtained from materials at the libraries of the University of
California at Los Angeles, the Los Angeles library of the Department of Commerce
and the Library of Ralph Stone and Co., Inc. Numerous journal articles, reports of
governmental agencies, conference reports, magazine and newspaper articles, various
pamphlets, and pollution monographs were used as sources of information. A standard
abstract form was designed and adopted for referencing, sorting, and entering acquired
data. Emphasis has been placed on publications published recently within a five year
period; however, older classical data have also been used when current information
was lacking.
In each case the most current available data has been used. Similarly, the most re-
cently derived coefficients expressing the amount of pollutant per unit of product were
determined from the literature, and then gross quantities of pollutants were updated to
the year 1971 with separate additional information that was gathered on industrial
output for that year.
Future Applications
In most cases consideration of waste treatments is separated from that of production
process changes. Process changes are generally better long-term solutions to pollution
problems but are more difficult to put into effect quickly. Waste treatment usually
may be applied with minimum delay. Neither the waste treatments nor the production
process changes discussed in this report are intended for the distant future. Emphasis
has been placed on current technology which can be applied to present systems.
Application of the Data
The report also presents a specific analysis for a sample sector of the economy. Sector
28, Chemicals and Allied Products, was used as a typical case study of pollution
control strategies and the intermedia effects. The gross regional study is also presented
as an analytical example of applied intermedia pollution control strategies.
Major Pollutant Category Relationships
The currently recognized pollutant categories have evolved on the basis of their effects
on the environment. Because of this, the categories tend to overlap in terms of their
physical composition. The Venn diagrams of Figures IA and IB represent the rela-
tionship of one single medium and intermedia major pollution category for air and
water respectively. Figure IA shows the major air pollutants; note that the particu-
lates category only partially includes heavy metals, radioactivity, pesticides, hydro-
carbons, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides, while the particulates category totally
includes pathogens and totally excludes carbon monoxide.
10
-------
VENN DIAGRAM
Example: Sulfur Oxides may be in
parficulate form or not.
FIGURE 1A
CATEGORY RELATIONSHIPS
AIR POLLUTANTS
11
-------
Suspended
Solids
I Pathogens)
Example: Nitrogen and Sulfur may appear
either as suspended or dissolved
organic or inorganic compounds.
FIGURE IB
CATEGORY RELATIONSHIPS
12 WATER POLLUTANTS
-------
Air and Water Pollutant Categories
Pollutants are described herein as air or water, according to the medium in which they
create the primary pollution problem. If a pollutant creates a problem in both media
and land, it is described for each medium and classified according to the medium in
which the greatest quantity is present. Table 1 presents these categories and the
pollutants they contain.
13
-------
Figure IB shows the major water pollutant category of suspended solids, and its more
complicated intersections with other categories. Organic material not only occurs as
suspended solids but also is composed of nitrogen and sulfur compounds. An inter-
section between two circles in these two charts represents a significant coincidence
between two such pollutants. For example, it would be possible to have radioactive
heavy metals,but they are shown separately in Figure IB as this latter overlapping inter-
relationship with other pollutant categories is of no great significance.
Pollutant Categories
Three considerations have been used in classifying pollutants in this report: the primary
medium in which the pollutant occurs, its intermedial properties, and its national impact.
Thus the pollutants are currently categorized as air or water pollutants, as intermedial or
intramedial, and as major or lesser national pollutants. Table 1 breaks the commonly-
known pollutants into these various categories.
Major vs. Lesser Pollutants
Except for acidity and alkalinity, only major pollutants are dealt with in this report.
Acidity and alkalinity are discussed because considerable information was gathered
on them prior to deciding to class them as lesser pollutants. Liquid hydrocarbons
due to oil spills or poor waste treatment are a serious point problem in surface waters
but not nationally. Also, the existing controls for this latter pollutant are intramedial.
In order fora pollutant to be currently classified as a major pollutant it must present
a current problem of national significance, or pose a potential near-future problem.
Thus, even though a pollutant such as fluorides could be a serious problem in a local
area, it is not included in the list of major pollutants. The less important pollutants
and the reasons for their not being classified as major pollutants are presented in the
following sections.
Intermedial vs. Intramedial Pollutants
A pollutant is not classified as an intermedial pollutant unless it can be transferred
in a significant degree from air to water or water to air by processes or activities of man.
Natural intermedia transfers are not included, "In a significant degree" means that
intermedia pollution transfer occurs at a level where evaluation of current technology
is necessary. Thus, emissions of pesticides and herbicides during their manufacture"
can be controlled with intermedial treatments, but the major pollution problem stems
from their application to crops, trees, etc.,and resulting food chain effects/other than
from their manufacture. Pesticide and herbicide pollution cannot be controlled by
the defined intermedial processes, and therefore these pollutants are classified as
intramedial.
14
-------
TABLE I
POLLUTANT CATEGORIES
AIR
WATER
Intermedia!
1
Major Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Particulates
Heavy metals
Intramedial
^HซM>^^^Hซ*^*^V^Vซ*lซ^V^
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Intermedia!
^^^^^^^^^^BM^Mi^HMfl
Phosphorous compounds
Sulfur compounds
Nitrogen compounds
Organic material
Suspended solids
Heavy metals
Radioactivity
Intramedial
^^^^^^^^i
Pesticides
Pathogens
Liquid Hydrocarbons
Ol
Lesser Radioactivity
Fluorides
Hydrogen chloride
Arsenic
Hydrogen cyanide
Ammonia
Ethylene
Thermal
Acidity/Alkalinity
Chlorides
Metallic Salts and Oxides
Surfactants
-------
SECTION IV
DEFINITIONS OF INTERMEDIA TERMS
For the purposes of this project, the following definitions have been adopted. The
order in which they are listed is intended to facilitate understanding to a greater ex-
tent than would an alphabetical arrangement.
MEDIA (singular, MEDIUM): The water and air in which a pollutant may be present,
or through which a pollutant may be conveyed.
a) For the purposes of this project, land is not considered as a medium, although
residues are created that may be ultimately disposed to the land. Residue
disposal to land is evaluated, especially with reference to possible subsequent
transfers to the air or water (leaching, etc.)
INTERMEDIA; Concerning transferability from one medium to another.
INTRAMEDIA: Concerning transferability within a medium or concerning pollutants
not transferable between the two fluid media.
POLLUTION: The man-made or man-induced alteration of the chemical, physical,
biological, and radiological integrity of an environmental medium. (Based on Public
Law 92-500, the Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972.)
POLLUTANT: Any material which contributes to the pollution of an environmental
medium.
MAJOR POLLUTANT: Any pollutant which is or may be injurious to the public health
or welfare. Welfare is broadly understood to include total socio-economic and environ-
mental impact. The pollutant must be of national significance now or capable of
becoming so within the next two years. . ,. .
MAJOR INTERMEDIA POLLUTANT: Any material capable of transfer between media
and which is recognized by the regulatory agencies as having significant national
negative impact on either or both media.
PRIMARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANT: A pollutant which is transferable from one medium
to another in the same or similar form.
SECONDARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANT: A major pollutant which is transferable from
one medium to another in an altered chemical form.
INTERMEDIA TRANSFER PROCESS- The physical, chemical, and biological means by
which a pollutant is transferred from one medium to another. (The project is concerned
only with processes subject to human control.)
INTERMEDIA MANAGEMENT: The manipulation of pollution control activities such
that optimum improvement and maintenance of the total environment is sought, and one
medium is not managed at the expense of another.
POLLUTION CONTROL STRATEGY: Art or science applied in support of national
policy to reduce or eliminate intermedial pollution.
RESIDUE: Matter remaining at the end of a process.
Examples of primary intermedia pollutants, secondary intermedia pollutants, and inter-
media management are given respectively in Tables 2, 3, and 4.
16
-------
TABLE 2
PRIMARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS
Pollutant
Equivalent Pollutant by Medium
Air Water
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of Sulfur
Particles
Pathogens
NO
SO,
SO,
Parti culates
Pathogens
NO
Suspended Solids
Dissolved Solids
Pathogens
Thermal
Heat
Heat
17
-------
TABLE 3
SECONDARY INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS
Originating Medium
Pollutant
Transfer Process
Final Medium
Water
Organic Solids:
suspended and
dissolved
Organic Solids
Combustion
Air
CO
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of Nitrogen
Oxides of Sulfur
Anaerobic decomposition hLS
ChL
18
-------
TABLE 4
INTERMEDIA MANAGEMENT
Pollution Control Activity Example
Change of Process Change from the sulfite process in pulp manu-
facture to mechanical shredding
Change of Material Replacement of mercury seals in trickling
filters with vinyl or butyl rubber
Change in Land Use Moving electroplating plants away from
positions adjacent to water courses
Change in Activity Replacement of the gasoline powered private
automobile with electric or steam powered
mass transit
The above manipulations do not solve pollution problems, but they do shift either the
medium receiving the pollutants or the location of pollution and, therefore, aid in
arriving at a more easily controlled situation.
19
-------
SECTION V
THE POLLUTANTS, THEIR SOURCES AND INTERMEDIA RELATIONSHIPS
INTRODUCTION
In this section the intermedial flows of the pollutants under consideration will be
analyzed since there is considerable interchange between the pollutant categories.
For example, suspended solids or particulates may be burned to create carbon monoxide,
sulfur, nitrogen oxides or most other forms of air pollution. The flows of each pollu-
tant have been analyzed separately and where a pollutant is treated in such a way as
to change its form, a reference note indicates the intermedia flow chart on which its
treatment and disposition continues. In this way valuable insights into the intermedial
flows are given.
In Section VI, Control Summary, information about particular treatments is presented
and the implications of these methods are discussed.
Pollutant and Product Flows
Figure 2 represents the overall relationships involved in this study of intermedia
pollution. It includes the pollution generating activities, inspection, ambient
sampling and feedback and control mechanisms. The parts of this sytem that can be
influenced by hyman decisions will be reflected in a mathematical model, to be dis-
cussed in Section VIII.
Figure 2 shows production activities stemming from human needs. These production
activities produce pollutants as well as physical output. The consumption of this
output in turn gnerates its own pollution. Certain options are open to society In
controlling pollutants produced by production, distribution and consumption. Figure
2 illustrates the fact that these control activities can cause resultant problems in
alternative media. The natural responses by the media are also shown although these
are not the primary focus of this report. Information flows are shown by dotted lines;
these lines represent the feedback mechanism in the system. Both ambient sampling
and plant inspection feed information to influence control decisions which In turn
affect production and consumption decisions.
Figure 2 also illustrates the possibility of recycling wastes and residues and the ad-
verse effects of pollution on the nation's resources.
Major Pollutants and Their Sources
Table 5 illustrates,in a qualitative way, the major Intermedia sources of air and
water pollution. For water, the major contributors are domestic sewage, pulp and
paper manufacture, chemical production, food processing and the basic metal re-
fineries. Nuclear power plants, of course, can contribute to radioactivity and heat
in the water. The greatest contributors to air pollution relate to combustion processes
They include mobile sources, fossil fuel combustion, petroleum refineries, basic metal*
refining, and pulp and paper production. Again, nuclear power plants may contribute
radioactivity to the atmosphere.
20
-------
AA
Enforcement
Actions
Media
Respons
Pollutio
Levels
>
Waste o
Residue
Media
Response
Pollution
Levels
, -n
ketmg yT tributior ^sumption
a / viii uu11uii
Dilution
Levels
! /Contro
or
Treat me^n
FIGURE 2
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHARTS
MATERIAL FLOW AND INFORMATION FEEDBACK
-------
TABLE 5
MAJOR POLLUTANTS, SOURCES AND PRIMARY MEDIA
WATER
SOURCE
ORGANICS
00
Q
CO
O ">
X
Q-
o <"
b, ฃ
Q_
CO
ID 3
co co
<
2 -
LU -^
i i i
LU U
X <
D
ATHOGENS
>
>
rZ co
* * ง
2; O y
Q S
-------
Format Description
The major pollutant categories shown in Table 5 will be discussed in this section.
There is direct intermedia I relationship between sulfur oxides and sulfur compounds
and also between nitrogen oxides and nitrogen compounds, and between air and water
forms for pesticides, heavy metals, and radioactive wastes. These categories, there-
fore, are combined for both their air and water forms into one discussion. The other
major pollutants will be described in separate sections on air and water. Some liquid
hydrocarbon information has been appended to the hydrocarbon discussion given under
air pollutants as no similar major water pollutant category has been established
here . Liquid hydrocarbons do not represent a major intermedial transfer of airborne
hydrocarbons but are a lesser,though important/separate problem created by the petro-
leum industry. Thus the pollutants will be discussed under three main headings: (1)
air and water pollutants, (2) air pollutants, and (3) water pollutants. The air and
water pollutant categories will be presented in the order they are shown in Table 5 .
Intermedia Flow Charts
Throughout this section, the intermedia flows of the pollutants will be represented on
intermedia flow charts. Figure 3 , "Intermedia Flow Charts, Organization and
Legend," explains the symbols and organization of these charts. At the top of each
chart the major sources of the pollutant are represented in rectangles. The treatment
alternatives are then represented as circles/while the media to which the pollutants
are routed are represented as ellipses located at the bottom of the sheet. Arrows
represent the directions of the flows and decision points in the flow charts. The use of
these arrows is also illustrated in the legend.
23!
-------
MAJOR
SOURCES
L 1L
' l
TREATMENT
PROCESSES
DIRECTIONS OF FLOW
o-
PROCESSES MAY OCCUR
IN EITHER SEQUENCE
MEDIA
FIGURES
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHARTS
ORGANIZATION AND LEGEND
-------
NATIONAL SOURCES OF POLLUTANTS
Tables 6 and 7 summarize the national sources of air and water pollution by Standard
Industrial Classification (SIC) sectors. The significant SIC sectors for the mathematical
model are shown. Where possible, the data were standardized for the base year, 1971.
Sectors are presented for which quantitative information was found. The Tables were
prepared by multiplying pollution coefficients per unit of industrial output by the
physical output information. Appendix Table II lists typical examples of some physical
output data. Where physical output data was available for an earlier period, the out-
puts were updated using the ratio of dollar output in that year to the dollar output in
1971. Appendix Table I summarizes the 1971 dollar output figures. Obviously, when
original data were earlier than 1970, the dollar output ratios were adjusted to account
for inflation.
The pollution coefficient tables were not included in the Appendix because of their
volume, size and complexity. The coefficients are, of course, dependent upon the
processes used and the treatments applied to the pollution emissions. Where possible,
data were gathered on the degree of use of alternative processes by industry and
calculated total pollutant outputs by industrial sectors. Uncontrolled discharges were
assumed except when available data indicated the extent of waste treatment. In general,
comprehensive data were not available to indicate the extent of the use of various waste
controls by industry. The data used to evaluate alternative assumptions about treatment
strategies are presented in Section VI, Treatment Summaries.
Air Pollution. Table 6 is more complete than Table 7. The totals were reconciled
with EPA figures for 1970 from "Environmental Quality."14 Considering the limited
available data and the general lack of information on SIC Code treatment levels, the
numbers compare favorably. Where data are incomplete, Table 7 so indicates.
Water Pollution. The total quantity of water pollutants shown in Rable 7 differs
considerably from that noted in certain other sources. As an example, "The Water
Encyclopedia," published by the Water Information Center, indicates 22,000 million
pounds of BOD^ discharged by industry in 1963. ' This contrasts sharply with the
14,105 million pounds shown in Table 7 for 1971. These differences probably occur
because of inadequacies of present pollution data sources.
25
-------
TABLE 6
NATIONAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/Vear)
SIC
01
02
08
10
11
12
13
14
201,
202
203
204
Misc ,
20
22
24
26
Name
Agriculture Crops
Agriculture - Livestock
Forestry
Metal Mining
Anthracite Mining
Bituminous Coal and
Lignite Mining
Oil and Gas Extraction
Non-Metal Mining and
Quarrying
Meat and Dairy Products
Processed Fruits
and Vegetables
Grain Mill Products
Misc. Food Products
Textile Mill Products
Lumber and Wood Products
Paper and Allied Products
Sulfur Nitrogen Carbon Hydro- Radio-
Oxides Oxides Particulates Monoxide carbons -activity
_ _ _ a _ _ _
549 2,100 1,777
25,500
_ _ _
15,504
- - -
3,334
2
202
34(P)b 13(P)
220 6,650 3,078
-------
TABLE 6 (cent.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/Year)
SIC
281
282
283
2873
2874
2879
2895
Misc.
28
291
295
31
324
325
327
Misc.
32
331
Sulfur
Name Oxides
Industrial Inorganic Chemicals 1,171
Plastic Materials and
Synthetics
Drugs
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Phosphate Fertilizers
Agriculture Chemicals nee
Carbon Black
Misc. Chemicals
Petroleum Refining 4,800
Paving and Roofing Material
Leather and Leather Products
Cement Hydraulic
Structural Clay Products
Concrete Gypsum and Plaster
Misc. Fiber Glass
Blast Furnace and Basic 1.000
Nitrogen Carbon Hydro- Radio-
Oxides Particulates Monoxide carbons activity
45 2,744 1,235
32
1,875 5,540 985
_ - -
602 970 30,773 3,025
1,068 1 1
14,624
431
33 7,897
21,669 1,177 2,382
Steel Production
-------
TABLE 6 (cont.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
OO
S.'C
332
333
334
336
34
36
37
40
42
44
45
491
492
4952
4953
Sulfur
Name Oxides
Iron and Steel Foundries
Primary Non-Ferrous Metals 7,432
Secondary Non-Ferrous
Metals
Non-Ferrous Foundries -
Castings
Fabricated Metal Products
Electric and Electronic Equip.
Transportation Equip.
Railroad Transportation 215
Warehousing and Trucking 640
Water Transportation
Air Transportation 23
Electric - Power Generation
Services 40,000
Gas Production and
Distribution
Sanitary Systems Sewers
Refuse Disposal Systems 200
Pollutants (Mil
Nitrogen
Oxides Particulates
8 1,511
366
377
66
294 98
9,344 589
66 46
50,500
800 2,800
lions of Pounds/Year)
Carbon
Monoxide
2,007
275
7,936
3,812
198
14,400
Hydro- Radio-
c.arbons activity
10
32
196
1,510
628
127
_
4,000
-------
TABLE 6 (cont.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
ro
SIC Name
54 Food Stores
5541 Gasoline Sa!esd
72 Dry Cleaning
Totals
1 970 EPA Data
Sulfur
Oxides
5,540
61,241
68,000
Nitrogen
Oxides
14,984
26,131
46,080
Pollutants (Mil
Particulates
1,015
157,722
50,000
II ions of Pounds/Year)
Carbon
Monoxide
173,576
247,617
294,000
Hydro-
carbons
33,422
_ _ _
49,375
70,000
Radio-
activity
Data gap. This sector contributes to this pollutant, but quantitative information is incomplete.
Partial data. This sector contributes more of this pollutant than shown here but quantified information
is incomplete.
Not elsewhere classified.
Includes all pollution generated by private automobile use.
-------
TABLE 7
NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/fear)
Sulfur Nitrogen Heavy Organics Suspended Acidity Phosphorous Radio-
SFC Name Compounds Compounds Metals BODc Solids Alkalinity Compounds activity
(as S) (as N) Q / fcrp]
01 Agriculture - Crops 8,250
02 Agriculture - Livestock 1,000
08 Forestry
10 Metal Mining
11 Anthracite Mining
2,200 7,000
12 Bituminous Coal and
Lignite Mining
o 13 Oil and Gas Extraction ---
14 Non-Metal Mining and
Quarrying
201 , Meat and
202 Dairy Products 2,298 1,187
203 Processed Fruits and 988 467
Vegetables
204 Grain Mill Products
Misc. Misc. Food Products ,
20 48 13 (P)
22 Textile Mill Products 080 459
24 Lumber and Wood Products --- ---
-------
TABLE 7 (cent.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of PoundyVear)
SIC
26
281
282
283
2873
2874
2879
2895
Misc.
28
291
295
Sulfur
Name Compounds
Paper and Allied
Products
Industrial Inorganic
Chemicals
Plastic Materials and
Synthetics
Drugs
Nitrogenous
Fertilizers 1
Phosphatic
Fertilizers
Agriculture - Chemicals
nee
Carbon Black
Misc. Chemicals
Petroleum Refining 39
Paving and Roofing
Nitrogen Heavy Organics Suspended Acidity
Compounds Metals BOD5 Solids Alkalinity
7,898 3,286
471 4,450
579 331
25 46
4 6 26
47
58 6
99 184
70 268 164
Phosphorous Radio~
Compounds Activity
(as P)
11
41
6
Material
-------
TABLE 7 (cont.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/Vear)
Sulfur Nitrogen Heavy Organics Suspended Acidity Phosphorous Radio-
SIC Name Compounds Compounds Metals BODc Solids Alkalinity Compounds activity
(as Sj (as N) 3 7 (as P)
31 Leather and
Leather Products 187 530
324 Cement, Hydraulic
325 Structural Clay Products
327 Concrete, Gypsum and
P/aster
Misc.
32 Misc. Fiber Glass
331 Blast Furnace and Basic 18 238 1,870
Steel Production
332 Iron and Steel Foundries 14 47
333 Primary Non-fenrous. 5 256
Metals
334 Secondary Non-ferrous
Metals
335 Non-ferrous Drawing, 7 49
Rolling and Extruding
336 Non-fe,Tfeซi Foundries -
Cast
34 Fabricated Metal Products
36 Electric and Electronic Equip.
-------
TABLE 7 (cont.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/Year)
Sulfur Nitrogen Heavy Organics Suspended Acidity Phosphorous Radio-
SIC Name Compounds Compounds Metals BODc Solids Alkalinity Compounds activity
(asrS) (asrN) S . 7 (as P)
37 Transportation 36 40
Equipment
40 Railroad Transportation
42 Warehousing and
Trucking
44 Water Transportation
45 Air Transportation
l,200
ซ 49-1 E iec trie - Power --- e
Generation Services
492 Gas Production and
Distribution
4952 Sanitary Systems - 960 2,400 8,006 9,65T --- 540
Sewers
4953 Refuse Disposal
Systems
54 Food Stores
5541 Gasoline Sales
72 Dry Cleaning
-------
TABLE? (cant.)
NATIONAL SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
SIC
Name
Pollutants (Millions of Pounds/Year)
in-.--.- _..---, - - _
Sulfur Nitrogen Heavy Organics Suspended Acidity Phosphorous Radio-
Compounds Compounds Metals BODc Solids Alkalinity Compounds Activity
(as S) (as N) ฐ (as P)
Totals 3,200 11,724
Totals Without Domestic 2,240 9,324
Sewage
13 22,111 23,109 7,000 (p)
13 14,105 13,458 7,000
d
598 l,200e
58 1,200
CO
Data gap. This sector contributes to this pollutant, but quantitative information is incomplete,
b
"Partial data. This sector contributes more of this pollutant than shown here but quantified
information is incomplete.
Not elsewhere classified.
Millions of pounds of H2 $04 (sulfuric acid).
A
Millions of curies (mega curies ).
-------
MAJOR INTERMEDIA AIR AND WATER POLLUTANTS (BOTH MEDIA)
SULFUR OXIDES AND COMPOUNDS
Intermedia Relationships
In Figures 4and 5 the sources, treatment and fate of sulfurous wastes are summarized to
show their intermedial relationships. Intermedia transfer of sulfur compounds between
the water and air may occur directly (water scrubbing of gaseous exhausts) or indirectly
(leaching and runoff from residues deposited on land, and incineration of sulfur-con-
taining sludges). Regardless of the mode by which it Is accomplished, transfer to water
from air generally is much more easily accomplished than transfer to air from water.
The net result of this is that watercourses tend to become the ultimate sink for sulfur
emissions in the absence of biodegradation to volatile products (H2.S) or environmentally
isolated deposit on land. Natural processes are estimated to be responsible for a great
portion of incidental intermedia transfer of sulfur compounds (biological decomposition and
sea spray), but their relative contribution tends to be inversely proportional to popula-
tion density.
Environmental Impact
Sulfur dioxide may easily be oxidized in the air to SO3, and both compounds have
destructive environmental impacts. Exposures to SO2 concentrations of 3-4 ppm may
occur in urban atmospheres but no persistent effect on humans has been detected for
these levels. At 5 ppm human exposure for an hour may cause choking. Some evi-
dence exists that sulfur dioxide and certain sulfur compound aerosols produce a toxi-
city synergism.^' ^ The hydrate of SO3 is sulfuric acid, which is more toxic than
SO2 or its hydrate H2SO3. Sulfuric acid is 4-20 times as physiologically damaging
to animals as SO2 .59 The Air Conservation Commission of the American Association
for the Advancement of Science states: "sulfuric acid must have been the principle
cause of air pollution disasters in the Meuse Valley, Germany; Donora, Pennsylvania;
and London, England- "5 As a result of the conversion of SO2 to H2SO4, sulfur dioxide
Is especially injurious to plant life, being phytotoxic to some species in concentrations
as low as 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.ฐ0 Necrotic blotching and streaking are the chief symptoms,
and photosynthesis may be inhibited or terminated.5
By the action of H2 SOs or H2 SO4, metals and other materials may be corroded or
degraded, especially when moisture is present.62 Sulfur dioxide may be a major con-
tributor to visibility reduction in urban atmospheres, as its great hygroscopicity allows
the formation of aerosol droplets in the size range of less than one micron; this is
most effective In scattering visible light. 6J Bluish-white plumes from Industrial and
power plant stacks, as well as hazes in industrial regions, are often attributable to the
presence of SOs and H2SO4.5 Oxides of sulfur may easily be washed by rainfall from
the atmosphere as sulfite salts and are oxidized to sulfates. Sulfate compounds are
35
-------
Sulfuric
Acid
Plants
Sulfide
Ore
Refining
CJ
!
Fossil Fuel
Combustion
ion with Limestone
I
CaS04
/^"\ /Wote7\
1 genera -\ 1 VVUICI \
~ \tive Pro-i 1 Scrub- J
Ncess,es bina^x
I
I
1
i
Coal
I
Oil
Natural Precipitation
Leaching & Runoff
FIGURE 4
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
SULFUR OXIDES (GASEOUS)
-------
CO
Effluents
from
Fig. 5
i
Chemical
Industries
\
Textile
Industries
Gas
Mfg.
Paper
and Allied
Products
Acid
Mine
Waste
Air
H2S
Water
Leaching &__Runpff
Land
c
Natural Precipitation
FIGURE 5
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
SULFUR COMPOUNDS IN WATER
-------
negligibly degradable and they will tend to leach Into surface and subsurface water
supplies after deposition onto the land. These effects were noted near Ducktown,
Tennessee, 30 years after initiation of the recovery of sulfur dioxide formerly discharged
into the atmosphere from copper smelting operations. Waterborne sulfur compounds also
can be damaging. In addition to their presence in liquid wastes from SOX scrubbers,
several primary sources of sulfur compounds in water are known. Chemicals and allied
products,64/65 textile mill products, gas manufacture, and paper and allied products
are major contributors of sulfur compounds to waste water.
Effluents with excessive contents of sulfur compounds are objectionable because they
may anaerobically generate sulfides which are malodorous and even toxic. The re-
commended maximum sulfate concentration for drinking water in the United States,
where no other source of water is available, is 250 mg/l. Above that level gastro-
intestinal irritation may result. ฐ Various sulfur compounds in water have been shown
to have a toxic effect on fish. For example, the toxic concentration of sodium sulfide
for fish is about 3.2 mg/l and of dissolved hydrogen sulfide is about 0.5 to 1 .0 mg/l.
Hydrogen sulfide ฐ is toxic and has caused the death of many sewer workers. It has
an offensive "rotten egg" odor, blackens lead paints, copper and brass, and causes
corrosion of concrete.0" A concentration of 200 mg/l sulfur compounds renders water
undesirable for irrigational use, and a 500 mg/l concentration is excessive if the water
is used to water cattle or other stock.
Main Sources of Sulfur Oxides
The main sources of airborne sulfur oxides are fossil fuel combustion and sulfide ore
refining. Table 8 lists world gaseous emissions of sulfur dioxide.
TABLE 8
SULFUR DIOXIDE WORLDWIDE GASEOUS EMISSIONS
Source Total SO2
(106 tons)
Coal 102
Petroleum combustion & refining 28.5
Smelting
Copper 12.9
Lead 1 .5
Zinc 1 .3
Total 146.2
38
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Use of Alternative Processes
Sulfur dioxide pollution may be reduced by substitution of alternate processes, such as
nuclear, solar, or geothermal energy sources for electric power production or fossil fuel
combustion. Retaining fossil fuel combustion, but switching to fuels with low sulfur
content, such as natural gas, is currently (1973) a popular control method that is widely
applied. Pre-cleaning of fossil fuels to remove sulfur is possible but relatively costly/^
Increased combustion efficiency may reduce SO2 emissions, but it increases conversion
roS03.5
Treatments
Some of the treatment processes enable recovery of valuable products. They are already
in common use in applications where the concentrations are high and the potential
recovery value is significant. Current problems lie more with sources that generate
emissions significant in their impact on pollution but not of a sufficiently high level
that internal economics make removal treatment attractive. Regulation of emissions is
changing this pattern. The processes that recover the product in usable form are
applicable mainly to the high concentration emissions, while the non-recovery systems
usually are more efficient for low-concentration emissions. Metallurgical processes
that handle sulfur-containing ores are the primary high concentration sources. Fuel
combustion and sulfuric acid manufacture generate low concentration emissions.
Treatment costs are presented in Section VI insofar as they are available.
Dilution
Treatment by dilution utilizes stacks which may be as high as 800 feet or more. This
can be somewhat effective in reducing nearby ground level SOX concentrations. The
method takes advantage of the dilution capacities of air and is not an intermedia
treatment. It has been shown that the maximum downwind ground-level concentration
is inversely proportional to the square of the effective stack height,'" which is the
physical stack height plus the plume rise as influenced by the exit velocity of the gas,
the difference in density between the gas and the atmosphere, and the meteorological
conditions. Treatment methods will be further discussed in the summary of controls,
Section VI.
Steam Regenerative Sulfur Dioxide Removal Processes:
Dimethylaniline Process This process absorbs SOX by a countercurrent contact
of the gas stream with a dimethylaniline (DMA) solution. The gas stream is further
treated with Na2CC>3 and H2 $0)4 solutions to remove any DMA carried over and
SO2 which escapes absorption. The SC>2 is released from the DMA by contact with
steam. The loiter is then filtered and decanted to remove any water before return to
the absorber. The SO2 is then dehydrated before being sold or used. This process
reportedly is 99 percent effective in gas streams containing 5.5 percent sulfur dioxide.
Data indicates this process is suitable only for high concentrations of SC^ and is
relatively expensive. Many sulfuric acid plants use this or a similar process.
39
-------
Sulfidine Process This process is similar to the DMA process except a mixture
of xylidine and water is used in a 1:1 ratio and there are some other minor changes.
It is adaptable to gas streams with SCX concentrations of 1 to 16 percent, and produces
SO2 as a by-product.
Ammonia Process Sulfur dioxide is removed by contact with ammonium sulfide,
and the resulting ammonium sulfite is regenerated by steam. This process yields SOj
which is usually converted to sulfuric acid.
Basic Aluminum Sulfate Process Sulfur dioxide is removed by contact with a
solution of basic aluminum sulfate. Steam regeneration of the aluminum sulfate solu-
tion drives off essentially pure SC>2, This process again is only applicable to high
concentrations of SC>2 (at least one percent).
Chemical Regenerative Sulfur Dioxide Removal Processes
Sodium Sulfite-Zinc Sulfite Process The gas stream is brought in contact with
sodium sulfite, yielding sodium bisulfite which reforms sodium sulfite and produces
zinc sulfite when the bisulfite is treated with zinc oxides. Zinc sulfite is then calcined
to drive off pure SC>2 and reform zinc oxide. This treatment yields nearly complete
removal of SO2 but is not economical below 0.5 percent SC^. In addition to SC>2/the
process creates a calcium sulfate residue which is usually disposed to the land.
Non-Regenerative Sulfur Dioxide Removal Processes
Ammonia-Sulfuric Acid Process This is essentially the same as the regenerative
ammonia process (ammonia sulfite and ammonium bisulfate contacted countercurrently
with SO2). The effluent solution is treated with sulfuric acid forming ammonium
sulfate and SC>2, both of which are dried and reclaimed. Essentially complete removal
of SO2 with as little as 0.1 percent SO2 initial concentration is achieved. Also the
sulfate produced is in marketable form.
Lime-Neutralization Process The SC>2 is absorbed by water containing calcium
hydroxide, calcium sulfite, and calcium sulfate. The SC>2 reacts with calcium hydrox-
ide to form calcium sulfite. Oxygen in stack gases also dissolves in water and reacts
with calcium sulfite to form calcium sulfate. This affords essentially complete removal
of SC>2 and is best suited to low initial concentrations of SO2- The calcium sulfate
(gypsum) which is produced is usable in wallboard production.
Absorption by Alkaline Water Alkaline water is used to absorb the SC>2, the
acidic SC>2 being neutralized. If enough water is used, nearly complete removal of
SO2 is possible. The process works best on low SC>2 concentrations. Large quantities
of water are needed and care is required in handling the effluent,or receiving waters
may be polluted. The effluent from this process contains sulfates, with calcium,
magnesium and other compounds.
Catalytic Oxidation to Sulfuric Acid In this process SC>2 and O2 are absorbed
by plain water. These react to form dilute sulfuric acid. Small quantities of iron or
manganese promote oxidation. This process is effective at relatively low concentration?
of SC>2/and nearly complete removal is possible. This process produces dilute sulfuric
acid which, except under special circumstances, cannot be economically concentrated
to commercial strength.
40
-------
Sulfur Compound Removal from Water A number of treatment process which
are in use today may remove sulfide compounds in water with varying effectiveness.
Activated carbon adsorption (80-99 percent), chemical coagulation (14-50 percent),
trickling filters (75-100 percent), and activated sludge (75-100 percent)'^ are common
treatment systems used for different sources. All these processes generate ultimate
residues which require disposal to another medium,and some may produce hydrogen
sulfide which may enter the atmosphere directly from aqueous media. Treatment methods
will be further discussed in the Summary of Controls, Section VI.
41
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NITROGEN OXIDES AND COMPOUNDS
Intermedia Relationships
Intermedia transport of nitrogen compounds in nature has been deduced quantitatively
by Robinson and Robbins.'^ Intermedia flows of nitrogen compounds artificially
produced are shown in Figures 6 and 7. Man-controlled transfers of these compounas
between the fluid media are few and inefficient: Incineration of nitrogenous sludges
is an effective mode of transfer to air of compounds in which nitrogen is in a highly
reduced state (as ammonia), but ineffective for nitrites and nitrates; and nitrogen
oxides are not efficiently scrubbed from exhaust stacks. As a result of man's inability
efficiently to effect intermedia transfer of nitrogen compounds, the important control
methods for abatement of nitrogen-compound pollution are process-centered rather
than treatment-centered and are distinctly non-intermedial in character.
Environmental Impact
Nitrogen oxides react quickly with hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight to form
organic-nitrogen compounds, such that both the direct effects of the oxides and the
indirect effects of their photo"chemical products (such as peroxyacetyl nitrate, i.e.
PAN) must be considered. Nitrogen oxides are significant as air pollutants because
they are potential health hazards in many industries. For purposes of comparison,
nitrogen dioxide is more toxic than carbon monoxide at equal concentrations.
Specific evidence of a deleterious effect on human health of atmospheric NO is
limited, although many deaths were reported from poisoning by this substance in a
bizarre fire in 1 924 /^ Air pollution concentrations of the substance may be re-
lated to chronic pulmonary fibrosis. " Plant life may be injured by substantial NO2
concentrations of approximately 25 ppm found near nitric acid plants, but general
community air pollution levels of NO2 are probably not significant enough to cause
plant damage.5 PAN and its related compounds possess toxicities comparable to N O2?
although the toxicity of the former is appreciably temperature dependent. 5 It also
appears to be a significant eye irritant7" and is more harmful than Nฉ2 in that it
attacks all forms of vegetation, causing discoloration, blotching, needle blight, etc.
at concentrations down to .01-.05 ppm for sensitive plants.ฐ^
Corrosion of materials can occur as a result of reactions with atmospheric nitric acid,
from NO2 via ^Os and water.5 A unique effect of atmospheric NC>2 is sky dis-
coloration. Due to its absorption in the blue-green region of the spectrum, NO2
imparts a brownish-red color to the atmosphere, thus creating a visible smog.
In bodies of water, the effects of nitrogen may encourage rapid eutrophication, and aid
the development of sludge deposits. A high nitrogen concentration serves as a nutrient
building material for algae. As the algae grow, they use nutrients in the water until
the nutrients are consumed. When the algae begin to die, bacteria decompose the
organic material, using up the dissolved oxygen in the water and creating the same
42
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L
Mobile
Sources
I
JL
f
Stationary
Fuel
Combustion
!
1
F
Mfg. Processes
Using Nitric Acid
i
1
f '
Oth
\
f
'Mobile'
IControls
CO
Bubble
Cap Plate
Col.
Emissions
/TreotX _.
,ProcessesV__!!!!^!!L
Natural Precipitation
Sludge
Residue
or Reg. i
\Treatment
Leaching & Runoff
FIGURE 6
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
NITROGEN OXIDES
-------
Agricultural
Sources
I
Food
Industries
Chemical
Industries
Emissions
Effluents
Residue
Natural Precipitation
Waste Water
Sources
i
r
Solid Waste
Disposal
i
Sludge
Treatment
^Plants/
Leaching & Runoff
Land
FIGURE/
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
NITROGEN COMPOUNDS
-------
problems discussed under BOD impact leter in this section. The large amounts of Irving
and dead algae which result from the nitrogen compounds cause turbidity, disagreeable
color, taste, and odor, sludge solids deposition, and other nuisances. The cost of
removal of the nitrogen nutrient must be viewed in terms of the alternate uses of the
receiving waters.70 Ammonia, nitrates, nitrites and organic nitrogen are common
nutrients.
Main Sources
Estimated total emissions for 1970 of nitrogen oxides (NOX) were 22.7 x 106 tons,14
nearly all of which was produced from mobile and stationary fuel combustion sources.
A significant variation in emission factors occurs, depending on the specific combus-
tion method. It should be emphasized that in fuel combustion NOX is produced not
from nitrogenous fuel components, but from reaction between the oxygen and nitrogen
in the combustion air at the high temperatures (greater than 1200ฐF). The yield of
NOX increases (under equilibrium conditions) with increasing temperature.77
Found in water, nitrogen and its compounds, particularly ammonia, are formed as the
undesirable by-products of such industries as agricultural production,79, 114, 128
food and kindred products/" chemicals and allied products0^ and sanitary services.
Treatment and Controls
Alternative Processes - Airborne emissions Process-oriented abatement of NO.
emissions from stationary combustion sources is centered around minimization of both
the combustion temperature and the air-to-fuel ratio, but air-to-fuel ratios which
minimize NOX emissions tend to maximize unburned hydrocarbon emissions.
Two-stage combustion in power-plant boilers is singularly effective in reducing NOX
emissions.
Bubble-cap Plate Columns Nitrogen oxides can be removed by passing the gas
stream through a series of bubble-cap plates countercurrent to the flow of water or
aqueous nitric acid. For the low concentrations of NOX usually found in stack gases,
bubble-cap columns are very inefficient.
Verituri Injector In this process, water is sprayed axially into a high velocity
flow of gas through a venturi throat. The large amount of interfacial area between the
gas and atomized liquid gives high rates of absorption of the oxides. If steam is added
to the entering gases, the increased water-vapor pressure tends to promote the gas-
phase reactions and increase the efficiency of removal of oxides of nitrogen. The
effluent gases must be treated with a cyclone or other separating equipment to remove
the nitric acid mist which is formed by the process.
45
-------
Packed Towers and Spray Towers These processes, used with countercurrent
water and gas flow, can remove oxides of nitrogen. At low concentration, these
processes give low efficiencies.
Adsorption on Silica Gel In gas streams containing 1 to 1.5 percent nitric
oxide the latter may be removed by oxidizing it to nitrogen dioxide which is then
adsorbed out of the gas stream onto silica gel. The nitric oxide oxidation can be
catalyzed by silica gel containing nitrogen dioxide. Heating the silica gel releases
the adsorbed gas.
Mobile Source Control The concentration of nitrogen oxides in mobile
exhausts is most heavily influenced by peak combustion temperatures and by oxygen
availability at the combustion temperature. Reduction in either of these variables
reduces NOX emissions and their effects are additive. However, the best air-fuel
mixture for the control of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon, which is about 15pounds
of air per pound of fuel (15:1) is near the optimum level for the production of NOX.
Conversely, the best air-fuel ratio for reduction of NOx/near 12:1, produces a
disastrous 3 percent carbon monoxide in the exhaust emissions.321
One method of control for NOX is the introduction of exhaust gas into the cylinder
intake charge. This reduces both temperature and oxygen concentration, and yields
up to a 90 percent reduction in NOX. This method, however, adversely affects carbon
monoxide control. Copper catalysts have been used to reduce NOX but also require
conditions adverse to other emission-control objectives.^
Treatment Efficiencies
If the stack gases contain less than 1.0 percent oxides of nitrogen, bubble-cap, packed,
and spray towers have very poor efficiencies. The silica gel process has large initial
costs and the gel is easily fouled by other ordinary gases containing dust, moisture,
and other materials. This process has the advantage of recovering nitrogen oxides in a
concentrated form which can be used for making nitric acid. The venturi injector
is probably the most economic method for NOX removal. For higher efficiencies
more units can be added in series.
46
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HEAVY METALS
Intermedia Relationships
Figure 8 depicts the intermedia relationships for both water-and airborne heavy metal
discharges, with the exception of lead, which mainly originates from mobile exhausts.
Most heavy metal discharges and emissions can be controlled by methods having
intermedia implications.
For airborne emissions both dry (precipitators, etc.) and wet (water scrubbing, etc.)
removal processes can be used. The dry processes may use either a dry process or a
water flush to remove the residues. In the latter case, the wash water produces the
same problems as the effluent from a scrubber. The residue from dry processes may be
incinerated if other combustible materials have been removed along with the heavy
metals. Otherwise, they may go directly to land disposal or may be recycled.
Recycling is a possibility for both water and air discharges since some heavy metals
have a high recovery valve.
Heavy metals in water from either removal processes or primary industrial sources may
be either soluble or in a suspended state. Removal of solubles is accomplished by
physical-chemical methods,while suspended solids may be removed by either physical
or physical-chemical methods.
The alternatives for sludge disposal are the same as those discussed for phosphorous
compounds. The sludge may be incinerated or may be discharged to receiving water
or to the land. Incinerator emissions may be further treated as shown in Figure 9 .
Heavy metals may then leach from landfills or be carried by runoff from the land.
Most heavy metals precipitate fairly rapidly from the air to water or land and, as with
phosphorus compounds, do not transfer readily to the air upon incineration, but tend
to remain in the slag or ash.
Environmental Impact^
Heavy metals occur naturally in the environment as part of the earth's crust. Many
industrial processes produce pollutants containing heavy metals in various forms which,
depending on the dosage received, may be toxic to wildlife, micro-organisms and
human life. Concentration in the food chain presents increasing hazards to the higher
life forms.
Once heavy metals are discharged to the environment, intermedia transfer of the
pollutants is possible. Contaminants entering the atmosphere can, after a period of
time, settle to the land and water through natural fallout and rainfall. Heavy metal
wastes applied to the land and metals settling on land through atmospheric fallout,
can further contaminate local surface waters through storm runoff and continental
weathering.
47
-------
Various
Ind. Sources
Etc.
H
emoval,
Concen-j
tration'
00
-& Concen-
\ tration /
^^S ^-^
\ ^
\
s
1 f
pended .ant
C_IT_I_ / \Physical
^ ^v
Sludge ^/or Reg I |
; r \Treatment
XPfants /
Leaching and runoff
Land
Natural precipitation
T
FIGURE 8
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
HEAW METALS
-------
Tk: heavy metals considered here are lead, mercury, cadmium, and nickel.
Quantitative data do exist concerning the intermedia transfer of a few of these metals.
Main Sources
Mercury Mercury is widely used in industry and agriculture. The major
applications are in the manufacture of electrical apparatus, the electrolytic preparation
of chlorine and caustic soda, and in the preparation of fungicides, herbicides,
pesticides and explosives. About 26 percent of the six million pounds of mercury
consumed per year is used for the electrolytic preparation of chlorine and soda. The
second major consumer of mercury is the electrical equipment industry which uses
approximately 23.5 percent of the total. ^0
There is a natural interemedia transfer of mercury in the environment which is
increased because of the additional mercury contributed by industrial processes.
Mercury can enter the atmosphere in both the gaseous and particulate forms. Its
mobility is enhanced by its physical properties, which are unique among metals. As a
metallic liquid its vapor pressure is relatively high for a metal and makes possible
natural land to air transfer.
Gaseous and particulate mercury compounds are commonly contained in the
emissions from various industrial processes. Mercury has been found in 36 United States'
coals. A conservative estimate of the average mercury concentration in all United
States'coals is around 1 mg/l. Approximately 2 billion tons of coal are burned annually
in the United States, resulting in a release of 3,000 tons of mercury to the environment.
Mercury vapor discharges from some coal burning power plants, municipal incinerators,
and several types of industrial plants may range from 100 to 5,400 pounds per year at
individual sites. The estimated annual rate of mercury vapor discharge from 12
locations in Missouri and Illinois exceeds the rate of mercury discharge into waterways
by the nation's 50 major mercury polluters. Mercury vapors can also escape to the
atmosphere as dust from open pit mining. ^
Mercury is continually being removed from the atmosphere and deposited on the
earth's surface. Estimates of the input rate of mercury from the atmosphere to the
entire global surface from fallout are between 5.50 x 10' and 9.63 x 10^ pounds per
year.^36 jne fa||out fs expected to be higher in the more industrial areas.
About 5,000 tons of mercury per year are released to rivers by continental
weathering. '^7 Mine drainage contributes significant amounts of mercury to streams.
Soluble mercury introduced into streams is rapidly reduced to its metallic mercury form
by various natural chemical processes. ^8 Approximately 8,800 pounds per year of
mercury is discharged into Southern California coastal waters via sewage effluents.
The average mercury concentration of the effluent is .003 mg/l. Localized mercury
inputs from sewage outfalls result in mercury concentrations near the outfalls which are
49
-------
50 times larger than natural concentrations. Ocean sediment samples collected near
Los Angeles sewage outfalls contained about! mg/l mercury on a dry weight basis as
compared to a control area concentration of .02 mg/l.
No attempt has yet been made to study afr-water interactions of mercury, but
IOC
this mode of transfer has potential significance.
Lead Lead is another heavy metal very commonly discharged in industrial
wastes. The uses of lead include the production of storage batteries, cables, paint
pigments and ammunition. The annual consumption of lead in the United States is
one million tons.
About 20 percent of the lead consumed is used for lead alkyls which are the
anti-knock ingredients in gasolines. Combustion of leaded gasoline is the major
source of lead in the atmosphere; about 300,000 tons are added directly to the air
annually. 140 This results in an average lead concentration of 0.6 micrograms per
cubic meter in urban atmosphere near ground level while in Los Angeles the
atmospheric lead concentration is 5 micrograms per cubic meter. " The combustion
of lead alkyls in gasoline produces aerosol forms of inorganic lead salts such as lead
chlorobromide. After emission, lead quickly becomes diluted in the atmosphere and
it has been found that about 1,300 feet downwind from a freeway, the average lead
concentration reduces to 22 percent of the roadside value
Lead aerosols are thought to have a settling half-life of about three hours in
urban atmospheres. In rural areas it has been estimated that the quantity of lead
fallout is 26,400 tons per year.141
Rivers can be contaminated with lead alkyls from atmospheric fallout. The
major pathway by which lead alkyls reach surface waters in urban areas probably is
by the discharge from storm sewers. About two-thirds of the urban fallout of lead
alkyls, which are soluble salts,find their way into storm sewers. Such lead
contributions amount to about 8,800 tons per year. The majority of this comes from
automotive exhausts.
Surface waters can become contaminated directly from lead fallout. The
seepage of lead wastes from scrap heaps and the weathering products of lead paints all
contribute lead to surface waters.
Cadmium Cadmium is closely related chemically to zinc, and is found with
zinc ores in nature. It is obtained as a by-product in the refining of zinc and other
metals. Cadmium is emitted to the air and water in mining processes and from metal
smelters, especially lead, copper and zinc smelters. Also,industries using cadmium
in alloys, paints, and plastics produce cadmium wastes. The burning of oil and scrap
metal treatment wastes also contribute to the amount of cadmium entering the air.
Cadmium which is emitted to the air is ultimately deposited on the soil and water.
50
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High concentrations of cadmium have been found in sewage treatment plant sludges. Soil
contamination is possible when these sludges are used as fertilizers. ^3 p|an^s are
capable of extracting cadmium from soil and when consumed can
be toxic to man and animals. ^ Certain fertilizers contain cadmium, and the chief
route by which cadmium reaches man is believed to be through food grown in soils
containing cadmium derived from super-phosphate fertilizers.
Nickel Nickel has many industrial applications, but nickel alloys used in
many food-processing operations are considered to be the major sources of nickel in
water and soil and which ultimately reach man. Nickel carbonyl is considered to be
the most serious environmental hazard of all the nickel compounds studied. Nickel
carbonyl is formed when inorganic nickel in the air reacts with carbon monoxide. The
use of nickel based gasoline additives such as nickel isodecylorthophosphate should,
therefore, be discouraged. '46,147
Controls
The principal methods of control of heavy metals in discharges and emissions are
pretreatment and the restricted use of heavy metals where substitution can be made.
Examples are the elimination of mercury seals in trickling filters, a long standing
practice; the restrictions on pesticides containing mercury compounds;and the reduced
use of lead-base paints.
Treatment Methods
The intermedia! flows and controls for heavy metals are represented in Figure 8
Several methods have been employed by industry to remove heavy metals from their
discharges. For waterborne wastes, physical separation is used to remove suspended
solids from effluents, while chemical or biological methods are employed to extract
the soluble components. The sludges generated may be dewatered before the ultimate
disposal to the land. Heavy metals may appear in industrial discharges to the
atmosphere and control measures such as gas scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators
may be applied.
Sludges placed to landfills can possibly contaminate underground water, although this
is not likely to occur if the landfill is adequately designed and constructed. The avail-
able treatment cost information is presented in Table VI.
51
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RADIOACTIVE WASTES
Intermedia! Relationships
Figure 9 illustrates the intermedial relationships for radioactive wastes. This is
definitely an intermedial pollutant and is rapidly becoming a national problem. In the
fission process, by which nuclear reactors produce energy, both liquid and gaseous
wastes are created. The two main sources of these wastes are from the spent fuels and
from leaks into the primary cooling water.
Radioactive gas wastes require continual removal from the primary coolant and are then
normally stored temporarily on a batch basis to reduce radioactivity before release to the
atmosphere.
Several in-plant treatments can be employed to remove radioactivity from liquid waste
effluents. These treatments result in the radioactivity being low in the treated effluent
and fairly high in the treatment residues. The treated effluents can then be discharged
into local sewers or adjacent waterways while the residues can be incinerated if the
radioactivity level is below a certain level. The various levels which have been
established will be discussed later. Incinerator emissions can be controlled as shown
in Figure 9. If the level of radioactivity is above that established as a limit for
incineration, the residues may be sealed in containers for burial in specified locations.
The reprocessing of spent uranium fuel elements results in liquid wastes of high radio-
activity. These wastes are usually permanently stored underground, in salt caves, or
at sea. An alternative to direct liquid waste disposal is the transformation of highly
radioactive liquid wastes to solid wastes by calcination. These solid wastes can be
incorporated into a vitrified solid mass containing ferrous and glass aggregates prior
to ultimate disposal underground or to the sea. Such adulteration enhances the heat-
rejecting capability of the resulting solid mass. Radioactive residues applied to the
land can be transmitted to adjacent waters by leaching and runoff. Radioactive exhaust
emissions from nuclear reactors and incinerators can return to water and land by natural
fallout and precipitation.
Environmental Impact
All radioactive wastes discharged to the environment should be evaluated in terms of
their potential contribution to radiation exposure of the surrounding community so that
the total radiation dose from the waste and from existing radiation sources can be
determined. Radiation wastes may be classified quantitatively as (1) low-level, if the
activity can be measured in microcuries per liter or per gallon; (2) intermediate-level,
if the activity is measured in millicuries per liter or per gallon; and (3) high-level,
if the activity is measured in curies per liter or per gallon. These criteria for measuring
52
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Energy J>
X.. -~^,.-^V.,^r>-.,, *"'
"In Plant" Treatments
/Coagulation &
/ Sedimentation
Filtration
Lime & Soda
Ash Softening
Evaporation
Ion Exchange
Phosphorus
Coagulation
) Electrodialysis
[/Addition of
)Clay Dust
Addition of
Metallic Dusts
/Combinations of above processes i
\r^-*s~->~**-****<~**~'Sx^~^~~s'' -*SS-^ s^~*v^^S-^ ^^ N^/
teration
with glass
etc. J
-^
Container burial in
ground, salt caves
or sea
Leaching
& Runoff
FIGURE 9
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS
53
-------
radioactive wastes are very simple, but not completely adequate,because the radio-
toxicity of various isotopes in nuclear waste is not considered. Radionuclides contained
in the water must first be identified before knowledge of the radiotoxicity can be
acquired. The radiotoxicity of specific nuclides may be obtained by referring to the
MFC (maximum permissible concentration) values for air and water recommended by
the International Commission on Radiation Protection (OP) and by the National
Committee on Radiation Protection (NCRP).149
When assessing the possible effects of environmental radioactivity on living matter, it
is important to ascertain: (1) the population affected by a particular isotope, (2) the
toxicity of the isotope, (3) the organs within the specie affected by the isotope, and
(4) the mechanism of exposure to the isotope. For example, in sufficient doses
1131 is harmful (toxicity) to the thyroid gland (target organ) of man (population). The
isotope ] 131 is commonly used in medical research (exposure mechanism).
The sources of radioactivity in the environment are the fallout from nuclear testing and
the discharge or disposal of radioactive wastes from nuclear power plants and other
research facilities. The main radionuclides of concern are Sr 90, Cs 137 and 1 131 .
Artificial radioactivity is present in natural waters mainly because of controlled waste
disposal into rivers and lakes. Radioactivity can also contaminate surface waters from
wastes released to the atmosphere or to the ground. Another source of radioactivity affects
a limited population living adjacent to uranium mines where contaminated water is
discharged after being used for milling and from tailings. Water containing radioactivity
can result in the exposure of people using the water for drinking, working, and recreation-
al purposes. Exposure can also occur if contaminated water is used to irrigate plants or
by the radioactive pollution of an aquatic environment used for cultivating marine life
for human consumption. If radioactive wastes are discharged into the ocean, biological
accumulation of radionuclides can result in considerable contamination of marine organisms.
Main Source
When fuel is fissioned in a nuclear reactor to sustain a chain reaction, large quantities
of radioactivity and heat are created. Approximately 2.68 x lO4 curies of radioactivity
are formed for each megawatt of thermal power J 51 Since the conversion of thermal
power to electrical power is only about thirty-three percent efficient, about 8 x 104
curies of radioactivity are formed for each megawatt of electrical power. Fission
products from the fuel are usually contained within a metal-clad solid matrix, but
occasionally tiny pinhole leaks or fractures develop in the cladding and certain fission
products are released to the reactor coolant. In general, before discharge to the
environment, radioactive materials produced in reactor fuels must pass through several
barriers which have large retention factors. The first is the solid matrix where the
fission products are usually formed; second is the cladding of the fuel element; third is
the coolant and its confinement system; and the last is the containment vessel of the
power reactor.
54
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Of public health concern are the long-lived nuclides such as Sr 90 and Ce 137 which
are fission products. Some of the other fission products are gases and include radioactive
isotopes of iodine, krypton, and xenon.
Controls
Figure 9 illustrates the pollution source points and controls possible in nuclear
power plants as well as the intermedia flows.
Three concepts of radioactive waste handling are widely used in industrial activities:
Dilute and Disperse Typical of this method is the dispersion of radioactive gases
for dilution in the atmosphere and the controlled release of radioactive liquids into
surface waterways.
Concentrate and Contain This method applies to the concentration and contain-
ment of nuclear fuel reprocessing wastes, evaporator residues, and incinerator solids.
Delay and Decay The radioactivity of an element is lost only through decay.
Temporary retention of short-lived radionuclides results in sufficiently low levels of
radioactivity which may be released to the environment. An application of the delay
and decay concept has found use in the introduction of radioactive material into
selected soils, where slow groundwater movement and the opportunity for the exchange
of radioactive ions in solution with soil cations provide the delay necessary for decay.
Low-and intermediate-level wastes are released to the environment. The major
practice in the treatment and handling of high-level wastes consists of underground
tank storage with no direct release to the environment. Other methods of handling
high-level radioactive wastes are being studied which may supersede tank storage.
These methods include calcination, incorporation of glass, deep-well disposal, and
salt-dome disposal. '^'
Liquid Wastes
Liquid wastes from nuclear power plants may contain radioactive materials from
laboratory drains, laundry facilities, and floor drain systems that receive small amounts
of leakage from pump seals and other sources. Liquid wastes are usually collected in
storage tanks and are released to the environment on a batch basis after the batch has
been monitored to assure low radioactivity. The waste batch is subjected to "in plant"
treatments before release to the condenser cooling water and receiving waters.
Gaseous Wastes
Gaseous wastes include isotopes of iodine and other halogens and noble gases such as
krypton and xenon. These gases must be continuously removed from the primary cooling
water to prevent accumulation and undesirable radiation levels. In pressurized water
reactors, waste gas quantities are small, and the gases are delivered to storage tanks
55
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and contained for 30 days or more. During this time period radioactive decay reduces
the radioactivity of the gases to low levels before they are released to the plant stack
for dilution and dispersion to the atmosphere. Boiling water reactors produce larger
volumes of gaseous wastes; therefore, the detention time for radioactive decay before
release must be much shorter, about 30 minutes. This results in larger quantities of
radioactivity released via the plant stack.
Fuel Reprocessing Wastes
After use, spent fuel rods from nuclear reactors are sent to a plant where the remaining
uranium is reclaimed and repurified. Most of the radioactive fission products are
contained in the spent fuel rods, and the radioactivity of these products is very high.
In reprocessing, the fuel is dissolved in acids, and the uranium is then reclaimed by
chemical reprocessing. All the fission products are wastes, and these large quantities
of high radioactivity are delivered to underground storage tanks for long term contain-
ment and decay. Heat generated by the radioactivity causes these wastes to boil for
periods up to 2 years in the storage tanks. The gaseous wastes are released to the
atmosphere. It is estimated that a single fuel reprocessing facility planned in South
Carolina may release from its stack^as much as 12 million curies per year of Kr 85 and
500,000 curies per year of tritium. l52
The Removal of Radioactivity
Water Treatment. An evaluation of water treatment processes is of concern because
much of the liquid waste of low radioactivity is discharged either directly or through
sewage systems to water environments. Many communities use rivers and wells as a
source of water supply and utilize some form of water treatment prior to use. It is
important to understand the effectiveness of conventional water treatment processes in
terms of removal capability of radioactive materials. The conventional methods of
water treatment include chemical coagulation and sedimentation, filtration, lime and
soda-ash softening and ion exchange.
Chemical coagulation involves the destabilization, aggregation, and binding together
of colloids. These colloids form chemical floes that adsorb, entrap, or otherwise
concentrate suspended matter. ^ Common coagulants are alum and iron salts which
precipitate soluble components in the water as aluminum and iron hydroxides.
Coagulation is ineffective as a method of removing soluble radioactive materials, with
the exception of most of those cations with valences 3, 4, or 5, including the rare
earth group. Coagulation is considerably more effective in removing particulate-
associated radioactivity characteristic of the turbidity usually found in surface waters.
Sedimentation is the process by which suspended particles, heavier than water, are
removed by gravitational settling. It usually precedes filtration, with or without
coagulation.
56
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Filtration is accomplished by the passage of water trough pranular materials.
Sand filters have not been directly effective in removing radioactive materials.154'155
Their major function is to remove the radioactivity previously incorporated in floe or
other filterable particles.
Water is softened by the addition of lime which removes carbonate hardness, or by
soda ash which removes non-carbonate hardness. Reasonable amounts of softening
chemical will provide 90 percent or better removal of soluble Ba 140, La 140, Sr 89,
Cd 115, Sc 46, Y 91, and Zr 95, Nb 95, but larger quantities of the chemical are
ineffective against removals of Cs 137, Ba 137 and W 185. Treatment with lime
and soda ash finds its greatest use in the removal of potentially hazardous strontium.
Ion exchange involves an exchange of certain ions during the passage of water
through a bed of resin. When the resin bed is exhausted, it is regenerated with brine
of other treatment. Ion exchange has been used most successfully for the removal of
small amounts of radioactive ions from very dilute pollutions. Other applications of
ion exchange will be discussed later in this report.
There are several methods for the removal of radioactive constituents from water
which differ from the conventional processes. These nonconventional processes include
phosphate coagulation, electrodialysis with permselective membranes, and the addition of
metallic dusts and clay materials. Phosphate coagulation has been shown to be superior
to the usual alum or iron-salt coagulation for the removal of radioactive materials.
Phosphate coagulation is used for the removal of radioactivity since many polyvalent
cations form relatively insoluble phosphate compounds, and because phosphate floe can
be formed in a solution at high pH. The removal of specific soluble radioactive con-
taminants by slurrying various metal dusts in the solution has been studied.15? The
addition of small amounts of clay (100 m9/liter) to a solution can remove radionuclides
by coagulation and sedimentation.158' 159' 160' 161
Biological Treatment The practice of discharging to sewers and subsequent
treatment in municipal or regional plants has encouraged the study of the efficiencies of
the various processes for removing radioactive materials from wastewaters. Since the
radioactivity of a material can be reduced only through decay, these materials must be
removed with the organic and inorganic solids. After additional processing, some sludges
may be used as fertilizers. If long-lived high-energy radionuclides are included, a
public health hazard may exist from the use of these fertilizers.
Biological treatment processes have been shown to be rather inefficient for the
removal of radioactive materials from water.15^ Trickling filters appear to be more
satisfactory for waste decontamination than either the activated sludge process or oxida-
tion ponds. Complexing or chelating agents markedly interfere with biological processes
and must be neutralized or removed before biological treatment. '
57
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Chemical Precipitation Before radioactive wastes can be released to the environ-
ment, specific criteria regarding permissible levels of concentration must be met.
Treatment is provided on site to accomplish this. The treatment most widely used is
chemical precipitation,which ranges from simple neutralization of acid wastes for
separation of metals to much more complicated procedures for the selective removal
of specific constituents of the waste. Radioactivity may be removed by direct
precipitation, by adsorption on the resultant floe, or by entrainment in the setting
precipitate.
Permissible levels for the release of aross radioactivity to the environment have been
indicated as 10~7 /"-/ml for water.1o5' ^ ฐ6 The most appropriate location for radio-
active waste reduction is as near the source as possible, since this permits treatment of
minimum volume of waste, reduces exposure and avoids the effects of dilution with other
chemical substances.
There are a variety of methods employed for chemical precipitation. Fuel
reprocessing wastes are generally acidic; the dissolved solids of these wastes contain-
ing radioactivity may be removed by the addition of a neutralizing agent and subsequent
precipitation. Lime-soda ash treatment reduces gross-beta activity by 53 to 87 percent,
whereas phosphate coagulation results in removals of about 87 percent. Best removals
are indicated for the lime and iron process which provides a gross activity reduction of
98 to 99.95 percent. The removal of alpha activity using chemical precipitation ranges
from 98.8 to 100 percent. Specific treatment processes have been developed for the
removal of the more hazardous radionuctides: strontium, cesium, barium, plutonium,
and ruthenium. Depending on the process, removals up to 99.9 percent have been
obtained.150
Ion-Exchange and Adsorption Ion-exchangers using both synthetic and natural
resins have been used to treat low-level wastes and to extract specific radionuclides
from more concentrated wastes as partial treatment prior to discharge of materials to
the soil. In ion-exchange applications, radionuclides are transferred from the liquid
to the solid phase, thereby reducing the volume of the radioactive wastes. For those
nuc lides whose half-life is short in comparison to the retention time in the exchange
material, the treatment provides a permanent treatment-disposal method. For a
material whose half-life is relatively long, ion-exchange furnishes temporary storage
and waste volume reduction. The spent exchange material becomes a radioactive
waste requiring either disposal as a radioactive solid or regeneration to remove the
radionuclides which produces a new low volume waste. Normal practice calls for
discharging the spent resins into special tanks, solidifying them with various aggregates,
and then sealing them in drums or other containers prior to land burial or sea disposal.
The application of adsorption processes to the treatment of liquid radioactive
wastes has been largely limited to the final discharge of low-and medium-level wastes
to the ground. Basic silica gel is capable of adsorbing Cs 137 and Sr 90 ions from
liquid wastes.167 The suspension can be separated by filtration or sedimentation,
although better results may be obtained by passing the liquid through a layer of silica gel
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Evaporation and Storage Large quantities of radioactive wastes are evaporated
when direct discharge to the environment is to be avoided and when decontamination
factors between 102 and 10ฐ are required. Evaporation is expensive but storage is
an even more costly alternative which is used only as a temporary measure for the decay
of very short-lived radionuclides. When decontamination factors are not too stringent
(less than 10^) precipitation, rather than evaporation, should be considered for
decontamination. Ion-exchange resins are applicable to wastes with low salt content,
while the solvent extract method may be applicable to wastes of higher salt
concentrations. ^0
Electrodialysis, Solvent Extraction and Other Methods The goal of these methods
is the concentration of the radionuclides into a small volume which can be readily
controlled. Electrodialysis, solvent extraction, crystallization, and foam separation
have specific applications in particular areas. None of these processes is being
utilized on a large scale for radioactive waste treatment, but all have been studied in
the laboratory, and some on a pilot plant level. Large scale applications of these
methods require further study and refinement because they are not yet economically
competitive with other treatment processes.
Solid Waste Disposal Combustible wastes can be reduced in volume by baling,
incineration in special equipment, or by burning in the open. Volume reductions from
1.7:1 up to 10:1 have been reported for baling. Volume reductions by incineration
of 3 to 21 times those reported for baling have been attained. 'ฐฐ Noncombustible
wastes generally cannot be significantly reduced in volume.
There are five disposal sites in the United States, all under AEC control. Before
a site can be selected for burial of solid radioactive wastes, the geology of the area
must be studied for structure, texture, composition, and the ion-exchange capacity of
the soil. Data are also needed on the rate of release of radioactivity from the burial
area, the elevation of the groundwater table, and the distance of downstream users of
groundwater.
Land burial is the cheapest method of handling solid wastes. Ocean disposal of
packaged material is much more expensive due to high costs of special containers,
transportation to the dock, and transportation to the disposal point in the ocean.
A solid waste solution to the long range problem of high activity nuclear waste
disposal has been proposed. The vast quantities generated are currently stored in tanks
which must be replaced after 10 to 20 years because of the corrosiveness of the stored
material. The high-level radioactive materials must be stored for hundreds of years,
until the nuclear materials decay.
The proposed solution involves converting the high-level radioactive wastes into
a solid inert form. The nuclear waste can be mixed with metal and glass and the
composite encapsulated in a massive metal container. Research has demonstrated that
liquid wastes can be converted into radioactive solids of much smaller volume by
59
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calcining. However, to store the waste, these solids need containerization and
continuous cooling. The low thermal conductivity of the calcined radioactive waste
can be improved significantly if the calcined product is mixed with glass or metal
powders. These composites can then be formed into blocks in which the improved
thermal conductivity permits the heat generated to be dissipated without additional
cooling. The composite blocks must be containerized in a shielding material of high
thermal conductivity to prevent interaction between the radioactive wastes and the
environment.
High temperature incineration of municipal refuse produces gbss and metal which,
without further processing, is suitable for both compositing and containing the high-
level solid waste. Although glass, ferrous and non-ferrous metal granules are effective
for the matrix, only ferrous material can be used for the container.
Once formed, the container would be resistant to radiolytic damage and would
permit mechanical handling. Radioactive waste in this form can then be stored in
abandoned salt mines.
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MAJOR INTERMEDIA AIR POLLUTANT (SINGLE MEDIUM)
PARTICLES
Intermedia Relationships
Particulates are perhaps the most prevalent of the intermedia pollutants, transferring
readily from one medium to another, often with little change in form or character.
Many are quite capable of change either as a cause or result of the transfer process,
and bring about quite different effects than caused by the mere presence of solid
particles.
Metallic salts and oxides, which may be significant as particulates in the atmosphere,
when collected and discharged to receiving waters can affect the pH. Organics, when
removed from wastewaters and incinerated,can easily be transferred to the atmosphere
as particulates. Other examples are so numerous that they are best defined by follow-
ing their paths through the intermedia flow chart , Figure 10.
The transfer of particulates from the atmosphere to either land or water may take place
in three separate ways: the particulates may merely settle out, they may be washed
out by the impact of rain drops, or they may rain out. In the latter case the particle
serves as a nucleus for the formation of the rain drop.
Environmental Impact
The particulate intermedia pollution relationships are schematically shown in Figure
^0 . Particulates may have a widely varied chemical composition and in the atmos-
phere may become aerosols. Because of the diversity of their chemical and physical
properties, particulates as a group are potentially damaging to all aspects of life,
property, and aesthetics. Some particulates may be directly toxic to man (asbestos,
compounds of lead, fluorine, beryllium, and arsenic). Also, some tars which may
appear as hydrocarbon particulates are carcinogenic. Relatively inert particulates
can act as adsorbent surfaces for gaseous pollutants (such as SC>2), enabling the latter
to penetrate deep into the lungs and cause disease. Deposits of fine particulates on
lung tissue can produce mucous flow and further complications, such as penetration
of the particles through the alveolar membranes and eventual extraction into the
lymphatic system. Deposition of particulates in the lungs also causes a reduction in
the pulmonary oxygenation rate.
Particulates, even when not entrained as aerosols, may participate directly in the
corrosion of metals, and cause general deterioration of materials through deposition.
Costs of particulate removal by laundering, sandblasting, etc. are a very large part of
the economic impact of air pollution.
Reduction of atmospheric visibility is an important influence of particulates as aerosols,
the aerosol particles acting both to scatter and absorb light.7 The smaller the particle
size, the more important its effect on visibility reduction and human health. A great
portion of the environmental impact which is attributable to aerosol particulates is
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t ^[ Removal^
I Processes
/& i
\ ce
\t
Effluent (
j ปi j
(
V
S^\
ntra- J
ion y
IT
jt
ewe
\Aui
rRe
atrr
Ian
rs)
ปg> Effluent
lent
y
i
Air
x
Natural Precipitation
( Water V-
^^TT
Leaching & Runoff
Land
1
FIGURE 10
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
PARTICULATES
-------
therefore, due to a relatively small percentage of the total pollutant mass. Additionally,
the smallest aerosol particulates are the most difficult to remove by direct treatment.8
The settlement of particulates in the environment is primarily a function of the size of
the particulates. For example, particles of roughly spherical shape and less than one
micron in diameter have atmospheric settling rates equal to or less than 0.01 ft/minute
for a specific gravity of one, thus tending to remain suspended for long periods in the
air. Data on the distribution of particulate sizes from many pollution sources is limited,
although studies have been made on major sources. 10,11,12
Figure 10 illustrates intermedia flows for particulate treatment decisions.
Main Sources
The primary particulate sources have been described by Vandegrift, Sallee, Gorman,
and Parn. ^ A summary of the largest contributors appears in Table 9.
TABLE 9
PRIMARY PARTICULATE EMISSIONS13
Source Emissions (tons/yr)
Fuel combustion - coal 5,704,000
Crushed stone 4,554,000
Grain elevators 1,700,000
Iron and steel production 1,421,000
Cement manufacturing 934,000
Forest products 666,000
Others 3,102,000
Total 18,081,000
Estimates by the national Environmental Protection Agency ascribe a significant con-
tribution as well to solid waste incineration.
Controls
Process Alternatives Where possible, wetting of work materials inhibits particulate
emissions. In fuel combustion, particulate emissions may be reduced by substituting
cleaner burning fuels (i.e. carbonaceous compounds with less unsaturation) or by pro-
moting more complete combustion.
Treatment Alternatives Disposal of residues from particulate collection treatments
can represent a major intermedia pollution problem'^ which may necessitate extensive
wastewater treatment facilities. The latter treated residues should be ultimately disposed
to land or landfill sites even though they may have received intermediate sludge or
residue treatments.
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Effective processing of collected particulates all rely upon the ultimate disposal of
the collected residues to the land. Disposal to water bodies has caused pollution, and
even land disposal leachate or drainage may cause some water pollution.
Treatment Methods
As previously described, particulates comprise a vast set of air pollutants, whose
individual types may respond variously to treatment methods. Selection of treatment
facilities must be decided with reference to intrinsic particle characteristics, primary
production sources^ and processes, device operation parameters including removal
efficiencies, and residue-disposal considerations.'0 Particle characteristics to be con-
sidered are size distribution, shape, density, hygroscopicity, agglomerating tendency,
corrosiveness, cohesiveness, adhesiveness, fluidity, electrical conductivity, flamma-
bility, and toxicity. Among process factors to be considered are volumetric flow
rate, variability of gas flow, particle concentration, allowable pressure drop, product
quality requirements, and required removal efficiency. Availability of water and
power, maintenance costs, needed floor space, vertical space, and construction
material requirements (imposed by temperatures, pressures, etc.) must be considered
as well. The residue-disposal factors to be considered are reusability within the plant,
marketability, availability of suitable landfill area, water for piping, space for
settling basins, access to municipal waste treatment systems, and general economic
considerations.
Particulate extraction devices may be classified as gravity settling chambers, dry
centrifugal collectors (cyclones), wet collectors and mist eliminators, electrostatic
precipitators (low and high voltage), fabric filters, and afterburners. A summary of
their advantages and disadvantages is presented in Table 10.
Indirect Gravity Settling Chambers A settling chamber is essentially a box in
which emission velocity and turbulence is decreased by expansion of the gas to allow
contained particles to settle out. Chambers of reasonable size produce through-chamber
gas velocities of 1-10 fps.16 Because capture is dependent upon the particle settling a
required distance within the period of containment, the efficiency of such a treatment
device is directly proportional to the length and width of the chamber, the settlin
velocity of the particles in the gas, and inversely proportional to the flow rate
The settling velocity of the particles is dependent on particle size, shape, density,
and on the viscosity of the medium Jฐ Typical collection efficiencies are about 75 per-
cent for particles larger than 45 microns while 30-40 percent removal of particles
smaller than 45 microns is achievable.'9 Typical applications are as pre-cleaners for
kiln and furnace exhausts,2" and in handling of feeds and organic fibers.^ For a
high-efficiency type settling chamber such as the "Howard Separator" the approximate
installed cost ranges from $500-$28,000 for 2000-100,000 cfm volumes, respectively.
A typical annual maintenance cost is $0.015/cfm (range of $0.005-$0.025/cfm) J ฐ
As with all particulate cleaners, residue disposal options are dependent upon the nature
and quantities of the removed substance.
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TABLE 10 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLLECTION DEVICES16
Collector
Advantages
Disadvantages
Gravitational
Cyclone
Wet collectors
Electrostatic
precipitator
Low pressure loss, simplicity of design
and maintenance.
Simplicity of design and maintenance.
Little floor space required.
Dry continuous disposal of collected
dusts.
Low to moderate pressure loss.
Handles large particles.
Handles high dust loadings.
Temperature independent.
Simultaneous gas absorption and
particle removal.
Ability to cool and clean high-
temperature, moisture-laden gases.
Corrosive gases and mists can be re-
covered and neutralized.
Reduced dust explosion risk.
Efficiency can be varied.
Much space required. Low
collection efficiency.
Much head room required.
Low collection efficiency
of small particles.
Sensitive to variable dust
loadings and flow rates.
99+ percent efficiency obtainable.
Very small particles can be collected.
Particles may be collected wet or dry.
Pressure drops and power require-
ments are small compared to other
high-efficiency collectors.
Maintenance is nominal unless corro-
sive or adhesive materials are handled,
Corrosion, erosion problems.
Added cost of wastewater
treatment and reclamation.
Low efficiency on submicron
particles.
Contamination of effluent
stream by liquid entrainment.
Freezing problems in cold
weather.
Reduction in buoyancy and
plume rise.
Water vapor contributes to
visible plume under some
atmospheric conditions.
Relatively high initial cost.
Precipitators are sensitive to
variable dust loadings or flow
rates.
Resistivity causes some ma-
terial to be economically
uncollectable.
Precautions are required to
safeguard personnel from
high voltage.
Collection efficiencies can
deteriorate gradually and
imperceptibly.
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TABLE 10(cont.)16
Collector
Advantages
Disadvantages
Few moving parts.
Can be operated at high tempera-
tures (550ฐ to 850ฐF.)
Fabric filtration Dry collection possible.
Decrease of performance is noticeable.
Collection of small particles possible.
High efficiencies possible
Afterburner,
direct flame.
Afterburner,
catalytic.
High removal efficiency of submicron
odor-causing particulate matter.
Simultaneous disposal of combustible
gaseous and particulate matter.
Direct disposal of non-toxic gases and
wastes to the atmosphere after combus-
tion.
Possible heat recovery.
Relatively small space requirement.
Simple construction.
Low maintenance.
Same as direct flame afterburner.
Compared to direct flame: reduced
fuel requirements, reduced tempera-
ture, insulation requirements, and fire
hazard.
Sensitivity to filtering
velocity.
High-temperature gases must
be cooled to 200ฐ to 550ฐF.
Affected by relative humid-
ity (condensation).
Susceptibility of fabric to
chemical attack.
High operational cost. Fire
hazard.
Removes only combustibles.
High initial cost.
Catalysts subject to poison-
ing.
Catalysts require reactiva-
tion.
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Dry Centrifugal Collectors Dry centrifugal collectors remove particulate matter
exhausts through the centrifugal force produced by a spinning of the gas stream
in the device. Particles discharged to the walls of the collector settle by gravity to
a bottom outlet. Commonly called cyclones, these devices may create the spinning
motion of the gas by vanes or tangential gas inlet. Energy may be added by fans to
improve separation and there are a variety of flow configurations available.
In addition to the radial and gravitational forces, frictional drag of the particles is
also a determinant of collector efficiency J^ Cyclone efficiencies increase with
particle size and density, inlet gas velocity, cyclone body length, the number of gas
revolutions in the device, and smoothness of the cylone wall. Efficiencies decrease
with increased aas velocity, cyclone diameter, size of gas outlet duct diameter and
gas inlet area. Average efficiencies are 50-80 percent for particles of 5-20 microns
diameter, 80-95 percent for 15-50 microns, 95-99 percent for less than 40 microns.
High efficiency cyclones may produce 99 percent removal efficiency for 50 microns
particles and 95 percent for 20 microns." Common applications of cyclones are in
feed and grain mills, cotton gins, fertilizer plants, petroleum refineries, asphalt
mixing plants, chemicals and metals manufacture,and metallurgical and wood
fabrication operations.
For a medium efficiency cyclone installed costs may be $4,000, $23,000 and $80,000
for 10,000, 100,000 and 300,000 cfm flow rates. Annual maintenance costs are com-
parable to those for settling chambers, and annual operational costs are in the range
of $500, $11 ,000 and $48,000 for the size installations noted above.
Wet Collectors and Mist Eliminators Wet collectors, or scrubbers, are so varied
in their design that only a general discussion will be presented here. In all such
devices water is intermixed with the gas to be treated as an integral part of the collec-
tion mechanism. In so doing collection efficiencies are increased relative to dry
mechanical collectors because of an effective size increase of the particles (conditioning),
the applied energy of the water, minimizing of re-entrainment of collected particles by
trapping in a water film and, in some applications, chemical reaction with the particles
to be removed. Wet scrubbers may also be used for removal of some gaseous pollutants.
Distinct types of wet-collection devices may be grouped as spray chambers, gravity
spray towers, centrifugal spray scrubbers, impingement plate scrubbers, venturi scrubbers,
packed bed scrubbers, self-induced spray scrubbers, mechanically induced spray
scrubbers, disintegrator scrubbers, centrifugal fan wet scrubbers, inline wet scrubbers,
Irrigated wet filters, wet fiber mist eliminators, impingement baffle mist eliminators,
vane-type mist eliminators, and packed-bed mist eliminators. Details of their design
and operation may be found in reference 1 6. In all such devices efficiency and
economy are dependent upon uniform and consistent distribution of the liquid, which
is accomplished with various spray nozzles or spinning disk atomizers.
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Removal efficiencies vary with scrubber design type as well as particle and exhaust
characteristics. Typically, a spray chamber can give 60-80 percent removal;
centrifugal spray scrubbers as high as 90 percent for 2-3 micron particles at a pressure
drop of 1 .3-2.3 in. waterr'packed -bed scrubbers in excess of 90 percent for particles
equal to or greater than 2 microns and high dust loadings (5 gr/scf),ฐ and as high as
99 percent for some types for equal to or greater than 2 micron particles;^ disintegra-
tor scrubbers at least 95 percent for 1 micron particles;^0 wet fiber mist eliminators In
excess of 99 percent for particles less than 3 microns at 5-15 in. pressure drop; and im-
pingement baffle mist eliminators 95 percent for 40 micron spray droplets of velocities
up to 25 ft/sec.'ฐ Application of wet collectors is essentially as extensive as the range
of Industries. Typical applications aredescribed in Table 11 (from reference 16).
For a medium-efficiency wet collector typical installed costs are $10,000, $55,000
and $150,000 for 10,000, 100,000 and 300,000 cfm flow rates. For very high
efficiency devices these costs are typically increased to $20,000, $100,000 and
$400,000, respectively. Annual operating costs on the same basis for medium-efficiency
devices are $6,000, $45,000 and $130,000. Typical maintenance costs are $0.04/
acfm ($0.02-$0.06). ^, 16 Of necessity wet collectors require residue treatment con-
siderations not inherently encountered with dry collectors. Settling tanks or lagoons
may be utilized, where sufficient land area exists, in which particles of 1 micron or
1 C Tj ^
larger may be removed.l0' 'ฐWhere the solids have some recovery value, or are porous
or incompressible, continuous filtrations may be employed. Liquid cyclones and
continuous centrifuges may be used, the former being inexpensive and the latter being
efficient even with submicron slurries.^ Chemical treatment is used extensively.^'
In addition, depending on its quality after treatment, the effluent water is either .
returned to the plant for reuse or discharged to a sewer or watercourse.
High-voltage Electrostatic Precipitators The high-voltage electrostatic preci-
pitator removes particulate matter from gaseous exhausts by electrical charging of the
suspended matter, followed by its collection on a grounded surface and subsequent
mechanical removal to an external receptacle. Charging is accomplished by the
passing of the particulates through a corona established between a charging electrode
and a grounded electrode, and ultimate removal is effected by gravity and by mechan-
ical devices or liquid flushing. Direct current voltages of 30-1 OOKV are employed.
Discharge and collection surfaces may be of several different shapes and sizes, and
various cleaning methods may be used.
Typical efficiencies of electrostatic precipitators are very high, and may be expected
to remain at peak levels for the life of the Installation barring overloading, inadequate
maintenance, or unfavorable process changes. Significantly, use of low-sulfur coal
to reduce SOX emissions has a deleterious effect on precipitator efficiency.^ Removal
efficiencies may otherwise be fxP^cted in the range of 75-85 percent, but can be
as high as 99 or 99.9 percent. ' ' '46/47 High-voltage precipitators find applica-
tion throughout industry, and especially for treatment of large emission volumes (50,000-
2,000,000 cfm). Coal-fired power plants, steel making, cement manufacture, kraft
pulp mills, and petroleum refineries are common users. Electrostatic precipitators may
be operated at pressures from slightly below atmospheric to 150 pounds per square Inch,
and from ambient air temperature to 750ฐF.
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TABLE II16
TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF WET SCRUBBERS
Scrubber Type
Typical Application
Spray chambers
Spray tower
Centrifugal
Impingement plate
Venturi:
Venturi throat
Flooded disk
Multiple jet
Venturi jet
Vertical yenturi
Packed bed:
Fixed
Flooded
Fluid (floating) ball
Self-induced spray
Mechanically-induced spray
Disintegrator
Centrifugal inline fan
Wetted filters
Dust cleaning, electroplating, phosphate
fertilizer, kraft paper, smoke abatement
Precooler, blast furnace gas
Spray dryers, calciners, crushers, classifiers,
fluid bed processes, kraft paper, fly ash
Cupolas, driers, kilns, fertilizer, flue gas
Pulverized coal, abrasives, rotary kilns,
foundries, flue gas, cupola gas, fertilizers,
lime kilns, roasting, titanium dioxide process-
ing, odor control, oxygen steel making, coke
oven gas, fly ash
Fertilizer manufacture, odor control, smoke
control
Pulverized coal, abrasive manufacture
Fertilizer manufacturing, plating, acid pickling
Acid vapors, aluminum inoculation, foundries,
asphalt plants, atomic wastes, carbon black,
ceramic frit, chlorine tail gas, pigment manu-
facture, cupola gas, driers, ferrite, fertilizer
Kraft paper, basic oxygen steel, fertilizer,
aluminum ore reduction, aluminum foundries,
fly ash, asphalt manufacturing
Coal mining, ore mining, explosive dusts, air
conditioning, incinerators
Iron foundry, cupolas, smoke, chemical fume
control, paint spray
Blast furnace gas
Metal mining, coal processing, foundry, food,
Pharmaceuticals
Electroplating, acid pickling, air conditioning,
light dust
69
-------
TABLE 11
(cont.)
Scrubber type
Typical Application
Dust, mist eliminators:
Fiber filters
Wire mesh
Baffles
Packed beds
Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acid mists;
moisture separators; household ventilation;
radioactive and toxic dusts, oil mists
Sulfuric, phosphoric, and nitric acid mists;
distillation and absorption
Coke quenching, kraft paper manufacture,
plating
Sulfuric and phosphoric acid manufacture,
electroplating spray towers
70
-------
Typical installed costs of high-voltage precipitators are $120,000, $265,000 and
$415,000 for 100,000, 300,000 and 500,000 cfm flow rates/6 A high-efficiency
unit at 500,000 cfm may cost in excess of $1,000,000 installed.16/4^ Maintenance
costs may be expected to vary only slightly from $0.02/acfm annually, and annual
operating costs for medium-efficiency units can be expected to be about $22,000,
$60,000 and $85,000 for 100,000, 300,000 and 500,000 cfm flow rates respectively,16
where cfm indicates actual cubic feet per minute.
Low-voltage Electrostatic Precipitators The low-voltage, two-stage, electro-
static precipitator was originally designed to purify air, and as an industrial particu-
late collector it is limited almost entirely to collection of fine-divided liquid
particles. Typical efficiencies are 50-90 percent in the areas of application, which
are essentially restricted to meat smokehouses, deep-fat cookers, high-speed
grinding operations and asphalt saturators.' 6 Because the sources controlled are
relatively few and are minor polluters, this device will not be further considered
here.
Fabric Filtration Fabric filtration is one of the oldest methods of particulate
collection and one of the most efficient. The principle of operation is like that
of a vacuum cleaner, in which the emissions to be cleaned are passed through bags
of a woven or felted fabric. Envelope- and tube-shaped bags are generally used.
Depending on the size, density, and electrical properties of the particles, entrap-
ment is accomplished by direct interception (slipstream effects),inertial impaction
(direct collision)^diffusion (for very small particles at slow flow rates), electro-
static attraction, and gravity settling. Open spaces in the filter cloth are much
greater than the size of particles to be collected, so simple fabric sieving is not the
usual mode of entrapment.' 6 The accumulated dust cake affords filtering character-
istics in addition to the "clean cloth resistance;" thus both must be considered in the
choice of a filtering unit.
Using fabrics of cotton, wool, dacron, nylon, orlon, nomex, polypropylene, teflon
and fiberglass in various types of weaves or felted woolen fabric, a great range of
efficiencies is possible. Efficiencies of 99+ percent with woven fabrics are
common,52,53,54 an
-------
units are $3,500, $14,000 and $100,000 for 10,000, 100,000 and 500,000 cfm re-
spectively. Annual mauitenance costs are fairly high, at $0.05/cfm typically, ranging
from $0.02-$0.08/cfm.
Afterburners Afterburners do not collect particulate matter, but oxidize it to
compounds which are expected to be less noxious, such as water and carbon dioxide.
Direct-flame incineration or catalytic combustion may be employed. The use of after-
burners is necessarily restricted to the control of combustible material, i.e. having a
high hydrocarbon content, and to exhausts which are residue-free. Efficiencies are
extremely high in areas of application, which generally involve odor control in very
dilute gases Jฐ Because afterburners are more widely applied for control of carbon
monoxide and other gaseous pollutants than for particulates, they will not be further
discussed here.
Residues from Control Devices
Residues created may be handled either dry or wet. Electrostatically precipitated fly
ash from coal-fired power plants has found uses in building block construction and in
sludge conditioning.!0
72
-------
MAJOR INTERMEDIA WATER POLLUTANTS (SINGLE MEDIUM)
ORGANICS
Organics in water most commonly are reported as measured biochemical oxygen demand.
The Jattej- is not a physicalpollutagit but an indicator. Othej common measures of
organics content are chemical oxygen demand, and total organic carbon. Five-day
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) indicates the amount of oxygen consumed in the
decomposition of organic matter by bacteria in a given sample volume over a period
of 5 days at 20ฐC.'0' Thus BOD is a measure of the oxygen-xlepleting effects of the
contained organic matter. The oxygen consumed may ultimately be incorporated
into water, carbon dioxide and compounds of nitrogen and sulfur ,principally. Not all
organic matter is rapidly bio-degradable since organic substances may have widely
different carbon-hydrogen ratios and refractory characteristics.
Intermedia Relationships
There are three methods by which organics may be removed from their primary medium,
water, and transfered to an alternate medium. One of these methods transfers the
pollutant to air and the other two transfer it to the land. All three transfers result
from residue disposal as shown in Figure 11.
The water to air transfer is achieved by incineration of the sludge produced by any
of the treatments mentioned below. If this sludge is disposed to a landfill, the
pollutant is transfered to the land. A more positive transfer of the pollutant to the
land occurs if the treated or partially treated wastewater effluents and/or sludges are
discharged on crop or forage lands. This transfer makes the nutrients available for
plant growth and utilizes the solids for their nutrient and soil conditioning values .
Biochemical oxygen demand is not then a significant consideration provided that
runoff to adjacent watercourses is prevented or controlled.
Environmental Impact
When organic material is discharged into receiving waters, its biodegradatfon consumes
the oxygen in the water. As the biochemical oxygen demand increases, the dissolved
oxygen is rapidly depleted, depriving the fish and other aerobic organisms of their
needed oxygen. When the dissolved oxygen drops to about 46 percent of saturation,
fish will not enter the area.108 At the same time, high organic concentration^en-
courages eutrophication with the rapid growth of both algae and bacteria. This
combined symbiotic activity and the result! ng floatable by-products can produce
undesirable scum, suspended solids,and bottom sludge deposits in the water body.
Aside from the environmental and esthetic impacts, high social costs, economic costs
of treatment and the costs of resource destruction are all related to the degradation
of the receiving waters.
73
-------
Food
Processing
Agricultural
Products
Paper
Production
Fertilizer
and Chemical
Products
Other
Industrial and
Commercial
Waste
Water
Sources
Leaching & Runoff
Natural Precipitation
FIGURE 11
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
ORGANICS AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS IN WATER
-------
Main Sources
Table 12 shows the reported quantities of industrial wastewcrters discharged in 1963
and Federal Water Pollution Control Agency (FWPCA) estimates of the quantities of
organics measured as BOD5 and the settleable and suspended solids contained in these
waters. These data agree fairly well with the independent but more limited data of
this study. Wasteload estimates indicate that industries included in the categories of
chemicals (SIC 28), paper (SIC 26) and food and kindred products (SIC 20) generated
about 90 percent of all BOD5 in industrial wastewater before treatment. ^
Controls
A typical process change to reduce the discharge of organic wastes would be the sub-
stitution of dry processes for treating and cleaning in industries. Recirculation and
reuse of process waters and the treatment of waste waters for product recovery are
other changes that may be used. Better housekeeping to reduce discharge of wastes
to the sewers and better utilization of materials will also help.
Treatments
A number of treatment processes have been proven effective in the stabilization of
organics; many are in common use today. The processes range in efficiency from
about 40 percent to more than 98 percent removal of B(X>5 . Table 13 shows rela-
tive efficiencies of various treatment processes. These methods include: fine-screen-
ing (5-10 percent)fettling and flotation (5-40 percent),chemical precipitation
(78 percent),^ activated sludge (85-95 percent)]10'111 trickling filter (80-95 percenrf,
stabilization ponds (70 percent)]'3 and carbon adsorption (85-98 percent).114/115/116
All of these methods generate gaseous and solid residues which present the ultimate
disposal requirement with intermedia! effects mentioned above. The available treatment
cost information is presented in Section VI.
75
-------
TABLE 12
SELECTED ESTIMATED VOLUME OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES BEFORE TREATMENT, 1963
109, a
o-
PPBb
Code
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
1206
1207
1208
1209
1210
1211
1212
1200
SICC
Code
33,34
28
--
26
29
20
35,36,
37
32
22
24,25
30
12,19,
21 ,27,
31,38,
39,72
Totaid
Industry Wastewater,
Group(s) (Billion Gallons)
Metal & Metal Products
Chemical & Allied Pro-
ducts
Power Production
Paper & Allied Products
Petroleum & Coal
Food & Kindred Products
Machinery & Transporta-
tion Equipment
Stone, Clay, and Glass
Products
Textile Mill Products
Lumber & Wood Products
Rubber & Plastics
Miscellaneous Industrial
Sources
All Manufacturing ^
For Comparison:
Sewered Population of U.S
> 4,300
3,700
NAe, f
1,900
1,300
690
> 481
21 8e
140
126e
160
450
13,100
. 5,3009
Process
Water Intake,
(Billion Gallons
1,000
560
N.A.f
1,300
88
260
109
88
no
57
19
190
> 3,700
N.A.
Standard Biochem. Settleable and
Oxygen Demand Suspended Solids
) (Million Pounds) (Million Pounds)
>480
9,700
N.A.f
5,900
500
4,300
> 250
N.A.
890
N.A.
40
> 390
ฃ 22,000
7,300h
> 4,700
1,900
N.A.f
3,000
460
6,600
> 70
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
50
>930
ฃ 18,000
8,800k
(a) Ref: Volume II - The Cost of Clean Waters. 1968.(b) Program Planning & Budget,(c) Standard Industrial Classification.
(d ) Includes Cooling Water & Steam Production Waters.(e) Included in Total for all Mfg.(f ) Not Available or Not Applicable.
H 120,000.000 persons x.112,0_aallons x 365 days.(h) 120,000,000 persons x 1/6 pounds x 365 days.(k) 120,000,000 persons
.2 pounds x 365 days. (I) BOD 5 20ฐC
-------
TABLE 13
RELATIVE EFFICIENCIES OF SEWAGE-TREATMENT PROCESSES
PERCENTAGE REMOVAL
Treatment Process
Biochemical
Oxygen
Demand
1. Fine screening 5 to 10
2, Chlorination of raw or settled sewage 15 to 30
3. Plain sedimentation 25 to 40
4. Chemical precipitation 50 to 85
5. Rapid filtration preceded by plain sedimentation 35 to 65
6. Rapid filtration preceded by chemical precipitation 50 to 90
7. Trickling filtration preceded and followed by plain
sedimentation 80 to 95
8. Activated-sludge treatment preceded and followed
by plain sedimentation 85 to 95
9. Intermittent sand filtration 90 to 95
10. Chlorination of biologically treated sewage ....
ฐ 5-day, 20ฐC.
not applicable to BOD.
77
-------
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
As with particulates in the atmosphere, suspended solids (SS)in the liquid medium are
made up of many different types of materials. The majority of suspended solids are
organic in nature and therefore exert a biochemical oxygen demand on the receiving
waters. Suspended solids are determined as the residue that can be removed by fil-
tration ,a$ opposed to dissolved solids,which are determined by evaporation."'
Intermedia Relationships
Because of the ease with which solids can be transferred between media, suspended
solids are included in the flow chart for particulates (Figure 9 ). The major difference
between particulates in the air and suspended solids in the water is the amount of
natural transfer which takes place between media. In the section on particulates/
natural transfer was shown to be fairly extensive. Figure 9 shows that transfer out
of the water medium by natural processes is far less so. Some man-controlled processes
such as residue disposal from treatment processes do effect intermedia transfers. This
may be through incineration or land disposal.
Environmental Impact
In addition to the oxygen demand problem caused by the organic fraction of suspended
solids, other problems also result. Among these are aesthetic degradation and interference
with the growth, survival, and propagation of algae, plants, fish and shellfish.
Aside from any toxicity which may exist,suspended solids may kill fish, shellfish, and
other aquatic life through abrasive injuries, by clogging gills and respiratory passages,
by smothering eggs, young, food chain organisms, and by destroying spawning beds. ''ฐ
In concentrations over 750 mg/l, the development of eggs and larvae of the venus clam
is decreased. In a river containing 6,000 mg/l of suspended solids, trout popula-
tion was one-seventh and that of invertebrates one-nineteenth the comparable densi-
ties in a control river source.
Controls
Controls for the limitation of suspended solids are essentially the same as for organics.
Waste water treatment processes have efficiencies of suspended solids removal ranging
from 50 to more than 98 percent. These processes, even when not intended primarily
for suspended soiids removal, have the following approximate efficiencies: screening,
0 -80 percent; flotation, 70-95 percent;121 chemical precipitation, 70-90 percent;
primary sedimentation, 50-90 percent;122 activated sludge, 85ซ95 percent;12** trick-
ling filter, 70-92 percent;112 carbon adsorption, 90 percent; 2 sand filtration 70-90
percent and coagulation, sedimentation, sand filtration 90-99+ percent. The available
treatment cost information is presented in Section VII.
78
-------
ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY
Metallic salts and oxides in water hydrolyze to form acids and alkalies which in turn
affect the pH of the water. When wastes containing metallic salts and oxides are
discharged in sufficient quantities into natural water bodies, the pH of the latter may
also be changed. Like biochemical oxygen demand, pH is not a pollutant, but only
an indicator of pollution.
Intermedia Relationships
Even when volatile acids and bases are dissolved in water at reasonable concentrations,
they are not easily transferable to air. On the other hand, water scrubbing of gases
containing SOX and NOX provides an air-to-water intermedia transfer route. Figure 12
shows the intermedia flow for acidity and alkalinity.
Environmental Impact
A slight change in pH can produce an alteration in the carbonate buffer system on
which living organisms rely. '^ Another primary danger which may accompany a
change in pH is the synergistic effect of acidity and waterborne substances producing
toxicity. For example, a reduction in pH of about 1.5 units can cause a thousandfold
increase in the acute toxicity of cyanometallic complex.
Not all plant and animal life have the same tolerance to pH changes. Most fish can
withstand a variation in pH between 5.0 and 9.0." Beyond this range, replacement
communities take over. '' A high or low pH in livestock watering supplies can be
detrimental to the animals.
Other Effects
Industries which either use waters polluted with metallic salts and oxides or have these
pollutants in their wastewater, may have serious problems because of the hardness of
the water. Industries which use these hard waters generally soften them to prevent
the waters leaving a scale deposit on the inside of process tanks, pipes, and boilers.
These deposits can decrease the efficiency of the system, shorten its useful life, or even
damage it. Industries which discharge these latter pollutants usually have them in large
quantities. The metallic salts cause corrosion of pipes, pumps, and other structures made
of metal or concrete.66 Some salts of non-toxic metals (iron and aluminum, for example)
react with the natural alkalinity in the water to form stable hydroxides. Some of these
are colored and form unsightly deposits in the receiving waters.66 It is believed that
the latter deposits reduce light penetration of the river and interfere with normal, existing
ecological systems.2'2
79
-------
Metal
Mfg.
i
.
/Ba
Coal
Mines
i
se \
Scrubbing Oil
Residues Refine
i
J
(Additior)
"1
r
.. _ -j
Food
ries Processing
, . , I T
r
\
s N
/Acid \
(Addition/
T
Emissions
In-
fcinera-
tion ./
r-
Sludge
19.
sar.\
/
Effluent ^X S k 1
1 ' A
Residue f
>
Natural Precipitation
Leaching & Runoff
Land
FIGURE 12
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
ACIDITY-ALKALINITY
-------
Main Sources
The metallic salts and oxides are likely to be formed by any waste generator which
employs metal in its process or piping. This is true of the transportation equipment,
mining,45 primary metals industries2'3,214 anc| fabricated metals products .^/ฐ0
The largest U.S. source is acid drainage from coal mines, the pollutant being sulfuric
acid produced by air oxidation of pyrites. These waters may have a pH as low as
2.9. ฐ Acid pickling of steel is another source of acidity in waste effluents. ' At
the other end of tbe,pH scale, refinery wastes^ and food processing wastes are highly
alkaline, in part.
Controls
The most common treatment for acid or alkali waste water is to neutralize it by adding
the appropriate basic or acidic solution. The most common alkalies used to neutralize
acids are limestone, lime, and soda ash. Sulfuric acid is most commonly used to
neutralize basic solutions. Carbonic or nitric acids are also used to a lesser degree.
The available treatment cost information's presented in Section VI,
81
-------
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS
Intermedia! Relationships
Figure 13 illustrates the intermedial relationships for phosphorus compounds. The main
sources are agricultural runoff, urban drainage, food processing, chemicals and allied
industries, and waste water from other sources. Agricultural runoff and urban drainage
may flow directly to receiving waters, although urban drainage may be directed through
combined sewers to treatment plants where it may or may not be bypassed.
The wastes from the food processing industry and chemicals and allied products industry
may or may not receive in-p!ant treatment, either partial or complete. The effluent
from in-plant treatment may either be discharged to sewer systems or directly to the
water or land. The residues from treatments may be incinerated, discharged to
receiving waters or deposited in landfills. The incineration process creates emissions
which may or may not be treated. These possible treatments were discussed under
"Particulates" and are shown in Figure 9 . The residues from these treatments may be
disposed to either the land or water. Figure 13 also illustrates the natural intermedia
flows. Phosphorus compounds may leach from landfills or run off from the land to receiving
waters,where they provide nutrients to plant growth. They may also precipitate from
the air to water and land.
It should be mentioned here that incineration does not transfer a large amount of gaseous
phosphorus compounds (such as phosphine) to the air. This intermedia route,then, .is
less significant for phosphorus than it is for sulfur compounds.
Environmental Impact
The major impact of phosphorus in water is similar to that of nitrogen. As a nutrient,
phosphorus promotes algal growth in the same manner and with the same consequences
and can be removed for approximately the same cost. ^ Phosphine (PHo), the final
compound in the biological breakdown of phosphates, is toxic to certain fish, and
has been detected in some polluted waters in concentrations exceedinq 3.6 ma/I.
124, 125, 126 a
Main Sources
Phosphorus has received much recent attention becauseof its use in detergents and the
resulting increase in the phosphate content of sewage. Other sources of phosphorus
in wastewater are agricultural production, ^' '^'' '^ food and kindred products,^
chemicals and allied products, ' and urban drainage.
Controls
Controls on the discharge of phosphorus compounds to receiving waters are limited
primarily to use of substitute materials and interception of surface drainage. No-
phosphate detergents are an example of the former,,while use of drainage ditches,
impoundment and spreading are frequently employed for the latter.
82
-------
00
GO
Chemicals
&
Allied Ind.
Waste
Water
Sources
Agricultural
Runoff
Urban
Drainage
Treatment
Plants
Leaching & Runoff
Natural Precipitation
FIGURE 13
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
PHOSPHORUS COMPOUNDS
-------
Treatments
There are a number of treatment processes which will remove phosphorus and its
compounds from wastewater, through either the formation and precipitation of insoluble
phosphorus compounds, phosphorus uptakexor capture and removal with the sludges.
Some of these methods and their efficiencies are chemical precipitation, 88-95 percent
by itself, 95-98 percent if followed by filtration; carbon adsorption, 32 percent;
eleetrodialysis, 10-40 percent; and ion exchange, 86-98 percent. Biochemical
processes which are capable of phosphorus removal are activated sludge and algal
harvesting. The available treatment cost information is presented in Section VI.
84
-------
LESSER OR INTRAMEDIAL AIR POLLUTANTS (SINGLE MEDIUM)
With the exceptions of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, which are major intramedia
air pollutants, the pollutants in this section are lesser pollutants which are not of
national concern. Information relating to fluorides, hydrogen chloride, arsenic,
hydrogen cyanide, ammonia and ethylene is very limited and it is not possible to develop
accurate national emission data for these pollutants. Therefore, the discussions of these
pollutants will include a brief paragraph about the intermedia relationships and one
concerning the environmental impact of the pollutant. No flow charts have been
developed except for carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons. The discussions will briefly
give the reasons for classifying these pollutants as of lesser importance in accord with the
criteria presented in "Major vs. Lesser Pollutants," Section III.
CARBON MONOXIDE
Intermedia Relationships
Because of its low water solubility and low hygroscopic ity carbon monoxide is not
easily transferred to water or land by physical means (rainwash). Unless oxidized to
CO2, it remains essentially a serious air pollution problem. In spite of the great
quantities of man-made CO emitted, if it were all oxidized to Cฉ2 the result would
be only about one percent of all man-made CO2 emissions. ฐ3 This oxidation pathway
is, therefore, insignificant for CO in terms of the intermedia implications of CO2.
Furthermore, the nature of treatment methods for carbon monoxide is such that intermedia
transfer from air to water is essentially precluded (Figure 14). As CO from man-related
sources results solely from incomplete combustion, which is inherently an air-polluting
process, there is very little water pollution by CO. Carbonates discharged to water
are reducible to carbon monoxide only with extreme difficulty. The important features
of CO pollution and its fate in the environment are discussed below.
Environmental Impacts
At concentrations of about 1000 ppm, carbon monoxide is quickly lethal to humans.
It kills by oxygen starvation^ since CO is preferentially chelated by hemoglobin as
compared to oxygen. At 100 ppm carbon monoxide induces lassitude, headache and
dizziness in humans.59 The highest concentration of CO recorded at a fixed site in
Los Angeles, California was 72 ppm, although instances of concentrations higher
than 100 ppm have been found in Los Angeles traffic87 and in heavy traffic areas
of Detroit, Michigan. There is some concern that CO3 may be a chronic poison,
but this position has few adherents in the United States.
There is no evidence for chronic carbon monoxide damage to vegetation, materials,
animals, or aesthetics at normal pollution levels. 90
85
-------
Open Internal
Fires Combustion
Engines
i '
~"K ^f
r
/AfteTX
(Burners )
\~_
Carbon Dioxide
ป
(T
/Fla
Incineration
i
\ /aitaX
res) llysts)
V V
Etc.
oo
o-
Water
Leaching
& Runoff
Carbonates by Precipitation
FIGURE 14
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
CARBON MONOXIDE
-------
At high concentrations carbon monoxide is known to participate in synergistic toxic
reactions with several other gaseous pollutants.^ However, at CO concentrations
generally encountered in the atmosphere,no such synergisms have been established.-*
Main Sources
In terms of gross amounts, carbon monoxide is the most significant man-made pollutant,
with an estimated 147.2 million tons emitted in 1970. Transportation sources account
for about 75 percent of this total, or 111 .0 million tons in 1970. Forest fires and other
open burning are the second largest contributor, with about 17 million tons, followed
by industrial processes and solid waste disposal. In all such calculated estimates of
nationwide pollutant emissions the method of calculation is highly important. A
different method for calculating CO from automotive exhausts showed an "increase"
from "63.8" to "111 .5" million tons from 1968 to 1969,90' 91 One further complicated
estimate claims that 90 percent of all CO emissions to the global atmosphere, or about
"3.5 billion tons per year, " are the result of natural processes. Waterways have
been cited as CO emitters. Carbon monoxide has been considered a uniquely man-
related pollutant,5 or at least its production from natural sources has been considered
relatively unimportant or negligible.ฐ^
Treatments
The available treatment cost information is presented in Section V! . The controls, such
as afterburners, are intramedial.
87
-------
HYDROCARBONS
Intermedio Relationships
Examination of Figure 15 reveals transfer modes between the fluid media for hydro-
carbon pollutants discharged originally to the air. However, it should be emphasized
that the physical possibility of transferring hydrocarbon emissions from air to water
is very slight, due to their water-insolubility and the efficiency of normal intramedial
hydrocarbon treatment methods. Volatile hydrocarbons spilled or wasted to waterways
will evaporate to air, and incineration of oily spills and sludges may transfer a small
amount of unburned fuel. Some hydrocarbons are in particulate form, and may thus
be treated by particulate control techniques. Figure 9 illustrates intermedia relation-
ships for particulates.
Environmental Impact
Except for fused-ring aromatics, which may be carcinogenic, hydrocarbons are not
generally harmful to human or animal life in relatively dilute atmosphere concentra-
tions. In large concentrations they are asphyxiants because of oxyten exclusion. **
Low-molecular weight hydrocarbons comprise nearly all the gross emissions and are
either gases or liquids and are generally colorless at ambient temperatures. They do not
generally form aerosols, hence they do not contribute directly to visibility reduction
in the atmosphere.
A major impact of hydrocarbon pollutants involves their photochemical reaction with
nitrogen oxides to form smog. Olefinic unsaturates are the most reactive,and para-
finic hydrocarbons, the least. The effects of these secondary pollutants were described
previously in the Section on Nitrogen Oxides and Compounds.
Except for the high molecular weight hydrocarbons, which are settleable, hydrocarbon
emissions tend to remain airborne. They are water insoluble and do not enter water
resources except that the medium molecular weight compounds may enter as flotables.
Because hydrocarbons are not easily transferred from the air,they pose a continual
hazard as reactants to form such photochemical products as PAN.
Main Sources
Total hydrocarbon emissions to the atmosphere in the United States have been estimated
at 34.7 million tons in 1970. Estimates have remained essentially constant at that
value for the previous few years. Nearly 20 million tons are attributable to vehicular
and other transportation sources, with miscellaneous sources contributing 7.1 million
tons and industrial processes 5.5 million tons. However, there is some controversy
over the relative importance of man-related hydrocarbon emissions. It has been reported
that natural sources such as vegetation and bacteria are responsible for 85 percent of
the global hydrocarbon emissions and 50 percent of all United States emissions.98,99
However, natural sources are generally well removed from population centers, which
may limit their importance as direct impactors on man's environment or reactants with
88
-------
Coke and
Charcoal
Production
i
Petrol .
Refining
I
Heat & Power
Generation
Mobile
Sources
Solid
Waste
Incineration
i
Solvent Mfg.
and Storage
*
oo
Emissions
Natural Precipitation
Effluents
Residues
Emissions
voted
vCarbon'
Sewers
\un?s
ror Ind.
Treat.
Mants
Effluents
Leaching and Runoff
FIGURE 15
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
GASEOUS HYDROCARBONS
-------
man-made pollutants to form more damaging substances. Methane from swamps and
terpenes from evergreen forests are examples of two predominant natural sources, '
while gasoline constituents such as branched pentanes and benzene derivatives are the
predominant hydrocarbons from man-related sources. Although very low in atmos-
pheric concentrations and total emissions, some high molecular weight fused-ring
aromatic hydrocarbons like the benzopyrenes are known carcinogens . ฐ They are
produced by high-temperature combustion of organic substances as in coal and
oil burning, incineration, backyard barbequeing, and cigarette smoking.
Sanitary landfills may also bea source of hydrocarbon emissions. Anaerobically de-
composing organic wastes produce methane. The potential gross pollution by methane
from such point source disposal methods may be far greater than the hydrocarbon
emissions during solid waste incineration.
Controls
Means of reducing hydrocarbon emissions in the California South Coast Air Basin as
planned by the Environmental Protection Agency, and as reported in the Los Angeles
Times, includes propane powered vehicles, improved service station design to lessen
evaporation, reduction of hydrocarbon compounds used by industry, minimum reactive
hydrocarbons used in degreasing, and lesser use of hydrocarbons in dry cleaning
establishments. Hydroelectric and nuclear power plants are presently limited al-
ternatives to fossil-fuel units for abatement of hydrocarbon emissions from power
generation.
Treatments
Some hydrocarbons are in particulate form and may be controlled by standard particu-
late treatment procedures (see Particulates ). Afterburners and flares which are
the most efficient treatments for hydrocarbons are not intermedia alternatives. Cata-
lytic afterburners for automobiles may be poisoned by lead and other gasoline impuri-
ties. However, the reduction of hydrocarbon emissions in the past few years '4,"(->,"1
may be attributed to the partial effectiveness of vehicular "smog-control" devices.
Evaporation and emissions from stationary point sources may be treated by adsorption
on activated carbon, ^ by combustion in direct-fired afterburners for higher concen-
trations or by catalytic afterburners for low concentrations. '03,56
Hydrocarbons may be efficiently removed from stationary exhausts by activated carbon,
which is steam-reactivated and provides recovery of the hydrocarbons. If the condensed
steam were discharged into a watercourse it could carry with it the removed hydro-
carbons as a surface film. However,adsorption and regeneration of activated carbon
is an expensive process ^ and normally is utilized only when the recovered hydro-
carbon may be isolated and reused or marketed. Adsorption on activated carbon is not
normally a process for intermedia transfer of hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are not
considered as one of the prime factors in intermedia pollution as all mobile controls
90
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and most stationary controls, except for activated carbon, are intramedial. Of course
particulate hydrocarbons can follow particulate intermedia flows and are potentially
most damaging to human health. The available control information is presented in
Section VI.
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FLUORIDES
Intermedia Relationships
Intermedia treatments do exist for some fluorides. Hydrogen fluoride, a common form, can
be readily removed by scrubbing processes, thus creating a potential transfer to water.
Environmental Impacts
Fluorine is a cumulative poison and the degree of its toxicity is a function of both
ingestion level and length of exposure. Fluoride ingestion causes a disturbed calci-
fication of growing teeth. Fluorides are also a protoplasmic poison, a fact which finds
its explanation in the blocking of certain enzyme systems Jฐ Although there is no
evidence to indicate widespread damage at the national level from fluorides, local
problem areas do exist. Measurable amounts of fluoride may be found in the atmos-
phere of any coal burning city in the winter. Agricultural sprays and dusts containing
fluorides have caused significant damage in rural areas.
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HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
Intermedia Relationships
Hydrogen chloride can be controlled with methods similar to those for sulfur oxides.
Some potential controls convert the compound to hydrochloric acid, as a water
pollutant, but most control methods recover the gas so that intermedia transfer of
hydrogen chloride is not widespread.
Environmental Impacts
Hydrogen chloride and other chloride compounds can cause widespread damage to
vegetation and property. However, the modern alkali industry, a main source of this
pollutant, is based upon the electrolysis of common salt and by-products qre usually
carefully controlled. Chlorine concentrations for U. S. cities are well below commonly-
accepted danger levels. ฐ Some local problems in rural areas can exist if precautions
are not taken in the use of hydrogen chloride as a fumigant. Since this pollutant
creates no major problem nationally nor is likely to become a major problem, no
further analysis will be presented here.
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ARSENIC
Intermedia Relationships
Arsenic is a heavy metal and can be controlled by the same techniques shown in
Figure 8 and the accompanying treatment discussion of heavy metals. Arsenic is,
therefore, an intermedia pollutant, though not a major one.
Environmental Impacts
The high level of toxicity of arsenic is widely known. Humans and animals suffer severe
salivation, thirst, vomiting, great uneasiness, feeble and irregular pulse, and respitation.
Death may come in a few hours or days.
The more common cases involve economic damage from animal deaths. The animal begins
to stamp, alternately lies down and gets up; breath and feces may have a garlic odor
and the feces may be bloody.
Arsenic occurs as an impurity in ores and in coal, and has been reported to cause
poisoning of livestock near various industrial processes and smelters. It is used in some
insecticides in the form of arsenic trioxide and lead arsenate. This pollutant is
considered a lesser intramedia pollutant.
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HYDROGEN CYANIDE
Intermedia Relatfonships
Control methods for this pollutant consist mainly of safe handling, and thus hydrogen
cyanide is classified as an intramedia pollutant.
Environmental Impacts
t
Hydrogen cyanide, while extremely lethal, is not a major air pollutant nationally.
It can be fatal to animals and humans, and can also injure vegetation, causing
surface irritation and root damage. It can cause root injury when leaked into green-
houses from underground gas lines,18 since it has been found in artificial gas to the
extent of 200 to 300 ppm. Hydrogen cyanide is used as a fumigant, and careless
handling can cause the damage described.
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AMMONIA
Intermedia Relationships
Where an industrial process emits high concentrations of ammonia, as mentioned above
for fertilizer, organic chemicals and nitric acid, its value stimulates recovery for use
rather than disposal of the residue, so no intermedia transfer takes place. In the case of
agricultural problems, adequate ventilation of enclosed buildings is advised, and
controls consist of maintaining dry conditions in the manure to reduce ammonia discharge.
Ammonia is, therefore, classified as an intramedia pollutant.
Environmental Impact
Ammonia and ammonium salts are not important man-created air contaminants.
Ammonia is an important raw material in the fertilizer and organic chemical industries
and in the manufacture of nitric acid by the oxidation process. Its recovery is a matter
of fundamental importance in the economical operation of such processes and in the
manufacture of gas from coal. Ammonia may also have harmful effects on farm animals
kept in enclosed areas under moist conditions since this causes increased ammonia
release from the manure.
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ETHYLENE
Intermedia Relationships
Controls consist mainly of safe handling and thus ethylene is classified as an intramedia
pollutant.
Environmental Impact
Ethylene in high dilution causes injury to leaves of sensitive plants. As little as 0.1
ppm ethylene in the air causes epinasy in sweet peas and tomatoes, and 0.05 ppm in
buckwheat and sunflowers. Injury by ethylene has been observed in greenhouses with
leaking gas lines. 'ฐ It is not a major air pollutant nationally.
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INTRAMEDIA OR LESSER INTERMEDIA WATER POLLUTANTS (SINGLE MEDIUM)
Thermal pollution is classified as a lesser intermedia pollutant because of the limited
areas in which it is critical while pathogens, pesticides and liquid hydrocarbons are
classified as ma|or pollutants which are bsically intramedial. Metallic salts and oxides
chlorides, and surfactants are all classified as lesser intramedia pollutants. Information
concerning these lesser pollutants is very limited and it is not possible to develop
accurate national discharges for them. Therefore, the discussions of these pollutants will
include only a brief paragraph concerning the intermedia relationships and one concerning
the environmental impact of the pollutant. No flow charts have been developed for these
lesser pollutants and the discussions will explain the reasons for classifying them as such.
In general, the criteria used are those presented in "Major vs. Lesser Pollutants,"
Section III.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Intermedia I Relationships
Figure 16 illustrates the intermedia! relationships for thermal pollution. Heat may be
transferred from air to water or water to air. Since thermal pollution is more serious
in water, most conscious controls transfer heat from water to air.
When water is used as a coolant in an industrial process, this water must be cooled for
reuse or for discharge to receiving waters. The cooling is usually achieved by spray
chambers or cooling towers which transfer the heat to the air.
It is also possible to transfer heat from air to water, as in the instance of a spray chamber
in an air conditioning system. Cooling systems can have a significant intermedial im-
pact. Evaporation loss is about 1 percent for each 10 F drop in temperature,whether
this is through a pond or tower. Windage losses are about 1.0 to 1.0 percent for
atmospheric towers, and 0.1 to 0.3 percent for mechanical draft towers. ^3 |n p|an|.s
with other pollutants in their emissions, the mist may combine with SOX and other
air pollutants to create corrosive acids.33 As an example, NOX may form nitric acid
upon contact with the mist. Corrosion and algal growth can cause severe problems in
areas around the cooling towers. Salt build-ups and corrosion can also be severe
within the cooling system.
Environmental Impacts
The term thermal pollution refers to the waste or excess energy in the form of heat which
is released to one of the media from a source. Whether or not this heat is actually a
pollutant depends upon its environmental effect. Since heat or energy is usually the
primary product of thermal pollution sources, its waste is a direct result of the producer's
inefficiency.
Since a water body, especially a stream or small river, has a small volume relative to
that of the atmosphere, temperature changes due to heated discharges seem more pro-
nounced in the water. Yet one British thermal unit will change 0.016cu ft of water
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FIGURE 16
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
THERMAL POLLUTION
-------
(1 pound) one degree Fahrenheit. The same amount of heat will produce the same change
in temperature in 52 cu ft of air at standard pressure and temperature. This is a volume
ratio of 1 to 3250.
Abnormal temperature of a water body may adversely affect or kill its existing life forms.
For example, a fish might hatch too early in an artifically warmed stream and find an
inadequate food supply because the food chain depends on plants whose abundance de-
depends in part on the length of day rather than the temperature. A fish may be unable
to compete in 75ฐ to 80ฐF water if it is accustomed to 70 F water. IU Because of the
large volume and good mixing action of the atmosphere, great amounts of energy can be
discharged without a noticeable temperature change.
An experimental use for the heated water from cooling systems has been to heat green-
houses in cold areas to provide one or two extra crops a year. This experiment has
worked well in Romania, where it was used for economic rather than ecologic reasons.
In the warm months when the water is not needed for the hothouses, an alternate means
of treatment would be needed. "^
Major Sources
The major sources of excess heat are stationary sources, such as power plants. Lof and
Ward''^ have estimated that 80 percent of all water used by industry is for cooling
purposes and that by 1980 approximately 10 percent of all river and stream water in the
United States will be used for cooling.
Treatment Processes
The cooling systems which produce the heated wastewater can be classed in two broad
categories, once-through(or single-pass)and recirculating systems. Very often, the
single-pass system receives no treatment for transferring heat to the air. However, one
method of cooling presently in use for these single-pass systems is the use of a pond or
canal connecting the source with the receiving water. This provides a means of heat
loss primarily through evaporation.
There are several methods of removing heat from recirculating cooling water systems.
The simplest method, where low-cost land is available, is the use of ponds. The
water may be discharged directly into the pond, but is often sprayed into it, providing
more surface-to-air contact and more rapid dissipation of the heat. Where land is not
available for ponds, cooling towers may be used. A portion of the water evaporates
bringing the remaining water down to the desired recirculation temperature. To lower
the water temperature 10 F, approximately 1 percent of the water must be evaporated.
However, where the air temperature is much less than that of the water, the evapora-
tion loss may be reduced. Other volume losses such as from wind or leaks raise the
total make-up water requirements somewhat. Ordinarily, a recirculatory system will
run on about 2 to 4 percent of the water volume requirements of a once-through
system.170
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PATHOGENS
Intermedia I Relationships
Figure 17 depicts the intermedial relationships for pathogens. Man-controlled intermedia
transfers of pathogens include water or air or land transfers. While humans can affect
air,contamination they do not directly transfer pathogens from air to water or vice-versa.
Human fecal matter is major source of pathogenic organisms in the environment.
Infection of humans can occur by direct contact with contaminated fecal matter or
indirectly by contact with water polluted by feces. Air contact with pathogens is also
possible, although not as probable as other contact mechanisms. Vectors are another
route by which humans can come in contact with pathogens. It is possible that pit
toilets,cesspools and septic tanks can contaminate water supplies by percolation and
leaching when these sources are located near ground or surface waters.
Treated sludges from sewage treatment plants contain pathogens and should be treated
or disposed in a hygienic manner. Incineration of sludges destroys most pathogens/while
unincinerated sludges disposed to the land are potentially capable of contaminating
adjacent waters. Exposed sludges may also present a contact source for the various
vectors.
Aerosols containing pathogens can be formed directly from fecal matter or polluted
water. The contaminated aerosols are viable for a short period of time, but the
contained pathogens are capable of polluting as the aerosols settle out with natural
precipitation.
Environmental Impact
The pathogens in human fecal matter have been widely documented. In a review of the
literature, Hanks1 ^ has identified the disease agents as described below.
Bacterial Infections Typhoid fever, paratyphoid fevers A and B, cholera, and
shigellosis are enteric bacterial diseases in man. The pathogenicity of E. coli organisms
is not entirely clear.
The viability in the environment of various bacterial agents is summarized as
follows: Shigella can remain viable in tap water for as long as 6 months, in sea water
for 2 to 5 months, and in ice for 2 months. Soiled clothing can maintain the organism
for several days. Shigella can be destroyed by pasteurization and chlorination. The
viability of Salmonella typh? is from 2 to 3 weeks in groundwater, 1 to 2 months for
fecal matter in privies, and at least 3 months in ice or snow. Salmonella and Shigella
can be killed by pasteurization at 66ฐC for 30 minutes or by chlorination with 0.5 to
l.Omg/l free chlorine174.
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r
Leaching & Runoff
Natural Precipitation
FIGURE 17
INTERMEDIA FLOWCHART
PATHOGENS
-------
Viruses The main viruses of importance in human excrement are poliomyelitis,
Coxsackie and infectious hepatitis. According to Clarke and others,17^ in the preceding
15 years, 70 new enteric viruses have been recognized in human feces. The waterborne
disease danger to the population will increase if a multiplying population contaminates
more water supplies, and thus produces a greater environmental degradation,
Poliomyelitis virus has been shown to be excreted in feces as long as 2 to 3
months after onset of disease. Coxsackie and ECHO viruses can be passed into the
feces for several weeks or months and are extremely viable in sewage. Virus isolates
have been found in sewage all over the world, indicating that they are able to with-
stand the extreme temperatures found in diverse geographical locations.
Most viruses may be destroyed by temperatures greater than 100 C and less than
0 C. Chlorination can prevent the spread of infectious hepatitis, and most adenoviruses
and enteroviruses are destroyed after remaining a period of 10 minutes in contact with
free chlorine residuals of 0.3 to 0.5 mg/l.
Recently the number of pathogenic and non-pathogenic strains of viruses isolated
from feces has greatly increased. These agents are thought to be universal, and the
threat of disease spread via the alimentary tract remains of concern to epidemiologists,
particularly in areas where protective measures are lax.
Protozoa I Infections The most significant disease agent in this class is
Entamoeba histolytica which is the only specie found in the United States. Cysts of
Entomoeba histolytica are destroyed by dessication, sunlight and heat.
Helminthiasis This type of pathogenic organism refers to worm infestations of
human fecal origin. The most common are the tapeworms including Dipyllobothrium
latum (fish tapeworm), Taenia saginata (beef tapeworm), Taenia solium (pork tapeworm)
and Enterobius vermicularis (pinworm). Also included are (the human roundworm)
Ascaris lumbriocoides, (the whipworm) Trichuris trichiura, and the human hookworms
Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale.
Vectors Pathogenic organisms in human feces are transmitted to man via
several pathways. Either direct or indirect contact with infected fecal matter must
occur before an infection can appear. The five major disease routes are identified as:
vector-borne, soil-borne, direct contact, water-borne, and air-borne.
A major mode of disease transmission is by direct contact with biological vectors
(houseflies, cockroaches and domestic mosquitos). The diseases transmitted by
these vectors are amoebic dysentery, cholera, coxsackie diseases, infectious hepatitis,
poliomyelitis, shigellosis, typhoid and paratyphoid fever and worm (helminth) infections.
The method of transmissions of several fecal waste associated diseases will be discussed.
The spread of amoebic dysentery is provided by direct contact with fecal ly
contaminated food, direct contact with feces or by water transmission. Cholera is not
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found in the United States today, but It is still a public health hazard in undeveloped
countries. Cholera can be transmitted through contaminated water, by direct contact
or by flies that have had direct contact with human excreta containing the organism.
The methods of transmission of Coxsackie and polio virus are still vague, although these
viruses are known to exist in human feces and flies having access to infected feces.
Infectious hepatitis is transferred chiefly through direct contact or fecal contamination
of wafer supplies. There is evidence that some municipal sewage treatment plants do
not effectively remove the hepatitis virus. This is substantiated by higher hepatitis
morbidity in communities where treated sewage is discharged into stream estuaries.
The primary route of typhoid propogation is the human typhoid carrier. Typhoid
infected fecal waste has been associated with the direct contamination of milk or food
not properly protected, and of well water and other water supplies by septic tanks and
privies.
Worm infestations of human feces is common. Sewage sludges have been found
to contain eggs of pathogenic helminths. The use of untreated sewage sludge as soil
conditioners and fertilizers should be avoided to protect against worm infestations
through direct contact. ^
Main Sources
The main sources of pathogenic pollution are human wastes. These include municipal
sewage, exposed pit toilets, septic tanks, and cesspools. The presence of pathogens in
human feces, sewage sludge, or septic tank pumpings discharged to the environment
can be a basic causitive agent in communicable diseases. Exposure to fecal waste is a
result of inadequate liquid and solid waste management, including recycling processes.
Approximately one-third of the nation's homes are served by private sewage disposal systems,
the majority of which are septic tanks. Municipal waste treatment plants receive the
liquid waste from the rest of the population. The types of pathogenic organisms associated
with municipal sewage treatment plant discharges and septic tank pumpings are identical
although treatment plant discharges usually contain far fewer pathogenic organisms
than do raw septic tank pumpings.
Alternatives
The following discussion explains in detail the relationships illustrated in Figure 17 .
Central Sewage Treatment and Septic Tanks A higher concentration of
pathogens occursin septic tank pumpings than in aerobically treated sanitary wastes
because the treatment is significantly less in septic tanks than in central treatment
plants. Laboratory analyses for Coxsackie and polio virus have shown that between
90 to 98 percent of these viruses can be removed by the activated sludge process.
Primary sewaae treatment processe$ which are similar to the septic tank process are
relatively ineffective. *'* The removal of viruses by the activated sludge method
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appears to be the most effective. However, disinfection may be the only way to insure
virus-free effluents. If chlorination is used for disinfection, and this is the widely
accepted method at present, substantial residuals of free chlorine must be present to
effect the destruction of pathogenic organisms.177 Heat-dried sludge has been178'179
considered to be free from disease agents.
Human health problems may arise through the exposure to inadequately treated
sludge. Occupational exposure to pathogenic organisms may exist for agricultural
workers who use sludges as fertilizers. Agriculture use of sludges may also contaminate
surface waters through runoff. 1ฐ0/ 'ฐ'
Septic tank pumpings can be treated at central sewage treatment systems. Discharging
septic tank pumpings directly into a sewage treatment facility may cause odors and
thereby influences the acceptability of such practice.
Landfills An alternative approach is to discharge septic tank pumpings
directly to a sanitary landfill. Two factors must be recognized concerning this method
of disposal. Septic tank pumpings contain a substantial proportion of raw sewage and
have a considerably higher concentration of pathogens than digested sludge; septic tank
pumpings have a lower solids content and, therefore, may have a greater tendency to runoff
and leach into groundwater. Because of their septic condition, the odors produced
make this method an unpleasant operation.
The health hazard can be minimized if a properly located, and adequately designed
and operated landfill is employed. Landfills should generally be sloped to provide
runoff away from surface waters and to minimize percolation. They should also be
located to avoid contamination of groundwaters. Mixing liquid sludge with dried
sludge can also inhibit the leaching process. Similarly, admixing liquid sludge with
solid waste can prevent leaching and is beneficial to the landfill.
Most pathogens die naturally as they are filtered by the soil before or after reaching
groundwater systems. E. col? has been shown to be viable for 31 months in polluted
groundwater. '8^
The possibility of pathogens leaching into ground or surface waters from sanitary
landfills does exist. An average of 5 to 10 million bacteria and fungi and 740,000
coliform bacteria have each been measured in a gram of solid waste.iy5 Leachates
have shown concentrations as high as 9,500 coliforms per ml,186 and coliform counts
(MPN) up to 100,000 per ml have been measured experimentally.187
E. coli in fresh refuse has been found in densities over 5,000 per dry weight.
This value is reduced to 0 to 100 per gram after a period of 3 years. Corresponding
values for Streptococcus fecalis are 2,500 and 0 to 60 organisms per gram of dry weight,
respectively.188
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While pathogenic organisms may be present in leachate, a public health hazard
does not necessarily exist. Soils have the capability of filtering out pathogens in
leachate, and it has been reported that coliforms are seldom found below the 4-foot
level and never below 7 feet, even in highly permeable soils. '89 If bacteria happen
to penetrate the groundwater system, it is reported that the bacteria will not survive more
than 50 yards in the direction of groundwater flow. '
One study has shown that shallow landfills may leach the bulk of pollution in a relative-
ly short period of time and thereby exceed the dilution capacity of the receiving
groundwaters. 1ฐ7
Odors are a major nuisance accompanying septic tank pumpings and anaerobically
digested sludge. These odors can be an annoyance to residents near treatment plants or
landfills. Accompanying the odors may be a fly control problem resulting in an increased
risk of disease through vector transmission. Plowing and disking of land after sludge
application will control fly and odor problems.
Fly problems are usually associated with open dumps or inadequately covered landfills.
Flies may migrate up to 5 miles from an open dump and impose a disease threat on
residents within that radius. Disease transmission via rodents and other biological
vectors also make open dumps unacceptable. A properly maintained sanitary landfill
eliminates rodents and flies by removing the food supply and shelter with a compacted
soil cover. Six inches of compacted earth will prevent the emergence of flies, although
flies can emerge through 5 feet of uncompacted soil.
At present some communities have reservations about discharging septic tank pumpings
directly into landfills and have passed legislation prohibiting the discharge of
untreated sludges at landfills. ^ A survey of California disposal sites showed that 37
percent of the open dumps and 44 percent of the sanitary landfills were operating under
ordinances prohibiting the discharge of sewage treatment residues. ^2
Pathogenic organisms are a major national intramedial water pollutant but are not
normally a significant intermedial air pollutant except under certain local conditions.
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PESTICIDES
Intermedial Relationships
Figure 18 illustrates the intermedia! relationships for pesticides. Most intermedia! flows
stem from agricultural application of pesticides and are natural processes. Pesticides
are therefore classed as a major intramedial pollutant rather than a major intermedia!
pollutant. Waste effluents from pesticide manufacturing operations are not the major
source of pesticide pollution. These effluents however, can be treated effectively with
activated carbon. Discharge is frequently directly into sewer systems and sometimes,
unfortunately, to nearby surface waters. Sewage treatment plants and the activated
carbon treatment both create residues. The carbon can be regenerated, incinerated or
disposed to the land. Sewage sludges may be either incinerated or disposed to the land.
Incineration of these materials can produce emissions containing pesticides.
While agricultural and domestic application of pesticides are directed primarily toward
the land, air application of pesticides creates uncontrollable aerosols. Winds and
other climatic conditions affect whether air-applied pesticides will fall as intended or
drift to adjacent lands and waters. Pesticide residues on land can be transported to
adjacent waters via leaching, irrigation and storm runoff. Chlorinated hydrocarbons
are highly volatile and readily transfer to the air through evaporation. Pesticides in
the air resulting from industrial emissions, sewage sludge incineration, industrial,
agricultural, and domestic applications eventually return to the land or waterways
through natural fallout and precipitation. Herbicides are normally classed with pesticides.
Environmental Impact
Many types of pesticides are used for such purposes as control of insects, weeds, fungi
and rodents. After application the most persistent of the pesticides are the chlorinated
hydrocarbons, also known as the organochlorine pesticides. Attention is given here
to the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides (DDT, chlordane, aldrin, dieldrin, endrin,
heptachlor, toxaphene, methoxychlor) because of their reluctance to undergo chemical
and biological degradation. Because of this persistence, the occurrence of the chlori-
nated hydrocarbon pesticides has the greatest impact on the environment. Since these
compounds persist a long time in the environment, they may be transferred by wind,
water, animals and food to places far from where they were applied. This mobility of
pesticides tends to contaminate non-target areas and living species. The result is that
localized areas may be treated with pesticides, but subsequent spreading of these small
amounts may spread to much larger areas and affect wildlife species which are sensitive
to low concentrations of pesticides.
Pesticides are a unique source of pollution since usually they are intentionally introduced
into the natural environment. Pesticides reach the environment by direct application
to the land for agricultural purposes. Also pesticides inadvertently enter the environment
from industrial discharges, accidental spills, and from domestic sources such as home
garbage disposals. Herbicides have the similar impacts as pesticides.
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o
00
Pesticide
Manufacture
Food
Processing
Ind.
Agricultural
Application
Domestic
Application
Act.
Carbon
Emissions / .'" \ Sludge
j cinera- .
Leaching & Runoff
Natural Precipitation
Evaporation
FIGURE 18
INTERMEDIA FLOW CHART
PESTICIDES (HERBICIDES)
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Main Sources
Pesticides in the Soil Pesticides are applied directly to the soil for agricultural
purposes. Repeated applications may create accumulations. These pesticide residues
in the soil are of concern since they may reach man and wildlife through uptake from
soil by consumable crops, by leaching into water supplies, by volatilization into the
air and by direct contact with the soil. The factors which affect pesticide persistence
in the soil are: (1) pesticide molecular configuration, (2) pesticide adsorption, (3)
organic content of the soil, (4) soil moisture and temperature, (5) uptake by plants, and
(6) leaching of pesticides from soil by water.
The chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are extremely hydrophilie,making them highly
insoluble in water. The solubility of a substance is inversely proportional to its affinity
for adsorption. Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are therefore highly capable of
being adsorbed and concentrated on soils and finely divided clays. The adsorbed pesti-
cides can then be carried with the soil and clay particles into natural waters. Surface
runoff after either rainfall or irrigation may transport particles to which pesticides ad-
here or the water may leach the pesticide from the soil particles.
Chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides are more persistent in soils where the organic content
of the soil is high. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are highly resistant to biological attack
so their retention in soil is not affected appreciably by the microorganism concentration.
Adsorption rates and soil microbial activity are both affected by soil temperature and
moisture. High moisture content and temperature enhance the degradation process and
increases the amount of volatilization which occurs. Volatilization is a major pathway
of loss for the chlorinated hydrocarbons. The process involves the desorption of the
pesticide from the soil, diffusion upward to the soil surface, and then volatilization of
the compounds into the atmosphere. Rates of loss by volatilization are related to the
vapor pressures which, for chlorinated hydrocarbons are relatively low. However, the
degradation products of Undone and DDT have much higher vapor pressures than their
parent compounds, which means that the presence of these degradation products in
significant amounts is an indication that volatilization of degradation products provides
a major pathway for loss of some organochlorine insecticides from soil.
Plants can absorb pesticides from the soil, concentrating the residue within their^
structure. This mechanism constitutes a potential exposure hazard for man and animals
when the absorbing plants are edible or forage crops. Experiments in Great Britairj ฃave
shown that plants can also absorb organochlorine residues from the surrounding air.
Pesticides in the Water The major pathways by which pesticides reach the water
environment are through direct application to surface waters, indirect application during
treatment of adjacent areas, percolation and runoff from treated agricultural or forested
lands, and by the discharge of certain wastewaters.
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Most chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides reach the aquatic environment attached to soil
or clay particles because of the hydropholic nature of these compounds. Usually these
particles settle to form the bottom sediments of streams and lakes. 9 Under certain
conditions, a portion of the adsorbed pesticides can be desorbed directly into the water
where they are maintained by a dynamic adsorption-desorption equilibrium system.
Consequently, pesticide desorption provides a continuous supply of toxic material to
water and creates many serious water pollution problems.
Pesticide residues are concentrated by soil and clay particles and also by microorganisms.
It is possible through these associations for pesticides to reach ground and surface waters
although the extent which the quality of ground water is threatened is not as well
established as that of surface waters. Factors of paramount importance in the consideration
of ground water pollution by pesticide residuals in soil are the amount of residue, the
solubility of the pesticide in water, the amount of infiltrating water, and the adsorptive
rate and capacity of the soil. One study has concluded that dieldrin could not be
transported through soils into subsurface waters in significant amounts by Infiltrating
waters.'"^ A period of several hundred years was determined to be the time required
for dieldrin to be transported in solution at a residual concentration of 20 ppb to a depth
of 1 foot in natural soils. It appeared from this study that residues of dieldrin applied
on the upper layers of soil do not threaten the quality of ground water at the assumed
permissible concentration of 20 ppb. Studies have shown that dieldrin residues in soils
have been detected up to 7 years after application, and 72 to 90 percent of the residues
remain in the top 3 inches of the soil. Trace quantities of dieldrin have been found as
deep as 9 inches in soil. Dieldrin is used in experimental studies because it is considered
to be one of the most persistent of the pesticides in soil. Another study revealed that
after 10 years, 60 to 75 percent of residual DDT remained in the top 12 inches of the
soil. 200 The movement of DDT to lower soil depths was attributed to top soil being washed
by rainfall into large vertical cracks in the ground. Even though these studies show that
pesticides do not usually migrate to great depths in soils, incidents of pesticide con-
tamination of ground waters have been documented. ฎ* '^02 During one incident in
1951, crops were damaged when irrigated with well water contaminated with the herbicide
2,4-D. A nearby 2,4-D manufacturing plant had discharged its wastes into lagoons from
1943 to 1957. It had taken between 7 and 8 years for the pesticide to migrate 3.5 miles
and eventually contaminate an area of 6.5 square miles. The herbicide 2,4-D was also
reported to have been inadvertently dumped into a sewer. The waste reached under-
ground strata which supplied well water to Montebello, California. The taste and odor
of the herbicide was evident for over 5 years.'^
Pesticides in the Air The application of pesticides to land for agricultural uses
is most generally accomplished by air. About 80 percent of the pesticides are applied
by aircraft.'9^ An understanding of the ways in which air and pesticide particle size
influence pesticide applications is necessary to apply pesticides without affecting non-
target areas. Studies have been made to determine the correlation between pesticide
particle size and drift from the intended target area.^04,205,2^6 As expected, these
studies indicate the greatest potential non-target contamination hazard resulting from
drift occurs with smaller diameter particles. The control of drop size to provide larger
drops and reduce the drift potential, results in a decrease in coverage by spraying.
110
-------
Coverage increases as drop size decreases. Although large drops hit the target area
more frequently, the extent of coverage is less. A compromise is necessary to minimize
drift and obtain a good coverage. A wide distribution of drop size is inevitable with
commonly used spray equipment, and the measurement of wind and atmospheric con-
ditions is therefore important in determining the safety of a pesticide application. In
the case of chlorinated hydrocarbon,it is not unusual to find 50 percent or more of the
applied pesticide unaccounted for where a material balance of the treated area is made
immediately after application. Most of the unaccounted oortion is dispersed in the air
as fine particles or aerosols, or carried to adjacent areas.
Pesticides can also enter the air when soils contaminated with pesticides are subjected
to erosion by wind. With appropriate conditions of soil, moisture, humidity and wind,
pesticide residues from soils can enter the air and be transported great distances. In
the air DDT can be transported as vapor, tiny crystals or a mixture with dust particles.
One study traced DDT and other pesticides in a dust storm from West Texas to Cincinnati.
The mobility of pesticides in air is also demonstrated by the fact that Antarctic ice and
snow contain thousands of tons of DDT residues transported there through the air.
Pesticides in Industrial Wastes The industrial wastes from the pesticide manu-
facturing and food processing industries usually may not be safely discharged directly
to the environment. The pesticides in liquid effluents require treatment to remove
the danger to aquatic life. Settling basins are used to allow time for gravity removal
of some solids; solid and liquid sludge wastes can be incinerated, but the scrubbing of
stack gases is needed to remove contained pesticides. The deep well disposal of pesticides
is only practical when the geological characteristics of the area are sufficient to protect
against ground water contamination. 3 Tnere is the possibility that pesticide wastes
in the disposal areas of pesticide manufacturers will leach from these sites into
waters and soils for hundreds of years.202
Treatments
Industrial waste effluents can be treated to remove large concentrations of pesticides.
Pesticide adsorption by activated carbon has been shown to be the most effective
treatment for reducing high concentrations of pesticides from water. The removal of
low level pesticide contamination is much more difficult to control, and evidence
indicates that current conventional water treatment methods are not effective.193
Sludges from pesticide related industries and municipal sewage treatment plants can
contain significant amounts of pesticides. Incineration of these sludges will produce
pesticide emissions which require further treatment to avoid discharge to the atmosphere.
Ill
-------
METALLIC SALTS AND OXIDES
Intermedia Relationships
The main controls for salt compounds in water are evaporation, dialysis, ion exchange,
and some other miscellaneous methods, all of which are ihtramedial .^4 These methods
all separate the salts from the water, leaving salt in a solid form. These residues can
then be used or disposed to land. In either case no air-to-water or water-to-air transfer
results. In some cases salts can result from an intermedia transfer from air such as from the
precipitation of airborne metallic oxides. Since further treatments are intramedial,
metallic salts and oxides are classed as intramedial pollutants.
Environmental Impact
The most significant impact of metallic salts and oxides is the salinity produced in water.
Hydroxides can, however, produce an impact through their influence on acidity. Most
metallic oxides are in a transitory state in water although a few do precipitate to add
to the suspended solids. Most discussions of dissolved solids in the literature relate only
to salinity.
The most important effect of salinity or total dissolved salts in irrigation water is the
toxicity to plants. Of course, different plants have different tolerances to salt concentra-
tion. A prime example of the effects of salinity is shown in the Monterey area where
the intrusion of salt water from the ocean has forced the change from lettuce, as a
major crop, to artichokes, which have a greater salt tolerance. For human consumption,
the recommendation of the U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare is that
drinking water does not contain more than 500 mg/l and preferably less than 200 mg/l of
total dissolved solids.321 Salt buildups also affect the functioning of industrial water
reuse systems and cause increased maintenance expenditures.
112
-------
CHLORIDES
Intermedia Relationships
Controls for chlorides are achieved by demineralization, either by ion exchange or by
using membranes. These controls are intramedial.
Environmental Impact
Chlorides may be a problem in such diverse areas as sewage treatment plants^'^ and
irrigation water. IU In sewage treatment plants, high chloride concentrations may
interfere with plant operation, especially with the activated sludge process.^'5
Most agricultural crops wi II be adversely affected by high salinity before they are
affected by chloride j*e_r งe_; however, some fruit crops are harmed by very low
concentrations of chlorides. 'ฐ Some crops which are not necessarily damaged by high
chloride concentration are damaged by high salt concentration.
113
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SURFACTANTS
Intermedia Relationships
A number of treatments have been proposed for the removal of surfactants from water.
These include foaming, aeration, flotation, coagulation, flocculation, adsorption on
carbon and other inert matter, biological treatment, and treatment by resins. Jlฐ
These treatments do not create water-to-air transfers of pollutants and are not intermedia!,
Environmental Impact
Surfactants are not as great a problem as they once were when the detergents used were
largely non-biodegradable. ''' In sewage treatment it has been found that surfactants
interfere with anaerobic sludge digestion. Also, there may be a synergistic action
between these substances and certain pesticides such as DDT. ^
114
-------
LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
Intermedia Relationships
Hydrocarbons in liquid form are significant water pollution factors in certain areas of
the United States. The intermedia relationships are shown in Figure 19. Liquid
hydrocarbon pollution of the sea and of lakes and waterways can severely damage fish,
other animal, and plant life. Spills from oil well drilling and operation, from pipeline
breaks, from offshore oil drilling, and from the sinking or washing down of oil tankers
are the major sources.
Environmental Impact
Solutions to these problems lie in greater safety precautions, moratoriums or greater
controls on offshore oil drilling, and stricter enforcement of laws controlling ocean
dumping from ships. None of these is intermedia!.
115
-------
Pipe-
lines
Tankers
Evaporation
Water
Leaching & Runoff
Tidal Action
Wind
Oil Wells
&
Refineries
FIGURE 19
INTERMEDIA,FLOW CHART
LIQUID HYDROCARBONS
-------
SECTION VI
TREATMENT SUMMARIES
This section summarizes the Information on treatment methods that was included in the
discussions of pollutants in Section V. Air and water treatment methods are discussed
separately. A list of alternative unit processes is given for air and water treatment
for the various Industries and includes quantified Intermedia effects where they are known,
The treatment processes will be discussed with respect to pollutants controlled, costs,
residue quantities, and residue effects.
Air Pollution Treatments
Table 14 provides a summary of the various air pollution treatments, the pollutants they
affect, and the intermedia transfers created. The residues created are In the same form
as the pollutants removed unless otherwise indicated.
Costs of Treatment and Residue Disposal
A difficulty exists in accurately defining treatment costs without plant size distributions,
plant lay-outs, and other specific plant data. A set of equations was developed by
Edmisten and Bunyard in an attempt to standardize cost presentations for air treatment
methods. 58 These equations provide a reasonable summary of the factors that affect
air pollution treatment costs and how they interrelate. They are presented in Table 15 .
Operating and maintenance costs vary widely in proportion to capital costs. In particu-
late control, combined operating and maintenance costs may be as low as 15 percent of
the dnnualized total cost for dry centrifugal collectors and electrostatic precipitators,or
as high as 90 percent for high efficiency wet collectors.258 Table 16 lists some typical
capital costs for particulate control methods.258
Operating cost parameters may vary as follows: maintenance costs, from $0.025 per
cfm for dry centrifugal collectors to $0.10 per cfm for thermal afterburners; liquor
for wet scrubbers, from $0.01 to $0.05 per gallon; and electrical costs, from $0.005
to $0.02 per kilowatt (Kwh). The pressure loss and resultant horsepower and electricity
costs differ for each method. It Is, therefore, necessary to make individual analyses
to identify a "best choice" control method from an economic standpoint. Typical pressure
losses vary from msianificant for electrostatic precipitators, to one inch of water for
afterburners, to ten Inches of water for wet scrubber fans. The electrical costs therefore
vary cons5derably,as do installation costs. Edmisten and Bunyard gave sample calcula-
tions for three typical controls ,258 They are presented in Table 17. In spite of their
higher electrical costs, it should not be assumed that wet scrubbers are necessarily
unfeasible because they can control pollutants other than particulares and also electrical
costs vary considerably. Assuming electrical cost reduction of 50 percent, incremental
cost savings per year would be $26,250 for wet scrubbers, $3,870 for the fabric filters,
and only $1,760 for the electrostatic precipitators. This significantly reduces the cost
differential.
117
-------
TABLE 14
INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS IN AIR TREATMENTS
AIR POLLUTANTS
INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS
0>
z
14-
o
1
*x
Treatment ฎ
Water Scrubbing
Electrostatic
Precipitator
Cyclones- Dry
Settling Chambers
Bag house Filters
iฑ x
to i
ซ- ^
o -S
J? 0
3 1
O u
5| 8 si
-Q _2 -Q *- .>
*- ^ *- 3 O -i^
8 3 8 8 -5 g -o
2 t 2 " .H o ฃ
"D O "D (S t ^5 fl)
^* ^^ ^* ^^ n rs f~
X I cฃ & i=
*
Air Water
SS7TDS,
H2S03,
Pathogens/
Heat
Residues
Residues
Land
Residues
Residues
Residues
Residues
Condensers-Boi ler
Coolers
Afterburners
Adsorbers
Heat
CO2,
HO
Heat
Recycled
Venturi Scrubbers
(Wet Cyclone)
H.SO
H2Sฐ4
Pathogens
a "Residues" indicates the same or a combined form of the pollutant physically removed.
118
-------
258
TABLE 15
EQUATIONS FOR CALCULATING ANNUAL OPERATION AND
MAINTENANCE COSTS OF AIR TREATMENT METHODS
Treatment Device
Centrifugal Collector
Wet Collector
Electrostatic Precipitator
Fabric Filter
Afterburner
Operation Costs ($)
Electrical Liquor Fuel
S (0.745)PHK
6356 E
S (0.7457)HKZ
S (JHK)
S (0.745) PHK
6356 E
S (0.7457) PHK
6356 E
SWHL
SHF
Maintenance
Costs ($)
SM
SM
SM
SM
SM
The parameters are as follows:
S = Design capacity in cubic feet per minute (cfm).
P = Pressure drop in inches of water.
H = Hours of operation per annum.
K = Cost of electricity in $/KWH (kilowatt hours).
E = Fan efficiency as a decimal.
M = Maintenance costs in dollars (cfm).
F = Fuel costs in dollars/cfm/hour.
W = Make up liquor rate in gallons/hour/cfm.
L = Cost of liquor in dollars/gallon
Z = Total power input required for a specified scrubbing efficiency
in horsepower/cfm.
J = Kilowatts of Electricity 1 cfm.
119
-------
TABLE 16
CAPITAL COSTS FOR PARTICULATE CONTROL
Control
Dry Centrifuge
Wet Collector
High Voltage Electrical
Precipitator
Purchase Cost of Fabric
Filters
Purchase Cost of
Afterburners
Efficiencies
Low
10,000
13,000
47,000
30,000ฐ
115,000d
Cost ($) for
at 100,000 cfm
Medium
18,000
25,000
70,000
45,000b
Capacity
High
22,000
25,000
92,000
85,000ฐ
150,000e
Woven natural filters.
Medium temperature synthetics - woven and felt.
High temperature synthetics - woven and felt.
5 x cost of 20,000 cfm direct flame.
5 x cost of 20,000 cfm catalytic burner.
120
-------
TABLE 17
258
ANNUAL CAPITA LAND OPERATING COSTS FOR PA RTICULATE CONTROL
Cost Item
Purchase Cost $
Installation Costs
Installed Costs
Depreciation (7%)
Capital Charge (7%)
Annual Capital Costs
Maintenance
Electricity
Water
Total Operating Costs
Total Annual Costs
at 100,
Electrostatic
Precipitator
100,000
70,000ฐ
170,000
11,900
1 1 ,900
23,800
2,000
3,520
none
5,520
29,320
Cost ($)
000 cfm operating
High Energy
Wet Collector
27,000
54,000b
81,000
5,670
5,670
11,340
4,000
52,500
6,000
62,500
73,840
8,000 hours/yr
Medium Temperature
Fabric Filter
48,000
36,000ฐ
84,000
5,880
5,880
11,760
5,000
7,740
none
12,740
24,500
aInstallation cost equals 70% of purchase cost.
L
Installation cost equals 200% of purchase cost.
ฐInstallation cost equals 75% of purchase cost.
121
-------
Air pollution control costs can be significant in terms of total plant expenditures. A
study in the chemical industry found that, for a sample of 992 plants, annual pollution
control operating costs were $41,744,000, or $42,080 per plant,and $105.22 per
employee. Total capital investment in air pollution control equipment was $287,891 ,000.
On an annual basis, computed at 7 percent interest and 7 percent depreciation, capital
costs were $40,304,740 per year, or $40,624 per plant/and $101 .54 per employee.
The total annual cost, then, was the sum of these or, $82,704 per plant and $206.81
per employee.2"^ Another study estimated that the chemical industry controlled 75
percent of its air pollutants.260 The latter report also concluded that there was a need
for a better method to dispose of collected wastes (residues), and that 31 percent of
yearly operating costs of air pollution control equipment were for disposal of collected
waste.260 A detailed summary is given in Table 18 .
Wastewater Treatments
Table 1 9 provides a summary of the various wastewater treatments, the pollutants they
affect, and the intermedia transfers created. In many cases, the transfer to land
is simply listed as "residue". Unless a biological or chemical reaction takes place,
the residue created will be composed of the pollutant removed. For example, screening
residue will be composed of the removed organic and inorganic solids. Where gases or
other specific compounds are generated they are given in Table 1 9.
Wastewater Treatment Costs
Water treatment costs vary according to the wastewater and effluent characteristics and
size of the treatment facility (economies of scale). Table20 gives the coefficients for
a cost regression equation which were developed in The Economics of Clean Water, a
report published by the Environmental Protection Agency./zz The formula is of the
following form:
Log (cost) = A + Log (flow) [(B + C x Log (flow)]
Where: Flow = millions of gallons/day (MGD)
Cost = cost in dollars per year
The table separates capital costs (CC) from operating and maintenance costs (OM). The
operating costs determined by the equations are cents/day/1000 gal. Operating costs
shown in right hand column are for 350 days per year. Where the constants are negative,
they must be changed to negative characteristics and positive mantissas at the final point
in the calculation.
Other studies have been made of treatment costs using both flow rates and sludge quan-
tities as the formula parameters.223 The level of pollutants in the effluents to be
treated significantly affects costs and treatment efficiencies. The best choice for any
particular application will depend upon many factors, including: (1) size of operation;
(2) pollutant concentrations; (3) types of pollutants involved; and (4) the degree of
removal required.
122
-------
TABLE 18260
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL EXPENDITURES BY INDUSTRY
Air Pollution Control
Waste Disposal
($lAr
Source Per Plant)
Food
Chemicals
Rubber, Plastics
Stone, Clay, Glass
Primary Metals
Fabric Metals
Powered Machinery
Electrical Machinery
Professional and
Scientific Instrument
Aerospace Manufacturing
All Industry Annual
Average
8,900
33,200
11,950
7,650
7,200
17,200
18,100
2,520
2,750
13,100
14,010
Operating
Cost
($VYr
Per Plant)
36,050
49,645
27,800
49,820
112,150
28,175
67,210
24,830
11,115
47,400
45,450
Costs
Total Capital
Investment &
Installation
($)
22,020
89,400
149,500
203,300
580,100
36,440
47,000
202,400
41,500
40,650
Waste Disposal
Cost As a %
of Operating
Cost
25
67
43
16
7
63
27
10
23
28
31
123
-------
TABLE 19
INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS IN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
WATER POLLUTANTS INTERMEDIA TRANSFERS
"^ ซ/>
J> a> JU ง "S x
o> _a "3 -a ซ 2 = .t
- 3 ~y 3 ^5 CL o %-
_Q _?. C E D. .ฃ
^D,8^22ฐEw
^~o <ฐ ฃ c P, U o "B _g
-V'fTEaUf., ฃ
^:UoซooEc-5c ^
t3 .i! *E ฃ 'c U ฐ ฎ ^ ฎ "H x
DCOC oi--ฃ R* x S> S ,ฑ
,2oo)O co3S"S> 2E-D
"O^O^O O ฑ fl)*1 '"'o
Treatment JOiOiJlฃZiii5>ompounas
formed formed
Residue
Residue Residue
sludge & sludge
Residue Residue
Residue
BOD,SS
NOgheavy
metals
Residues Residue
CaCOo CaCOo
o o
Low- level Radioactive
Radioac- Drums
tivity
Residues Residues
a. Residues mean the same or a combined chemical term of
removed .
b. Retention by storage as used in nuclear power plants.
124
the pollutant physically
-------
TABLE 20
WASTEWATER TREATMENT COSTS
Treatment
Oil Separation
Equalization
Coagulation-
Sedimentation
Neutralization
Flotation
Sedime notation
Aeration
Biological
Oxidation
Chlorination
Evaporation
Incineration
Type of
Cost
cca
OMb
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
CC
OM
4.
0.
4.
-0.
5.
0.
4.
0.
4.
0.
5.
0.
4.
-0.
5.
0.
4.
0.
6.
-0.
5.
1
A
74702
64345
62325
30103
52401
86923
69897
24304
59106
64345
45089
64345
54407
30103
07555
09934
17609
24304
11227
7112
83373
57978
Model Regression Coefficients
Cost ($)
at 1 million gal / day
Annual
B C InitialCapital Operating
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
0
-0
1
-0
0
-0
.92844
.17671
.74646
.51016
.61843
.11755
.98569
. 1 0083
.44964
.17671
.55368
.17671
.23408
.51016
.64300
.36057
.66317
,10083
.00000
.24314
.64339
.37205
0
0
-0
0
0
0
-0
0
-0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.22190
.0
.22358
.06646
.00842
.00586
.52716
.0
.02748
.0,
.0
.0
.0
.06646
.0
.07879
.0
.0
.0 1
.0
.0
.0
55
42
334
50
38
282
35
119
14
,295
681
,849
,000
,202
,000
,999
,416
,000
,000
,999
,000
,914
15
1
25
6
15
15
1
4
6
2
132
,399
,750
,899
,125
,399
,399
,750
,399
,125
,971
,998
a. CC = Capital Cost
b. OM= Operating and Maintenance cost
125
-------
The Economics of Clean Water report listed four methods of curtailing the polluting
effects of industrial liquid-borne wastes.
(1 ) Inplant treatment
(2) Discharge to sewers
(3) Land application (irrigation or well injection)
(4) Process changes
A detailed cost analysis must be made on an industryby-industry basis.
Treatment Costs for Thermal Pollution
The annual investment cost, Cl , in cents/1000 gal of cooled water may be computed
from the equation.
C| = l (r+ A + P)/5.256 N
where, I = cool ing tower investment per unit capacity, dollars/gpm
r = annual cost of capital (interest rate) decimal/yr
t = cooling tower service life, yr
P = annual property taxation rate, decimal/yr
Operating costs, Co, in cents/1000 gal may be computed from
Co= 0.001 R (C/C-1) (C/C-I)(O.Q33Y + 17/C + Wa) + (0.14K + 0.005A)p
where, R = cooling range (temperature change of the water passing through the
tower), ฐF
C = cycles of concentration, dimensionless (i.e., the ratio of makeup water
to the sum of drift loss plus blow down)
Y = alkalinity (as 0003) of makeup water, mg/l
Wa = cost of makeup water, cents/1000 gal
K = relative rating factor of the cooling tower, dimensionless
A = height to which the water must be pumped for flow through cooling
tower, ft
and
p = cost of electric power, cents/kwh
The figure for Wa is given in terms of water flow rather than power-plant capacity.
Table21 gives the ratio of gpm to kilowatts of capacity. The factor 8/gpm must be*
multiplied by the appropriate ratio before applying K.
126
-------
TABLE21 17ฐ
COOLING WATER CIRCULATION (GPM)
REQUIRED PER KILOWATT POWER CAPACITY
Overall
Effi-
ciency
(%)
30
35
38
40
42
Cooling Range,
10
1.37
1.07
0.93
0.85
0.78
15
0.91
0.72
0.62
0.57
0.52
20
0.68
0.53
0.47
0.42
0.39
R
25
0.55
0.43
0.37
0.34
0.31
30
0.46
0.36
0.31
0.28
0.26
Note: (ฐF-32) 0.555 = ฐC.
GPM = Gallons per minute.
127
-------
The values of K for both the equations are given in Table 22 . The "approach" is
defined as the number of ฐF that the temperature of the cooling water at the condenser
inlet (and cooling tower outlet) exceeds the wet bulb temperature. Therefore, the
hot water temperature is the wet bulb temperature plus the approach plus R.
Under typical conditions, the annual investment cost is about $0.003/1,000 gal, and
the operating cost is about $0.005/1,000 gal. Therefore, the total cost for the cooling
tower is about $0.008/1,000 gal. This figure translates to about 0.3 to 0.4 mill/kwh
generated which is 5 to 7 percent of generation costs,or 2 to 3 percent of combined
generation and distribution costs. '^
The Costs of Residue Disposal
Consideration of the method for the disposal of residues from sewage treatment plants and
industrial wastes must include both the costs and the environmental effects.
Almost all municipal sewage sludge can be disposed for less than $50 per ton of dry
sludge solids. Typical cost ranges for several sludge disposal methods are given in
Table 23.
These costs also depend upon the distance to the disposal point. Table 24 illustrates
the changing cost relationships between pipelines, tank trucks, and rail cars as
distance varies from 25 to 350 miles for a city of 100,000. Also, as distance increases,
there is an incentive for methods such as incineration which reduce the mass to be trans-
ported. Most sludge disposal sites are within 25 miles of the generation point. Incinera-
tion and land disposal exhibit economies of scale. Table 25 indicates the effect of the
population served (scale of operations) on residue disposal costs.
Since economies of scale and distance factors interact, a concrete analysis of individual
situations is necessary to arrive at an optimal decision. For example, in comparing the
costs for liquid sludge land application with the costs of incineration and subsequent
ash disposal to landfills, the costs curves for the two methods intersect at 80 miles for a
city of 1 0,000 and a cost of $155 per ton of dry sludge solids; at 45 miles for a city of
1 00,000 and a cost of $60 per ton; and at 11 0 miles for a city of 1 ,000,000 and a cost
of $35 per ton.225
Residue disposal cost is usually not large relative to total treatment costs. In the case of
a recent $120 million plan proposed for metropolitan Seattle, Washington, 90 percent
of the costs were for collection and transportation of sewage sludge. Even a choice of
the most expensive disposal alternative would not have increased the cost by more than one
percent.224 For smaller scale industrial operations, however, the percentage of costs
for residue disposal may not be so low.
The environmental impact of alternative disposal methods is not equal. Many incinerators
for example, do not meet emission standards.
128
-------
TABLE 22
VALUES OF K FOR FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
Coo lino Range, R
Wet
Bulb
Temper-
ature
5
10 15 20
Approach Approach Approach
10 15 5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20
f.e\ f> t. i A no 10 i o no oo IK 11
65 2.2 1.1 0.8 3.0 1.6 1.1 0.7 1.9 1.3 0.9
70 1.9 1.0 0.7 2.6 1.4 0.9 0.6 3.0 1.6 1.1 0.8
75 1.6 0.8 0.5 2.2 1.2 0.8 0.5 2.5 1.4 0.9 0.7
80 1.4 0.7 0.4 1.8 1.0 0.6 0.4 2.2 1.2 0.8 0.6
Note: (ฐF-32) 0.555 =ฐC.
129
-------
TABLE 23
RESIDUE DISPOSAL COST RANGES 224
Disposal Cost Range
Method ($/Ton-Dry Sludge Solids)
Outfall 3-5
Wet Oxidation 30-50
Barge (to sea) 10-20
Pipeline to Land 5-20
Truck to Land 20-50
Rail to Land 30-100
Drying 30-50
Compost 5-10
Incineration 40-50
130
-------
TABLE 24
RESIDUE DISPOSAL COSTS AS A FUNCTION OF DISTANCE TO DISPOSAL SITE
(DOLLARS/DRY TON SLUDGE SOLIDS)
Transportation Distance to Disposal Site (miles)
Method 25 100 200 350
Pipeline
Tank Truck
Rail Cars
28
40
101
100
130
170
180
220
180
280
390
200
131
-------
TABLE 25
COSTS OF INCINERATION AND LAND DISPOSAL
AS A FUNCTION OF THE POPULATION SERVED 225
Population Cost ($/ton Dry Sludge Solids)
(Million) Incineration Land Disposal
.125 67 30
.250 57 17
.500 49 11
1.0 42 8
2.0 35 5
4.0 30 4
132
-------
Residues Produced
Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BODs) is one of the parameters used to express
wastewater quality. !t is a measure of the oxygen required in the biological degradation
of the organic materials present in the waste water. It is therefore related in a general
way to the suspended solids present in a particular kind of waste. For this reason Table
26 can be constructed to show the relationship between BOD5 and settleable and sus-
pended solids for the major sources of water pollution in the United States J ^
Table26 illustrates that it is not possible to project physical residues from BOD removal
unless the source is known. The ratio of solids to BOD5 varies from 9.79 pounds solids
per pound of BOD5 for metal and metal products to 0.20 pounds solids per pound of
BOD5 for chemicals and allied products.
Once both BODcand solids are known, the residues produced from various processes
can be estimated. For physical removal methods, residues can be calculated directly
from the solids content and the efficiency of removal. Chemical and biological treat-
ment methods create additional residues usually related to the BOD^Ievel. Table 27
illustrates these relationships.
Residue Impact
The environmental impact of land disposal takes on added significance with the increasing
pressures toward land for the disposal of liquid and solid wastes. Research at Ralph Stone
and Company has been conducted regarding the quantity of leachate generated from solid
wastes and municipal sewage sludge disposed into landfills. ฐ The data given in Table 28
presents total pollutant quantities found in leachates. Monthly data given in Table 29 is
the time-averaged BOD^epletion (production) rate. The annual production of leachate
pollutants can be estimated using average annual rainfall, solid waste and residue disposal
data.
133
-------
TABLE 26 109
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN BOD5AND SUSPENDED SOLIDS
PRODUCED BY INDUSTRY
Total
SIC Code
33,34
28
c
26
29
20
35-37
32
22
24,25
30
12,19,21,
27,31,38
39,72
Industry Wastewatera
(Billion
gal/yr.)
Metal and Metal >
Products
Chemical and
Allied Products
Power Production
Paper and Allied
Products
Petroleum and Coal
Food and Kindred
Products
Machinery and
Transportation Equip.
Stone, Clay and
Glass Products
Textile Mill Products
Lumber and Wood
Products
Rubber and Plastics
Misc. Industrial
Sources
Total Industrial ^1
Total Sewers
4,300
3,700
N.Ab.
1,900
1,300
690
>481
(218)b
140
(126)b
160
450
3,100
5,300d
Settlepble
_ ancT .
Suspended
C 1 * jj
(%'l'on
Ib/yr.)
>4,700
1,900
N.A9
3,000
460
6,600
>70
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
50
>930
^18,000
8,800e
BOD5
(Million
Ib/yr..)
>480
9,700
N.A.
5,900
500
4,300
>250
N.A.
890
N.A.
40
>390
^ 22,000
7,300
Solids/BOD5
Ratio
9.79
0.20
-
0.51
0.92
1.53
0.28
-
-
_
1.25
2.38
0.82
1.21
Includes cooling water and steam production water
Included in total for all manufacturing
j Not available or not applicable (N.A.)
d 120 x 10ฐ persons x 120 gal/day x 365 days
e 120 x 106 persons x .2 Ibs/day x 365 days
134
-------
CO
(Jl
TABLE 27
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RESIDUE QUANTITIES
REMOVED BY WASTEWATER TREATMENTS a
Activated
SIC Code Industry Screening Sludge
02
20
22, 31
61
22 , 62
26
2821
2873
2874
31
35-37
49
29
Feed Lots
Food and Kindred
Products
Wool and Cotton
Finishing
Synthetics Finishing
Paper and
Allied Products
Plastics and Resins
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Phosphate Fertilizers
Leather Products
Car and Machine
Manufacturing
Sewage Systems
Petroleum
Sb
S
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
S+.3B c
S+.3B
S+.3B
S+.1B
S+.15B
S+. IB
S+.3B
S+.15B
S+.3B
S+.15B
S+.3B
Treatment Method
Trickling
Rlter Lagoons
S+.1B
S+.1B
S+.1B
S+.05B
S+.07B
S+.05B
S+.1B
S+.07B
S+.1B
S+.07B
S+.1B
S+.15B
S+.15B
S+.15B
S+.075B
S+.1B
S+.075B
S+.15B
S+.1B
S+.15B
S+.1B
S+.15B
Chemical
Addition
S+CAd
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
S+CA
Sedimenta- Activated
tion Flotation Carbon
S
S
S
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
S+.05B
S+.05B
S+.05B
S+.01B
S+.02B
S+.01B
S+.05B
S+.02B
S+.05B
S+.02B
S+.05B
-------
TABLE 27 (Cont.)
In all cases these figures represent residues from pollutants removed; that is/if the process for screening
in feed lots is 50 percent efficient, the residues will be .5 S , where So is the original amount of
solids in the effluent.
b S = Solids.
ฐ B = BOD in Ibs.
3
CA = Chemicals added.
GO
-------
TABLE 28
TOTAL LEACHATE QUANTITIES FROM LANDFILLS
226
Pollutant
BOD5
Mg
Fe
Zn
Cu
Ba
F
S04
P04
N03
Cl
Ca
Total Organic
Total Leachate
Total Inorganic
Leachate (Lbs/Dry Ton of Material)
Solid Waste b Solid Waste With
Solid Waste With Sewage Sludge Septic Tank Pumpings
15.6
0.294
0.00394
0.00738
0.0480
4.3
0.0
0.538
0.172
0.382
3.1
2.02
1.01
11.72
10.71
6.6
0.344
0.00384
0.00484
0.0362
4.12
0.0
1.062
0.0121
0.00266
4.5
.58
1.74
12.41
10.67
5.9
0.298
0.0039
0.00488
0.0452
4.28
0.00
0.342
0.0195
0.02
4.54
1.39
0.766
11.71
10.94
a 54.1 inches of rain, days 0-189, domestic solid waste.
BOD figure is for days 0-153.
+J
b 54.1 inches of rain, days 0-189, domestic solid waste plus digested
sewage sludge (wet) at ratio-l:0.61 Ib solid waste/lb wet sludge.
BOD. for days 0-189 also.
C 54 1 inches of rain, days 0-234, domestic solid waste plus septic
ฃ1! pipings (wet) at ratio-1:0.61 Ib solid waste/lb wet pump.ngs.
BOD. is for days 0-198.
137
-------
TABLE 29
LANDFILL LEACHATE PRODUCTION RATE
Leachate (Lbs/Ton of Dry Material)
Solid Waste Waste/Sludge Waste/STP
BOD5 /Month 3.06 1.05 0.89
Total Leachate/Month 1.81 1.97 1.51
Inorg. Leachate/Month 1.70 1.69 1.41
Columns are identical to corresponding columns on Table 19.
STP = septic tank pumpings.
138
-------
Intermedia Impacts of Alternative Processes or Treatment Methods
Any production process creates waste material in inverse ratio to its efficiency. Treat-
ment processes for pollution control are also production processes in that they produce
a given output from a particular input. Since the wastes produced often vary in kind
and amount, the choFce of alternative processes often involves trade-offs in both
environmental benefit factors and costs. To make optimum selections requires a
comparison of negative and positive benefits of both kinds.
Table 30 summarizes the intermedia impacts of alternative industrial processes or
pollution control measures for 80 different industries. Residue quantities are listed
which affect different media as a function of the residue disposal technique. Because of
the lack of space in Table 30, the alternative residue disposal techniques of the air and
water treatments are summarized in Tables 30b and 30c.
139
-------
TABLE 30
POLLUTION CONTROL ALTERNATIVES AND QUANTIFIED INTERMEDIA IMPACTS
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
01 Agricultural production,
Crops,
02 Agricultural production,
Livestock-feed lots
11,12 Anthracite and bituminous
coal mining
142 Crushed stone
201 Meat products (smoking)
Alternative Process or
Treatment Method
^V**V^^^H-*ซ^MI^BซB^^BVซBซBflkM^B^ซ^M^HซVซ
Eliminate pesticides
Biological control
Use biodegradable
pesticides
Field design
Lagoons
Detention reservoirs
Paved feedlots
Chemical addition
(lime-soda ash)
Pollutant
Removed
^^^^V-^^-^^^MVM-^A
Pesticides
Pesticides
Chlorinated
hydrocarbons
Pesticides in
runoff
BOD,SS in runoff
BOD,SS in runoff
SS, Pathogens in
soil
Metallic salts
and oxides, pH
Direct Intermedia Impact of '
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
Animal and plant disease increase 193
None 193
Lethal damage to humans and 193
animals-short term, high
toxicity
Pesticides in soil, percolation
to ground waters
Nutrients in irrigation water
Solids to be dredged.
Increase BOD, SS in runoff
193
193
193
193
Cyclone/fabric filter(ff) Inorganic particu-
lates
Scrubber and low voltage ParHculates;alde-
precipitators hydes and organic
acids
Afterburner
Hydrocarbons,
Carbon Monoxide
Limestone: 30 Ib sol ids/103gal. 248
waste
Cyclone: 700-850 Ib solids/I 03lb. 248
product; 990 Ib residue/103lb
product as solids.
0.6 Ib/lb product as residue 278
water or solids
Complete combustion products 278,97
to air, car, steam
-------
TABLE 30
(cont.)
SIC
Code
201
202
203
203
Industry and/or Source
Meat packing
Cheese production
Processed vegetables,
potatoes
Canned and frozen fruits
and vegetables
Alternative Process or
Treatment Method
Lagoons
Trickling filter
Sedimentation
Activated sludge
Trickling filter
ฃ* - - _
bpray irrigation
Pollutant
Removed
BOD
BOD
POD,SS
BOD, SS
BOD .
BOD^SS
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
1?Be!fefir*WrfiP3B-0-D-2
135 Ib ,rj9sidue/103lb B.O.D.
as so li as
730 Ib residue/103 Ib S.S.
900-950 Ib ress5dup^|.03lb S.S.
280 Ib residue/1 (Plb B.O.D.
45-75 Ib residue/1 03lb B.O.D.
Odors
Nitrogen compounds
208
208
22
Breweries
Coffee roasting
Textile production, cotton,
wool and synthetics
Lagoons
Activated sludge
Cyclone
Screening
Activated sludge
Trickling filter
Lagoons
Chemical addition
Sedimentation
BOD.
Phosphorus
Particulates
SS
BOD,SS
BOD,SS
BOD,SS
BOD,SS
BOD,SS
135 Ib residue/1 03lb B.O.D.
957 Ib phosphorus/1 03lb product
in waste
Quantity depends on process
50-200 Ib residue/1 03lb S.S.
850-950 Ib residue/loSlb S.S.
210-280 Ib residue/1 O^lb B.O.D.
800-950 Ib residue/1 0% S.S.
40-95 Ib residue/1 03lb B.O.D.
300-950 Ib residue/1 03lb S.S.
0-138 Ib residue/1 03lb B.O.D
400-1100 Ib residue/103 Ib S.S.
500-650 Ib residue/1 03lb S.S.
Ref.
241
239
279
* f /
228,
229
230,
230,237
280
230
234
281,97
227
227
227
227
227
ฃ*ฃm/
111
-------
TABLE 30
(cont.)
SIC Alternative Process or Pollutant
Code Industry and/or Source Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
NJ
22 Textile finishing wool Flotation
24 Sawmills and board manufacture
2611 Pulp and paper, pulp mills Activated sludge
Lagoons
Chemical addition
(FeCl2 or alum)
Electrostatic precipi-
tator
Wet scrubber
243 Fiber-board manufacture Electrostatic precipi-
tator
26 Wai I-board manufacture
282 Plastic materials, vinyl
polymers
2879 Insecticide manufacture
2899 Fire retardant chemical
manufacture
Baghouse
Electrostatic precipi-
tator
Activated sludge
Baghouse
Baghouse
BOD,S$
BOD,SS
BOD
SS, phosphorus
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
500-650 Ib residue/I O3|b SS
111
780 Ib residue/10% SS 110
130-145 Ib residue/I (Plb BOD 236
80-95 Ib residue/10% BOD 244
500-900 Ib residue/103 Ib SS 249
1100 Ib residue/id3 Ib particulates
940 Ib residue/1 (ฃlb particulates 278
46 Ib residue/103 Ib particulates 278
940 Ib residue/1 G^lb particulates 96
96
940 Ib residue/I O3!b particulates 96
980 Ib residue/I 0% SS 235
90 Ib residue/103 Ib BOD
depends on disposal; toxic in 96
water or in runoff from land disposal
96
-------
TABLE 30
(cont.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
CO
281
284
281
Calcium carbide production Scrubber
Scrubber
Detergent manufacture,
drying
Sodium phosphate manu-
facture
Particulates
Particulates
Scrubber
281 Sodium phosphate manur
facture, drying
281 Sulfuric acid manufacture
2874 Phosphate fertilizer manu-
facture
2874 Phosphate fertilizer manu-
facture (super phosphate)
Cyclone
Electrostatic precipitator Aerosol
Baghouse Particulates
Scrubber
HF, SiF4
aerosol
Particulates
2874 Phosphoric acid manufacture Scrubber
2874 Phosphoric acid manufacture Scrubber
2874 Thermal process Mist eliminator Particulates
Electrostatic precipitator Particulates
2895 Carbon black manufacture, Cyclone Particulates
furnace process
950-980 Ib residue/10% parti - 19
culates
Particulates 950 Ib residue/103lb particulates 45
Not determined
Not determined
45
Particulates 600 Ib residue/103lb particulates 45
96
96
19
-^ 195 tons/yr/plant of fluorine
from scrubber; 95% removed
by slaci pile
> 999 Ib residue/103 Ib acid 264
y 980 Ib residue/103 Ib acid 278
990-999 + Ib residue/1 03lb acid 278
278
Not defined-depends on
disposal method
278
-------
TABLE 30 (cont.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
2895 Carbon black manufacture,
furnace process
291 Petroleum refineries, fluid
bed catalytic cracking unit
291 Petroleum refineries, crude
oil
Distillation unit
291 Petroleum refineries, fluid
bed
291 Petroleum refineries
295 Asphalt manufacture,
blowing
245 Asphalt manufacture,
rotary dryer
Cyclone and scrubber
Fabric filter
Thermal process
Moving bed catalytic
converter unit
Vapor control system
CO boiler
Cyclone
Flare (and vapor mani-
fold)
Electrostatic precipita-
tion
After burner
Pre-cleaner, high
efficiency cyclone
multiple centrifugal,
scrubber
Baffle spray tower
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates,
Hydrocarbons
SOX, CO, NOX
particulates,
hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
(gaseous)
CO
Particulates
Hydrocarbons
(gaseous)
Particulates
Hydrocarbons
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Not defined-depends on
disposal method
Not defined-depends on
disposal method
None
None
None
None
278
278
278
96
96
700 Ib residue/103lb particulates 45,96
Complete combustion products 96
850 Ib residue/1 O^b particulates 45,96
None - complete combusion 96
products
Land or air pollutants, depending 278
upon disposal methods
Same 278
Water borne wastes, equal to 278
weight of particulates
same 278
-------
TABLE 30 (cent.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
31 Leather tanning and
finishing
324 Cement manufacture,
dry process
325 Ceramic clay manufacture Cyclone
327 Concrete manufacture,
Brick manufacture
329 Asphalt tile manufacture
327 Lime production
Activated sludge
Trickling filter
Chemical addition
Sedimentation
Lagoons
Wet process
Scrubber
Bag house
Baghouse
Baghouse
BOD,SS
Chromium
Compounds, sulfur
compounds
BOD,SS
chromium
compounds
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Scrubber Particulates
Cyclone Particulates
Electrostatic precipitator Particulates
-800-950 Ib residue/I 03lb SS 73
255-285 Ib residue/I03lb BOD
850-900 Ib residue/I 03lb SS
65-80 Ib residue/1 O^b BOD
750-1000 Ib residue/103lb SS
700-960 Ib residue/103lb SS
800 Ib residue/1031b SS
100 Ib residue/1031b BOD
None: recovered
73
73
235
73
282,
278
- 700 Ib residue/103lb particu- 278
lates
-950 Ib residue/103lb particu- 282
lates
96
96
990+ Ib residue/10% particu- 261
lates
960-995 Ib residue/1 03lb parti- 261
cu lates
600-700 Ib residue/1 03lb parti- 261
culates
950 Ib residue/1 03lb particulates 261
-------
TABLE
30
(cont.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
o-
331 Coke production
Iron and steel production
Iron and steel production,
blast furnace
Iron and steel production,
open hearth furnace
Iron and steel production,
basic oxygen furnace
Iron and steel production,
electric arc furnace
332 Gray iron foundry
332 Gray iron foundry,
cupola, furnace
Scrubber
Chemical addition
Limestone and aeration
Baghouse
Particulates
Fe wastes
Particulates
Particulars
Water spray
Electrostatic precipitator Particulates
Scrubber
Electric arc furnace
Baghouse
Sedimentation
Electrostatic precipitator
Baghouse
Scrubber
Afterburner
Reverberatory furnace
electric induction
furnace
Particulates and
organic gases
Particulates and
organic gases
Particulates and
organic gases
SS
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Organic and in-
organic gases
Particulates,
carbon monoxide
particulates,
carbon monoxide
1050 Ib residue/1 0JIb Fe
920 Ib residue/103lb particu-
lates
96
247
45
15
920 Ib residue/103lb particulates 45,96
200 Ib residue/103lb gases 45
None to negligible 278
Not determined.
91 0-940 Ib residue/1 03lb SS 251
920 Ib residue/1 03lb particulates 45
920 Ib residue/1 03lb particulates 45
300-650 Ib residue/1 (Plb particu- 45
lates
Complete combustion products
None
None
278
278
-------
TABLE 30
(cont.)
SIC
Code
332
333
333
333
333
333
333
Industry and/or Source
Steel foundaries, electric
arc furnace
Zinc production
Zinc smelting
Lead smelting
Lead smelting,
cupola Furnace
Primary aluminum
production
Copper smelting
Alternative Process or
Treatment Method
Electric induction
furnace, open hearth
furnace, open hearth-
oxygen lance
Baghouse
Retort reduction furnace
horizontal muffle fur-
nace, pot furnace,
sweat furnace
NaOH scrubber
Water spray
Pot furnace
Reverberatory furnace
Rotary reverberatory
furnace
After burner
Baghouse
NaOH scrubber
Pollutant
Removed
Particulates, NOX
Particulates, NOX
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
sox
SOX
Particulates, SOX
Particulates, SOX
Particulates, SOV
s\.
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates, SOX
Particulates
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
None
None
None
None
None
None
1300 Ib residue/I O3|b SO
(as SOs)
520 Ib residue/1 O^lb SOX
(as S02)
None
None
None
Complete combustion products-air
Land or water residues=920 Ib
particulates, depending on dis-
posal method
Water residue: 500 lbs/10 Ibs.
Particulates treated plus 2.22
Ref.
278
278
96
278
278
278
278
278
278
278
278
278
96
278
XSO2 removed + 1 .775 x SO3
removed
-------
TABLE 30 (cent.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
CD
333 Copper smelt!
ing
334 Secondary aluminum
production
336 Yellow brass production
__ 34 Electroplating
40 Railroad transportation
41 Automotive transportation
42 Truck transportation
Water scrubber
Baghouse
Electrostatic
precipitator
Crucible furnace
Reverberatory furnace
Baghouse
Activated carbon
Reverse osmosis
36 Electrical equipment
manufacture
37 Automobile manufacture Activated sludge
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Aqueous chromium
compounds
Chromium, nickel
compounds
800,55
California (1966) "smog CO, hydro-
control " device carbons
Water residue: 500 lb/10 Ib
part icu fates
700 I b residue/1031 b parti-
culates
700 Ib residue/I 03lb parti-
culates
None
None
950 Ib residue (as Cr)/103lb
Cr
987-998 Ib residue (as Ni,Cr)/
Ib metal
850-950 Ib residue/1031 b 55
120-140 Ib residue/1031 b BOD
Complete combustion products
278
278
278
96
216
255,
256
233
283,
278
-------
TABLE 30 (cont.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
45
4911
Air transportation, turbine,
turbine "A" fuel
Electric power generator,
coal, pulverized firing
Electric power generator
coal, high-rate on-grate
firing and spreader stoker
Electric power generator,
coal, small plant
Electric power generator,
coal, underfeed, vibrator,
chain and traveling grate
Electric power generator,
coal, pulverized firing
Electric power generator,
coal, pulverized firing,
spreader stoker
Electric power generator,
coal
Additive of ethyl corp.
"Cl-2"to fuel
Use of JP-4fuel
Use of "smokeless"
burner cans
Filter (siliconized
glass)
Cyclone
Inertial collector
Gravity settling
Particulates
Particulates,SOx/
hydrocarbons and
organic gases
Particulates, CO,
hydrocarbons, or-
ganic gases
Particulates
Particulates
Complete combustion products 266
Same 266
Same 266
20 xlO6 tons fly ash (U.S.) in 19
1965; 3% marketed
30 x 106 tons fly ash (U.S.) in 19
1970; 2.5% uti I ized at al I (ref.
298); 1/3 could be used as sludge
conditioner
Particulates
Particulates
Not determined
300-750 I b residue/1031 b
particulates
19
19
Electrostatic precipitator Particulates
Scrubber
Particulates, SO2
NO2
Limestone injection into SC>2
furnace two-stage com- NOX
bust ion, low excess air
850-990 Ib residue/1 (Plb parti-
culates
750 Ib residue/10% particulates 1 9,
1050 Ib residue/10% SOX (as 12,
SC>3) (soda-ash scrubber) 265
12
Sulfate residue 44
-------
TABLE 30 (cent.)
SIC
Code Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Direct Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref.
en
o
4911 Electric power generator,
coal, pulverized firing
4952 Municipal sewage systems
_, 4953 Municipal refuse incinera-
tion, single chamber
Cyclone firing
Activated sludge
Chemical addition
Activated carbon
Ion exchange
Settling chamber
Wetted baffle
"Wet col lection"
Electrostatic precipitator
Settling chamber and
spray system
Multiple chamber
incinerator
Scrubber
Spray system
Particles
BOD
Phosphorous
compounds
BOD, phos-
phorous compounds
Nitrogen com-
pounds
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates, NOX
Hydrocarbons
Polynuclear
hydrocarbons
NOX
None
44
120 mgd sludge (U.S.) in 1970 84
270 I b residue/103 1 b BOD
1 1 00 Ib residue/I 03lb phosphor- 84
ous (with Fe Cl2)
84
930-970 Ib residue/1 03^ 85
nitrogen
Retained in ash 284
620 I b water residue/103 1 b 284,
particulates 285
Same 286
Retained in ash 286
500 Ibs water residue/1 03lb 278
particulates
Complete combustion products 278
N . D . or uncontrol I ed 287
N . D . or uncontrol I ed 2 88
5541 Gasoline service stations
-------
TABLE 30
(cont.)
SIC
Code
Industry and/or Source
Alternative Process or Pollutant
Treatment Method Removed
Qirect Intermedia Impact of
Alternative
Residue Quantity (or Impact)
Ref .
72 Dry cleaning
Activated carbon
Hydrocarbons
If regenerate-recover solvent
if not regenerated - contaminated
sludge to water - 960 lbs/103 Ibs
hydrocarbons plus activated carbon
used in process (about 3.33 Ibs/lb
hydrocarbons removed)
332
333
- b
Ul
Unless otherwise stated,figures given as pounds of residue per pound of pollutant are per pound of pollutant treated/not per
pound of pollutant removed.
Intermedia impacts reflect the increase in another pollutant form or media of the alternative. Therefore, where an
alternative simply reduces pollutant discharges with no intermedia or form transfer, the intermedia impact is given u,
"none". This does not mean that all pollution has been eliminated for this process. For various process and treatment
coefficients please see Tables 31 and 32 and Appendix.
as
-------
Intermedia Residue Disposal Techniques
Tables 30 (b) and 30 (c) describe the major direct intermedia transfers resulting from
alternative residue disposal techniques for air and water pollutants. The Tables
indicate the residue disposal techniques for various treatment methods and whether
these techniques affect the air, water or land. Although transfers between air and
water are not as common as from air to land or from water to land, there are several
important and significant air-water transfers.
Residue Disposal Techniques for Air Pollutant Residues
Table 30 (b) lists the alternative residue disposal techniques for air pollutant residues.
Most air treatment techniques are either intramedial processes, or create air to land
transfers. The Regional Case Study (see Section IX) indicated that these air to land
and intramedial techniques are gaining in use over techniques that create air to water
transfers. Several types of air-to-water transfers do, however, remain as major factors
to be considered. Water scrubbers create waterborne residues. Table 30 (b) also
indicates that it may be possible to use lime slurry treatments to extract compounds of
calcium (calcium fluoride, calcium sulfate, etc.) from scrubbing water to prevent the
transfer from air to water and dispose the residues to the land. In addition, dry
collection devices sometimes are flushed with water in order to remove the collected
residues. The above practice seems, however, to be declining. Activated carbon
devices are currently being used to control hydrocarbon emissions from organic solvent
uses, for example, in dry cleaning establishments. For economic reasons, the carbon
is usually regenerated with steam for reuse. This creates a transfer to water of the
hydrocarbons in the condensing steam.
Residue Disposal Techniques for Water Pollutant Residues
Table 30 (c) lists the alternative residue disposal techniques in water pollutants.
Although the trend is toward land disposal several significant water-to-air transfers do
exist. Recently concern has been expressed because of the disposal of hazardous wastes
at landfill sites. Because of the potential danges of landfill leachate contamination
or dangers of direct human contact or volatility of these wastes, their disposal by land-
fillins is being restricted and carefully controlled. 25 The result is that there has been
an increase in the storage of these hazardous wastes at industrial sites.325,326 j^g
most significant water-to-air transfer results from the incineration of sewage sludge which
is widely practiced throughout the nation. The alternatives to incineration include ocean
dumping, landfilling, land spreading, or agricultural application. Ocean dumping is
now prohibited,and communities practicing this must find other disposal means. Since
nearly all wastewaters In Los Angeles City are discharged to the sewer system, this provides
a reliable basis for estimating the impact of changing to the landfilling of sewage
sludges. Data calculated in the Regional Case Study indicate that only about a two
percent increase in landfill solids would result from the disposal of sewage sludge in
landfills .(See Section IX for more detailed discussion.) Nearly 10,000 tons per day of
solid refuse are collected in the City,322 while only 200 tons per day of solids would
152
-------
TABLE 30 (b)
AIR TREATMENT RESIDUE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
Treatment
Cyclones
Activated Carbon
Residue
Media
Land
Water
Air
Land
Residue Disposal Method
Dry removal and disposal
Flush with water
Incineration of wastes
No regeneration-disoosal
to landfill
of saturated
Flares
Filters
Electrostatic Precipitator
Gravity Settling Chamber
Scrubbers
Water Spray
Afterburner
Water, land
Air
Land
Water
Air
Land
Air
Land
Water
Air
Water
Land
Water
Land
Air
Furnace Limestone Injection Land
Fuel Additives Air
Vapor Control Systems None
Burner Cans for Planes Air
carbon
Periodic disposal of spent carbon
Some contaminated sludge from
regeneration goes to water
No residue collection - completes
combustion process
Dry removal of residues - vibration
unusual but residues vibrated into a hopper
May be flushed with water
Incineration of wastes
Dry removal of residues to landfill
Incineration of wastes
Dry removal
Flush residues with water
Incineration of wastes
Process water to sewer or stream
Lime slurry treatment - removes calcium
fluoride, calcium sulfate, etc., on
settling ponds
A type of scrubber - water directly to
water body
Lime slurry treatment for removal of
calcium fluoride, calcium sulfate, etc.,
on settling ponds
No removal - complete combustion
products
Sulfate residues removed as slag
Facilitate complete combustion
Retention of vapors in original solution
Complete combustion process
153
-------
TABLE 30 (c)
WATER TREATMENT RESIDUE DISPOSAL TECHNIQUES
Treatment
Screening
Activated Sludge
Residue
Media
Land
Air
Land
Water
Air
Residue Disposal Method
Disposal to landfills
Incineration
Landfills, or agricultural application
Pumping to ocean or other water body
Sludge incineration
Trickling Filter
Lagoons and Stabilization
Ponds
Chemical Addition
Stripping Towers
Sedimentation
Flotation
Electrodialysis
Activated Carbon
Ion Exchange
Air
Land
Water
Air
Air
Water
Land
Land
Air
Land
Air
Land
Air
Land
Water
Land
Water
Land
Water
NH3/ NO2, NO3 liberated by
bacterial and enzyme action
Disposal to landfill of settled material
Pumping of settled slurry to sea or other
water bodies
Incineration of settled material
Escape of gases from decomposition
process
Non-decomposed overflow from lagoons
Periodic dredging of settled inorganics
Sedimentation of coagulated material
Release of NHg by alteration of surface
tension
Disposal to landfill or agricultural
application
Incineration of residues
Disposal to landfill or agricultural
application
Incineration of residues
Evaporation of slurry - landfill disposal
Flushing of membrane with water. Process
water cleaned and slurry to sewer or
water body.
Disposal of saturated carbon
Carbon regeneration with steam
Evaporation and disposal of slurry
Regeneration of resin. Recovery of nitro-
gen and other adsorbed material frorri
regenerent salt solution (negligible).
154
-------
TABLE 30 (c) (Cont.)
Treatment
Residue
Media
Residue Disposal Method
Reverse Osmosis
Spray Irrigation
Chlorination
Land
Water
Land
None
Air
Prevention of Dumping of
Hazardous Wastes
Sewage Sludge Drying
or Digestion
Land
Land
Air
Evaporation and landfill disposal
Flushing membrane with water - slurry
to ocean or water body
A residue disposal technique - waste
application to agricultural land.
Use for disinfection of wastewater
Ammonia, nitrogen wastes converted
to nitrous oxide-re I eased to atmosphere
Oxidation and breakdown of organic
material
Landfill disposal of hazardous chemicals
Landfill disposal of dry/digested material
Gases given off by drying or digestion
process
155
-------
n/% /
be generated by secondary treatment at the City's Hyperion Treatment Plant.
Other waterto-air transfers exist and are more difficult to control. Trickling filters,
stripping towers, lagoons, aeration, and chlorination result in the release of various
gases to the air as a result of the chemical, bacterial and enzymatic actions. These
transfers have not, however, made major impact on ambient air quality.
Table 31 describes, in full, disposal techniques for air pollutants. Table 32 describes,
in full, disposal techniques for water pollutants.
156
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31
AIR TREATMENT LIST
CONTROL METHOD: CYCLONE
Source
Coffee roasting,
Code
20
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
Particular es
Efficiency
70
Capital
Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref
97
stone and cooler
Lime production, 32
pulverized limestone
dryer
Lime production,
rotary kiln
32
Sodium phosphate 28
mfg., drying
Particu- @2.4gr/ 60-70
lates ft3
Particu- @4.3 gr/ 70
lates ft3
Particu- @5 gr/ft3, 65.3
lates 60,000 ctm
Particu- @5 gr/ft3, 84.2
lates 60,000 ctm
Particu- @5 gr/f>3, 91 .0
lates 60,000 cfm
Particu- @5 gr/ft3, 93.8
lates 60,000 cfm
Particu- @160 Ib/hr 60
lates (0-5 ) (0-5 )
Particu- @100 Ib/hr 75
lates (0-5 ) (0-5 )
$9,200,or
$0.14/cfm
$17,600, or
$0.28/cfm
$21,800 or
$0.36/cfm
$19,300 or
$0.31 /cfm
$20,000 for 50
KT/yr plant
$40,000 for
50 KT/yr plant
$4,900/yr
tot:0.02<:/
103 ft3
$6,500/yr
tot:0.029$/
l()3fr3
$7,900/yr
tot-0.034<:/
103ft3
261
High efficiency 261
cyclones
Simple cyclone 57
High efficiency 5
cyclone
Irrigated cyclone 5
$5,700/yr
rot:0.027<:/
103ft3
Multicyclone 5
f
$2,000/yr Primary cyclone 45
$4,000/yr Secondary multi- 45
tube cyclones
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: CYCLONE
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost Remarks
Ref.
Ol
00
Petroleum re- 29
fineries, cat.
cracking
Elee. power prod. 49
on-grate, high rate
firing; some spreader
St.
Electric power prod. 49
coal, spreader stoker
Petroleum refineries, 29
fluid c.c. unit
Chemical drying,
detergents
Electric power gen.; 49
coal; spreader, chain
grate, vibrator stokers
Electric power gen., 49
coal, spreader, chain
grate / vibrator stokers
Electric power gen., 49
coal, spreader, chain
grate, vibrator stokers
Particulates @100lb/hr
(0-5/,)
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
28 Particulates @3 gr/ft3
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
70 $240,000 for
(O-S/,) 42 K bbl/day
unit
50-90
(>2uป
75-90
$165,000 for
40 K bbl/day
unit
90(by
gr count )
60
60
85
$15,000/yr 45
$125-250/ Single cyclone, 19
10 cfm large diameter
$150-300/ Multicyclone, 19
103 cfm small diameter tubes
possible abrasion prob.
L.A. County 96
15
Large diameter 1 6
Large diameter 1 6
Small diameter
16
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: CYCLONE
Source
Pollutant % Capital
Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost Remarks
Ref.
Ol
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, other stokers
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, other stokers
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, cyclone firing
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, cyclone firing
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, other pulverized
units
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate,other pulverized
units
65
90
15
70
30
80
Petroleum refinery,
FCC
29 Particulates 2800 gr/fr, ฐ9.98
37.0 medium
40,000 ft3/min
Large diameter 16
Small diameter
Large diameter 16
Small diameter 16
Large diameter 16
Small diameter 16
Series cyclone 16
high pressure drop
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: CYCLONE
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed
% Capital
Capacity Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Abrasive cleaning
Drying, sand and
gravel
Grinding, aluminum
Planing mill, wood
Grinding, iron scale
o
o
Rubber dusting
(zinc stearate)
34 Particulates
(talc)
32 Particulates
33
24
33
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
28 Particulates
2.2 gr/ft3, 93
2,300 ft3/
min.
38.0 gr/ft3, 86.9
8.2 median,
12,300 ft3/min.
0.7 gr/ft3,
2,400ft3/min.
0.1 gr/ft3, 97
3,100ft3/min.
0.15 gr/ft3, 56.3
3.2 medjan
Il,800ft3/min.
0.6 gr/ft3, 88
0.7 median,
3,300 ft3/min.
0.33 in pressure 1 6
drop
1 .9 in pressure 1 6
drop
1 .2 in pressure 1 6
drop
3.7 in pressure 1 6
drop
Impeller collector, 16
4.7 in pressure
drop
Impeller collector, 16
0.9 in pressure drop
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
MBLE 31 feont.)
CONTROL METHOD: CYCLONE
Pollutant
Source Code Removed Capacity
Particulates @10
@20
@>40
Particulates @20
@40
^80
Particulates @40
^80
@160
Electric power prod. 49 Particulates @725
coal, small plant
% Capital Operating
Efficiency Cost Cost Remarks Ref.
80
94
97
35
74
95
50
78
93
65 $1 00-200
/103cfm
! iigh-d raft-loss
collector, 2.5 in.
PpO; spe. grav.
fly ash: 2.0
Medium-draft-loss
collector, 0.4 in.
H2O; sp. grav.
fly ash: 2.0
Low-d raft-loss
collector, 0.2 in.
K2O; sp. grav. fly
ash: 2.0
Med i u m-d ra f t- 1 oss
(0.4-1 .5 in. H3O):
for very critical on-
grate firing
262
262
262
19
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (conk)
CONTROL METHOD: ADSORBER
Source
Rotogravure
press
Dry cleaner,
synth. solvent
Pollutant
Code Removed
27
72
Capacity Efficiency
(See under
"cap. cost")
(See under
"cap. cost")
Capital Operating
Cost Cost
$40,000 for
5-color ,44-
in. web plant
$3, 000 for 60
Ib/batch unit
Remarks Ref.
Activated carbon; 96
L.A. County
Activated carbon; 96
L.A. County
NJ
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: FLARES
Source
Liquid hydrogen
mfr.
Natural gas prod.
Synth, rubber mfr.
Petroleum refinery,
fluid C.C. unit
Code
28
13
28
29
Pollutant
Removed
Org. gases
Org. gases
Org. gases
%
Capacity Efficiency
(See under
"cap. cost")
(See under
"cap. cost")
(See under
"cap. cost")
(See under
"cap. cost")
Capital Operating
Cost Cost
$17,700
for 32T/yr
plant
$5 ,000 for 20 M
ft3/day plant
$250,000 for
30 KT/yr plant
$363,000 for
40 K bbl/day
Remarks
(Includes vapor
manifold)
(Includes vapor
manifold)
(Includes blowdown
systems and vapor
Ref.
96
96
96
96
plant
manifold)
CO
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: FILTERS
Source
Pollutant % Capital
Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
32
Particulates (See under
'Unit cost")
Asphalt tile
prod.
Concrete batching 32 Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Yellow brass prod. 33 Particulates (See under
crucible furnace
"unit cost")
Steel prod., electric 33 Particulates (See under
arc furnace "unit cost")
* Cost based on air-cloth ratio of 2 cfm/ft2
$220-8400/
1000 cfm *
$460-$720/
1000 cfm *
$650-$950/
1000 cfm "
$7/1000 cfm
$15/1000 cfm
*
$5,000 for
5,000 lb/4>r plant
$10,000 for
900,000 IbAr unit
$17,000for4furn.
of 850 Ib charge/heat
$45,OOOforl8T/heat
furnace
Remarks
Ref.
Woven fabric or
felt, tubular(30,000
-1000 cfm)
panel
(30,000-5000 cfm)
, reverse jet (felt)
(20,000-5000 cfm)
Fiber (throwaway)
(any flow rate)
Knitted metal (viscous)
(any flow rate)
L.A. County 96
L.A. County 96
L.A. County 96
L.A. County 96
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: FILTERS
Source Code
Brass prod. 33
electric induction
furnace
Enamel frit drying 75
Fire-retardant mfg. 28
Zinc prod, galvani- 33
zing kettle
Grit blasting 34
machine
Insecticide mfg. 28
Ol
Lime prod, calcinatic 32
kiln
Lime prod. - convey- 32
ing/ hydrate milling
Pollutant % Capital Operating
Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost Cost
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
$2,700 for
2000 Ib/hr
furnace
$3,000 for
1 ,500 Ib/hr unit
$2000 for 1 000 Ib/
hr unit
$3000 for 4' x30'
x 4' unit
$1 ,700 for 6 ft3
unit
$3,000 for 1000
Ib/hr unit
99.2
99+
99.9 $47,600, or $18,700/
$0.78/cfm yr.
99.9 $49,300 or $14,200/
$0.81/cfm yr.
Remarks
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
Glass bag filter
Cloth bag
Reverse jet-fabric
filter ( 1967)
Conventional
fabric filter
Ref.
96
96
96
96
96
96
261
261
5
5
0967)
Gray iron foundry 33
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
92 $50,000 for
(0-5M) 4000 T/yr
plant
$5,000/
45
yr.
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: FILTERS
Source
Steel prod.
Sodium phosphate
(drying)
Electric power gen . ,
coal -fired
Phosphate ferti-
_ lizer prod.
o-
o-
Rubber Banbury
mixer
Sandblast room
Sewer pipe mfg.
Ship bulk loading
Wai (board prod.
Code
33
28
49
28
28
34
32
44
26
Pollutant
Removed
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Capacity
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
% Capital Operating
Efficiency Cost Cost Remarks Ref.
92 $425,000 for $40,000/
(0-5x|) $25M plant-4 yr.
open hearths
99 $90,000 for $9,500/yr
(0-5.U) 50 KT/yr
plant
98-99 Total costs: $600-1 OOO/
(\V44./i) lOOOcfm
$5,000 for
2000 IbAr
unit
$3,000 for
1000 IbAr
unit
$3,000 for
8'xl2'x 8'
mm.
$10, 000 for
20 klbAr plant
$168, 000 for 2. 5
KTAr operation
$100, 000 for 60
Rec. for pulverized
firing; exit T limit:
600ฐF;siliconized
glass filter
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
45
45
19
96
96
96
96
96
96
"unit cost")
KlbAr plant
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: FILTERS
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Electric power gen., 4s? PartlcuSates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, vsbr. stokers
Electric power gen., 49
coal; spreader, chain
grate, eye!one firing
Electric power gen., 49 Particulates
coal, spreader, chain
grate, other pulver.
units
99.5
99.5
99.5
"Under develop-
ment1^ 1963
16
"Under develop- I 6
ment" in 1968
"Under develop- 16
ment" in 1968
CN
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Source
Lime prod, rotary
kiln
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
32 Particulates
Partfculates
% Capital Operating
Efficiency Cost Cost
95.0
94.1 $86,000, or $2,400/yr
Remarks
Single stage
for 5 gr/ft3
Ref.
261
5
Gray iron foundry 33
<> Steel prod., 33
open hearth furnace
Particulates
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
99.0
92
92
$1 ,43/cfm Tot. 0.038<:/
TP~
$148,000, or $5,488/yr for 5 gr/ft3
$2.46/cfm Tot.0.070<:
TfT3
$75,000 for $6,500/yr
8T/hr plant
(4000T/yr)
$800,000 for $50,000/yr
4 open hearths
45
45
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATOR
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Petroleum refineries 29
Petroleum refineries 29
Electric power gen., 49
coal-fired (pulverized)
Fiberboard prod.
r^ Petroleum refineries, 29
o-
-0 fluid C.C. unit
Steel prod, open 33
hearth
Sulfuric acid prod. 28
Incinerator, munic. 49
Electric power gen., 29
all firing, stoking
methods (coal)
Electric power gen., 29
oil-fired
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates
-85 $1.1 M
(0-5.u) for42Kbbl/
j ...
day operation
< '85 $1.5M for 42 $20,OOO/
(0-5 u) K bbl/day oper- yr.
ation
85-99 $300-$!OOO/
Cf-lOy;) 103 cfm
$15,000 for
16T/hr oper.
$1 .04M for
40 K bbl/day
unit
$150,000 for
60TAeat furn.
$150,000 for
250T/day plant
$2,409,200 for $512,500/
800T/day oper. yr.
99.5
75.0
removal eff.: 45
0% overall partic.
eff.: 98%
Gas removal eff. 45
0%; replacement
pptr.
19
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
96
96
96
96
263
16
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: GRAVITY SETTLING CHAMBER
Source
Pollutant % Capital
Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost Remarks
Ref.
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod., coal
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod., coal
spreader, chain
grate, and vibra-
tor stokers
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod. , spreader,
chain grate, and
other stokers
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod., coal,
spreader, chain
grate, cyclone
firing.
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod., spreader,
chain grate, other
pulverized units
Electric power 49 Particulates
prod., coal,
spreader, chain
grate, oil-fired
45
45
30-40 $100-200
/103 cfm
50
60
10
20
For underfeed, 1 9
vibrating, chain
and traveling grate
stokers.
"In operation" in 1 6
1968
"In operation" in 1 6
1968
"In operation" in 1 6
1968
"In operation" in 1 6
1968
"In operation"in 16
1968
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: SCRUBBER
Source Code
Gray iron foundry
Steel prod., open
hearth furnace
Steel prod., open
hearth furnace
Electric power prod.,
coal, spreader stoker,
pulverized firing
Asphalt batching
Ceramic tile prod.
Chrome plating
Coke prod.,
delayed coker unit
33
33
33
49
29
32
34
33
Pollutant % Capital Operating
Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost Cost
Particulates
Particulates
Organ ics and
gases
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
(See under
"unit cost")
65 (-4% $30,000 $4,500/yr
7 5/<)
40 (0- $200,000 for $30,000
5/< ) 4 furnaces
20 $200,000 for $30,000
4 furnaces
75 ^2//) Total $200 1000/1000
cfm
$10, 000 for
100 TAr plant
$10, 000 for
4 T/hr oper.
$800 for 4' x
5' x 5' chamber
$385,000 for
27,900bbl/dav
Remarks
Est'd, 1959
Possible problems
of caking and
corrosion
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
L.A. County
Ref
45
45
45
19
96
96
96
96
Pipe coating, incl. 32
spinning, wrapping,
dipping
Rock crushing and 32
sizing
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
Particulates (See under
"unit cost")
f
plant
$32,000 for
4-10 lengths/hr
$2,000 for 150T/
hr operation
L.A. County 96
L.A. County 96
-------
MEDIUM:
AIR
TABLES! (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: SCRUBBER
Ni
Source Code
Phosphoric Acid 28
Mfg.
Starch mfr. 20
Lime mfr. , 32
rotary kiln
Lime mfr., 32
rotary kiln
Lime mfr., 32
rotary kiln
Typical performance
Pollutant %
Removed Capacity Efficiency
H3P04
aerosol
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
Particulates
@ 0.02 -
0.08 gr/ft3
@ 0.12-0.25
gr/ft3
@ 0.3 -0.4
gr/ft3
@ 5 gr/ft3
99.9+
98
97.5
99.7
96-97
97.5
97.9
Capital Operating
Cost Cost Remarks
"High eff. mist
collector, new"
Centrifugal gas
scrubber
4-stage cyclonic
scrubber
Venturi scrubber
Impingement
scrubber
$28,800, or $10,500 Impingement
$0.48/cfm ToH.:0.047$/scrubber
Ref
264
97
261
261
261
5
Typical performance
Typical performance
Gray iron foundry 33
Particulates @ 5 gr/ft3 99.7 $42,000, or
$0.70/cfm
Particulates @ 5 gr/ft3 98.5 $66,600, or
$1.12/cfm
Particulates (See under 30 (-37% $30,000 for
"unit cost") >5,.
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: SCRUBBER
Source
Fertilizer prod.,
superphosphate
Calcium carbide pr
Code
28
od. 28
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
HF,SiF4
Particulafes
%
Efficiency
98
95-98
Capital
Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Jet-venturi fume
scrubber
Pease-Anthony
Re
15
15
Chemical drying
28
Sodium phosphate 28
mfr., drying
Electric power prod., 49
coal
Incinerator, munic. 49
Electric power gen., 49
coal
Electric power gen., 49
coal, spreader, chain
grate, vibrating stokers
Electric power gen., 49
coal, spreader, chain
grate, cyclone firing
Electric power gen., 49
coal, spreader, chain
grate, cyclone firing
Particulates @0.3 gr/ft3 70 (by
gr count)
Particulates @ 8 Ib/hr 95 $70,000 for $8,000
(0-5M) (0-5 ) 50 KT/yr plant
75 $5.00/KW $2.50/
S02
Particulates (See under
"cap. cost")
NO9 15-30
Particulates 99+
Particulates 99+
Particulates 99+
T coal
$1,838,600 $401,000/
for 800T/day yr
oper.
scrubber
Venturi scrubber 15
Secondary scrubber 45
Soda ash solution 12
264
By-product of SOX 263
scrubbing (using a Ik.
scrub)
8-in. (H20)pres- 1-6
sure-drop scrubbers
8-in. (H2O)pres- 16
sure-drop scrubbers
8-in (H2O) pres- 16
sure-drop scrubbers
-------
MEDIUM:
AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: WATER SPRAY
Source
Pollutant % Capital
Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Lime prod. - 32
limestone prim.
crushing
Typical performance
Typical performance
Steel prod., blast 33
furnace
Electric power gen., 49
coal; spreader, chain
grate, vibrating stokers
Electric power gen., 49
coal; spreader, chain
grate, other stokers
Particulates @ 0.0] 6
gr/ft3
"poor"
261
Particulates @ 5 gr/ft3, 96.3
60,000 cfm
Particulates -@ 5 gr/ft3, 93.5
60,000 cfm
$51,200,or $16,700/yr Gravitational 5
$0.84/cfm Tot.: 0.075<:/spray tower
TO3" ft3
$24,400, or $8,800/yr self-induced spray 5
$0.42/cfm Tot.: Q.028 3-4 gr/ft3 99.3
(based on
grain count)
Multiple sprays 15
(in series)
Particulates
Particulates
60
80
Stack spray
Stack spray
16
16
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: AFTERBURNER
Source
Meat smoking
Gray iron foundry
Airblown asphalt
system
Aluminum prod . ,
chip dryer
Coke oven
01 Debonder
Food prep.,
deep fat fryer
Incinerator, drum
reclamation
Incinerator, drum
reclamation
Incinerator, flue-
fed
Code
20
33
29
33
33
58
49
49
49
Pollutant %
Removed Capacity Efficiency
CO,HC 100
Org. gases ^ 3 Ib/hr 97
Inorganic gases & 30 Ib/hr
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost51)
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
Capital Operating
Cost Cost
$2000 for $200/yr
8T/hr plant
$3000 for
500 bblAath
oper.
$3000 for 2. 5
K IbAr oper.
$1500 for 8' x
8'x 12' unit
$300 for 500
brake shoes/
hr. oper.
$1500 for 1000
Ib/hr oper.
$2000 for 60
bblAr unit
$5000 for 200
bblAr unit
$2500 for most
sizes
Remarks Re
Direct-fired after 97
burner
45
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
96
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLES! (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: AFTERBURNER
Source
Lithography, oven
Type metal prod.,
pot furn .
Pollutant
Code Removed
27
33
%
Capacity Efficiency
(See under
"cap cost")
(See under
"cap cost")
Capital Operating
Cost Cost Remarks
$15,000 for
240 ft/min
unit
$3,000 for
16,000 Ib
furnace
Re
96
96
Varnish cooker
28 Org. gases (See under
"cap cost")
$5,500 for 500
gal. unit
96
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: MISCELLANEOUS
Source
Code
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
%
Efficiency
Capital
Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Bulk gasoline 51
loading rack
Petroleum refinery; 29
crude oil distilla-
tion unit
Gasoline storage, 51
fixed-roof tank
Petroleum refinery, 29
fluid c.c . unit
Oil -water separator 29
Oil-water separator 29
Oil-water separator 29
Sewage treatment 49
headworks
Electric power gen., 49
coal-fired
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cap cost")
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cap cost")
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cap cost")
CO
(See under
"cap cost")
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cap cost")
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cap cost")
Org. gases (See under
(HC) "cop cost")
Odoriferous (See under
gases "cap cost")
SO2 (See under
"cap cost")
67
$50,000 for
667 K gal/day
operation
$10,000 for
37 K bbl/V
operation
$132,000 for 80
K bbl tank
$1,770,000
for 40 K bbl/
day unit
$80,000 for
300 K bbl/
day unit
$700 for 350
bbl/day unit
$8,000 for 3,500
bbl/day unit
Vapor control sys.; 96
L. A. County
Vapor control sys., 96
L.A. County
Floating -roof tank,96
replacement for
fixed-roof tank
costing $50,000
CO boiler
Floating roof
Cover
Floating roof
96
$20,000 for 250 Covers
M gal/day plant
$1 .00/KWfor800
MW plant, amort.
@ 14% int., limestone
@ $2.00A delivered, waste
disp. & hauling @ $0.80/T net.
96
96
Limestone injection 12
into furnace
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: MISCELLANEOUS
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
Electric power gen., 49
coal-fired
Air transportationt 45
turbine*
^ Air transportation 45
oo turbine*
Air transportation 45
turbine*
Air transportation 45
turbine*
Air transportation 45
turbine*
(See under 90
"cap cost")
Particulates
NO2
HC and org.
gases, CO,
Particulates
CO
-10
increase
O
-35
'-20
increase
*Emission changes computed in terms of Ibs. pollutant/ave. flight
$1.00/KWfor $1.15A
800 MW plant,
amort. @ 14%
int., limestone
@ $2.00/T de-
livered, waste
disposal & haul-
ing @ $0.80/T net.
Limestone injection 12
into furnace
Ethyl Corp. "C1-2"266
additive (to regular
turbine !A" fuel)
Ethyl Corp. "C 1-2" 266
additive (to regular
turbine "A" fuel)
Ethyl Corp, "C 1-2"266
additive (this and
above two based on P.
and WJT3D-3B)
JP-4 fuel;substitute 266
for regular turbine "A"
fuel based on P and W
JT8D-1
JP-4 fuel; substi- 266
tute for regular turbine
"A" fuel based on JT8D-1
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cent.)
CONTROL METHOD: MISCELLANEOUS
Source
Air transportation
turbine*
Air transportation
turbine*
Air transportation
turbine*
_
-o Air transportation
turbine*
Air transportation
turbine*
Air transportation
turbine*
Air transportation
turbine*
Pollutant-
Code Removed Capacity
45 NO2
45 HC and
org. gases
45 SOX
45 Particulates
45 CO
45 NO2
45 HC and
org. gases
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
4
increase
-80
30
23
-"20
" 40
increase
99
Operating
Cost Remarks
JP-4 fuel; substi-
tute for regular
turbine "A" fuel
based on JT8D-1
JP-4 fuel; substi-
tute for regular
turbine "A"fuel
based on JT8D-1
JP-4 fuel; substi-
tute for regular
turbine "A" fuel
based on JT8D-1
Use of "smokeless"
burner cans, P and
WJT8D turbofan
Use of "smokeless"
burner cans, P and
WJT8D turbofan
Use of "smokeless"
burner cans, P and
JT8D turbofan
Use of "smokeless"
burner cans, P and
JT8D turbofan
Ref.
266
266
266
266
266
266
W
266
W
Emission changes computed in terms of Ibs. pollutant/ave. flight
-------
MEDIUM: AIR
TABLE 31 (cont.)
CONTROL METHOD: MISCELLANEOUS
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost
Operating
Cost
Remarks
Ref.
oo
o
Air transportation
turbine*
Elec. power gen.,
coal-fired
45
Elec. power gen., 49
coal-fired
Elec. power gen., 49
coal-fired
49
SO
NCV
Particulates
Particulates
62
65-85
compared
to pulver-
ized firing
(See under
remarks)
Use of "smokeless" 266
burner cans, P and W
JT8D turbofan
Two-stage combus- 44
tion with low excess air
Cyclone firing; 44
alternative to pul-
verized firing
Higher sulfur-
content coal;
improves elec. pptr
perf.
44
*Emission changes computed in terms of Ibs pollutant/ayes, flight
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32
WATER TREATMENT LIST
TREATMENT METHOD: SCREENING
Source Code
Leather Tanning & 3111
Finishing
Synthetic Finishing 2262
Textile
Cotton Finishing 2261
Textile
Wool Finishing 2231
Textile
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
Efficiency
5
5-10
0-5
5-20
0-5
5-20
0-10
20
Capital
Cost ($)
4,000-25,000
500-4,800
6,000-30,000
1,300-6,000
Operating
Cost ($)
300-3, 000 /
100-500/yr
2,000-
5,000/yr
300-600/yr
Remarks
Range of values
for a plant
processing 700
hides/dry
Range for a
plant process-
ing 20,000 Ib/
day
Range for a
plant process-
Ing 50,000 Ib/
day
Range for a plant
orocessino
Ref
73
227
227
227
SS
70
Municipal Sewage 4952
SS
BOD
lOmgd
21 mgd
70
50
440,000
20,000 Ib/week
Mfc rostra ining
65<:/ Secondary 112
1,000 gal effluentฎ 1967
$
2.07/capita 17<:/caplta/ 1968 $
122
122
-------
CO
NJ
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Source
Cannery waste
Citrus waste
Cannery effluents
Cannery waste
Citrus waste
Motor vehicles
Body assembly
& Final assembly
Brewery waste
Mfq. of vinyl
Code
2033
2033
2033
2037
2033
2037
371
2082
28212
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
BOD 10 mgd
Total Car-
bon
BOD
BOD 8 mgd
SS
COD 969,900 gal/
SS day
BOD
BOD
SS
P
BOD
% Capital
Efficiency Cost ($)
90
80
95.6
90 550,000
90 287,435
95
-
80-95
85-95
95.7
88
Operating
Cost($)
7
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
Operating
Cost($)
Remarks
Ref
00
CO
Leather Tanning & 3111 BOD
Finishing SS
Chromium
Sulfide
Wool Finishing 2231 BOD
SS
Cotton Finishing 2261
Pulp Mill Effluent 2611
Municipal Sewage 4952
lOmd
10 md
85-95
80-95 75,000-200,000 3,000-
75 16,000/yr
75-100
85-90
90-95
BOD
SS
SS 54 mgd
BOD
BOD
SS
70-95
78
91
85-95
85-95
14,000-39,000 2,300-
6400/yr
5,400-29,000 800-4800/yr
31,127,000 3,087,000
Brine w.w.
90-92
3.2 x 10
2.8x 10
1.4x 10
5
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ACTIVATED SLUDGE
Pollutant
Source Code Removed
BOD
SS
N
Capacity
<25 mg/l
<20 mg/l
.12lb
.026 Ib.
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
2S-29/
capita
Operating
Cost($)
1.87-2.03/
capita/yr
Remarks
Max. effluent
quality attain-
able
Ref
238
122
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: TRICKLING FILTER
00
Oi
Source
Food Products
whey effluent
Whey effluent
Code
2022
2022
Pollutant
Removed
BOD
BOO
Capacity
mm
1.17 mad
%
Efficiency
90
_
Capital
Cost ($)
272/lb. BOD
loading/day
1,924,300
Operating
Cos^> Remarks
-
114,300/yr .7 Ib. sludge
Ref
239
240
Cannery waste 2033 BOD 8 mgd
2037
Fruit P recessing 2033 BOD
Leather Tanning 3111
& Finishing
Wool Finishing 2231
Cotton Finishing 2261 BOD
Textile
76
45
2,000,000 29,000/yr
BOD
SS
Chromium
Sulfide
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
65-80
85-90
25-75
80-95
90-95
40-85
80-90
50,000 -
150,000
11,000-
26,000
5,300-
11 nnn
3,000 -
10,000/yi
1,600-
3,900/yr
10,000-
24,000/yr
produced per
Ib. BOD removed
BOD loading x 230
300 mg/l
BOD loading = 237
580 fb/1,000
ft /day
w/21.5ft
depth - plastic
media
Range for a plant r73
processing 700
Range for a plant 227
processing 20,000
Ib/wt
Range for a plant227
processing 50,000
Ib/day
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: TRICKLING FILTER
Source
Synthetic Finishing
Pollutant-
Code Removed Capacity
2261 BOD
SS
BOD
SS
%
Efficiency
40-85
80-90
80-95
70-92
Capital
Cost ($)
4,200-19,000
Operating
Cost($)
600-2900/
yr
Remarks
Range for a
plant process-
ing 20,000
Ib/dry
Preceded and
followed by
Ref
227
236
10 mad
oo
BOD
85
3x 10
29.46-
45.14/
capita
2.8<:/l,000
gal
1.23- 1.94/
capita/yr
plain sedimenta-
tion
@ 1967$
112
122
-------
CO
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: LAGOONS & STABILIZATION BASINS
Source
Food Products
Cannery effluents
Petrochem. waste
Subsurface
Ag. waste
Leather Tanning
& Finishing
Synthetic
Finishing
Cotton Finishing
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
2013 BOD
2033 BOD 8 mgd
2037
2911 BOD 10 mgd
01 Nitrate
3111 BOD
SS
Chromium
2262 BOD
SS
2261 BOD
SS
%
Efficiency
82
90
54.5
70-85
70
80
10-20
50-95
50-95
50-95
50-95
Capital
Cost($)
-
648,000
33/lb.BOD/
day
28/Ib.BOD/
day
135/mill.
gal. waste
5,000-
10,000
1,200-7200
15,000-
45,000
Operating
Cost($)
39$/l,000
Ib. live wt
Anaerobic
lagoon
68,000/yr
0.034/lb.
BOD
.020/Ib
BOD
-
200-
1,300/yr
400-2, 200/
yr
6,000 -
18,000/yr
Remarks Ref
Meat packing 241
waste 1970 $
Aerated lagoon 230
Anaerobic lagoon 242
op. costs includes
amortization of
investment.
Algal growth & 243
95% harvest
Lagoons for a 73
plant processing
700 hides/day
Aerated lagoon for 227
a plant processing
20,000 Ib/day
Aerated lagoon for 227
a plant processing
50,000 Ib/day
-------
CD
CO
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: IAGOONS & STABILIZATION BAb INS
Source
Wool Finishinp
Pulp Mill Effluent
Petro-chemical
Waste
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
2231 BOD
SS
2611 BOD 17 mg
BOD 1 mgd
29 BOD 10 mgd
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
0-85 1,000-3,200
30-70
80-95 665,000
70 Land=2,050
Other=80,019
Operating
Cost($)
Remarks Ref
200-300/yr Lagooning for 227
a plant process-
ing 20,000
16/week
111.20/mg
Waste water
treated
8,324/yr
3.4$/lb
BOD
removed
Aerated lagoon 244
4 mgd from the
mill Td=8 days
Aerated lagoon 245
area =2.05 acres
Anaerobic lagoon 246
BOD 1 mod
BOD
70
Land=8,060 8,475/yr
Other=115,966
BOD
SS
< 50 mg/!
>50 rng/1
>100mg/l
<100mg/l
5.23-21.42/ 0.22-0.67/
capita capita/yr
Anaerobic laooon 245
Aerated lagoons 230
Max.effluent
quality attainable
@ 1968 $ 245
Aerated lagoon
Anaerobic lagoon 238
max. effluent quality
attainable
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
Source
Rinse Water from
Steel Pickling
Coal Mning
Acid Mine Drainage
oo
Pulp & Paper Waste
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: CHEMICAL A
Pollutant % Capital
Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost($)
DDITION
Operating
Cost($)
3312 Fe 1500 opm 99 1,360,000 4.33<:/fin
,i,-1.,|_O/)xl. /
ST6GI /-fy/
M f^ m
12 Iron
oo
77
- OA 9 -
7 O . Z
97 2
/ / t ฃ.
Acidity 99.5
(cold) - 90.0
inn n
1 UU . Vy
26 COD lOmgd 70 .05/1,
PO4= 90 gal
S.S. 40-80
1,000 pal
w.w.
Chemical
costs 0.32/
1,000 gal.
0.35-.059/
1,000 gal.
.268/1,000
gal.
.032/1,000
gal. 0.35-
0.57/1,000
gal. .268/
1,000 gal
000 op. = 5$/
1,000 gal
chem = 6<;/
1,000 gal.
Remarks
Limestone
neutraliza-
tion plus
aeration
Using:
Lime
Limestone
Soda Ash
Lime
Limestone
Soda Ash
300-400 mg/l
of FeCI2 M
Alum coagulant
under 175 psi
Air/water =
.17/1 for foamy
waste water
Ref
247
^k A f^
248
249
i^^T r
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: CHEMICAL ADDITION
Source Code
Leather Tanning & 3111
Finishing
Synthetic Finishing 2261
Textile
Cotton Finishing 2261
Textile
o Wool Finishing 2231
Textile
Municipal Sewage 4952
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
BOD
SS
Chromium
Sulfide
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
P
BOD 350 mgd
COD
PO4
Efficiency
41-70
70-97
50-80
14-50
25-60
30-90
25-60
30-90
40-70
80-95
50-85
70-90
88-95
95-98
(with filtra-
tion)
78
81
95
Capital
Cost ($)
20,000-
160,000
2,400 -
9,600
30,000 -
60,000
6,400-
13,000
22,410,000
6.4<:/6 PO
Operating
Cost($)
3,000-
15,000/yr
1,200-
4,800/yr
20,000 -
40,000/yr
3,200-
6,400/yr
40-70/mg
70-90/mg
3,759,000/
1 ,000901
Remarks Ref
Chem. coagula-
tion & ppt. for 73
a plant process-
ing 700 hides/day
Chemical ppt .for 227
a plant processing
20,000 Ib/day
Chem. ppt. for a 227
plant processing
50,000 Ib/day
Chem. ppt. for a 227
plant processing
CaCI2 20,000/lb
week
Chem. ppt. 236
82
84
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: CHEMICAL ADDITION
Source
Code
Canning and Freezing 2033
Fruits & Vegetables 2037
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
BOD
SS
BOD 7.5 mgd
SS
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
5.97/capita
Operating
Cost($)
18,000/yr
1.30/fonof
raw product
5.2
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: STRIPPING TOWERS
Pollutant % Capital Operating
Source Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost ($) Cost($)
NH3 7. 5 mgd >95 0.9<:/1,000
gal.
NH 10 mgd 320,000 1.0
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (conr.)
TREATMENT METHOD: SEDIMENTATION
CO
Source Code
Blast Furnace & 3312
Cinter Pit
Hot Rolling Mills
Plant Furnace &
Cinter Pit
Hot Roll ing Mills
Cold Mills
Mfg. of Vinyl 28212
Chloride Polymers
Leather Tanning & 3111
Finishing
Wool Finishing 2261
Textile
Cotton Finishing 2261
Textile
Synthetic Finishing 2262
Texti le
Pollutant
Removed Capacity
S.S.
S.S.
S.S.
S.S.
S. S.
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
Chromium
Sulfide
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
BOD
SS
Efficiency
93.8
90.7
98.2
95.4
50.0
98
25-62
69-96
5-30
5-20
30-50
50-65
5-15
15-60
5-15
15-60
Capital
CosK$)
-
:
-
20,000-
40,000
2,900-8,000
14,000-
38,000
1,100-9,000
Operating
Cost($)
-
:
-
1,000-
3,000/yr
500-1,300/
yr
3,000 -
8,000/yr
100- 1,000/
yr
Remarks Ref
Plain sed. 251
Plain sed.
Sed. & coagu-
lation
Sed. & coagulation
Sed. & coagulation
Primary c larifica-235
tion
Range of values for 235
a plant processing
700 hides/day
Range for a plant 227
processing 20,000
Ib/week
Range for a plant 227
processing 50,000
Ib/day
Range for a plant 227
orocessma 20.000/
day
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: SEDIMENTATION
Source
Potato Processing
Wastes
Pollutant
Code Removed
BOD
SS
2037 BOD
SS
Kjeldah!
N
%
Capacity Efficiency
10-30
50-90
10 mgd
41
73
800 gal/day 21
Capital
Cost($)
18.53/capfta
1.8x 106
15
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: FLOTATION
Source
Edible Fat & Oil
Refinery Wastes
Wool Finishing
Textiles
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
20 SS
BOD
2231 BOD
SS
BOD
SS
%
Efficiency
87-92
74-81
30-50
50-65
10-30
70-95
Capital
Cost($)
_
3,500 -
10,000
Operating
Cost($)
656/1 mad
waste flow
600-
1,600/yr
Remarks
Alum, dosage =
100-700 ppm
Oil recovery =
$342/1 gpd
pH=3.5-6.0
Range for a plant
processing 20,000
Ib/week
Ref
121
111
o
Cn
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ELECTRODIALYSIS
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
Operating
Cosซ*> Remarks
Ref
Inorganic 10 mgd
Salts
N
Inorganic
salts
1 mgd-
10 mgd
40
10 mgd 2,500,000
40
30-50
10-40
16
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ACTIVATED CARBON
Source Code
Textile Dye 226
Waste Water
Electroplating waste 3471
Pollutant
Removed
COD
Capacity
1 mgd
Hexauatent
Chromium
Total Chrom-
ium
BOD
SS
Sulfide
BOD
N
10 mgd
1 mgd
1-2 gal/min
per ft'* carbon
% Capital
Efficiency Cost{$)
85 550,000
99
95
50-90 1.6xl06
90
80-99
14.36/
capita
98
90-98
Operating
Cost($)
1,000 gal.
5.00/day for
15 gpm waste
stream
1,000 gal.
2.95/yr/
capita
4-8c?/
1,000 gal
Remarks Ref
Carbon is 252
regenerated
biologically
Waste stream 216
contains 100
ppm of Hexaulent
Cr. method employs
caustic regeneration
@1967$ 122
122
83
129
Electroplating waste 3471 Heavy 15 gpm
Metals
99
5/day Heavy metals = 253
100 ppm
Removal includes
recovery. Employing
caustic regeneration
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: ACTIVATED CARBON
Source
Municipal Sewage
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
4952 350 mgd
SS
BOD
BOD
SS
Efficiency
90
85
<2mg/l
<1 mg/I
Capital
Cost($)
39,439,000
16.7c/gpd
Operating
Cost($)
6,116,000/
yr 95$/
1,000 gal.
4.2^/1,000
gal.
Remarks
@ 1969 $
Projected data
Max. effluent
quality attainable
Ref
84
84
238
>o
00
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cent.)
TREATMENT METHOD: (ON EXCHANGE
Source
Mine Drainage
Municipal Sewage
Municipal Sewage
Pollutant
Code Removed
SS
N
Pฐ4
TDS
N
Organic
Matter
12
4952 NH3
4952 NH
Capacity
3 mgd
3 aal/min/
2 aal/min/
ft5
1 gal/min/
ft5
350 mgd
7.5 mgd
10 mgd
% Capital Operating
Efficiency Cosi($) Cost($)
Remarks Ref
Max. effluent 238
<1 mo/I J5
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: REVERSE OSMOSIS
Source
Metal Finishing
Nickel Plating
Pulp and Paper
Mill Effluent
hO
O
O
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
3471 Cu SO4
3471 Nickel
2611 - 1 mgd
262?
% Capital
Efficiency Cos1($)
99.8
98.9-99.7
90-99 1,000,000
Operating
Cost ($)
_
1.32-2121/
1,000 gal.
of permute
water
Remarks
Using ultrathin
cellulose acetate
membrane
Using porous
cellulose acetate
membrane
Ref
255
256
257
Mine Drainage
TDS
65-95
T2
25-40
-------
MEDIUM: WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: SPRAY IRRIGATION
Source
Cannery ffluent
Code
2033
2037
Pollutant
Removed
BOD
N
P
Capacity
120 acres
%
Efficiency
99
90
90
Capital
Cost
30, 000 and
cost
Operating
Cost
land 40,000/yr
Remarks Ref
100 inches of 230
waste/yr spraying
on slope draining
to lagoons
-------
MEDIUM-. WATER
TABLE 32 (cont.)
TREATMENT METHOD: CHLORINATION
Source
Pollutant
Code Removed Capacity
% Capital
Efficiency Cost($)
Operating
Cost(*) Remarks
Ref
Municipal Sewage 4952
10 rngd
68,000
Secondary
1,000 gal effluent
@ 1967 $
112
-------
TABLE 32 (conr.)
MEDIUM: WATER TREATMENT METHOD: DISPOSA L
Pollutant % Capital Operating
Source Code Removed Capacity Efficiency Cost($) Cost($) Remarks Ref_
2-2.50/ft- 4-18/ft3 Anaerobic
digestion
5-lQ/ton 4-9/ton Incineration
20/ton Wet oxidation
8-32/ton Vacuum filtration
cost increases
with chem. addition
K>
o
CO
-------
SECTION VII
REGULATORY CONTROL STRATEGY
INTRODUCTION
In general, regulatory measures are more likely to create Jntermedial pollution transfer
through inadvertence than by design. Recognition of environmental protection as an
indivisible problem is a relatively recent development. Creation of the Environmental
Protection Agency, the first major Federal agency responsible for comprehensive environ-
mental-control strategy, and passage of the National Environmental Policy Act are
evidence of the new awareness. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize the major
regulatory control legislation strategies, and their intermedial impacts.
For the purpose of this study, strategy may be defined as the art or science applied in
support of national policy to reduce or eliminate intermedial pollution. The nation's
environmental policy Is defined by the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA),335
the Clean Air^ฐ and Clean Water Acts,337 ancj a|| related court decisions. National
environmental policy is established as the result of legal process (legislative and judicial),
but the same legal process also defines the basic strategic elements which are then ad-
ministered by the designated agency (ies) or officials). Regulatory control strategy
implements established policy within a legal framework or system which includes
governmental agencies or entities at the National, State, regional, and local levels as
well as codes, standards, economic strategies, land-use restrictions, and enforcement
procedures.
The courts stand in a pivotal relation between policy and strategy. Although they help
to make both policy and regulatory strategies precise through interpretation of the law,
judicial decisions may also translate policy into strategic applications not envisioned by
the responsible agency. The so-called "Friends of Mammoth, " California, and similar
decisions to require environmental-impact studies for new private construction projects
in the State of California are examples of judicial action with major strategic impact.
204
-------
It is the regulatory agencies, however, which are responsible for developing and
enforcing the strategies which convert legal intent into functional reality. Through
legal action they stimulate technological control. Technological control includes
all physical/process means which implement policy, while regulatory control includes
all legal means which implement technological objectives. The approved automotive
engine illustrates technological control; the requirement for its approval prior to the
manufacture and sale of automobiles illustrates regulatory control. The regulatory
agencies and their functions, however, are not isolated from the society as a whole.
Activities of the courts, concerned individuals, special-interest citizens' groups, and
various institutions, political or otherwise, may support, modify, and influence the
regulatory agencies' perceived or mandated objectives.
Major interfaces between regulatory control activities and intermedia! pollutant transfer
problems may occur as the result of: concurrent imposition of ambient air and water
standards; regulation of permissible composition and quantity of effluents discharged into
the environmental media; environmental-impact study requirements; definition of the
processes, treatments, and land uses permitted or proscribed by the responsible agencies;
and the exercise of intermedia management. Without comprehensive impact-analysis,
however, the net effect of regulatory strategies may include undesirable intermedia!
pollution transfer. The potential effect of implementing the proposed congressional goal
of zero-pollution discharge to the nation's waterways by 1985 illustrates this difficulty.
In his testimony before the House Committee on Public Works, Dr. Joseph T. Ling,
Director of the Environmental Engineering and Pollution Control Department at the
Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, projected the environmental cost-
benefits associated with zero water-pollution discharge (based on drinking water
standards) from one of the company's plants. In order to remove 4,000 tons of water
pollutants, he estimated the company would have to purchase the equipment, concrete,
and steel to construoi-a $25 million waste-removal facility; 9,000 tons of chemicals
including sulphuric acid and caustic carbon; 1,500 kw of electricity; and 19,000 tons of
coal. Based on the use of these materials, he further estimated that the waste-removal
operations would produce about 9,000 tons of chemical sludge, 1,200 tons of fly ash,
1,000 tons of sulphur dioxide, and 200 tons of nitrogen oxide. Including the related
waste yield produced by the original suppliers of the materials, he calculated that the
total environmental impact of removing 4,000 tons of water pollutants would be the
production of some 19,000 tons of solid waste and af r pollutants. Dr. Ling
concluded that "... the zero discharge based on this particular operation would
produce a negative environmental impact."
The accuracy of the preceding analysis is not at issue. Dr. Ling's testimony is intro-
duced to demonstrate the importance of a holistic approach to environmental protection.
Two factors compound the difficulty: environmental impact studies are frequently direct-
ed toward a limited physical area, and regulatory agencies are normally concerned with
only one environmental medium at a time. There is frequently, therefore no obvious
mechanism through which the larger area I intermedia! impacts can be evaluated and
controlled.
205
-------
Zero pollution discharge to the Nation's waterways is a desirable goal, but Dr. Ling's
testimony raises many questions: What effluent standards meet the criterion of zero
discharge? Was the waste-removal plant using the optimum control system? Could the
wastes have been alternately disposed to land or treated in such manner as to minimize
environmental impact? Were alternate processes available in the manufacture of the
original product? If the product cannot be manufactured without environmental
degradation, should its production be permitted and, if so, at what cost to the public
health and welfare? In other words, what are the total environmental and economic
cost-benefits of alternative disposal, treatment, and production processes, and how can
regulatory control optimize the decision-making procedure in the selection of these
processes ?
Another example of the need for comprehensive planning occurred when environmentalists
successfully averted construction of a hydroelectric plant in the Grand Canyon. Accord-
ing to an editorial in the Wall Street Journal (August 1, 1972), the Four Corners power
plant near Farmington, New Mexico, which was substituted to meet the area's power
needs, ". . .uses coal and spews fly ash over the scenic landscape of that area. "
Major recent Federal legislation to enable comprehensive planning, implementation, and
enforcement of anti-pollution controls includes the National Environmental Policy Act
of 1969,335 the Clean Air Amendments of 1970,336 the Federal Water Pollution Control
Amendments of 1972,337 and the Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries Act of
1972.540
206
-------
POLLUTERS AND THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Pollution Sources Figures 20 and 21 schematically illustrate the restrictions and
the options open to waste generators within the general framework of current laws and
regulatory agencies. The figures illustrate the intermedial nature of the problem. The
potential air pollution generator is defined as the institutional source, and is shown
at the bottom of the diagram. The polluter may choose to comply with the air quality
regulations or not. If the polluter complies, then there is the choice of also complying
with the water quality regulations or of violating them with the pollutants removed from
the air. If the polluter chooses violations he may be affected by the entire legal/enforce-
ment framework shown in the upper half of the figure. Information flows from plant
inspection and air monitoring points to the local, State and Federal protection agencies
involved. They in turn have available to them the enforcement mechanisms shown on
the chart. Thus the air polluter can compare the relative costs of each option and choose
the optimal path for him. In the case of non-compliance the costs to the polluter will
be the penalties imposed multiplied by the probability of being cited. This possibility
of undetected non-compliance is an important consideration. The basic options open
to the potential water polluter are essentially the same.
Figure 22 describes the policy and strategy elements as they are used in this report.
Policies are set by legislative processes influenced by judicial processes. Judicial
processes may affect strategy as well as policy through litigation between the control
agencies and the pollution sources. From the policy, strategy elements are derived.
These include: (1) the authority delegation necessary to implement the policy, (2)
ambient standards to quantify the policy, (3) performance standards to achieve the
ambient standards or directly achieve the policy, and (4) the legal, economic, and
educational mechanisms to enforce the policy and strategy elements. These four
elements then make up the regulatory control strategies which affect or control the
technological controls implemented by the pollution sources to physically eliminate the
pollution or to shift it to other media.
The Federal, State and local governments may be involved at both the policy and
strategy levels of pollution control. For air pollution, the State and local role is largely
limited to strategy except that States may choose to implement policies more stringent
than the Federal policy. For water and land the State and local governments play a
much stronger role at the policy level.
207
-------
ff 3 S.
Q P
3 Q.
3
t-
Q
O
00
If
( Federal,
Ambient
Monitorin
ischarge
Standards
Point
1 / Source
Monitoring
L _L
Ambient
Violation
Discharge
Violation
Air Compliance - Air non-Compliance
Institutional
Source
!
1
fl>
Q
-i
5"
CO
i
'
1 i irate
1
i
Emergency
or
Hazardous
Pollutant
1
l
nactio
\
Z co
| ?
m x
\.
n J
{
>
1^1
\^~
/^Amb
i Stan
FIGURE 20
AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL SYSTEM
-------
Health and
to
o
mbient
and
Discharge
Standard
c
o
-f
o'
m
CD
c3
O
><
s *
o'
9-
o
3
O
a.
CD
-n
3'
CD
c?
-n
3
CD
C/1
4
d\
X
1 '
t/1
U
CD
3
toodl
C
r
o
c
n
-o
(D
-t
-*
f
O
I
r
I
L
1
_*
3
CD
i
i
O
CD
M*
1
(
<
!
1
t
ฃ
Emergency
O
D
/ป
D
2
3
2.
t
D
c'
3
O
o'
3
Abatementf
Order 1
O
3 CD
Lง
c
-D
L-
J
V
n
CD
Q
-%
5'
CD
Jr
-n
5*
CD
Am-
bient
MonJtorin
oin
Source
onitoring
CD ->
3 w
* O
I
To City,
County
Sewers
Project
Construction
Institutional
Source
Water
Discharge
Violation
Water
Ambient
iolatio
Modification
Polluting
Processe
Compliance
FIGURE 21
WATER POLLUTION
CONTROL SYSTEM
-------
Federal
Government
State/Local
Govern men t
K>
o
Judicial
Processes
Legislative
Processes
Policy/
Strategy
Legal
Economic
Educational
Enforcement
Ambient
Standards
Implementing
Authority
Performance
Standards
Pollutant
Emissions
Air
Pollutant
Emissions
Water
Technological
Controls
(Physical)
Pollution
Source
Pollutant
Emissions
Land
FIGURE 22
INTERMEDIA POLLUTION CONTROL:
STRATEGY AND POLICY RELATIONSHIPS
-------
ENVIRONMENTAL STANDARDS
Environmental standards to protect human health and safety or ecological systems are
expressed in terms of ambient standards in the receiving air and water, usually in parts
per million (ppm) or micrograms per cubic meter (II g/m3) for air in parts per million
(ppm) or milligrams per liter (mg/l) for water. Where Federal, State, and local
ambient standards conflict, polluters in a given state are regulated to achieve the
stricter standard.
To achieve the ambient standards for any particular area, applicable discharge standards
must be developed. The State of California, for instance, develops an Implementation
Plan in consultation with the local areas in order to achieve the ambient standards.^99
These plans which provide specific regulations on the types of discharges allowed for
the key pollutant sources, may vary for different areas in the State depending upon
local or regional environmental problems. Ambient and discharge standards exist for
both air and water.
The in-plant ambient standard, related to the Occupational Health and Safety Act
(OSHA),343 protects employees but allows the plant to disperse the emissions off the
plant premises. In an area with many plants, this could result in high area ambient
level without any single plant violating the regulations. Present standards, however,
set overall ambient level standards and then derive discharge standards to meet them.
State Air Standards The State of California Air Resources Board has the primary
responsibility for the development and implementation of a State air pollution control
plan to be submitted to the EPA for approval. Its main responsibility is to develop
concrete discharge control plans to achieve a specified ambient standard. It cooperates
with the Air Pollution Control District (APCD) Boards established at the County level
and grouped in Air Basins prescribed by the Board.
Table 33, taken from the State of California Implementation Plan for achieving and
maintaining the National Ambient Air Quality Standards, lists the Federal and California
ambient air standards. 9 The plan uses these standards to derive discharge control
strategies by region within the State. Examples of discharge standards for Los Angeles
County are summarized in Table 34.
211
-------
1*0
TABLE 33
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS299
APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA
Pollutant
Photochemical
Oxidants
(Corrected for NOซ)
Carbon Monoxide
Nitropen Dioxide
Sulfur Dioxide
Averaging
Time
1 hour
12 hours
? Hours
1 hour
Annual Averane
1 hour
Annual Average
24 hours
3 hours
1 hour
California Standards
Concentration
0.10 pprn
(200/Yc/mC)
10 ppm
(11 mci/m )
40 ppm
(46 mc/m )
~
0.25 ppm
(470//c/mC)
-
0.04 ppm
(105 jue/mC)
-
0.5 ppm
Method0
Neutral
Buffered
Kl
Primaryb'9
g
(0.03 ppm)
_
Non- Dispersive
Infrared
Spectroscopy
Saltzrnan
Method
Conducti-
metric
Method
10 mn/m
(9 ppm) c
40 mc/m
(35 ppm)
10Q^e/mC
(0.05 ppm)
-
SO //c/mc
(.03 ppm)
365 jug/m
(0.14 ppm)
ma
Federal Standards
Secondary
Same as
Primary Std .
Same as
Primary
Standards
Same as
Primary
Standard
60 ^o/m
(0.02 ppm)
260 n g/mC
(0.10 ppm)
1300 ^c/mC
(0.5 ppm)
Method6
Chemi luminescent
Method
Non- Dispersive
Infrared
Spectroscopy
Colorimefrlc
Method Usinc
NaOH
Para rosanl line
Method
(1310 /Ug/mC)
-------
TABLE 33
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS299
APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA
Pollutant
Suspended
Part icu fate
Matter
Lead (Particulate)
ro
CO
Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrocarbons
(Corrected for
Methane)
Visibility
Reducing
Particles
Averaging
Time
Annual
Geometric
Mean
24 hours
30 Day
Average
1 hours
3 hours
(6-9 a.m.)
1 observation
California Standards Federal Standards
Concentration9 Method Primary /9 Secondary /9 Method
60 ^g/m 75 ^g/m 60 ^g/m
High Volume High Volume
Samplinq Samplinq
1 00 n o/mC 260 ^ g/mC 1 50 ju g/mฐ
^5 /^S/m High Volume - -
Sampling.
Difhizone
Method
0.03 ppm Cadmium -
(42 fi g/m ) Hydroxide ~
STRactan
Method
160 ^g/m Same as Flame lonizatic
(0.24 ppm) Primary Detection Usi
Standard Gas Chroma-
tography
In sufficient amount to re- , - - -
duce the prevailing visibility
to 10 miles when the relative
humidity is less than 70%
-------
TABLE 33
MR QUA LIT
APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS299
. . California Standards Federal Standards
Averaging ~~
Pollutant Time Concentration9 Method0 Primary '9 Secondary0'9 Method
NOTES:
Any equivalent procedure which can be shown to the satisfaction of the Air Resources Board to oive equivalent results at
or near the level of the air quality standard may ue used.
National Primary Standards: The levels of air quality necessary, with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the public
health. Each state must attain the primary standards no later than three years after that state's implementation plan is
approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
National Secondary Standards: The levels of air quality necessary to protect the public welfare from any known or
anticipated adverse effects of a pollutant. Each state must attain the secondary standards within a "reasonable time"
after implementation plan is approved by the EPA.
Federal standards, other than those based on annual averages or annual geometric means, are not to be exceeded more
than once per year.
eReference method as described by the EPA. An "equivalent method" of measurement may be used but must have a
"consistent relationship to the reference method" to be approved by the EPA.
Prevailing visibility is defined as the Greatest visibility which is attained or surpassed around at least half of the horizon
circle, but not necessarily in continuous sectors.
Concentration expressed first in units in which it was promulgated. Equivalent units given in parentheses are based upon
a reference temperature of 25 C and a reference pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
Corrected for SO2 in addition to
-------
TABLE 34
EXAMPLES OF ADOPTED RULES AND REGULATIONS299
SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN
COUNTY: Los Angeles
Rules and
Regulations
Effective
1-1-71
Changes to
1-7-72
Disposal and
Evaporation
Architectural
Coatings
Sulfur
Sulfur Recovery
Plants
Sulfuric Acid
Plants
Sulfur Compounds
Sulfur Content of
Fuels
Fuel Burning
Equipment
Oxides of Nitrogen
Fuel Burning
Equipment
Carbon Monoxide
Other Regulations
Asphalt Air
Blowing
Reduction of
Animal Matter
Vacuum Producing
Devices or
Systems
Fluorine Compounds
1200ฐ F for at least 0.3
sec.
Limits amount of organic
material emitted.
No
500 ppm S02, 10 ppm
200 Ib/hr S02
500 ppm S02, 200 Ib/hr S02
<225 ppm from combustion
of gaseous fuels.
<325 ppm from combustion
of liquid or solid fuels.
0.2% by volume max.
Extended to include all
equipment.
215
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Water Standards The Water Quality Act of 1965 authorized each State to set
water quality standards subject to EPA approval. In order to help the States set these
standards, the National Technical Advisory Committee on Water Control Criteria was
formed. They provided not standards, but criteria on which standards could be based.
The criteria are given according to use. The five categories are (1) Recreation and
Esthetics; (2) Public Water Supply; (3) Fish, other Aquatic Life and Wildlife; (4)
Agriculture; and (5) Industry. The suggested criteria for category (2), Public Water
Supplies, are shown in Table 35.
While ambient air standards are set at the Federal level, water quality standards are
primarily a State responsibility. The Federal laws are intended to aid achievement of
the State Standards. The EPA, however, retains the authority to veto State plans.
Table 36 illustrates ambient water quality standards for dissolved oxygen in California
waters. The 1969 California Water Quality Act gives the regional boards the authority
to set discharge standards and the power to enforce them.
216
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TABLE 35
FEDERAL SURFACE WATER CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES210
Constituent or
Characteristic
Physical
Color (color units)
Odor
Temperature*
Turbidity
Microbiological:
Col i form organisms
Fecal coli forms
Inorganic chemicals: (mg/l)
Alkalinity
Ammonia
Arsenic*
Barium*
Boron*
Cadmium*
Chloride*
Chromium* hexavalent
Copper*
Dissolved oxygen
Fluoride*
Hardness*
Iron (filterable)
Lead*
Manganese* (filterable)
Nitrates plus nitrites*
l
pH (range)
Phosphorus*
Selenium*
Silver*
Sulfate*
Total dissolved solids*
(filterable residue)
Uranyl ion*
Zinc*
Permissible
Criteria
75
Narrative
do
do
10,000/1 00 ml1
2 ,000/1 00 ml1
Narrative
0.5 (as N)
0.05
1.0
1.0
0.01
250
0.05
1.0
4 (monthly mean)
3 (individual sample)
Narrative
do
0.3
0.05
0.05
1 0 (as N)
6.0-8.5
Narrative
0.01
0.05
250
500
5
5
Desirable
Criteria
10
Virtually absent
Narrative
Virtually absent
100/1 00 ml1
20/1 00 ml1
/mg/l)
Narrative
0.01
Absent
do
do
do
25
Absent
Virtually absent
Near saturation
Narrative
do
Virtually absent
Absent
do
Virtually absent
Narrative
do
Absent
do
50
200
Absent
Virtually absent
Paragraph
1
2
3
4
5
5
6
7
8
8
9
8
8
8
8
10
11
12
8
8
8
13
1C
O
8
8
If
6
17
8
217
-------
TABLE 35
FEDERAL SURFACE WATER CRITERIA FOR PUBLIC WATER SUPPLIES (cont)
Constituent or
Characteristic
Organic chemicals: (mg/l)
Carbon chloroform
extract* (CCE)
Cyanide*
Methylene blue active
substances*
Oil and grease*
Pesticides:
Aldrin*
Chlordane*
DDT*
Dieldrin*
Endrin*
Heptachlor*
Heptachlor epoxide*
LSndane*
Methoxychlor*
Organic phosphates
plus
carbamates*
Toxaphene*
Herbicides:
2,4-D Plus2,4/5-T,
plus 2, 4, 5-TP*
Phenols*
Radioactivity:
Gross beta*
Radium-226*
Strontium-90*
Permissible
Criteria
0.15
0.20
0.5
Virtually absent
0.017
0.003
0.042
0.017
0.001
0.018
0.018
0.056
0.035
f\
O.I2
0.005
0.1
0.001
(pc/D
1,000
3
10
Desirable
Criteria
0.04
Absent
Virtually absent
Absent
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
do
(pc/D
100
1
2
Paragraph
18
8
19
20
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
21
8
21
8
8
8
8
1 Microbiological limits are monthly arithmetic averages based upon an adequate number
of samples. Total coliform limit may be relaxed if fecal coliform concentration does
not exceed the specified limit.
2 As parathion in cholinesterase inhibition. It may be necessary to resort to even lower
concentrations for some compounds or mixtures. See para. 21 .
218
-------
Water Body
TABLE 36
CALIFORNIA DISSOLVED OXYGEN STANDARDS346
Dissolved Oxygen Standard
Freshwater streams and lakes
Estuarine waters
Coastal waters
A minimum of 6 and 7 mg/l with additional
limit of 80-85% saturation for some streams
90% saturation for Lake Tahoe
A minimum of 5 mg/l for most 6 to 7 mg/l
for some bodies
A minimum of 5 mg/l with additional limits
on the annual mean average with ranges of
from 6-7 mg/l.
219
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REGULATORY STRATEGIES
Table 37 lists various mechanisms available to Federal, State, and local authorities
to facilitate or enforce compliance with air, water and land environmental standards
and regulations. The strategies have been classified as legal, economic, and educa-
tional/psychological according to their major impact.
Legal Strategies: Enforcement and Evasion
Even when stringent laws exist, their effect is unclear because of the problem of en-
forcement. The number of inspectors provided and their powers, how often each plant
is sampled, and methods for evading the law, will all influence the laws' effectiveness.
A few methods of evasion are discussed below.
Dilution This can be accomplished in air or in water. In air a common method is
to construct additional stacks and provide more air throughout. Thus the same amount
of pollutants are present in the emissions but in a form below the concentration standard
for the particular pollutant. In water dilution is accomplished by using more process
water. This is prohibited by law, but the restriction is difficult to enforce.
Sporadic Operation of Control Equipment Control equipment may be turned on only
while the inspector is present. In the case of mobile sources, exhaust devices may be
removed after the original inspection.
Night Discharges It is possible for some plants to store their wastes and discharge
them into waterways at night. Where there are many plants on a particular waterway
this technique is very difficult to control.
Fragmentation of Responsibility Many times the responsibility for pollution control
is divided among so many agencies that it is possible for the polluter to escape "between"
the agencies.
Conflict of Interest The law frequently requires industrial and "public" representa-
tion on pollution control boards. These requirements have been used in the past to
influence policy through appointment of advocates of the industries they are supposedly
controlling. An example in California is the organization of the former Water Quality
Control Boards which resulted in passage of a State law preventing Board membership
to any discharge permit holder. Additionally, this law requires approval of recom-
mendations of Regional Boards by the State Water Resources Control Board.
In areas which are heavily dependent on a few key industries, law enforcement may be
lax. Property assessment values may be lowered and sewer charges based on low dis-
charge estimates. Other difficulties in legal enforcement include: the fragmented
nature of both the laws and agencies, resulting in separate consideration of different
media; inability or failure to impose comprehensive industrial/land use planning; and
inadequate funding to carry out plans and programs.
220
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Legal
TABLE 37
REGULATORY STRATEGY CLASSIFICATIONS
Economic Educational/Psychological
Standards
Comprehensive planning
Licensing/permit
requirements
Impact statements
Hearings
Injunction
Data reports
Inspection/monitoring
Cleanup orders
Abatement orders
Suspension and revocation
Civil/criminal penalty-
imprisonment-fines
Citizen's suits
Subsidies - grants
tax write-off
bond issue-
financing
loans
awards
Procurement
Civil Penalty-(fines)
Cleanup charges
Filing fees
Licensing fees
Policy statements
Guidelines
Research development,
training programs
Press releases and published
reports on improved methods
technology, hazards
Promotion
Conferences
Public identification of
violators
Awards, other publicity for
superior performance
221
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Economic Strategies
When neither the primary source of a pollutant nor the major beneficiary of the related
product or service assumes social or economic responsibility for the effect, the real
cost of the pollutant becomes "externalized". In general, manmade environmental
pollution has been an externalized cost, for, whether calculated as environmental de-
gradation, health hazard, agricultural damage, or cleanup cost, the burden has been
largely displaced to an external community.
Present legislation and stricter enforcement of both present and past regulatory restraints
are intended to "internalize" pollution costs. Under the Clean Air Act, for example,
the automotive industry must insure a product which meets specified emission standards.
Given normal business practice, the cost of compliance will be borne initially by the
automotive producer, and ultimately in whole or in part by the consumer. The
cost of potential automotive pollution will then have been internalized within the
related product ion-consumption cycle, and the real cost of that pollution may be said
to equal the monetary cost of its elimination.
Internalizing the cost of pollution, whether generated by industry, a political entity,
or an individual, serves three beneficial purposes: it is a strategy for pollution control
at the source; it permits quantification of socioeconomic cost in monetary terms; and it
encourages a more just distribution of actual cost. The function of economic strategy
is to promote compliance with the government's environmental policy through the
application of punitive or compensatory monetary incentives. The three criteria for
evaluating economic strategy are: cost-effectiveness in reducing pollution bad in the
total environment; equitability of distribution of associated costs; and minimum economic
dislocation.
Punitive
Fines for violating regulatory standards relating to emissions, equipment, or procedures.
222
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Compensatory
Accelerated writeoff of pollution-control capital investment.
Exclusion from property tax of pollution-control fixed assets purchased to meet
regulatory requirements.
Private-sector use of public bonding to finance pollution-control capital expenditure.
Preferential consideration for government contracts based on environmental impact.
Subsidies or grants to enable implementing desirable treatment/control (as in municipal
sewage treatment plants, for example).
Low-interest government loans to help finance purchase of pollution-control equipment.
Special tax consideration or bonus payments for superior pollution-control performance.
Educational/Psychological Strategies
Although economic and legal persuasion exert great leverage on human affairs, man's
conduct is also subject to educational, psychological, and ethical influences. Re-
gulatory agencies can use these influences to further insure compliance with environ-
mental laws and strategies.
Educational techniques include: 1) the dissemination of information concerning im-
proved equipment, materials, and processes for construction, manufacture, consumption,
and pollution control; byproduct and reclamation opportunities; the economic and
technological cost-benefits of pollution prevention/elimination alternatives; and the
effects of pollutants on human health, welfare, and economics; and also 2) the promo-
tion of research, development, and training programs; data/information resources; and
conferences for the purpose of sharing existing knowledge or to provide a forum for new
ideas. Information can be made available through the new media, special television and
film documentaries, governmental reports and publications, special communication with
industrial and waste-treatment management, and the services of university, governmental,
and other public service agencies which are sources of or repositories for current infor-
mation .
Most people live within some sort of ethical framework or boundary which can readily
accommodate an environmental ethic. Certain types of ethical appeal can therefore
serve as psychological deterrents to activity not in the public interest. The power of
such persuasion is most evident in times of emergency such as during World War II
when metal cans were dutifully cleansed, flattened, and saved for collection, or
223
-------
during periods of threatened drought,when water consumption is voluntarily limited
even without rationing.
Citizens may be rewarded for behaviors promoting compliance with the environmental
ethic by publishing the names of environmentally cooperative or outstanding citizens,
groups, factories, or political entities; granting environmental Oscars or scrolls;
developing a governmental Seal of Environmental Approval; designing a flag or other
identification bearing a special anti-pollution logo to honor factories, organizations,
or jurisdictions for extraordinary performance or contribution; installing a plaque
in an ecological Hall of Fame for the greatest anti-pollution contribution of the year .
Equally important/as a psychological dissuader,would be making the identity of major
violators of environmental protection regulations available to the news media.
Economic considerations can reinforce many of the psychological satisfactions/dis-
satisfactions implicit in the preceding strategies. Environmental honors or identification
of products which meet superior standards are an excellent form of advertising, while
identification with poor environmental performance can alienate the consumer.
Integrated Planning
The direct relationship between industrial development, land use, demographic trends,
environmental concerns, health care, and the economy requires an agency with the
motivation and authority to coordinate the related pollution control factors.
Figure 23 illustrates the problem. A production decision is made. This results in: (1)
plant construction; (2) production of the material inputs for the desired production;
(3) the use of labor, raw materials, and capital goods in the process of manufacturing
the final product; and (4) consumption of the final product. All four of these inter-
dependent factors generate pollution, yet they are frequently regulated as almost
entirely independent activities.
Current Federal legislation recognizes the possibility of intermedia I problems, primarily
through EPA and impact statement review, and enables consideration of those problems in the
in the Federal decision-making process. Their effective control, however, would also
seem to require integrated systems management at the local and regional levels, with
emphasis on regional control where feasible.
There is probably no element in regional planning which is totally unrelated to potential
pollution types, quantities, or media. The regional decision-maker should therefore
consider the environmental impacts of all planning elements to evaluate their total
intermedial effect. This type of comprehensive planning could then become a regulatory
strategy for intermedia pollution control.
224
-------
Production
Decision
K>
to
en
Process of
Manufacture
Labor Force
Mobilization
Production
of Material
inputs
Plant,Cap-
ital Goods
Constr.
Observ-
able
Ambient
Damag
FIGURE 23
RELATED ELEMENTS IN
POLLUTION CONTROL
-------
Some local areas are moving In the direction of integrated planning even without
Federal guidelines. Inglewood, California, for example, recently established a total
environmental planning process by integrating under a single director its departments
of planning, redevelopment, building, housing, environmental standards, and human
affairs.34^
The Intermedia Trend
It seems clear that residues disposal tends increasingly toward the land. Control
standards for air and water set either discharge limitations or ambient level tolerances.
In the case of land, however, most standards and requirements influence the handling
of the wastes, but do not limit the amounts disposed. That is, the air and water laws
say what and how much can be discharged to the media. The land laws specify how
and where it is to be handled. Thus, the California Administrative code, title 23,
lists Class I, II, and III disposal sites depending upon the safeguards required for the
disposal. These safeguards, summarized in Table 38, mainly pertain to the preven-
tion of landfill intermedia transfers to the air or water. While there has been discussion
on the reduction of solid wastes generated by society, and the reclycling of the wastes
that are generated, progress is limited. The Federal Solid Waste Disposal Act (Public
Law 89-272) states as its primary purpose: "(1) To initiate and accelerate a national
research and development program for new and improved methods of proper and economic
solid-waste disposal, including studies directed toward the conservation of natural
resources by reducing the amount of waste and unsalvageable materials and by recovery
and utilization of potential resources in solid wastes and (2) to provide technical and
financial assistance, to State and local governments and interstate agencies in planning,
development, and conduct of solid-waste disposal programs. " This act was mainly an
authorization for research. The maximum appropriations authorized for 1969 were $20
million for the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare and $12.5 million for
the Department of the Interior.
Although scattered local attempts have been made, no comprehensive effective program
has been instituted to reduce or recycle solid wastes. Some local areas have set up
incentives for the production of returnable vs. non-returnable bottles, and various in-
dependent recycling centers have been created, but these are isolated cases. Industries
(plastics, glass, metal container, etc.) responsible for large amounts of solid waste have
resisted, and it seems successfully, any infringement upon their ability to treat land as
a free "infinite sink. "
Since air and water controls are more stringent than those on land, the residues resulting
from thes^ controls are frequently deposited on the land. This is not always the case,
however. In Los Angeles, most industrial wastes are discharged to the sewer system.
The treated water, from the 420 mgd hyperion treatment plant, is discharged to the ocean
five miles offshore and the sludge generated is discharged seven miles offshore.3 The
City is under an order, however, from the State of California and the EPA to find an
alternate disposal method. This problem is further discussed in Section IX, the Regional
Case Study.
226
-------
Class
TABLE 38
CALIFORNIA LANDFILL SITE STANDARDS302
Land Criteria
Materials Allowed
Sites located on formations through
which no appreciable seepage to usable
waters can occur, or underlain by iso-
lated bodies of unusable groundwater
and which are protected from surface
runoff and where surface drainage can
be restricted to the site or discharged
safely.
Sites underlain by usable groundwater
where the minimum elevation of the
dump can be maintained above the
record and/or anticipated high ground-
water elevation or where sufficient
protection can be provided to prevent
significant amounts of usable ground-
water from flowing through the waste
material deposited, and where surface
drainage can be restricted to the site
or discharged to a suitable waste way.
Sites located so as to afford little or
no protection to usable waters of the
State.
No limitations.
Limited to ordinary household and
commercial refuse, garbage, other
decomposable organic refuse, scrap
metal and material described under
Class III sites.
Limited to inert solid materials and
such other solids or liquids as may
be listed in State Water Resources
Control Board requirements for the
specific site.
227
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SECTION VIII
THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
INTRODUCTION
The development of a model which aids the evaluation and analysis of intermedia
pollution problems is a very complex task. Many factors are involved and the problem
of incomplete and missing information is a serious handicap.
A Materials' Balance Approach
Kneese, Ayres gnd d'Arge have presented a very comprehensive theoretical analysis of
pollution problems and the economic system using a materials' balance approach.^9
This approach requires a complete accounting of all physical flows in the economy.
The authors use the following array of variables:
Arra\
Dimensions
r
V
x
P
y
(MX
(Mx
(NX
(NX
(Nx
i)
i)
D
i)
i)
.th
Description
Resources and services (physical)
Resource and service prices
Products or commodities (physical)
Product or commodity prices
Final demands (physical)
N
The j resource r. is allocated among the N sectors so that r: = ฃ afk^r / j = 1 2 - - M.
K I
The total allocation of resources among activities in the economy can then be represented
in matrix form in the following manner:
1
",,---"IN!
ฐ21 ฐ22-a2N
'M
'Ml
MN
0)
A similar set of equations describes the relations between commodity production and final
demand:
*i
11
IN
X
Ni
Y
(2)
-1
Where j_A ! is given by: [_A_ = jj - CJ
and where T is the unit diagonal matrix and the elements C-, of the matrix C ore
are essentially the well-known Leontief input coefficients.
228
-------
The authors then combine (1) and (2):
rM
--- IM
Nl
IN
MN
Y
Y
N
1N
MN
and the equilibrium price vector, p:
PM>
Y
N
(3)
- - v '
r '
i
i
GM1- -
IIN
i
i
GMN
.-cfflgii-'a1
(4)
To complete the model in a materials balance form it was necessary for the authors to
close the system so that there would no net gain or loss of physical substances. To do
this, two additional sectors, Xg , the environmental sector,and Xf ,the final consumpt
sector,were introduced. This modification is shown in detail in their paper. The
equations relating material flows were then expressed and these flows to and from the fi
sector balanced:
N
y^ c \/
kf -*f
k=i
Sum of all
final goods
where:
N
k=l
fk
(5)
Sum of all Waste residuals plus
materials recycled stock and capital accumulation
N
Is the sum of all final demands.
Materials flows into and out of the intermediate product sector must also balance.
X.f =
1=1
L N
Z) *-
M N
Y
N N
t- A-u Y, =
f| lk k i
N
- (6)
All production Final Recycled
not including demand products
Residues to
environment
services
229
-------
The coefficient 7 represents the proportion of recycled materials from the final sector,
f, which augments material resources in the intermediate products sector. Total residue
flows to the environment can then be represented as residue flows from final consumption
(from equation 5) and from intermediate products (from equation 6):
A final mass balance relationship is then developed which states "materials flows from
the environment less continuously recycled products equals residual flows from the
intermediate products sector plus residual flows resulting from final consumption." 329
authors then apply this framework to the inclusion of externalities (such as environmental
and social costs) not reflected in the supply functions of the Walras-Cassel system.
Several alternative methods of incorporating these social costs into the market structure
to derive a Pareto optimum are then discussed. ^ The authors present a very enlight-
ening discussion of the shortcomings of economic theory and of methods for evaluating
intermedia problems. However, current information constraints make it Impossible to
apply this method in its entirety to intermedia problems in the near future. The authors
recommend future research on the variables in their model and recognize that work for
the immediate future will have to proceed with more modest data requirements. Four
areas of difficulty are encountered in applying this model as developed. First, complete
information is not now available for all material flows in the economy; only dollar flows
are available on a comprehensive basis. Second, consumer utility functions are not well
known; the slope and position of these utility functions must be determined since the
solution to environmental problems involves changing costs and prices. Third, a system
in equilibrium is assumed which is almost never encountered, since the role of
unemployment is ignored. Finally, changes in the technological coefficients (ajj and
A|j in the model)and capital investment are an inherent part of this intermedia study.
This means the factor demand curves for industries must also be known.
To overcome these difficulties this section will present a model organized along slightly
different lines which is cognizant of the restrictions placed on analysis by information
constraints.
The Water, Air and Residues Model (WARM)
Input-output tables relating known flaws in dollars between productive sectors and for
final consumption will be used along with currently available information for the
identified major pollutants. Because of the lack of available information, the model
will be environmentally "open" as opposed to the "closed" materials balances model
presented above. The data will then be evaluated on an incremental basis by forecasting
the change in material flows and pollutant residues which are created by different
pollution control programs. Complete information concerning material flow patterns
will not then be needed. Constraints on material supplies will keep the model within
reasonable bounds. The shifts in the composition of the output of the economies caused
by cost changes and their impact on demand will not be quantitatively evaluated in
WARM. A desired output composition will be assumed for the economy and alternative
230
-------
methods for achieving this output, subject to constraints on pollutant emissions, will
be evaluated generally in terms of costs and pollutants although these variables can be
inputs to the model to obtain other outputs.
The analytical approach must consider all sectors of the economy that have a significant
impact upon environmental quality. The two digit level of the Standard Industrial
Classification (SIC) codes will be used except for the analysis of certain highly
significant sectors on a four digit SIC code basis.
At the core of the mathematical model is a matrix expressing production and pollution
control interactions, using a fixed final demand. The latter is determined by forces
outside the model. The model can estimate the effects of discharge controls on
production and prices, the intermedia effects of different control processes, and total
costs for strategy implementation.
Where pollutants are products of final consumption (which has no sector designation),
output from the most closely related retail sector must be used to incorporate the
pollutant output into the model. An example is the sale of gasoline rather than auto-
mobile-miles as a measure of pollutants from gasoline consumption. Recycling of waste
materials can be accounted for by modifying the inter industry trading patterns which
form the input-output portion of the model.
The model constraints on pollutant discharges will be derived from the ambient standards
for the environment set by the Environmental Protection Agency, or local/State govern-
ments. In order to derive the discharge constraints from the ambient standards, a basic
understanding of the dynamic response of the environment is needed. There are many
different approaches and levels of sophistication from which to approach this problem.
They will be briefly discussed in the section on Ambient Levels and Discharge Rates.
For the present, it will be assumed that limitations on discharges expressed by time place,
and pollutant can be derived from the established ambient standards, independently of
WARM,and used as the models' constraints.
Either a linear programming (optimization) or a simulation approach could be used in
solving this model. Considering the emission or discharge standards as model constraints,
the other objectives such as control cost, manpower, etc. must be mathematically
expressible and related to use the linear programming approach. If these objectives
cannot be so expressed or quantified, a simulation or trial and error approach can be
used to determine the optimum result. The linear programming approach would
internally arrive at the best possible solution state given the constraints and the
objectives used. Since the regional data available do not permit a meaningful mathe-
matical expression of these objectives, the simulation approach will be used for this
regional study. In this approach alternative solutions would be chosen outside the
model, which will then predict the effect of these solutions on industrial production,
pollutant discharges, prices, etc.
231
-------
To make the model more flexible the pollution control processes will be included in the
productive activity portion of it, rather than expressing them as separate activities.
This will be explained further in the section "Pollution Control and the Productive
Activities."
Due to the localized characteristics of ambient air and water basins, and of the economy,
and the pollution control administrative functions, the mathematical model will be
developed as a regional model. The structure will permit generalizing for use on a
national level, but the result may be so generalized as not to be relevant to any
particular area.
232
-------
MATHEMATICAL MODEL REPRESENTATION
Input- Output Data
The first step will be to start with the data in the National input-output (I/O) tables
which are available,updated to 1966 from 1963. 296 The following expressions define
the basic elements of the model. Expressions in parentheses indicate vector dimensions.
C (1 x m) = value added by production vector in 1966 I/O tables
= 1966 I/O table coefficients
The next step is to modify these data based on knowledge of the special conditions in the
region to be studied.
A_. = A + modifications
C = C + modifications
Now, the regional output vector must be calculated where no available information
exists. The regional labor productivity will be assumed equal to the national labor
productivity for each industrial sector.
If contrary information exists,a constant,D, will be used to convert the ratios.
Since:
Then:
Where:
X.
L.
X.
X.
N _
x:
L.N
L.
N
D X.
L.
N
N
N
D X. L
i i
L.
N
Production in dollars of sector (i) for the region
National production'in dollars for sector (i)
Labor expended in sector (I) nationally
Labor expended in sector (i) in the region
National data
233
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Labor is expressed as the number of full-time employee equivalents employed in this
sector. The next step is to calculate the inputs required by industry to produce the
output calculated above.
N
R. = ฃ X.a.. i = 1,2, --- ,M
Where: R. = Regional inputs required for production in sector (i).
a.. = Regional I/O matrix coefficients.
Now, the net output (production less required inputs) can be calculated:
b. ~~ X. ~ K. _ i o ii
i i 11 = 1,2, --- ,M
Where: b. = Net production over needs in region.
Also: b.1 = Y. + W.
i i i
Where: Y. = Final demand in region for sector (i).
W. = Net trade (exports-imports) for good (i)
Available inpuf-output data are on a National level. These data must be modified by
local conditions, local output, and interregional trading patterns. Physical output is
obtainable on a regional level since the number of employees by SIC sector is available
and can be used as an index to production. The resulting figures represent the gross
output from each sector in the region. In order to estimate final deliveries available
for consumption, it is necessary to estimate the part of gross outputs that is used in the
production processes. This amount must be subtracted from gross output to derive final
deliveries available for consumption. It should be understood that this amount
available for consumption then includes interregional trade and final demand. In order
to separate regional consumption from interregional trade, independent data must be
gathered for these two components. All areas outside of the region will then be treated
in the same manner as are imports and exports in the National economy.
Appendix Tables I and II are examples of the kind of input-output information needed for
analysis by the mathematical model. Table I describes expenditures, at the two-digit
SIC Code level updated to the year 1971 . Table II describes the production units and
quantities for the same industries also updated to 1 971 .
234
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Consideration of Pollution and Control Strategy Data
Based on research during this project, the following information will be provided:
Matrix Dimension Description
A12 [M! x (N-Mlj)] Alternative activity matrix.
A ( j\A y An J
m \'v'o " '"'i /
Z 1 2 1
A [M x (N-M.)l
eijL ฃ. \
A01 (M x M.)
0 1 O 1
A32 [M3 x (N-MI)]
A4] M4 x M])
A.0 [M x (N-M.)l
4/ 4 1
A (M_ x M.)
oi 51
A [M x (N-M.)]
Oi O I -1
Supply constraint coeffecients
of critical materials and labor.
Pollutant output matrix
for activities.
Pollutant output matrix for
special area problems
Pollutant output matrix for
special time peaks.
2
b (M. x 1) Constraints on supply of materials and labor
3
b [(M x 1)J Constraints on total pollutant output.
4
b (M. x 1) Special area constraints.
b (M x 1) Special time constraints.
+j
2
C Pi x (N-M )] Alternative process cost vector.
N = Number of columns (activities) in the matrix.
M = Number of rows (coefficients of production and pollution) in the matrix.
Model Solution Process
Linear Proarammino Approach This approach assumes the capability to develop a
meaningful objective function. 11" also assumes sufficient confidence in the constra.nt
and matrix coefficients to find the optimum solution mathematically.
235
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11 2 /
Solve: Minimum Z = C X + C X
An
A12
I
A21
A3!
A4,
A5,
A22
A32
A42
A52
1
X
x2
^
-
-
*
-
1
b
2
b
3
b
b4
b5
(M x N) (Nx 1) (m x 1)
Where: M = M + M + M + M. : M
I A. o 4 j
X is of dimension (M.. x 1)
2
X is of dimension [(N-M) x Tj
In order fo solve a system of inequalities, slack variables must be used to convert to
equalities. The final equation system then becomes:
11 22
X Min Z = C X +C X
Subject to: .
ni
An
A21
A12 -$
2
i 3
A A +s
A31 *32 b
A41
A51
A.n +S4
42
C
A52 +S
1
X
2
X
1
b'
2
b
o
b
b4
c;
b5
x (N + M)]
1234 5
Where: S , S , S , S , and S are slack variable matrices with a total of M columns.
This approach assumes the capability to develop a meaningful objective function. It also
assumes sufficient confidence in the constraint and matrix coefficients to find the optimum
solution mathematically.
236
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Simulation Approach If the data will not yield a meaningful objective function, or
if significant non-quantifiable parameters are involved, a trial and error approach may
be the best. This approach presents an array of solutions from which a choice can be
made based on considerations other than just those quantified in the model.
The first step is to select a set of vectors from the model (implying a choice of pollution
control strategies). This choice would involve only the first M equations and would involve
MI activities. If B is a subset of A , A of dimension (M, x M.) then
A -1 1 ' ' ill/: II
X = B^ b yields the total output by sector. This result would then be multiplied
through the rest of the matrix in order to forecast the effect on supplies required and on
pollution produced by all included sectors.
2 A
b = B2] X
3 A
b3 = B3] X
4 A
b = B4, X
5 A
b - B5, X
It should be pointed out that there is no guarantee with this method that the solution
will be feasible. That is, negative production and excessive pollution are not precluded.
The analysis must proceed in a trial and error fashion to find feasible solutions. Only
the linear programming approach forces the model to stay feasible at all times.
Information Needed on Control Alternatives
Technical Information The following information will be necessary to develop
properly the technical coefficients in the model'.
(1) Pollutant removal efficiencies by process and industry and the effects of treat-
ment combinations.
(2) Residues or alternative pollutants created by the control processes - i.e. intermedia
effects.
(3) State of discharges before treatment.
(4) Materials consumed in the control processes.
237
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(5) Effects of controls on industrial production, efficiencies, and trading patterns.
(6) Residue recycling possibilities.
(7) Supply constraints on critical materials.
(8) Pollution created by consumption of the products.
(9) Pollutant sources in critical geographical areas within the region.
(10) Pollutant sources which cause problems at particular times of the day and the
locations and times of these problems within the region.
The United States Department of the Interior has published in Geological Survev
Circular 645 a proposed matrix approach for Environmental Impact Statements.
This matrix details all the types of activities involved in a new project and their impact
on the region's environment. This information, if required, would be a big aid to
environmental planning and would provide much needed information for WARM. Still,
the matrix could be more comprehensive. A list of the materials required for construc-
tion and for yearly operation even if to be provided from outside the region would be
important. This would provide more information to national planners on physical
intersectoral input-output relationships and also on relationships between regions.
Unless this is included, the Environmental Impact Statements will not be complete.
Cost Information The following cost information will be necessary for the
controls included in the model.
(1) Capital investment required.
(2) Estimate of period of investment or life of facilities.
(3) The applicable interest rate.
(4) Operating costs.
(5) Capital and operating costs for residue disposal. These include costs of
a) Vehicles necessary
b) Labor for hauling
c) Dumping
d) Recycling, if any
(6) Sale value of the residue or recycled products.
Cost Derivation Formula The costs below will not include the cost of materials
represented in the vector as coming from other sectors, since costs from external sectors
are included in the originating sector.271
Given:
Capital Investment Required I
Life of Investment n
Interest Rate i
Operating Cost V
Value of Residues S
238
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The capital recovery factor,
-JHS-rf-
Q
Where PV is the present value of an annuity (a) for n years at interest rate i, R |s
the cost of the capital mvestment and the year-end payment per $1 invested that will
recover the cost of the project in n years at interest rate, i.
The total cost T. = R1 | + V - S (3)
I n i j j V '
Sample Values for R1
n
10
20
30
40
i = 5%
0.12950
0.08024
0.06505
0.05828
i = 8%
0. 14903
0.10185
0.08883
0.08386
i = 10%
0.16275
0.11746
0.10608
0.10226
The new cost of an alternative activity vector is C. + k. Where values are given for:
C. = Value added in I/O table.
I. = Calculated additional cost of this control process.
k-1 = Number of activities occurring in the matrix between the
original activity and the alternative.
C. ., = C. + T. for j = 1, 2,---,N (4)
I K I I
Ambient Levels and Discharge Rates
The determination of ambient pollution levels from discharge rates can be approached
in several ways. Zimmer and Larsen, in an Article in the Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association.presented one approach. They accounted for peaks in ambient
levels by using varying lengths of time over which concentrations were averaged. The
shorter the time period the more accurate were the averages with respect to peaks.
They made one simplifying assumption. They assumed that ambient air levels would
respond to changes in discharge rates in a direct 1:1 ratio. That is, a reduction of K
percent in discharges would reduce ambient levels by K percent. In many cases/this
relationship is tenuous at best. For example, in the case of chlorinated hydrocarbons
such as DDT, the intermedia transfer from air to water or land will remain long after the
use of DDT is halted.
239
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Russell and Spofford have discussed the use of non-linear ambient "transfer functions"
expressed for particular areas as useful guides to the relationship between discharges
and ambient levels. The relationships are very complicated and difficult to quantify
using the type of data that is available.
The approach to be used in this report has not yet been finalized, however, some basic
formulations have been made.
At the regional level, it is not sufficient to look at gross pollutant discharges as the
sole parameter. Factory hours and physical distributions, time peaks, and small area
pollutant concentrations cannot be ignored. Since only a few of these problems still
exist, it is not necessary to use time and area grids covering the entire region. These
would unduly increase the size of the matrix to no great benefit. Instead, certain time
periods in selected areas will be evaluated in addition to gross regional discharges. The
selected areas will be those areas where maximum pollutant peaks occur consistently.
The mathematics for doing this were presented in the section in this chapter entitled
"Mathematical Model Representation .'"With regard to ambient levels, a linear relation-
ship will tentatively be used and modified in certain instances.
Pollution Control and the Productive Activities
Leontief had suggested that his input/output analysis could be used as a guide to
pollution problems by augmenting his input/output matrix with pollution control vectors as
separate economic activities. This would raise certain practical and theoretical
problems.
To use Leontief's approach, at least one row for each pollutant must be added to the
model. A pollution control sector must then be created for each pollutant. Leontief's
augmented matrix in partitioned form is presented below.
1 - A,,, -A|2
_A21 "J-'**22
^x1
x2
Y1
Y2
Where:
1~A . - The production input/output matrix.
12
A
A
X
22
1
The products used by the control processes.
Pollutants produced per unit of product produced by I-A.. 1.
Pollutants eliminated (or produced) by the control processes.
Product output vector.
Pollutant elimination vector.
Production for final consumption.
Y
Final demand for pollutant elimination.
240
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If this sytem is solved, a strategy is input and estimated costs and prices emanating
from an initial demand for the elimination of pollutants is derived. This approach
entails serious problems as discussed below.
Size
At first glance, only one control activity is necessary per pollutant in the matrix plus
one row added per pollutant to be controlled. However, the control strategies and
costs vary by industry. Each process may affect a combination of pollutants. Its
efficiency may also depend upon previous treatment methods employed. A realistic
approach wo uld require many different control sectors categorized by industry and
would result in a phenomenal increasee in matrix size.
Non- Linear? ties
The pollution control relationships are not linear; for example, if a plant puts in an
electrostatic precipitator and removes 70 percent of the particulates from its emissions,
then doubling the level of control cannot double the amount of particulates removed.
Therefore, constraints on the ratio between the productive activity and the control
activity are necessary. This type constraint cannot be directly expressed in an input/
output matrix problem.
Conclusion
Because of the problems outlined above, pollution controls are treated in this study as
part of the individual productive processes. In this way, the problems noted above can
be resolved. In order to do this, the effects of a control strategy for a particular industry
on the input/output vector can be determined. The modified vector is then entered as
an alternative vector in the matrix. A different alternative vector for each strategy
to be considered is required. Evey possible strategy will not be evaluated. Only the
ones considered promising will be incorporated into the model.
The Model Aggregational Level
Aggregation Process Since most of the model data will be presented on a two-
digit SIC code level, the aggregation process must be specified. Much of the data is
on a per-unit basis such as pounds of pollutant per ton of product. These data are for
specific industries, not the SIC level used in the model. Since ratios cannot be added,
the first step is to convert these ratios to total pollutants produced by sector by multiplying
by the amounts of products produced. These figures can then be added in order to
aggregate them into the model SIC categories. The total pollutant SIC sector will then
be divided by the dollar output for that sector to calculate pollutant per dollar output.
This will be done for all sectors and all pollutants.
241
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The equations are presented below.
- Piik Qiik
k=l l|k '|k i=l,2, ---,M
aij bi ! = 1,2, ---,N
Where: a.. = Pollutant (i) per dollar output in model SIC sector (i).
P.. i - Pollutant (i) per unit of output of product (k) in model SIC sector (j)
i|k
Q.i = Production of product (k) in model SIC sector (j).
lk
b. = Dollar output in model SIC sector (i),
Developing the Aggregational Level There are many two-digit sectors which do not
contribute significantly to the pollution problem and which can be aggregated into one
single sector. On the other hand, sectors like SIC 28 which contain several very
significant pollution sources are only poorly analyzed on a two-digit SIC level. Sector
28, for example, contains 2812 alkalies and chlorine, 2871-74 fertilizer production,
2845 carbon black production, and 2899 charcoal manufacture, all distinctly different
and very significant sources of pollutant. The model will provide better information
with no increase in matrix size by grouping two-digit sectors which individually
contribute insignificant ambients of pollution, and using a three or four-digit SIC level
for certain highly significant sectors (like sector 28).
242
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SECTION IX
REGIONAL STUDY
-GENERAL-CONS IDE RATIO K|S
The purpose of the regional study Is to aPPly,on a smaller and more manageable scale,
the principles and ideas which have been generated by the study as a whole. The
policies and strategies for control vary greatly from state to state and from locality
to locality. This has allowed "shopping around" for areas of less stringent standards
when choosing a plant location. These variable standards also make it impossible to
generalize about the desirability of transferring a given pollutant from one medium to
another. In one area, conditions might be such that to remove a pollutant from the air
and place it in the water might be the best possible choice, while in another area that
same pollutant might better be left in the air. Such choices can only be made on a
regional basis. If national standards were to be adopted, the present conditions in
different areas would require different strategies to maintain the standards, and within
a given region, the costs versus the effects of intermedia transfer may be different from those
in another region. It might be that the cost of transferring a pollutant is too high to
justify, or the transfer might be of insufficient benefit to justify the cost. This is the
purpose of the regional study; it shows how these determinations might be made and which
considerations go into making them.
Criteria for Selection of the Region
When selecting the region to be used for this study, variety and availability of informa-
tion were the key criteria. A region was sought having a variety of activities and
environments. For example, the region should have several types of water; ocean water,
fresh surface water, and ground water, for each has different pollution problems. Ground
water has the possibility of contamination due to leaching from landfills or from sea
water intrusion, ocean water and fresh water react differently to various pollutants
because OF their differing salt content. The industrial activities of the region should
include a variety of processes and products in order that as many kinds of pollutants
and control methods are represented as possible. The region should have an urban pop-
ulation^ most pollution sources are associated with urban areas,but it should include
rural and agricultural areas to be representative. The region should be easily defined
geographically, with natural boundaries such as mountains or the ocean, rather than
political boundaries. This insures that pollution created within the region will largely
remain there and that the pollution found within the region was mostly created there.
Description of the Region
With these controlling criteria, the Los Angeles Metropolitan Area was selected as the
region for study. This region includes Ventura and Orange Counties in their entirety
and portions of Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and Riverside Counties. It is bounded on
the north and east by the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, San Gorgonio, San Jacinto,
and Santa Ynez Mountains and on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean and the
San Diego County line. This region coincides almost exactly with the South Coast A,r
Basin of the California Air Resources Board (disregarding the Santa Barbara County
Port5on)299 and the combined Los Angeles and Santa Ana Regional Boards of the State
243
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jj AO O f\ A
Water Quality Control Board. ' These Regional Boards include the Santa Clara,
Los Angeles and Santa Ana River Basins. These rivers all have their sources in the
mountains in the northern and eastern portion of the region and flow to the ocean. The
criteria for the study region are thus met, as there are three types of water, all sus-
ceptible to pollution; a wide range of industries to provide the variety of air, land and
water pollutants and controls; a large urban population with a surrounding suburban
population; and a very significant agricultural area in San Bernardino, Riverside, and
Orange Counties. The region is largely isolated by mountains and the ocean to minimize
the transfer of pollutants across its boundaries.
The Los Angeles Metropolitan Region is located on a coastal plain and in contiguous
valleys and extends inward from the coast for fifty to seventy-five miles. Nearly ten
million people, almost half the population of the state, live in the region.2"^ This
population is not evenly distributed within the region. In the included portion of
Los Angeles County there are 2500 people per square mile, while in the Riverside County
portion the population density is 173 people per square mile.2'' This does not represent
the extremes in population density, for downtown Los Angeles has nearly 16,000 people
per square mile^OO while in some of the mountain and wilderness areas the density
drops nearly to zero. The region includes about 64,000 square miles or 6 percent of
the total land area of the state."
History of the Region, Pre-World War II
The Los Angeles Metropolitan Area of today bears little resemblance to its appearance
in the late 1930's. At that time the region was mainly agricultural, with citrus pre-
dominant and a scattering of walnut orchards. The major non-agricultural industries
were tourism, the motion pictures and aviation. It did not have the large urban
population and the complex of interlocked communities of today,but instead there were
many small agricultural towns connected by small highways to the larger cities. The
railroad was the major method of transportation and electric trains connected the
individual towns. Each city had its own sewage treatment facility and the pollution
problems were quite different from those of today. There were no complex pesticides in
use, but the farmers did use boron and arsenic to control pests. Boron found its way
into the ground waters and caused the loss of citrus trees. The effluent from treatment
plants was discharged to dry streams and river beds where, through percolation, it
contaminated the ground water. Historically, the cities within the region which had
their own wells and sewage systems were able to remain independent while those lacking
these basic facilities were often forced to join with cities having them (Los Angeles in
particular).3' ' At this time some regional sewage treatment was being done by the Los
Angeles County Sanitation Districts, but this was only for unincorporated areas rather
than for the various cities. The Metropolitan Water District was formed by the City of
Los Angeles and other communities to import Colorado River water and more recently
(1972) from Northern California.
244
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Even though the region is semi-arid, flooding is a significant hazard during rainy
periods. The Flood Control District was founded in order to deal with this problem.
In the early years, the District merely kept people from the flood plains. In later '
years, flood control dams, basins and channels were constructed to collect flood
waters, channel them through the region, and still later to utilize the drainage for
ground water recharging.
All types of industry were encouraged to locate in the region. As these industries came
in, they centered in county areas because regulations were less strict than in many cities.
There was increased need for improved roads and new sewage treatment plants; there
were more jobs for more people resulting in more money and more growth for the region.
On the whole, industrial wealth was of more concern than plant effluent quality and
most monitoring of effluent was for detection of health hazards such as bacteria or
toxic wastes and their effect on receiving waters. The sewage sludge from various plants
was reclaimed and used for soil conditioner or fertilizer in the extensive local agricultural
areas.
During this time air pollution was a minor problem. Open burning was allowed in
dumps, and stationary sources, not automobiles,were the largest emitters.^0' The
smudge pots used in the citrus orchards as protection against frost were a major source.
About the onjy air pollution problem which people were concerned with was a decrease
in visibility/01
History of the Region - Post World War II
After World War II the situation in the region changed rapidly with a marked population
increase and industrial expansion. Chemicals (insecticides and plastics) and paper were
among the first industries to join the postwar boom in the region. As the population
increased, freeways replaced the electric railroad for public transportation and airplanes
and trucks replaced the railroad for transportation of goods and merchandise. Houses
replaced agricultural areas and beaches became highly developed.
As population increased and the region became more industrialized, more water was
required since industry demands more water than do agriculture and domestic use. As
the demand increased, more water importation became necessary. The region has
undertaken three of these projects, one from the Colorado River and two from the
Sierra Nevada mountains. With this imported water the local cities were able to
oi I
expand even more.
Environmental control has evolved from a strictly local concern to a regional need. The
pattern of every city having its own sewage treatment plant has given way to a pattern
of fewer, larger regional plants, especially in Los Angeles County. The setting of
standards and the control of emissions is now on a regional basis. Previously water
quality standards were set by the health department; now they are set by the State Wa
Resources Control Board through the two Regional Wafer Quahty Control Boards m the
area. A similar situation exists for air. The various Air Pollution Control Districts,
245
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which are sub-regional bodies,have been responsible for air quality within the region.
The Air Resources Board, a State agency, now has control and administers the entire
region as a unit.^99 All local,Gty and County agencies now operate through these
regional boards to the State level,while the Federal controls are administered through
the States, making It the major enforcer of environmental protection laws. The State
Legislature conducts hearings on environmental problems,and both the Attorney General
and the Grand Jury have the right and power to conduct investigations.
In the last five years there has been a change in priorities by the general public and
now there is more concern expressed for the environment and less emphasis shown on
growth. Most communities seem to prefer light industries requiring limited water use to
heavy industry employing wet processes. The desire apparently is to minimize the
environmental impact of industry on the community. The emphasis on public health
through environmental protection Is superseding that on industrial and individual safety.
More and more frequently people are questioning if the damage caused by "progress" is
worth the gain. Beginning In 1972 a policy was initiated which calls for an environ-
mental impact statement to be written before any new construction can be started.300
The protection of the environment has become an important political issue and a number
of organizations are actively involved in lobbying for environmental legislation. These
organizations include such groups as the Sierra Club, Friends of the Santa Monica
Mountains'Parks, and other professional, civic and special interest groups. The trend
in legislation is toward more public control. The situation has gone from one of no
control to control by the pollution sources, and now is progressing toward one of public
control.
New legislation has meant stronger laws, higher standards and greater enforcements.
A polluter may now be liable for up to $6,000 per day in fines. Discharge standards
have been strengthened or created for such things as heavy metals and toxic materials
and monitoring has become more extensive. A potential water pollution source is now
required to submit a report of discharge. If this discharge is made directly to receiving
waters, the discharge must meet state standards; 302,303 if fhe discharge is to a sewer
system the standards for the discharger are lower but he must usually pay in proportion
to the amount of various pollutants in the discharge.304 Industrial discharges previously
were at least partially obscured by emptying into municipal systems, but new legislation
has made this more difficult by requiring the industries to have a permit, often for each
connection. To obtain these permits, Industries must report the quantity of discharge
and the specific chemical makeup of each discharge. Nor is It only industry that is
having to change, for the two largest sewage treatment plants which have for a long
time deposited some or all of their sludge in the ocean have been ordered to stop the
practice and find an alternate disposal method.302
246
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Methods for measuring degradation have also changed. Wastewater monitoring has
changed from measuring the effect on receiving waters to measuring also the quality
of the discharge. Toxic effects of the various air pollutants has replaced visibility
as the major criteria for determining the severity of an air pollution problem.301
The pollution problems in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region are severe, especially
the air pollution problem. However, the State and the local agencies charged with
the responsibility for solving these problems are confident that solutions are possible
and, indeed, are already underway.' '3,4,5 |n ^e remc,jncjer of j-h;s regional study,
the extent of the role of intermedia transfer in these solutions will be examined.
247
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INSTITUTIONAL FACTORS
In the State of California, the agency charged with the major portion of environmental
affairs is the State Resources Agency. Operating within this agency are the Air Resources
Board,299the Water Quality Control Board,302,303 ancj tne new|y formed Solid Waste
Management Board. '3 jne State may also act on environmental matters through the
counties, cities and other local and regional governments and districts. These inter-
relationships are shown in Figure 24 .
Air Pollution Institutional Factor
The Air Resources Board has the ma}or responsibility for protecting the air quality of the
region. The State contains eleven air basins; the one coinciding with the Los Angeles
Metropolitan Region is the South Coast Air Basin. ฐฐ The relation of the Air Resources
Board to other agencies within the region is shown in Figure 25 , which also indicates
that each county has an Air Pollution Control District. It is through these districts that
the Air Resources Board works. Control of stationary sources of air pollution is within
the jurisdiction of the local Air Pollution Control Districts, while mobile sources are
controlled by the State. Aside from being responsible to the Air Resources Board,
each Air Pollution Control District is responsible to its County. ^' Several of the
southern counties and many of the cities within them have voluntarily joined to form
the Southern California Association of Governments (SCAG). While this body has no
authority of its own, it is recognized as the environmental planning agency in the region.300
Water Pollution Institutional Factors
Figure 26 illustrates that a number of agencies have authority in the control of water
pollution. Primary responsibility for water quality within the region lies with the two
Regional Boards of the Water Quality Control Boards.302,303 Tney are chargec| w|th
coordinating the water quality efforts of all other agencies. Most cities take responsi-
bility for the quality of water supplies within their boundaries, but many deliver waste
water to the county for treatment. Each county has several agencies involved partly or
entirely in water management. These include County Sanitation Districts, County Flood
Control Districts, County Board of Health, County Engineer, and others. As with air
pollution, SCAG is involved in overall regional planning. ^
Land Pollution Institutional Factors
The Solid Waste Management Board is the newly created agency to assist in controlling
pollution. Before its creation each county and city set their own standards and
practices for the disposal of solid wastes, although the Water Quality Control Board has
set standards concerning placement of landfills for the protection of ground water
supplies.302,303 The new Board is required to set standards for solid waste disposal by
January 1, 1975. Present interactions among various agencies may be seen in
Figure 27 .
248
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O
Resources
Agency
~\
. Resources^
\Board /
\IU..I ^,^~-./
olid
Waste
Manage-
'tBrd'
La-
hontan
Reg.
Quality
Control
San
Uoaquin
Yalley
irB
out
Central
Coast Air
San
Diego
Air
To Figure 25
To Figure 26
To Figure 27
FIGURE 24
STATE AND REGIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL AGENCIES
-------
From Figure 24
Ol
O
APCD= Air Pollution Control District
FIGURE 25
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
AIR QUALITY AGENCIES
-------
r
r
1 1
T~ T~
i i 1
From Figure 24
T 1
JUL L
to
Ol
/ San
Bernardino
County
o.
Sanita->ซ
tion /
Dists.
Speci
Assess m'
Dists.
A= County Flood Control District
B= County Board of Health
C=County Engineer
FIGURE 26
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
WATER QUALITY AGENCIES
-------
K>
Oi
to
From Figure 24
San
Bernardin
County
River-
side
County
Orange
County
Ventura
County
County
Road )
Dept/
ounty
Refuse \
Disposal
V
on
Waste
Manage^
FIGURE 27
SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
AGENCIES
-------
MAJOR INTERMEDIA AIR POLLUTANTS
Long before the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region became a population center, the
potential for a severe air pollution problem existed in the area. The first recorded
reference to air pollution in the Los Angeles area dates from 1542. In that year
Juan Rodrigues Cabrillo observed the smoke from Indian camp fires to rise a few
hundred feet into the air and then level out. (We know now of the temperature inversion
layer,)Because of this phenomenon Cabrillo called what is now San Pedro Bay,"La
Bahia de los Fumos"- The Bay of Smoke.312 The temperature inversion layer sits'like
a lid below the tops of the surrounding mountains and keeps the air mass in the basin
from being moved out and replaced by cleaner air.301
Emissions
This inversion layer helps to contain the 16,600 tons of air pollutants which are produced
and emitted daily in the region. The emitters of these pollutants fall into two large
classes/ either stationary or mobile sources.301 Mobile sources, particularly motor
vehicles, are the major sources of hydrocarbons, NOX and CO. The major sources of
SOX and particulates, on the other hand, are the stationary sources/even though motor
vehicles are significant contributors of these emissions. '' Motor vehicles account
for 87 percent of the highly reactive hydrocarbons, 68 percent of all hydrocarbons,
75 percent of the NOX, 34 percent of the particulates, 16 percent of the SOX, and 98
percent of the CO. The use of organic solvents in such operations as dry cleaning,
cleaning and degreasing of metal parts, pesticide application,etc. accounts for 6 percent
of the highly reactive hydrocarbons and 17.5 percent of the total; while the production,
refining and marketing account for 4 percent and 9.5 percent/respectively. The
production and use of solvents,along with motor vehicles, produce 97 percent of the
highly reactive hydrocarbons and 95 percent of the total hydrocarbons in the Los Angeles
,. ' .. ; 900
Metropolitan Region.^77
The combustion of fuels by stationary sources in the region accounts for 18 percent
of the NOX emitted, 8.5 percent by steam power plants and 9.5 percent by all other fuel
combustion. With the 75 percent emitted by motor vehicles,93 percent of the NOX
emitted is accounted for.
The emission of SOX is the only category of air pollutants to which motor vehicles are
not the major contributor. In fact motor vehicles are only the fourth largest SOX
emitters in the region. Stationary sources emit 84 percent of the SOX, of which 37
percent is contributed by the chemical industry, 1 8 percent by the petroleum industry
(production, refining, and marketing), and 16 percent by the combustion of fuels (13
percent by power plants and 3 percent by all other fuel combustion).
The emissions of particulate material are divided between the stationary sources, with
54.5 percent of the total, and mobile sources, with 45.5 percent of the total. Part.cu-
late emissions from motor vehicles amount to 74 percent of the mobile source contribution
and 34 percent of the total. The remainder of the particulate emissions are spread out
253
-------
fairly evenly thoughout the other sources, so much so that seven out of the eleven
source categories must be included before 90 percent of these emissions are accounted for.
The situation for CO emissions is the exact opposite with almost all these emissions (97
percent) coming from motor vehicles and virtually all (99+ percent) from mobile sources.299
All of the emissions in the region have been tabulated and are presented in Table 39.
Standards and Regulations
The present California standards for air quality are among the most stringent in the
country. A summary of the California and Federal Standards is given in Table 40.
On the whole, the State has left the task of controlling stationary source emissions
to the local air pollution control districts. However, the State Attorney General
and the Air Resources Board can act either at the request of the local district or on
their own initiative.299 The State has maintained direct control and right of enforce-
ment of emission standards for mobile sources.299 This dichotomy of control is necessqry
because the movements of mobile sources between districts would otherwise render control
and enforcement impossible.
Mobile Sources
All motor vehicles of model year 1955 and later are required to have emission control
devices. A certificate of compliance must be obtained from the California Highway
Patrol before any vehicle may be initially registered or re-registered to a new owner.
Emission control devices must be approved by the Air Resources Board for durability and
reliability as well as emission control before the vehicle may be sold in California. All
vehicles, 1955 and later, are subject to random roadside emissions tests,and vehicles
which exceed the standard must be repaired in thirty days. At the present time the
Air Resources Board has not set standards for 1955 through 1965 model vehicles but
these are expected in the near future. In addition to the emissions of the colorless gases
such as CO, NOX, SOX, and hydrocarbons, emissions of visible pollutants are also
regulated. No vehicle may emit smoke which is darker than Number One on the Ringle-
mann Chart for more than ten seconds if the car was sold new after January 1, 1971, or
darker than Ringlemann Number Two if sold new prior to January 1, 1971.299
The present enforcement techniques have been successful in reducing hydrocarbon
contributions to the atmosphere from motor vehicles by 37.5 percent, and carbon monoxide
by 31 percent. However, these techniques have resulted in an increase of 12.8 percent in
NOX emissions.301
254
-------
TABLE 39299
SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN
COMPARISON OF EMISSIONS BY COUNTY
(TONS PER DAY)
1970
County
Los Angeles0
Orange
Riverside
San Bernardino0
Santa Barbara0
Ventura
TOTALb
Organic
Highly
Reactive
1290
245
59
92
27
73
1790
Gases
Total
2380
379
107
144
47
135
3200
Particu-
late
Matter
129
23
19
33
4
29
235
Oxides of
Nitrogen
1140
190
47
86
23
76
1570
Sulfur
Dioxide
250
15
4
40
1
5
315
Carbon
Monoxide
8080
1620
433
596
72
477
11300
a) That portion of the county within the South Coast Air Basin.
b) Totals may not agree due to rounding errors.
255
-------
299
TABLE 40
AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STANDARDS
APPLICABLE IN CALIFORNIA
Pollutant Averaging
Time
Photochemical
Oxidants
(Corrected for NC>2) 1 hour
Carbon Monoxide 12 hours
8 hours
N>
ON Nitrogen Dioxide Annual Average
1 hour
Sulfur Dioxide Annual Average
24 hours
3 hours
1 hour
Suspended Annual Gec-
Particulate metric Mean
Matter
California Standards
Concentration' Method
0.10 ppm
(200 g/m3)
10 ppm
(11 mg/m3)
40 ppm
(46 mg/m3)
00 ^ t"tv-trvi
.zo ppm
(470 g/m3)
0.04 ppm
(105 g/m3
0.5 ppm
(1310 g/m3)
60 g/m3
* *"*
Neutral
Buffered
Kl
Non-Dispersive
Infrared
Spec t rose opy
Saltzman
Method
Conductimetric
M h
e o
High Volume
Sampling
Federal Standards
27 37 5
Primary ' Secondary ' Method
160 g/m3 8
(0.08 ppm)
1 0 mg/m3
(9 ppm)
40 mg/m3
(35 ppm)
100 g/m3
(0.05 ppm)
80 g/m3
(.03 ppm)
365 g/m3
(0.14 ppm)
75 g/m3
_ , i
Same as
Primary Std.
Same as
Primary
Same as
Primary
Standard
60 g/m3
(0.02 ppm)
260 g/m3
(0.10 ppm)
1300 g/m3
(0.5 ppm)
~
60 g/m3
, <>
Chemi luminescent
Method
Non -Dispersive
Infrared
Spectroscopy
Colorimetric
Method Using
NaOH
Pararosaniline
Method
-
High Volume
Sampling
24 hours
-------
ro
Cn
299
TABLE 40 (cont.)
Pollutant
Lead (Particulate)
Hydrogen Sulfide
Hydrocarbons
(Corrected for
Methane)
Averaging
Time
30 day
Average
1 hour
3 hours
(6-9 a.m.)
California Standards
Concentration' Method
1 .5 g/m3 High Volume
Sampling
Dithizone
Method
0.03 ppm Cadmium
(42 g/m3) Hydroxide
Stractan
Method
Federal Standards _
"? 7 T 7 5
Primary^' Secondary ' Method
1 60 g/m3 Same as Flame lonization
(0.24 ppm) Primary Detection Using
Standard Gas Chromatography
Visibility
Reducing
Particles
1 observation
In sufficient amount to re-
duce the prevailing visibility
to 10 miles when the relative
humidity is less than 70%
NOTES:
1 . Any equivalent procedure which can be shown to the satisfaction of the Air Resources Board to give equivalent results
at or near the level of the air quality standard may be used.
2. National Primary Standards: The levels of air quality necessary, with an adequate margin of safety, to protect the
public health. Each state must attain the primary standards no later than three years after that state's implementation
plan is approved by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
3. National Secondary Standards: The levels of air quality necessary to protect the public welfare from any known or an-
ticipated adverse effects of a pollutant. Each state must attain the secondary standards within a "reasonable time" after
implementation plan is approved by the EPA.
4. Federal standards, other than those based on annual averages or annual geometric means, are not to be exceeded more
than once per year.
5. Reference method as described by the EPA. An "equivalent method" of measurement may be used but must have a "con-
sistent relationship to the reference method" to be approved by the EPA.
-------
N>
CJl
CO
999
TABLE 40 (Cent.)
NOTES: cont.
6. Prevailing visibility is defined as the greatest visibility which is attained or surpassed around at least half of the
horizon circle.
7. Concentration expressed first in units in which it was promulgated. Equivalent units given in parentheses are based
upon a reference temperature of 25ฐC and a reference pressure of 760 mm of mercury.
8. Corrected for SC>2 in addition to NO2-
-------
Stationary Sources
As noted previously, the burden of control of stationary source emissions has been left
to the individual county air pollution control districts. This diversity of control could
lead to polluters seeking areas of least regulation. However, the five county APCD's
involved in the study region have almost identical regulations and such action is dis-
couraged. The regulations of the Lx>s Angeles County A PCD are the most stringent in
the State and have been used by other APCD's as a model.299 Table 41 is a summary
of regulations of the five County Air Pollution Control Districts as of January 7, 1972.
The sixth column, marked "Proposed", is a summary of proposed additions or modi-
fications formulated by the Air Resources Board and which each APCD in the region
will consider and strengthen or make effective no later than January 1, 1973.299
In Los Angeles County the regulations have been effective in reducing the emissions
of hydrocarbons by 67.5 percent; of NOX by 52.5 percent; of SOX by 90 percent; of
CO by 99.5 percent; and of particulates by 89 percent. In all, the Los Angeles
County APCD regulations have resulted in the prevention of the emission of 6,870 tons
per day of pollutants. 0'
Control Strategies
The Clean Air Act of 1970 required that each State submit a plan for the implementation,
maintenance and enforcement of the national ambient air quality standards for that State
by January 31, 1973. The plan submitted by the State of California was found to be
unacceptable in part to the EPA. This plan includes an estimation of the effects of
the control strategies on carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, oxidants (which are
believed directly proportional to hydrocarbons), particulate matter, and oxides of
sulfur. 299
Carbon Monoxide In the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region approximately 11,200
tons per day of carbon monoxide were emitted in 1970. The California Implementation
Plan estimates that, in order to meet the Federal standards, these emissions would have
to be cut 78 percenter reduced to 2,500 tons per day. It further estimates that, if the
State's plan were fully implemented, the region's emissions will be reduced to 2,300 tons
per day. This would be accomplished by controls on the following source areas: 1) open
burning of solid waste is prohibited (already in effect) and backyard burning at single
and two family dwelling units, now in effect in some areas, will be completely in effect
by 1975. This will reduce carbon monoxide emissions by 40 tons per day; 2) agricul-
tural burning controlled by material and climatic conditions to assure good combustion
should result in a reduction of 5 tons per day in carbon monoxide emissions in 1975;
3) motor vehicle emission controls should result in a reduction of 6,030 tons per day
in 1975 carbon monoxide emissions; 4) ship and airplane emissions under control
of the Federal Government should have reduced carbon monoxide emissions 210 tons
per day; 5) periodic vehicle emission inspection and mandatory maintenance should
reduce carbon monoxide emissions by 1,600 tons per day in 1975; 6) conversion
of one-third of all gasoline powered motor vehicles to use gaseous fuel should produce
259
-------
TABLE 41
SUMMARY OF RULES AND REGULATIONS
SOUTH COAST AIR BASIN APCD'S299
Rules and
Regulations
Particulate
Matter
Grain Loading
Process Weight
Dust and Fumes
Combustion
Contaminants
Fuel Burning
g Equipment
Incinerators
Visible
Emissions
Burning
Agricultural
Open Fires
Incinerators
Orchard
Heaters
Los
Angeles
Orange
0.2 gr/scf for gas 0.3 gr/scf max.
flow rates 1 OOOcfm
30 Ib/hr max for
process wt.
10blb/hr
0.3 gr/scf max.
10 Ib/hr max.
0.1 gr/scf
Ringlemann No. 1
Per state guide-
lines
Banned
Single chamber
Banned
Acceptable brands
Specified
40 Ib/hr max.
for process wt.
60,000 Ib/hr
0.3 gr/scf max.
10 Ib/hr max.
N.R.*
Ringlemann
No. 2
Per state guide-
lines
Banned
Single chamber
Banned
Acceptable
Brands specified
Riverside
0.3 gr/scf max.
40 Ib/hr max for
process wt .
60,000 Ib/hr
0.3 gr/scf max.
10 Ib/hr max.
N. R.
Ringlemann
No. 2
Per state guide-
lines
Banned
Single chamber
Banned
Acceptable
Brands specified
San Ventura Proposed
Bernardino
0.3 gr/scf max.
40 Ib/hr max. for
60,000 Ib/hr or
0.1 gr/scf max. for
gas vol 70,000scfm
0.3 gr/scf max.
10 Ib/hr max.
N. R.
Ringlemann No .2
Per state guide-
lines
Banned
Single chamber
Banned
Acceptable
Brands specified
0.3 gr/scf max.
92.7 Ib/hr max.
for process wts .
6,000,000
Ib/hr
0.3 gr/scf max.
N. R.
N. R.
Ringlemann
No. 2
Per state guide-
lines
Banned
Single chamber
Banned
Acceptable
Brands specified
0.2 gr/scf max
30 Ib/hr max.
0.1 gr/scf max
10 Ib/hr max.
0.1 gr/scf
Ringlemann
No. 1 for less
than 3 min/lir
Banned
"*
* N. R. = No regulation in effect.
-------
TABLE 41 (cont.)
O-
Rules and
Regulations
Los
Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San
Bernardino
Ventura
Proposed
Petroleum
Products
Gasoline load- Vapor controls
ing trucks required
Storage of Control equip-
Petroleum Pro- .?. ,
. , ment specitied
ducts r
Vapor controls Vapor controls
required required
Control equip- Control equip-
ment specified ment specified
Organic liquid Controls specified Controls speci-
loading fied,limited to
gasoline
Oil-effluent Vaporless recovery Vaporless re-
water separators device required. cover/device
Control equipment required. Con-
specified trol equipment
specified
Controls speci-
fied, limited to
gasoline
Vaporless re~
cover/ device
required. Con-
trol equipment
specified.
Solvents
Organic
solvents
Disposal and
Evaporation
Architectural
Coatings
Emissions
controlled
1 5 gal /day of
reactive solvent
Restricts sale and
use of reactive
coatings
Emissions
controlled
1 5 gal/day of
reactive solvent
Restricts sale and
use of reactive
coatings
Emissions
controlled
1 5 gal/day of
reactive solvent
Restricts sale and
use of reactive
coatings
Vapor controls
required
Control equip-
ment specified
Controls speci-
fied, limited to
gasoline
Vaporless re-
covery device
required. Con-
trol equipment
specified.
N. R.
1 5 gal/day of
reactive solvent
Restricts sale and
use of reactive
coatings
Vapor controls
required
Control equip-
ment specified
Controls speci-
fied
Vapor controls
required
Control equip-
ment specified
Controls speci-
fied
Vaporless re- Vaporless re-
covery device covery device
required. required.
N. R.
N. R.
Emissions
controlled
Ugal/c
N. R.
reactive solvent
Restricts sale and
use of reactive
coatings
-------
K>
O
Rules and
Regulations
Los
Angeles
Sulfur
Sulfur Recovery 500 ppm SC^
Plants 10ppmH2S
200 IbAr SO2
Sulfuric Acid
Plants
Sulfur
Compounds
500 ppm SC>2
200 IbAr SO2
0.2%S02 by
volume max.
Sulfur Content 50 gr/100 ft
of Fuels gaseous fuels
0.5% wt. liquid
or solid fuel
Fuel Burning
Equipment
hrSO2
Oxides of Nitrogen
Fuel Burning 225 ppm liquid
Equipment fuel
325 ppm solid
fuel
TABLE 41 (cont.)
Orange Riverside
Exempted
Exempted
0.2% SC>2 by
volume max.
Exempted
Exempted
0.2% SO2 by
volume max.
San
Bernardino
Exempted
Exempted
0.1%SO2by
volume max.
50 gr/100 ft3 50 gr/100 ft3 50 gr/100 ft3
fuels, 0.5%wt gaseous fuels, gaseous fuels,
liquid or solid 0.5% wt liquid 0.5% wt liquid
fuels or solid fuels or solid fuels
New equipment New equipment
limited to 200 limited to 200
lbArS02 lbArS02
New equipment New equipment New equ.pment
limited to 140 limited to 140 limited to 140
Ib/hr Ib/hr
N. R.
N. R.
500 ppm SO2
200 Ib/hr SO2
10 ppm H2S
500 ppm SO2
200 Ib/hr SC>2 1974
10 ppm H2S
0.2% SO2 by 500 ppm SOo
volume max. for new 19713
0.1 ppm,24 hr
ave .ground-
level
and for 1975
existing
50 gr/lOOscf
gaseous 15 gr/
N. R. lOOscfnat'l
gas 0.5%wt
liquid or solid
New equipment (all equipment)
limited to 200 200 IbAr SCป2
SO2
250 ppm or 20
ton/day per
source
125 ppm
gaseous fuel
225 ppm
liquid or
solid fuels
-------
TABLE 41
(cont.)
Rules and
Regulations
Los
Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San
Bernardino
Ventura
Proposed
O-
GO
Carbon
Monoxide
Other Regula-
tions
Asphalt Air
Blowing
N. R.
N. R.
N. R.
N. R.
N. R.
N. R.
Controls required
on all equipment
Reduction of
Animal Matter
Requires tempera- Requires temp- . Requires temp-
tures 1200ฐF
for at least 0.3
seconds
eratures
1200ฐF for at
least 0.3
seconds
eratures
1200ฐF for at
least 0.3
seconds
Vacuum Pro- Limits amount of
ducing Devices organic material
or Systems emitted
Flourine N. R.
Compounds
N. R.
N. R.
Prohibits in- Prohibits in-
jury to pro- jury to pro-
perty of others perty of others
Requires temp-
eratures
1200ฐFforat
least 0.3
seconds
N. R.
Prohibits in-
jury to pro-
perty of others
2000 ppm max.
N. R.
Gases pro-
cessed equi-
valent to
incineration
at1400ฐF
for 0.3 seconds
Requires temp- Requires temp-
eratures eratures
1300ฐFforat 1200ฐFforat
least 0.4 least 0.3
seconds seconds
N. R.
N. R.
Emission 3 Ib/
hr unless emission
reduced by 90%
-------
to
TABLE 41
(cont.)
Rules and
Regulations
Los
Angeles
Orange
Riverside
San
Bernardino
Ventura
Proposed
Circumvention Prohibited
Nuisance Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
Prohibited
-------
a reduction of 1330 tons per day in carbon monoxide emissions by 1975; and 7) the
optimistic goal of a 20 percent reduction in traffic by extensive use of public trans-
portation, car pooling, and changes in work schedule, should result in 550 tons per
day reduction in carbon monoxide by 1975. The total of these reductions is more than
9,700 tons per day, while population growth should increase emissions about 740 tons
per day. The actual reduction will then be about 9,000 tons/day leaving approximately
2300 tons per day of carbon monoxide emissions in 1975.299
Oxides of Nitrogen The 1 970 emissions of oxides of nitrogen into the atmosphere
of the study region amounted to about 157.0 tons per day. In order to meet the Federal am-
bient air quality standards for 1 975 this level must be reduced to 830 tons per day or a
reduction of 47 percent. The implementation plan recommends a six-step strategy for
achieving this reduction. The six steps include: 1) bans on open burning of solid
wastes and on backyard burning at single and two family dwelling units, to be in effect
by 1975 in those areas not already included. This will reduce NO2 emissions by about
3 tons per day; 2) emissions from new fuel combustion equipment will be limited to
140 pounds per day and from large fuel combustion equipment to 125 ppm NO2 for
sources using gaseous fuel and 225 ppm NO2 for sources using liquid or solid fuel
the measures are expected to eliminate 25 tons per day of NC>2; 3) the State's
current motor vehicle emission control plan is expected to reduce NC>2 emissions
by 450 tons per day; 4) emission control from airplanes and ships,now the responsi-
bility of the Federal government, is expected to eliminate emissions from these sources
and reduce NO2 emissions by 20 tons per day; 5) the conversion of one-third of the
gasoline-powered motor vehicles to the use of gaseous fuels will produce a reduction of
200 tons per day of NC>2; 6) public transportation, car pooling, etc. to reduce motor
traffic by 20 percent will result in a reduction in NC>2 emissions of 130 tons per day.
If all these expectations are met, they will result in a reduction in 1975 of about 830
tons per day of NC>2, while the population growth will increase these daily emissions
about 105 tons,and, if the program of mandatory vehicle inspection and maintenance
is implemented/an increase of another 45 tons per day can be expected. The overall
result is a net decrease of about 680 tons per day. This leaves about 890 tons per day
which is about 60 tons per day more than the allowable emissions for 1975. However,
by 1977 emission controls on used cars will result in an 80 ton per day reduction, to
produce total NO? emissions of about 810 tons per day, which is below the level needed
299
to meet the Federal standard.
Oxidant Oxidant is not emitted as a pollutant but rather it is the result of photo
chemical reaction. It is therefore assumed that the best control strategy for oxidant is
to control the reactive hydrocarbons. The sources of highly reactive hydrocarbons
emitted about 1785 tons per day within the region in 1970. To comply with the
Federal standards, these emissions must be reduced to 215 tons per day, a reduction of
88 percent. In the State's attempt to meet this standard, they have proposed an multi-
step approach to the problem. These steps are: 1) the control of evaporative
emissions of organic materials in marketing operations to reduce highly react.ve organic
gas emissions by 65 tons per day; these controls include vapor recovery systems for:
265
-------
loading tank trucks at bulk plants, storage tanks at service stations, and vehicles at
servi ce stations; 2) a reduction of 5 tons per day is expected from more stringent
and broader regulations concerning the use and disposal of organic solvents; 3) con-
tinuation of the current motor vehicle emission control program will decrease highly
reactive hydrocarbon emissions from ships and aircraft by 30 tons per day; 4) periodic
vehicle inspection and mandatory maintenance, if the program is implemented, could
reduce emissions by about 70 tons per day; 5} a reduction of 95 tons per day is possible
by the implementation of the proposed program to retrofit 1966 through 1969 model
used motor vehicles with fuel evaporative emission control equipment; 6) if the program
to convert one-third of the gasoline-powered motor vehicles to gaseous fuels is imple-
mented, a reduction of 75 tons per day will follow; and 7) traffic reductions through
the means described for other pollutants, would result in a reduction of 85 tons per day.
All of these reductions will reduce emissions by 1425 tons per day. Population growth
will add 115 tons per day to produce a net reduction of 1310 tons per day, and a new
total of 475 tons per day. This is 120 percent more than that amount estimated by the
State which would be permissible under the Federal standard.
This is one of the points which made the State's plan unacceptable, since the EPA be-
lieves the Federal standards can be met. Also,the EPA estimates that emissions must be
cut to 161 tons per day rather than 215 tons per day to meet the Federal requirement.
The EPA rewrote the oxident portion of the control strategy and included gasoline
rationing during the six months of high air pollution, May through October. The proposal
calls for a reduction in gasoline consumption by about 80 percent. The EPA plan is
summarized in Table 42 .
Particulate Matter In 1970, about 235 tons per day of particulate matter was
directly emitted in the region, with the highest annual geometric mean observed being
127 g/m^. About 20 percent of this concentration comes from natural sources leaving
about 480 tons per day or 100 g/m^ from controllable sources. Comparing this adjusted
figure with the Federal secondary standard of 60 g/m indicates 40 percent of these
emissions must be controlled. Not all particulate matter is directly emitted, however,
since a large fraction present is the product of the photochemical reaction. The strategy
for control of particulate matter then requires both direct control and control of the
photochemical reaction.299
A nine-step plan has been proposed for direct control. These are: 1) additional control
of visible emissions from the petroleum industry is expected to reduce particulate
emissions by 1 ton per day; 2) more stringent grain loading and visible emission regula-
tion of organic solvents (mainly for surface coating and spraying operations) will reduce
emissions by 6 tons per day; 3) particulate emission from metallurgical operations are
expected to decrease about 6 tons per day as a result of more stringent regulations con-
cerning visible emission, process weight and grain loading; 4) mineral operation emissions
should be reduced by about 7 tons per day because of the enactment of more stringent
regulations concerning visible emissions, process weight and grain loading; 5) by banning
open burning for solid waste disposal, banning backyard burning at single and two family
266
-------
TABLE 42 31ฐ
SUMMARY OF FEDERAL PLAN
FOR HYDROCARBON REDUCTION
The Emissions
Estimated 1977 hydrocarbon emissions without additional controls in Los Angeles, Orange
Riverside, San Bernardino, Ventura and Santa Barbara Counties:
i, SOUrCt. , Tons/day
Motor vehicles +442
Stationary sources +215
Aircraft + 24
TOTAL ~+68Ttons/day
The Emission Reduction
Estimated elimination of hydrocarbons through proposed motor vehicle controls:
Limit motor vehicle vacuum spark advance (to be
implemented by the State of California) - 19
Motor adjustments required at annual vehicle inspection - 39
Control evaporation from motor vehicles - 26
Require gaseous fuel in certain fleet vehicles - 13
Install catalytic hydrocarbon converters on all vehicles - 81
Ration gasoline from May through October 31 -1 98
TOTAL REDUCTION IN MOTOR VEHICLE HYDRO-
CARBON EMISSIONS -379
Estimated elimination of hydrocarbons through proposed controls on stationary sources:
Control evaporation from gasoline storage tanks and vehicle
gasoline tank filling operation - 65
Limit quantity and method of use of hydrocarbon
compounds in industry ~ 45
Eliminate reactive hydrocarbons in industrial "de-
greasing" operations ~ 25
Control hydrocarbon use in dry cleaning plants - 6
TOTAL REDUCTION STATIONARY SOURCE HYDRO-
CARBON EMISSIONS -141
THE SUMMARY
Total hydrocarbon emissions +ฐฐ'
Total reduction from controls listed above -520
REMAINING HYDROCARBON EMISSIONS AFTER
IMPLEMENTATION OF CONTROLS +161 tons/day
267
-------
dwelling units, and placing more stringent regulations on emissions from incinerators,an
estimated 6 tons per day of participates will be removed from the atmosphere; 6) more
stringent regulations on fuel burning operations (with regard to visible emissions and
grain loadings) are expected to eliminate 5 tons per day; 7) control of emissions from
ships and aircraft by the Federal government should lead to a reduction of 30 tons per
day; 8) the usa of low lead motor fuel will remove 40 tons per day; and 9) a 20
percent reduction in traffic which will hopefully be realized through the use of public
transportation, car-pooling, and changes in work schedules would yield a reduction
of 9 tons per day. This total reduction amounts to 110 tons per day, but the net re-
duction is only 95 tons per day since population growth is expected to increase emissions
15 tons per day.
The implementation of control of hydrocarbons and the resultant decrease in the photo-
chemical reaction will probably reduce photochemical particulates by 180 tons per day.
The total reduction in particulate matter will then be 275 tons per day, and the re-
maining 200 is well below the 290 tons per day necessary to meet the standard.
Sulfur Dioxide The emission of sulfur dioxide in 1970 totalled 315 tons per day.
In order to bring the region into line with the Federal standards, this figure must be
reduced to 200 tons per day. The plan to effect this reduction has five steps: 1) the
regulation of emissions of sulfur compounds will be changed from 2000 to 500 parts
per million of sulfur dioxide; the implementation of this regulation should reduce
emissions by some 10 tons per day, mostly from the catalytic cracking process; 2)
sulfur dioxide emissions from sulfur recovery plants and sulfuric acid plants will be
additionally controlled; these controls should reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by 100
tons per day; 3) the sulfur content of natural gas will be limited to 15 grains per 100
cubic feet and the sulfur content of oil will be limited to 0.5 percent in areas where it
is presently uncontrolled; these controls should reduce emissions by about 6 tons per day;
4) if one-third of the gasoline-powered motor vehicles were converted to gaseous fuel,
sulfur dioxide emissions would be reduced by 10 tons per day; and 5) the traffic reduction
plans (by use of public transportation, car pooling, and changes in work schedules) which
will hopefully reduce traffic by 20 percent will then reduce emissions by 10 tons per day.
The sum of these reductions is about 140 tons per day. Population will increase emissions
by 20 tons per day, causing a net decrease of 120 tons per day, and leaving about 200 tons
per day compared to the 240 tons per day estimated to be the quantity permitted by the'
Federal standard. ฐฐ
Intermedia Transfer
Some of the air pollution control strategies mentioned above will transfer the pollutant to
another medium. In some instances this transfer is obvious/ as in the case of an industrial
plant using a wet scrubber in an air stream. The pollutant is then removed from the air
and placed directly into the water. In another instance a process change might be used
to reduce the emission, but result in discharging the pollutant to receiving waters. Here
the pollutant is not transferred directly but it is nonetheless transferred. Most of the
elements of the proposed control strategy will affect another medium to some extent.
268
-------
Present Situation, Mobile Sources At the present time there appears to be no
methodology whereby the pollutants produced and emitted by mobile sources can be
transmitted to another medium by man controlled processes. The only controls which
are now in use, or feasible for use in the near future, are either a process change or a
breakdown of the components of pollutants. A process change would mean the substi-
tution of another fuel, such as natural gas or hydrogen, or the substitution of an alter-
native means of propulsion such as steam. These changes would undoubtedly have
various positive effects on the air quality of the region. Since they would reduce the
total emissions rather than divert them to another medium, an alternative to a process
change would be treatment of the effluent stream which, because the source is mobile,
makes intermedia transfer difficult. Any system which removes the pollutant from the
air stream would require the residue to be stored in the vehicle and periodically removed.
Designers of emission control systems have found it simpler and more economical to
convert the polluting substance to some non-polluting gas. For example, hydrocarbons
can be burned in an after-burner and reduced to h^O and CO2/ or NOX can be con-
verted to N2 and C>2, ail of which are components of the atmosphere. These systems
are partially effective in dealing with motor vehicle emissions and do not have any
intermedia possibilities.
Present Situation, Stationary Sources The stationary sources are better candidates
for intermedia transfer. The largest intermedia transfer in the Los Angeles Metropolitan
Region at the present time results from the change from solid waste incineration to sani-
tary landfilling. The banning of backyard burning was one of the, first major acts taken
by the Los Angeles County APCD.301 -rne |_os Angeles County APCD estimates that the
use of landfilling keeps 250 tons per day of hydrocarbons (90 tons of which are highly
photochemical I y reactive) out of the air.'
The Los Angeles Metropolitan Region is aptly suited to the large scale use of land-
fill since there are numerous canyons which are excellent sites for sanitary landfill
operation if the work is conducted with concern for esthetics. When the landfill is
complete, the area may be used for other PurP9,sฃง and so creates an asset from what
would otherwise have been a pollution source.
Table 43 is a summary of the air pollution control equipment in use in Los Angeles
County and the intermedia effects of this equipment. The information was obtained
through discussion with the Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District.^ Al-
though much of the residue created is recycled or is disposed in landfills, some transfers
to water do take place. The rendering industry uses scrubbers which provide a high
transfer of particulate hydrocarbons and some other pollutants to water. Wastes from
coke handling in petroleum refineries are controlled by scrubbers although a large port,on
of the scrubber water is reused in the process. Although 50 percent of th^ asphalt
industry still use scrubbers, this method of treatment ,s be.ng phased out because o
stricter standards which are difficult to meet with scrubbers. Less than 10 Percent
of the metallurgical sources still use scrubbers although ^/are also be'n9 ^asej ฐut
in this region The proposed canted* ^
carbon controls on hydrocarbon emissions win resuir
269
-------
TABLE 43323
AIR POLLUTION CONTROLS AND RESIDUES, LOS ANGELES COUNTY, CALIFORNIA
SIC
Code
Description
Controls
Residues0
01 Agricultural
Burning
Orchard heaters
20 Food industry
204 Feed mi I Is and
grain elevators
2077 Rendering industry
2819 Sulfuric acid plants
2834 Pharmaceuticals
2911 Petroleum refining
coke handling
2951 Hot asphalt
Banned completely in basin
Burn days only in high desert
area
Banned - now use pans
Afterburners for hydro-
carbons
Cyclones and baghouses
Scrubbers (particulates and
condensable hydrocarbons)
SOx control by dimethyl-
aniline, amine or similar
process (see SOX control
section in section V)
Baghouses
Hydrocarbons ~ afterburners
scrubbers
Scrubbers - still 50 percent
in use but being phased out
can barely meet current
standards
Solid waste to landfill
None
Gaseous combustion
products
Solid residue
Animal feed residues -
Recycled back into pro-
duct
Food grain residues
mostly used in animal
feed.
Residues to water - to
county sanitation districts
or city sewer systems.
Regenerative process
burns H2$ to SO2 then
adsorbs SO2 on amine
to yield H2SO4, the
amine is regenerated.
H2SO4 is sold or used.
Solid waste reuse in pro-
duct or if not re-usable
deep well disposal be-
cause of hazards in
landfill disposal.
Gaseous combustion pro-
ducts in water - mostly
back to coke bins.
Water residue to ponds
on premises, overflow to
sewers. Every few years
dredge ponds - dispose
to landfills.
270
-------
TABLE 43
(cont.)
SIC n
_ , Description
Code r
2951
(cont.)
3272 Concrete batching
Gravel pits
33-34 Metallurgical
processes
Zinc wastes
5541 Gas stations
72 Dry cleaning
20-39 Industrial fuel com-
bustion
Controls
Baghouses more efficient
than scrubbers; 50 percent
of controls are now bag-
houses.
Process control - 3 percent
water addition to process
keeps dust down
Water sprays
Fine emissions - baghouses,
scrubbers (less than 10 per-
cent)
Baghouses
New requirements will con-
trol vapor loss - will use re-
turn systems for auto tank
and underground tank filling
systems
Hydrocarbons, activated
carbon - regenerate with
steam for new stricter
standards,currently no
controls on this many
cleaners,lose 50 gal make-
up/month
Afterburners
Residues
Reintroduce fines into
asphalt - aids quality
of asphalt.
Water kept in ready-
mix.
Drain to gravel pit -
water recharges ground
water.
Solid waste water
Recycle zinc as valve
is high - sold for use in
paint, etc. - Zn C>2
None
Steam will carry some
loss to water
Air, water
Gaseous combustion pro-
ducts
Process methods: alternating Gaseous combustion pro-
fuel-rich,fuel-lean combus- ducts
tion in series with mixing of
exhaust air (stoichiometric con-
trol) this is only feasible for big
fuel users
271
-------
TABLE 43 (cent.)
_ . Description Controls Residues
Code
20-34 Degreasing operations Process control: Gaseous combustion pro-
Temperature of ducts, some increased
operation. NOX 'n eliminating CO.
See Table 30 (Pollution Control Alternatives and Quantified Intermedia Impacts)
in Section VI for quantitative data on residues created per pound of pollutant
removed for the various control processes.
272
-------
regeneration of the activated carbon with steam.323
^ The majority of the pollution control equipment in Los Angeles County, however,
yields solid res.dues. It is important to note that, since almost all water discharges in
Los Angeles County are to sewer systems,intermedia transfer to water is confined largely
to the discharges from the two major treatment plants. The City of Los Angeles has
been ordered to stop discharging sewage sludge to Santa Monica Bay (see water dis-
cussion in this section) and secondary treatment is being planned for Basin treatment
plants. Even so, at the present time a large portion of the wastes discharged to the
sewer system, not removed by treatment, finds its way to the ocean and thus may effect
air intermedia transfer.
Projected Situation
Carbon Monoxide If the carbon monoxide controls which have been discussed
earlier are put into effect, an intermedia transfer will result. The ban on open burning
in areas not already included will most likely result in an increase in the quantity of
solid waste placed in landfills,thereby transferring the pollutant from the air to the land.
The other control strategies under consideration involve mobile sources and, as a rule,
do not lead to intermedia transfer.
Oxides of Nitrogen Again, the only transfer is from the ban on open burning.
Some transfer is possible due to the limitation on emissions of new fuel combustion
sources, but it appears that these emissions will be controlled with process changes,
such as cooler temperatures and off-stoichiometric combustion, rather than by treating
the effluent gas stream.308,309
Oxidants The proposed controls, which apply to highly reactive organic gas
evaporation controls from both mobile and stationary sources, will result in a recycling
of these gases, and also work to offset the cost of new equipment. The captured gases
could amount to more than 1 65 tons per day in 1 975.
Particulate Matter At the present time it is not known how much of the reduction
in particulate emission will come from treatment of the effluent gas stream and how much
will come from process changes. However, that portion which is removed by treatment
will find its way either to the sewers, if a wet process is used, or to the land if a dry
process is used.
Oxides of Sulfur As with particulates, the method which will be used to effect
reductions in emission of sulfur oxide is not known. If the standards are met with a
treatment process there will be a residue disposal problem to consider.
273
-------
MAJOR WATER INTERMEDIA POLLUTANTS
In the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region, the responsibility for treatment and abatement
of water pollution falls almost exclusively to the county and municipal organizations.
A relatively small portion of the waste water is privately treated and discharged to
surface water, probably because of the lack of free flowing surface water which is
characteristic of the region. In the past, little control was exerted over what was
discharged to the sewers or what was discharged from them. For example, around 1930
the City of Los Angeles,which previously discharged its sewer effluent directly into
Santa Monica Bay without treatment, added a bar screen to remove the larger materials
from the waste stream. This was the only treatment until the late 1940's,when the City
built the Hyperion Sewage Treatment Plant, which uses the activated sludge process.
However, the load on the plant increased to about 340 mgd and it was impossible to
provide secondary treatment for all the wastewater. Now all the wastes receive primary
treatment,with about 25 percent receiving secondary treatment. At the same time, a
longer outfall was built to discharge the effluent and sludge further out from shore.
The Hyperion plant previously used vacuum filtration to concentrate the sludge and
chemical additions to dry the sludge better. This process proved to be very costly and
was abandoned in 1960. It was replaced by the longer outfall. The Water Resources
Control Board has ordered that sludge no longer be discharged into the ocean, and an
alternative is again needed. This subject will be more thoroughly discussed in the
section on intermedia implications of control strategies.
The City of Los Angeles is not the only agency in the region treating sewage. Another
large group of agencies are the Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts,whose major
plant is the Joint Water Pollution Control Plant. This is a primary plant which averages
about 370 mgd of effluent. Smaller plants upstream reclaim waste water and discharge the
more concentrated sludge to the Joint P!ant,which removes a large portion of the solids
by a centrifuge process and sells them to a private firm for conversion to nifro-humus ferti-
lizers.^'-" The sludge which is not sold in this way is discharged to the ocean, but this
has been ordered stopped/and an alternative must be found. The reclaimed wastewater from
upstream plants is used to recharqe ground water through spreading grounds in the Whittier
Narrows and San Jose Creek. ^
Until now very few statistics concerning industrial waste discharges have been kept.
This lackadaisical approach, however, is now in a state of change. In April, 1972, the
Los Angeles County Sanitation Districts instituted a permit system. When an industry
applies for a permit, it is required to submit a waste water analysis to show what
substances are present in the waste streams, their amounts, the products which the industry
produces and what raw materials are used. This permit plan has been initiated to aid in
the identification of the sources of various pollutants which must be treated. Similar permit
procedures are being started in various areas including the City of Los Angeles. Using
estimates made by the City of Los Angeles of concentrations of BODsand suspended solids
discharged from various industries, an attempt was made to estimate total discharges from
274
-------
these industries. The results are presented in Table 44 . However, the estimated
concentrations are much higher than usually encountered, and so produce total quanti-
ties in excess of other estimates for the entire county.
There are, within the region, nearly 100 sewage treatment plants. These plants range
in capacity from the very large (nearly 400 mgd) plants run by the City and County of
Los Angeles to very small plants which serve hospitals, sheriff stations and similar
institutions. ' JUJ These plants are tabulated in Table 45 along with their present
average flow, the degree of treatment and method of sludge disposal.
Standards and Regulations
The standards for water quality differ from air quality standards in that the latter can be
set for all air,while the standards for water depend upon the intended use for the water,3lO
i.e., the standards for recreational waters will be different from those for drinking water,
etc. The Federal guidelines for determining State water quality standards were given
earlier in this report in the legal section. In addition to those guidelines, the State
Water Resources Control Board, through the Los Angeles and Santa Ana Regional Boards,
have adopted a set of goals. All the actions of these Boards will be directed toward
the implementation of these goals which are:302' 303
1) Protect and enhance all State waters, surface and underground, fresh and
saline, for present and anticipated beneficial uses including aquatic environ-
mental values.
2) The quality of all surface waters shall be such as to permit maximum recrea-
tional use where this use is otherwise practical.
3) All State waters shall be maintained at the highest possible quality; effects
as a result of man's activities shall be minimized.
4) Manage municipal and industrial waste waters as part of an integrated system
of fresh water supplies to achieve maximum benefit of fresh water resources.
5) Achieve maximum practical use of fresh water through waste water reclamation
and reuse by industries, municipalities, and agriculture.
6) Continually upgrade the quality of waste treatment systems to assure consist-
ently high quality effluents.
7) Develop a planned system for water use and waste discharge to assure protection
of the aquatic resource for future beneficial uses and achieve harmony with the
natural environment.
275
-------
TABLE 44 222,304,305
ESTIMATED WATER USE AND BOD5 PRODUCTION
BY INDUSTRY IN LOS ANGELES
SIC
Code
201
2016
202
203
2035
205
2065
2079
208
*>*
22
26
275
2793
28
2844
285
2879
2891
2899
295
30
Industry
Meat Products
Poultry Dressing Plants
Dairy Products
Preserved Fruits and
Vegetables
Pickles, Sauces, and
Salad Dressings
Bakery Products
Confectionery Products
Shortening and Cooking Oils
Beverages
Canned and Cured Seafoods
Fresh or Frozen Packaged
Fish
Textile Mill Products
Paper and Allied Products
Commercial Printing
Photo engraving
Chemicals and Allied
Products
Toilet Preparations
Paints and Allied Products
Agricultural Chemicals, nee
Adhesives and Sealants
Chemical Preparations, nee
Paving and Roofing Materials
Rubber and Misc . Plastics
Products
Water Use in
L.A. Co. &
% of Total
% MG/yr.
95
100
88
76
100
90
100
55
87
100
94
81
86
100
82
100
75
100
80
4408
546
2233
6280
427
635
378
345
4100
6519
3588
114856
64932
87
788
544
1274
447
2817
BOD5
mg/l
1155
2213
1510
2213
2213
3021
3021
2213
541
2213
717
676
1310
867
298
1534
1310
298
1310
122
117
fin
BOD in L.A.
Co.
Ton /Year
19746
4690
13078
54771
3663
7438
4432
2960
8605
55955
9495
299556
75463
519
4025
2782
606
185
QOT
276
-------
TABLE 44 (cent.)
SIC
Code
301
32
325
327
323
33?
371
3711
3713
372
3731
374
4469
554
5812
7213
7217
7218
7391
7542
7699
Industry
Tires and Inner Tubes
Stone, Clay, and Glass
Products
Structural Clay Products
Concrete, Gypsum, and
Plaster Products
Products of Purchased Glass
Iron and Steel
Non ferrous Foundries
Motor Vehicles and Equip-
ment
Motor Vehicles and Car
Bodies
Truck and Bus Bodies
Aircraft and Parts
Shipbuilding and Repairing
Railroad Equipment
Water Transportation
Services, nee
Gasoline Service Stations
Eating Places
Linen Supply
Water Use in
L.A. Co. &
% of Total
% MG/yr
1 00 668
73 2071 3
78 343
59 4556
1 00 110
91 269
99 1 067
95 4290
100 74
Carpet and Upholstery Cleaning
Industrial Launderers
Research and Development
Laboratories
Car Washes
Repair Services, nee
BOD5
mg/l
80
318
117
117
318
117
1262
1262
1262
1368
1262
1262
1262
1952
1122
550
3021
576
130
252
1262
BOD in L.A.
Co.
Ton/Year
212
23926
146
1936
820
123
5270
22950
364
277
-------
TABLE 44 (cont.)
SIC
Code
8071
8072
Industry
Medical Laboratories
Dental Laboratories
Water Use in
L.A. Co. &
%of Total
% MG/yr
BOD5
mg/l
252
74
BOD in L.A.
Co.
Ton/Year
TOTAL
83 247994
624609
278
-------
TABLE 45302'303
SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANTS
IN THE STUDY REGION
Santa Ana River Basin
Plant Name Effluent
(MOD)
Western Hills Golf and Country
Club
Los Alisos Water District
Rossmoor Sanitation Inc.
Irvine Ranch Water District
Orange County Industrial Farm
County Sanitation District,
Orange Co. Plant *1
County Sanitation District,
Orange Co. Plant #2
City of Seal Beach
U.S. Naval Weapons Center,
Seal Beach
U.S. Marine Corps Air Station
City of Brea
City of Redlands
City of San Bernardino Plant *1
City of San Bernardino Plant #2
Campus Crusade for Christ
City of Colton
Glen Helen Rehabilitation Center
City of Rialto
City of Beaumont
Big Bear City Community Services
District
.015
0.1
1.0
1.0
0.008
49.0
15.0
80.0
0.97
0.25
N/A
N/A
2.4
7.0
9.0
0.17
1.9
0.020
2.0
0.40
0.5
Degree of
Treatment
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Pri
Pri
Sec
Pri
Sec
Pri
Sec
Lagoons
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
None
Fertilizer
Discing into
fallow field
Stockpiled
on property
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Landfill
Landfill
Fertilizer
Lagoons
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Soil
Fertilizer
Landfill
Fertilizer
Landfill
None
279
-------
TABLE 45 (conn)
San fa Ana River Basin
Plant Name Effluenf
(MOD)
Big Bear Lake Sanitation District
DeBenneville Pines
Running Springs County Wafnr
District
CEDU Foundation
City of Riverside
Loma Linda University (Riverside)
Rubidoux Community Services
District
Jurupa Community Services
District
Mira Loma Space Center
City of Corona
U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory
and California Rehabilitation
Center
Edgemont Community Services
District
City of Fontana
Western Pacific Services Company
Cucamonga County Water District
Western Pacific Services Company
Cities of Ontario - Upland
City of Chino
California Institution for Women
California Institution for Men
City of Elsinore
1 .05
0.015
0.50
0.005
16.5
0.166
0.9
0.88
0.115
2.75
1 .52
0.2
2.50
0.015
1.50
0.13
11 .0
1 .94
0.14
0.80
0.50
Degree of
Treatment
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Pri
Ponds
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
Landfill
None
Landfill
None
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Disposal
Disposal and
Fertilizer
Disposal
Disposal
Disposal
Disposal
Fertilizer
None
Ponds
Ponds
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Fertilizer
Disposal
280
-------
TABLE 45(cont.)
Santa Clara River Basin
Plant Name E,ffluent
(MGD)
City of San Buenaventura
(Seaside)
Oakview Sanitary District
Montalvo Municipal Improve-
ment District
City of Oxnard
City of Port Hueneme
City of San Buenaventura
(Eastside Plant)
Pacific Missile Range, Point Mugu
Naval Construction Battalion Center
Port Hueneme
Camarillo Sanitary District
Camarillo State Hospital
City of Santa Paula
Saticoy Sanitary District
City of Fill more
Los Angeles City Department of
Recreation and Parks, Saugus
Rehabilitation Center
Los Angeles County Hospital
IjArwirtmon t
2.7
1.2
0.12
9.0
1.5
4.0
1.0
0.2
1.54
1.0
1.3
0.11
0.51
0.02
0.028
Degree of
Treatment
Pri
Sec
Sec
Pri
Pri
Sec
Pri
Pri
Sec
Sec
Pri
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
Soil con-
ditioner
Landfill
Landfill
Soil con-
ditioner
Landfill
Soil con-
ditioner
Soil con-
ditioner
Soil con-
ditioner
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department, Munz-Mendenhall
Camp
0.014
Sec
281
-------
TABLE 45 (cont.)
Santa Clara River Basin
Plant Name
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department, Wayside Honor
Rancho
Los Angeles County Sanitation
District
Los Angeles County Sanitation
District
Simi Valley Unified School
District, Knolls School
Moorpark County Sanitation
District
City of Thousand Oaks
(Hill Canyon Plant)
City of Thousand Oaks
(Olsen Road Plant)
Sanitation, Inc.
Ventura County Sheriff's Dept.
Valley Station
Los Angeles County Hospital
Department Antelope Valley
Rehabilitation Center
Los Angeles River Basin
Los Angeles County Engineer
(Malibu Canyon Plant)
Las Virgenes Municipal Water
District Tapia Plant
L.A. County Engineer Miller
Kirkpatrick Camp
Effluent
(MGD)
0.7
2.4
0.6
0.019
0.31
5.0
0.08
2.5
0.002
0.034
0.004
1.6
0.04
Degree of
Treatment
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
Ter
Sec
Pri
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
Fertilizer
Landfill
Disposed of
to Agricul-
tural Land
To Hyperion
Landfill
Spread on
Land
282
-------
TABLE 45 (cont.)
Los Angeles River Basin
Plant Name
Los Angeles County Engineer
Trancas Canyon Plant
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department Encinal Canyon
Plant
Los Angeles County Engineer
Lechuza Point Plant
Joint Water Pollution Control
Plant (JUPCP) - County Sani-
tation Districts of Los Angeles
County
City of Los Angeles Hyperion
Plant
City of Los Angeles Terminal
Island Plant
City of Los Angeles Valley
Settling Basin
County Sanitation District of
Los Angeles County (Los Coyotes
Water Reclamation)
County Sanitation District, Los
Angeles County Whittier Narrowsi
City of Los Angeles Griffith Park
Zoo
City of Burbank, Department of
Public Works
Las Virgenes Municipal Water
District Mulwood Plant
Los Angeles County Mechanical
^ _. __j ._ j_ f* _^. LJ _ 1 L. jut. ซ
Effluent
(MOD)
0.05
0.01
0.001
370
340
85
8
0.6
95
15.2
1.5
5.2
0.27
n nl/5
Degree of
Treatment
Pri
Pri
Sec
Pri
Pri
Sec
Pri
Sec
Sec
Sec
Pri
Sec
Sec
Pri
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
To Hyperion
Land
To Hyperion
Fertilizer
and Ocean
Ocean
Landfill
To Hyperion
To JWPCP
To JWPCP
To Hyperion
To Hyperion
Landfill
Landfill
283
-------
TABLE 45 (cent.)
Los Angeles River Basin
Plant Name
Crescenta Valley County Water
District, Lauterman Plant
Crescenta Valley County Water
District, Wiley Plant
Los Angeles County Sanitation
District #28
Los Angeles County Sanitation
District ^22
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department, Barley Flat Camp
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department, Tonbark Flat Camp
Los Angeles County Sanitation
District ^21 Pomona Water
Reclamation Plant
Effluent
(MGD)
0.030
0.112
0.17
0.7
0.01
0.012
10.0
Degree of
Treatment
Septic Tank
Sec
Sec
Sec
Sec
(To be rebuilt)
Sec
Sludge Dis-
posal Method
To Hyperion
To Hyperion
Landfill
To JWPCP
Landfill
To JWPCP
Los Angeles County Mechanical
Department, Paige Afflerbaugh
Camp
284
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To obtain these goals the Boards adopted twelve general principles and a number of
others concerning discharges to various types of water. The following are the general
principles: JU^' JUd
A) No current or proposed program which includes waste disposal to an aquatic
environment shall be considered an unchangeable solution.
B) The Board shall be aware at all times of the effects on the total environment:
water - land - air.
C) All water quality management systems throughout this region shall provide for
maximum waste water reclamation and reuse and shall consider discharge of
wastes to the aquatic environment only when wastewater reclamation is
precluded by processing costs or lack of need for reusable water.
D) The number of independent treatment facilities shall be minimized, and plans
shall direct these consolidated systems to maximize their capacities for
waste water reclamation, assure efficient management of wastes, and meet
potential demands for reclaimed water.
E) Waste water reclamation, waste discharges, and ground water basin replenish-
ment with imported waters will be considered with maximum emphasis on pro-
tection and enhancement of ground water quality.
F) Existing and future discharge pipelines extending into tidal waters shall be
ultimately used to provide only failsafe protection against the breakdown of
reclamation systems, to discharge excess water beyond the market for
reclaimed water, or to provide for interim disposal during development of a
market for reclaimed water.
G) Land use practices, including agricultural practices, must assure protection
of beneficial water uses and the aquatic environment.
H) Promote rapid development of treatment and discharge systems to provide for
failsafe protection of beneficial uses and the aquatic environment during the
interim period leading to maximum reuse of freshwaters.
I) Source control and pretreatment to minimize toxicants and biostimulants will
be required.
J) Dumping from vessels in the open ocean and coastal waters, by any person
subject to the Jurisdiction of the State, and which may affect the quality of
said waters, shall not constitute a satisfactory permanent plan for the disposal
of wastes. This shall be phased out as rapidly as possible.
285
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K) Where reliable values are available, numerical limitations on constituents
in effluents will be used in discharge requirements. Where these are not
available, studies must be made to develop them.
L) The transport of hazardous materials shall be conducted in such a manner to
fully safeguard beneficial uses from the effects of accidental spillage, or
leakage.
Since the goals state that beneficial uses and aquatic environments are to be protected
and that reclamation and reuse of waste water is to be at the maximum practical level,
certain substances must not be present in sewage treatment plant influent. Therefore,
industrial wastes which contain these substances must be pretreated where source control
cannot be achieved. The following are the principles under which this source control
or pretreatment should take place:
A) Industrial and municipal effluents shall be so treated as to assure essentially
complete removal of the following substances:
Chlorinated hydrocarbons
Toxic substances
Harmful substances that may enter food webs
Excessive heat
Radioactive substances
Grease, oil, and phenolic compounds
Excessively acidic and basic substances
Heavy metals such as lead, copper, zinc, mercury,
or mercury compounds.
Other deleterious substances.
B) Sewering entities are encouraged to implement comprehensive regulations to
prohibit the discharge to the sewer system of substances listed in paragraph
"A" which may be controlled at their source.
C) Sewering entities are encouraged to implement comprehensive industrial waste
ordinances to control the quantity and quality of organic compounds, suspended
and settleable substances, dissolved solids, and all other materials which may
result in overloading of the municipal waste treatment facility.
D) Applicants for State and Federal grants for construction of waste treatment
facilities shall be required to submit proof of implementation of adequate
source control and industrial waste ordinances.
The following are the principles for the discharge of effluents to various types of water.
The first set applies to tidal waters:
286
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1) The quality of all tidal waters of this region shall be such as to permit maximum
recreational use where such use is practicable.
2) Natural water quality shall be maintained in coastal areas within a l
ne
1,000 feet from the mean low water line or to the depth of 18 feet, whichever
is the greater, and within all areas of special significance.
3) There shall be no effluents discharged into areas which possess unique or
uncommon cultural, scenic, aesthetic, historical, or scientific values. Such
areas shall be designated in water quality control plans adopted by the
Regional Board or designated by the State Board after consideration of
recommendations by the Regional Board, and public hearing.
4) Effluents discharged to tidal waters shall contain no materials which are
hazardous to human life or harmful to aquatic life as a result of accumulation
in the environment or the food webs.
5) Effluents of quality suitable for disposal shall be discharged into deep areas
below established thermoc lines through diffusion systems designed to disperse
waste constituents and assure against their return to inshore areas in recogniz-
able form.
6) Waste discharge requirements shall take into consideration additive or
accumulative effects of adfacent discharges.
7) Effluents containing dissolved salts in excess of concentrations in the receiving
water shall be discharged in a manner and at locations and temperatures which
will assure the well-being of aquatic organisms.
8) The discharge of residual indus trial and municipal effluents will be permitted
only after submission of a detailed environmental impact study which
conclusively shows that all practical steps have been taken to control the
entrance of toxicants into the system, and that the resultant discharge will
not adversely affect aquatic environments or beneficial uses of water.
9) The discharge of sewage sludge to tidal waters shall be discontinued at the
earliest possible date.
Discharges to bays:
1) All provisions of "Tidal Waters, " shall be applicable to bays unless more
restrictive provisions are contained within this section.
2) Discharge of effluent to bays shall be discontinued prior to January 1 , 1976
unless such effluent is so treated as to assure essentially complete removal of
the following:
287
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Suspended, floatable, or settleable material
Objectionable colors, tastes, or odors
Conservative or acute toxicants, or other toxicants in sub-lethal
concentrations which may adversely affect marine organisms
Infectious materials and pathogens, including those which may taint or render
poisonous fish and shellfish
Radioactive materials
Discharges to estuaries:
1) All provisions of "Tidal Waters, " shall be applicable to estuaries unless more
restrictive provisions are contained within this section.
2) Discharge of effluent to tidal estuaries shall be discontinued prior to
January 1, 1976, unless such effluent is treated so as to assure essentially
complete removal of the following:
Suspended, floatable, or settleable material
Objectionable colors, tastes or odors
Conservative or acute toxicants, or other toxicants in sub-lethal concentra-
tions which may adversely affect marine organisms
Infectious materials and pathogens, including those which may taint or render
poisonous fish and shellfish
Radioactive materials
Biostimulants that will promote significant growth and reproduction of unde-
sirable or dangerous organisms
Discharges to fresh waters:
1) The discharge of effluents into surface fresh waters shall be discontinued unless
it can be demonstrated that the effluent is of a quality which will assure the
continued beneficial uses of the receiving waters.
2) Waste treatment and disposal projects should provide for maximum reuse of
effluents by irrigation of agricultural lands.
Discharges to ground water:
1) Waste waters percolated into the groundwaters shall be of such quality at the
point where they enter the ground so as to assure the continued usability of
all ground water of the State.
288
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2) The discharge shall not contain toxic substances in excess of accepted drink-
ing water standards.
3) All taste and odor-producing substances shall be regulated to protect the
beneficial uses of the receivi ng waters.
4) Control of salinity shall be strictly regulated to prevent problems of adverse
salt balance.
5) Land discharge systems shall be designed for and be capable of year-round
operation.
6) The discharge shall not contain nitrogen or nitrogenous compounds in amounts
which could result in nitrate concentration in the ground waters above
45 mg/l.
7) Ground water recharge with high quality water shall be encouraged.
8) Disposal of economically reclaimable waste water by evaporation shall be
discouraged.
Implementation Plan for Controls
The major thrust of the implementation plan is toward the minimum number of sewage
treatment plants with the maximum amount of water reclamation. The two Regional
Boards of the State Water Resources Control Board annually publish a project list of
needed sewerage project for each of the succeeding five years. The projects are
scheduled according to the following criteria: JU^' JUJ
A) Those needed to correct existing water quality or water pollution problems
or to conform to an area-wide sewage collection plan will be scheduled at
the earliest practicable date.
B) Projects affecting a common receiving water or that can be logically included
in an areawide or consolidated system will be scheduled as close together in
time as water quality needs permit.
C) Treatment plants nearing flow or treatment design capacity will be scheduled
so the expanded facilities will be available before a problem develops.
D) Water reclamation projects which beneficially improve water quality and
which conserve water resources through feasible reuse will be scheduled as
soon as practicable.
289
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E) Not foregoing any of the above criteria, projects will be scheduled for a
uniform level of construction for each fiscal year within the five-year period.
In order to achieve effective water quality management, three categories of water
quality monitoring are required. First, to insure that optimum treatment efficiencies
and compliance with waste discharge requirement are obtained, monitoring of individual
treatment plants is necessary. Second, to insure that the state water quality criteria
are met and maintained, the receiving waters must be monitored. Third, the effects on
water quality of re-routing the state's waters through water resource development projects
must be determined. Within the region there are more than 150 monitoring sites including
the on-site monitoring of individual sewage treatment plants. Readings at the former
sites are taken for various pollutants on a time table which varies from semi-monthly
for some pollutants, to annually for others.3"2'' 303
Intermedia Alternatives
Sludge disposal represents the most obvious transfer from the water to an alternate
medium. Since there is very little free fresh surface water in the region, and the little
that does exist is either in small mountain streams or in artificial lakes serving as the
metropolitan water supply, there is practically nothing suitable for waste water discharge.
Therefore, practically all municipal and industrial waste water is discharged to sewer
systems.^Z fa rne present time, between 50 and 65 percent of the sludge generated in
the region is disposed to the land, either in landfills or as soil conditioner or fertilizer.
The majority of the remainder is presently disposed of by the City of Los Angeles Hyperion
plant through an ocean outfall. The City has been ordered by the Environmental Protec-
tion Agency and the State Water Resources Control Board to eliminate this ocean discharge
of sludge. The City was required to present a program, by July 1972, to achieve this
end and to implement the program by January 1 974.306 Because of the strict emissions
standards for air discharges, incineration of the sludge was immediately discontinued.
Since no manufacturer of incineration equipment produces a unit capable of incinerating
sludge within the established emission limits, the only available medium for discharge
is the land. The City has proposed two alternatives for land disposal, either sanitary
landfills or spreading on the land as a soil conditioner and fertilizer. 3"ฐ
The City eliminated a third alternative of mixing digested sewage sludge with refuse in
sanitray landfills as impractical. This alternative is further explored in the evaluation
below the data base for some of the City's assumptions seem to be incomplete. The
reason this alternative was eliminated by the City was an estimated lack of solid refuse
with which to mix the sludge. The City's calculations are summarized below: 306
(a) Gallons of liquid/ton of refuse to reach full capacity = 134.5 gal/ton
(b) Gallons of 4 percent slurry produced by Hyperion Plant per/day = 1 ,200,000 gal
(c) Tons refuse required for mixing (b T a) = 8900 tons/day
290
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(d) Refuse collected by City sanitation and street maintenance = 4960 tons/day
(e) Ratio of required refuse to available refuse (b + c) =1.8
The conclusion therefore was that this alternative is not feasible. There are, however
some other considerations. Recent Investigations in the City
of Oceanside, California, indicates a load factor of 0.5 to 1 .5 pounds of slurry per
pound of solid waste.^6 The ratio used by the City, 134.5 gal/ton, is approximately
1120 Ibs/ton or a oad factor of 0.56. Since the field capacity of refuse comes from
0.5 to 1 .5 depending on its composition, this is a properly conservative figure. In
1 970 only 81 0,000 gal per day of 4 percent slurry was generated rather than 1,200,000
gallons/day. In that same year the refuse collection was much higher than the 1,800,000
tons estimated, since this amount includes only the refuse collected by the sanitation
and street maintenance departments, i.e.,the domestic refuse, and omits the commercial
refuse collected by private haulers. The latter probably equalled the amount of the
former/since the estimated 1 .8 million tons amounts to only 3.5 pounds per capita day
for the City's 2.8 million inhabitants. The total solid waste generated in Los Angeles
County is 7.5 pounds per capita day.322 Even if this ratio is no higher in the City
than in the County, the total produced in the City would be about 3.8 million tons of
refuse. Therefore it seems that mixing digested sludge with refuse is a feasible alternative
at present. A separate projection of solid waste generation should be made to compare
with anticipated future sludge generation. This alternative is the least costly and would
result in no significant increase in landfill acreage needed. The 4 percent slurry would
aid in the compaction and stabilization of the solid waste. The recent
investigations indicate that no significant leaching or other intermedia transfer would
result if the mixing is carried out in properly designed and operated landfills/and if there
would be no direct contact with underground water flows. ^ฐ
The disposal of sludge cake in sanitary landfills (the first alternative) would create 642
cubic yards of sludge cake per day for 1 970 sewage volumes. This would increase to
1130 cubic yards per day in the year 2000.306 Dewatering the sludge by vacuum filters
would cost an estimated $907,700 annually or $12.40 per dry ton. Alternate dewatering
systems are centrifugation (annual cost $1 ,123,000 or $15.40 per dry ton) and sludge
drying beds ($45 per dry ton).306 The addition of this sludge cake to sanitary landfills
would not result in a significant increase in landfill volume required,as the slurry would
tend to be absorbed and to fill in the voids in the refuse. Two methods of carrying out
this alternative are to dry the sludge at the Hyperion plant and transport it by truck
to the landfills, or to transport the liquid sludge by pipeline or railway to a landfill site
and then dewater it. Tables 46 and 47 show transportation times and costs for these
alternatives. In properly managed landfills, this alternative would properly result in no
significant leaching or runoff problems.
Agricultural spreading, according to the study made by the City, would require 6 1 00
acres to spread the sludge if the treatment plant effluent were used as a earner after de-
nitrification. Without denitrification, this same study indicates 31 000 acres would be
required because of a limitation on the nitrogen application to the land. Research by
291
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Ralph Stone and Company indicates that this limitation is not so severe, and that less
land would thus be needed. Using only the transported 4 percent slurry the land re-
quirement would be 10,500 acres. The City chose to evaluate the 6,100 acre alter-
native with denitrification of the sewage plant effluent and mixture with the sludge.
They chose to evaluate transporting it to a city owned farm in the Lancaster - Palmdale
area and the importation of 33 million gallons per day of dimitrified effluent for the
6,1 00 acres in order to be able to utilize 1 .4 million gallons per day of 4 percent
slurry. The cost of transporting this water makes this alternative prohibitive, and the
City rejected this alternative. These high costs seem to be created by the method
chosen for the Agricultural Plan an assumed City-owned farm in a water deficient
area. An in-depth study should be made of the possibility of transporting the slurry
to various agricultural areas for mixing with irrigation water by agreement with local
farmers participating in a program with the City.
Three methods of transportation of the sludge to the final disposal site have been in-
vestigated. These methods are truck, pipeline and railroad. For economical trucking,
the sludge must be dewatered to a cake of 75 percent moisture, and a slurry of 4
percent and 8 percent solid content for pipeline and railroad, respectively.
Table 46 shows the distances and travel time to various sanitary landfills which were
evaluated as disposal sites for the sludge. The cost for disposal to one landfill site
is shown in comparison to other transportation methods and disposal sites in Table 47 .
306
Disposal
Site
1 - Mission
Sepulveda
2 - Calabasas
3- Puente Hills
4- Palos Verdes
5 - Lopez Canyon
TABLE 46
Site
Classification
Class II
Class I
Class II
Class I
Class II
Round Trip
Distance
40 miles
61 miles
62 miles
28 miles
69 miles
Round Trip
Time
1 hr. -44min.
2 hrs.-43min.
2hrs.-50min.
1 hr. -16min.
3 hrs. - 5 min.
The piping of sludge could take place in two ways. The proposed site would be the
Lancaster-Palmdale area, and the pumping of the sludge would be accomplished in
either of two ways. In one, only the sludge solids and the water necessary for transport
would be pumped; in the other, an agricultural facility is assumed at the end of the
pipeline which would require more water than is either available in the Antelope Valley
area or from the transport of the sludge. This remaining need of 33 mgd would have to
be supplied from the Los Angeles Basin and would require a larger pipeline and more
pumping stations.
292
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TABLE 47 306
COST SUMMARY OF LONG TERM SLUDGE DISPOSAL ALTERNATIVES
PRESENT WORTH IN DOLLARS
ALTERNATIVES
Truck to Mission Sepulveda
Sanitary Landfill:
Trucking Operation-1 975 (9 units)
2000 (13 units)
Dewatering Operation
Total Operation
Capital
Costs
O &M
Costs
Total
Costs
Equivalent
Annual
Cost
1,576,000 13,201,OOO2 14,776,000 1,156,000
3,012,000 9,684,000 12,696,000 993,000
4,587,000 22,885,000
47,322,000 53,375,000
Pump to Lancaster-Pa I mda I e Area for
Agricultural Use (6100 Acres)
(includes water)
Pump to Lopez Canyon Sanitary Landfill 8,109,000 15,501,000
27,472,000 2,149,000
100,697,000 78,800,000
23,610,000 1,847,000
18,598,000 1,455,000
d) Coachella Valley
e) Edwards Air Force Base
Cost Per Dry Ton
1
15.83
13.61
29,44
108.003
25.304
19.93
Pump to Lancaster-Pa I mda I e 15,746,000 2,852,000
Rail to any of the following disposal sites (40 to 80 tank cars):
a) Bakersfield
b) Boron
c) Eagle Mountain
1 . Average of approximately 200 Dry Tons/Day between 1975 and the year 2000.
2. Includes Disposal Fee costs.
3. Includes the net cost of pumping 30 mgd of irrigation waters, excluding potential income from the sale of water
and aqricultural products, and does not include the purchase of land.
4. Includes dewatering facilities at the disposal site.
-------
Six sites were evaluated to receive sewage sludge via railroad. These are shown in
Table 47 . The sludge is intended to be used for agricultural purposes at El Centre,
Coachella Valley, Edwards Air Force Base, and Bakersfield. At the remaining two
sites, Boron and Eagle Mountain, the sludge is considered to be used for land re-
clamation at past sites of mining activities by the Borax Company and the Kaiser Steel
Company.306
This firm has recently completed a feasibility study dealing with sewage sludge handling
and disposal for the Ventura Regional County Sanitation District. The basic conclusions
are that, at the present time, disposal to Class I sanitary landfills offers the best, most
economical solution to the sludge disposal problems. The Oxnard plant is building an
Incinerator for its sludge; however, on the whole it is felt that landfill and, to a
lesser degree, agricultural uses and land reclamation are more economically and
ecologically sound. Several plants in Ventura County stockpile dried sludge and
allow farmers and commercial users to haul it away, thereby saving the cost of trans-
portation and final disposal.' The costs of disposal of sewage sludge vary according
to which of two systems (a combined regional system or individual plants), two methods
of transportation (truck and pipeline), and two final disposal methods (landfill and
agricultural land)is employed. The costs per dry ton of sewage sludge are given in
Table 48.307
Impacts of Intermedia Transfer
The disposal of dewatered sewage sludge in a sanitary landfill differs to some extent
from ordinary dry refuse disposal in that sludge contains a moisture content of about
75 percent, biodegradable organic material/and possibly heavy metals and chlorinated
hydrocarbons. These factors, as well as others, must be considered when evaluating
the environmental effects of digested sludge disposal to landfill. Care must be taken
to insure that contiguous areas, groundwater,and the atmosphere are not degraded
by movement of moisture although this is also true for ordinary landfills. The long
term plan will include landfill, land reclamation, and agricultural soil conditioning.
A complete environmental impact statement will be needed to determine the effect
of these proposals. ^ฐ
OA7
The Ventura County sludge disposal study also mentions the leachate problem and
the danger of disease carried flies and rodents. The report recommends that the sludge
be covered daily with 6 inches of earth to reduce this risk. Also, it is reported that
pathogens are not found at depths of greater than 7 feet in soil; if the ground water
is below this level there is little danger of pathogenic contamination. However,
other types of pollutants, such as heavy metals, can percolate to greater depths.307
Another environmental trade-off which must be considered concerns the method of
transportation of the sludge to the disposal site. The use of trucks, even under the
strict 1975 emission standards, produces more than 17 times the air pollution of a natural
gas fired power plant producing the power to pump the sludge. However, the truck
pollution is distributed over the length of the trip (4 to 20 miles),while the power plant
is a point source.3^7 The trade-off considerations are shown in Table 49 .
294
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TABLE 48 307
COST OF VARIOUS TRANSPORTATION AND DISPOSAL METHODS
Alternate 1 - Combined System
Dollars/dry ton sludge solids
Pipeline Truck
(10,000 gal)
Landfill 8.38 12.53/
Agricultural Land 3.60/ 6.15/
Alternative 2 - Individual System
Pipeline Truck
(10,000 gal)
Landfill
Simi Valley 12.36
Thousand Oaks 27.94
Camarillo 60.37 9.92
Fillmore 304.21
Santa Paula 97.63
Oxnard 35.68 13.17
Oak View 91 .75 14.20
Ventura 18.91
Agricultural land under Alternative 2 is not feasible due to high costs.
295
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307
TABLE 49
ENERGY RELATED POLLUTION FOR SLUDGE TRANSPORTATION
Air
pollutant
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen oxides
Sulfur oxides
Carbon monoxide
Particulates
Totals
Truck
No controls
590
3,650
250
3,100
230
7,820+
Source quantity, Ibs/yr
haul Energy for
1975 controls* pumping in pipeline
59
365
25
310
23
782+
4
39
neg
neg
2
45+
* 1975 standards require 90 percent reductions.
+ For transporting 9,350 tons of dry solids based on 1975 quantities.
296
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IMPACTS OF AIR AND WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
ON SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Most current methods of controlling air and water pollution create residues in solid form
and the impact of these controls on the quantities of solid waste generated in the
region is significant. In recent years, the solid waste collected in the region has
increased sharply, especially the wastes from commercial and industrial sources. Figure
28 presents the pounds per capita per day of various categories of solid wastes collected
in the City of Los Angeles in 1957/58 and in 1970. Total residential solid wastes
increased from 2.28 pounds to 2.5 pounds per capita per day.330/322 A decline per
capita amounts of garbage collected was offset by increases in combustible and
noncombustible rubbish. It should be pointed out that this time span occurred after
backyard burning was prohibited in 1957, so that the 1957-58 figures for domestic
refuse already include the increase caused by the law. Industrial and commercial
wastes collected increased from 2.38 pounds per capita day in 1957-58 to 5.0 pounds
per capita day in 1970.330' 322 During this period industrial incineration has been
slowly phased out, and stricter air pollution controls are producing more solid residues.
Figure 29 illustrates the intermedia alternatives for solid waste management. Incinera-
tion and recycling, two methods which reduce residues disposed to the land, have been
mostly eliminated in recent years. Previously the City collected tin and glass products
separately, but this is no longer true. Garbage grinders, which transfer solids to the
water,are increasingly popular.
Recent decisions by the EPA and the State of California will require the City of Los
Angeles to discontinue the discharge of sewage sludge to the ocean. This will result
in increased amounts deposited in landfill sites or spread on agricultural land. This
will not be an unmanageable burden on the landfill sites (see discussion of intermedia
alternatives in Intermedia Water Pollutants in Section IX, the Regional Case Study).
Approximately 10,000 tons per day of solid waste are collected in the City of Los
Angeles, while only 200 tons per day of dry solids would be generated for disposal by
the Hyperion plant.306 Since municipal solid wastes are about 20 percent water322
based on wet weight, the increase in solids disposed to landfills will only be about
200 dry tons/day from sewage plant _
10,000 wet tons collected in City x 0.80 wef
No voJjjme increase would be anticipated based on recent research investiqa-
Hons?22Air pollution controls, however, generate a very significant increase in solid
wastes. Figure 30 illustrates the impact by showing what the effect would be of a
return to post incineration practices for solid wastes collected in Los Angeles. Previous
to 1957-58 about 60 percent of combustible rubbish was burned and left 10 percent of
the burned material as ash. If this were done today, it would result in a clear case of
0.97 pounds/capita day In residential solid waste,and would reduce the amount
collected from 2.5 pounds to 1.53 pounds per capita day. About 50 percent of Industrial
and commercial rubbish was previously burned, and left 10 percent of the burned
297
-------
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
oo
CO
LU
o
l/l
1.0
2.5
ฃ2-1 A
LOS /
5.0
1957/58
1970
2.38
1.8
1 ,55
0.35
0.13
;
0.57
0
J2Z
3
1^5 (ETTC) (d)
Total* Garbage Combus- Non-Combustible**
Residential Hble Rubbish Rubbish
NOTE: a = b + c + d
*1 957/58 includes 2.08 Ib/capita/day + 0.2 Ibs/capita/day
recycled tin and glass. No recycling in 1970.
**1 957/58 includes 0.2 Ib/capita/day recycled tin and glass
plus ashes. No separation of tin and glass in 1970.
Industrial and
Commercial
FIGURE 28
IBS PER CAPITA SOLID
WASTE GENERATION
CITY OF LOS ANGELES
298
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Air Pollutant
Sources
Residential
Rubbish
Residential
Garbage
Industrial and
Commercial
Combustible
Rubbish
Industrial and
Commercial
Non-Combus-
tible Rubbish
Re-use in
Industrial
Processes
Water
Pollutant
Sources
ro
Recycling
of
Tin and
Glass
f Water )
FIGURE 29
IMPACT OF SOLID WASTE
HANDLING PROCEDURES ON INTERMEDIA
MANAGEMENT
-------
5.0L
< 4.0
oo
LLJ
I
OO
3.0._
ง2.0
O
00
1.0
5.0
1970 Actual
1 970 with pre 1
incineration ratios
'
2.5
1.8
1.53
.13 .13
0.83
0.57 0.57
.75
4.28
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (a+e)
Total Garbage Combus- Non-Com- Industrial** Total to
Residential tible Rubbish* bustible and Com- Remain as
Rubbish mercial Solids
NOTE: a = b + c + d
* 60 percent incineration and 10 percent of volume disposed as ash.
**50 percent incineration and 10 percent of volume disposed as ash.
FIGURE 30
IMPACT OF NON-INCINERATION
ON SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL
TO LANDFILLS IN LOS ANGELES
300
-------
material as ash. If this were done today, it would result in a decrease of 2.25 pounds
per capita day in commercial and industrial solid wastes, and would reduce the amount
collected from 5.0 pounds to 2.75 pounds per capita day. The combined input of a
return to residential, commercigl, and industrial burning would reduce solid wastes
in Los Angeles from 7.5 pounds to 4.28 pounds per capita day, a 43 percent reduction.
It is difficult to specify how much of the 2.62 pounds per capita day increase in
industrial and commercial solid wastes, shown in Figure 28, is the result of the
elimination of industrial incinerators and how much is the result of more stringent
pollution controls on industrial processes.
301
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SECTION X
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sincere appreciation is expressed for the able direction and assistance given to us by
The Environmental Protection Agency's Project Officer, Dr. Roger Shull. We also wish
to express our thanks to the Los Angeles Air Pollution Control District and the Southern
California Association of Governments for their close cooperation and valued help in
providing the needed data for the regional study.
302
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SECTION XI
REFERENCES
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Washington, D.C. (1960).
365. O'Mara, R., Iron and Steel Engineering, 30,p. 100 (1953).
366. Thring, M.W., and Sarjant, R.J., Iron and Coal Trades Review, 174, p. 731
(1957).
367. Meadley, A.H., and Calvin, J.G., Iron and Steel Institute (London) Special
Report, 61 (1958).
368. Hum, R.W., "Mobile Combustion Sources," in Air Pollution, Vol. Ill, 2nd Ed.,
Stern, A.C., Ed., Academic Press, New York (1968).
369. Kuhlman, A., Staub, 24, p. 121 (1964).
370. Rehm, I.R., Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 6 p 199 (1957).
371. Kantes, C.V., Luncke, R.G., and Ludwick, A. P., Journal of the Air Pollution
Control Association, 6, p. 191 (1957).
329
-------
372. Kaiser, E.R., Holit-sky, J., Jacobs, M.B., and McCabe, L.C. Journal of the
Air Pollution Control Association, 10 (1 960).
373. Elkin, H., "Petroleum Refining Emissions," In Air Pollution, Vol. Ill, 2nd Ed.,
Stern, A.C., ed., Academic Press, New York (1968).
374. U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, the Sources of Air
Pollution and Their Control, P.H.S. Pub. 1548, Washington, D.C. (1966).
375. Rohrman, L.A., Ludwig, J.H., and Steigerwald, B.J., SC>2 Emissions in the
United States (I960), National Center for Air Pollution Control Memorandum
TT967J:
376. National Academy of Engineering, Abatement of Sulfur Dioxide Emission from
Stationary Combustion Sources (1970).
377. Faith, W.L., Los Angeles Air Pollution Board Report, 8 (1954).
378. Gestle, R.W., and Kemnitz, D.A., "Atmospheric Emissions from Open Burning,"
Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 17, p 324 (1967).
379. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Industrial Waste Profile for a Total Environment Canned and Frozen Fruits and
Vegetables, Washington, D.C. (1967).
380. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Current Practice in Seafoods Processing
Waste Treatment, WPC Research Series, Washington, D.C. (1970).
381 . U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
Textile Mill Products fora Total Environment Washington, D.C. (1967).
382. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
The Cost of Clean Water Vol. Ill, No. 2 Washington, D.C. (1967).
383. Kleppe, P.J., and Rogers, C.N., Survey of Water Utilization and Waste
Control Practices in the Southern Pulp and Paper Industry, University of North
Carolina Water Resources Institute (1970).
384. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill, No. 3, Washington, D.C. (1967).
385. U.S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill No. 10, Washington, D.C. (1967).
386. Anonymous, "Environmental Effects of Producing Electric Power," Hearings
Before the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy 91st Congress, Vol. II (1970)
330
-------
387. U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, State of Arkansas Sugar Beef Processing
Waste Treatment, WPC Research Series, Washington, D. C. (1971).
388. U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill, No. 8, Washington, D. C. (1967).
389. Johnson, E.L., and Peniston, Q.P., "Pollution Abatement and By-product
Recovery in the Shellfish Industry," Proceedings, Second National Symposium
on Food Processing Wastes (1971).
390. Anonymous, White Water Wastes from Paper and Paperboatd Mills: Pollution
Sources and Method of Treatment, (1970). (New England Interstate Water
Pollution Control Commission)
391. Johnson, E. L., and Peniston, O. P., "Pollution Abatement and By-product
Recovery in the Shellfish Industry," Proceedings 2nd National Symposium on
Food Processing Wastes (1971).
392. U. S. Department of the Interior, Federal Water Pollution Control Administration,
The Cost of Clean Water, Vol. Ill, No. 1, Washington, D. C. (1967).
393. Logsden, J. E., and Robinson, T. L., Radioactive Waste Discharges to the
Environment from Nuclear Power Facilities, Addendum 1, E.P.A. Office of
Radiation Programs, Washington, D. C. (1971).
394. Mills, S. L, Leudtke, K. D., Woolrich, P. I., and Perry, L. B., Emissions
of Oxides of Nitrogen from Stationary Sources in Los Angeles County, Los
Angeles Air Pollution Control District, Report 3 (1961).
395. Vanhaven, F. E., and Segelis, G. G., Industrial Engineering and Chemistry,
37, p 816 (1945).
396. Anonymous, Emissions of Oxides of Nitrogen from Stationary Sources in
Los Angeles, County, Reports 1 and 2 (1960).
397. Anonymous, Emissions in the Atmosphere from Petroleum Refineries, Los Angeles
Air Pollution Control District Report 7, p 23 (1958).
398. Lund, H. I., ed., Industrial Pollution Control Handbook, McGraw-Hill, New
York (1971).
399. Kl~ปr^r N. L. . Theories and Practices of Industrial Waste Treatment, Addison-
Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts. (1963).
400. Heukelekian, H., "Treatment of Rice Water," Industrial and Chemical Engineering,
j42, p 647 (1950).
331
-------
401. Horton, R. K., Pachelo, M., and Santana, M. I., "Study of the Treatment
of the Wastes from the Preparation of Coffee," paper presented at the Inter-
American Regional Conference on Sanitary Engineering, Caracas, Venezuela
(1946).
402. Masselli, J. W., Masselli, N. W., and Burford, N.G.,A Simplification of
Textile Waste Survey and Treatment, New England Interstate Water Pollution
Control Commission (1959).
403. Black, O. R., "Study of Wastes from Synthetic Rubber Industry," Sewage Works
Journal, 18, p 1169 (1946).
404. Smith, R. S., and Walker, W. W., Survey of Liquid Wastes from Munitions
Manufacturing, United States Public Health Service, Reprint 2508, Washington,
D. C.
405. American Petroleum Institute "1967 Domestic Refinery Effluent Profile" (1968).
406. Masselli, J. W., and Burford, M. G., "Pollution Reduction Program for the
Textile Industry," Sewage and Industrial Wastes," 28, p 1273 (1956).
407. MIT Study of Critical Environmental Problems, Man's Impact On the Global
Environment, MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. (1970).
408. United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, "Acid Mine
Drainage," report for Committee on Public Works, House of Representatives,
87th Congress, House Committee Print No. 18 (1962).
409. "Cost of Clean Air," First Report to Congress by the Secretary of Health,
Education,and Welfare, in Compliance with Public Law 90-148 (1969).
410. "Cost of Clean Air," Second Report to Congress by the Secretary of Health,
Education, and Welfare, in compliance with Public Law 90-148 (1970).
411. Water Information Center, Water Encyclopedia, New York (1970).
332
-------
SECTION XII
APPENDIX
Page
Table I: Economic Output of SIC-coded Industries 334
Table II: Physical Output of SIC-coded Industries 338
333
-------
GJ
APPENDIX
SIC Code
01
02
08
10
11
12
13
14
15-17
TABLE 1 INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - DOLLARS
Description Basis Dollars
Agricultural Production - Crops $22,609 x 10"
Agricultural Production - Livestock $30,454 x 106
Forestry
Metal Mining
Anthracite Mining
Bitum Coal and Lignite Mining
Oil and Gas Extract
Non-metallic Mining except Fuels
Construction $1 09,399 x 1 06
Year Reference
1 971 276
1 971 276
1 971 276
20 Total (T)
201-202 Meat and Dairy Products .3971
203 Preserved Fruits and Vegetables .1123
204 Grain Mill Products .1102
20 misc.
21 Tobacco Mfg.
22-23 Textiles 22 only
24 Lumber and Wood Products
26 Paper and Allied Products
101,737xl06
40,397 x 10ฐ
Il,427xl06
11,211 x10ฐ
5,346xl06
24,472 xlO6
13,009x 106
25,362 x 106
1971
1971
1971
1970
1971
1970
1971
276
347
347
347
347
276
347
276
-------
TABLE i INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - DOLLARS(Cont.)
SIC Code
28
281
282
283
2873
2874
2879
2895
2899
CO
01 Misc . 28
29
291
295
Misc 29
31
32
324
Description Basis
Total (T)
Industrial and Inorganic Chemicals .3228 x T =
Plastic Materials and Synthetics .1784 x T =
Drugs . 1 374 x T =
Nitrogenous Fertilizers
Phosphatic Fertilizers
Agricultural Chemicals n.e.c.
Carbon Black .040 x T =
Chemical Preparations n.e.c. .0328 x T =
Total (T)
Petroleum Refining .9152 xT =
Paving and Roofing Material .0578 x T =
Leather and Leather Products
Total (T)
Cement, Hydraulic .0816
Dollars
$ 52,170 xlO6
1 6,836 x 106
9,306 x 106
7,195x 106
208 x 1 06
1,71 Ox 106
25,777xl06
23, 590 x 106
1 ,489 x 1 06
5,282 x 106
1 9,766 x 106
l,612x 106
Year
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1970
1971
1971
Reference
276
347
347
347
274
274
276
347
347
347
276
347
-------
TABLE I INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - DOLLARS (Cont.)
SIC Code
325
327
Misc. 32
33
331
332
333
w 334
0^
336
34
36
37
40
41
42
44
45
491
Description Basis
Structural Clay .0622 x T =
Concrete, Gypsum and Plaster .3503 x T =
Products
Total (T)
Blast Furnace and Steel Products .4701 x T =
Iron and Steel Foundries .0882 x T =
Primary Non-Ferrous Metals .1137 x T =
Secondary Non-Ferrous Metals .0339 x T =
Non-Ferrous Foundries-Castings .0375 x T =
Fabricated Metal Products
Electrical and Electronic Equipment
Transportation Equipment
Railroad Transportation
Passenger Transportation
Trucking
Water Transportation
Air Transportation
Electric Services
Dollars
$ 1,230 x
6,924x
55,083 x
25,897 x
4,856x
6,265 x
1,865 x
2,067x
38,454 x
51 ,706 x
79,562 x
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
106
Year
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
Reference
347
347
276
347
347
347
347
347
276
276
276
-------
TABLE I INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - DOLLARS (Cont.)
SIC Code
492
4952
4953
54
5541
All Others
Description Basis Dollars Year Reference
Gas Production and Distribution
Sanitary Services Including Sewerage
Refuse Systems
Food Stores
Gas Stations
a. In many cases only the 2-digit sic code level data were available for 1971, while a breakdown to 3 and 4 digit levels
were available for earlier years. In those cases the proportion of the 2-digit level output accounted for by the sub-
Go sect was multiplied by the 2-digit output for 1971 to get an estimate for the subsection in 1971 .
" that is - Let T = 1971 2-digit level output
A= sub-sector (3 or 4 digit level) output for year xx
B = 2-digit level output for year xx
Then the fraction in the basis columns A/B
and the Dollar column = A T
T ' '
Pl
Where reference 274 is used, the base year used for the A/B calculation was 1967; where reference
pi 4
347 was used the base year was 1970.
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL
Sic Code
01
0119
0115
0119
0112
0119
0111
0132
CO 01
CO
01
02
0241
0252
Description
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS-
Barley
Corn
Oats
Rice
Rye
Wheat
Tobacco Leaf
Agricultural Runoff
Grass Fires
AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS -
All Cattle
Milk Cows
Sheep and Lambs
Hogs and Pigs
Fluid Milk
Eggs
Agricultural Runoff
Cattle Days in Feedlots
Output Units
CROPS
Bushels
Bushels
Bushels
100 Ib Bags
Bushels
Bushels
Pounds
Liters
Tons Refuse
LIVESTOCK
1 OOO's Head on Farms
1 OOO's Head on Farms
1 OOO's Head on Farms
1 OOO's Head on Farms
Pounds
Cases (30 doz)
Liters
Cattle - Days
Quantity
462. 5 x 106
5540 x 1 06
876 x 106
84xl06
50. 9 x 106
1 640 x 1 06
1707 xlO6
117,916
12,279
18,482
62,972
1187640xl06
1 99 x 1 06
Year
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1/1/71
1/1/72
1/1/72
12/1/71
1971
1971
Reference
276
276
276
276
276
276
276
348
348
348
348
276
276
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cbnt.)
Sic Code Description
0252 Swine Days in Feedlots
08 FORESTRY
Forest Fires- Federal and Protected
Forest Fires - State and Private
National Forest burned
Protected burned
Unprotected burned
TOTAL Commercial Forest Land
CO
CO
-ฐ TOTAL Timber - board/feet on
TOTAL Timber burned0
10 METAL MINING
1011 Iron Ores
11 ANTHRACITE MINING
1111 Anthracite Mining
12 BITUMCOAL AND LIGNITE
Output Units
1 00 Ib Swine Days
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Acres
Available
above land
Tons
Large Tons
Production Short Tons
Quantity
l,719x 1
2,958x 1
117x 1
l,827x 1
733 x 1
499, 697 x 1
3,070 x 1
32,311 x 1
80,762 x
8,584
Year Reference
03
O3
O3 1 971 349
O3 1 971 349
O3 1 971 349
O3 1 970 349
09 1 970 349
O3 1970 349, 350
1 03 1 971 276
1 971 276
1211 Bitum, Coal
Production in Short Tons 548,321
1971
276
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code
Description
Output Units
Quantity
Year
Reference
OIL AND GAS EXTRACTIONS
1311 Crude Petroleum
1321 Natural Gas Plant Liquid
Barrels (bbl) 3,478.2 x 1 O6
New Supply Production
Barrels
623.9 x 106
1971
1971
276
276
14
NON METALLIC MINING EXCEPT FUELS
Crushed Stone
Crushed Steel Tons
876 x 1 Oc
1970
351
201, 202
MEAT AND DAIRY PRODUCTS
CO
^
O
2011
2013 Frozen Meats
2017 Frozen Poultry
2021 Butter, Creamery
2022 Cheese
2023 Condensed/Evaporated Milk
2023 Dry Mi Ik
2011 Meat Packed
2024 Ice Cream
2026 Fluid Milk
201 Meat Smoked
Pounds #203 Base Boxes 490 x 106 1971
Pounds 2,142xl06 1971
Pounds 1,143.6 xlO6 1971
Pounds 2,380.4xl06 1971
Pounds 1,242.7 xlO6 1971
Pounds 1,495.4 xlO6 1971
Pounds - Carcass Weight 36,207 x 1 O6 1971
Tons I,134xl06 1971
Tons
Tons
348
348
276
276
276
276
276
347
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (G>nt.)
Sic Code
201
2016
203
2037
2037
2037
2037
203
203
203
204
2041
Description
Hog Dress in.j (slaughtered)
Poultry Slaughtered
Output Units
Tons
Pounds
Quantity
5,440 x 1 03
1 0,357 xlO6
Year
1970
1971
Reference
352
276
PRESERVED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
Frozen Vegetables - without potatoes
Frozen Potatoes
Frozen Juices and Drinks
Frozen Fruits and Berries
Processed Vegetables
Processed Potatoes
Preserved and Canned Processed
Vegetables and Seafoods
GRAIN MILL PRODUCTS
Wheat Flour
Total Grain Processed
Corn Meal Processed
County elevators
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Tons
Tons
Pounds
1 00 Ib Sacks
Tons (@ 56 Ibs/bu)
Tons - Grain
Tons - Grain]
2,009 x 106
2,565xl06
5,480 x 1C6
666 x 106
34.3 xlO6
21 .9 x 106
14,250. 6 x 106
254,1 85 x 103
1 ,41 9 x 1 03
205,309x103
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1968
1968
1971
1971
348
348
348
348
353
354
222
222
349
349
Terminal elevators
Soybeans - Processed
Tons - Grain ]
Tons (@ 60 Ibs/bu)
35,080 x 103
1971
349
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
K>
Sic Code Description
2041 Barley Flour Milling
OTHER 20 FOOD PRODUCTION - MISC.
Frozen Sea Foods
Domestic Fish Catch - Total
Domestic Fish - Fresh and Frozen
Domestic Fish - Canned
Domestic Fish - Cured
Domestic Fish - Meat and Oil
Canned Sea Food
Cured Sea Food
Fresh and Frozen
Fish Oil
Oyster Shell - Lime
Scrap and Meal
2077 Animal Cooking - Misc. Fats and Oils
2076 Vegetable Oils
2061 -2 Cane Sugar - Raw
2063 Beet Sugar
Output Units
Tons
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Gallons
Tons
Tons
Pounds
Pounds
Tons
Tons
Quantity
192x 103
362 x 1 06
4,969x 106
1 ,487 x 1 06
I,063xl06
75 x 1 06
2,344x 106
l,351.9x 106
70.9 xlO6
l,157.7x 106
33,851 xlO3
11 0 x 1 03
292 xlO3
15,071.4xl06
1 8,465.6 xlO6
1 ,209 x 1 03
3,467x 103
Year
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1968
1968
Reference
349
347
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
276
276
222
222
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cbnt.)
Sic Code Description
209 Misc Food Preparations
Tuna - Canned and Cured
Bottomfish - Canned and Cured (excl.
tuna)
Shrimp - Canned and Cured
Coffee Beans - Green
22 TEXTILE MILL PRODUCTS
2211 Broad Woven Fabric Mills - Cotton
"
c*j 2221 Broad Woven Fabric Mills - Manmade
2231 Broad Woven Fabrics - Wool
22 Other Textiles - Federal Reserve
Cotton
Man-made
Wool
Cotton Mills
Cotton Mills
Output Units
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Bags (132.276lbseach)
Tons
Linear Yards
Linear Yards
Linear Yards
Linear Yards
Pounds
Pounds
Pounds
Bales
Tons at 480 lbsAa'e
Quantity
8,41 7 x 106
461 x 106
938. 7 x 106
22.1 x 106
21, 654 x 103
1 ,432 x 1 03
7,454x 106
5,280x 106
243.3 x 106
151 .5 x 106
3.947x 106
6,536x 106
1 91 x 1 06
11, 507 x 103
2,762 x lO3
Year
1968
1971
1971
1971
1970
1970
1968
1968
1968
1968
1971
1971
1971
1970
1970
Reference
222
347
347
347
349
349
222
222
222
222
347
347
347
349
349
-------
TABLE II
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code
Description
Output Units
Quantity
Year
Reference
oo
24 LUMBER AND WOOD PRODUCTS
2421 Lumber
Lumber
Waste - Dry Wood and Bark
Logging Debris and Bark
243 Fiber Board Manufacturing
Plywood Manufacturing
26 PAPER AND ALLIED PRODUCTS
2611 Wood Pulp
263
264
267
265
266
2611
Paper and Paper Board
Shipping Containers - Corregated
and Solid Fibers
Building Paper and Board Mills
Wood Pulp
Building Paper and Mills
Paper Mills
Board Feet
Poundsฎ 3500 Ib/cord
Tons
Tons
Tons
Pounds at 3500 Ib/cord
Ft2 3/8" Basis
Short Tons
Short Tons
Ft2 Surface Area
Short Tons
Production Employees
Production Employees
Production Employees
36,617 x 10C
11 8,666 x 10d
20,348.3 x 10
16,744 x 106 ft2
43,960x10ฐ
54,180.x 103
191,832x 106
4,358x 103
13,000
54,000
110,000
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1968
1970
1970
1970
276
276, 350
347, 350
276
276
276
222
347
347
347
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code
281
2812
2819
2819
2813
2816
281
282
2821-1
284
2821
2821
282
283
Description
INDUSTRIAL INORGANIC
Chlorine
Sulfuric Acid
H3PO4 (Phosphoric Acid)
Purge Gas
Phosphorous
Total
PLASTIC MATERIALS AND
Plastic Material
Cellulosics
Vinyl Polymers
Acrylic Paint
Total
DRUGS
Output Units
CHEMICALS
Short Tons
Short Tons
Short Tons
Short Tons
Tons
Production Employees
SYNTHETICS
Tons
Tons
Short Tons
Short Tons
Production Employees
Quantity
9.349x 103
29,285 x 103
8,1 00 x 103
13,719x 103
544 x 103
162,000
9,720 x 103
255 x 1 O3
2,038x 103
.01 x 106
132,000
Year
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1970
1968
1970
Reference
276
276
276
276
347
347
222
275
276
347
283 Total
Production Employees
72,000
1970
347
2873
NITROGENOUS FERTILIZERS
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (0>nt.)
CO
*-
o
Sic Code
2873
2873
2873
2843
2844
2845
2874
2874
2871
Description
NH3
Urea
Ammonium Sulfate
Total
PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS
P2ฐ5
Super Phosphate and Phosphate
Output Units
Short Tons
Short Tons
Short Tons
Production Employees
Short Tons
Short Tons
Quantity
13,71 9 x 103
34. 8 x 103
282. 9 x 193
26,000
4,966xl03
1 6,060 x 103
Year Reference
276
1 970 S47
276
2879 AGRICULTURAL CHEMICALS, NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED
2895 CARBON BLACK
2895 Carbon Black Tons I,000xl03 355,356
2899 CHEMICAL PREPARATIONS, NOT ELSEWHERE CLASSIFIED
2899 Charcoal Manufacturing
28 Misc. OTHER 28
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code
284
286
Other
28
291
291
2911
2911
2911
2911
2911
2911
2911
Description
Total
Total
Misc
Including 2895
PETROLEUM REFINING
Crude Petroleum
Gasoline
Kerosene
Distillate Fuel Oil
Residual Fuel Oil
Jet Fuel
Liquified Gases including
Ethane and Ethylene
Gas Used-in Liquid Refining
Output Units
Production Employees
Production Employees
Production Employees
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels
Barrels-Cubic Feet
Quantity
66,000
4,000
92,000
3, 517.5 x 106
2,202. 6 x 106
87. 5 x 106
912.1 x 106
274. 7 x 106
304. 7 x 106
547. 9 x 106
278,334 x 103
Year
1970
1970
1970
1970
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1970
Reference
347
347
347
357
348
348
276
276
276
276
357
2911 Oil
2911 Oil
Cooling Towers
Process Trains
Vacuum Jets
Barrels-Fresh Feed
Barrels-Capacity 1 Day
Gal.Cool ing Water
Barrels Wastewater
Barrels-Vacuum
Distillation
10.95x 106
1967
131,052
1970
357
-------
TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code Description
Process Loss
295 PAVING AND ROOFING
2952 Asphalt
2952 Asphalt Roofing
2952 Asphalt and Products
Misc. 29 OTHER 29
2992 Lubricants
CO
00
Output Units
Barrels
MATERIAL
Convert to Tons
Tons of Saturated Felt
Tons
Barrels
Quantity
157. Ox 106
853 x 1 03 Tons
30,458 x 103
65.5 xlO6
Year
1971
1970
1971
Reference
276
347
357
357
31 LEATHER AND LEATHER PRODUCTS
31 Calf and Whole Kip
Cattle Hides and Side Kip
Goat and Kid
Sheep and Lamb
Shoes and Slippers
Finished Leather
Finished Leather
Skins
Hides and Kips
Skins
Skins
Pairs -
Tons
Updated to 1 971 - Tons
1,621 x 103
20,477 x 103
3,148xl03
21, 385 x 103
533, 857 x 103
.85 x 106
1.06xl06
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
1963
1971
276
276
276
276
276
358
358
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TAUE II .INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cbnt.)
o
Sic Code
324
3241
325
3251
3251
327
3275
3275
327
327
329
3299
Description
CEMENT, HYDRAULIC
Portland Cement, Finished
Concrete
STRUCTURAL CLAY PRODUCTS
Brick, Unglazed, Common and Faced
Glazed Bricks
Total Ceramic Products
Output Units Quantity Year
Barrels 420,339xl03 1971
Tons
Standard Bricks 7,569.7xlQ6 1971
92.08in3/Brick
Specific Gravity=2 .00 51 6 x 1 03 Tons
Tons 2393. 6 x 103 Tons
Reference
276
276
276, 350
276, 350
CONCRETE, GYPSUM, AND PLASTER PRODUCTS
Gypsum, Crude
Gypsum, Calcined
Concrete Manufacturing
Concrete Manufacturing
MISC. NON METALLIC MINERAL
Fiber Glass
Short Tons 1 0,437 x 1 03 1 971
Short Tons 1 0,224 x 1 03 1 971
Tons 647 x 1 06 Tons 1 970
Yards3
PRODUCTS
Tons - Input
276
276
347
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TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (G>nt.)
Sic Code
32 Misc.
3231
322
331
3312
3312
3312
3312
331
331
331
331
332
3321
3321
Description
OTHER 32
Glass Containers
Glassware - Pressed or Blown
Output Units
Gross
Gross
Quantity
263
225
,780 x
,579 x
1
1
03
03
Year
1
1
971
971
Reference
276
276
BLAST FURNACE AND BASIC STEEL PRODUCTS
Iron and Steel, Scrap
Pig Iron, Excluding Ferrous Alloys
Steel Raw
Steel Mill Products
Sintering Coke
Coal Charged in Coke Products
Ferro Alloy Smelting
Total Iron and Steel Products
Total
IRON AND STEEL FOUNDARIES
Castings, Gray "Iron
Castings, Malleable Iron
Short
Short-
Short
Short
Tons
Tons
Tons-
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Tons
Alloy
Production Employees
Short-
Short
Tons
Tons
49
92
120
87
45
567
12
223
485
13
,169x
,21 3 x
,443 x
,038 x
,700 x
,100 x
,824x
,727
,000
,840 x
882 x
103
1
i
1
1
1
1
1
1
O3
O3
O3
O3
O3
O3
O3
O3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
971
970
970
970
970
970
970
970
970
971
971
276
357
276
276
357
357
357
357
347
276
276
-------
TABLE II
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cbnt.)
CO
Ol
Sic Code
332
332
332
333
3334
3331
3332-3
333
334
3341
3341
Description
Iron and Steel - Charged
Tons Steel Processed
Total
Output Units
Tons
Tons
Production Employees
Quantity
1 45,000 xlO3
131,514x103
190,000
Year
1970
1970
1970
Reference
357
357
347
PRIMARY, NON-FERROUS METALS
Aluminum
Primary Smelting a Refining Cu
Primary Smelting of Pb and Zn
Lead
Zinc
Total
SECONDARY, NON-FEROUS
Copper
Secondary Aluminum
Short Tons
Short Tons
Short Tons
Tons
Tons
Production Employees
METALS
Short Tons
Short Tons
3,925.2 xlO3
1,437.4x103
1,380.1 x 103
690,400
877,811
53,000
I,522.2xl03
781 x 103
1971
1971
1971
1970
1970
1970
1971
1970
276
276
276
357
357
347
276
357
3341 Secondary Aluminum Chlorine Used in
Chlorination
335 Total Production Employees
146,000
1970
347
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TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code
336
34
34110
36
a 37
3711
3713
3715
3715
3715
3743
Description
Output Units
NON-FERROUS FOUNDRIES (CASTINGS)
Brass and Bronze -
Tons of Charge Produced
FABRICATED METAL PRODUCTS
Metal Cans, Total
Tons
112 Sheets - 14" x 20"
or 31 ,360 in2
Base Boxes
Quantity
897 y 710
161,890x 1C3
Year
1970
1971
Reference
357
359
ELECTRIC AND ELECTRONIC EQUIPMENT
TRANSPORTATION EQUIPMENT
Motor Vehicles, Cars, Trucks,
Buses -Sales
Truck Trailers
Vans
Trailer Bodies and Chassis-Detachable
Railroad and Private Freight Cars
Units - Factory Sales
Units Shipped
Units Shipped
Units Shipped
Units Shipped
1 0,637. 7 x 103
103,784
65,785
18,509
55,307
1971
1971
1971
1971
1971
276
276
276
276
276
37 (Cars + Others x 2)
= Car Body Equivalents ll.lxlO6 1971 276
40 RAILROAD TRANSPORTATION
Coal Used Short Tons 1,000 348
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TABLE
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Q>nt.)
CO
a
Sic Code Description
40 (cont.) Fuel Oil Used
Diesel Oil
*
Electricity
Revenue and Non-Revenue
Passenger Revenue
41 LOCAL AND INTERURBAN
Total Vehicles
Passenger Vehicles
Cars
Buses
41 Total Motor Vehicles
41 Passenger Vehicles
41 Cars
41 Buses
41 1 1 Local Transit Lines
4111 Inter City Carriers
Output Units
Gallons
Gallons
KWH
Ton Miles
Passenger Miles
PASSENGER TRANSIT
Travel Distance
Travel Distance
Travel Distance
Travel Distance
Fuel Cons.- Gallons
Fuel Cons.- Gallons
Fuel Consr Gallons
Fuel Cons,- Gallons
Passengers
Passengers
Gallon Diesel Fuel Cans
Regular Fuel Cans
Quantity^ Year
33 x 1 06
3,924 x 106
l,149x 1Q6
752.2 xlO7 1971
8,901 x 106 1971
I,120.7xl09
906. Ox 109
901 .Ox 109
5. Ox 109
92,328xl06
66,728 x 106
65,784 x 1 0ฐ
944
5,497 xlO6 1971
167.3xl06 1971
Reference
348
348
348
276
276
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
348
276
276
-------
TABLE II
INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Gbnt.)
Ol
4^
Sic Code
42
4213
44
45
4511
4511
Description
TRUCKING AND WAREHOUSING
Trucks
Trucks
Trucks, Inter-City
WATER TRANSPORTATION
AIR TRANSPORTATION
Jet Fuel - Domestic
Jet Fuel - International
Gas - Domestic
Gas - International
Certificated Route Carriers
Certificated Route Carriers
Output Units
Vehicle Miles
Gallons
Tons Freight
Gallons
Gallons
Gallons
Gal Ions
Passenger Miles
Ton Miles
Quantity
214.7xl09
25, 600 x 106
554 x 106
7,885xl06
1,91 Ox 106
27 x 1 06
97 x 1 06
135.65x 109
18,685x 106
Year
1971
1969
1969
1969
1969
1971
1971
Reference
348
3-18
276
348
348
348
348
276
276
LTO Cycles
Turbines
Turbofan
Turbojet
Pistons
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TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Cont.)
Sic Code Description
491 ELECTRIC SERVICES
Coal Used
Oil Used
Gas Used
Coal Equivalents including Gas,
Oil, Nuclear
Total Electric Power
Electric Utilities
Electricity by Fuel Power
en Electricity by Water Power
Bituminous Coal
Output Units
Short Tons
42-Gallon Barrels
FT3
Short Tons
KWH
KWK
KWH
KWH
BTUat 12,290 BTU/lb.
Quantity Year
328 x 1 D6
396 x 1 O6
3993 x 1 O6
61 8 x 1 O6
1,71 7,520 x 106 1971
l,613,936x!06 1971
1,447,941 x 106 1971
269,580xl06 1971
8,062 x 1012
Reference
348
348
348
348
276
276
276
276
348
492 GAS PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION
4925 Manufactured and Mixed Gas
4922 Natural Gas
Oil and Gas
Oil and Gas
4952 SANITARY SERVICES SEWAGE
Therms
Therms
FT3 Gas
Gallons Oil
SYSTEMS
1,451 x 106 1971
156,832xl06 1971
276
276
GaVYear
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TABLE II INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT - PHYSICAL (Gbnt.)
Sic Code Description Outpuf Units Quantity Year Reference
4953 REFUSE SYSTEMS
Solid Waste Incinerated Tons
54 FOOD STORES
Sales Tons
5541 GASOLINE SERVICE STATIONS
Gas Sold Gallons
GO
Oi
o
ID
O
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
4 Thfe INTERMEDIA ASPECTS OF AIR AND WATER
POLLUTION CONTROL,
5, R
ttion
Au-ftor(*) Stone, R., and Smallwood, H.
Ralph Stone and Company, Inc.
Los Angeles, California
EPA No. 68-01-0729
13 Type *?ep-j. nd
Covert-it
12.
ifiring Organization
Environmental Protection Agency report number,
EPA-600/5-73-003, August 1973. _
in. s.bstmvt Current National intermedia pollutants (air, water, and residues) and
strategies for their control were evaluated. Major intermedia pollutants in both air
and water were identified.
The principal sources of direct intermedia pollutant transfer were
identified as incineration, wastewater processing, NO from water chlorination, sludge
processing, release of radioactive gases (water-to-air): scrubbers, cleaning equip-
ment, and regeneration of activated carbon (air-to-water). Indirect sources were
identified as replacement of fossil fuel by nuclear energy, wastes generated by pol-
lution-control equipment manufacture, and water recycling. Residue disposal problems
were found to include landfill gas and leachate contamination, limited disposal sites,
and increasing costs. Techniques of controlling intermedia pollutant transfer were
found to include prevention, removal, recovery, and conversion; choice between these
was found to depend on factors such as physical location, cost, and acceptability.
Strategies for preventing intermedia transfer were found to include regulatory
(restrictive and prohibitive), economic (incentives and sanctions), and educational.
A mathematical model was developed and a gross South Coast Basin Study conducted.
17a. Descriptors
Water pollution*, Air pollution*, Water pollution control*, Air
pollution control*, Water pollution sources, Air pollution sources.
ITo. Identifiers
Intermedia pollution control strategies*, Intermedia transfer*.
/rc.
IS Avsilxb-'.rt,
IS. S -urityf '
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