United States
            Environmental Protection
            Agency
            Environmental Monitoring
            and Support Laboratory
            P 0 Box 15027
            Las Vegas, NV 89114
EPA-600/4-78-052
September 1978
            Research and Development
&EPA
Environmental
Monitoring Series

Development  of a Pollutant
Monitoring System for
Biosphere Reserves

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                   RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES

Research reports  of the Office  of Research and  Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series.  These nine broad categories
were established to facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology.  Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster
technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The nine series are:


      1.   Environmental Health Effects Research
      2.   Environmental Protection Technology
      3.   Ecological Research
      4.   Environmental Monitoring
      5.   Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
      6.   Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
      7.   Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
      8.   "Special" Reports
      9.   Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series.This series
describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instrumentation
for  the  identification and quantification of environmental pollutants  at the lowest
conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine the ambient
concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of pollutants as a
function of time or  meteorological factors.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia  22161

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                                             EPA-600/4-78-052
                                             September 1978
 DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM
              FOR BIOSPHERE RESERVES
                         by

G. Bruce Wiersma, Kenneth W. Brown and Alan B.  Crockett
 Monitoring Systems Research and Development Division
    Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
               Las Vegas, Nevada  89114
    ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
          OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
         U.S.  ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
               LAS VEGAS, NEVADA  89114

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                                 DISCLAIMER
     This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-Las Vegas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication.  Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
                                    ii

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                                  FOREWORD
     Protection of the environment requires effective regulatory actions
which are based on sound technical and scientific information.  This
information must include the quantitative description and linking of pollu-
tant sources, transport mechanisms, interactions, and resulting effects on man
and his environment.  Because of the complexities involved, assessment of
specific pollutants in the environment requires a total systems approach which
transcends the media of air, water, and land.  The Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas contributes to the formation and enhance-
ment of a sound monitoring data base for exposure assessment through programs
designed to:

            develop and optimize systems and strategies for moni-
            toring pollutants and their impact on the environment

            demonstrate new monitoring systems and technologies by
            applying them to fulfill special monitoring needs of
            the Agency's operating programs

     This report presents an initial approach to identifying and solving the
problems of developing a monitoring system for Biosphere Reserves.  To date,
most proposals have focused only on the selection of Reserves, pollutants to
monitor, etc.; the real-world problems of how to monitor and collect and pre-
serve samples and of statistical considerations and the logistics involved,
have not been considered.  This report attempts to address these problems
and proposes specific field work to determine what additional problems may
be encountered and what research is still required to enable us to develop
a responsive and cost-effective pollutant monitoring program for Biosphere
Reserves.
                                       George B. Morgan
                                           Director
                        Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
                                           Las Vegas
                                    iii

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                                   CONTENTS
Foreword                                                               iii
List of Figures                                                        vii
List of Tables                                                        viii
List of Abreviations and Symbols                                        ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS                                                          x
INTRODUCTION                                                             1
CONCLUSIONS                                                              6
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH                                      7
METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM             8
   Preliminary site evaluation using remote sensing techniques           8
   Sampling site selection                                               9
      Topography                                                         9
      Soil                                                               9
      Continuity                                                         9
      Access                                                            10
      Vegetation types                                                  10
      Sampling site size                                                10
   Statistical considerations                                           11
   Pollutant-level monitoring techniques                                13
      Soil                                                              13
      Water                                                             15
      Air                                                               19
      Atmospheric deposition                                            20
      Biological samples                                                20
      Detection of significant changes in global contamination          22
   Pollutant impact monitoring techniques                               23
      Biomass measurements                                              23
      Long-term indicators of pollutants                                24
      Species diversity indices.                                         25
      Microcosms                                                        28
      Bioindicators                                                     28
      Parameters monitored and analytical support                       29
   Quality assurance                                                    32
   Biosphere site selection and characterization - examples             33
      Yellowstone National Park                                         33
        Ownership                                                       33
        Accessibility  (Logistics)                                       35
        Site integrity                                                  35
        Vegetation types                                                35
        Geology                                                         37
        Soils                                                           44
        Hydrology                                                       48

                                       v

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CONTENTS (Continued)
        Paleobotany                                                      49
        Meteorology                                                      50

      Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks                                52
        Ownership                                                        52
        Accessibility                                                    54
        Site integrity                                                   54
        Vegetation types                                                 55
        Geology                                                          59
        Soils                                                            63
        Hydrology                                                        65
        Paleobotany                                                      69
        Meteorology                                                      69

REFERENCES                                                               74
APPENDIX A.  METRIC CONVERSION TABLE                                     81
APPENDIX B.  SPECIES LIST—YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK                     82
APPENDIX C.  SPECIES LIST—SEQUOIA AND KINGS CANYON NATIONAL PARKS     102
                                      VI

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                               LIST OF  FIGURES


Number

  1       Plot of Coefficients of Variation Versus Sampling Error
          and Required Number of Samples                               12

  2       Map of Yellowstone National Park                             34

  3       Outline of the Yellowstone Caldera                           39

  4       Extent of Ice in Yellowstone National Park                   42

  5       Soil Associations in Yellowstone National Park               44

  6       Kings River Watershed                                        53

  7       Records Available at Selected Stream Gauging Stations
          in the Kings River Basin                                     71

  8       Wet and Dry Periods in the Runoff of Kings River at Piedra   72
                                      vii

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                               LIST .OF  TABLES

Number                                                                Page

  1       Lead and Zinc Residue Levels in Organic Soil Horizons        14

  2       Average Coefficients of Variation for Stream Parameters
          in Yellowstone National Park                                 17

  3       Mercury Residues in Fish and Water                           21

  4       Suggested List of Parameters to be Monitored and Considered
          for Biosphere Reserve Sampling Sites                         29

  5       Volatile Organics in Groundwater from Well #5 Prior to
          in situ Coal Gasification                                    31

  6       Climatological Data by Months for Stations Representing
          Basal Elevations In and Near Yellowstone Park                51

  7       Summary of Mineral Compositions of the Plutonic Rocks        62

  8       Kings River Investigation Annual Discharge of Kings River
          at Piedra                                                    66

  9       Kings River Investigation Variability in Observed
          Hydrologic Data by Season                                    68

 10       Kings River Basin Gauging Stations                           70

 11       Climatic Data at Ash Mountain and Giant Forest—1964         73
                                      viii

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                    LIST OF  ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS






AF        — acre feet




Avg       — average




BOD       — biochemical oxygen demand




CV        — coefficient of variation




DO        — dissolved oxygen




EMSL-LV   — Environmental Monitoring and  Support  Laboratory-Las Vegas




GEMS      — Global Environmental Monitoring  System




GNEM      — Global Network for Environmental Monitoring




MAB       — Man and the Biosphere




ppm       — parts per million




RTG       — Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator




SCEP      — Study of Critical Environmental  Problems




SCOPE     — Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment




TKN       — Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen




UN        — United Nations




USGS      — U.S. Geological Survey




USDA      — U.S. Department of Agriculture
                                      IX

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                             ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
     The air monitoring section of this paper was prepared by Mr. Robert
Sneiling of the Monitoring Operations Division,  Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas.   We sincerely  appreciate his efforts in
support of this project.

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                                INTRODUCTION
     Man's impact on the environment has had a far-reaching and at times cata-
strophic effect.  Long gone are the days when the pollution caused by man im-
pacted only his immediate surroundings.  Today, pollution problems are truly
global in nature, and transcend any or all national or political boundaries.

     A considerable body of literature exists describing the global transport
of pollutants.  A few of these reports are reviewed below to exemplify the ex-
isting literature.

     Elgmork et al. (1973) reported that the snow in Norway was polluted.  They
found levels of lead up to 98 micrograms per liter, sulphur levels of 8.5 mil-
ligrams per liter, and pH as low as 3.25.  The three study areas were too re-
mote to be polluted from local sources, nor could Norwegian industries or au-
tomobiles be attributed as the causes of the polluted snow.  Consequently,
Elgmork et al.  concluded that the polluted snow resulted from air masses
bringing pollution in by low pressure systems from the great industrial and
urban areas of western and central Europe.  A related study by Johnson et al.
(1972) showed that several streams in New England were acidified primarily as
the result of sulfur pollution being washed out of the air by rain.  This at-
mospheric sulphur pollution originated mainly from the combustion of fossil
fuels from large industrial centers of the eastern and central United States,
and could not be attributed to local sources of pollution.  Another study by
Schlesinger et al. (1974) found that significant amounts of lead, cadmium and
mercury were present in bulk precipitation on Mt. Moosilauke in New Hampshire.
They determined that some of the low pressure system tracks in North America
converged on the northern New England states and winds coming from the large
population and industrial regions of the central and mid-Atlantic regions of
the United States brought in air pollution to this remote area.

     Lazarus et al. (1970) reported on the results of a nationwide precipita-
tion network.  They found detectable concentrations of lead, zinc, copper,
iron, nickel, and manganese.  They implicated human activities as the primary
sources of these elements in the rain water.  They also found that the highest
overall concentrations were in the rain samples collected in the northeastern
United States.  In addition, a positive statistical correlation was found be-
tween the lead concentration at each sample station and the quantity of gaso-
line sold in the vicinity of each station.

     Chow and Earl (1970) studied airborne lead in the vicinity of San Diego
and found that only a fraction of the lead in air is precipitated out near  the
source of emission.  They surmised that the remainder of the lead aerosols was
transported by major air currents around the globe.  A study by Hirao and
Patterson (1974) supported this analysis.  The latter study of lead levels was

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made in Thompson Canyon, a remote site on the high Sierra Crest.  According  to
their data, about 16 kilograms of lead were deposited each year in  this  14-
square-kilometer watershed.  They further determined that 97% of  this  lead was
from anthropogenic sources.  They stated:

          "These findings show that a widespread assumption, that lead
           pollution is mainly confined to urban complexes and is es-
           sentially absent in open county, is improbable. ..."

     Other elements have been shown to be transported on a global basis.  For
instance, Weiss et al.  (1971)  sampled the Greenland ice cap.  Their data on
mercury levels are illustrative of a possible buildup of mercury  in the  ice
sheet in recent times.  For example,  in samples representing deposition prior
to  1952*, the mean mercury concentration was 60 ± 17 nanograms per  kilogram  of
water.  Samples representing deposition from 1952 to 1965 had a mean concentra-
tion of 125  ± 52 nanograms per kilogram of water.

     Zoller  et al.  (1974) analyzed atmospheric particulate material at the
South Pole for 22 elements.  They found antimony, lead, selenium, and  bromine;
all of  these elements were highly enriched over what could be expected from
earth crustal values.   They postulated that these elevated levels primarily
resulted from the high-temperature combustion sources, either natural volcanoes
or  man-made  fossil  fuel burning.

     Global  transport has also been confirmed in organic pollutants such as  the
insecticide  DDT.  For example, Anas and Wilson (1970) reported that nursing
northern fur seal pups  collected on the Pribilof Islands in 1969  contained DDT
and its isomers in both the pup's fat tissue and the mother's milk.

     Concern over widespread global contamination resulting from  man's activi-
ties has been one of the driving forces behind the attempt to establish  a glo-
bal network  for biosphere reserve sites.  The Study of Critical Environmental
Problems  (SCEP) Report  (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1970) stated:

          "Over the past few years, the concept of the earth as a
            'spaceship'  has provided many people with an awareness of
           the finite resources and the complex natural relationships
           on which man depends for his survival.  These realizations
           have been accompanied by concerns about the impacts that
           man's activities are having on the global environment.
           Some concerned individuals, including well-known scientists,
           have warned  of both imminent and potential global environ-
           mental catastrophes. ..."
 Except  for  one  sample collected  in  1946,  all of  the  samples  in  this  group
 were deposited  prior to 1900.

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     The task of estimating the extent and the magnitude of man's impact on
the global environment is challenging.  This task was articulated by Morgan
et al. (1975) who stated:

          "Man's technological advances and increasing population have
           caused a significant impact on our environment.  We are now
           faced with the arduous task of describing on a global basis,
           those factors that impinge on environmental quality.  This
           information is needed by both the researcher and the official
           who must not only assess environmental quality but also con-
           trol emissions into all aspects of the environment. ..."

     There has been a tremendous amount of discussion, meetings, and thought
given to a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS).  A variety of or-
ganizations and committees, including but not limited to the U.S. Internation-
al Task Force of the Global Network for Environmental Monitoring, the Global
Monitoring Task Force of Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment
(SCOPE), the Man and^Biosphere Expert Panel on Pollution, the Study of SCEP,
Task Force II—Committee on International Environmental Affairs, and the SCOPE
Commission on Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, have called for the
formation of such a global monitoring network.  The criteria and needs for
biosphere reserves have been described in general in a variety of reports,
such as the Report of the Ad Hoc Task Force on Global Network for Environmen-
tal Monitoring (Ad Hoc Task Force on GNEM, 1970), and the SCOPE Report 3 (Munn,
1973).

     The United Nations  (UN) Conference on Human Environment (Man and Biosphere,
1974) which was held in Stockholm in June 1972 recommended the establishment
of the United Nations Environment Program.  In conjunction, it recommended the
establishment of EARTHWATCH, which has a four-pronged program including moni-
toring, research, evaluation, and information exchange.  The ultimate objec-
tive was the establishment of GEMS.  The seven program objectives of GEMS
are:

     1.  An expanded human health warning system
     2.  An assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on
climate
     3.  An assessment of the extent and distribution of contaminants in
biological systems, particularly food chains
     4.  An improved international disaster warning system
     5.  An assessment of the state of ocean pollution and its impact on
marine ecosystems
     6.  An assessment of the response of terrestrial ecosystems to environ-
mental pressures
     7.  An assessment of critical problems arising from agricultural and
land use practices.

     As part of this global environmental monitoring system, it has been recom-
mended that biosphere reserves be established.  For example, the UN Conference
on the Environment, 1972, recommended that biological reserves be established
within the framework of the Man and Biosphere Program  (MAB)  (Man and Biosphere,

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1974).   The report titled "Man's Impact on the Global Environment" (Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, 1970) recommended similar type entities, call-
ing them ecological baseline stations in remote areas or biosphere reserves.
Biosphere reserves may be defined as relatively pristine areas which represent
the major natural ecosystems of the earth and have been set aside for study
and preservation.  The value of these reserves to a global environmental moni-
toring system is considerable.  These biosphere reserves will benefit a global
environmental monitoring system in the following ways:

     1.  They will provide protected ecosystems which are relatively free of
the effects of man's activities.
     2.  They will provide a source for obtaining background data on pollutant
levels.
     3.  They will serve as early warning sites for monitoring global pollution
trends.
     4.  They will serve as natural repositories of genetic pools for studying
and preserving indigenous animal and plant species.

     Franklin  (1977) lists several kinds of research and monitoring programs
which  the reserves will be used for.  These include:

     1.  Long-term baseline studies of environmental and biologic features
     2.  Research to help develop management policies for the reserves
     3.  Experimental or manipulative investigations (outside strictly pre-
served areas) particularly on the ecological effects of human activities
     4.  Environmental monitoring, including use as part of the GEMS system
     5.  Study site for the various MAB research projects.

     This paper  is concerned principally with item four.  We intend to discuss
how to develop an accurate and cost-effective pollutant monitoring strategy
that can be applied across a spectrum of biosphere reserves.

     Environmental monitoring is defined as the systematic collection of phys-
ical,  chemical,  biological, and related data pertaining to environmental qual-
ity, pollution sources, and other factors that influence or are influenced by
environmental quality.  Environmental quality data are essential for determin-
ing the exposure of critical populations at risk.  Such data are obtained by
identifying and  measuring pollutants and their concentrations in air, water,
vegetation, soil, and food.  Environmental exposure monitoring must take into
account acute or chronic effects resulting from short-term acute exposures as
well as low-level chronic exposures to one or more pollutants.  In addition,
the possibility  that a single pollutant may cause or contribute to the aggra-
vation of several different environmental effects must be considered.  The iden-
tification and measurement of pollutants in preserved areas, such as the bio-
sphere reserves, may permit the monitoring of subtle deleterious processes which
may be masked in areas of high impact.  In identifying and measuring the expo-
sure of receptor communities to chemical or physical agents, monitoring data
must provide the basis for quantitating the contributions of every environmen-
tal pathway for  each chemical or physical form of the pollutant.  This includes
the monitoring of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and microorganisms which
can indicate levels, patterns, and trends of environmental pollutants or their

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metabolites.  The health, growth, and number of plants or their accumulation
of a pollutant may be a useful indicator or early warning of environmental con-
tamination that may adversely affect human health.

     This paper is a detailed analysis of the potential problems associated
with monitoring a biosphere reserve and it is a follow up to a previous paper
by Morgan et al. (1976).  It essentially analyzes the background characteris-
tics of two "types" of biosphere reserves which were suggested by Franklin
(1976, 1977) and are used as examples for discussion purposes.  These sites
were selected because they have a relatively good mix of vegetative types and
water systems, and possess relatively large areas that are remote from man.
Even Yellowstone National Park, as heavily visited as it is, has extremely
remote and relatively unvisited areas.  In this paper, the applicable moni-
toring techniques are reviewed and a plan for developing an accurate and cost-
effective pollutant monitoring system for biosphere reserves is presented.

     The reserves selected for discussion in this paper are Yellowstone and
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks.  This is not to imply that these sites
will be chosen for initial studies, but they were chosen because it is easier
to conceptualize many of the problems attendant with monitoring biosphere re-
serves when specific cases are considered.  In addition, the preparation of a
monitoring scheme for any biosphere reserve requires a detailed analysis of
the background environmental factors, both physical and biological, which char-
acterize a site.  Such characterizations would be necessary for other biosphere
reserves prior to the initiation of pollutant monitoring systems.  Rather than
merely listing parameters to be investigated, we found it much more instructive
to attempt to discover what each of the characteristic parameters was, and des-
cribe it as fully as practicable, as if a monitoring program were going to be
initiated at each site.

     What follows is how we intend to conduct a study to develop a cost-effective
and environmentally responsive pollutant monitoring system for these biosphere
reserves.

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                                 CONCLUSIONS
     1.   In general,  the establishment of a cost-effective and accurate pol-
lutant monitoring system is a critical need in the overall development of the
Biosphere Reserve Program.

     2.   A preliminary methodology study conducted on a limited number of
biosphere reserve sites is the best approach to the ultimate development of
a uniform, efficient,  and cost-effective pollutant monitoring program.

     3.   The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency should develop biosphere
reserve monitoring systems.

     4.   A variety of Federal agencies should operate the monitoring network.

     5.   Analysis of  available background information for the two subject bio-
sphere reserves has indicated that our development project should take place on
reserves for which more extensive background information is available.  These
would probably be experimental forests or National Parks for which there is a
closely associated experimental forest.  An example is Great Smoky Mountains
National Park which is closely related to Coweeta Experimental Forest.  Both
are identified biosphere reserve sites.

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                   RECOMMENDATIONS FOR  FUTURE RESEARCH
     1.  The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency should  fund a monitoring
methodology development study to determine the  best  and most efficient way of
monitoring pollutants in a biosphere reserve.

     2.  This study should begin as soon as possible.

     3.  The study should be limited in scope the first year to two biosphere
reserve sites and expand to four sites in subsequent years.

     4.  The development program should be planned for a  3- to 5-year period
with intermediate results being disseminated as soon as possible.

     5.  Planning should begin concurrently with this methodology study, with
the goal of full implementation of a monitoring program in 5 years for the
Biosphere Reserve Program.

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                   METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF  A
                      POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM
PRELIMINARY SITE EVALUATION USING REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES

     Before actual biosphere site visits are  undertaken,  every  effort  will  be
made to obtain all available photographic imagery.   The  first types  of photos
obtained will be photos from the Landsat One  and Landsat  Two satellites (Land-
sat One was originally ERTS-1 and now is renamed)  (USGS,  1975).   Each  Landsat
satellite can cover most of the Earth with repetitive  coverage  approximately
every 18 days.  The Landsat satellites provide four  spectral bands which are:

     a.  Band 4 - 0.5 to 0.6 micrometers, emphasizes movements  of sediment  in
water and areas of shallow water.
     b.  Band 5 - 0.6 to 0.7 micrometers, emphasizes cultural features.
     c.  Band 6 - 0.7 to 0.8 micrometers, emphasizes vegetation,  the boundary
between land and water, and land forms.
     d.  Band 7 - 0.8 to 1.1 micrometers, provides the best penetration of
atmospheric haze and emphasizes the boundary  between land and water, land
forms, and vegetation.

     Black and white photographs for Sequoia-Kings Canyon and Yellowstone Na-
tional Parks in bands 5 and 7 and a composite false-color photograph for both
areas combining bands 5, 6, and 7 have been obtained.  Since the  individual
multispectral picture images are approximately 185 kilometers on  the side,  the
actual national park areas were delineated and then  blown up to 91-cm  x 91-cm
size.  The blow-ups are on bands 5 and 7.

     There is much precedence in the literature for  photographic  assessment
of environmental conditions (Douglas et al.,  1972; Meyer  et al.,  1971; Shay,
1970).  According to the best information available  at present, adequate high
resolution, high altitude photographs are not available  for the two  subject
biosphere sites, Yellowstone National Park and Sequoia-Kings Canyon  National
Parks.  However, good quality aerial photographs are available  for both Se-
quoia-Kings Canyon and Yellowstone National Parks at lower altitudes ranging
from 3,000 to 12,000 meters.  These photos are available through  the U.S. For-
est Service for the Sequoia-Kings Canyon area, and the  U.S. Geological  Survey
can supply them for Yellowstone National Park.  This information  should be  ob-
tained when the approximate areas within the  national  parks which are  going to
be candidate selection sites for actual field sampling work are identified.
It is expected that the photography used will include  color, high resolution
black and white, and infrared imagery.

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SAMPLING SITE SELECTION

     For biosphere reserves the size of Yellowstone National Park and the
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks or most of the other 27 proposed bio-
sphere reserves, it would not be feasible nor is it recommended that the en-
tire National Park or experimental forest be sampled.  Small, predetermined,
and isolated units within each area would be designated as sampling sites.
What follows is a list of the criteria to be used in the selection of the spe-
cific location within each of the biosphere reserves for the sampling site.

     To be consistent and minimize confusion, the following terminology will
be used throughout this paper:

          Biosphere Reserve Site:  The overall reserve such as Yellowstone
                              National Park or Sequoia-Kings Canyon
                              National Parks.

          Sampling Site:      The unit within the biosphere reserve on
                              which sampling data will be carried out.

          Sampling Point:     The actual point of sampling.

Topography

     The  sampling sites will be selected which have a minimum slope, minimum
breaks  in the terrain, and minimum changes in elevation.  The terrain features
should  be relatively smooth with no abrupt breaks such as would be made by ra-
vines,  small canyons, washes, and so forth.  The local plant and animal com-
munities  will also be prime determinants in making a sampling site selection.

     The  elevation of the sampling sites will be determined by the geographi-
cal characteristics of the biosphere reserve involved.  In the Yellowstone
National  Park and the Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks sampling sites se-
lected  will probably be above 2,400 meters in elevation, but below the tree
line—unless specific sampling sites are desired within specialized biologi-
cal communities such as the tundra, as strongly recommended by Reiners et al.
(1975).

Soil

     The  soil type should be as uniform as possible, balanced against other
required  factors.

Continuity

     The  actual sampling site should lie within a vegetation type of a contin-
uous nature.  It is suggested that the sampling site should be in an area of
a continuous vegetation type of similar physiographic aspect, slope, and alti-
tude and  that the area be of a size sufficient to enclose the sampling site
and minimize edge effects.

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Access

     The sampling site must be remote enough to prevent inordinate access by
the curious.  The normal, occasional use by man that the sampling site histor-
ically has been exposed to should continue.  However, it must be reachable by
either mechanical or foot transportation; therefore, balance has to be estab-
lished between remoteness and proximity to a trail or landing pad for a heli-
copter.

Vegetation types

     On each sampling site, samples will be collected from three basic vegeta-
tion types.  Each sample type would be located in a stable community or climax
for the particular area being considered.  Examples of three vegetation types
that may be chosen on the subject biosphere reserves are mixed conifer, shrub-
land,  and meadow complex.

Sampling  site  size

     A sampling site of one square kilometer would generally be adequate.  The
size,  however, should be varied to fit various terrain features and also to be
consistent with homogeneity and vegetation type.  For example, a meadow could
be smaller  than a square kilometer whereas, a site of a mature mixed conifer
forest would probably have to be at least a kilometer square in size.  Final
sampling  site  selection must be accomplished in the field.

     Permanent corner stakes would be established and their locations tied to
prominent terrain features and plotted on topographic maps.  Corner stakes
would  consist  of a steel pipe approximately 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter and
1.5 meters  in  length driven into the ground to a depth of at least 0.5 meters.
The pipe would be painted with blaze orange paint.  To prevent drawing unnec-
essary attention to the area, no other markings would be placed on the pipes.
All samplings  from this point on would be tied to one or the other of the es-
tablished corner pipes.  If, because of terrain features or vegetation char-
acteristics, the sampling site is neither a square nor a rectangle, additional
pipes  would be established to mark the exact outer limits of the sampling
site.

     The  selection of sampling points would be based on a systematic sampling
pattern in  accordance with the techniques recommended in statistics books such
as those by Snedecor and Cochran (1967).  The initial starting point, however,
would  be a  randomized point with the overlaying systematic grid then being laid
off from  this  randomized point.

     Sampling  points lying in a systematic pattern can be easily delineated
on a map and located in the field with chain and compass techniques.  Since
the individual sampling sites should be relatively homogeneous, the estimate
of variation by random sampling versus systematic sampling should be similar.
Under  less homogeneous conditions, systematic sampling provides better esti-
mates  of the mean and variation (Husch, 1963).  Sampling error for the pre-
sample would be computed as for a random sample.  As Osborne  (1942) has shown,
the resultant  sampling error calculated in this manner estimates the maximum
sampling error.

                                      10

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STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS

     One of the principal objectives of the Biosphere Reserve Monitoring Pro-
gram would be to detect long-term accumulation (changes in levels) of pollu-
tants on each of the biosphere sites.  Therefore, a logical extension of this
is that sampling designs must be sensitive enough to determine small differ-
ences in levels within a given time frame.  This raises the immediate question
of how many samples are required for each set of pollutants in each environ-
mental media sampled to be able to tell the difference between different time
periods.  At another level of analysis, differences in pollutant levels be-
tween biosphere reserves are evaluated; however, this would not take prece-
dence over determining our sampling numbers to show differences with time.
The question then becomes which time frame would be most desirable to detect
differences between biosphere reserve sites.  Annual sampling and annual
changes are the most commonly used time periods to measure differences and
trends.  However, considering the extensive variability inherent in natural
areas, the state-of-the-art of our analytical capabilities and the relatively
low levels of pollutant concentrations to be expected in these areas, it may
not be possible to attempt to differentiate between 1-year intervals.

     The primary considerations in determining how many samples are required
to make certain levels of determination are:

     1.  The required level of precision of your estimate
     2.  An estimate or the actual variability of the particular parameter
being measured

     In this project, differences of plus or minus 10% at the 95% confidence
interval should be detected.  To calculate the estimated number of samples to
achieve this precision, an estimate of the variability existing on each of the
biosphere  sites must be made.  Thus presamples would be collected prior to any
intensive  sampling.  Once estimates of variability are obtained for every pol-
lutant in  every area in every media, then the number of samples required to
achieve this error can be calculated.

     If we arrive at a reasonable number of samples, we can then proceed to an
intensive  sampling program.  Far more likely, however, is the situation of the
flat portion of the curve as shown in Figure 1.  In other words, it would take
a tremendous increase in samples to achieve a relatively small increase in pre-
cision.  Since it is rather obvious that a controlling factor in making the
biosphere  monitoring program cost-effective would be the analytical cost, we
must limit ourselves to a reasonable number of samples.  Therefore, it may be
impossible to achieve the level of precision on a year-to-year basis because
the expected difference between years falls within the sampling error.  It may
then become necessary to go to longer time intervals between sampling.

     In the presample, it is estimated that approximately 15 to 20 samples in
each media (soils, water, and various types of vegetation) would be collected.

     This  preceding discussion deals primarily with the variability of pollu-
tant levels in the various media.  Other types of sampling programs are envi-


                                       11

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                    3.0 + COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
                             100
                         NUMBER OF SAMPLES
Figure 1.  Plot of coefficients of variation versus sampling error
           and required number of samples.

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sioned:  for example, the use of an electronic capacitance herbage meter for
estimating biomass.  There is an entirely different set of variability para-
meters associated with this instrument which are totally divorced from the
variability that can be expected from pollutant levels.  Again, presampling
would be required to determine the number of samples that would provide the
desired level of precision.  Similar considerations would apply to other mea-
surement techniques described in this paper.

     In terms of an overall statistical design for analyzing and assessing
changes in various pollutants, it would seem reasonable that data from each
year's sampling be considered one block in an analysis of variance experiment.
A two-way classification should be able to simultaneously determine if there
are significant differences among years and among sites.

POLLUTANT-LEVEL MONITORING TECHNIQUES

     A presampling of each sampling site would be required to obtain the in-
formation needed to produce a statistically valid and economically feasible
sampling scheme.  The procedures set forth here are somewhat general, but are
aimed at the probable conditions to be encountered in the two biosphere re-
serves, Yellowstone National Park and Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks,
which have been chosen as test case sites.  A more specific sampling plan would
be formulated after presampling.

     The data required prior to the design of the final sampling plan includes
the size and shape of the sampling site, the media available for sampling, and
the variability of residue levels within the media selected for monitoring.

Soil

     A rough estimate of variability can sometimes be made by extrapolation
from similar data.  A study by Reiners et al. (1975) was conducted on the lev-
els of lead  (Pb) and zinc  (Zn) in coniferous forest soils at high elevations.
The number of samples required can be estimated using the coefficients of vari-
ation  (Table 1) for the fir, krummholz, and tundra data and the plot of the
sampling error versus the coefficient of variation (Figure 1).  The mean Pb or
•Zn levels  (dry/wet) at each sampling site within a vegetation type were used.
Coefficients were calculated for the litter, fermentation layer, humus, and
total organic samples combined.  For example, using the calculated coefficient
of lead for the three vegetation zones sampled and using Figure 1, it can be
estimated that for a desired 10% sampling error with a 95% probability, it will
be necessary to collect from 30 to about 65 samples.

     The above estimate of the required number of samples can probably be con-
sidered a maximum since the selection criteria for terrestrial sampling sites
were chosen to minimize variations within each site.  It can reasonably be ex-
pected that the variation within a sampling site (variation between sampling
points) would be lower and thus reduce the required number of samples.  Using
this assumption, the presampling will consist of approximately 20 sampling
points within each sampling site.  The samples collected should provide suffi-
cient information to design a suitable sampling plan.


                                      13

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	TABLE 1.  LEAD AND ZINC RESIDUE LEVELS IN ORGANIC SOIL HORIZONS*

Vegetation   Number of   Mean ppm   Coefficient of   Mean ppm    Coefficient  of
  Type          Sites       Pb        Variation         Zn        Variation
                                    Between Sites                Between Sites
Fir
Krummholz
Tundra
5
4
5
145
120
38
0.27
0.36
0.40
90
73
29
0.24
0.43
0.23

 *(Reiners  et al., 1975)
      The  sampling point  grid will be established by chain and compass  techni-
 ques  and  a  20-meter  transit would be established.  A 5-centimeter diameter
 core  of the organic  and  inorganic layers would be collected at odd meter  in-
 tervals (10 subsamples)  and composited by layer (litter, fermentation, and
 humus) in a "clean"  (polychlorinated biphenyls  (PCB)-phthalate free) plastic
 bag.  After thorough mixing, 1-pint and %-pint samples will be placed  in  Tef-
 lon-lined cans.  Prior to  sealing of the cans, the samples would be air dried,
 if  necessary.  The sampling scheme has been designed to detect changes in pol-
 lutant concentration, not  to determine the total insult on an area basis.  A
 description of each  sampling point would also be recorded, including informa-
 tion  on slope, aspect, vegetation, soil characteristics, samples, etc.

      In presampling, an  attempt would be made to collect samples from  all three
 organic soil layers  for  analyses and a mineral soil sample.  The final design
 would probably be limited  to only one organic sample (one layer or total) and
 a mineral soil sample.   (There may be insufficient litter for an adequate sam-
 ple in certain locations,  so all three layers may be composited.)  The samples
 would be  cooled  as soon  as practical.

      A sampling  code would be developed.  The basic code would include the
 following items.  A  code number would be assigned for each biosphere reserve.
 For example, Yellowstone National Park could be "A" and Sequoia-Kings  Canyon
 National  Parks could be  "B".  The next item in the code number would identify
 the actual  sampling  site location.  This would be numbered consecutively  through
 whatever  number  is necessary and keyed to the actual map location for  the ap-
 propriate biosphere  reserve.  The third letter would represent the type of sam-
 ple,  i.e.,  S = soil, W = water, etc.  However, this sampling marking section
 would probably be a  two-digit unit because it would be required to make dis-
 tinctions between various  types of soil samples.  For example, 1 and 2 desig-
 nations would be necessary for different depths of soil.  The next number in
 the code  would represent the actual sampling site number.  Finally the last
 four  digits would represent the month of sampling and the year respectively.

      Duplicate samples would be collected at random from 50% of the field com-
 posites.  These  duplicates would provide an estimate of the combined errors due
 to  subsampling,  extraction, and analysis.  All samples of a given type would be
 considered  to be from the  same population.
                                        14

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     Analytical methods for soils are not standardized but a technique employ-
ing total digestion would probably be used.  Dry ashing as used by Reiners et
al. (1975) or a complete wet digestion using nitric acid-hydrogen peroxide-
hydrofloric acid or perchloric acid could also be employed.  Mercury would be
determined following the EPA (1974) method.  A possible method for extraction
of arsenic uses nitric-perchloric acid (Wauchote, 1976).  Several procedures
for analyses of chlorinated hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls exist.

     It has been recommended by Morgan et al. (1976), the Ad Hoc Task Force on
GNEM (1970), and the SCOPE report (Munn, 1973), that chloride, phosphorus, and
nitrogen also be determined in soils.  Data on chlorides collected by Eriksson
(1952) indicate that natural chloride deposition rates of 11 to 35 pounds per
acre per year are common and rates as high as 100 pounds or more are not unusual
near the coast.  Chloride is aerially transported inland from the sea and depos-
ited by rain (Eaton, 1966).  The probability of detecting a significant change
in chloride residue levels and being able to attribute this to man's activities
seems remote.  The levels in soil are naturally high, there is a constant sub-
stantial natural influx, and finally chlorides are easily leached from soils.

     Nitrogen and phosphorus are plant nutrients common to soil and organic
matter.  They are not  typical of global-type air pollutants that would be de-
posited in remote areas.  An increase in residue levels could result from the
destruction of living  tissue on the site, but there are better methods for de-
tecting decadence.  Terrestrial nitrogen fixation greatly exceeds the amount
of nitrogen oxides released as an air pollutant.  The complexities of nitrogen
dynamics in soil make  it impractical to monitor global nitrogen oxide contami-
nation by monitoring soils.

     Phosphorus is a relatively rare element compared to nitrogen and has been
indicted in water pollution.  It is not generally thought to be an air pollu-
tant nor does it enter the atmosphere as part of the phosphorus cycle.

     The basic objective of this monitoring system is to estimate and keep
track of pollutant levels and certain measurable pollutant effects on each of
the biosphere reserves.  For this reason and because of the discussion above,
no proposal is made to monitor for nitrogen, phosphorus, or chlorides on each
biosphere reserve.  Studies of perturbations of nutrient cycling are important,
however, and will be included in future study proposals.

Water

     The selection criteria for A water monitoring site are different than
those for terrestrial  monitoring.  A water sample including its constituents
is a product of an entire watershed so the aquatic biosphere site will encom-
pass an entire watershed.  The watershed will have to be as undisturbed by man
as possible, i.e., no  campgrounds, no roads or areas of other concentrated hu-
man activities, and no unusual natural inputs of contaminants such as geysers,
fumaroles, volcanoes,  etc.  The site must also be assured of remaining free  of
man's interference to  ensure that any changes detected  are a result  of only  re-
gional or global contamination.
                                       15

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     The procedure for sampling water varies from simple dip or grab samples
to the sampling of several vertical profiles at equal discharge increments for
flowing water,  or multiple points on a 3-dimensional grid for impoundments
(Feltz and Culbertson, 1972).   Water sampling in Sequoia-Kings Canyon and Yel-
lowstone National Parks will  probably be limited to small streams.  Sophisti-
cated sampling procedures would be employed if appropriate—although dip sam-
ples should suffice for small clean mountain streams.

     Residues in water pose an additional sampling problem compared with soil
or vegetation.   Levels of residues can change rapidly due to changes in stream
flow.  Thus, it is necessary to determine stream flow, turbidity, and non-
filterable residues when collecting water samples for residue data analyses.

     The preliminary sampling would entail collection of about 20 water samples,
each on a different day, and analyzing for total arsenic, cadmium, mercury,
lead, and certain organics.  At the time of sampling, the flow rate would be
recorded, and the samples would be collected for determination of turbidity
and non-filterable residues.   It has been suggested by Morgan et al. (1976)
that the following pollutants should also be considered for monitoring in wa-
ter:  turbidity, chlorides, BOD, DO, coliform bacteria, phosphorus, and nitro-
gen.  However,  attempts would not be made to detect changes in all these para-
meters as a measure of man's global impact.

     Turbidity is an optical measure of suspended matter in water samples.   In
an undisturbed watershed it is related to flow and may vary seasonally due to
the source of water and organic matter content.  Man typically increases tur-
bidity by physical disruption of the watershed or by direct input, either of
which would invalidate the watershed as a sampling site.  Changes in turbidity
might be detected if global or regional contamination were sufficient to cause
decadance of the watershed thus leading to increased erosion.  However, this
would be a very indirect and insensitive measure of global contamination.

     Chloride is found in all natural waters but is typically associated as a
pollutant with sewage and irrigation waters.  The analysis for chloride is sim-
ple, precise, and routine—although its value as a measure of global contamina-
tion is questionable.  Chloride in water is naturally derived from sedimentary
and igneous rocks, and there is a natural aerial input from the oceans.  Chlo-
ride fall-out or rain-out due to man's activities is usually not considered a
significant global pollution threat.  In addition, the probability of detect-
ing significant man-caused changes in chloride levels is quite remote.  The
EPA's (1972) data on the water quality of Yellowstone National Park indicates
that there is considerable variation in the chloride levels of streams.  The
coefficient of variation of chloride can be rather high.  From Table 2, it can
be seen that the overall coefficient of variation for streams in Yellowstone
National Park is 0.72.  Using Figure 1 to achieve a 10% sampling error for
chloride would require over 200 samples.  Chloride determination in rainwater
or snowfall would be a much more reasonable approach.
                                      16

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     TABLE 2.   AVERAGE COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION FOR STREAM PARAMETERS IN
     	YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK (EPA, 1972)	

         PARAMETER             NUMBER OF STREAMS          MEAN C.V.
Water Temperature
Turbidity
Conductivity
Dissolved Oxygen
pH
Total Residue
Ammonia
TKN
Nitrite + Nitrate
Fecal Coliform
Total Phosphorus
BOD - 5-Day
Chloride
33
34
36
33
36
33
34
34
34
29
36
27
36
0.50
1.04
0.26
0.08
0.04
0.31
0.88
0.81
1.01
1.22
0.81
0.28
0.72

     The biochemical oxygen demand test is designed to determine the relative
oxygen demand of waste waters, effluents, and polluted waters (Standard Meth-
ods, 1971).  Since it is assumed that there would be no wastewater discharges
in the biosphere reserve watershed only a significant perturbation of the eco-
system could cause an increase in the BOD.  The attempt to detect ecosystem
disturbance through the use of BOD is again an awkward and indirect method.
The same basic argument holds for nitrogen and phosphorus determinations.  The
input of nitrogen to the ecosystem through the conversioi  of NO  is insignifi-
cant compared to nitrogen fixation and natural atmospheric input.  Enormous
amounts of data would have to be collected to detect a significant change of
the nitrogen content of the water and then be able to relate this to man's out-
put of NO .  The phosphorus cycle has no aerial or gaseous phase so significant
aerial transport of phosphorus seems unlikely.  As a measure of ecosystem per-
turbation, the phosphorous cycle is indirect and probably insensitive.  If
changes in BOD, phosphorus, nitrogen, and chloride level were detected, a great
deal of additional data would be required to determine the reason for the chan-
ges.  These data may not even be available given the present state of measure-
ment methodologies.

     The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is of concern when the level is
reduced to the extent that it becomes critical to aquatic life.  Levels in the
turbulent flowing streams of Yellowstone National Park are typically at or above
the saturation level.  An increase in global or regional contamination would
have no direct effect on dissolved oxygen.

                                       17

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     Coliform or fecal coliform bacteria were also recommended for monitoring
on biosphere reserves.  Fecal coliform bacteria are normal inhabitants of mam-
malian digestive tracts.  On a sampling site there is a minimum of human acti-
vity so the coliform densities would reflect recent fecal contamination by en-
demic mammals.  Fecal coliform bacteria are not generally considered an air
pollutant.  Since man would not be directly contaminating the reserve either
locally or regionally, the value of this parameter is also questionable.  Bac-
teria counts would not be used to assess man's contamination of the global en-
vironment.  Any change would be due to local contamination.

     In addition to the above discussion a look at Table 2 and Figure 1 shows
that certain of the parameters mentioned above would require relatively large
numbers of samples to meet a ± 10% sampling error.  For example, coliform bac-
teria were measured in 29 streams in Yellowstone National Park.  The coeffi-
cient of variation was 1.22, and using Figure 1, this would give an estimated
number of samples required for a 10% sampling error well in excess of 220 sam-
ples.

     One-gallon water samples for chlorinated hydrocarbon analysis would be
collected in a glass bottle with Teflon-lined screw caps.  All glassware used
in the collection of samples would be thoroughly washed, rinsed, and heated to
destroy dry organics.  Samples would be cooled as soon as possible after col-
lection.

     The residue levels of mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, and specific organ-
ic compounds are expected to be quite low in water.  Therefore, sample size and
preservation are extremely important.  Samples for elemental analysis will be
collected in Teflon or glass bottles.  All bottles will be scrupulously washed,
acid-washed, and rinsed prior to use.  Samples will be immediately acidified
to pH 0.5 with nitric acid as per EPA (1974) and Rosain and Wai (1973).  All
analyses will be based on unfiltered samples.

     It is necessary to monitor certain stream parameters to aid in the inter-
pretation of the measured pollutant values.  Therefore, additional data to be
collected with each biosphere water sample will be flow rate, turbidity, and
total non-filterable residue.  These data will be used to determine the stream
condition at the time of sampling.  Contaminant levels are typically related to
these factors since the pollutants are often attached to particulate matter.

     Also, general stream information will be collected but will not primarily
be used to detect changes from year to year or to assess global contamination.
The following parameters will be measured at least once during each biosphere
sampling cycle:  temperature, pH, conductivity, chloride, dissolved oxygen,
hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, alkalinity, total organic carbon, phospho-
rus, fecal coliform, and nitrogenous compounds.  The procedures as suggested
by Kittrell (1969), EPA (1974), or Standard Methods (1971) will be employed for
all analyses.

     All samples will be labeled as previously described.  The samples will
be retained in the custody of the sampler or chief sampler until delivery or
shipment to the laboratory.  During the presampling, quality assurance will
be checked by collection of duplicate samples.  Ten duplicate samples will be

                                       18

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analyzed along with the regular samples.  These analyses should give us a good
idea of the extraction and analytical errors inherent in biosphere reserve wa-
ter sampling.

Air

     Air pollutants are divided into two major categories, gases and particu-
lates.  The three gaseous pollutants of principal interest in terms of poten-
tial biological impact are sulfur dioxide (802), fluorine compounds, and photo-
chemical oxidants (ozone).  Of the three, photochemical oxidants resulting from
long-term transport from urban areas pose the most likely regional or global
impact.  An injury threshold of 0.03 ppm of ozone for an exposure of 4 hours
has been reported by Heck et al. (1965).  Sustained ozone levels in excess of
0.03 ppm are not uncommon in rural, pristine areas of the western United States
(Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project, 1976).

     Fine particulates are of interest in terms of their trace-element compo-
sition.  Trace-element "signatures" may serve as indicators of long term trans-
port.  Of specific interest are sulfur (sulfate), cadmium, lead, mercury, and
arsenic.  Beryllium and chromium may also have a potential for long-term trans-
port.

     The selection criteria for an air quality monitoring site differ from
those  for terrestrial or water sampling.  It is desirable, as with the other
media, to select a location which is not directly impacted by local human ac-
tivities.  At the same time, since air quality monitoring generally requires
some form of "air mover" as part of the sampling train, electrical power is
a requirement.

     An attempt will be made to find locations which meet both these criteria.
A ranger observation tower might serve as such a location.  If a remote loca-
tion with power cannot be identified, a deployable long-life power source will
be employed.  Such a device is the Department of the Navy's Radioisotope Ther-
moelectric Generator (RTG)  (Naval Nuclear-Power Unit, 1975).  These units are
capable of providing up to 40 watts continuously for up to 5 years.  They are
available at no cost for demonstration projects providing that the proper safe-
ty analysis approvals are obtained.  Solar cell systems may be an alternative
power  source.

     Sulfur dioxide will be measured with a continuous monitor based on  the
principle of ultraviolet absorption or chemiluminescence.  Instantaneous mea-
surements would be made at 5- to 15-minute intervals and recorded on a magne-
tic tape recorder.  Such instruments require frequent  (weekly) calibration and
therefore, require servicing by trained personnel.

     Particulates will be monitored with a size-fractionating sequential im-
pactor.  A size cut at approximately 2 to 3 micrometers would be used  to sep-
arate  local fugitive dust  (>3 micrometers) from fine particulates  (<3  micro-
meters) subject to long-range transport.  A sample would be  collected  over  a
24-hour period once every 6 days.  Multi-elemental analysis  using atomic ab-
sorption, x-ray fluorescence, or proton-induced x-ray  fluorescence  would be
utilized for particulate analysis.

                                       19

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     For sampling stations with commercial power available, off-the-shelf equip-
ment can be used.  For stations utilizing auxiliary power the instrumentation
will be re-engineered for low power requirements.

     In addition to air monitoring, precipitation will also be collected and
analyzed for trace elements and pH.

Atmospheric Deposition

     The monitoring of precipitation on sampling sites is an important part of
any overall pollutant monitoring system.  Sampling sites are located in areas
as devoid of local contamination as possible.  Therefore, all contaminants must
be. transported by air.  Many pollutants are absorbed on particulate matter
which become condensation nuclei for, or are entrained in, rain.  Other par-
ticles are deposited dry through atmospheric fallout.

     The residue levels of pollutants in precipitation often exceed the levels
in surface waters and thus are easier to detect.  In addition, atmospheric dep-
osition  samples  should pose relatively  few interferences and extraction prob-
lems compared  to soil and tissues.  The monitoring of precipitation has been
recommended in the reports "Programme on Man and the Biosphere"  (Man and Bio-
sphere,  1974) and "A Global Network for Environmental Monitoring" (Ad Hoc Task
Force on GNEM, 1970) .  A recent report on "Chemical Changes in Atmospheric Dep-
osition  and Effects on Agricultural and Forested Lands and Surface Water in
the United States" (USDA, 1976) proposed establishment of an atmospheric deposi-
tion monitoring  network.  The system proposes to monitor wet and dry deposition
on an event or weekly basis.  Initial emphasis will be on nutrient monitoring
but will expand  to include toxic materials.  The proposed monitoring techniques
will be  employed at the sampling sites with collections and analyses being ini-
tially conducted on a monthly basis.  Analyses will be made for  the toxic ma-
terials  previously identified.  A  recording rain gauge and pH meter will be
operated at the  collection points.

Biological Samples

     The monitoring of water poses problems when attempts are made to determine
significant changes in the pollutant residue levels.  The residue levels in
water fluctuate  with flow, turbidity, and total non-filterable solids (Delfino
and Byrnes, 1975) and the actual residue levels are very low.  The sampling of
fish for pollutant residues is advantageous since for certain pollutants fish
concentrate residues and are integrators of residue levels in the aquatic en-
vironment.

     Data on residue levels on fish from Yellowstone  (EPA, 1972) and remote
areas of the Great Smoky Mountains (Huckabee et al.  (1974) indicate that rea-
sonable  statistical precision can  be achieved in fish sampling.  Table 3 lists
the coefficients of variation for  mercury levels in fish and water for these
studies.  The number of samples required for a given  sampling error can be
estimated using  Figure 1 and the coefficient of variation.
                                         20

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                                      TABLE 3.  MERCURY RESIDUES IN FISH AND WATER
K>

NUMBER OF
LOCATION TYPE SAMPLE SAMPLES
Yellowstone (EPA, 1972)
Fire Hole R at Madison Junction Rainbow Trout 23
Water 3
Fire Hole R above Old Faithful Brown Trout 11
Water 5
Gardner R below Mammoth Brown Trout 25
Water 5
Gardner R above Mammoth Brook Trout 18
Great Smoky Mountains Rainbow Trout
(Huckabee et al, 1974) 6 Sampling Sites
Eastern Brook Trout
3 Sampling Sites
Stone Roller
3 Sampling Sites
Rosyside Dace 44
Banded Sculpin 27
MEAN (ppm)

0.25
0.0014
0.14
0.0025
0.11
0.0039
0.05
0.0361
0.0251
0.0411
0.044
0.025
C.V.

0.24
0.33
0.18
0.39
0.45
0.70
0.40
0.582
Range
0.242
Range
0.482
Range
0.30
0.62




(6 composite
samples)



(6 composite
samples)
(Average,
: 0.13-1.5)
(Average,
: 0.16-0.40)
(Average,
: 0.20-0.82)


     1  Average residue at sites
     2  Average Coefficient of Variation of sites

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     The fish sampling would be done downstream from the water-sampling point
to avoid disturbance of the sampling site.   The choice of species will be de-
termined by several factors including available species, population level, mi-
gration patterns, and whether the species is stocked.  A large population is
required to reduce the impact of sampling.   The fish are to be used as an index
of watershed contamination so the species selected will have to remain in the
stream the year-around and, of course, not  be introduced by stocking.

     Collections in small streams should be readily accomplished by electro-
fishing techniques.  The number of fish collected in the presampling will de-
pend upon the population.  At least 20 young of the year, or 1-year old fish,
will be sampled and analyzed.  If the population is large enough, composite
samples will be collected and analyzed.

     Fish will either be wrapped in aluminum foil or placed in clean plastic
bags and frozen immediately.  The analytical results expressed will be based
upon a whole fish basis using standard analytical procedures.  Samples will be
retained in the custody of the sampler or chief sampler until delivery or ship-
ment to the laboratory.

     Vegetation will initially be collected at the same sampling site where
soil was collected.  The final sampling design may require a separate design
but the initial sampling should be adequate to make this determination.  The
plants to be sampled will be determined somewhat upon availability but it is
also intended that an annual and two perennials be collected at each sampling
site.  Only the most recent year's growth will be collected from perennials
and will probably be limited to leaves.  Analysis of new growth should permit
more rapid determination of changes in residue levels.  Each sample will be
a composite of 10 approximately equal-sized subsamples collected from differ-
ent plants of the same species.  A duplicate set of samples will be collected
at each sampling site.  One set of samples will be rinsed with water in the
field, while the other samples will remain untouched.

     Vegetation will be sealed in Teflon-lined aluminum cans and cooled as
soon as possible.  Air drying may be required to prevent deterioration if
cooling is not possible.  All samples will be retained in the custody of the
sampler or crew chief until transport or shipment to the laboratory.  Contam-
inants to be determined are the same as for soil.  Additional samples will be
collected following the soil-sampling pattern as a check on quality control.

Detection of Significant Changes In Global Contamination

     The previously described presampling methodology should provide adequate
statistical information to design a sampling plan.  The number of samples re-
quired to achieve the desired sampling error will be estimated.  These data,
however, will provide sufficient information only to reasonably quantify the
residue level at a given point in time or detect a change with time.  It is
reasonable to expect that these levels vary naturally with time.  Since one
of the objectives of biosphere monitoring is to detect man-caused changes in
residue levels, the magnitude of natural variations must also be assessed.
Any changes greater than natural may then be reasonably attributed to man.


                                       22

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     To obtain information on natural variations, it will be necessary to sam-
ple the sampling site several times, perhaps after various natural phenomena.
Factors that may affect residue levels and may even cause significant changes
in soil and vegetation residues are the time of sampling relative to the age
of the new growth tissue; the amount, intensity, duration, and frequency of
rainfall; the time of occurrence of a storm relative to sampling, etc.  If the
natural variation of residue levels is small relative to man's contamination,
the frequency of sampling can be relatively low.  If, however, the residue
levels vary considerably from week to week or year to year, a larger number of
samples will be required.

     There are many problems in detecting a significant change in residue lev-
els at a specific site and being able to attribute the change to global contam-
ination.  The establishment of numerous sites on a global basis would average
out many of the factors contributing to natural variation.  If 95 out of 100
biosphere sites reported a significant increase in Pb residues, the probabil-
ity that man was the causative agent would be very high.  Additionally, the
establishment of many sites would permit a significant increase in the detec-
tion of Pb levels even though the magnitude of the increase was insignificant
at the individual sites.  Herein lies the value of a global network of inte-
grated monitoring sites.

POLLUTANT IMPACT MONITORING TECHNIQUES

     All techniques described above have dealt with assessing pollutant levels
in the various environmental components.  Although this is valuable and neces-
sary information, it does not give a direct measure of the impact that the pol-
lutant is having on the environmental situation.  If reliable impact-measuring
techniques are developed and available on a cost-effective basis, they can be-
come of vital importance to the implementation of any biosphere monitoring pro-
gram and aid significantly in the interpretation of the results.  A series of
both existing and new environmental impact monitoring devices and techniques
will be tested and evaluated.  The use of these environmental impact monitoring
techniques, coupled with an assessment of pollutant levels in each of the bio-
sphere reserves, will allow quantitative estimates to be made of the long-term
impacts of man's activities on the reserve areas.  Also, the Biosphere Reserve
Monitoring Program should become a technique capable of alerting man to long-
term pollutant problems that may be impacting his general health and well-being.

Biomass Measurements

     The capability of an area to produce living matter is related to its eco-
logical condition and the stability of the biological communities living in
that particular area.  Biomass estimates for many years have been used to try
to determine potential impacts of pollutants on environmental systems.  One
problem, up until recently, with biomass estimates has been that most biomass
estimates have depended almost exclusively on some variation of a clip and
weigh  technique.

     Now there is an instrument which, once calibrated, can directly read bio-
mass under certain vegetation situations.  This instrument is called an elec-
tronic capacitance herbage meter.  This instrument has been shown to be capable

                                       23

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of directly measuring biomass over an area nondestructively.  Its theory and
operation were described by Neal and Neal (1973).   The instrument has limita-
tions, not the least of which is the size of vegetation to be sampled.  How-
ever, it should be of definite value in certain areas such as upland meadows,
tundra areas, or brush-land communities.  Once calibrated to a particular veg-
etation type, it has been shown to be capable of rapidly and cost-effectively
making biomass estimates.  Because of this ability to make large numbers of
observations rapidly, it allows a significant increase to be achieved in the
precision of the biomass estimate (Currie et al.,  1973; Neal et al., 1976;
Morris et al., 1976; and Carpenter et al., 1973).

     An herbage meter was borrowed from the U.S. Forest Service in Fresno,
California, and was tested on sagebrush in Area 18 of the Nevada Test Site.
It was one of the earlier models (Model 18-612).  Environmental conditions
were difficult with winds up to 30 knots and temperatures around -1° C.  The
terrain was broken and exposed, and the vegetation was in poor condition.
Forty plots were taken on 10 x 4 grid over an area of approximately 70 meters
by 140 meters.  Vegetation was clipped on each plot, taken to the laboratory,
and weighed.  The only correction made was the elimination of dead wood; this
did not affect the meter reading, but did significantly affect the weight.
The correlation coefficient for meter reading versus wet weight was 0.93 with
38 degrees of freedom.  The regression equation is expressed in the form:

                            y  =  y" + B(X-x)
The appropriate numerical
values are:                 y  =  108.12 + 16.82(X-7.95), or
                            y  =  -25-6 + 16.82 X

The regression was recalculated using oven-dry weights.  The correlation coef-
ficient was 0.89.

     A second approach would be to estimate the total biomass for much larger
areas.  An experimental approach in this area would involve use of multispec-
tral scanning techniques.  These techniques were mentioned under the remote
sensing portion of this paper.,

Long-Term Indicators of Pollutants

     It would be desirable for historical purposes and comparison with pres-
ent-day levels if certain types of measurement could be made on each of  the
biosphere sites that would be indicative of historical pollutant levels on
those sites.  Examples would include the possible use of tree rings (Pillay,
1976; Sheppard and Funk, 1975; Lepp, 1975), ice cores  (Weiss et al., 1971),
and the possible use of bog mud cores.  There are some difficulties using some
of these approaches.  For example, in tree rings, one cannot assume that ele-
ments found in a particular growth ring were deposited in the year  the growth
ring was formed.  In most woody trees, water is moved through the xylem over
several growth rings and not through the last year of growth.  However,  in
trees where heartwood develops, once the xylem cells have been plugged,  little
or no water is transported in this area; therefore, one can make the assump-
tion that pollutants trapped in the heartwood area were laid down up to, but


                                       24

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not after, the formation of the heartwood.  The limit of the heartwood can be
determined by counting back on the tree rings.

     Another study has also recently been started at EMSL-LV on tree rings in
an attempt to understand the mechanisms involved in pollution deposition in
tree rings.  The purpose is to provide the information mentioned above which
will allow us to have confidence  that pollutants detected  in a particular
year of growth were actually laid down in that year.  The  results  of these
studies should help in determining the applicability of using tree rings on
a sampling site.

     The use of ice cores and bog cores is also well known and could be an in-
dicator of long-term pollutant levels.  Their use will be  explored in the lit-
erature, and if feasible, an attempt will be made to implement them in field
situations.

Species Diversity Indices

     Species diversity indices are being increasingly used as monitoring tools
to measure the state of the environment resulting from an  insult from a pollu-
tant or group of pollutants.  For example, Taylor et al. (1974), under contract
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Corvallis Laboratory, used the
following series of indices as background indicators of the condition of the
environment around the Colstrip Power Plant.  These include:

     1.   Shannon-Weaver Function
     2.   Simpson's D
     3.   Redundancy Index
     4.   Probability of Interspecific Encounter
     5.   Probability of Intraspecific Encounter
     6.   Pie Transformation
     7.   Fisher's Alpha

     Several excellent texts have addressed themselves to  the problems associ-
ated with sampling in  the field for estimating species diversity indices.  Some
are:  An  Introduction  to Mathematical Ecology  (Pielou, 1969); Quantitative
Plant Ecology  (Greig-Smith, 1964); Ecological Diversity (Pielou, 1975).  Some
indices  that are  suitable for possible use on a biosphere  sampling site are:

     1.   Simpson's Measurement of Diversity  (Simpson, 1949).


               L  =   !!  /„  ,J           L  =  Simpson's Index
                      N  (N-l)
                                        N  -  Total Number of Individuals

                                        n  =  Number of Individuals Falling
                                              into Various Groups

     2.   Dice's Measure of  Ecological Association  (Dice, 1945).

                (CA)  =  ^-            (CA)  =  Coefficient  of Association
                                         h  =  Number of  Samples Containing
                                               Species A  and B
                                       25

-------
                                        n  =  Number of Samples Examined
                                        a  =  Number of Samples in which Species
                                              A Occurs Alone
                                        b  =  Number of Samples in which Species
                                              B Occurs Alone

     3.  Information Theory Species Diversity Indices (Pielou,  1966a, 1966b).

           H  =  ^ Log  N ,NN',	jpr   H  =  Species Diversity Index
                                   s    S  =  Number of Species
           H!  =  -E P.  Log2P.  (Where   N  =  Total Number of Individuals
                                       N.  =  Number of Individuals in the ith
           Pi  ~  Nr                   1     Species


NOTE:  There are several variations on this equation based on sampling require-
ments.  All appropriate ones will be looked at.

     4.  Fisher's Alpha (Fisher et al., 1943).

               S=aL|l+N)      S  =  Number of Species
                          \      '      N  =  Number of Individuals
                                        a  =  Fisher's Alpha

     In addition to the indices described above,  all the data collected will
be analyzed to determine the appropriate distribution function.  This is vital
not only to the estimation of species diversity indices, but the application
of more routinely applied statistical techniques.   Some of the equations to be
considered are given below.  The citation given refers to a source where com-
putational solutions have been outlined.

     1.  Poison Distribution (Archibald, 1948).

                       x  _
             P(x)  =  YJ- e            P(x)  =  Proportion of Observations in
                                               the Xth Frequency Class
                                     P(x)N  -  the Number of Individuals in
                                               the Class Xth Frequency Class,
                                               given a Total Population of N
                                               Individuals
                                         m  =  Mean Number of Units per Quadrat
                                         x  =  Integer Value for Frequency Class
                                      26

-------
     2.   Neyman Type A (Archibald, 1948).

                              a— mo\
          rV*-W  -  e      ~e   >

              mi  =  U.1/JU2
Subsequent terms are obtained by substituting K  =  0,1,2, 3. . .in:

                            t=K  «_
                       -m? _ _ .   t
     P(x=K+l)  =  ——	 / j—r   P(x=K-t)
                            t=0 '

                                        Vi i  =  1st Moment of the Distribution
                                               (the mean)

                                        V2  =  2nd Moment of the Distribution
                                               (the variance)

     3.  Negative Binomial Distribution (Bliss and Fisher, 1953).

                   (K + X -1) I RX
           W     X!(K - 1)1   K


          R  =  P/q  =  M/(K + M)

     Distribution defined by K and M.  The parameter M is mean.  K is deter-
mined as outlined by Bliss and Fisher (1953).

     There are other indices that are available for analysis.  However, many
are dependent on the measurement from randomly selected individuals to their
nearest neighbor, or measurement from a randomly selected point to the nearest
perennial shrub to that point.  Because of ease of sampling in the field, ef-
forts will be restricted to indices that depend on total species counts.  The
distribution functions described by no means exhaust the possibilities.  Other
functions will be included as necessary.  Among the missing distribution func-
tions, which will be considered, is the normal distribution.

     The sampling site size will vary with the type of vegetation.  Mature
forests will be sampled with sample site size of approximately 0.1 acres.  A
prism will be used to determine plot boundaries.  Sampling in meadows will be
done on a sampling site size of 1 square meter.  Sample site boundaries will
be delineated, using 1 meter square sampling frames.  Sampling in shrub com-
munities will use a sample site whose boundaries will be delineated by a col-
lapsible sampling frame 4 meters on a side.
                                       27

-------
     The sampling site system will be essential to the overall experimental de
sign since samples collected for pollutant monitoring for soil and vegetation,
at least, will be tied to this overall sample design, although not necessarily
sampled within the immediate confines of plot boundaries as described above.
Permanent plot locations for pollutant sampling will not be used because
changes through time on the same area are desired to be detected, and there-
fore, a new "random" sample must be drawn for each "time" sample.

Microcosms

     Techniques which employ biological indicators for the determination of
pollutant impact on a biosphere have been improved in the past few years.
Bioindicators have one great advantage over standard analytical pollutant
analyses — they make it possible to determine, many times in a one-step pro-
cedure,  the direct effect a pollutant has on living organisms.  This measure-
ment, after all, is the purpose of all the analytical effort.  One indicator
technique which is gaining in use is the microcosm concept.

     Microcosms have been and are now primarily being used as tools for the
evaluation of chemical mobility in soil and to determine whether these toxi-
cants are likely to bioaccumulate or biomagnify.  Both of the above uses re-
quire that the user know what toxicant has been introduced and what methods
are  available for both extraction and analysis.  This information is then used
to predict the fate of these materials.  A more relevant use of the microcosm
concept  has been the effort to identify certain critical system-level para-
meters which could be sensitive to perturbation.  Of the parameters investi-
gated, the two which show the greatest promise are patterns of soil nutrient
loss and carbon dioxide evolution (Van Hook et al., 1976) .  If these parameters
can  indeed be correlated with system perturbation, then we have a new monitor-
ing  tool which would readily indicate system stress even before visible damage
was  evident.

     Available data indicate that there is little doubt that microcosms do re-
spond in a predictable manner to low levels of soil chemical perturbation.
However, the effects of environmental stress (water stress, temperature, light,
etc.) have not been determined.  When it can be shown that such interactions
either do not cause effects similar to chemical perturbation or that such ef-
fects do not mask chemical perturbation, then its usefulness as a monitoring
tool can be established.  The lab work will be in a growth chamber where a
full range of environmental influences can be evaluated.  After environmental
stress effects are determined, the effects of both soil-applied and gas-phase
pollutants will be studied.  The information from these studies is essential
for  integrating this technique into the biosphere monitoring program.

Bioindicators

     The use of biological indicators to determine the effects of pollutants
on a given site is a promising technique.  Recent studies with a tritium  (3H2)
oxidizing microorganism at the EMSL-LV, AlooMgenes paradoxus, have shown prom-
ise  in assessing the available concentrations  of  certain heavy metals, mercury
and  lead, in soil.  These preliminary studies have shown that, for similar con-
centrations of these metals in soil  and a liquid media, quite different effects

                                       28

-------
on the activity of this microorganism, as determined by its ability to produce
tritiated water, are observed.  Concentrations as high as 100 ppm of lead  (as
lead acetate) had no apparent effect on  the bacterium in the soil but caused a
50% reduction of activity in the liquid  media.  For mercury (added as mercuric
nitrate) the effect was even more pronounced.  In soil a concentration of  100
ppm of mercury resulted in only a 22% reduction in activity as compared to a
37% reduction caused by only 1 ppm  in the liquid solution.

     The results imply that the impacts  of mercury and lead are  smaller in soil
than in solution and that this organism  may prove useful as a determinant  of
heavy metal availability in soils.  Also, the techniques involved in this  anal-
ysis are quite simple, and fast:  results can be obtained within a matter  of
hours after receipt of a small soil sample.  This technique will be developed
further at EMSL-LV as a possible rapid screening tool for assessing pollutant
impact in biosphere soil systems.

Parameters Monitored and Analytical Support

     Many of the early papers written on GEMS or on the biosphere reserve  pro-
gram in general have proposed a variety  of pollutants to be monitored on the
site.  A list of pollutants suggested for monitoring on the biosphere reserves
has been given in the MAB Report 20 (Man and Biosphere, 1974), GNEM Report 4,
 (Ad Hoc Task Force on GNEM, 1970),  SCOPE Report 3, (Munn, 1973)  and Morgan et
al.  (1976).  Table 4 is an estimate of the types of parameters to be measured
in each media of the sampling site  for the initial pilot study.


             TABLE 4.  SUGGESTED LIST OF  PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED
	AND CONSIDERED FOR BIOSPHERE RESERVE SAMPLING SITES	

         POLLUTANT                           ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT
                                 Air     Water    Soil    Biota    Rainfall/Dry
                                 	Deposition
 Sulphur Dioxide                   X
 Suspended Particulates            X
 Turbidity                                 X
 Total Nonfilterable Residue               X
 Ozone                             X
 DDT*, PCB, Other                          XXX           X
    Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Organics
 Cadmium                           X       X       X       X           X
 Mercury                           X       X       X       X           X
 Lead                              X       X       X       X           X
 Arsenic                           X       X       X       X           X
 Sulphur                           X                                   X
 Reactive Hydrocarbons             X
 Stream Flow Rates                         X
 Temperature                               X
 PH                                        XXX
 Conductivity                              X
 Total Organic Carbon	X	

 * Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane

                                         29

-------
     There is an additional parameter which is referred to as the unknown or-
ganic.  At this stage, we would recommend a procedure as outlined by Mr. William
Donaldson at Athens, Georgia.  The general procedure was put forward in a paper
entitled "Identification and Measurement of Trace Organics in Water Methodology
and Monitoring Systems."  This was presented November 17, 1976, at the state-
of-the-art seminar supported by the Office of Air, Land, and Water Use, Office
of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.  In this
paper, Mr. Donaldson proposes that a limited number of samples be completely
and totally analyzed and examined for as many forms of organic contaminant as
possible.  As part of this study, we recommend bringing in a certain number of
soil extracts, rain, and water samples to be analyzed by such a technique.  The
object here would be to determine if there is present in these samples an unex-
pected environmental contaminant from anthropogenic sources.  This is one at-
tempt to try to anticipate potential worldwide pollutants.  Table 5 is a list
of the types of organic compound that have been identified using this type of
an approach for a water sample.  Also shown are the amounts detected.

     Another approach of a similar nature is in the trace element area.  This
is to make use of multi-element analytical techniques on a limited number of
samples.  Two techniques that are applicable are spark-source mass spectrometry
and neutron activation analysis.  Not all samples will be sent for this multi-
element analysis, but composite samples selected to be representative of the
entire sampling site will be submitted for multi-element analysis to ensure the
detection of any unexpected buildups in various trace elements outside of those
elements listed in Table 4.

      Scott  (Personal Communication, EMSL-LV, 1977) has stated the requirements
for trace-element analysis in this type of study:

          "...recommendations are to use very sensitive methods which
           require a minimum of sample preparation to minimize blank
           problems.  Candidate methods are neutron activation for
           Hg, As, and Pb with x-ray emission or spark source mass
           spectrometry for Hg, As, Pb, and Cd.  All of these methods
           can be used for analysis of the solids without dissolution
           of the samples.  If dissolution of the samples can be tol-
           erated, then optical emission or furnace atomic absorption
           could be used.  The detection levels cited for Cd and Pb
           in water will require the collection of very large quanti-
           ties so that concentration by a factor of 1,000 will yield
           levels which are detectable.  Gas chromatography or gas
           chromatography-mass spectrometry can be used for the PCB
           and DDT although concentration techniques may have to be
           employed for water.

           The sampling phase of this work must be conducted in such
           a manner that contamination by the sampler does not obscure
           the true level of the residues.  Preservation of the water
           samples also must be properly accomplished particularly at
           these low levels.  Equally important is the availability of
           ultra-clean facilities to the analytical laboratory so that
           sample contamination does not occur."

                                       30

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     TABLE  5.  VOLATILE ORGANICS IN GROUNDWATER FROM WELL #5 PRIOR TO
                         IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION1
Chromato-
graphic
Peak No.
1
3
4
4A
5
6
6A
8

8A
9
10
10A

10B

11
11B
13
13A
13B
13C
14
15
16
18
19
19A
20
20A
21
22
22A
23
24
24A
25
26
26A
27
27A

27B
28

29

29A

30
31

Elution
Temp.
(°C)
128
145
147
150
152
153
161
168

169
170
172
173

173

174
175
178
179
180
181
183
184
185
188
190
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
202

203
204

205

205

207
208

Chromato- Elution
Compound

toluene
ethvlbenzene
p-xylene
3-heptanone
styrene
o-xylene
isopropylbenzene
ii-propylbenzene

m-ethyl toluene
£-ethyltoluene
benzaldehyde
1,3, 5-trimethylbenzene

CT^HI/I isomer
10 20
cyanobenzene
o-e thy 1 toluene
1 , 2 ,4-trimethylbenzene
C10H20 lsomer
n-decane
C1QH20 isomer
C,~alkyl benzene isomer
C9H10 isomer
1,2, 3-trimethylbenzene
C-nH,jn isomer and indane
indane
j>-propyl toluene
m-propyltoluene
n-butylbenzene
C11H24 isomer
o-propyl toluene
methyl indane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
C,-alkyl benzene isomer
methyl indane isomer
n-undecane
C -alkyl benzene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
5
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
4
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
D
C-..H0, isomer
ppb

2.0+1
1.5+0.5
0.5+.25
trace
1.0+.5
0.5+.02
0.06+.03
0.7+.03

0.1+.05
0.08+.01
trace
0.08+.01

trace

0.06+.01
0.08+.02
0.24+.07
trace
0.2+.05
trace
trace
trace
0.3+.04
trace
trace
0.08+.01
0.04+.03
0.04+.03
trace
trace
trace
0.2+.04
trace
trace
0.2+.03
0.1+.01
0.1+.01
0.2+.01
trace

trace
12 26
tetramethylbenzene isomer 0.3+. 02

C.-alkyl benzene isomer
4
methylindan or dimethyl-
styrene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer

0.2+.01


trace
trace
5
C, _H,,, isomer and C.-alkyl
12 24 J
benzene isomer
trace
graphic Temp.
Peak No.
32
32A
32B
33
33A
33B
34
34A


35
35A
35B
36

37

38
39
40

41
42
43
44
44A
45
46
47
48
50
51
52
52A
53
54

55
57
58
59


60

61

62
63
64
65
66
(°C)
210
210
211
211
212
212
213
213


214
215
215
216

217

218
219
220

221
222
223
224
224
225
227
228
230
231
232
233
234
235
237

238
240
isothermal












Compound

C.-alkyl benzene isomer
j
C12H24 isomer
methylindene isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
C,--alkvl benzene isomer
methylindene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
1,2,3, 4-tetraniethylnaph-
thalene

methylindene isomer
C12H24 lsomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
dimethylindane isomer

n-dodecane

naphthalene
dimethylindane isomer and
C -alkylindane isomer
C^H,0 isomer and C -alkyl
13 £Q -*
benzene isomer
Cr-alkyl benzene isomer
6
C3-alkylindane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
dimethylindane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
C ,,H^ isomer
13 zo
C H28 isomer
C^-alkyl benzene isomer
6
C,,H-n isomer
dimethylindane isomer
trimethyl indane isomer
C13HM isomer
n-tridecane
dimethylindane isomer +
trimethylindane isomer
B-methylnaphthalene
C -alkyl benzene isomer
4
C,_H,, isomer
12 16
C12H16 iS°mer and C13H18
isomer

C -alkyl benzene isomer
r H isomer
"1 ^"1 O iO^t»^"t
1 J lo
C H^0 isomer
^15 32
C H-o isomer
n-tetradecane
biphenyl
ethylnaphthalene isomer
ppb

trace
trace
0.044.01
NQ
NQ
trace
NQ
0.064.03


trace
trace
trace
trace

0.34.03

2.04.05
trace
trace

trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
0.24
trace
trace
0.44.05
0 . 14 . 03
trace
trace
trace
0.2+.02
0.14.05

200
trace

trace


trace
t race

trace
trace

0.24-01
trace
trace
            D. E. (1977).  Quarterly Report No. 4.  Identification of Compo-
nents of Energy-related Waste and Effluents.  EPA Contract No. 68-03-2368,
Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
                                     31

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QUALITY ASSURANCE

     It is expected that a relatively large number of samples would be collect-
ed both in the presampling and in the follow-up study phase.  It is advanta-
geous to minimize the total number of samples since this is associated with a
large portion of the cost of any biosphere reserve monitoring program.  None-
theless, the number of samples is expected to be large.  Samples will be sub-
mitted for analyses in either the raw form or in the extracted form.  The ana-
lytical support will follow all quality assurance procedures which are normal-
ly included in the EMSL-LV quality assurance protocols.  In addition, since
the levels of pollutants are expected to be low, the minimum amounts of extrac-
tion variability and instrument variability are desirable.  Also, because of
the nature of some of the elements in question, specialized analytical techni-
ques will have to be employed.  Samples will likely be batched and a large
number sent for analyses at one time.  Check-samples, blank and unmarked sam-
ples of known concentrations will be submitted at regular but unscheduled in-
tervals.  At least 10% of the total number of samples submitted will be ana-
lyzed by an independent laboratory as part of its quality assurance program.
All samples will be handled with extreme care to prevent any possible contami-
nation in the lab.  This is reflecting again the relatively low concentration
levels of pollutants in each of the samples.  Reference methods used will be
equal to or better than those cited previously.  For example, pesticide anal-
yses should follow procedures outlined by Thompson (1974) and Sherma (1976).
Complete data sets, including chromatograms from gas chromatographs and where
preferable, graphic results of the atomic absorption analyses will be main-
tained, cataloged, and submitted as part of the data report.  An estimate of
machine error and an estimate of error due to extraction will be included in
the report.  Sampling procedures have been covered in detail including sam-
pling-site criteria, number of samples and frequency of sampling in previous
sections of this paper.  With regard to the preservation of samples, all sam-
ples will be kept wherever possible under cold or freezer conditions.  All
samples stored at Las Vegas will be kept in a refrigerator.  It may not be
possible, however, to immediately freeze samples in the field because of the
remoteness of the sampling stations, but every effort will be made to preserve
the samples in as close to the same form as when they were collected.  Sample
preservation is central to the whole success of a biosphere monitoring program.

     Samples will be shipped from the field sites to Las Vegas either in the
company of the principal investigators, other members of the field team, or by
commercial air freight with arrangements made for immediate pickup upon receipt
at the airport.  The samples will then be transported immediately to the cold
room and stored prior to extraction and/or submission for chemical analyses.
Sample identification and coding have been covered in detail previously.

     All field data will be recorded in a field notebook similar to the type
available from the Nalgene Company, copyright 1973.  These are specially de-
signed bound notebooks.  It is difficult to remove pages and the books are
designed so that they are resistant to chemicals.  They are fully immersible
in water, may be written on with pencil, ball-point pen, etc., when wet or even
when under water.
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     Field instruments will be maintained and calibrated according to the man-
ufacturers' recommended procedures.  Instruments, such as the electronic cap-
acitance herbage meter, will be re-zeroed every 30 minutes throughout the day,
as used.  The herba.ge meter will be warmed up for a minimum of 1 hour in the
morning prior to use so that it equalizes ambient temperatures.  Batteries
will be replaced daily.
BIOSPHERE SITE SELECTION AND CHARACTERIZATION - EXAMPLES

Yellowstone National Park

     Geographically, Yellowstone National Park lies in the extreme northwest
corner of Wyoming with slight extensions into both eastern Idaho and southern
portions of Montana.  At one time this area was nearly all mountainous.  How-
ever, at present, approximately one-third of the park is made up of low rolling
plateaus formed from lava flows (Christiansen and Blank, 1972).  The north,
east, and southern portions of the central plateau in the park are extremely
mountainous forming parts of the Rocky Mountains (Figure 2).

     An aquatic environment is well represented by numerous hot water pools
and other geothermal features formed by an enormous reservoir of molten rock
beneath the Park.  Also, four main rivers drain the Park, one of which drains
to the Pacific Ocean—the Snake, and three which drain to the Atlantic Ocean—
the Firehole, the Madison, and the Yellowstone rivers.  Lakes are abundant with
the largest, Yellowstone, and the smaller, Shoshone, Lewis, and Heart Lakes
occurring in the Park's southern portion.

     Yellowstone National Park consists of approximately 9,100 km2 and is in-
cluded on the following U.S. Geological Survey's 15 minute quadrangles:  Grassy
Lake Reservoir, Canyon Village, Cutoff Mountain, Buffalo Lake, Mammoth, Old
Faithful, Gardiner, Sunlight Peak, Crown Butte, Mount Holmes, Madison Junction,
Two Ocean Pass, Norris Junction, Tower Junction, Tepee Creek, West Thumb, Eagle
Peak, Pelican Cone, Mt. Wallace, and West Yellowstone.

     The Park is surrounded by National Forests.  The north side is bounded by
the Gallatin, the east by the Shoshone, the south by the Bridger-Teton and por-
tions of the west and south by the Targhee.

Ownership

     The supervision and jurisdiction of Yellowstone is under the U.S. National
Park Service headquartered at Mammoth Hot Springs located at the northern en-
trance on Highway 89.

     The locations and addresses of the U.S. Forest Service District Offices
are as follows:

     Gallatin - U.S. Federal Building   Shoshone - West Yellowstone Highway
                Box 130                            P.O. Box 961
                Bozeman, Montana 59715             Cody, Wyoming 82414


                                      33

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                                                          '—45°


Figure 2.  Map of Yellowstone  National Park.


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     Targhee  - 420 N. Bridge Street    Bridger-Teton - U.S. Forest Service
                Anthony, Idaho 83445                    Jackson, Wyoming 83001


Accessibility (Logistics)

     Accessibility into portions of the Park by motor vehicles is made possible
through the following five major entrances:  Gardiner, Cook City, Cody, Teton
National Park, and West Yellowstone.  State Highways are 191, 20, 287, 89, 14,
16, and 212.  These form a network of easily accessible roads through the cen-
tral portion of the Park; however, many areas such as in the southeast, south-
west, and portions of the northeast are accessible only by foot and pack trails.
The absence of roads and trails over a large portion of the Park makes explora-
tion difficult.

     The small number of service roads that do exist generally parallel the
main State Highways.  As such, they would not be useful for gaining access into
the many remote regions of the Park.

     The walking and pack trails are fairly extensive throughout some of the
Park.  However, any sustained and heavy sampling would require the use of pack
animals and/or the use of aircraft.  Sample integrity would be difficult under
these conditions.

Site Integrity

     It is very likely that  sites in the southeast, southwest, and northeast
portions of the Park are remote enough to be able to maintain site integrity.
The occasional penetration by hikers should have a minimal effect.  Further,
the fact that this is a national park assures protection for the future.

Vegetation Types

     Most of the 9,100 square kilometers of Yellowstone National Park has been
described as being vegetatively monotonous  (Cooper, 1975), having few terres-
trial vegetative types.  Within the elevational range of approximately 1,650
meters to a high of over 3,000 meters, four major and two minor terrestrial
vegetative types have been identified (Despain, 1973).  Also, four different
aquatic or water-associated  types are described:

     Spruce - Fir Type (Pioea - Abies')—Location — this type is common, but is
well developed only in the northwestern corner of the Park.  It occupies the
northwest and northeast slopes at elevations between 2,100 meters and 2,400
meters on moderately well-drained benches and alluvial flats.  It is the most
extensive of the very mesic  vegetative types.

     Dominant Species — In  many areas, Pioea engelmannii and P. glauca domin-
ate to such an extent that Abies is present only as seedlings or sapling-sized
accidentals (Cooper, 1975).  However, many areas are dominated by A.  lasioearpa
and/or an equal mix of the two dominates.  White bark pine  (Pinus albieaulis)
may also be a major component, even the dominant species at  times.  The average


                                      35

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density of spruce ranges from 133 to 178 trees/hectare and fir 173 to  207  trees/
hectare.  In areas where white bark pine dominates, its density ranges  from  126
to 444 trees/hectare (Despain, 1973).

     Douglas - Fir type (Pseudotsuga Menziesii)—Location — this type  is
generally found at lower elevations, 1,800 meters to higher elevations  on  the
south facing slopes where it occurs in a serai role in the Spruce-Fir  type.
It also represents local forests of the warmest and driest environments usually
receiving less than 51 centimeters of rainfall per year (Despain, 1973).

     Dominant Species — The dominant species are Pseudotsuga menziesii3 Popu-
lus tremuloides, Pinus oontoTta, and mixes of Pioea engelmanmii and P. glauoa.
This forest is also characterized by an understory of big sagebrush Artemisia
tridentata and various grasses.  It can also be distinguished by its many  large,
fire-scarred, areas.

     Lodgepole - Pine type (Pinus contovta)—Location — one of the largest
types in the Park, it is generally found in areas where moisture is more favor-
able, such as pond margins, drainage ways and north-facing slopes.  This type
is found between 2,300 meters to 2,560 meters elevation and receives between
50 to 100 centimeters of precipitation per year.

     Dominant Species — The lodgepole pine type is dominated by Pinus aontorta
with little or no Pioea or Abies in the understory.  The lodgepoles are slower
growing and may reach ages in excess of 300 years.  Density is about 325 trees/
hectare for trees greater than 10 centimeters in diameter (Despain, 1973).
White bark pine may also be present in both overstory and understory.  The cli-
max condition in lodgepole is perhaps determined by the combination of  relative-
 ly  low  precipitation and the  nutritionally poor nature of the soils derived
from rhyolite.

     Meadow type—Locations — meadows occur at most elevations throughout the
Park.  They can be subdivided into two subtypes:

          a.  The wet meadows in which water, usually to a depth of 5 to 8 cen-
timeters covers most of the area for long periods of time during much of the
growing season.  The dominant vegetation in this subtype is from the genus Carex,
Also represented are the grasses Alapecurus aequalis and Hordeum bTaahyanthenm
(Reed, 1952).

          b.  The second meadow subtype is the dry meadow.  The dominant spe-
cies again are from the Capex genus; however, the species are different than
found in the wet meadows.  A greater abundance of grass is found in this sub-
type including Bromus spp,  Poa palustris, and Agrostis spp.

     Cold Desert type—Location — this type, relatively small in area, lies
near Gardiner, Montana, along the northern boundary of the Park at elevations
between 1,670 and 1,830 meters (Despain, 1973).

     Dominant Species — This type similar to the Great Basin cold desert  for-
mation is dominated by big sagebrush A. tridentata, Sarcobatus spp, Eurotia
lanata,  and the grass Bouteloua spp.  It is commonly found in areas receiving
less than 38 centimeters annual precipitation and on heavy soils derived from
shales.
                                      36

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     Alpine Tundra—Location —  there  is  not  much information available con-
cerning this type, however, it is  found in  Yellowstone in areas  above  3,000
meters.

     Dominant Species — Plant species include mosses,  Mountain  avens,  and na-
tive dandelions.

     Riverside Shrub type—Location — this type occurs along most  of  the main
river systems throughout the Park.   It is characterized by shrubs and  small
tree species, primarily of the Salix genus.  Dominant species include  S. farrae,
S. lutea, S. dnarmondiana3 and S.  exigua.

     Rivers — All of the rivers receive  runoff of thermal waters from geysers
and hot springs that may influence aquatic  plant and animal populations in many
portions of these water systems.  Chemically  the rivers in this  region are
sodium-bicarbonate-chloride waters. Calcium  and magnesium occur in consider-
ably lower concentrations.  The  water  chemistry is directly related to the
products of weathering of sodium and potassium aluminosilicates  together with
silica, which largely comprise the bedrock  of this region (Wright and  Mills,
1967).

     Dominant Species — this type includes Chora Vulgaris,  Potamogeton fill—
form-is, P. stviot'tfolius 3 p. natans, and  the  aquatic mosses Hygroamb'lys'tegiwn
fluwiat-ile and Fissidens grandifrons.

     Thermal Pools and Hot Springs—Locations — thermal pools and  hot springs
are most common.  They are characterized  by hot or warm water with  temperatures
approaching 90° C or higher.  Often source  temperatures will exceed runoff or
mouth  temperatures by 10 times within  a  few hundred meters.

     Dominant Species — As many thermal  plants and animal species  are tempera-
ture tolerant and also, due  to the wide variety of temperatures  in  the many
geothermal pools and hot springs,  species abundance and population  densities
change as a function of thermal  sources.   The following are the common diatom,
algal  and bacterial species  found  in the  hot  waters throughout the  Park (Stocker,
1967):  Schizothrix caluiola, Mougeotia  spp.} Qscillatoria terebriformisj
Syneohooooous spp.3 S. minervae, S. lividis,  Paraaoenia spp.3 Borill-us stearo-
thermophilusj Thermus aquations3 Calothrix spp., Mastigooladus spp., Chora
Vulgaris, Pinnularia rm'-orostrawcon, Gomphonema parvulum, Aohnanthes grimmi,
Navioula oinota, Rhopalodia gibberula, Amphora coffeaeformis, and Denticula
elegans.

Geology

     The initial geologic  investigations  of Yellowstone were primarily recon-
naissance studies conducted  by Hayden  (1872).  His work was primarily concerned
with the geography and with  the  local  hot springs and geysers of this area.
During the latter part of  the  1800's,  more geologic and topographic studies
were completed by Hague  (1896) and Hague and Iddings (1899).  Their work show-
ed the presence of extensive  rhyolite  formations within the Park; however, no
attempt was made to map the  other  geologic formations within the rhyolite com-
plex.

                                          37

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     Allen and Day (1935) conducted a detailed Investigation of the hot springs.
Similarly, Fenner (1934, 1936) reported on the alteration of the rhyolite by hot
spring waters.  He also reported (1938, 1944) on the petrology of the Gardiner
River Complex.

     Further studies by Howard (1937) identified and described the geomorphic
history of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone.  During this same period, work
on the volcanic activity in Yellowstone was reported by Dorf (1939).  He re-
ported that volcanic outbursts occurred intermittently in Yellowstone beginning
during the early Eocene and continuing throughout the Tertiary.  Rouse (1937)
described these volcanic formations as being from andesite and docite, consist-
ing predominantly of breccias and agglomerates, having the appearance of mud
flows.  He further identified the accumulation of the andesites, breccias, and
associated basalts to thicknesses of up to 2,000 meters in the Absaroka Range
along the eastern border of the Park.  The breccias were also noted to crop out
in the Gallatin Range in the northwest corner of the Park, in the Washburn Range
north of Yellowstone Lake, and at a number of localities in the foothills of the
Wind River and Teton River along the southern boundary.

     The centers of volcanic eruption were disputed during these early explora-
tions.  For example, intrusive rocks similar to the breccias in composition
were found in the Gallatin Range.  Hague (1899) interpreted this source of
breccias near Electric Peak as being the core of a large volcano.  He also
identified Hurricane Mesa  in the Absaroka Range as the core of another major
volcano.  Later, Rouse  (1937) disagreed and refuted this by reporting that the
breccias were deposited by hundreds of small vents and a few volcanos of moder-
ate  sizes scattered throughout this area.

     Apparently, the eruption of the breccias was followed by an interval of
erosion as the rhyolite which covers nearly two-thirds of the Park was reported
by Boyd (1961) to have been deposited upon this eroded breccia surface.

     Features of the present-day landscape as reported by Keefer (1972) origi-
nated from the Pliocene time.  He further reported that during this time the
entire region was being uplifted to heights several thousand meters above the
present elevations.  These forces accounted for the many large steep-sided
block mountains bounded by normal faults.  While some blocks sank, others rose,
sometimes on  the order of several thousand meters.  For example, the Gallatin
Range in  the northwest corner of the Park was lifted as a rectangular mountain
block along two 32-kilometer  long normal faults which border this range on
each side.

     The  rise in elevation and the dissection of this region into many moun-
tainous fault blocks gave rise to increases in the rate of erosion.  Once slow
streams turned into fast moving rivers that cut deeply into the surface fea-
tures.  Rock  debris were stripped and carried off.  It is believed that at the
end  of the Pliocene the Yellowstone region was highly dissected mountains con-
sisting of many table topped and canyon lands.  Resemblances of this can be
seen in the Absaroka Range running along the east side of the Park.  This moun-
tain range and the Washburn Range located in the central part today represent
small remnants of the vast pile of Absaroka volcanic rocks that once covered
all  of the Yellowstone region.

                                         38

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Figure 3.  Outline of the Yellowstone caldera,
                     39

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     At the beginning of the Quaternary period, the formation of the 2,600-
square-kilometer Yellowstone caldera began (Figure 3).   As the magma built up
and accumulated beneath Yellowstone, it developed into  such an explosive state
that two caldera-forming eruptions occurred—the first, 2,000,000 years ago,
and the second, 600,000 years ago.  As both eruptions affect the central part
of the Park, features related to the first eruption were largely destroyed.

     During the first eruption lava and ash flows filled old canyons and val-
leys which had been eroded into the "Absaroka pile."  Eventually much of the
older landscape was buried by ash.  As the hot pumice,  ash, and molten rock
cooled, it formed horizontal sheets of compact rock similar in composition to
rhyolite, also termed ash-flow tuff or Yellowstone tuff (Reefer, 1972).  The
rhyolite plateau is made up of this ash flow and welded tuff with subsidiary
rhyolite domes of basalt and rhyolite-basalt mixed lava.  The Yellowstone tuff
is exposed over a 1,550 square kilometer area within the Park along with the
plateau flow which covers nearly 2,600 square kilometers in the Madison Central
and Pitchstone Plateaus (Boyd, 1961).

     With the removal of hundreds of cubic kilometers of molten rock after the
eruptions, the caldera collapsed into the two major magma chambers.  The depth
of collapse has been estimated to be several thousand meters.  In part the ba-
sin occupied by Yellowstone Lake owes its existence to  the caldera collapse.

     The second eruption was confined primarily to the  caldera proper.  The
lava poured out from many fissures flooding the caldera floor.  As the lava
began  to fill the caldera basin, it overflowed toward the southwestern portion
of the Park.  Again the lava cooled, forming the gently rolling plateau surface
of central Yellowstone commonly called the Rhyolite Plateau as previously de-
scribed.  This plateau covering more than 2,000 square  kilometers is character-
ized by moderate valleys and rolling hills formed between adjacent lava flows,
with streams and rivers flowing in many of the ready-made channels.  The Rhyo-
lite and the ash-flow tuffs are the predominant rock along many of the Park
roads.  A number of basalt flows did occur in this area forming some of the
most unusual rock formations in the Park.  They are characterized by a series
of upright many-sided columns.

     Another caldera-forming event occurred in the central Yellowstone region
between 125,000 and 200,000 years ago.  This eruption of rhyolite ash flows and
the subsequent collapse of the caldera formed the deep  depression now filled by
the west thumb of Yellowstone Lake.

     The last outpouring of lava occurred 60,000 to 75,000 years ago.  The hot
water  and steam activity still remain as a vivid reminder of Yellowstone's vol-
canic  past.

     In 1972, Christiansen and Blank described the major rocks formed after the
three volcanic periods.  Formed during the first period were rocks comprised of
precaldera - Junction Butte basalt and rhyolite, the Huckleberry Ridge tuff of
the Yellowstone Group, and the post-caldera Lewis Canyon rhyolite and basalt
of the narrows.  Most of the rock formed during the second period is largely
buried; however, the Mesa Falls tuff, also, of the Yellowstone Group, is pres-
ent at the surface in certain areas.  The rocks of the  third volcanic eruption

                                       40

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are represented by the precaldera Mount Jackson rhyolite, post-Lava Creek ba-
salt, Lava Creek tuff, and Yellowstone tuff.

     The final sculpturing of Yellowstone occurred during the last 100,000
years by glaciation.  This region was glaciated at least three times.  The
glaciations were from, oldest to youngest, the pre-Bull Lake, Bull Lake, and
Pinedale.  Their precise age and duration are imperfectly known, but estimates
based on a few radiometric determinations are:  (1)  the oldest glaciation (pre-
Bull Lake glaciation) began more than 300,000 years  ago and ended between
180,000 and 200,000 years ago;  (2) Bull Lake Glaciation began about 125,000
years ago and ended more than 45,000 years  ago; (3)  Pinedale Glaciation began
about 25,000 years ago and ended about 8,500 years ago (Keefer, 1972).  The
pre-Bull Lake and Bull Lake are known only  from scattered deposits of rock
debris, glacial moraines, and other features, but the distribution of these
deposits indicates that glaciers were widespread throughout the region and
occurred both between and during eruptions  of the Rhyolite Plateau.  The ef-
fects of the Pinedale glaciers, on the other hand, are obvious in many parts
of  the Park, and the history of this youngest glacial cycle is known in much
greater detail than that of the two older ones.

      In the early stages of Pinedale Glaciation, an  enormous icefield built up
in  the high Absaroka Range  southeast of  the Park area.  A glacier, fed by this
icefield,  flowed northward  down the upper Yellowstone valley and into the basin
now occupied by Yellowstone Lake.  At  about the same time, another great ice-
field formed in the mountains north of  the  Park and  sent tongues of ice south-
ward toward the lower Yellowstone  and  Lamar River valleys.  Smaller valley
glaciers  flowed westward out of the Absaroka Range along t-he east edge of the
Park, and  still others  formed along  the  main ridges  and valleys of the Gallatin
Range,  in  the  northwestern  part of  the Park.   Thus,  many huge masses of ice
 from the north, east,  and  southeast  converged  and met  in the Park.

      For  the next  10,000 years, the  ice  thickened  and  spread out over more and
more of  the Park area.  The mass,  centered  over  the  Yellowstone Lake basin,
 grew to  a  depth of  900  meters or more  and  dominated  the  entire  scene.  Eventu-
 ally, the  Pinedale  glaciers covered  about  90 percent of  Yellowstone  (Figure  4).
 Only the west  edge  of  the  Park  and perhaps  a few of  the  highest peaks  and rid-
 ges within the Park remained  free  of  ice (Reefer,  1972).

      After their maximum  advance,  the  Pinedale glaciers  began  to melt,  leaving
 behind  the rock debris  they had gouged from the  landscape  and  had  pushed  or
 carried  along  with  them.   These glacial  moraines  are now found  in  many areas
 throughout the Park.   In  places,  glacial ice and/or  rock debris  formed natural
 dams across  stream valleys, thereby impounding lakes.   Parts  of  Hayden Valley,
 for example,  contain layers of  very fine sand,  silt, and clay  several  tens  of
meters  thick  that  accumulated  along the bottom of a large  lake.   This  lake
 formed  behind  a glacial dam across the Yellowstone River near  Upper  Falls.
 Some of  the  glacial dams  broke  and released water catastrophically,  causing
 giant floods;  the  occurrence of one such flood is particularly evident along
 the Yellowstone River valley near  Gardiner, Montana.
                                         41

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                                                /

                                              '
                                               •
                                                  7
                                       20 MILES
Figure 4.  Extent  of ice in Yellowstone National Park.
                           ...

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     By about 12,000 years ago the thick Pinedale ice sheet had melted entirely
from the Yellowstone Lake basin and most other areas of the Park, although val-
ley glaciers continued to exist in the mountains until about 8,500 years ago.
Then following a short period of total disappearance, small icefields formed
again in the heads of some of the higher mountain valleys.  Since the melting
of the Pinedale ice, however, none has descended as a glacier  into the lower
stretches of the valleys (Reefer, 1972).

Soils

     Soils data from Yellowstone are extremely limited.  The only data avail-
able from within the Park boundaries are shown on the General Wyoming soil map,
Figure 5, as prepared by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (Wyoming General
Soil Survey, 1975).

     All of the soil associations within the Park are classified as soils typ-
ical of mountains or mountain valleys.  They are all of similar origin, formed
from either residual or transported materials.

     The only detailed soil survey completed is of the Gallatin Canyon Area.
This area borders a small portion of the extreme northwest corner of the Park
beginning approximately 48 kilometers north of West Yellowstone and ending about
24 kilometers southwest of Bozeman.  Six different soil associations that have
been identified to be on the Park boundary include the Loberg, Teton-Cheadle,
Garlet-Loberg, Leavitt-Hanson, Leavitt-Loberg, and the miscellaneous steep
mountainous lands  (Olsen et al., 1971).

     The extent of these associations within the Park is unknown, however, the
soil descriptions of each are as follows.

     Loberg Association — This soil association is on forested, undulating to
hilly and mountainous, glacial till uplands.  Slopes range from 8 to 40 per-
cent.  It occurs in large areas in the basins of West Fork, Beaver, Porcupine,
Portal, Squaw, and Moose Creeks as well as other major tributaries of the Gal-
latin River.  It is mostly located midway between the steep bedrock uplands
and the grassland soils developed in till of lower elevations  or the valley
floor.  Much of this association has "kettle and kame" topography character-
istic of till deposits.  However, there are some long, smooth, steep slopes
primarily on the upper portions of the association.  Rock outcrops occur in
some delineations as narrow ridges or knobs.  There are some very stony areas
that are usually associated with the steeper slopes.  Vegetation consists most-
ly of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir with an understory of pine grass, elk
sedge, and shrubs.  This association is between 1,800 to 2,400 meters in ele-
vation.  Mean annual precipitation is 60 to 120 centimeters; 40 to 100 centi-
meters of this comes in the form of snow.  It is common to have a frost during
each of the summer months.  This association consists of about 8,000 hectares,
or approximately 17 percent of the survey area.  Loberg soils  comprise about 80
percent of the association.  Soils resting on bedrock at depths of less than 50
centimeters, rock outcrop, rock rubble, and other miscellaneous soils make up
about 20 percent of the survey area.  Logging operations on this association
are severely hampered on slopes that exceed 30 percent.  Very  stony and rock
outcrop areas also present some difficulties in the placement  and building of


                                       43

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          Rock Outcrop-Cryoboralfs-Cryoborolls Association
         \ Cryochrepts-Cryumbrepts Association
           Cryoboralfs-Cryoborolls-Rock Outcrop Association




           Cryoborolls-Cryaquolls Association
Figure  5.   Soil associations  in Yellowstone National Park.
                              44

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logging roads.  Soil losses can be held  to  a minimum by the  proper  location
and grading of these roads.

     Loberg soils are drained well.  A typical  profile  under a  thin layer  of
forest litter consists of a light gray or light grayish brown loam  over a  thick
brown clayey subsoil that is gravelly, cobbly and  stony.   The substratum is a
very gravelly to stony clay loam.  They  are noncalcareous  to depths of 1 meter
or more.  Coarse fragments increase with depth  from about  35% in  the upper part
of the profile to over 60% in the substratum.   There are stones on  the surface
and throughout the profile.  These soils are slowly permeable.  They are used
primarily for timber products.  They represent  about 80% of  the association.

     Leayitt-Loberg Association—This soil  association  is  a  complex of grass-
land and forested soils developed in glacial till  on undulating to  hilly and
mountainous uplands.  The four main areas of occurrence are  between Beaver and
the West Fork Creeks, along Porcupine and Tepee Creek drainages,  and also  south
of the mouth of Cinnamon Creek.  It occurs  at elevations ranging  between 1,800
and 2,000 meters.  Slopes range from 8%  to  40%. Much of this association  has a
"kettle and kame" topography.  Vegetation on the Leavitt soils  consists of Idaho
fescue, rough fescue, mountain brome, shrubby cinquefoil,  bluegrasses, and forbs.
Lodgepole pine and Douglas fir are the primary  vegetation  on the  Loberg soils.
Annual precipitation ranges from about  50 to 100 centimeters, of  which 30  to
60 centimeters come in the form of snow. It is common  to  have  a  frost during
each of the summer months.  There are approximately 2,200  hectares  in this
association comprising about 4.8 percent of the survey  area.

     Teton-Cheadle Association—This grassland  association of soils is primarily
on mountain "park" areas.  Landscapes are generally smooth,  but may include some
ledgerock outcrop areas downslope from  the  rounded ridges.   Dominant slopes are
between 10 and 40 percent.  This association occurs at  elevations between  1,700
and  2,560 meters.  Annual precipitation  ranges  from about  50 centimeters to near
150  centimeters at the higher elevations; 30 to 100 centimeters of  this is in
the  form of snow.  Frost usually occurs  at  least once during each of the summer
months  at elevations above 1,800 meters. Vegetation consists of  Idaho and rough
fescues, mountain brome, shrubby cinquefoil, bluegrasses,  and forbs. This as-
sociation comprises about 1,900 hectares, or approximately 4.1  percent of  the
survey  area.  Teton soils make up about  65%, Cheadle 20%,  and other miscella-
neous  soils and rock outcrops, about  15%. Cheadle  soils are  on  the  convex  sur-
faces,  along  ridges, and rounded knobs.  Teton  soils are on  the long smooth
slopes  between the ridges and drainageways. Hobacker and  Adel  soils are most
common  along  creeks.  Rock outcrop  is usually  associated with the Cheadle  soils
along  ridges  and points of hills  in  areas of less  than  a hectare  in size.  This
association is used for grazing of  livestock and wildlife.  Elk are the prime
users  of this association in  the Porcupine  and  Tepee Creek drainages and also
 in the  upper  portions of Portal, Beaver, Taylor Fork, and  other drainages. Pro-
 per  range management practices  and  wildlife control measures will maintain and
 improve the vigor and amount  of  the  more desirable species of grass.

      Teton soils are well  drained.   A typical  profile has  18 to 30  centimeters
of very dark  brown or black  loam surface layer, a grayish brown or  yellowish
brown,  prismatic and blocky  structured,  light  clay loam subsoil,  and a calcar-
eous  loam  substratum that  rests  on  partially weathered  sandstone.  Depth to bed-


                                         45

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rock is usually between 75 and 100 centimeters.  Gravel and cobble content
throughout the profile ranges from 5% to 30%.  These are moderately permeable
soils with medium to moderately slow runoff.  They represent about 65% of the
association.

     Cheadle soils are excessively drained.  A typical profile has a thin,
dark grayish brown to very dark grayish brown gravelly loam surface layer, a
weak blocky structured, grayish brown, gravelly loam subsoil, and a calcareous
gravelly to very gravelly loam substratum.  Fractured hard bedrock occurs with-
in 50 centimeters of the surface usually between 25 to 45 centimeters.  Runoff
is rapid.  Cheadle soils represent about 20% of the association.

     Garlet-Loberg Association—This soil association is on steep and very
steep mountain slopes.  Sharp ridges separated by deep cut canyons characterize
the landscape.  Rock outcrop, rock rubble, and landslide areas are common.  This
association is at elevations of 1,800 to 2,600 meters.  Annual precipitation
ranges from 60 to 120 centimeters; 60 to 100 centimeters of this comes in the
form of  snow.  Vegetation consists of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir with an
understory of pine grass, elk sedge, and shrubs.  This association comprises
about 11,000 hectares, or approximately 23.2 percent of the survey area.  The
major soil in this association is Garlet—very gravelly to stony loam.  It com-
prises about 65 percent; Loberg stony soils, 20 percent; Teton, Cheadle, and
other soils 15 percent.  Garlet occurs on the long steep mountain slopes bet-
ween the ridges and the drainageways unless interrupted by the occurrence of
Loberg soils on the lower portion of the landscape.  These forested soils which
developed in till also occur at the head of drainageways, immeditely below steep
mountain cirques.  This association is primarily used as watershed; however,
some logging is done at lower elevations on some of the less sloping areas.
Wildlife also graze the "park" areas and grass-shrub areas along drainageways.

     Leavitt-Hanson Association—This is a grassland association of soils on
undulating  to steep glacial till uplands.  Landscapes are complex and typically
glacial  till "kettle and kame" topography.  Most of the slopes are between 8
and  35 percent.  This association commonly occurs midway between the forested
till soil areas and the soils of the valley terraces below.  It is at eleva-
tions of 1,600 to 2,000 meters.  Annual precipitation is 50 to 75 centimeters;
30  to 50 centimeters of this comes in the form of snow.  Frost can be expected
to  occur at least once during each of the summer months above 1,800 meters.
Vegetation  consists mostly of Idaho and rough fescues, bluegrasses, forbes, big
sage and other shrubs.  This association comprises about 2,500 hectares, or
approximately 5.4 percent of the survey area.  The largest areas of this as-
sociation are located on Porcupine, Tepee, West Fork, and Beaver Creek drain-
ages.  Leavitt stony loam is the dominant soil type; however, there are areas
of  cobbly loam and some areas free of coarse fragments in the surface layer.
The  latter  is most common on the north-facing slopes of the Porcupine Creek
drainage.   In this area the Leavitt soils have thicker, dark-colored surface
layers than is modal for the series.  Leavitt soils consistently occupy the
sloping  lands between the ridges, or knobs, and the drainageways and concave
areas.   Hanson very cobbly and stony soils are on the knobs and ridges.  The
highest  concentration of cobbles and stones is associated with this soil.
Adel, Michelson, or Hobacker soils occur  throughout the association.  Some
                                        46

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seeped soil areas occur along  some  drainageways.   An occasional small  inter-
mittent lake is trapped in  the undulating uplands.   Leavitt soils  make up  about
60% of the association, Wa.nson 30%,  and other miscellaneous soils  10%.   This
association is used almost  entirely for grazing.   Good range management prac-
tices are essential to the  maintenance and improvement of the native range on
this association.

     Leavitt soils are drained well.  A typical profile is over 1.5 meters
deep.  It has a dark brown  or  very  dark brown, loam surface layer, 20  to 40
centimeters think, and a  dark  grayish brown or brown cobbly subsoil of heavy
clay loam to light clay texture.  The substratum is gravelly to very gravelly
and cobbly clay loam.  They are  lime-free to depths of 50 to 90 centimeters and
become strongly calcareous  below.   Coarse fragments in the surface layer range
from 0 to 30%, increasing to 35  to  60% through the subsoil and substratum.  Per-
meability is moderately slow.  Effective rooting depth is more than 90 centi-
meters.

     Hanson soils  are  drained  well.  A typical profile is over 1.5 meters  deep.
 It has a 25-centimeter very dark brown or black,  noncalcareous, very cobbly
 loam surface layer;  a  dark  grayish  brown, calcareous, very cobbly  loam subsur-
 face horizon and a nearly white,  strongly calcareous, very cobbly  to very  stony
 loam subsoil and substratum.  Throughout the association, the Hanson soils have
 surface layers of  loam, gravelly to very gravelly loam, cobbly to  very cobbly
 loam and stony to  very stony loam.   Very cobbly and stony loam is  dominant.
 Thickness of the dark-colored  surface layer varies from 18 to 40 centimeters.
 Content of  coarse  fragments throughout the profile varies from 35  to 60%.   They
 usually increase with  depth.

     Miscellaneous Steep  Mountainous Lands—This association consists  of mis-
 cellaneous  lands,  rockland, rock outcrops and rock rubble on steep and very
 steep  canyon  sidewalls and  ridges.   The majority of this association is located
 along  the Gallatin River  Canyon.  Miscellaneous lands consist of soils of
 variable  textures  and  variable depths over bedrock.  The content of rock frag-
 ments  in  these  soils varies from those with only a few pebbles in  them to  those
 that  are very  cobbly and  stony.   Vegetation consists mostly of lodgepole pine
 and Pouglas fir; however, there are grassland areas and some mixed timber  and
 grass  areas.   Timber growth is quite variable, ranging from a few scattered
 trees  to  some  dense groves-  The thicker stands are on north-facing slopes and
 along coulees.   Logging on this association is prohibited by the very  steep
 slopes except  on the lower, less sloping fans and footslopes.  Grazing is  pri-
 marily by wildlife.   This association comprises about 10,000 hectares  or ap-
 proximately 21  percent of the survey area.  The shallower soils usually occur
 on convex  slopes along ridges.  The deeper soils are on fans and footslopes at
 lower elevations.   About  25 percent of the association consists of rock outcrop
 and rock  rubble.   They occur at all levels in the landscape; however,  rock out-
 crop is  dominant on the upper slopes.  Limestone rockland is most common along
 the Gallatin River Canyon;  however, rockland at the head of side drainages at
 higher elevations  consists of older granitic and andesitic rocks.   Much of the
 soil on the steep  slopes  has formed in material moved down slope by gravita-
 tional creep.   Soils on the lower slopes are developed mostly  in local collu-
 vial and  alluvial  materials.
                                         47

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Hydrology

     The initial points for two of the most extensive drainage systems in the
United States are located within Yellowstone National Park on the eastern side,
the Missouri river system via the Yellowstone, Madison, and Gallatin Rivers;
and on the western side the Columbia River system via the Snake River.  These
surface waters are fed by an annual precipitation which averages approximately
40 centimeters at Old Faithful and Mammoth, and increasing with increasing ele-
vation in the Park's many mountainous regions.

     The elevational gradient of many of the Park's broad and flat-bottomed
rivers ranges from 2 to 6 meters per kilometer.  However, a number tff streams
and rivers drop an average of 9 to 19 meters per kilometer (Reefer, 1972).

     Although Yellowstone is rich in surface waters, such as its many streams,
rivers, and lakes, its most famous attractions are its many thermal features.
The number of individual thermal hot springs and pools has been estimated to
be from 2,500 to 10,000.  They are scattered throughout many regions of the
Park on hillsides, in valleys, frequently following rivers or near lakeshores
and exposed in the open or concealed in the extensive forests.

     Two essential ingredients are necessary for thermal activity, the first
being heat.  Contrary to popular opinion the underground temperatures have not
cooled measurably during the last 100 years.  According to Keefer (1972) geo-
logic studies have indicated that very high heat flows have continued for at
least the past 40,000 years.  The lowest elevation in the Park where boiling
springs are found is 1,800 meters in the Yellowstone Canyon, whereas, the site
at Washburn Springs, about 2,500 meters, is perhaps as high as that of any
springs for which data are available.  The difference in the boiling points at
these two places is 1.84° C (Allen and Day, 1935).  in the more important hot-
spring areas the boiling point of water varies around 93° C, fluctuating with
the atmospheric pressure at a rate of about 0.01° C for every 0.25 millimeters
in the barometer readings.

     Dissolved mineral matter in the hot-spring waters ranges from 1 gram to
less than 3 grams per liter.  The mineral constituents in the alkaline waters
consist mainly of silica with chloride, bicarbonate, and sulphate of sodium,
and in sulphate waters, silica, sulphuric acid, and sulphates of common rock
metals.  Apparently, these minerals have an insignificant effect upon the boil-
ing point.  In waters containing large amounts of sulphuric acid or ammonium
sulphate, the elevation of the boiling temperature may range from 0.05° C to
0.10° C, but springs of such composition are very unusual in the Yellowstone
Park (Allen and Day, 1935).

     The second ingredient for thermal activity is water.  Studies described by
Keefer (1972) indicated that nearly all of the water associated with the thermal
activities originates above ground as rain and/or snow with little coming from
the underlying magma.  Research drill holes in Yellowstone have also indicated
that surface waters drain into underground passages reaching depths of over 300
meters.  As the waters increase in temperature, a corresponding decrease in
weight (density) occurs.  As a result, the hot water rises toward the surface
being pushed upward by colder waters which in turn sink and keep the water

                                      48

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channels filled, thus a giant convection current operates continuously supply-
ing very hot water to the thermal pools and springs.  Extensive data on tem-
perature ranges and discharge rates of thermal waters in Yellowstone National
Park are given by Allen and Day  (1935).

Paleobotany

     In 1970 Baker reported that the analytical data from pollen and seeds ob-
tained from cores of soil collected near Yellowstone Lake indicated that initial
woody plants in this region were Pinus albicaulis3 Picea enge1maniis Abies 1a-
siocccppa, Populus balsamifeTa, and Juniperus oomnmis.

     Baker further concluded  that vegetation near  the tree line was a subalpine
parkland or alpine tundra during the late  glacial  period.  A cold, moist climate
is  implied by this type of vegetation with an average annual temperature 13.9  C
cooler than at present.  This estimated 13.9° C temperature change is apparently
a good estimate as the closest weather station shows the present average annual
temperature to be 1° C.  Approximations of mean annual temperatures during late
glacial periods is near -3° C.

     During the post glacial  period, 11,500 ± 350  years ago, as determined by
radiocarbon dating of sediments  collected  by Baker (1970), there was a change
in  vegetative type.  During this period, the Pinus contorta zone was dominated
by  the lodgepole pine.  Pseudotsuga was present but not abundant, as low pollen
percentages were found for this  species.   The older portion of this post gla-
cial zone was characterized by a Pinus oontOYta, Pinus albioaulis community
lacking any Pioea and Abies species.  This vegetation suggests a cool but much
drier climate than during the later glacial periods.  The mid-portion of this
zone, 50,000 to 10,160 years  old, indicates a greater domination of P. aontorta.
The pollen spectra resembles  the present day P. oontOTta forest and suggests
that this period had the warmest and driest climate of the post glacial period.

     From the past 5,000 years to the present time, this region is character-
ized by increases in Picea and Abies and a higher  percentage of Cyperaceae
pollen.  All three are represented by macrofossils.  The plant community was
probably a Pinus cont-OTta forest similar to the present.  The pollen and macro-
fossils of Pioea and Abies suggest a climate slightly cooler and moister than
that of the mid-portion.

     In another pollen-dating study conducted near Yellowstone National Park by
Waddington and Wright  (1974)  similar results as reported by Baker  (1970) were
obtained.  Waddington and Wright concluded that alpine vegetation or a spruce-
fir parkland prevailed on the Yellowstone  plateau, back to the time of degla-
ciation more than 14,360 years ago.

     About 11,500 years ago the  vegetation shifted rapidly to a mosiac of spruce-
fir-white bark pine and lodgepole pine, perhaps with some openings of Artemisia.,
implying a warmer climate.  The  trend culminated  in the Altithermal interval,
here dated as 9,000 to 45,000 years ago, when lodgepole pine probably dominated
the entire Yellowstone plateau.  A slight  subsequent increase in spruce and  fir
pollen implies a reversal of  the climatic  trend.
                                       49

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Meteorology

     The Continental Divide which passes through this biosphere reserve site,
along with the many mountain ranges that run in a variety of different direc-
tions and orientations, make climatic generalizations and pattern recognition
extremely difficult.

     Meteorology data as reported by Cooper (1975) indicate  that the precipi-
tation regime changes from the western Wyoming area, where monthly precipita-
tion is fairly uniform, to the central portions of Wyoming which have wider
monthly variations and peak during the month of May.  He further states that
available data obtained near the northern portions of Yellowstone National Park
show generally low precipitation and relatively high temperatures which would
coincide wi'th the development of the xeric portion of the Pseudotsuga vegeta-
tion type.

     The highest precipitation for the general area was recorded at Island Park
Dam, one of  the lowest recording stations (1,920 meters in elevation).  This
station lies in the Island Park Basin some 10 kilometers east of the Yellow-
stone plateau.  Nearly 53 kilometers due east and 452 meters higher, the Lake
Yellowstone  station records less precipitation and virtually the same tempera-
ture regime  as the Island Park Dam station (see Table 6).  The higher precipi-
tation at Island Park Dam can be attributed to the approach effect generated
as  air masses are forced upward after accumulating moisture while traversing
the Snake River Plains.  It is notable that the dry Pseudotsuga series stands
that one might expect to find on the low altitude, south-facing slopes of the
Centennial Range to the north of Island Park are extremely scarce and poorly
developed owing to the high rainfall of this basin.

     Approach effects, cold air drainage, valley effects, and other meteoro-
logical phenomena peculiar to mountainous regions virtually preclude extrapo-
lation of climatic area much beyond any recording station.

     The  climate data as shown on Table 6 are from available studies in or near
the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park.  At best, they represent the cli-
mate of the  forest community in their immediate vicinity.

     Additional records show that the average yearly temperature near Yellow-
stone Lake ranges from 0° C to 1° C, and is 1.5° C at Old Faithful.  Also, snow
accumulation ranges from 1.5 to 30 meters throughout much of the Park.
                                         50

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      TABLE 6.  CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA BY MONTHS FOR STATIONS REPRESENTING BASAL ELEVATIONS IN AND NEAR
                                     YELLOWSTONE PARK.  (Cooper, 1975)

STATION
Mammoth, Wyoming

Lamar Ranger Station, Wyoming

Cooke City, Montana

West Yellowstone, Montana

Lake Yellowstone, Wyoming

Island Park Dam, Idaho

ELEVATION
Feet
(Meters)
6230
(1899)
6470
(1972)
7553
(2302)
6662
(2030)
7762
(2366)
6300
(1920)

Ta
Pb
T
P
T
P
T
P
T
P
T
P

Dec.
22.6
1.10
16.3
0.86
_
-
15.0
2.18
-
1.69
19.5
2.92
WINTER
Jan.
18.5
1.08
12.2
0.93
_
-
11.7
2.50
_
1.90
15.6
6.16
SUMMER
Feb.
19.6
1.01
16.9
0.72
_
-
16.2
1.81
_
1.53
16.8
3.24
June
54.
2.
51.
2.
_
-
51.
2.
_
2.
52.
3.
3
24
7
11


5
44

18
6
56
July
62
1
58
1


59
1

1
60
1
.9
.15
.3
.26
_
-
.6
.26
_
.38
.5
.01
Aug.
60.8
1.23
56.3
1.29
_
-
57.1
1.62
_
1.38
59.6
1.32
Mean
Annual
Values
37.9
15.33
36.0
13.43
33.5
27.64
35.1
21.22
_
19.87
36.2
32.29

T  - Temperatures in °F
P  - Precipitation in inches

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Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park

     The Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park biosphere reserve consists of two
nearly equal-sized adjoining portions (Figure 6).  Geographically, Kings Can-
yon National Park lies to the north, bordered by the Sierra National Forest on
both its west side and northernmost point, and the Inyo National Forest on its
east side.  The Kings Canyon portion is the smaller of the two, consisting of
approximately 1,445 square kilometers and is included on the following U.S.
Geological Survey's 15-minute quadrangles:  Huntington Lake, Patterson Moun-
tain, Black Cap Mountain, Tehipite Dome, Mt. Goddard, Marion Peak, Big Pine,
Mt. Pinchot, Waucoba Mountain, and Independence.

     The southern portion, Sequoia National Park, is bounded by Inyo National
Forest on its east side and Sequoia National Forest to the south.  The west
side is predominately bordered by private land with a small portion surrounded
by the Sierra National Forest.  This portion consists of 1,618 square kilome-
ters and is included on the following U.S. Geological Survey's 15-minute quad-
rangles:  Giant Forest, Kaweah, Triple Divide Peak, Mineral King, Mount Whit-
ney, Kern Peak, Olancha, and Big Pine.

     Both of these National Parks are under the supervision of the U.S. Nation-
al Park Service, headquartered at Three Rivers, California.

     Topographically, this area is a mountainous region, ranging from slightly
more than 350 meters in elevation on its western boundary to over 4,400 meters
in elevation at the summit of Mount Whitney on its eastern side (Vankat, 1970).
It lies predominantly on the western slopes of the southern portion of the
Sierra Nevada-

     Geologically, it is made up of mesozoic granitic which is typical of the
Sierra Nevada batholith.  Also, scattered throughout are pre-Cretaceous meta-
morphic and metasedimentary rock outcroppings.  As expected, the soils are
typical of the parent material (Matthews and Burnett, 1966).

     This region is typical of the climatic patterns of many western mountain
ranges:  increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature with increasing
elevation.  Local climatic data have indicated this region to be typically
Mediterranean with warm dry summers and cool wet winters (Vankat, 1970).  Also,
winter precipitation falls as rain in the low elevations and snow, at times
quite heavy, in the middle and upper elevations.

     Vegetatively this region is composed of both montane and subalpine forests
with meadows and lakes scattered throughout both forest types.  The dominant
plant genera are P-inus and Abies with a scattering of the distinctive species,
Sequoia gigantea throughout the montane forests.

Ownership

     Kings Canyon and Sequoia are two separate adjoining National Parks.  They
are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Park Service's Regional Office located
at 450 Golden Gate Avenue in San Francisco, California.  The resident head-
quarters for both parks is located at Three Rivers, California.  Also, the


                                      52

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           SIERRA NATIONAL FOREST
                                     \  JOHN MUIR
                                       WILDERNESS
                                            -
                                             KINGS  CANYON
                                                NATIONAL
 MONARCH
WILDE RNE
Upropowd)
                                         SEQUOIA NATIONAL  PARK
                                         — -«    r*
                                                                 INYO
                                                                NATIONAL
                                                                 FOREST
                                             SEQUOIA NATIONAL
                                                  FOREST
  O Frasno
            O
             Sanger
                      O ViMlia
NOTE:  WILDERNESS AHfAS AND NATIONAL PARK AREAS
      WITHIN THE KINGS RIVER WATERSHED ARE SHADED
                                                                       EXHIBIT
                                                  CONSULTIVE  PLANNERS
                      Figure 6.  Kings River watershed.
                                       53

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jurisdiction of these two parks is under the direction of a single resident
superintendent.

     The locations and addresses of the district offices of the U.S. Forest
Service whose forests border the Kings Canyon and Sequoia National Parks are
as follows:

Sequoia National Forest     Sierra National Forest      Inyo National Forest
900 W. Grand Avenue         U.S. Federal Building       2957 Birch Street
Porterville, CA  93257      1130 0 Street               Bishop, CA  93514
                            Fresno, CA  93721

Accessibility

     There are no motor vehicle roads crossing the Sierra Nevada mountains in
either Sequoia or Kings Canyon National Parks.  A number of paved and/or light
duty roads do, however, provide access into parts of the southern and western
portions of both Parks.  The most notable of these include California State
Highway 198 entering at Ash Mountain in the southwestern corner of Sequoia and
extending approximately 29 kilometers north near Grant Grove Village.  A number
of U.S. Forest Service light duty and recreational roads exit near the Village
on Highway 198 running east toward Kings Canyon, but end about 3.2 kilometers
west of the Park boundary.  Another light duty road enters near Oak Grove con-
tinuing east exiting near Silver City.  Access is limited on this road during
the winter months, as it is not maintained.

     The only road entering Kings Canyon is California State Highway 180.  This
road, approximately 11 kilometers in length, enters near Cedar Grove and ends
at Zumwalt Meadows.

     The remaining areas of these two parks are accessible only by foot and
pack trails.  As this area is covered by a network of trails too numerous to
identify here, only the major trails and access points will be identified.

     The Pacific Crest Trail runs the entire length of both Parks paralleling
the eastern boundary and accessible via Whitney Portal, Kearsarge Pass, and
Bishop Pass.  Other trails include the High Sierra and the California hiking
and riding trails running north-south in the central portion of Sequoia.  A
number of trails running both north-south and east-west in Kings Canyon are
apparently not named.  Extensive sampling in this area would require the use
of pack animals and/or the use of aircraft.  Sample integrity would be diffi-
cult under many conditions.

Site Integrity

     As part of the National Park System, the Parks are reserved, in theory,
forever.  Therefore every confidence can be had that the ownership of the land
is not likely to change.  Also, the Parks are big enough that adequate buffer
zones can be established around each of the actual sampling sites.  If the sites
are properly chosen, human interference on these sites should be at a minimum.
Also, very little management activity occurs, such as forest cutting, etc., and
therefore there is little likelihood that the site will be impacted from this
type of activity.
                                       54

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Vegetation types

     The vegetation  in  this area has  been  identified and mapped by Vankat (1970)
and the Natural Resources Management  Corporation (1975).

     Twelve major vegetative  types  and  subtypes  have been identified in this
region.  These types, along with other  pertinent information,  are listed as
follows:

     Deciduous Oak Woodland Vegetative  Type—Location — primarily in the west-
ern portion of the Parks at elevations  between 400 meters and  1,500 meters.

     Aspect — consists of scattered  trees,  few  shrubs and a dense herbaceous
understory.  This type  is broken into two  subtypes,  the Blue Oak and the Cali-
fornia Black Oak.

     Blue Oak Subtype—Location —  occurs  primarily  in the lower and middle
elevations between 400  meters and 800 meters.  Dominant vegetation — Quercus
douglasii, Q. wislizeni and Aesaulus  oali-fornioa are the common tree species
with Arctostaphylos  vise-Ida, and Rhamnus CYOGea common.   The vegetative cover
commonly exceeds 80% with shrubs contributing less than 2%, trees between 30
and 80%, and herbaceous species contributing up  to 80% at times.

     California Black Oak Subtype—Location  — occurs primarily in the middle
and upper elevations between  800 meters and  1,500 meters.   Dominant vegetation
— Q. kelloggii, Q.  douglasii,  Aesaulus californiaa,  Umbellulapia californiaa*
and Q. wisl-i-seni- are the dominant tree  species along with dominant shrub spe-
cies, CeTO'is OGO-Ldental-is and Rhamnus crocea.  Total vegetative cover is gener-
ally over 80% with shrubs contributing  3%  and tree species from 65% to 90%.

     Grassland Vegetative Type—Location —  closely  associated with the decid-
uous oak woodland type  at elevations  from  400 meters to 1,500  meters.   Dominant
vegetation — perennial bunchgrasses.  Many  areas, however, have been taken
over by annuals, many of which are  not  common to California.   Vegetative cover
can approach 100%, because of the successful invasion of annuals.  In many
areas, 94% of the total cover can consist  of these species.

     Chaparral Vegetation Type—Location —  this type occurs throughout the
western portion of the  Park usually between  400  meters and 1,600 meters in ele-
vation.  This type is dominated by  shrubs  which  form dense canopies.  It is
divided into two subtypes, the Chamise  and the mixed.

     1.   Chamise Chaparral Subtype—Location — occurs on the west and south-
ern exposures of many drainages throughout the Park.  It also  occurs at the
lower and middle elevational  ranges,  400 meters  to  900 meters.  Dominant spe-
cies — Adenostoma fasoiculatum is  the  most  dominant species along with Ceano-
thus cuneatus and Apctostaphy'los viscida.  Ground cover is usually 85% and 95%
with Adenostoma faso'lculatwn  accounting for  75%  of  this total.  Trees are com-
monly absent but may be scattered near  type  boundaries (ecotonal areas).  Her-
baceous species can  contribute 30%  to 50%  of the ground cover, especially dur-
ing the spring months when adequate moisture is  available.

                                        55

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     2.   Mixed Chaparral Subtype—Location — commonly occurs on the north
and east slopes at the middle and higher elevations, 900 meters to 1,600 meters.
Dominant vegetation — closely related to the oak woodland subtypes with Aes-
culus califomica and Q. wislizeni being the dominant tree species with Quer-
ous ahryso'lepis common.  Common shrubs include Rhus diveTsiloba, Lonicera in-
terrupta and Cercis occidentalis.   Ground cover can exceed 94% with herbaceous
species contributing from 50% to 75%, shrubs 30% to 60% and trees 40% to 60%.

     Yucca Vegetation Type—Location — Foothill portions usually within the
elevational ranges of 600 to 1,500 meters.  Found on very steep slopes of meta-
morphic or metasedimentary rock.  Dominant species — Yucca whipplei.

     Live Oak Woodland Vegetation Type—Location — occurs generally within 400
meters to 2,300 meters in elevation.  However, in some areas such as in Kern
Canyon it is found up to 2,600 meters in elevation.  This vegetation type has
been broken into two subtypes, the lowland and the upland.

     1.   Lowland Live Oak Woodland Subtype—Location — found primarily in the
low elevations, 400 meters to 1,100 meters, in riparian habitats.  Dominant
species — Aesculus cdlifornica and Q. wislizeni are the dominant tree species,
with Q. douglasii and Umbellulavia californica common.  Common shrub species
include Rhus tvilo'bata., Ceanothus velutinus and Fremont-la ealifomica with
Rhus diversiloba and Cercis occidental-is being dominant.  Vegetative cover av-
erages around 90%, with herbaceous species contributing between 20% aad 80%,
shrubs between 15% and 35%, and tree species between 30% and 80%.

     2.  Upland Live Oak Woodland Subtype—Location — normally found on steep
rocky slopes at the upper elevations, 1,100 meters to 2,300 meters.  Dominant
species — Q. wislizeni and Umbellularia califovnica.  The vegetative cover is
commonly around 75% and is composed almost entirely of the two dominant species
Q. wislizeni and U, ealifomica.

     Montane Chaparral Vegetation Type—Location — this type is found through-
out the Park at elevations ranging from 1,200 to 3,300 meters.  Dominant spe-
cies — It is dominated by a dense cover of shrubs such as Arctostaphylos pa-
tula, A. manzanita, Ceanothus cordulatus, Prunus emavginata3 and many species
of Salix.  Apparently this vegetation type has not been extensively studied,
as it is thought that due to the species diversity, many subvegetative types
could be made.

     Coniferous Forest Vegetation Type—Location — this type, similar to the
Montane Chaparral vegetation type, occurs throughout the Parks.  It occurs pri-
marily between 1,400 meters to 3,500 meters in elevation and is subdivided into
the following six subtypes.

     1.   Yellow Pine Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — it is found over
a wide elevational range, 1,400 meters to 2,700 meters, and under a variety of
exposures.  A division within this subtype can be made between Finns ponderosa
and Pinus jeffreyi.  Dominant species — The Ponderosa pine community is domi-
nated by P. ponderosa, Libocedrus decurrens, Q. "kelloggii, P. lambertiana, and
Abies concolor.  Also found are Q. chrysolepiss Chamaebatia foliolosa3 and Arc-
tostaphylos viscida.  The total vegetative cover exceeds 80% at times with her-

                                      56

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baceous species contributing between 0.1% and 10%.  Shrub cover  is  extremely
variable, depending on the area.  Tree cover varies between a low of  60%  and  a
high of 95%.  The Jeffrey pine communities are also commonly found  throughout
the Parks, usually on south and west facing slopes.  The dominant tree species
include P. jeffreyi, Libooedrus deourrens, and Abi-es concolor.  Aretostaphylos
patula is the dominant shrub.  Total vegetative cover is generally  less than
found in the P. ponderosa communities, being around 65%.  Herbaceous  species
contribute around 20% with tree and shrubs contributing between 40% and 60%.

      2.  White Fir Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — this type  is found
over a wide elevational range, 1,500 meters to 2,600 meters, and is quite vari-
able in species composition.  At the lower elevations it contains elements of
the yellow pine subtype, and elements of the red fir and lodgepole pine subtypes
at the upper elevations.  Dominant species — Perhaps the most notable distinc-
tion in this subtype is between groves which contain Sequoiadendron giganteum
and those without.  The area containing S. giganteum also includes a mixture
of conifers such as Abies conoolov, Libooedrus deourrens, Pinus lambertianaj
P. ponderosa, and the black oak Quercus kelloggii.  At higher elevations P.
geffreyi replaces P. ponderosa, and decreases of Q. kelloggii and L. deaurrens
are evident.  Those areas which lack S. giganteum are dominated by the tree
species A. eoneolor, P. lambertiana, L. decurrens3 and Q. kelloggii.  The dom-
inant shrub is Rosa spithamea.  In many areas, however, shrubs are altogether
absent.  Vegetative cover varies between 75% and 95%, with annual species con-
tributing between 1% and 25%, shrubs 0% to 25%, and trees generally over 75%.

      3.  Red Fir Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — this subtype is gener-
ally found in the 2,100-meter to 3,200-meter elevational range.  It contains
elements of the white fir subtype at lower elevations and at the higher eleva-
tions may contain elements of the lodgepole pine subtype.  Dominant species —
The major species are the red fir, Abies magnifioa, along with the pine, Pinus
aontorta.  A. conoolor is also an important species in many areas of  this sub-
type.  Shrubs are noticeably absent in this subtype.  Vegetative cover is quite
variable, usually varying between 40% and 95% depending on area and exposure.
Herbaceous species usually contribute between 1% and 5% with the remaining be-
ing supplied by the tree species.

      4.  Lodgepole Pine Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — the lodgepole
pine subtype is commonly found in all areas of the Park between 2,100 meters
and 3,300 meters in elevation.  Dominant species — Pinus oontorta  is the dom-
inant species, occurring in pure stands throughout many areas.  Only  one shrub,
Ribes montigenwn3 is considered significant in this subtype.  Vegetative cover
is near 80% with annual species contributing 30%, shrubs 0% to 15%, and trees
up to a high of 80%.

      5.  Foxtail, Western White, and White Bark Pine Coniferous Forest
Subtype—Location — this subtype is a subalpine community found throughout the
Parks between 2,900 and 3,600 meters in elevation.  Dominant species  — Most  of
the timberline stands are composed of P. balfouriana, P. monticola, and P. albi-
caulis.  In some areas P. oontorta can be considered a member of this subtype.
Shrub species in this subtype are noticeably absent in many areas.  Vegetative
cover is normally around 25% but may reach 80% in some areas.  Herbaceous spe-
cies contribute around 10% with the tree species contributing the remainder.

                                      57

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However, depending on location, shrubs may provide up to 10% ground  cover.

          Juniper Woodland Vegetation Type—Location — occurs primarily  in
areas between 900 meters and 1,800 meters elevation throughout the Parks.  Dom-
inant species — This type  is  similar in aspect to the  cold desert formations
in Utah and Nevada.  It consists of  scattered  trees, primarily Juniperus  ooo^-
dentalis and Pinus monophylla in stands of Artemisia tridentata and  Cercocar-
pus ledifoli-us.  P. jeffveyi and P.  ponderosa  can be found  intermittently
throughout this vegetative type.  Vegetative ground cover would be approxi-
mately 30% and 40%, with shrub species comprising 75% of the ground  cover.

          Wet Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type is common through-
out the Parks above 1,800 meters in  elevation.  It is characterized  by peren-
nial sedges, bushes and grasses that are normally dependent on abundant mois-
ture throughout the growing season (Bennett, 1965).  This type is divided into
two subtypes, the coarse-leaved sedges and the fine-leaved  sedges.

          1.  Coarse-Leaved Sedge Wet Meadow Subtype—Location — common
throughout the Parks above 1,800 meters.  Dominant species  — Three  species  of
the genus Carex are found in this subtype.  They include C. 'ianuginosa, C. vos-
tratctj and C. nebvascensis.  Vegetative cover  varies between 90% and 100% de-
pending on season.  All three species are of equal importance.

          2.  Fine-Leaved Sedge Wet  Meadow Vegetation Subtype—Location — com-
mon throughout the Parks above 1,800 meters.   Dominant species — This subtype
is composed of Ccacex festivefia, C.  vioavia3 C. speotabilis3 C, subn-igvioans3
and Poa pratensis  (Bennett, 1965).   Vegetative cover is similar to the coarse-
leaved subtype and would be between  90% and 100% depending  on available moisture
and season.

          Woodland Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type also occurs
throughout the Park at elevations above 1,000  meters.  Dominant species — This
community consists of scattered trees of Pinus oontOTta, Populus fremontii3  P.
triehocarpa.; and P. tremuloides.  In 1965, Bennett reported that this type prob-
ably represents past wet meadows that have been invaded by  the cottonwood
trees.  As such, a herbaceous understory is an important constituent of this
vegetative type.

          Shorthair Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type is scattered
throughout the Park at high elevations, usually above 2,400 meters.  Dominant
species — Dense mats of Carex exserta^ Calamagrostis breweri and Trisetim
spp. are commonly found in this dry  upland meadow type.  Ground cover usually
exceeds 90% with all three species contributing.

          Alpine Fell-Field Vegetation Type—Location — this type is found
throughout the Parks above the timberline.  Dominant species — This vegetative
type is a variety of perennial herbs scattered between a rocky terrain.   Spe-
cies commonly found  in this type include Carex helleri, Eriogomcm ovali-foliim,
Ivesia shockleyi and Eulsea algida.  Vegetative cover varies depending on ex-
posure, but probably averages near 25%.
                                       58

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Geology

     The topography of Kings Canyon-Sequoia National Parks is mountainous, rang-
 ing  in  elevation from 350  meters  on the western boundary to  4,418 meters at
the summit of Mount Whitney.  The major  drainage systems  include  the Kaweah and
the Kings Rivers  located on the western  side, which drain to the  San Joaquin
Valley.  The Kern River drainage of  the  eastern and southern portions is domi-
nated by canyons, plateaus, and mountain peaks  sculptured by glaciers (Vankat,
1970).  Lying to  the  east  of the Sierra  Nevada  escarpment is the  Owens Valley.

     The geological makeup of the Parks  is mostly mesozoic granitic rock typi-
cal of  the Sierra Nevada batholith with  scattered pre-Cretaceous  metamorphic
and metasedimentary rock outcroppings.   In 1958, Ross geologically identified
and described an  area of about 390  square kilometers in  Sequoia and Kings Can-
yon National Parks.   It lies on the  western slopes of the Sierra  Nevada Moun-
 tains in Talane  County.

     About 78 square  kilometers of  this  area  is underlain by metamorphic rocks.
 The  three largest masses,  completely surrounded by igneous rocks, are roof pen-
 dants.  They have a general orientation  that  parallels the attitude of known
 roof rocks to the north, and west.

     Regular, persistent layers of  differing  mineralogical composition in the
 schistose rocks  of the largest metamorphic body, as well  as the interlayering
 of  the  schists with marble and quartzite, suggest that metamorphic layering is
 a reflection of  sedimentary bedding.  Schistosity is essentially  parallel to
 the  metamorphic  layering.

     The metamorphic  body  of Redwood Mountain is identified as being metasedi-
 mentary rocks similar to the larger mass to the south.   The most  easterly pen-
 dant body probably contains a large amount of silicic metavolcanic rocks and
 is notably lacking in quartzite and marble.   The remaining small  metamorphic
 bodies  are either root portions of  roof  pendants or large zenoliths.

     Schist is the most common of  the metasedimentary rocks and is most  abun-
 dant in the western part of the largest  metamorphic mass, the Redwood Mountain
 body,  and in some of  the large zenoliths.  The  rocks are dark gray to black on
 fresh  surfaces,  but have a distinctive reddish-brown weathered surface.  The
 reddish-brown color is commonly reflected in  the soil adjacent to schist out-
 crops.

     An approximate average composition of the  schists  is 25% potash  feldspar
 and  intermediate plagioclase, 25% biotite, and  35% quartz.   The remaining 15%
 is muscovite, epidote in the more calcareous  schists, magnetite,  zircon,  apa-
 tite,  garnet, and rarely andalusite.  The parent rocks were  probably  shales,
 argillaceous siltstones, and fine-grained sandstones  in  an  intermixed sequence.
 An  alternation of micaceous-feld-spathic and  quartzose  layers is  common  with
 the  layers ranging in thickness from a fraction of a millimeter up to 5  mm.
 Finegrained, massive  quartzite, ranging from  cloudy white to dark gray in
 color,  is second to the schist in abundance and is most  common  in the south-
 eastern portion  of the largest pendant.  Resistant quartzite beds form promi-
 nent narrow ridges on both sides  of the Middle  Fork  of  the  Kaweah River  near


                                        59

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Hospital Rock; the local name Devil's Rockpile is applied to an area of blocky
quartzite rubble from the ridge just north of the Hospital Rock Camp.  The most
common type of quartzite is predominantly quartz with subordinate amounts of
feldspar and mica.  Small amounts of diopside are also present, as are the com-
mon accessory minerals apatite, magnetite, and zircon.  The parent rock of the
quartzite was sandstone or chert with some argillaceous and calcareous impuri-
ties.

     Calcareous rocks—in particular, marble—are abundant in a band trending
northwest through the largest pendant.  The most prominent outcrops of the band
are in the canyon of the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, along Paradise Ridge,
and near Crystal Cave.  Smaller isolated marble and calchornfels masses are
found along General's Highway east of the Ash Mountain Park Headquarters.  The
fine- to coarse-grained marble is snow white to dark gray in color, much of it
is banded, and the alternating gray and white layers probably reflect original
bedding.  A great variety of calc-silicate minerals has been developed where
impurities were present in the marble, or where material has been added from
the plutonic rocks.  The calc-silicate materials are commonly pod-like and
discontinuous, but in some localities well-layered plagioclase-pyroxene horn-
fels probably reflect original composition and bedding.  The calc-silicate
minerals are best developed in the isolated calcareous bodies east of the Ash
Mountain Park Headquarters and around the Harrington tungsten mine on the North
Fork of the Kaweah River.  The most common minerals are calcite, pyroxene of
the diopside-hedenbergite series, garnet of the grossularite-andradite series,
wollastonite, idocrase, quartz, plagioclase, epidote, hornblende,  and biotite.
Scheelite is also found locally in the calcareous rocks.

     Amphibolite and amphibole schist are locally abundant north of Amphitheater
Point, and less common as lenses in the schist and quartzite elsewhere in the
roof pendants.  The amphibolitic rocks are dark green, fine to medium grained,
and generally somewhat schistose.  Hornblende and intermediate plagioclase are
the principal constituents, but some specimens are as much as 40 percent diop-
side.  Biotite, quartz, and clinozoisite are less abundant; magnetite,  titanite,
apatite, zircon, pyrite, and rutile are present as accessory minerals.

     Rocks with relict volcanic or tuffaceous texture are rare in the roof pen-
dants.  Some of the hornfels and schist of the easternmost large roof pendant
have affinities with volcanic rocks and will be considered as possible meta-
volcanic rock.

     North of Amphitheater Point a small amount of metadacite is present.  The
rock has a blastoporphyritic texture, with plagioclase, quartz, and hornblende
phenocrysts.  The square cross-section of the quartz phenocrysts is suggestive
of a volcanic origin.  Associated specimens with clastic quartz grains suggest
a tuff or tuffaceous sediment.

     Near the Park Headquarters at Ash Mountain, the Ash Mountain complex was
described.  The major rock type of this complex is a dark-gray, fine-grained
rock of quartz diorite composition which is intruded by a fine-grained, lighter
gray rock also of quartz diorite composition.  Smaller amounts of quartz dio-
rite, resembling material of the Giant Forest pluton, and granite of the Cactus
Point pluton are also present within the complex.

                                      60

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     The dark-gray, fine-grained rock contains approximately 60% intermediate
andesite and traces of potash feldspar.  Quartz composes 15% of the average
specimen as does brown biotite.  The remaining 10% of the rock is green horn-
blende.  Some hornblende crystals are sieve-like and have a structure resem-
bling schiller structure.  Apatite, sphene, zircon, and magnetite are also pres-
ent.  The average  grain size of the specimens is 0.2 mm and the crystals are
anhedral.

     The lighter gray fine-grained rock contains approximately 50% intermediate
andesite, 30% anhedral quartz, and 20% yellow- to deep-brown pleochroic, irreg-
ular biotite.  Allenite is present in some of the specimens, as well as small
amounts of apatite, magnetite, and zircon.  The average grain size is 0.3 mm
and most of the constituents are anhedral.

     East of the Park Headquarters hornfelsic fine-grained rocks grade into
schistose rocks.   The hornfelsic schists resemble the fine-grained rocks of
the Ash Mountain complex.

     Plutonic rocks underlie the remaining 340 square kilometers.  The mineral
composition of these rocks is summarized in Table 7.  Details on each of these
compositions are available from Ross (1958).

     Work on the absolute age of granitic rocks based on the lead-alpha activ-
ity ratio of the accessory minerals particularly zircon, by Larsen et al.,
1952 and 1954, has given an average age of 100 million years (mid-Cretaceous)
for several granitic rocks from the Sierra Nevada.  Five of these specimens
were from the Bishop district, about 64 kilometers northeast of the Sequoia
area.  Determinations of radioactive argon show that the granitic rocks of the
Yosemite Valley area are about 83 to 95 million years old (Evernden et al.,
1957).

     The granitic  province from the Klamath Mountains to Baja, California,  con-
tains intrusions as old as the Upper Jurassic and as young as the Upper Creta-
ceous.  The granitic rocks of the Sequoia area belong somewhere within this
range; recent work suggests a Cretaceous age.

     Matthes (1965) reported that in the Pleistocene Epoch, both the Kaweah
Basin and the upper Kern Basin were occupied by glacier systems.  These were
the most southerly of the major glacier systems of the Cascades-Sierra Nevada
chain.  Being less favorably situated than those to the north, they were of
smaller volume; nevertheless, glaciers of considerable size formed in both
basins, especially the Kern, during each of the three glacial stages—the Gla-
cier Point Stage,  the El Portal Stage, and the Wisconsin Stage.

     In the Kaweah Basin, the development of glaciers was limited by the fact
that this basin heads not along the lofty main crest of the Sierra Nevada but
on the Great Western Divide and on other secondary crests that are only part
way up the Sierra  west slope.  Evidence is present in this basin for the earli-
est stage, the Glacier Point, but is extremely meager for the next stage,  El
Portal.  For the most recent stage, the Wisconsin, the  records are far better.
They indicate that during both of these stages the converging canyons of the

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              TABLE 7.  SUMMARY OF MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF THE PLUTONIC ROCKS.  (Ross, 1958)

ROCK
Alaskite
Lodgepole granite
Pear Lake quartz monzonite
Cactus Point granite
Big Baldy granite
Weaver Lake quartz monzonite
Big Meadow pluton
Giant Forest pluton
Tokopah porphyritic granodiorite
Clover Creek granodiorite
Cow Creek granodiorite
Potwisha quartz diorite
Elk Creek gabbro
PLAGIOCLASE
An
10
15-25
20-25
10-25
20-30
10-35
30-42
18-48
30-40
20-45
30-40
30-55
45-80
Percent
20-30
15-45
40
10-20
5-60
25-45
30-75
30-75
45
40-55
50-65
55-70
50-85
Potash
feldspar
40-50
25-45
30
40-70
15-55
25-40
2-35
tr.-40
22
15-30
10-15
0-tr.

Quartz
30
25-35
30
15-30
20-35
25-35
15-30
10-35
23
20-25
15-30
15
0-5
Biotite
0-tr.
5
tr.
3-5
3-5
1-5
4-7
4-4
5
4-7
5
7-10
0-5
Hornblende Others
Muscovite 0-tr.
0-tr.
Muscovite tr.
0-tr. Muscovite 0-tr.
tr.-2
0-tr.
0-tr.
0-10 Pyroxene 0-tr.
•
5
4-7
tr.
8-20
tr.-48 Pyroxene 0-20
Olivine tr.
No. of
thin
sections
studied
3
7
1
4
5
11
20
70
1
3
2
2
7

Sphene, magnetite, zircon, apatite and allanite are common accessory minerals; monazite, garnet, and pyrite
only locally present.

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Kaweah Basin became pathways for cascading ice streams.  Even the larger of
these streams, however, attained a length of only 16 kilometers.  The ice
streams, therefore, fell short of uniting to form a major trunk glacier cor-
responding to the ones in the main drainage basins to the north and in the Kern
Basin to the east.  They formed relatively small separate glacier systems, one
or more in the headwater areas of each of the main branches of the Kaweah.  For
the most part, the glaciers were confined to the canyons, and these they filled
only in part.  The lowest altitude reached by the ice in El Portal Stage was
about 1,400 meters; in the Wisconsin Stage, about 1,600 meters.

     The Kern glacier system was a many-branched ice body fed from ranks of
cirques along the high bordering ranges.  Since the Kern Canyon extends in a
nearly straight line through the middle of the upper Kern Basin, and the trib-
utary canyons branch from it like the ribs in an oak leaf, the Kern glacier
system had much the same leaflike pattern.

     The maximum extent reached by the Kern glacier system in the Glacier Point
Stage cannot be determined with certainty, but the evidence would seem to war-
rant the inference that the glacier advanced approximately as far as its suc-
cessor of the El Portal Stage.

     Records of El Portal Stage, though incomplete, can be interpreted with
more assurance.  The volume of ice was then greater in some places than the
canyons could hold; the ice locally spread across intervening divides and over
benchlands on either side of the main canyon to a total breadth of 6 to 10
kilometers, thus producing a central ice sheet about 78 square kilometers in
extent.  The overall length of the Kern glacier system was 51 kilometers; the
terminus of the trunk glacier lay at an altitude of 1,700 meters in the bend
of the canyon to the north of Hockett Peak (at latitude 36°14', which may rep-
resent the southern limit reached by glacial ice in the Sierra Nevada).

     Records of the Wisconsin Stage are for the most part very well preserved.
They indicate that during this stage the Kern glacier system had less volume
than during the El Portal Stage and remained a sprawling ice body whose trunk
and branches lay confined within their respective canyons as distinct ice
streams separated one another by mountain spurs or low divides.  The tributary
glaciers were as much as 24 kilometers long.  The overall length of the Kern
glacier system is 40 kilometers.  The farthest point reached by the terminus of
the trunk glacier coincides with the south boundary of the Park; the boundary
posts stand at an altitude of 1,935 meters on the curving outer moraine that
marks the extreme limits of the Wisconsin glaciation.

Soils

     The soils of the Kings Canyon and Sequoia National Parks have not yet been
surveyed.  However, surveys of a few areas adjacent to the western boundaries
in Fresno and Tulare counties are complete.

     Soils that are apparently typical of portions of the Parks consists of  (1)
excessively drained to well-drained soils of the lower foothills and  (2) some-
what excessively drained and well-drained soils of the upper  foothills.  The
soils in this area formed mainly from granitic, metamorphic,  serpentine, and

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basic  igneous  rocks.   Small areas  formed on colluvium, and many small valleys
formed on  local  alluvium  (Soil Conservation Service, 1971).

     The foothills  extend  to  the east from the edge of the San Joaquin Valley.
Relief ranges  from  undulating to very steep, and elevation increases to the
east.   Except  where canyons have been cut, the soils formed in material from
granitic rock  tend  to  have smoother, less steep slopes than the other soils.
The areas  derived from metamorphic, serpentine, or basic igneous rocks gen-
erally have  rougher, steeper  slopes.

     The uplands of the Sierra Nevada foothills are not divided physiographi-
cally,  but are divided on  the basis of climate into the lower and upper Sierra
Nevada foothills.   The gradual increase in average annual precipitation and a
decrease in  average annual temperature is closely related to the increase in
elevation.   The  lower  foothill area is warmer and drier than the upper foothill
area.

     The following  soil series are common in these adjacent areas:

           Aiken  Series

           The  Aiken series consists of deep or very deep, well-drained soils
that have  a  fine-textured  subsoil.  These soils formed in material weathered
from basalt.   In a  typical profile, the surface layer is brown and dark-brown
loam about 23  centimeters  thick.  The subsoil to a depth of several meters is
reddish-brown  and has  a subangular blocky structure.  The upper part is clay
loam, but  the main  part of the subsoil is heavy clay.   Weathered basalt under-
lies the soil  at depths in excess of 1 meter.  The entire profile is slightly
acid to medium acid.

           Basic  igneous rock  land is made up of areas that are 50% to 90% out-
crops of basalt  or metamorphic volcanic rock, mainly hornblende schist.   In
some areas more  than 90% of the surface is basaltic rock.  These are the colum-
nar jointed  cliffs  adjacent to the remnants of old volcanic flows on top of
Table Mountain and  Squaw Leap.

           Most areas of basic igneous rock land are steep to extremely steep,
but some areas on hilltops or mesas have more gentle relief.   The surface of
these  areas  is generally very rough and broken and is stony as well as rocky.
The outcrops are dull  or dark in color and irregular in shape.

           In most places the  soil material between the outcrops is loamy and
similar to adjacent soils  that were formed from the same rock.   Commonly,  the
depth  of soil  material is  extremely variable within short distances.   The nat-
ural vegetation  is  mainly  annual grasses and forbs with some shrubs and hard-
wood trees,  including  interior live oak and canyon live oak.   On north slopes
and at higher  elevations in the foothills, the cover of woody vegetation in-
creases.

           Except for some  areas on rock faces, the general drainage is good
to somewhat  excessive.  Runoff is variable; it is rapid in some local areas.
However, over most  of  the  areas of this land, surface water can drain into the
many vertical  cracks in the rocks or be trapped and absorbed by the soil mate-
rial between the outcrops, where it is released more slowly.

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          Holland Series

          The Holland series consists of deep to very deep, well-drained soils
with thick fine-textured subsoils formed in place, under forest, from the
weathering of granitic rock, principally quartz diorite and tranodiorite.
These soils are inextensive in this survey area; they are in the lower lying
parts of more extensive areas of Holland soil that exist in the Sequoia Na-
tional Forest east of the survey area.

          A typical profile in this survey area has a brown, slightly acid,
coarse, sandy loam surface layer that is high in organic matter and is about
25 centimeters thick.  The boundary between the surface layer and subsoil is
not abrupt.  The subsoil is a thick, reddish-brown, moderately acid sandy clay
loam.  It grades into well-weathered granitic rock at a depth of about 2 meters.

          Sierra Series

          The Sierra series consists of well-drained to somewhat excessively
drained soils with a sandy clay loam to clay loam subsoil that formed in place
from deep weathering of granitic rock.  The parent rock is principally quartz
diorite and has a fairly high proportion of dark-colored, iron-bearing minerals.
These soils are mostly rolling to very steep and mountainous.  Slopes are 3% to
70%.  Large outcrops of parent rock are common.

          In a typical profile, the surface layer is neutral to slightly acid,
grayish-brown sandy loam and is about 33 centimeters in thickness.  The subsoil
is medium acid, reddish-brown clay loam and brown sandy clay loam about 150
centimeters thick.  It is underlain by deeply weathered quartz diorite at a
depth of about 2 meters.

Hydrology

     The hydrology of the Kings Canyon-Sequoia reserve is limited to the surface
description of the Kings River Watershed as described by Kings River Conserva-
tion District (Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975).  The described
area includes most of the Kings Canyon National Park as shown on Figure 6.

     In the Sierra Nevada the annual distribution of stream runoff resembles
the uneven distribution of precipitation during the year, except that the
greatest amounts of runoff occur during the snowmelt period of April through
July.  The total annual runoff of the Kings River for the 79 years (1895-96
through 1973-74) of record is shown on Table 8.  The average annual runoff dur-
ing this period is 1,668,500 acre-feet, with the lowest annual recorded during
the 1923-24 water year (392,000 acre-feet or 23% of normal) and the highest re-
corded during the 1968-69 water year (4,386,200 acre-feet or 263% of normal).
Approximately 20% of the annual runoff is produced by the North Fork, 40% by
the Middle Fork, and the remaining 40% by the Main Fork of the Kings River.

     Wide variation in precipitation, snowpack accumulation, and runoff from
season to season in the Kings River Watershed is typical of other southern
Sierra Nevada watersheds.  Table 9 lists the water-year runoff and/or snowmelt
season runoff for the Kings River at Piedra, the water-year precipitation  for

                                      65

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                     TABLE 8.  KINGS RIVER INVESTIGATION
                   ANNUAL DISCHARGE OF KINGS RIVER AT PIEDRA

            (From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975).

Water
Year
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
1898-99
1899-00
1900-01
1901-02
1902-03
1903-04
1904-05
1905-06
1906-07
1907-08
1908-09
1909-10
1910-11
1911-12
1912-13
1913-14
1914-15
1915-16
1916-17
1917-18
1918-19
1919-20
1920-21
1921-22
1922-23
1923-24
1924-25
1925-26
1926-27
1927-28
1928-29
1929-30
1930-31
1931-32
1932-33
1933-34
1934-35

Runoff
1000 A.F.*
1535.7
1948.5
880.7
1278.2
1306.8
2956.0
1504.6
1639.8
1687.2
1448.1
3900.1
2733.2
997.0
2798.6
1779.0
2826.7
968.1
941.6
2548.4
1817.1
3041.8
1892.6
1363.7
1203.3
1404.7
1532.0
2197.6
1555.9
392.0
1290.2
1036.7
1984.3
970.9
850.0
862.7
465.4
2083.5
1181.4
657.4
1621.2

Water
% Normal Year
92.0
116.8
52.8
76.7
78.3
177.2
90.2
98.3
101.1
86.8
233.7
163.8
59.7
167.7
106.6
169.4
58.0
56.4
152.7
108.9
182.3
113.4
81.7
72.1
84.2
91.8
131.7
93.3
23.5
77.3
62.1
118.9
58.2
50.9
51.7
27.9
124.9
70.8
39.4
97.5

1935-36
1936-37
1937-38
1938-39
1939-40
1940-41
1941-42
1942-43
1943-44
1944-45
1945-46
1946-47
1947-48
1948-49
1949-50
1950-51
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
1957-58
1958-59
1959-60
1960-61
1961-62
1962-63
1963-64
1964-65
1965-66
1966-67
1967-68
1968-69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74

79-Year Average
Runoff
1000 A.F.
1876.5
2341.0
3283.3
974.2
1791.2
2543.0
1999.4
2026.6
1168.3
2062.5
1612.1
1107.4
995.4
960.7
1280.9
1600.8
2856.0
1154.7
1324.6
1122.9
2585.5
1245.2
2544.2
806.7
714.5
569.0
1900.2
1939-0
911.5
2013.7
1215.8
3374.3
843.2
4386.2
1330.6
1174.9
859.5
2135.4
2095.9

1668.5
% Normal
112.5
140.3
196.8
58.4
107.4
152.4
119.8
121.5
70.0
123.6
96.6
66.4
59.7
57.6
76.8
95.9
171.2
69.2
79.4
67.3
155.0
74.6
152.5
48.3
42.8
34.0
113.9
116.2
54.6
120.7
72.9
202.2
50.5
262.9
79.7
70.4
51.5
128.0
125.6

100.0

* See Appendix A for Metric Conversion
                                      66

-------
the period 1931 through 1970 at Balch Power House and the April 1 snowpack
accumulation (expressed as water content in inches) at Rowell Meadows.  Varia-
tion in these hydrologic parameters from season to season indicates a range of
basin conditions which far overshadows the increase in runoff and associated
hydrologic parameters through weather modification.

     The gauging station at Piedra has been in operation since 1895 and pro-
vides the longest set of flows available in the Kings River Basin.  The North
Fork gauge near Cliff Camp, in operation since 1921, is the second longest set
of recorded flows.  Other stream gauging stations went into operation in the
early 1920*s.  During the late 1950rs and early 1960's, additional gates were
installed, principally at damsites and at tributaries of the Kings River.  Ta-
ble 10 shows the number, location, and drainage area of the selected stream
gauging stations and Figure 7 presents the length of record available in bar-
graph form.

     Shown on Figure 8 is a graph illustrating the flows of the Kings River
(at Piedra), by water years, in millions of acre-feet.  The graph also shows
the cumulative deviations from the mean flows, from which the magnitude and
duration of historically wet and dry periods can be observed.  The three water
years from 1958-59 through 1960-61 represent the most severe 3-year drought in
the history of recorded flow on Kings River.  These three years provided only
43% of the long-term average supply; this can be compared with the 4-year
drought from 1927-28 through 1930-31, which had a supply of 48% of average.

     Surface water in the Kings River Basin is of excellent mineral quality and
suitable for all beneficial uses assigned to it by the California Regional Water
Quality Control Board, Central Valley Region (CVWOCB).  For management purposes,
the CVWQCB has divided the Kings River into five segments—Kings River above
Kirch Flat, Kirch Flat to Pine Flat Dam, Pine Flat Dam to Friant-Kern Siphon,
Friant-Kern Siphon to People's Weir, and People's Weir to Stinson Weir (North
Fork), and from Stinson Weir to Empire Weir No. 2  (South Fork).

     Waters of the upper reaches of the Kings River are clear, free from foam
or detectable color and odor, a neutral pH, dissolved oxygen near saturation,
low levels of dissolved minerals and nutrients, and an aquatic flora and fauna
typical of unpolluted waters  (Kings River Weather Modification Program,  1975).

     Measurement of pH  and hardness' show the upper Kings River to be neutral,
and soft to moderate calcium bicarbonate in nature.   Dissolved oxygen levels
are high, ranging from 74% to 111% saturation; water  temperatures are low, rang-
ing from about 5  C to 18  C with maximums occurring in August or September and
minimums in December or January.  Concentrations of dissolved minerals are low
and no chemical anomalies are apparent.

     Concentrations of suspended sediments are low, seldom  exceeding  30  mg/1.
Figure 8 also indicates that sediment production from the watershed is very
low (approximately 1 to 1/2 acre-foot per year) under present conditions.  Be-
cause of the steep gradients of the streams, little sediment deposition  occurs
within the project area.
                                       67

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                      TABLE 9.  KINGS RIVER INVESTIGATION
               VARIABILITY IN OBSERVED HYDROLOGIC DATA BY SEASON

             (From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975)
Water
Year
1931
32
33
34
1935
36
37
38
39
1940
41
42
43
44
1945
46
47
48
49
1950
51
52
53
54
1955
56
57
58
59
1960
61
62
63
64
1965
66
67
68
69
1970
Water-Year
Runoff
% of Avg.
28
133
75
42
103
120
149
209
52
114
162
128
129
74
131
103
71
63
61
82
102
182
74
85
73
172
80
167
53
46
36
119
121
56
128
77
215
54
280
85
Water-Year
Runoff
1000 A.F.
465.8
1083.5
1180.9
658.8
1621.3
1876.5
2340.8
3275.1
974.4
1790.4
2542.8
2005.3
2026.6
1168.2
2062.4
1612.0
1107.3
996.2
960.7
1281.0
1601.0
2856.0
1155.0
1330.0
1143.0
2695.0
1259.0
2615.0
823.7
718.9
571.5
1871.9
1902.0
877.9
2013.7
1215.8
3374.3
843.2
4386.2
1330.6
April- July
Runoff
1000 A.F.
355.2
1585.0
984.0
407.2
1335.4
1428.8
1730.2
2316.1
656.4
1305.5
1910.3
1553.2
1380.7
926.9
1517.5
1128.1
726.4
868.7
821.1
1028.3
853.7
2196.0
865-6
1060.5
862.0
1570.3
996.5
2016.8
528.2
547.2
402.4
1485.2
1409.9
630.1
1326.2
910.8
2330.0
565.7
3140.5
886.4
Water-Year
Precip.
Balch P.H.
Inches*
17.37
33.64
21.13
16.44
34.30
32.30
38.04
46.12
22.63
31.72
38.65
32.05
34.89
24.43
32.39
24.89
26.17
23.84
21.28
24.20
33.45
39.68
21.32
27.08
22.95
41.37
25.11
43.77
17.65
18.79
18.64
33.83
32.33
21.69
34.69
20.73
49.17
17.48
60.58

	 .. -i — — 	 • 	 •
April 1 Snow-
Pack Water
Content-Inches
Rowel 1 Mdw.

38.3
25.1
14.4
13.2
31.7
43.1
48.0
14.8
32.4
42.7
34.7
38.2
25.8
32.9
20.9
18.9
18.9
23.2
22.6
11.1

20.6
31.0
19.2
27.0
20.1

15.4
14.8
12.1
41.7
17.5
12.5
25.3
19.3
43.1
16.5
73.9
19.3
* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.

                                      68

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Paleobotany

     Little Information could be gathered on the paleobotany of the Sequoia-
Kings Canyon areas.

Meteorology

     The climatological patterns found within the Kings Canyon-Sequoia region
are profoundly influenced by topography.  Total precipitation increases within
the Sierra Nevada  foothills as the moist air ascends the relatively steep
Sierra slope.  Precipitation ultimately drops off above 2,700 meters.  Grant
Grove, at 2,000 meters in elevation, averages approximately 100 centimeters
of precipitation annually (Biswell et al., 1966).  Thunderstorms are recorded
about five days per year at lower elevations, while 8 to 10 recordings per
year are typical for higher altitudes.

     Amounts of snowfall at low elevations are very light—about 2.5 centime-
ters annually at elevations of 400 meters—increasing to about 600 centimeters
annually above 2,400 meters.  At the higher elevation, snow remains throughout
the winter.  Accumulations of 180 to 200 centimeters are not uncommon, and
depths of 300 centimeters or more have been recorded.  Typically, it is around
the 10th of May before the last snow melts at Grant Grove.

     In general, average temperature decreases as altitude increases with a
wide range of temperatures represented within the Park region.  In July, daily
maximum temperatures average over 38° C within the thermal belt associated with
the Sierra Nevada  foothills, which extends for a distance up river canyons.
Higher in the mountains, summer temperatures are cooler than the valley, and
winter temperatures may be quite cold.  Stations from 1,700 meters to 2,100
meters have averages in July below 18° C and in January from -1° C to 0° C.
Table 11 shows the precipitation and temperatures at Ash Mountain elevation
500 meters and Giant Forest at 1,953 meters during 1964 (Vankat, 1970).

     In open areas of the region the prevailing wind direction is from the
northwest during most of the year, although south-easterly winds are more com-
mon during November, December, and January.  In mountainous terrain there is
a tendency for air to move up-slope during the day and to drain down-slope
during the night.  Relative humidity is fairly high during the winter months,
ranging from 50% to 70%.  Low readings are the rule during the rest of the
year.  Late summer and fall are particularly dry in this area (Kings River
Weather Modification Program, 1975).
                                       69

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                 TABLE 10.   KINGS RIVER BASIN GAUGING STATIONS
            (From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975)

Station
No.
2220
2217
2215
2185
2135
2130
2184
2165
2150
2146
2145
2180
2170
Name and Location
Kings River at Piedra
Mill Creek near Piedra
Kings River below Pine Flat Drum
Kings River below North Fork
Kings River above North Fork
Kings River near Hume
North Fork Kings River below
Dinkey Creek
North Fork Kings River above
Dinkey Creek
North Fork Kings River near
Cliff Camp
Helms Creek below Courtright Dam
Helms Creek at Sand Meadows
Dinkey Creek at Mouth
Dinkey Creek at Dinkey Meadow
Drainage Area
(sq. mi.)*
1687
127
1545
1342
952
835
387
250
181
39.7
34.7
136
50.8
* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.
                                      70

-------
    OP
     C
     M
     ro
 3*  fl>
 (!)   O
     o
 W  I-!
 H-  Of
 3   CO
CM
 CO   ill

 W  0>
 H-  H-
 <   M
 (D   03
 H   O4
     I-1
 W  ro
 P3
 CO   P)
     CO
     ro
     M
     ro
     o
     rt
     ro
     ex
     H
     ro

     I

    00
     p
     c
    00
    OP
     CO
     rt
     H-

     I
     CO
STATION
NUMBER
2220
2217
2215
2185
2135
2130
2184
2165
2150
2146
2145
2180
2170
STREAM
GAGING STATION
KINGS RIVER AT PIEDRA
MILL CREEK NEAR PIEDRA
KINGS RIVER BELOW
PINE FLAT DAM
KINGS RIVER BELOW
NORTH FORK
KINGS RIVER ABOVE
NORTH FORK
KINGS RIVER NEAR HUME
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
BELOW DINKEY CREEK
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
ABOVE DINKEY CREEK
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
NEAR CLIFF CAMP
HELMS CREEK BELOW
COURTRIGHT DAM
HELMS CREEK AT
SAND MEADOWS
DINKEY CREEK AT MOUTH
DINKEY CREEK AT
DINKEY MEADOW
DRAINAGE]
AREA I
(mi.2) 1
1687
127
1545
1342
952
835
387
250
181
39.7
34.7
136
50.8
WATER YEARS (OCTOBER THROUGH SEPTEMBER)
— CM
CMCM
RE





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CM
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-------
   MEAN  ANNUAL RUNOFF FOR 77-YEAR PERIOD 1895-96 THROUGH 1971-72= 1,656,900  ACRE-FEET
Figure  8.   Wet  and dry periods in the  runoff in  Kings River at Piedra.
                                     72

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TABLE 11.  CLIMATIC DATA AT ASH MOUNTAIN AND GIANT FOREST--1964 (Vankat, 1974)

MONTH
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Annual
Normal Mean Monthly
Preclpitation(inches) *
Ash Mountain
4.55
4.85
4.28
3.00
1.17
0.24
0.05
0.04
0.21
0.99
2.19
4.95
26.52
Giant Forest
7.85
8.49
6.88
4.52
1.90
0.42
0.12
0.12
0.35
1.68
3.70
8.37
44.40
Normal Mean Monthly
Temperature (°F)
Ash Mountain
46.2
49.3
53.0
59.6
66.0
74.6
83.4
81.8
76.6
66.4
55.3
48.6
63.4
Giant Forest
32.0
33.4
37.3
42.1
47.8
55.5
64.0
63.2
59.2
49.5
40.5
34.8
46.6

* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.
                                      73

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                                      80

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Non-Metric Unit
     acre
                                 APPENDIX A
                          METRIC CONVERSION TABLE*
             Multiply by
Metric Unit
               0.40468                hectare (ha)
(one hectare = 10,000 square meters)

                                      cubic meters (m3)

                                      meter (m)

                                      liter (1)


                                      millimeter (mm)

                                      kilometer  (km)

                                      liter (1)

                                      kilogram (kg)
* English units were used interchangeably in this report, because much of the
  source data were not available in metric units.
acre-foot
foot
gallon

inch
mile
pint
pound
1233.48
0.3048
3.7854
(one liter = 0.001 cubic meter)
2.54
1.609
0.473
0.453
                                      81

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       APPENDIX  B.  SPECIES  LIST* — YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK
I.   VEGETATION
     DicTanaoeae
Ceratodon purpureus

     Bryoceae
Bryum Turbinalum
     Equisetaceae
Equisetum arvense
Equisetum arvense,  var.  alpestre
Equisetum hiemale
Equisetum laevigatum
Equisetum variegatum

     Se lag-Lne 1 laceae
Selaginella densa
     Typhaceae
Typha latifolia

     Sparganiaceae
Sparganium androcladum

     Najadaoeae
Potamogeton alpinus
Potamogeton filiformis
Potamogeton gramineus
Potamogeton natans
Potamogeton nodosus
Potamogeton strictifolius
Potamogeton tenuifolius
     Pinaoeae
Abies lasiocarpa
Juniperus communis
Juniperus scopulorum
Picea engelmanni
Picea glauca
Picea pungens
Pinus albicaulis
Pinus contorta
Pinus flexilis
Pseudotsuga menziesii
     A 1-Lsmaaeae
Sagittaria arifolia

     GTomineae
Agropyron albicans
Agropyron caninum
Agropyron dasystachyum
Agropyron spicatum
Agropyron subsecundum
Agropyron trachycaulum
*Except where noted, species lists were based  on U.S. Park Service lists.
                                      82

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     'Boute1o^^a
Agrostis alba
Agrostis exarata
Agrostis hiemalis
Alopecurus aequalis
Beckmannia syzigachne
Bromus anomalus
Bromus carinatus
Bromus cHiatus
Bromus commutatus
Bromus inermis
Bromus tectorum
Calamagrostis canadensis
Calamagrostis inexpansa
Calamogrostis rubescens
Dactylis glomerata
Danthonia intermedia Vasey
Deschampsia  caespitosa
Elymus anerecis
Elymus condensatus
Elymus glaucus
Festuca idahoensis
Glyceria borealis
Glyceria elata
Glyceria pauciflora
Glyceria striata
Hersperochloa kingii
Hierochloe odorata
Hordeum brachyantherum
Hordeum jubatum
Koeleria cristata
Melica spectabilis
Muhlenbergia andina
Muhlenbergia filiformis
Muhlenbergia racemosa
Muhlenbergia richardsonis
Orhyzopsis hymenorden
Phalaris arundinacea
Phleum pratense
Panicum thermale
Poa annua
Poa canbyi
Poa fendleriana
Poa interior
Poa leptocoma
Poa nervosa
Poa palustris
Poa pratensis
Sitanion hystrix
Sphenopholis obtusata
Stipa columbiana
Stipa comata
Stipa lettermanni
Stipa occidentalis
Stipa richardsoni
Trisetum spicatum
Trisetum wolfii

     Cyperaoeae
Carex aquatilis
Carex arthrostachya
Carex aurea
Carex chimaphila
Carex concinnocdes
Carex douglasii
Carex eastwoodiana
Carex festivells
Carex geyeri
Carex gravida
                                       83

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     Cyperaceae (continued)
Carex hoodii
Carex interior Bailey
Carex lanuginosa Michx
Carex nebraskensis
Carex occidentalis
Carex phaeocephala
Carex rossii
Carex rostrata
Carex vesicaria
Eleocharis acicularis
Eleocharis macrostachya
Eleocharis obtusa
Eleocharis pauciflora
Scirpus subterminalis

     Lermaoeae
Lemna minor
Lemna trisulca

     Juncaoeae
Juncus balticus
Juncus bufonius
Juncus confusus
Juncus ensifolius
Juncus filformis
Juncus longistylis
Juncus parryi
Juncus saximontanus

     Lili-geeae
Alliutn spp.
Allium brevistylum
Allium textile
Brodiaea douglasii
Camassia quamash
Erythronium grandiflorum
Fritillaria atropurpurea
Fritillaria pudica
Sesporum trachycarpum
Smilacina stellata
Smilacina racemosa
Streptopus amplexifolius
Zygadenus paniculatus
Zygadenus elegans

     Iridaceae
Sisyrinchium idahoense

     OTohidaoeae
Calypso bulbosa
Corallorhiza mertensiana
Corallorhiza striata
Goodyera oblongifolia
Habenaria hyperborea
Habenaria unalascensis
Spiranthes romanzoffiana

     Salicaceae
Populus angustifolia
Populus balsamifera
Populus tremuloides
Salix caudata
Salix drummondiana var. subcoerulea
Salix exigua
Salix farrae
Salix geyeriana
Salix luted
Salix luted var. platyphylla
                                      84

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     Salioaoeae (continued)
Salix mackenziana
Salix melanopsis
Salix melanopsis var. tenerrima
Salix pseudocordata var. aequalis
Salix scpuleriana
Salix wolfii
Salix wolfii var. idahoensis

     Betulaceae
Alnus tenuifolia
Betula glandulosa

     Cannofainaeeae
Humulus  lupulus

     Urt-icaceae
Urtica gracilis

     Santalaoeae
Comandra pallida

     Lopanthaoeae
Arceuthobium americanum

     Polygonaceae
Eriogonum heracleoides
Eriogonum subalpinum
Eriogonum umbellatum
Pachistima  myrsinites
Polygonum amphibium
Polygonum avi.culare
Polygonum bistortoides
Polygonum buxiforme
Polygonum douglasii
Polygonum fluitans
Rumex acetosella
Rumex crispus
Rumex fueginus
Rumex paucifolius
Rumex triangulivalvis

     Chenopod-Lgceae
Blitum capitatum
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium aridum
Eurotia lanata
Kochia scoparia
Monolepis nuttalliana
Salsola pestifer
Sarcobatus spp.

     Portulacaoeae
Claytonia lanceolata

     Caryophy1laeeae
Arenaria congesta
Arenaria lateriflora
Cerastium oreophilum
Sagina saginoides
Spergularia rubra
Stellaria americanum
Stellaria longifolia
Stellaria longipes Goldie

     Nynrphapceae
Nuphar polysepalum
                                         85

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     Ranunculaoeae
Aconitum columbianum
Actaea rubra
Anemone globosa
Aquilegia caerulez
Clematis columbiana
Clematis eriophora
Delphinium nelsoni Greene
Delphinium occidentale
Ranunculus acriformis var. montanensis
Ranunculus aquatilis var. capilaceus
Ranunculus cymbalaria
Ranunculus glaberrimus
Ranunculus inamoenus
Ranunculus natans
Ranunculus sceleratus var. multifidus
Thalictrum fendleri
Thalictrum occidentale
Thalictrum sp.

     Berberidaceae
Berberis repens
Mahonia aquifolium

     Cruoiferae
Arabis drummondii
Arabis exilis
Arabis glabra
Arabis hirsuta
Arabis holboellii
Arabis nuttallii
Barbarea americana
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Cardamine breweri
Descurainia  pinnata
Descurainia sophia
Draba stenoloba
Erysimum cheiranthoides
Lepidium campestre
Lepidium densiflorum var. bourgeauanum
Lepidium perfoliatum
Lesquerella prostrata
Rorippa palustris
Thlaspi arvense
Thlaspi parvilflorum

     CyassutaGeae
Sedum debile
Sedum lanceolatum
Sedum stenopetalum
Heuchera parviflora
Lithophragma bulbifera
Lithophragma parviflora
Parnassia parviflora
Saxifraga montanensis
Saxifraga punctata var. arguta
Saxifraga rhomboidea

     Grossu lar-i-aoeae
Ribes cereum
Ribes inerme
Ribes lacustre
Ribes sativum
Ribes setosum
Ribes viscosissimum
Ribes montigenun
                                      86

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     Rosaoeae
Amelanchier alnifolia
Fragaria bracteata
Fragaria glauca
Fragaria pauciflora
Fragaria platypetala
Fragaria vesea
Fragarta virgtniara
Geum macrophyllum
Geum triflorum
Physocarpus malvaceus
Potentilla arguta  spp.  conyallaria
Potentilla arguta  spp.  typica
Potentilla diversifolia
Potentilla flabelliformis
Potentilla fruticosa
Potentilla gracilis  spp.  nutallii
Potentilla monspeliensis
Potentilla pulcherrima
Prunus melanocarpa
Prunus virginiana
Purshia tridentata
R,osa acicularis
 Rosa fendleri
 Rosa woodsii
 Rubus parviflorus
 Rubus strigosus
 Sieversia ciliata
 Sorbus scopulina
 Spiraea betulifolia
 Spiraea lucida

      CaatQoeae
 Astragalus adsurgens Leguminosae
Astragalus agrestis
Astragalus alpinus
Astragalus bodini
Astragalus decumbens var. oblongifolius
Astragalus glareosus
Astragalus miser
Caragana arborescens
Glycyrrhiza lepidota
Hedysarum boreale var. cinerascens
Lupinus argenteus
Lupinus humicola
Lupinus lepidus spp. caespitosus
Lupinus leucophyllus
Lupinus parviflorus
Medicago lupulina
Medicago sativa
Melilotus alba
Melilotus officinalis
Opuntia polyocantha
Oxytropis deflexa
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium repens
Trifolium rydbergii
Vicia americana var. linearis

     It-Lnaoeae
Linum lewisii
Linum perenne

     Geyaniaceae
Geranium nervosum
Geranium richardsonii
Geranium viscosissimum
                                       87

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     Catl-jtT'io'haceae
Callitriche palustris
     Lirnnanthaoeae
Floerkia occidentalis
     Celastraceae
Pachystima myrslnites
Epilobium angustifolium
Epilobium latifolium
Epilobium paniculatum
Epilobium saximontanum
Epilobium suffruticosum
Gayophytum diffusum
Oerothera herteranthera
Pyrola asarifolia
Pyrola secunda
Acer glabrum
Acer grandidentata

     Khamnaceae
Ceanothus velutinus
Rhamnus  alnifolia

     Malvaceae
Sphaeralcea rivularis

     Vi,o1aaeae
Viola  adunca
Viola  canodensis
Viola  nephrophylla

     Elaeagnaoeae
Elaeagnus commutata
Shepherdia canadensis

     Qngcsraceae
Epilobium adenocaulon
     Halovagidaceae
Hippuris vulgaris
Myriophyllum verticillatum
Myriophyllum exalbescens

     UmbellifeTae
Angelica pinnata
Berula erecta
Bupleurum americanum
Heracleum lanatum
Ligusticum filicinum
Lomatium ambiguum
Lomatium dissectum
Lomatium simplex
Osmorhiza chilensis
Osmorhiza depauperata
Osmorhiza obtusa
Osmorhiza occidentalis
Perideridia bolanderi
Perideridia gairdneri
Sium suave

     Cornaoeae
Cornus stolonifera
                                       88

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     Ericaceae
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Chijnaphila umbellata
Menzlesia ferruginea
Pterospora andromeda
Pyrola asartfolia
Pyrola chlorantha
Pyrola secunda
Vaccinium membranaceuin
Vacciniumt scoparium
Vacci.nium globulare

      Prjmulaceae
Androsace septentrionalis var.  pube-
   rulenta
Androsace septentrionalis var.  subum-
   bellata
Dodecatheon pauciflorum
Fro sera speciosa

      Gerrtiancaceae
 Gentiana amarella
 Gentiana thermal is
 Swetia radiata

      Po lemoniaceae
 Collomia linearis
 Gilia aggregata
 Linanthus septentrionalis
 Phlox longifolia
 Phlox multiflora
 Polemonium caejruleum var. occidentalis
 Polemonium pulcherrimum
                aoeae
Phacelia franklinii
Phacelia heterophylla
Phacelia leucophylla
Phoulia hostata
 Hydrophyllum capitatum
 Nemophila breviflora
Cryptantha affinis
Hackelia diffusa var. caerulescens
Hackelia floribunda
Lappula cenchroides
Lappula foliosa
Lithospermum ruderale
Myosolis arvensis

     Labiatae
Agastache urticifolia
Dracocephalum parviflorum
Mentha canadensis
Prunella vulgaris
Scutellaria galericulata

     Scrophu lar-igceae
Castilleja flava
Castilleja lineariaefolia
Castilleja longispica
Castilleja lutea
Castilleja miniata
Castilleja rhexifolia
Collinsia parviflora
Cordylanthus ramosus
Mimulus guttatus
Orthocarpus luteus
Pedicularis groenlandica
Pedicularis paysoniana
                                       89

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     Scrophu lca>-iaceae (continued)
Penstemon aridis
Penstemon deustus
Penstemon procerus
Penstemon subglaber
Veronica americana
Veronica peregrins
Veronica serpyllifolia
Symphoricarpos rivularis
Symphoricarpos tetonensis
Valeriana dioica
Valeriana obovata
Valeriana occidentalis
     OTobanohaoeae
Orobanche fasciculata
Orobanche ludoviciana
Orobanche uniflora

     Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia vulgaris

     Plantaginaceae
Plantago lanceolata
Plantago major

     Rubiaaeae
Galium bifolium
Galium boreale
Galium trifidum

     Caprifoliaceae
Linnaea borealis var. americana
Lonicera involucrata
Lonicera utahensis
Sambucus melanocarpa
Symphoricarpos albus
Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Symphoricarpos oreophibes
     Canrpanulaceae
Campanula rotundifolia

     Lobe l-iaceae
Porterella carnosula

     Compositae
Achillea millefolium
Agoseris elata
Agoseris glauca
Agoseris glauca var. laciniata
Agoseris purpurea
Antennaria aprica
Antennaria arida
Antennaria corymbosa
Antennaria dimorpha
Antennaria lanata
Antennaria luzuloides
Antennaria parvifolia
Antennaria racemosa
Antennaria rosea
Arnica chamissonis
Arnica cordifolia
Arnica latifolia
Artemisia abrotanum
Artemisia cana
                                       90

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     Compositge (oont-vmedl
Artemisia dracunculoides
Artemisia ludoviciana
Artemisia tridentata
Artemisia tripartita
Aster campestris
Aster canescens
Aster chilensis
Aster coerulescens  var.  laeteyirens
Aster conspicuus
Aster engelmonnii
Aster foliaceus var.  apricus
Aster foliaceus var.  frondeus
Aster integrifolius
Aster occidentalis
Aster parelegans
Balsamorrhiza sagittata
Besseya wyomingensis
Chaenactis  douglasii
Chrysopsis  yillosa
Chrysothamus nauseosus
 Chrysothamus viscidiflaces
 Cirsium arvense
 Cirsium drummondii
 Cirsium uniutalum
 Conyza canadensis
 Crepis  acuminata
 Crepis  intermedia
 Crepis  tectorum
 Crepis  alrabarba
 Crepis  atrabarba
 Erigeron divergens
 Erigeron peregrinus
 Erigeron glabellus
 Erigeron spp.
Erigeron ochroleucus
Erigeron pumilus spp. concinnoides
Erigeron speciosus
Eriophyllum lanatum
Gnaphalium chilense
Gnaphalium palustre
Grindelia squarrosa
Haplopoppus acaulis
Helionthella uniflora
Helionthella quinquenervis
Hieracium albiflorum
Hieracium cynoglossoides
Hieracium scouleri
Iva zanthifolia
Lactuca integrata
Machaeranthera pulverulenta
Machaeranthera viscosa
Madia glomerata
Matricaria suaveolens
Rudbeckia occidentalis
Senecio crassulus
Senecio cymbalariodes
Senecio glaucescens
Senecio hydrophilus
Senecio perplexus
Senecio streptanthifolus
Senecio serra
Solidago lepida var. elongata
Solidago lepida var. fallax
Solidago multirodiata
Solidago missouriensis
Solidago nemoralis
Stephanomeria  tenuifolia
Tanacetum vulgare
                                       91

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     Compositae (continued)
Taraxacum officinale
Tetradymia inermts
Tragopogon porrifolius
Viguiera mutiflora
Wyethia helianthoides

     Apoeynaoeae
Apocunum androsaemifolium

II.  INSECTS  (Vincent, 1967)

     Coleopters  (Order)

     Dtptera  (Order)
Antocha spp.
Atherix spp.
Cinygmula  sp.
Ephemerella hystlrix
Glossosoma spp.
Hexatema spp.
Hexatone spp.
Rhittrogenia  hageni
Simulium spp.

     Ephemeropters  (.Order)

     Pleooplera  (Order)
Acroneuria pacifica
Acroneuria theodora
Acrynopteryx  spp.
Alloperla  spp.
Claassenia sabulosa
Isoperla spp.
Leutra spp.
Nemoura spp.
Pteronarcys California

     Triehoptera (Order)
Arctopsyche grandis
Dolophiledes spp.
Glossosoma spp.
Rhyacophila spp.
Rhyarophila airopedes

Ephydra lamproscatella
Paracoenia turbida
Partnuniella thermalis
Pteromalidae Urolepis

III.  FISHES

Native Fishes:
Catostomus ardens   (Utah Sucker)
Catostomus catostomus (Longnose Sucker)
Catostomus platyrhynchus (Mountain Sucker)
Cottus bairdii  (Mottled Sculpin)
Gila atraria (Utah Chub)
Prosopium williamsoni (Mountain Whitefish)
Rhinichthys cataractae  (Longnose Dace)
Rhinichthys osculus (Speckled Dace)
Richardsonius balteatus (Redside Shiner)
Richardsonius balteatus x Rhinichthyes
  osculus (Redside Shiner x Speckled
  Dace Hybrid)
Salmo Clarki (Cutthroat Trout)
Thymallus arcticus (Arctic Grayling,
  American)
                                       92

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Introduced Fishes:
Couesius plumbeus  (Lake Chub)
Salmo gairdneri  (Rainbow Trout)
Salmo gairdneri  K  Salmo Clarkii  (Rainbow
  x Cutthroat Trout  Hybrid)
Salmo trutta  (Brown  Trout)
Salyelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout)
Salvelinus namayrush (Lake Trout)

IV.  BIRDS
 Acanthis flammea
 Accipiter cooperii
 Accipiter gentilis
 Accipiter striatus
 Actitis macularia
 Aechmophorous occidentalis
 Aegolius acadicus
 Aegolius funereus
 Aeronautes saxatalis
 Agelaius phoenicieus
 Aix sponsa
 Ammodramus savanarium
 Anas acuta
 Anas carolinensis
 Anas cyanoptera
 Anas discors
 Anas platyrhynchos
 Anas strepera
 Anthus spinoletta
 Aquila chrysaetos
 Ardea herodias
 Asio flammeus
 Asio otus
 Asyndesmus lewis
 Aythya affinis
(Common Redpoll)
(Cooper's Hawk)
(Goshawk)
(Sharp-shinned Hawk)
(Spotted Sandpiper)
(Western Grebe)
(Saw-whet Owl)
(Boreal Owl)
(White-throated  Swift)
(Red-winged Blackbird)
(Wood Duck)
(Grasshopper Sparrow)
(Pintail)
(Green-winged Teal)
(Cinnamon Teal)
(Blue-winged Teal)
(Mallard)
(Gadwall)
(Water Pipit)
(Golden Eagle)
(Great Blue Heron)
(Short-eared  Owl)
(Long-eared Owl)
(Lewis' Woodpecker)
(Lesser  Scaup)
                                        93

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     BIRDS (continued)
Aythya americana
Aythya collaris
Aythya valisineria
Bombycilla cedrorum
Bombycilla garrulus
Bonasa umbellus
Botaurus lentiginosus
Branta canadensis
Bubo virginianus
Bucephala albeola
Bucephala clangula
Bucephala islandica
Buteo jamaicensis
Buteo lagopus
Buteo regalis
Buteo swainsoni
Calamospiza melanocorys
Calcarius lapponicus
Canachites canadensis
Capella  gallirago
Carpodacus cassinii
Cathartes aura
Catharus fuscescens
Catharus guttata
Catharus ustulatus
Catoptrophorous semipalmatus
Centrocercus urophasianus
Certhia  familiaris
Charadrius vociferus
Chen hyperborea
Chlidonias niger
Chlorura chlorura
Chondestes grammacus
Chordeiles minor
(Redhead)
(Ring-necked Duck)
(Canvasback)
(Cedar Waxwing)
(Bohemian  Waxwing)
(Ruffed Grouse)
(American  Bittern)
(Canada Goose)
(Great Horned Owl)
CBufflehead)
(Common Goldeneye)
(Barrow's  Goldeneye)
(Red-tailed Hawk)
(Rough-legged Hawk)
(Ferruginou's Hawk)
(Swainson's Hawk)
(Lark Bunting)
(Lapland Lockspur)
(Spruce Grouse)
(Common Snipe)
(Cassin's Finch)
(Turkey Vulture)
(Veery)
(Hermit Thrush)
(Swainson's Thrush)
(Fillet)
(Sage Grouse)
(Brown Creeper)
(Killdeer)
(Snow Goose)
(Black Tern)
(Green-tailed  Towhee)
(Lark Sparrow)
(Common Nighthawk)
                                      94

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     BIRDS (continued)
Cinclus mexicanus
Circus cyaneus
Colartes spp.
Contopus sordidulus
Coryus brachyrynchos
Coryus corax
Crocethia alba
Cyanocitta stelleri
Dendragapus obscurus
Dendrocopos pubescens
Dendrocopos villosus
Dendroica auduboni auduboni
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica townsendi
Dolichonyx oryzivorous
Dumetella carolinensis
Egretta  thula
Empidonax difficilis
Empidonax hammondii
Empidonax oberholseri
Eremophila alpestris
Erolia bairdii
Erolia melanotos
Erolia ininutilla
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Eupoda montana
Falco colujnbarius
Falco mexicanus
Falco peregrinus
Falco spaverius
Fulica americana
Gavia Immer
Geothypis  trichas
Glaucidium gnoma
(Dipper)
(Marsh Hawk)
(Common Flicker)
(Western Wood Peewee)
(Common Crow)
(Common Raven)
(Sanderling)
(Stellar1s Jay)
(Blue Grouse)
(Dowry Woodpecker)
(Hairy Woodpecker)
Ofellow-rumped Warbler)
(Yellow Warbler)
(Townsend's Warbler)
(Bobolink)
(Catbird)
(Snowy Egret)
(Western Flycatcher)
(Hammond's Flycatcher)
(Dusky Flycatcher)
(Horned Lark)
(Baird's Sandpiper)
(Pectoral Sandpiper)
(Least Sandpiper)
(Brewer's Blackbird)
(Mountain Plover)
(Merlin)
(Prairie Falcon)
(Peregrine Falcon)
(American Kestrel)
(American Coot)
(Common Loon)
(Common Yellowthroat)
(Pygmy Owl)
                                       95

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     BIRDS (continued)
Grus canadensis
Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Hesperiphona vespertina
Hirundo rustica
Histrionicus histrionicus
Hydroprogne caspia
Icterus spp.
Iridoprocne bicolor
Junco  spp.
Lanius excubitor
Lanius ludovicianus
Larus  californicus
Larus  delawarensis
Larus  Philadelphia
Larus  pipixcan
Leucosticte atrata
Leucosticte tephrocotis
Limosa fedoa
Lobipes  lobatus
Lpphodytes cucullatus
Loxia  curvirostra
Loxia  leucoptera
Mareca Americana
Megacryle alcyon
Mergus merganser
Mergus serrator
Melospiza lincolnii
Melospiza juelodia
Molothrus ater
Myadestes towsendi
Nucifraga columbiana
Numenius  americanus
Nuttallornis borealis
(Sandhill Crane)
(Pinon Jay)
(Bald Eagle)
(Evening Grosbeak)
(Barn Swallow)
(Harlequin Duck)
(Caspian Tern)
(Northern Oriole)
(Tree Swallow)
(Dark-eyed Junco)
(Northern Shrike)
(Loggerhead Shrike)
(California Gull)
(Ring-bill Gull)
(Bonaparte's Gull)
(Franklin's Gull)
(Black Rosy Finch)
(Gray-crowned Rosy Finch)
(Marbled Godwit)
(Northern Phalarope)
(Hooded Merganser)
(Red Crossbill)
(White-winged Crossbill)
(American Widgeon)
(Belted Kingfisher)
(Common Merganser)
(Red-breasted Merganser)
(Lincoln Sparrow)
(Song Sparrow)
(Brown-headed Cowbird)
(Townsend's Solitaire)
(Clark's Nutcracker)
(Long-bill Curlew)
(Olive-sided Flycatcher)
                                       96

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     BIRDS  (continued)
Nycticorax nycticorax
Olor buccinator
Olor columbianus
Oporornis tolmiei
Oreoscoptes montanus
Otus asio
Oxyura  jamaicenses
Pandion haliaetus
Parus atricapillus
Parus gambeli
Passer  domesticus
Passerculus sandwichensls
Passerella  iliaca
Passerina amoena
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Perdix  perdix
Perisoreus  canadensis
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Phalacrocorax auritus
 Pheucticus  melanocephalus
 Pica Pica
 Picoides arcticus
 Picoides tridactylus
 Pinicola enucleator
 Pipilo erythrophthalmus
 Piranga ludoviciana
 Plectrophenzx nivalis
 Podiceps auritus
 Podiceps caspicus
 Podilymbus podiceps
 Pooecetes gramineus
 Porzana Carolina
 Recurvirostra americana
 Regulus calendula
(Black-crowned Night Heron)
(Trumpeter Swan)
(Whistling Swan)
(MacGillivray's Warbler)
(Sage Thrasher)
(Screech Owl)
(Ruddy Duck)
(Osprey)
(Black-capped Chickadee)
(Mountain Chickadee)
(House Sparrow)
(Savannah Sparrow)
(Fox Sparrow)
(Lazuli Bunting)
(White Pelican)
(Gray Partridge)
(Gray Jay)
(Cliff Swallow)
(Double-crested Cormorant)
(Black-headed Grosbeak)
(Black-billed Magpie)
(Black-back Three-toed Woodpecker)
(Northern Three-toed Woodpecker)
(Pine Grosbeak)
(Rufous-sided Towhee)
(Western Tanager)
(Snow Bunting)
(Horned Grebe)
(Eared Grebe)
(Pied-billed Grebe)
(Vesper Sparrow)
(Sora)
(American Avocet)
(Ruby-crowned  Kinglet)
                                        97

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     BIRDS (continued)
Regulus satrapa
Riparia riparia
Rynchophanes mccownii
Salpinctes obsoletus
Sa,yornis saya
Seiurus noyeboracensis
Selasphorus platycercus
Selasphorus rufus
Setophaga ruticilla
Sialia currucoides
Sitta canadensis
Sitta carolinensls
Sitta pygmaea
Spatula clypeata
Spectyta cunicularia
Sphyrapicus thyroideus
Sphyrapicus yarius
Spirus pinus
Spinus tristis
Spizella arborea
Spizella breweri
Spizella passerina
Steganopus tricolor
Stelgidopteryx  ruficollis
Stellula calliope
Sterna hirundo
Strix nebulosa
Sturnella neglecta
Sturnus vulgaris
Surnia ulula
Telmatodytes palustris
Totanus flavipes
Totanus melanoleucus
Trachycineta thalassina
(Golden-crowned Kinglet)
(Bank Swallow)
(McCown's Longspur)
(Rock Wren)
(Say's Phoebe)
(Northern Waterthrush)
(Broad-tailed Hunmingbird)
(Rufous Hummingbird)
(American Redstart)
(Mountain Bluebird)
(Red-breasted Nuthatch)
(White-breasted Nuthatch)
(Pygmy Nuthatch)
(Northern Shoveler)
(Burrowing Owl)
(Williamson's Sapsucker)
(Yellow-billed Sapsucker)
(Pine Siskin)
(American Goldfinch)
(Tree Sparrow)
(Brewer's Sparrow)
(Chipping Sparrow)
(Wilson's phalarope)
(Rough-winged Swallow)
(Calliope Hummingbird)
(Common Tern)
(Great Gray Owl)
(Western Meadowlark)
(Starling)
(Hawk Owl)
(Long-billed Marsh Wren)
(Lesser Yellowlegs)
(Greater Yellowlegs)
(Violet-green Swallow)
                                       98

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     BIRDS (continued)
Tringa solitaria
Troglodytes aedon
Turdus migratorius
Tyrannus tyrannus
Tyrannus vertical is
Vermivora celata
Vireo gilvus
Vireo olivaceous
Vireo solitacius
Wilsonia pusilla
Xanthocephalus  xanthocephalus
Zonotrichia  albicollis
Zonotrichia  leucophrys
 (Solitary Sandpiper)
 (House Wren)
 (American Robin)
 (Eastern Kingbird)
 (Western Kingbird)
 (Orange-crowned Warbler)
 (Warbling Vireo)
 (Red-eyed Vireo)
 (Solitary Vireo)
 (Wilson's Warbler)
 (.Yellow-head Blackbird)
 (White-throat  Sparrow)
 (White-crown Sparrow)
 Accidental Species:
 Agelaius tricolor
 Anas rubripes
 Casmerodius albus
 Coccyzus Erythrophthalmus
 Cypseloides niger
 Denoroica striata
 Eudocimus albus
 Grus americana
 Limosa haemastica
 Mycteria americana
 Nyctea scandiaca
 Oidejnia nigra
 Quiscalus quiscula
 Sterna albifrons
 Strix varia
 Vermivora ruficapilla
 (Tri-colored Blackbird)
 (Black Duck)
 (Common  Egret)
 (Black-billed Cuckoo)
 (Black Swift)
 (Blackpoll Warbler)
 (White-faced lois)
 (Whooping Crane)
 (Hudsonian Godwit)
 (Wood Stork)
 (Snowy Owl)
 (Black Scoter)
 ^Common  Crackle)
 (Least Tern)
 (Barred  Owl)
 (Nashville Warbler)
 V.   MAMMALS
 Alces alces
 (Moose)

99

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     MAMMALS (continued)
Antilocapra americana
Bison bison
Canis latrans
Canis lupus
Castor canadensis
Ceryus canadensis melsoni
Citellus armatus
Citellus lateralis
Clethrionomys gapperi
Eptesicus fuscus
Erethizon dorsatum
Eutamias amoenus
Eutamias minimus
Eutamias umbrinus
Felis concolor
Glaucomys sabrinus
Gulo luscus
Lasionycterius  noctiyagans
Lasiurius cinereus
Lepus americanus
Lepus Townsendi
Lutra canadensis
Lynx canadensis
Lynx rufus
Marmota  flaviyentris
Martes americana
Martes pennanti
Mephitis mephitis
Microtus montanus
Microtus pennsylyanicus
Microtus richardsoni
Mustela  erminea
Mustela  frenata
Mustela vison
(Pronghorn - Antelope)
(Buffalo)
(Coyote)
(Gray Wolf)
(Beaver)
(Elk - Wapiti)
(Uinta Ground Squirrel)
(Golden-mantle Squirrel)
(Boreal Redback Vole)
(Big Brown Bat)
(Porcupine)
(Yellow Pine Chipmunk)
(Least Chipmunk)
(Uinta Chipmunk)
(Mountain Lion - Cougar)
(Northern Flying Squirrel)
(Wolverine)
(Silver-haired Bat)
(Hoary Bat)
(Snowshoe Hare - varying Hare)
(Whitetail Jackrabbit)
(River Otter)
(Lynx)
(Bobcat)
(Yellowbelly Marmot)
(Marten)
(Fisher)
(Skunk, spotted)
(Mountain Vole)
(Meadow Vole)
(Richardson Vole)
(Shorttail Weasel)
(Longtail Weasel)
(Mink)
                                       100

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     MAMMALS  (continued)
Myotis evotis                            (Long-ear Bat)
Myotis lucifigus                         (Little Brown Bat)
Neotoma cinerea                          (Bushytail Woodrat)
Ochotona prtnceps                        (Pi^a  - cory)
Odocoileus hemionus                      (Mule  Deer - Blacktail)
Odocoileus vtrginianus                  (Whitetail Deer)
Ondatra  zibethjtca                        (Muskrat)
                                       101

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                     APPENDIX  C.  SPECIES  LIST* —
               SEQUOIA AND KINGS CANYON NATIONAL PARKS
I.   VEGETATION

     Anacardiaaease
Rhus leucodermis
Rhus diyersiloba
Rhus trilobata var. malcophylla

     Apocynaceae
Apocynum androsaemifolium

     AristolQckiaoeae
Asarum hartivegii

     Betulaeeae
Corylus cornuta var. californica

     Bopag-inaaeae
Cryptantha nubigena

     Calyoanthaoea
Calycanthus occidentalis

     CaprjfoItaceae
Lonicera interrupa
Symphoricarpos sp.
Syruphoricarpos acutus
     Cayyophy 1laoeae
Stellarla jamesiana

     Compositae
Baccharis sp.
Artemisia tridentata
Draba oligosperma
Draba densifolia
Draba breweri
Draba lemmonii
Haplopappus macronema
Hulsea algida
Adenocaulon bicolor
Hieracium albiflorum

     CoTnaoeae
Cornus nutlallii

     CTucjferae
Phoenicaulis eurycarpa

     Cupvessaoeae
Libocedrces decurrens
Juniperus occidentalis
*Taken from U.S. Park Service lists.
                                      102

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Cajcex lanugijiosa
Carex rostrata
Carex nebrascensis
Gar ex festivella
Carex vicaria
Carex speclabilis
Carex subnigricans
Carex exserta
Carex helleri
Carex breweri
 Arctostaphylos viscider
 Arctostaphylos patula
 Arctostaphylos manzanita
 Arctostaphylos nevadensis
 Phyllodoce breweri

      Fagaceae
 Quercus douglassi
 Quercus wislizeni
 Quercus kelloggii
 Quercus chrysolepis
 Castamopsis sempervixeng
     Eippooas tanaceae
Aesculus californica

     Rydrophy I laoeae
Eriodictyon californicum
Draperia systyla

     Juncaeeae
Luzula spicata

     Laweaoeae
Uwbellularia californica

     Legiminosae
Cercis occidentalis
Lupinus latifolius var. columbianus

     Jj'L'ieaoeae
Yucca whipplei
Desporum hookeri
Smilacina racemosa var. amplexicaulix
Clintonia uniflora

     Qteaaeae
Fraxinus dipetala
 Poa pratensts
 Calamagrostis breweri
 Calaniagrostis canadensis
 Trisetum wolf ii
 Trisetum spicatum
 Festuca brachyphylla
 Poa rupicola
 Poa suksdorfii
      Onagraeeae
 Epilolium obcordatum

      Qrehidaoeae
 Goodyera oblengifolia

      pinaoeae
 Abies concolor
 Abies magnifica
                                         103

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     Pinaceae (continued)
Pinus albicaulis
Pinus balfouriana
Pinus contorta
Pinus jeffreyii
Pinus lajubertiana
Pinus njonophylla
Pinus ponderosa
Tsuga mertensiana

     PO 1emonig.oeae
Polemonium  exemium

     Polygonaeeae
Eriogonum ovalifolium
Oxyria digyna

     Pteridaeeae
Pteridium aquilinum var.  lanuginosum

     Pyrolaceae
Chemaphila  umbellata var.  pccidentalis
Pyrola picta
Pyrola picta spp. dentata
 Ceanothus cordulatus
 Ceanothus cuneatus
 Ceanothus integerrimus
 Ceanothus paryifolius
 Ceanothus yelutinus
 Cercocarpus ledifolius
 Chamaebatia foliolosa
 Fragaria californica
Holodiscus microphyllus
Ivesia shockleyi
Potentilla diversifolia
Rhamnus crocea
Rosa penetorum

     Sglioaceae
Populus fremantii
Populus tremuloides
Populus trichocarpa
Salix orestera
galix sp.

     SaxifTagaoeae
Philadelphus Lewisii spp. californicus
Ribes divaricatum
Ribes roezlii
Ribes sp.

     Scrophulariaoeae
Castilleja nana
Penstemon davidsonii

     Stepculiaeeae
Fremontia California

     Taxaoeae
Torreya californica

     Taxodiaoeae
Sequoiadendron giganteum

     Umbell-Lferae
Galium sparsiflorum
                                       104

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     Umbelliferae  (continued)
Galium triflorum
Osmorhija chilensis

     Yiolaoeae
Viola lobata.
Rare and  endangered plant  species
Aster pieysonii
Carpentaria ealifornica
Castilleja oulbertsonii
Dieentra  formosa spp.  nevadensis
Eriophyllwn lanatwn par.  crooeum
lyesia  argyroeoma
Lewisia oongdonii
Lupinus dalesiae
Phaoelia  orogenes
Phalaoroseris bolanderi
Raillardella Muirii
Strepanthus farnsworthianus
Strepanthus graoilis

 II.   FISH
 Catostomus occidentalis
 Mylopharodon conocephalus
 Salmo aquabonita
 Salvelinus fontinalis
 Salmo gairdneri
 Salmo trutta
(Sacramento  Sucker)
(Hard Head Minnow)
(Golden Trout)
(Eastern Brook  Trout)
(Rainfow Trout)
(Brown Trout)
 III.  AMPHIBIANS
 Batrachoseps attenuatus
 Batrachoseps relictus
(California Slender Salamander)
(Relictual Slender Salamander)
                                       105

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     AMPHIBIANS (continued)
Bufo boreas
Bufo canorus
Ensatina eschscholtzi
Hydromantes platycephalus
Hyla regilla
Rana boylei
Rana catesbeiana
Rana muscosa
Triturus torosa
(Western Toad)
(YoSemite Toad)
(Eschscholtz Salamander)
(Mount Lyell Salamander)
(Pacific Tree Frog)
(Foothill Yellow-legged Frog)
(Bullfrog)
(Mountain Yellow-legged Frog)
(California Newt)
IV.  REPTILES
Anniella pulchra
Charina bottae
Clemmys marmorata
Cnemidophorus tigris
Coluber constrictor
Contia tenuis
Crotalus viridis
Diadophis punctatus
Eumeces gilberti
Gerrhonotus coeruleus
Gerrhonotus multicarinatus
Hypsiglena torquata
Lampropeltis getulus
Lampropeltis zonata
Masticophis lateralis
Phrynosoma coronatum
Pituophis melanoleucus
Sceloporus graciosus
Sceloporus occidentalis
Tantilla planiceps
Thamnophis couchi
Thamnophis elegans
(California Legless Lizard)
(Rubber Boa)
(Pond turtle)
(Western Whiptail)
(Racer)
(Sharp-tailed Snake)
(Western Rattlesnake)
(Ringneck Snake)
CGilbert's Skink)
(Northern Alligator Lizard)
(Foothill Alligator Lizard)
(Spotted Snake)
(Common Kingsnake)
(California Mountain Kingsnake)
(Striped Racer)
(Coast Horned Lizard)
(Gopher Snake)
(Sagebrush Lizard)
(Western Fence Lizard)
(Western Black-headed Snake)
(Western Aquatic Garter Snake)
(Western Terrestrial Garter Snake)
                                       106

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     REPTILES  (continued)
Thamnophls sirtalis
Uta stansburiana
 (Common Garter Snake)
 (Side-blotched Lizard)
V.   BIRDS
Accipiter cooper,!.!
Acclpiter gentilis
Accipiter striatus
Actitis macularia
Aegolius acadicus
Aeronautes  saxatalis
Agelaius phoeniceus
Amphispiza  belli
Anas  platyrhynchos
Aphelocoma  coerulescens
Archilochus alexandri
Ardea herodias
Asyndesmus  lewis
Bombycilla  cedorum
Branta canadensis
 Bubo  yirginianus
 Buteo jamaicensis
 Calypte anna
 Carpodacus  cassinii
 Carpodacus  mexicanus
 Carpodacus  purpureus
 Cathartes aura
 Catharus guttata
 Catharus ustulatus
 Catherpes mexicanus
 Certhia familiaris
 Chaetura vauxi
 Chamaea fasciata
 Chorura chlorura
 (Cooper's Hawk)
 (Goshawk)
 (Sharp-shinned Hawk)
 (Spotted Sandpiper)
 (Saw-whet Owl)
 (Wiite-throated  Swift)
 (Red-winged Blackbird)
 (Sage Sparrow)
 (Mallard Duck)
 (Scrub Jay)
 (Black-chinned Hummingbird)
 (Great Blue Heron)
 (Lewis' Woodpecker)
 (Cedar Waxwing)
 (Canada Goose)
 (Great Horned Owl)
 (Red-tailed Hawk)
 (Anna's Hummingbird)
 (Cassin's Finch)
 (House Finch)
 (Purple Finch)
 (Turkey Vulture)
 (Hermit Thrush)
 (Swainson's Thrush)
 (Canyon Wren)
 (Brown Creeper)
 (Vaux's Swift)
  (Wren-tit)
  (Green-tailed Towhee)
107

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     BIRDS (continued)
Chondestes grammacus
Cinclus mexicanus
Colartes spp.
Columba fasciata
Contopus sordidulus
Corvus corax
Cyanocitta stelleri
Cypseloides niger
Dendragapus obscurus
Dendrocopos albolarvatus
Dendrocopos nuttallii
Dendrocopos pubescens
Dendrocopos villosus
Dendroica auduboni
Dendroica nigrescens
Dendroica occidentalis
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica townsendi
Dryocopos pileatus
Empidonax spp.
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Falco sparverius
Glaucidium gnoma
Hesperiphona vespertina
Icterus spp.
Iridoprocne bicolor
Ixoreus naevius
Junco spp.
Leucosticte tephrocotis
Lophortyx californicus
JJegaceryle alcyon
Melanerpes formicivorous
Melospiza lincolnii
Melospiza melodia
(Lark Sparrow)
CDipper)
(Common Flicker)
(Band-tailed Pigeon)
(Western Wood Peewee)
(Common Raven)
(^teller's Jay)
(Black Swift)
(Blue Grouse)
(White-headed Woodpecker)
(Nuttall's Woodpecker)
(Downy Woodpecker)
(Hairy Woodpecker)
(Audubon's Warbler)
(Black-throated Gray Warbler)
(Hermit Warbler)
(Yellow Warbler)
(Townsend's Warbler)
(Pileated Woodpecker)
(Flycatchers)
(Brewer's Blackbird)
(American Kestrel)
(Pygmy Owl)
(Evening Grosbeak)
(.Northern Oriole)
(Tree Swallow)
(Varied Thrush)
(Dark-eyed Junco)
(Gray-crowned Rosy Finch)
(California Quail)
(Belted Kingfisher)
(Acorn Woodpecker)
(Lincoln's Sparrow)
(Song Sparrow)
                                        108

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     BIRDS  (continued)
Mimus polyglottos
Molothrus ater
Myadestes townsendi
Myiarchus cinerascens
Nucifraga columbiana
Nuttallornis borealis
Oporornis tolmiei
Oreortyx pictus
Otus asip
Otus flammeolus
Parus gambeli
Parus inornatus
Passer  domesticus
Passerella  tliaca
Passerina amoena
Petrochelidon  pyrrhonota
Phainopepla nltens
Phalaenoptilus nuttallii
Pheucticus  melanocephalus
Pinicola  enucleator
Pipilo  erythrophthalmus
 Pipilo  fuscus
 Piranga ludoviciana
 Poliopttla  caerulea
 Psaltrlparus minimus
 Regulus calendula
 Regulus satrapa
 Salpinctes  obsoletus
 Sayornis  nigricans
 Selasphorus rufus
 Selasphorus sasin
 Sialia currucoides
 Sialia mexicana
 Sitta canadensis
(Mockingbird)
(Brown-headed  Cowbird)
(Townsend's Solitaire)
(Ash-throated  Flycatcher)
(Clark's Nutcracker)
(Olive-sided Flycatcher)
(MacGillivray's Warbler)
(Mountain CJuail)
(Screech Owl)
(Flammulated Owl)
(Mountain Chickadee)
(Plain Titmouse)
(House Sparrow)
(Fox Sparrow)
(Lazuli Bunting)
(Cliff Swallow)
(Phainopepla)
(Poor-will)
(Black-headed  Grosbeak)
(Pine Grosbeak)
(Rufous-sided Towhee)
(Brown Towhee)
(Western Tanager)
(Blue-gray Gnatcatcher)
(Bush-tit)
(Ruby-crowned Kinglet)
(Golden-crowned Kinglet)
(Rock Wren)
(Black Phoebe)
(Rufus Hummingbird)
(Allen's Hummingbird)
(Mountain Bluebird)
(Western Bluebird)
(Red-breasted Nuthatch)
                                        109

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     BIRDS (continued)
Sitta carollnensis
Sitta pygmaea
Sphyrapicus ruber ruber
Sphyrapicus thyroideus
Sphyrapicus yarius
Spinus pinus
Spinus psaltria
Spizella passerina
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis
Stellula calliope
Strix occidentalis
Sturnella neglecta
Sturnus vulgaris
Tachycineta thalassina
Thryomanes bewickii
Toxostoma redivivum
Troglodytes aedon
Troglodytes troglodytes
Turdus migratorius
Tyrannus verticalis
Vermivora celata
Vermivora ruficapilla
Vireo gilvus
Vireo solitarius
Wilsonia pusilla
Zenaidura macroura
Zonotrichia atricapilla
Zonotrichia leucophrys
(White-breasted Nuthatch)
(Pigmy Nuthatch)
(Red-breasted Sapsucker)
(Williamson's Sapsucker)
(Yellow-bellied Sapsucker)
(Pine Siskin)
(Lesser Goldfinch)
(Chipping Sparrow)
(Rough-winged Swallow)
(Calliope Hummingbird)
(Spotted Owl)
(Western Meadowlark)
(Starling)
(Violet-green Swallow)
(Bewick's Wren)
(California Thrasher)
(House Wren)
(Winter Wren)
(American Robin)
(Western Kingbird)
(Orange-crowned Warbler)
(Nashville Warbler)
(Warbling Vireo)
(Solitary vireo)
(Wilson's Warbler)
(Morning Dove)
(Golden-crowned Sparrow)
(White-crowned Sparrow)
Accidental Species;
Agelaius tricolor
Aimophila ruficeps
Alectoris graeca
Aquila chrysaetos
(Tricolored Blackbird)
(Rufous-crowned Sparrow)
(Chukar (introduced)
(Golden Eagle)
                                       110

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     BIRDS (continued)
Charadrius vociferus
Chordeiles minor
Corvus brachrhynchos
Geococcyx californianus
Gymnogyps californianus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Lanius ludovicianus
Loxia curvirostra
Meleagris gallopavo
Pandion halidetus
Passerculus  sandwichensis
Picoides arcticua
Spinus lawrencei
Spizella breweri
Strix nebulosa
Vireo huttoni
(Killdeer)
(Common Nighthawk)
(Common Crow)
(Roadrunner)
(California Condor)
(Bald Eagle)
(Loggerhead Shrike)
(Red Crossbill)
(Turkey - introduced)
(American Osprey)
(Savannah Sparrow)
(Blackbacked 3-toed Woodpecker)
(Lawrence's Goldfinch)
(Brewer's Sparrow)
(Great Gray Owl)
(Button's Vireo)
 VI.   MAMMALS
 Antrozous pallidus
 Aplodontia rufa
 Eassariscus astutus
 Canis latrans
 Canis lupus
 Castor canadensis
 Citellus beecheyi
 Citellus beldingi
 Citellus lateralis
 Dipodomys heernanni
 Eptesicus fuscus
 Erethizon dorsatum
 Euderma maculata
 Eutamias alpinus
 Eutamias merriami
(Pallid Bat)
(Mountain Beaver)
(Ringtail Cat)
(Coyote)
(Wolf)
(Beaver)
(California Ground Squirrel)
(Belding Ground  Squirrel)
(Golden Mantled  Ground  Squirrel)
(Heermann Kangaroo Rat)
(Big Brown Bat)
(Porcupine)
(Spotted Bat)
(Alpine Chipmunk)
(Merriam Chipmunk)
                                        111

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     MAMMALS (continued)
Eutamias speciosus
Eutamias Umbrinus
Felis concolor
Fells domesticus
Glaucomys sabrinus
Gulp luscus
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Lasiurus borealis
Lasiurus cinereus
Lepus californicus
Lepus townsendii
Lutra canadensis
Lynx rufus
Marmota flaviventris
Martes americana
Martes pennant!
Mephitis mephitis
Microtus californicus
Microtus longicaudus
Microtus montanus
Mus tnusculus
Mustela erminea
Mustela frenata
Myotis californicus
Myotis evotis
Myotis lucifugua
Myotis subulatus
Myotis thysanodes
Myotis volans
Myotis yumanensis
Neotoma cinerea
Neotoma fuscipes
Neotoma lepida
Ochotona princeps
(Lodgepole Chipmunk)
(Uinta Chipmunk)
(Mountain Lion)
(House Cat)
(Northern Flying Squirrel)
(Wolverine)
(Silver-haired Bat)
(Red Bat)
(Hoary Bat)
(Blacktail Jackrabbit)
(Whitetail Jackrabbit)
(River Otter)
(Bobcat)
(Yellow-belly Marmot)
(Marten - Pine Marten)
(Fisher)
(Striped Skunk)
(California vole)
(Long-tail vole)
(Mountain vole)
(House mouse)
(Short-tail Weasel)
(Longtail Weasel)
(California Bat)
(Long-ear Bat)
(Little Brown Bat)
(Small-footed Bat)
(Fringed Bat)
(Long-legged Bat)
(Yuma Bat)
(Bushytail Woodrat)
(Dusky-footed Woodrat)
(Desert Woodrat)
(Pika, Cony, Rock Rabbit)
                                       112

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     MAMMALS  (continued)
Odocoileus hemionus
Ondatra zibethica
Ovis canadensts
Perognathus californicus.
Peromyscus boylei
Peromyscus califoritlcus
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus truei
Phenacomys intermedius
Pipistrellus  hesperus
Plecotus  townsendi
Procyon lotor
Reithrodontomys megalotis
Scapanus  latimanus
Sciurus grlseus
Sorex  obscurus
Sorex  ornatus
Sorex  palustris
Sorex  trowbridgii
Sorex  vagrans
Spilogale putorius
Sylyilagus audubonii
Sylyilagus backjnani
Tadarida  brasiliensis
Tamiasciurus  douglasi
Taxidea taxus
Thomomys  bottae
Thomomys  monticola
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Ursus  americanus
Vulpes fulya
Zapus  prlnceps
(Mule Deer)
(Muskrat)
(Bighorn Sheep)
(California Pocket Mouse)
(Brush Mpuse)
(California Mouse)
(Deer Mouse)
(Pinyon Mouse)
(Heather Vole)
(Western Pipistrelle)
(Western Big-ear Bat)
(Raccoon)
(Western Harvest Mouse)
(California Mole)
(Western Gray Squirrel)
(Dusky Shrew)
(Ornate Shrew)
(Northern Water Shrew)
(Trowbridge Shrew)
(Vagrant Shrew)
(Spotted Skunk)
(Desert Cottontail)
(Brush Rabbit)
(Mexican Freetail Bat)
(Douglas Squirrel -  Chicaree)
(Badger)
(Pocket Gopher)
(Sierra Pocket Gopher)
(Grey Fox)
(Black Bear)
(Red Fox)
(Western Jumping Mouse)
                                        113
 *U.S.  GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE:  1978 - 786-260/2015  Region No. 9-1

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                                   TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
                            (Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
  REPORT NO.
  EPA-600/4-78-052
                                                           3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

  DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM FOR
  INTERNATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESERVES
             5. REPORT DATE
                September 1978
             6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
  G. B. Wiersma, K. W.  Brown,  and A. B. Crockett
                                                           8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
  Environmental Monitoring and  Support Laboratory
  Office of Research  and  Development
  U.S. Environmental  Protection Agency
  Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
             10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.

               1HD620
             11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
  U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Las Vegas, NV
  Office of Research and  Development
  Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
  Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
             13 TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
               Final
             14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
                EPA/600/07
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
  This report presents  an initial approach to identifying  and solving the problems
  of developing a monitoring system for Biosphere Reserves.   To date, most proposals
  have only focused on  the selection of Reserves, pollutants  to monitor, etc.; the
  real-world problems of  how to monitor and collect and  preserve samples and of
  statistical considerations and the logistics involved, have not been considered.
  This report attempts  to address these problems and proposes specific field work
  to determine what additional problems may be encountered and what research is
  still required to enable us to develop a responsive and  cost-effective pollutant
  monitoring program for  Biosphere Reserves.  Items covered include sample site
  selection criteria, statistical considerations, pollutant level monitoring
  techniques suitable to  background areas, the development of biological monitors
  and accumulators and  the development and application of  pollutant impact moni-
  toring techniques.  Quality assurance requirements are also discussed.  The
  above subjects are set  in a site-specific framework of Yellowstone National
  Park and Sequoia-Kings  Canyon National Parks.
17.
                                KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
                  DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
  Environmental biology
  Site survey
  Pollution
  Chemistry
  Sequoia-Kings  Canyon
  Yellowstone
  Biosphere reserves
   06F
   08G
   08H
   07B
   07C
   07D
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
  RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
  UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
   124
                                              20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
                                                UNCLASSIFIED
                           22. PRICE
                              A06
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77)   PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE

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