United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory
P 0 Box 15027
Las Vegas, NV 89114
EPA-600/4-78-052
September 1978
Research and Development
&EPA
Environmental
Monitoring Series
Development of a Pollutant
Monitoring System for
Biosphere Reserves
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad categories
were established to facilitate further development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster
technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to the ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING series.This series
describes research conducted to develop new or improved methods and instrumentation
for the identification and quantification of environmental pollutants at the lowest
conceivably significant concentrations. It also includes studies to determine the ambient
concentrations of pollutants in the environment and/or the variance of pollutants as a
function of time or meteorological factors.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161
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EPA-600/4-78-052
September 1978
DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM
FOR BIOSPHERE RESERVES
by
G. Bruce Wiersma, Kenneth W. Brown and Alan B. Crockett
Monitoring Systems Research and Development Division
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING AND SUPPORT LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
LAS VEGAS, NEVADA 89114
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Monitoring and
Support Laboratory-Las Vegas, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and
approved for publication. Mention of trade names or commercial products
does not constitute endorsement or recommendation for use.
ii
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FOREWORD
Protection of the environment requires effective regulatory actions
which are based on sound technical and scientific information. This
information must include the quantitative description and linking of pollu-
tant sources, transport mechanisms, interactions, and resulting effects on man
and his environment. Because of the complexities involved, assessment of
specific pollutants in the environment requires a total systems approach which
transcends the media of air, water, and land. The Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas contributes to the formation and enhance-
ment of a sound monitoring data base for exposure assessment through programs
designed to:
develop and optimize systems and strategies for moni-
toring pollutants and their impact on the environment
demonstrate new monitoring systems and technologies by
applying them to fulfill special monitoring needs of
the Agency's operating programs
This report presents an initial approach to identifying and solving the
problems of developing a monitoring system for Biosphere Reserves. To date,
most proposals have focused only on the selection of Reserves, pollutants to
monitor, etc.; the real-world problems of how to monitor and collect and pre-
serve samples and of statistical considerations and the logistics involved,
have not been considered. This report attempts to address these problems
and proposes specific field work to determine what additional problems may
be encountered and what research is still required to enable us to develop
a responsive and cost-effective pollutant monitoring program for Biosphere
Reserves.
George B. Morgan
Director
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas
iii
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CONTENTS
Foreword iii
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii
List of Abreviations and Symbols ix
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS x
INTRODUCTION 1
CONCLUSIONS 6
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH 7
METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM 8
Preliminary site evaluation using remote sensing techniques 8
Sampling site selection 9
Topography 9
Soil 9
Continuity 9
Access 10
Vegetation types 10
Sampling site size 10
Statistical considerations 11
Pollutant-level monitoring techniques 13
Soil 13
Water 15
Air 19
Atmospheric deposition 20
Biological samples 20
Detection of significant changes in global contamination 22
Pollutant impact monitoring techniques 23
Biomass measurements 23
Long-term indicators of pollutants 24
Species diversity indices. 25
Microcosms 28
Bioindicators 28
Parameters monitored and analytical support 29
Quality assurance 32
Biosphere site selection and characterization - examples 33
Yellowstone National Park 33
Ownership 33
Accessibility (Logistics) 35
Site integrity 35
Vegetation types 35
Geology 37
Soils 44
Hydrology 48
v
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CONTENTS (Continued)
Paleobotany 49
Meteorology 50
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks 52
Ownership 52
Accessibility 54
Site integrity 54
Vegetation types 55
Geology 59
Soils 63
Hydrology 65
Paleobotany 69
Meteorology 69
REFERENCES 74
APPENDIX A. METRIC CONVERSION TABLE 81
APPENDIX B. SPECIES LIST—YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK 82
APPENDIX C. SPECIES LIST—SEQUOIA AND KINGS CANYON NATIONAL PARKS 102
VI
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number
1 Plot of Coefficients of Variation Versus Sampling Error
and Required Number of Samples 12
2 Map of Yellowstone National Park 34
3 Outline of the Yellowstone Caldera 39
4 Extent of Ice in Yellowstone National Park 42
5 Soil Associations in Yellowstone National Park 44
6 Kings River Watershed 53
7 Records Available at Selected Stream Gauging Stations
in the Kings River Basin 71
8 Wet and Dry Periods in the Runoff of Kings River at Piedra 72
vii
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LIST .OF TABLES
Number Page
1 Lead and Zinc Residue Levels in Organic Soil Horizons 14
2 Average Coefficients of Variation for Stream Parameters
in Yellowstone National Park 17
3 Mercury Residues in Fish and Water 21
4 Suggested List of Parameters to be Monitored and Considered
for Biosphere Reserve Sampling Sites 29
5 Volatile Organics in Groundwater from Well #5 Prior to
in situ Coal Gasification 31
6 Climatological Data by Months for Stations Representing
Basal Elevations In and Near Yellowstone Park 51
7 Summary of Mineral Compositions of the Plutonic Rocks 62
8 Kings River Investigation Annual Discharge of Kings River
at Piedra 66
9 Kings River Investigation Variability in Observed
Hydrologic Data by Season 68
10 Kings River Basin Gauging Stations 70
11 Climatic Data at Ash Mountain and Giant Forest—1964 73
viii
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
AF — acre feet
Avg — average
BOD — biochemical oxygen demand
CV — coefficient of variation
DO — dissolved oxygen
EMSL-LV — Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas
GEMS — Global Environmental Monitoring System
GNEM — Global Network for Environmental Monitoring
MAB — Man and the Biosphere
ppm — parts per million
RTG — Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator
SCEP — Study of Critical Environmental Problems
SCOPE — Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment
TKN — Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen
UN — United Nations
USGS — U.S. Geological Survey
USDA — U.S. Department of Agriculture
IX
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The air monitoring section of this paper was prepared by Mr. Robert
Sneiling of the Monitoring Operations Division, Environmental Monitoring
and Support Laboratory-Las Vegas. We sincerely appreciate his efforts in
support of this project.
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INTRODUCTION
Man's impact on the environment has had a far-reaching and at times cata-
strophic effect. Long gone are the days when the pollution caused by man im-
pacted only his immediate surroundings. Today, pollution problems are truly
global in nature, and transcend any or all national or political boundaries.
A considerable body of literature exists describing the global transport
of pollutants. A few of these reports are reviewed below to exemplify the ex-
isting literature.
Elgmork et al. (1973) reported that the snow in Norway was polluted. They
found levels of lead up to 98 micrograms per liter, sulphur levels of 8.5 mil-
ligrams per liter, and pH as low as 3.25. The three study areas were too re-
mote to be polluted from local sources, nor could Norwegian industries or au-
tomobiles be attributed as the causes of the polluted snow. Consequently,
Elgmork et al. concluded that the polluted snow resulted from air masses
bringing pollution in by low pressure systems from the great industrial and
urban areas of western and central Europe. A related study by Johnson et al.
(1972) showed that several streams in New England were acidified primarily as
the result of sulfur pollution being washed out of the air by rain. This at-
mospheric sulphur pollution originated mainly from the combustion of fossil
fuels from large industrial centers of the eastern and central United States,
and could not be attributed to local sources of pollution. Another study by
Schlesinger et al. (1974) found that significant amounts of lead, cadmium and
mercury were present in bulk precipitation on Mt. Moosilauke in New Hampshire.
They determined that some of the low pressure system tracks in North America
converged on the northern New England states and winds coming from the large
population and industrial regions of the central and mid-Atlantic regions of
the United States brought in air pollution to this remote area.
Lazarus et al. (1970) reported on the results of a nationwide precipita-
tion network. They found detectable concentrations of lead, zinc, copper,
iron, nickel, and manganese. They implicated human activities as the primary
sources of these elements in the rain water. They also found that the highest
overall concentrations were in the rain samples collected in the northeastern
United States. In addition, a positive statistical correlation was found be-
tween the lead concentration at each sample station and the quantity of gaso-
line sold in the vicinity of each station.
Chow and Earl (1970) studied airborne lead in the vicinity of San Diego
and found that only a fraction of the lead in air is precipitated out near the
source of emission. They surmised that the remainder of the lead aerosols was
transported by major air currents around the globe. A study by Hirao and
Patterson (1974) supported this analysis. The latter study of lead levels was
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made in Thompson Canyon, a remote site on the high Sierra Crest. According to
their data, about 16 kilograms of lead were deposited each year in this 14-
square-kilometer watershed. They further determined that 97% of this lead was
from anthropogenic sources. They stated:
"These findings show that a widespread assumption, that lead
pollution is mainly confined to urban complexes and is es-
sentially absent in open county, is improbable. ..."
Other elements have been shown to be transported on a global basis. For
instance, Weiss et al. (1971) sampled the Greenland ice cap. Their data on
mercury levels are illustrative of a possible buildup of mercury in the ice
sheet in recent times. For example, in samples representing deposition prior
to 1952*, the mean mercury concentration was 60 ± 17 nanograms per kilogram of
water. Samples representing deposition from 1952 to 1965 had a mean concentra-
tion of 125 ± 52 nanograms per kilogram of water.
Zoller et al. (1974) analyzed atmospheric particulate material at the
South Pole for 22 elements. They found antimony, lead, selenium, and bromine;
all of these elements were highly enriched over what could be expected from
earth crustal values. They postulated that these elevated levels primarily
resulted from the high-temperature combustion sources, either natural volcanoes
or man-made fossil fuel burning.
Global transport has also been confirmed in organic pollutants such as the
insecticide DDT. For example, Anas and Wilson (1970) reported that nursing
northern fur seal pups collected on the Pribilof Islands in 1969 contained DDT
and its isomers in both the pup's fat tissue and the mother's milk.
Concern over widespread global contamination resulting from man's activi-
ties has been one of the driving forces behind the attempt to establish a glo-
bal network for biosphere reserve sites. The Study of Critical Environmental
Problems (SCEP) Report (Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1970) stated:
"Over the past few years, the concept of the earth as a
'spaceship' has provided many people with an awareness of
the finite resources and the complex natural relationships
on which man depends for his survival. These realizations
have been accompanied by concerns about the impacts that
man's activities are having on the global environment.
Some concerned individuals, including well-known scientists,
have warned of both imminent and potential global environ-
mental catastrophes. ..."
Except for one sample collected in 1946, all of the samples in this group
were deposited prior to 1900.
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The task of estimating the extent and the magnitude of man's impact on
the global environment is challenging. This task was articulated by Morgan
et al. (1975) who stated:
"Man's technological advances and increasing population have
caused a significant impact on our environment. We are now
faced with the arduous task of describing on a global basis,
those factors that impinge on environmental quality. This
information is needed by both the researcher and the official
who must not only assess environmental quality but also con-
trol emissions into all aspects of the environment. ..."
There has been a tremendous amount of discussion, meetings, and thought
given to a Global Environmental Monitoring System (GEMS). A variety of or-
ganizations and committees, including but not limited to the U.S. Internation-
al Task Force of the Global Network for Environmental Monitoring, the Global
Monitoring Task Force of Scientific Committee On Problems of the Environment
(SCOPE), the Man and^Biosphere Expert Panel on Pollution, the Study of SCEP,
Task Force II—Committee on International Environmental Affairs, and the SCOPE
Commission on Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, have called for the
formation of such a global monitoring network. The criteria and needs for
biosphere reserves have been described in general in a variety of reports,
such as the Report of the Ad Hoc Task Force on Global Network for Environmen-
tal Monitoring (Ad Hoc Task Force on GNEM, 1970), and the SCOPE Report 3 (Munn,
1973).
The United Nations (UN) Conference on Human Environment (Man and Biosphere,
1974) which was held in Stockholm in June 1972 recommended the establishment
of the United Nations Environment Program. In conjunction, it recommended the
establishment of EARTHWATCH, which has a four-pronged program including moni-
toring, research, evaluation, and information exchange. The ultimate objec-
tive was the establishment of GEMS. The seven program objectives of GEMS
are:
1. An expanded human health warning system
2. An assessment of global atmospheric pollution and its impact on
climate
3. An assessment of the extent and distribution of contaminants in
biological systems, particularly food chains
4. An improved international disaster warning system
5. An assessment of the state of ocean pollution and its impact on
marine ecosystems
6. An assessment of the response of terrestrial ecosystems to environ-
mental pressures
7. An assessment of critical problems arising from agricultural and
land use practices.
As part of this global environmental monitoring system, it has been recom-
mended that biosphere reserves be established. For example, the UN Conference
on the Environment, 1972, recommended that biological reserves be established
within the framework of the Man and Biosphere Program (MAB) (Man and Biosphere,
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1974). The report titled "Man's Impact on the Global Environment" (Massachu-
setts Institute of Technology, 1970) recommended similar type entities, call-
ing them ecological baseline stations in remote areas or biosphere reserves.
Biosphere reserves may be defined as relatively pristine areas which represent
the major natural ecosystems of the earth and have been set aside for study
and preservation. The value of these reserves to a global environmental moni-
toring system is considerable. These biosphere reserves will benefit a global
environmental monitoring system in the following ways:
1. They will provide protected ecosystems which are relatively free of
the effects of man's activities.
2. They will provide a source for obtaining background data on pollutant
levels.
3. They will serve as early warning sites for monitoring global pollution
trends.
4. They will serve as natural repositories of genetic pools for studying
and preserving indigenous animal and plant species.
Franklin (1977) lists several kinds of research and monitoring programs
which the reserves will be used for. These include:
1. Long-term baseline studies of environmental and biologic features
2. Research to help develop management policies for the reserves
3. Experimental or manipulative investigations (outside strictly pre-
served areas) particularly on the ecological effects of human activities
4. Environmental monitoring, including use as part of the GEMS system
5. Study site for the various MAB research projects.
This paper is concerned principally with item four. We intend to discuss
how to develop an accurate and cost-effective pollutant monitoring strategy
that can be applied across a spectrum of biosphere reserves.
Environmental monitoring is defined as the systematic collection of phys-
ical, chemical, biological, and related data pertaining to environmental qual-
ity, pollution sources, and other factors that influence or are influenced by
environmental quality. Environmental quality data are essential for determin-
ing the exposure of critical populations at risk. Such data are obtained by
identifying and measuring pollutants and their concentrations in air, water,
vegetation, soil, and food. Environmental exposure monitoring must take into
account acute or chronic effects resulting from short-term acute exposures as
well as low-level chronic exposures to one or more pollutants. In addition,
the possibility that a single pollutant may cause or contribute to the aggra-
vation of several different environmental effects must be considered. The iden-
tification and measurement of pollutants in preserved areas, such as the bio-
sphere reserves, may permit the monitoring of subtle deleterious processes which
may be masked in areas of high impact. In identifying and measuring the expo-
sure of receptor communities to chemical or physical agents, monitoring data
must provide the basis for quantitating the contributions of every environmen-
tal pathway for each chemical or physical form of the pollutant. This includes
the monitoring of air, water, soil, plants, animals, and microorganisms which
can indicate levels, patterns, and trends of environmental pollutants or their
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metabolites. The health, growth, and number of plants or their accumulation
of a pollutant may be a useful indicator or early warning of environmental con-
tamination that may adversely affect human health.
This paper is a detailed analysis of the potential problems associated
with monitoring a biosphere reserve and it is a follow up to a previous paper
by Morgan et al. (1976). It essentially analyzes the background characteris-
tics of two "types" of biosphere reserves which were suggested by Franklin
(1976, 1977) and are used as examples for discussion purposes. These sites
were selected because they have a relatively good mix of vegetative types and
water systems, and possess relatively large areas that are remote from man.
Even Yellowstone National Park, as heavily visited as it is, has extremely
remote and relatively unvisited areas. In this paper, the applicable moni-
toring techniques are reviewed and a plan for developing an accurate and cost-
effective pollutant monitoring system for biosphere reserves is presented.
The reserves selected for discussion in this paper are Yellowstone and
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks. This is not to imply that these sites
will be chosen for initial studies, but they were chosen because it is easier
to conceptualize many of the problems attendant with monitoring biosphere re-
serves when specific cases are considered. In addition, the preparation of a
monitoring scheme for any biosphere reserve requires a detailed analysis of
the background environmental factors, both physical and biological, which char-
acterize a site. Such characterizations would be necessary for other biosphere
reserves prior to the initiation of pollutant monitoring systems. Rather than
merely listing parameters to be investigated, we found it much more instructive
to attempt to discover what each of the characteristic parameters was, and des-
cribe it as fully as practicable, as if a monitoring program were going to be
initiated at each site.
What follows is how we intend to conduct a study to develop a cost-effective
and environmentally responsive pollutant monitoring system for these biosphere
reserves.
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CONCLUSIONS
1. In general, the establishment of a cost-effective and accurate pol-
lutant monitoring system is a critical need in the overall development of the
Biosphere Reserve Program.
2. A preliminary methodology study conducted on a limited number of
biosphere reserve sites is the best approach to the ultimate development of
a uniform, efficient, and cost-effective pollutant monitoring program.
3. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency should develop biosphere
reserve monitoring systems.
4. A variety of Federal agencies should operate the monitoring network.
5. Analysis of available background information for the two subject bio-
sphere reserves has indicated that our development project should take place on
reserves for which more extensive background information is available. These
would probably be experimental forests or National Parks for which there is a
closely associated experimental forest. An example is Great Smoky Mountains
National Park which is closely related to Coweeta Experimental Forest. Both
are identified biosphere reserve sites.
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RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
1. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency should fund a monitoring
methodology development study to determine the best and most efficient way of
monitoring pollutants in a biosphere reserve.
2. This study should begin as soon as possible.
3. The study should be limited in scope the first year to two biosphere
reserve sites and expand to four sites in subsequent years.
4. The development program should be planned for a 3- to 5-year period
with intermediate results being disseminated as soon as possible.
5. Planning should begin concurrently with this methodology study, with
the goal of full implementation of a monitoring program in 5 years for the
Biosphere Reserve Program.
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METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF A
POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM
PRELIMINARY SITE EVALUATION USING REMOTE SENSING TECHNIQUES
Before actual biosphere site visits are undertaken, every effort will be
made to obtain all available photographic imagery. The first types of photos
obtained will be photos from the Landsat One and Landsat Two satellites (Land-
sat One was originally ERTS-1 and now is renamed) (USGS, 1975). Each Landsat
satellite can cover most of the Earth with repetitive coverage approximately
every 18 days. The Landsat satellites provide four spectral bands which are:
a. Band 4 - 0.5 to 0.6 micrometers, emphasizes movements of sediment in
water and areas of shallow water.
b. Band 5 - 0.6 to 0.7 micrometers, emphasizes cultural features.
c. Band 6 - 0.7 to 0.8 micrometers, emphasizes vegetation, the boundary
between land and water, and land forms.
d. Band 7 - 0.8 to 1.1 micrometers, provides the best penetration of
atmospheric haze and emphasizes the boundary between land and water, land
forms, and vegetation.
Black and white photographs for Sequoia-Kings Canyon and Yellowstone Na-
tional Parks in bands 5 and 7 and a composite false-color photograph for both
areas combining bands 5, 6, and 7 have been obtained. Since the individual
multispectral picture images are approximately 185 kilometers on the side, the
actual national park areas were delineated and then blown up to 91-cm x 91-cm
size. The blow-ups are on bands 5 and 7.
There is much precedence in the literature for photographic assessment
of environmental conditions (Douglas et al., 1972; Meyer et al., 1971; Shay,
1970). According to the best information available at present, adequate high
resolution, high altitude photographs are not available for the two subject
biosphere sites, Yellowstone National Park and Sequoia-Kings Canyon National
Parks. However, good quality aerial photographs are available for both Se-
quoia-Kings Canyon and Yellowstone National Parks at lower altitudes ranging
from 3,000 to 12,000 meters. These photos are available through the U.S. For-
est Service for the Sequoia-Kings Canyon area, and the U.S. Geological Survey
can supply them for Yellowstone National Park. This information should be ob-
tained when the approximate areas within the national parks which are going to
be candidate selection sites for actual field sampling work are identified.
It is expected that the photography used will include color, high resolution
black and white, and infrared imagery.
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SAMPLING SITE SELECTION
For biosphere reserves the size of Yellowstone National Park and the
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks or most of the other 27 proposed bio-
sphere reserves, it would not be feasible nor is it recommended that the en-
tire National Park or experimental forest be sampled. Small, predetermined,
and isolated units within each area would be designated as sampling sites.
What follows is a list of the criteria to be used in the selection of the spe-
cific location within each of the biosphere reserves for the sampling site.
To be consistent and minimize confusion, the following terminology will
be used throughout this paper:
Biosphere Reserve Site: The overall reserve such as Yellowstone
National Park or Sequoia-Kings Canyon
National Parks.
Sampling Site: The unit within the biosphere reserve on
which sampling data will be carried out.
Sampling Point: The actual point of sampling.
Topography
The sampling sites will be selected which have a minimum slope, minimum
breaks in the terrain, and minimum changes in elevation. The terrain features
should be relatively smooth with no abrupt breaks such as would be made by ra-
vines, small canyons, washes, and so forth. The local plant and animal com-
munities will also be prime determinants in making a sampling site selection.
The elevation of the sampling sites will be determined by the geographi-
cal characteristics of the biosphere reserve involved. In the Yellowstone
National Park and the Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks sampling sites se-
lected will probably be above 2,400 meters in elevation, but below the tree
line—unless specific sampling sites are desired within specialized biologi-
cal communities such as the tundra, as strongly recommended by Reiners et al.
(1975).
Soil
The soil type should be as uniform as possible, balanced against other
required factors.
Continuity
The actual sampling site should lie within a vegetation type of a contin-
uous nature. It is suggested that the sampling site should be in an area of
a continuous vegetation type of similar physiographic aspect, slope, and alti-
tude and that the area be of a size sufficient to enclose the sampling site
and minimize edge effects.
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Access
The sampling site must be remote enough to prevent inordinate access by
the curious. The normal, occasional use by man that the sampling site histor-
ically has been exposed to should continue. However, it must be reachable by
either mechanical or foot transportation; therefore, balance has to be estab-
lished between remoteness and proximity to a trail or landing pad for a heli-
copter.
Vegetation types
On each sampling site, samples will be collected from three basic vegeta-
tion types. Each sample type would be located in a stable community or climax
for the particular area being considered. Examples of three vegetation types
that may be chosen on the subject biosphere reserves are mixed conifer, shrub-
land, and meadow complex.
Sampling site size
A sampling site of one square kilometer would generally be adequate. The
size, however, should be varied to fit various terrain features and also to be
consistent with homogeneity and vegetation type. For example, a meadow could
be smaller than a square kilometer whereas, a site of a mature mixed conifer
forest would probably have to be at least a kilometer square in size. Final
sampling site selection must be accomplished in the field.
Permanent corner stakes would be established and their locations tied to
prominent terrain features and plotted on topographic maps. Corner stakes
would consist of a steel pipe approximately 2 to 5 centimeters in diameter and
1.5 meters in length driven into the ground to a depth of at least 0.5 meters.
The pipe would be painted with blaze orange paint. To prevent drawing unnec-
essary attention to the area, no other markings would be placed on the pipes.
All samplings from this point on would be tied to one or the other of the es-
tablished corner pipes. If, because of terrain features or vegetation char-
acteristics, the sampling site is neither a square nor a rectangle, additional
pipes would be established to mark the exact outer limits of the sampling
site.
The selection of sampling points would be based on a systematic sampling
pattern in accordance with the techniques recommended in statistics books such
as those by Snedecor and Cochran (1967). The initial starting point, however,
would be a randomized point with the overlaying systematic grid then being laid
off from this randomized point.
Sampling points lying in a systematic pattern can be easily delineated
on a map and located in the field with chain and compass techniques. Since
the individual sampling sites should be relatively homogeneous, the estimate
of variation by random sampling versus systematic sampling should be similar.
Under less homogeneous conditions, systematic sampling provides better esti-
mates of the mean and variation (Husch, 1963). Sampling error for the pre-
sample would be computed as for a random sample. As Osborne (1942) has shown,
the resultant sampling error calculated in this manner estimates the maximum
sampling error.
10
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STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
One of the principal objectives of the Biosphere Reserve Monitoring Pro-
gram would be to detect long-term accumulation (changes in levels) of pollu-
tants on each of the biosphere sites. Therefore, a logical extension of this
is that sampling designs must be sensitive enough to determine small differ-
ences in levels within a given time frame. This raises the immediate question
of how many samples are required for each set of pollutants in each environ-
mental media sampled to be able to tell the difference between different time
periods. At another level of analysis, differences in pollutant levels be-
tween biosphere reserves are evaluated; however, this would not take prece-
dence over determining our sampling numbers to show differences with time.
The question then becomes which time frame would be most desirable to detect
differences between biosphere reserve sites. Annual sampling and annual
changes are the most commonly used time periods to measure differences and
trends. However, considering the extensive variability inherent in natural
areas, the state-of-the-art of our analytical capabilities and the relatively
low levels of pollutant concentrations to be expected in these areas, it may
not be possible to attempt to differentiate between 1-year intervals.
The primary considerations in determining how many samples are required
to make certain levels of determination are:
1. The required level of precision of your estimate
2. An estimate or the actual variability of the particular parameter
being measured
In this project, differences of plus or minus 10% at the 95% confidence
interval should be detected. To calculate the estimated number of samples to
achieve this precision, an estimate of the variability existing on each of the
biosphere sites must be made. Thus presamples would be collected prior to any
intensive sampling. Once estimates of variability are obtained for every pol-
lutant in every area in every media, then the number of samples required to
achieve this error can be calculated.
If we arrive at a reasonable number of samples, we can then proceed to an
intensive sampling program. Far more likely, however, is the situation of the
flat portion of the curve as shown in Figure 1. In other words, it would take
a tremendous increase in samples to achieve a relatively small increase in pre-
cision. Since it is rather obvious that a controlling factor in making the
biosphere monitoring program cost-effective would be the analytical cost, we
must limit ourselves to a reasonable number of samples. Therefore, it may be
impossible to achieve the level of precision on a year-to-year basis because
the expected difference between years falls within the sampling error. It may
then become necessary to go to longer time intervals between sampling.
In the presample, it is estimated that approximately 15 to 20 samples in
each media (soils, water, and various types of vegetation) would be collected.
This preceding discussion deals primarily with the variability of pollu-
tant levels in the various media. Other types of sampling programs are envi-
11
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3.0 + COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
100
NUMBER OF SAMPLES
Figure 1. Plot of coefficients of variation versus sampling error
and required number of samples.
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sioned: for example, the use of an electronic capacitance herbage meter for
estimating biomass. There is an entirely different set of variability para-
meters associated with this instrument which are totally divorced from the
variability that can be expected from pollutant levels. Again, presampling
would be required to determine the number of samples that would provide the
desired level of precision. Similar considerations would apply to other mea-
surement techniques described in this paper.
In terms of an overall statistical design for analyzing and assessing
changes in various pollutants, it would seem reasonable that data from each
year's sampling be considered one block in an analysis of variance experiment.
A two-way classification should be able to simultaneously determine if there
are significant differences among years and among sites.
POLLUTANT-LEVEL MONITORING TECHNIQUES
A presampling of each sampling site would be required to obtain the in-
formation needed to produce a statistically valid and economically feasible
sampling scheme. The procedures set forth here are somewhat general, but are
aimed at the probable conditions to be encountered in the two biosphere re-
serves, Yellowstone National Park and Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks,
which have been chosen as test case sites. A more specific sampling plan would
be formulated after presampling.
The data required prior to the design of the final sampling plan includes
the size and shape of the sampling site, the media available for sampling, and
the variability of residue levels within the media selected for monitoring.
Soil
A rough estimate of variability can sometimes be made by extrapolation
from similar data. A study by Reiners et al. (1975) was conducted on the lev-
els of lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn) in coniferous forest soils at high elevations.
The number of samples required can be estimated using the coefficients of vari-
ation (Table 1) for the fir, krummholz, and tundra data and the plot of the
sampling error versus the coefficient of variation (Figure 1). The mean Pb or
•Zn levels (dry/wet) at each sampling site within a vegetation type were used.
Coefficients were calculated for the litter, fermentation layer, humus, and
total organic samples combined. For example, using the calculated coefficient
of lead for the three vegetation zones sampled and using Figure 1, it can be
estimated that for a desired 10% sampling error with a 95% probability, it will
be necessary to collect from 30 to about 65 samples.
The above estimate of the required number of samples can probably be con-
sidered a maximum since the selection criteria for terrestrial sampling sites
were chosen to minimize variations within each site. It can reasonably be ex-
pected that the variation within a sampling site (variation between sampling
points) would be lower and thus reduce the required number of samples. Using
this assumption, the presampling will consist of approximately 20 sampling
points within each sampling site. The samples collected should provide suffi-
cient information to design a suitable sampling plan.
13
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TABLE 1. LEAD AND ZINC RESIDUE LEVELS IN ORGANIC SOIL HORIZONS*
Vegetation Number of Mean ppm Coefficient of Mean ppm Coefficient of
Type Sites Pb Variation Zn Variation
Between Sites Between Sites
Fir
Krummholz
Tundra
5
4
5
145
120
38
0.27
0.36
0.40
90
73
29
0.24
0.43
0.23
*(Reiners et al., 1975)
The sampling point grid will be established by chain and compass techni-
ques and a 20-meter transit would be established. A 5-centimeter diameter
core of the organic and inorganic layers would be collected at odd meter in-
tervals (10 subsamples) and composited by layer (litter, fermentation, and
humus) in a "clean" (polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)-phthalate free) plastic
bag. After thorough mixing, 1-pint and %-pint samples will be placed in Tef-
lon-lined cans. Prior to sealing of the cans, the samples would be air dried,
if necessary. The sampling scheme has been designed to detect changes in pol-
lutant concentration, not to determine the total insult on an area basis. A
description of each sampling point would also be recorded, including informa-
tion on slope, aspect, vegetation, soil characteristics, samples, etc.
In presampling, an attempt would be made to collect samples from all three
organic soil layers for analyses and a mineral soil sample. The final design
would probably be limited to only one organic sample (one layer or total) and
a mineral soil sample. (There may be insufficient litter for an adequate sam-
ple in certain locations, so all three layers may be composited.) The samples
would be cooled as soon as practical.
A sampling code would be developed. The basic code would include the
following items. A code number would be assigned for each biosphere reserve.
For example, Yellowstone National Park could be "A" and Sequoia-Kings Canyon
National Parks could be "B". The next item in the code number would identify
the actual sampling site location. This would be numbered consecutively through
whatever number is necessary and keyed to the actual map location for the ap-
propriate biosphere reserve. The third letter would represent the type of sam-
ple, i.e., S = soil, W = water, etc. However, this sampling marking section
would probably be a two-digit unit because it would be required to make dis-
tinctions between various types of soil samples. For example, 1 and 2 desig-
nations would be necessary for different depths of soil. The next number in
the code would represent the actual sampling site number. Finally the last
four digits would represent the month of sampling and the year respectively.
Duplicate samples would be collected at random from 50% of the field com-
posites. These duplicates would provide an estimate of the combined errors due
to subsampling, extraction, and analysis. All samples of a given type would be
considered to be from the same population.
14
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Analytical methods for soils are not standardized but a technique employ-
ing total digestion would probably be used. Dry ashing as used by Reiners et
al. (1975) or a complete wet digestion using nitric acid-hydrogen peroxide-
hydrofloric acid or perchloric acid could also be employed. Mercury would be
determined following the EPA (1974) method. A possible method for extraction
of arsenic uses nitric-perchloric acid (Wauchote, 1976). Several procedures
for analyses of chlorinated hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls exist.
It has been recommended by Morgan et al. (1976), the Ad Hoc Task Force on
GNEM (1970), and the SCOPE report (Munn, 1973), that chloride, phosphorus, and
nitrogen also be determined in soils. Data on chlorides collected by Eriksson
(1952) indicate that natural chloride deposition rates of 11 to 35 pounds per
acre per year are common and rates as high as 100 pounds or more are not unusual
near the coast. Chloride is aerially transported inland from the sea and depos-
ited by rain (Eaton, 1966). The probability of detecting a significant change
in chloride residue levels and being able to attribute this to man's activities
seems remote. The levels in soil are naturally high, there is a constant sub-
stantial natural influx, and finally chlorides are easily leached from soils.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are plant nutrients common to soil and organic
matter. They are not typical of global-type air pollutants that would be de-
posited in remote areas. An increase in residue levels could result from the
destruction of living tissue on the site, but there are better methods for de-
tecting decadence. Terrestrial nitrogen fixation greatly exceeds the amount
of nitrogen oxides released as an air pollutant. The complexities of nitrogen
dynamics in soil make it impractical to monitor global nitrogen oxide contami-
nation by monitoring soils.
Phosphorus is a relatively rare element compared to nitrogen and has been
indicted in water pollution. It is not generally thought to be an air pollu-
tant nor does it enter the atmosphere as part of the phosphorus cycle.
The basic objective of this monitoring system is to estimate and keep
track of pollutant levels and certain measurable pollutant effects on each of
the biosphere reserves. For this reason and because of the discussion above,
no proposal is made to monitor for nitrogen, phosphorus, or chlorides on each
biosphere reserve. Studies of perturbations of nutrient cycling are important,
however, and will be included in future study proposals.
Water
The selection criteria for A water monitoring site are different than
those for terrestrial monitoring. A water sample including its constituents
is a product of an entire watershed so the aquatic biosphere site will encom-
pass an entire watershed. The watershed will have to be as undisturbed by man
as possible, i.e., no campgrounds, no roads or areas of other concentrated hu-
man activities, and no unusual natural inputs of contaminants such as geysers,
fumaroles, volcanoes, etc. The site must also be assured of remaining free of
man's interference to ensure that any changes detected are a result of only re-
gional or global contamination.
15
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The procedure for sampling water varies from simple dip or grab samples
to the sampling of several vertical profiles at equal discharge increments for
flowing water, or multiple points on a 3-dimensional grid for impoundments
(Feltz and Culbertson, 1972). Water sampling in Sequoia-Kings Canyon and Yel-
lowstone National Parks will probably be limited to small streams. Sophisti-
cated sampling procedures would be employed if appropriate—although dip sam-
ples should suffice for small clean mountain streams.
Residues in water pose an additional sampling problem compared with soil
or vegetation. Levels of residues can change rapidly due to changes in stream
flow. Thus, it is necessary to determine stream flow, turbidity, and non-
filterable residues when collecting water samples for residue data analyses.
The preliminary sampling would entail collection of about 20 water samples,
each on a different day, and analyzing for total arsenic, cadmium, mercury,
lead, and certain organics. At the time of sampling, the flow rate would be
recorded, and the samples would be collected for determination of turbidity
and non-filterable residues. It has been suggested by Morgan et al. (1976)
that the following pollutants should also be considered for monitoring in wa-
ter: turbidity, chlorides, BOD, DO, coliform bacteria, phosphorus, and nitro-
gen. However, attempts would not be made to detect changes in all these para-
meters as a measure of man's global impact.
Turbidity is an optical measure of suspended matter in water samples. In
an undisturbed watershed it is related to flow and may vary seasonally due to
the source of water and organic matter content. Man typically increases tur-
bidity by physical disruption of the watershed or by direct input, either of
which would invalidate the watershed as a sampling site. Changes in turbidity
might be detected if global or regional contamination were sufficient to cause
decadance of the watershed thus leading to increased erosion. However, this
would be a very indirect and insensitive measure of global contamination.
Chloride is found in all natural waters but is typically associated as a
pollutant with sewage and irrigation waters. The analysis for chloride is sim-
ple, precise, and routine—although its value as a measure of global contamina-
tion is questionable. Chloride in water is naturally derived from sedimentary
and igneous rocks, and there is a natural aerial input from the oceans. Chlo-
ride fall-out or rain-out due to man's activities is usually not considered a
significant global pollution threat. In addition, the probability of detect-
ing significant man-caused changes in chloride levels is quite remote. The
EPA's (1972) data on the water quality of Yellowstone National Park indicates
that there is considerable variation in the chloride levels of streams. The
coefficient of variation of chloride can be rather high. From Table 2, it can
be seen that the overall coefficient of variation for streams in Yellowstone
National Park is 0.72. Using Figure 1 to achieve a 10% sampling error for
chloride would require over 200 samples. Chloride determination in rainwater
or snowfall would be a much more reasonable approach.
16
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TABLE 2. AVERAGE COEFFICIENTS OF VARIATION FOR STREAM PARAMETERS IN
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK (EPA, 1972)
PARAMETER NUMBER OF STREAMS MEAN C.V.
Water Temperature
Turbidity
Conductivity
Dissolved Oxygen
pH
Total Residue
Ammonia
TKN
Nitrite + Nitrate
Fecal Coliform
Total Phosphorus
BOD - 5-Day
Chloride
33
34
36
33
36
33
34
34
34
29
36
27
36
0.50
1.04
0.26
0.08
0.04
0.31
0.88
0.81
1.01
1.22
0.81
0.28
0.72
The biochemical oxygen demand test is designed to determine the relative
oxygen demand of waste waters, effluents, and polluted waters (Standard Meth-
ods, 1971). Since it is assumed that there would be no wastewater discharges
in the biosphere reserve watershed only a significant perturbation of the eco-
system could cause an increase in the BOD. The attempt to detect ecosystem
disturbance through the use of BOD is again an awkward and indirect method.
The same basic argument holds for nitrogen and phosphorus determinations. The
input of nitrogen to the ecosystem through the conversioi of NO is insignifi-
cant compared to nitrogen fixation and natural atmospheric input. Enormous
amounts of data would have to be collected to detect a significant change of
the nitrogen content of the water and then be able to relate this to man's out-
put of NO . The phosphorus cycle has no aerial or gaseous phase so significant
aerial transport of phosphorus seems unlikely. As a measure of ecosystem per-
turbation, the phosphorous cycle is indirect and probably insensitive. If
changes in BOD, phosphorus, nitrogen, and chloride level were detected, a great
deal of additional data would be required to determine the reason for the chan-
ges. These data may not even be available given the present state of measure-
ment methodologies.
The amount of dissolved oxygen in water is of concern when the level is
reduced to the extent that it becomes critical to aquatic life. Levels in the
turbulent flowing streams of Yellowstone National Park are typically at or above
the saturation level. An increase in global or regional contamination would
have no direct effect on dissolved oxygen.
17
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Coliform or fecal coliform bacteria were also recommended for monitoring
on biosphere reserves. Fecal coliform bacteria are normal inhabitants of mam-
malian digestive tracts. On a sampling site there is a minimum of human acti-
vity so the coliform densities would reflect recent fecal contamination by en-
demic mammals. Fecal coliform bacteria are not generally considered an air
pollutant. Since man would not be directly contaminating the reserve either
locally or regionally, the value of this parameter is also questionable. Bac-
teria counts would not be used to assess man's contamination of the global en-
vironment. Any change would be due to local contamination.
In addition to the above discussion a look at Table 2 and Figure 1 shows
that certain of the parameters mentioned above would require relatively large
numbers of samples to meet a ± 10% sampling error. For example, coliform bac-
teria were measured in 29 streams in Yellowstone National Park. The coeffi-
cient of variation was 1.22, and using Figure 1, this would give an estimated
number of samples required for a 10% sampling error well in excess of 220 sam-
ples.
One-gallon water samples for chlorinated hydrocarbon analysis would be
collected in a glass bottle with Teflon-lined screw caps. All glassware used
in the collection of samples would be thoroughly washed, rinsed, and heated to
destroy dry organics. Samples would be cooled as soon as possible after col-
lection.
The residue levels of mercury, lead, cadmium, arsenic, and specific organ-
ic compounds are expected to be quite low in water. Therefore, sample size and
preservation are extremely important. Samples for elemental analysis will be
collected in Teflon or glass bottles. All bottles will be scrupulously washed,
acid-washed, and rinsed prior to use. Samples will be immediately acidified
to pH 0.5 with nitric acid as per EPA (1974) and Rosain and Wai (1973). All
analyses will be based on unfiltered samples.
It is necessary to monitor certain stream parameters to aid in the inter-
pretation of the measured pollutant values. Therefore, additional data to be
collected with each biosphere water sample will be flow rate, turbidity, and
total non-filterable residue. These data will be used to determine the stream
condition at the time of sampling. Contaminant levels are typically related to
these factors since the pollutants are often attached to particulate matter.
Also, general stream information will be collected but will not primarily
be used to detect changes from year to year or to assess global contamination.
The following parameters will be measured at least once during each biosphere
sampling cycle: temperature, pH, conductivity, chloride, dissolved oxygen,
hardness, biochemical oxygen demand, alkalinity, total organic carbon, phospho-
rus, fecal coliform, and nitrogenous compounds. The procedures as suggested
by Kittrell (1969), EPA (1974), or Standard Methods (1971) will be employed for
all analyses.
All samples will be labeled as previously described. The samples will
be retained in the custody of the sampler or chief sampler until delivery or
shipment to the laboratory. During the presampling, quality assurance will
be checked by collection of duplicate samples. Ten duplicate samples will be
18
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analyzed along with the regular samples. These analyses should give us a good
idea of the extraction and analytical errors inherent in biosphere reserve wa-
ter sampling.
Air
Air pollutants are divided into two major categories, gases and particu-
lates. The three gaseous pollutants of principal interest in terms of poten-
tial biological impact are sulfur dioxide (802), fluorine compounds, and photo-
chemical oxidants (ozone). Of the three, photochemical oxidants resulting from
long-term transport from urban areas pose the most likely regional or global
impact. An injury threshold of 0.03 ppm of ozone for an exposure of 4 hours
has been reported by Heck et al. (1965). Sustained ozone levels in excess of
0.03 ppm are not uncommon in rural, pristine areas of the western United States
(Rio Blanco Oil Shale Project, 1976).
Fine particulates are of interest in terms of their trace-element compo-
sition. Trace-element "signatures" may serve as indicators of long term trans-
port. Of specific interest are sulfur (sulfate), cadmium, lead, mercury, and
arsenic. Beryllium and chromium may also have a potential for long-term trans-
port.
The selection criteria for an air quality monitoring site differ from
those for terrestrial or water sampling. It is desirable, as with the other
media, to select a location which is not directly impacted by local human ac-
tivities. At the same time, since air quality monitoring generally requires
some form of "air mover" as part of the sampling train, electrical power is
a requirement.
An attempt will be made to find locations which meet both these criteria.
A ranger observation tower might serve as such a location. If a remote loca-
tion with power cannot be identified, a deployable long-life power source will
be employed. Such a device is the Department of the Navy's Radioisotope Ther-
moelectric Generator (RTG) (Naval Nuclear-Power Unit, 1975). These units are
capable of providing up to 40 watts continuously for up to 5 years. They are
available at no cost for demonstration projects providing that the proper safe-
ty analysis approvals are obtained. Solar cell systems may be an alternative
power source.
Sulfur dioxide will be measured with a continuous monitor based on the
principle of ultraviolet absorption or chemiluminescence. Instantaneous mea-
surements would be made at 5- to 15-minute intervals and recorded on a magne-
tic tape recorder. Such instruments require frequent (weekly) calibration and
therefore, require servicing by trained personnel.
Particulates will be monitored with a size-fractionating sequential im-
pactor. A size cut at approximately 2 to 3 micrometers would be used to sep-
arate local fugitive dust (>3 micrometers) from fine particulates (<3 micro-
meters) subject to long-range transport. A sample would be collected over a
24-hour period once every 6 days. Multi-elemental analysis using atomic ab-
sorption, x-ray fluorescence, or proton-induced x-ray fluorescence would be
utilized for particulate analysis.
19
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For sampling stations with commercial power available, off-the-shelf equip-
ment can be used. For stations utilizing auxiliary power the instrumentation
will be re-engineered for low power requirements.
In addition to air monitoring, precipitation will also be collected and
analyzed for trace elements and pH.
Atmospheric Deposition
The monitoring of precipitation on sampling sites is an important part of
any overall pollutant monitoring system. Sampling sites are located in areas
as devoid of local contamination as possible. Therefore, all contaminants must
be. transported by air. Many pollutants are absorbed on particulate matter
which become condensation nuclei for, or are entrained in, rain. Other par-
ticles are deposited dry through atmospheric fallout.
The residue levels of pollutants in precipitation often exceed the levels
in surface waters and thus are easier to detect. In addition, atmospheric dep-
osition samples should pose relatively few interferences and extraction prob-
lems compared to soil and tissues. The monitoring of precipitation has been
recommended in the reports "Programme on Man and the Biosphere" (Man and Bio-
sphere, 1974) and "A Global Network for Environmental Monitoring" (Ad Hoc Task
Force on GNEM, 1970) . A recent report on "Chemical Changes in Atmospheric Dep-
osition and Effects on Agricultural and Forested Lands and Surface Water in
the United States" (USDA, 1976) proposed establishment of an atmospheric deposi-
tion monitoring network. The system proposes to monitor wet and dry deposition
on an event or weekly basis. Initial emphasis will be on nutrient monitoring
but will expand to include toxic materials. The proposed monitoring techniques
will be employed at the sampling sites with collections and analyses being ini-
tially conducted on a monthly basis. Analyses will be made for the toxic ma-
terials previously identified. A recording rain gauge and pH meter will be
operated at the collection points.
Biological Samples
The monitoring of water poses problems when attempts are made to determine
significant changes in the pollutant residue levels. The residue levels in
water fluctuate with flow, turbidity, and total non-filterable solids (Delfino
and Byrnes, 1975) and the actual residue levels are very low. The sampling of
fish for pollutant residues is advantageous since for certain pollutants fish
concentrate residues and are integrators of residue levels in the aquatic en-
vironment.
Data on residue levels on fish from Yellowstone (EPA, 1972) and remote
areas of the Great Smoky Mountains (Huckabee et al. (1974) indicate that rea-
sonable statistical precision can be achieved in fish sampling. Table 3 lists
the coefficients of variation for mercury levels in fish and water for these
studies. The number of samples required for a given sampling error can be
estimated using Figure 1 and the coefficient of variation.
20
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TABLE 3. MERCURY RESIDUES IN FISH AND WATER
K>
NUMBER OF
LOCATION TYPE SAMPLE SAMPLES
Yellowstone (EPA, 1972)
Fire Hole R at Madison Junction Rainbow Trout 23
Water 3
Fire Hole R above Old Faithful Brown Trout 11
Water 5
Gardner R below Mammoth Brown Trout 25
Water 5
Gardner R above Mammoth Brook Trout 18
Great Smoky Mountains Rainbow Trout
(Huckabee et al, 1974) 6 Sampling Sites
Eastern Brook Trout
3 Sampling Sites
Stone Roller
3 Sampling Sites
Rosyside Dace 44
Banded Sculpin 27
MEAN (ppm)
0.25
0.0014
0.14
0.0025
0.11
0.0039
0.05
0.0361
0.0251
0.0411
0.044
0.025
C.V.
0.24
0.33
0.18
0.39
0.45
0.70
0.40
0.582
Range
0.242
Range
0.482
Range
0.30
0.62
(6 composite
samples)
(6 composite
samples)
(Average,
: 0.13-1.5)
(Average,
: 0.16-0.40)
(Average,
: 0.20-0.82)
1 Average residue at sites
2 Average Coefficient of Variation of sites
-------
The fish sampling would be done downstream from the water-sampling point
to avoid disturbance of the sampling site. The choice of species will be de-
termined by several factors including available species, population level, mi-
gration patterns, and whether the species is stocked. A large population is
required to reduce the impact of sampling. The fish are to be used as an index
of watershed contamination so the species selected will have to remain in the
stream the year-around and, of course, not be introduced by stocking.
Collections in small streams should be readily accomplished by electro-
fishing techniques. The number of fish collected in the presampling will de-
pend upon the population. At least 20 young of the year, or 1-year old fish,
will be sampled and analyzed. If the population is large enough, composite
samples will be collected and analyzed.
Fish will either be wrapped in aluminum foil or placed in clean plastic
bags and frozen immediately. The analytical results expressed will be based
upon a whole fish basis using standard analytical procedures. Samples will be
retained in the custody of the sampler or chief sampler until delivery or ship-
ment to the laboratory.
Vegetation will initially be collected at the same sampling site where
soil was collected. The final sampling design may require a separate design
but the initial sampling should be adequate to make this determination. The
plants to be sampled will be determined somewhat upon availability but it is
also intended that an annual and two perennials be collected at each sampling
site. Only the most recent year's growth will be collected from perennials
and will probably be limited to leaves. Analysis of new growth should permit
more rapid determination of changes in residue levels. Each sample will be
a composite of 10 approximately equal-sized subsamples collected from differ-
ent plants of the same species. A duplicate set of samples will be collected
at each sampling site. One set of samples will be rinsed with water in the
field, while the other samples will remain untouched.
Vegetation will be sealed in Teflon-lined aluminum cans and cooled as
soon as possible. Air drying may be required to prevent deterioration if
cooling is not possible. All samples will be retained in the custody of the
sampler or crew chief until transport or shipment to the laboratory. Contam-
inants to be determined are the same as for soil. Additional samples will be
collected following the soil-sampling pattern as a check on quality control.
Detection of Significant Changes In Global Contamination
The previously described presampling methodology should provide adequate
statistical information to design a sampling plan. The number of samples re-
quired to achieve the desired sampling error will be estimated. These data,
however, will provide sufficient information only to reasonably quantify the
residue level at a given point in time or detect a change with time. It is
reasonable to expect that these levels vary naturally with time. Since one
of the objectives of biosphere monitoring is to detect man-caused changes in
residue levels, the magnitude of natural variations must also be assessed.
Any changes greater than natural may then be reasonably attributed to man.
22
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To obtain information on natural variations, it will be necessary to sam-
ple the sampling site several times, perhaps after various natural phenomena.
Factors that may affect residue levels and may even cause significant changes
in soil and vegetation residues are the time of sampling relative to the age
of the new growth tissue; the amount, intensity, duration, and frequency of
rainfall; the time of occurrence of a storm relative to sampling, etc. If the
natural variation of residue levels is small relative to man's contamination,
the frequency of sampling can be relatively low. If, however, the residue
levels vary considerably from week to week or year to year, a larger number of
samples will be required.
There are many problems in detecting a significant change in residue lev-
els at a specific site and being able to attribute the change to global contam-
ination. The establishment of numerous sites on a global basis would average
out many of the factors contributing to natural variation. If 95 out of 100
biosphere sites reported a significant increase in Pb residues, the probabil-
ity that man was the causative agent would be very high. Additionally, the
establishment of many sites would permit a significant increase in the detec-
tion of Pb levels even though the magnitude of the increase was insignificant
at the individual sites. Herein lies the value of a global network of inte-
grated monitoring sites.
POLLUTANT IMPACT MONITORING TECHNIQUES
All techniques described above have dealt with assessing pollutant levels
in the various environmental components. Although this is valuable and neces-
sary information, it does not give a direct measure of the impact that the pol-
lutant is having on the environmental situation. If reliable impact-measuring
techniques are developed and available on a cost-effective basis, they can be-
come of vital importance to the implementation of any biosphere monitoring pro-
gram and aid significantly in the interpretation of the results. A series of
both existing and new environmental impact monitoring devices and techniques
will be tested and evaluated. The use of these environmental impact monitoring
techniques, coupled with an assessment of pollutant levels in each of the bio-
sphere reserves, will allow quantitative estimates to be made of the long-term
impacts of man's activities on the reserve areas. Also, the Biosphere Reserve
Monitoring Program should become a technique capable of alerting man to long-
term pollutant problems that may be impacting his general health and well-being.
Biomass Measurements
The capability of an area to produce living matter is related to its eco-
logical condition and the stability of the biological communities living in
that particular area. Biomass estimates for many years have been used to try
to determine potential impacts of pollutants on environmental systems. One
problem, up until recently, with biomass estimates has been that most biomass
estimates have depended almost exclusively on some variation of a clip and
weigh technique.
Now there is an instrument which, once calibrated, can directly read bio-
mass under certain vegetation situations. This instrument is called an elec-
tronic capacitance herbage meter. This instrument has been shown to be capable
23
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of directly measuring biomass over an area nondestructively. Its theory and
operation were described by Neal and Neal (1973). The instrument has limita-
tions, not the least of which is the size of vegetation to be sampled. How-
ever, it should be of definite value in certain areas such as upland meadows,
tundra areas, or brush-land communities. Once calibrated to a particular veg-
etation type, it has been shown to be capable of rapidly and cost-effectively
making biomass estimates. Because of this ability to make large numbers of
observations rapidly, it allows a significant increase to be achieved in the
precision of the biomass estimate (Currie et al., 1973; Neal et al., 1976;
Morris et al., 1976; and Carpenter et al., 1973).
An herbage meter was borrowed from the U.S. Forest Service in Fresno,
California, and was tested on sagebrush in Area 18 of the Nevada Test Site.
It was one of the earlier models (Model 18-612). Environmental conditions
were difficult with winds up to 30 knots and temperatures around -1° C. The
terrain was broken and exposed, and the vegetation was in poor condition.
Forty plots were taken on 10 x 4 grid over an area of approximately 70 meters
by 140 meters. Vegetation was clipped on each plot, taken to the laboratory,
and weighed. The only correction made was the elimination of dead wood; this
did not affect the meter reading, but did significantly affect the weight.
The correlation coefficient for meter reading versus wet weight was 0.93 with
38 degrees of freedom. The regression equation is expressed in the form:
y = y" + B(X-x)
The appropriate numerical
values are: y = 108.12 + 16.82(X-7.95), or
y = -25-6 + 16.82 X
The regression was recalculated using oven-dry weights. The correlation coef-
ficient was 0.89.
A second approach would be to estimate the total biomass for much larger
areas. An experimental approach in this area would involve use of multispec-
tral scanning techniques. These techniques were mentioned under the remote
sensing portion of this paper.,
Long-Term Indicators of Pollutants
It would be desirable for historical purposes and comparison with pres-
ent-day levels if certain types of measurement could be made on each of the
biosphere sites that would be indicative of historical pollutant levels on
those sites. Examples would include the possible use of tree rings (Pillay,
1976; Sheppard and Funk, 1975; Lepp, 1975), ice cores (Weiss et al., 1971),
and the possible use of bog mud cores. There are some difficulties using some
of these approaches. For example, in tree rings, one cannot assume that ele-
ments found in a particular growth ring were deposited in the year the growth
ring was formed. In most woody trees, water is moved through the xylem over
several growth rings and not through the last year of growth. However, in
trees where heartwood develops, once the xylem cells have been plugged, little
or no water is transported in this area; therefore, one can make the assump-
tion that pollutants trapped in the heartwood area were laid down up to, but
24
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not after, the formation of the heartwood. The limit of the heartwood can be
determined by counting back on the tree rings.
Another study has also recently been started at EMSL-LV on tree rings in
an attempt to understand the mechanisms involved in pollution deposition in
tree rings. The purpose is to provide the information mentioned above which
will allow us to have confidence that pollutants detected in a particular
year of growth were actually laid down in that year. The results of these
studies should help in determining the applicability of using tree rings on
a sampling site.
The use of ice cores and bog cores is also well known and could be an in-
dicator of long-term pollutant levels. Their use will be explored in the lit-
erature, and if feasible, an attempt will be made to implement them in field
situations.
Species Diversity Indices
Species diversity indices are being increasingly used as monitoring tools
to measure the state of the environment resulting from an insult from a pollu-
tant or group of pollutants. For example, Taylor et al. (1974), under contract
to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Corvallis Laboratory, used the
following series of indices as background indicators of the condition of the
environment around the Colstrip Power Plant. These include:
1. Shannon-Weaver Function
2. Simpson's D
3. Redundancy Index
4. Probability of Interspecific Encounter
5. Probability of Intraspecific Encounter
6. Pie Transformation
7. Fisher's Alpha
Several excellent texts have addressed themselves to the problems associ-
ated with sampling in the field for estimating species diversity indices. Some
are: An Introduction to Mathematical Ecology (Pielou, 1969); Quantitative
Plant Ecology (Greig-Smith, 1964); Ecological Diversity (Pielou, 1975). Some
indices that are suitable for possible use on a biosphere sampling site are:
1. Simpson's Measurement of Diversity (Simpson, 1949).
L = !! /„ ,J L = Simpson's Index
N (N-l)
N - Total Number of Individuals
n = Number of Individuals Falling
into Various Groups
2. Dice's Measure of Ecological Association (Dice, 1945).
(CA) = ^- (CA) = Coefficient of Association
h = Number of Samples Containing
Species A and B
25
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n = Number of Samples Examined
a = Number of Samples in which Species
A Occurs Alone
b = Number of Samples in which Species
B Occurs Alone
3. Information Theory Species Diversity Indices (Pielou, 1966a, 1966b).
H = ^ Log N ,NN', jpr H = Species Diversity Index
s S = Number of Species
H! = -E P. Log2P. (Where N = Total Number of Individuals
N. = Number of Individuals in the ith
Pi ~ Nr 1 Species
NOTE: There are several variations on this equation based on sampling require-
ments. All appropriate ones will be looked at.
4. Fisher's Alpha (Fisher et al., 1943).
S=aL|l+N) S = Number of Species
\ ' N = Number of Individuals
a = Fisher's Alpha
In addition to the indices described above, all the data collected will
be analyzed to determine the appropriate distribution function. This is vital
not only to the estimation of species diversity indices, but the application
of more routinely applied statistical techniques. Some of the equations to be
considered are given below. The citation given refers to a source where com-
putational solutions have been outlined.
1. Poison Distribution (Archibald, 1948).
x _
P(x) = YJ- e P(x) = Proportion of Observations in
the Xth Frequency Class
P(x)N - the Number of Individuals in
the Class Xth Frequency Class,
given a Total Population of N
Individuals
m = Mean Number of Units per Quadrat
x = Integer Value for Frequency Class
26
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2. Neyman Type A (Archibald, 1948).
a— mo\
rV*-W - e ~e >
mi = U.1/JU2
Subsequent terms are obtained by substituting K = 0,1,2, 3. . .in:
t=K «_
-m? _ _ . t
P(x=K+l) = —— / j—r P(x=K-t)
t=0 '
Vi i = 1st Moment of the Distribution
(the mean)
V2 = 2nd Moment of the Distribution
(the variance)
3. Negative Binomial Distribution (Bliss and Fisher, 1953).
(K + X -1) I RX
W X!(K - 1)1 K
R = P/q = M/(K + M)
Distribution defined by K and M. The parameter M is mean. K is deter-
mined as outlined by Bliss and Fisher (1953).
There are other indices that are available for analysis. However, many
are dependent on the measurement from randomly selected individuals to their
nearest neighbor, or measurement from a randomly selected point to the nearest
perennial shrub to that point. Because of ease of sampling in the field, ef-
forts will be restricted to indices that depend on total species counts. The
distribution functions described by no means exhaust the possibilities. Other
functions will be included as necessary. Among the missing distribution func-
tions, which will be considered, is the normal distribution.
The sampling site size will vary with the type of vegetation. Mature
forests will be sampled with sample site size of approximately 0.1 acres. A
prism will be used to determine plot boundaries. Sampling in meadows will be
done on a sampling site size of 1 square meter. Sample site boundaries will
be delineated, using 1 meter square sampling frames. Sampling in shrub com-
munities will use a sample site whose boundaries will be delineated by a col-
lapsible sampling frame 4 meters on a side.
27
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The sampling site system will be essential to the overall experimental de
sign since samples collected for pollutant monitoring for soil and vegetation,
at least, will be tied to this overall sample design, although not necessarily
sampled within the immediate confines of plot boundaries as described above.
Permanent plot locations for pollutant sampling will not be used because
changes through time on the same area are desired to be detected, and there-
fore, a new "random" sample must be drawn for each "time" sample.
Microcosms
Techniques which employ biological indicators for the determination of
pollutant impact on a biosphere have been improved in the past few years.
Bioindicators have one great advantage over standard analytical pollutant
analyses — they make it possible to determine, many times in a one-step pro-
cedure, the direct effect a pollutant has on living organisms. This measure-
ment, after all, is the purpose of all the analytical effort. One indicator
technique which is gaining in use is the microcosm concept.
Microcosms have been and are now primarily being used as tools for the
evaluation of chemical mobility in soil and to determine whether these toxi-
cants are likely to bioaccumulate or biomagnify. Both of the above uses re-
quire that the user know what toxicant has been introduced and what methods
are available for both extraction and analysis. This information is then used
to predict the fate of these materials. A more relevant use of the microcosm
concept has been the effort to identify certain critical system-level para-
meters which could be sensitive to perturbation. Of the parameters investi-
gated, the two which show the greatest promise are patterns of soil nutrient
loss and carbon dioxide evolution (Van Hook et al., 1976) . If these parameters
can indeed be correlated with system perturbation, then we have a new monitor-
ing tool which would readily indicate system stress even before visible damage
was evident.
Available data indicate that there is little doubt that microcosms do re-
spond in a predictable manner to low levels of soil chemical perturbation.
However, the effects of environmental stress (water stress, temperature, light,
etc.) have not been determined. When it can be shown that such interactions
either do not cause effects similar to chemical perturbation or that such ef-
fects do not mask chemical perturbation, then its usefulness as a monitoring
tool can be established. The lab work will be in a growth chamber where a
full range of environmental influences can be evaluated. After environmental
stress effects are determined, the effects of both soil-applied and gas-phase
pollutants will be studied. The information from these studies is essential
for integrating this technique into the biosphere monitoring program.
Bioindicators
The use of biological indicators to determine the effects of pollutants
on a given site is a promising technique. Recent studies with a tritium (3H2)
oxidizing microorganism at the EMSL-LV, AlooMgenes paradoxus, have shown prom-
ise in assessing the available concentrations of certain heavy metals, mercury
and lead, in soil. These preliminary studies have shown that, for similar con-
centrations of these metals in soil and a liquid media, quite different effects
28
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on the activity of this microorganism, as determined by its ability to produce
tritiated water, are observed. Concentrations as high as 100 ppm of lead (as
lead acetate) had no apparent effect on the bacterium in the soil but caused a
50% reduction of activity in the liquid media. For mercury (added as mercuric
nitrate) the effect was even more pronounced. In soil a concentration of 100
ppm of mercury resulted in only a 22% reduction in activity as compared to a
37% reduction caused by only 1 ppm in the liquid solution.
The results imply that the impacts of mercury and lead are smaller in soil
than in solution and that this organism may prove useful as a determinant of
heavy metal availability in soils. Also, the techniques involved in this anal-
ysis are quite simple, and fast: results can be obtained within a matter of
hours after receipt of a small soil sample. This technique will be developed
further at EMSL-LV as a possible rapid screening tool for assessing pollutant
impact in biosphere soil systems.
Parameters Monitored and Analytical Support
Many of the early papers written on GEMS or on the biosphere reserve pro-
gram in general have proposed a variety of pollutants to be monitored on the
site. A list of pollutants suggested for monitoring on the biosphere reserves
has been given in the MAB Report 20 (Man and Biosphere, 1974), GNEM Report 4,
(Ad Hoc Task Force on GNEM, 1970), SCOPE Report 3, (Munn, 1973) and Morgan et
al. (1976). Table 4 is an estimate of the types of parameters to be measured
in each media of the sampling site for the initial pilot study.
TABLE 4. SUGGESTED LIST OF PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED
AND CONSIDERED FOR BIOSPHERE RESERVE SAMPLING SITES
POLLUTANT ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENT
Air Water Soil Biota Rainfall/Dry
Deposition
Sulphur Dioxide X
Suspended Particulates X
Turbidity X
Total Nonfilterable Residue X
Ozone X
DDT*, PCB, Other XXX X
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Organics
Cadmium X X X X X
Mercury X X X X X
Lead X X X X X
Arsenic X X X X X
Sulphur X X
Reactive Hydrocarbons X
Stream Flow Rates X
Temperature X
PH XXX
Conductivity X
Total Organic Carbon X
* Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane
29
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There is an additional parameter which is referred to as the unknown or-
ganic. At this stage, we would recommend a procedure as outlined by Mr. William
Donaldson at Athens, Georgia. The general procedure was put forward in a paper
entitled "Identification and Measurement of Trace Organics in Water Methodology
and Monitoring Systems." This was presented November 17, 1976, at the state-
of-the-art seminar supported by the Office of Air, Land, and Water Use, Office
of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. In this
paper, Mr. Donaldson proposes that a limited number of samples be completely
and totally analyzed and examined for as many forms of organic contaminant as
possible. As part of this study, we recommend bringing in a certain number of
soil extracts, rain, and water samples to be analyzed by such a technique. The
object here would be to determine if there is present in these samples an unex-
pected environmental contaminant from anthropogenic sources. This is one at-
tempt to try to anticipate potential worldwide pollutants. Table 5 is a list
of the types of organic compound that have been identified using this type of
an approach for a water sample. Also shown are the amounts detected.
Another approach of a similar nature is in the trace element area. This
is to make use of multi-element analytical techniques on a limited number of
samples. Two techniques that are applicable are spark-source mass spectrometry
and neutron activation analysis. Not all samples will be sent for this multi-
element analysis, but composite samples selected to be representative of the
entire sampling site will be submitted for multi-element analysis to ensure the
detection of any unexpected buildups in various trace elements outside of those
elements listed in Table 4.
Scott (Personal Communication, EMSL-LV, 1977) has stated the requirements
for trace-element analysis in this type of study:
"...recommendations are to use very sensitive methods which
require a minimum of sample preparation to minimize blank
problems. Candidate methods are neutron activation for
Hg, As, and Pb with x-ray emission or spark source mass
spectrometry for Hg, As, Pb, and Cd. All of these methods
can be used for analysis of the solids without dissolution
of the samples. If dissolution of the samples can be tol-
erated, then optical emission or furnace atomic absorption
could be used. The detection levels cited for Cd and Pb
in water will require the collection of very large quanti-
ties so that concentration by a factor of 1,000 will yield
levels which are detectable. Gas chromatography or gas
chromatography-mass spectrometry can be used for the PCB
and DDT although concentration techniques may have to be
employed for water.
The sampling phase of this work must be conducted in such
a manner that contamination by the sampler does not obscure
the true level of the residues. Preservation of the water
samples also must be properly accomplished particularly at
these low levels. Equally important is the availability of
ultra-clean facilities to the analytical laboratory so that
sample contamination does not occur."
30
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TABLE 5. VOLATILE ORGANICS IN GROUNDWATER FROM WELL #5 PRIOR TO
IN SITU COAL GASIFICATION1
Chromato-
graphic
Peak No.
1
3
4
4A
5
6
6A
8
8A
9
10
10A
10B
11
11B
13
13A
13B
13C
14
15
16
18
19
19A
20
20A
21
22
22A
23
24
24A
25
26
26A
27
27A
27B
28
29
29A
30
31
Elution
Temp.
(°C)
128
145
147
150
152
153
161
168
169
170
172
173
173
174
175
178
179
180
181
183
184
185
188
190
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
202
203
204
205
205
207
208
Chromato- Elution
Compound
toluene
ethvlbenzene
p-xylene
3-heptanone
styrene
o-xylene
isopropylbenzene
ii-propylbenzene
m-ethyl toluene
£-ethyltoluene
benzaldehyde
1,3, 5-trimethylbenzene
CT^HI/I isomer
10 20
cyanobenzene
o-e thy 1 toluene
1 , 2 ,4-trimethylbenzene
C10H20 lsomer
n-decane
C1QH20 isomer
C,~alkyl benzene isomer
C9H10 isomer
1,2, 3-trimethylbenzene
C-nH,jn isomer and indane
indane
j>-propyl toluene
m-propyltoluene
n-butylbenzene
C11H24 isomer
o-propyl toluene
methyl indane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
C,-alkyl benzene isomer
methyl indane isomer
n-undecane
C -alkyl benzene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
5
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
4
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
D
C-..H0, isomer
ppb
2.0+1
1.5+0.5
0.5+.25
trace
1.0+.5
0.5+.02
0.06+.03
0.7+.03
0.1+.05
0.08+.01
trace
0.08+.01
trace
0.06+.01
0.08+.02
0.24+.07
trace
0.2+.05
trace
trace
trace
0.3+.04
trace
trace
0.08+.01
0.04+.03
0.04+.03
trace
trace
trace
0.2+.04
trace
trace
0.2+.03
0.1+.01
0.1+.01
0.2+.01
trace
trace
12 26
tetramethylbenzene isomer 0.3+. 02
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
4
methylindan or dimethyl-
styrene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
0.2+.01
trace
trace
5
C, _H,,, isomer and C.-alkyl
12 24 J
benzene isomer
trace
graphic Temp.
Peak No.
32
32A
32B
33
33A
33B
34
34A
35
35A
35B
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
44A
45
46
47
48
50
51
52
52A
53
54
55
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
(°C)
210
210
211
211
212
212
213
213
214
215
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
224
225
227
228
230
231
232
233
234
235
237
238
240
isothermal
Compound
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
j
C12H24 isomer
methylindene isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
C,--alkvl benzene isomer
methylindene isomer
C.-alkyl benzene isomer
1,2,3, 4-tetraniethylnaph-
thalene
methylindene isomer
C12H24 lsomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
dimethylindane isomer
n-dodecane
naphthalene
dimethylindane isomer and
C -alkylindane isomer
C^H,0 isomer and C -alkyl
13 £Q -*
benzene isomer
Cr-alkyl benzene isomer
6
C3-alkylindane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
dimethylindane isomer
C, -alkyl benzene isomer
6
C ,,H^ isomer
13 zo
C H28 isomer
C^-alkyl benzene isomer
6
C,,H-n isomer
dimethylindane isomer
trimethyl indane isomer
C13HM isomer
n-tridecane
dimethylindane isomer +
trimethylindane isomer
B-methylnaphthalene
C -alkyl benzene isomer
4
C,_H,, isomer
12 16
C12H16 iS°mer and C13H18
isomer
C -alkyl benzene isomer
r H isomer
"1 ^"1 O iO^t»^"t
1 J lo
C H^0 isomer
^15 32
C H-o isomer
n-tetradecane
biphenyl
ethylnaphthalene isomer
ppb
trace
trace
0.044.01
NQ
NQ
trace
NQ
0.064.03
trace
trace
trace
trace
0.34.03
2.04.05
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
trace
0.24
trace
trace
0.44.05
0 . 14 . 03
trace
trace
trace
0.2+.02
0.14.05
200
trace
trace
trace
t race
trace
trace
0.24-01
trace
trace
D. E. (1977). Quarterly Report No. 4. Identification of Compo-
nents of Energy-related Waste and Effluents. EPA Contract No. 68-03-2368,
Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, N.C.
31
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QUALITY ASSURANCE
It is expected that a relatively large number of samples would be collect-
ed both in the presampling and in the follow-up study phase. It is advanta-
geous to minimize the total number of samples since this is associated with a
large portion of the cost of any biosphere reserve monitoring program. None-
theless, the number of samples is expected to be large. Samples will be sub-
mitted for analyses in either the raw form or in the extracted form. The ana-
lytical support will follow all quality assurance procedures which are normal-
ly included in the EMSL-LV quality assurance protocols. In addition, since
the levels of pollutants are expected to be low, the minimum amounts of extrac-
tion variability and instrument variability are desirable. Also, because of
the nature of some of the elements in question, specialized analytical techni-
ques will have to be employed. Samples will likely be batched and a large
number sent for analyses at one time. Check-samples, blank and unmarked sam-
ples of known concentrations will be submitted at regular but unscheduled in-
tervals. At least 10% of the total number of samples submitted will be ana-
lyzed by an independent laboratory as part of its quality assurance program.
All samples will be handled with extreme care to prevent any possible contami-
nation in the lab. This is reflecting again the relatively low concentration
levels of pollutants in each of the samples. Reference methods used will be
equal to or better than those cited previously. For example, pesticide anal-
yses should follow procedures outlined by Thompson (1974) and Sherma (1976).
Complete data sets, including chromatograms from gas chromatographs and where
preferable, graphic results of the atomic absorption analyses will be main-
tained, cataloged, and submitted as part of the data report. An estimate of
machine error and an estimate of error due to extraction will be included in
the report. Sampling procedures have been covered in detail including sam-
pling-site criteria, number of samples and frequency of sampling in previous
sections of this paper. With regard to the preservation of samples, all sam-
ples will be kept wherever possible under cold or freezer conditions. All
samples stored at Las Vegas will be kept in a refrigerator. It may not be
possible, however, to immediately freeze samples in the field because of the
remoteness of the sampling stations, but every effort will be made to preserve
the samples in as close to the same form as when they were collected. Sample
preservation is central to the whole success of a biosphere monitoring program.
Samples will be shipped from the field sites to Las Vegas either in the
company of the principal investigators, other members of the field team, or by
commercial air freight with arrangements made for immediate pickup upon receipt
at the airport. The samples will then be transported immediately to the cold
room and stored prior to extraction and/or submission for chemical analyses.
Sample identification and coding have been covered in detail previously.
All field data will be recorded in a field notebook similar to the type
available from the Nalgene Company, copyright 1973. These are specially de-
signed bound notebooks. It is difficult to remove pages and the books are
designed so that they are resistant to chemicals. They are fully immersible
in water, may be written on with pencil, ball-point pen, etc., when wet or even
when under water.
32
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Field instruments will be maintained and calibrated according to the man-
ufacturers' recommended procedures. Instruments, such as the electronic cap-
acitance herbage meter, will be re-zeroed every 30 minutes throughout the day,
as used. The herba.ge meter will be warmed up for a minimum of 1 hour in the
morning prior to use so that it equalizes ambient temperatures. Batteries
will be replaced daily.
BIOSPHERE SITE SELECTION AND CHARACTERIZATION - EXAMPLES
Yellowstone National Park
Geographically, Yellowstone National Park lies in the extreme northwest
corner of Wyoming with slight extensions into both eastern Idaho and southern
portions of Montana. At one time this area was nearly all mountainous. How-
ever, at present, approximately one-third of the park is made up of low rolling
plateaus formed from lava flows (Christiansen and Blank, 1972). The north,
east, and southern portions of the central plateau in the park are extremely
mountainous forming parts of the Rocky Mountains (Figure 2).
An aquatic environment is well represented by numerous hot water pools
and other geothermal features formed by an enormous reservoir of molten rock
beneath the Park. Also, four main rivers drain the Park, one of which drains
to the Pacific Ocean—the Snake, and three which drain to the Atlantic Ocean—
the Firehole, the Madison, and the Yellowstone rivers. Lakes are abundant with
the largest, Yellowstone, and the smaller, Shoshone, Lewis, and Heart Lakes
occurring in the Park's southern portion.
Yellowstone National Park consists of approximately 9,100 km2 and is in-
cluded on the following U.S. Geological Survey's 15 minute quadrangles: Grassy
Lake Reservoir, Canyon Village, Cutoff Mountain, Buffalo Lake, Mammoth, Old
Faithful, Gardiner, Sunlight Peak, Crown Butte, Mount Holmes, Madison Junction,
Two Ocean Pass, Norris Junction, Tower Junction, Tepee Creek, West Thumb, Eagle
Peak, Pelican Cone, Mt. Wallace, and West Yellowstone.
The Park is surrounded by National Forests. The north side is bounded by
the Gallatin, the east by the Shoshone, the south by the Bridger-Teton and por-
tions of the west and south by the Targhee.
Ownership
The supervision and jurisdiction of Yellowstone is under the U.S. National
Park Service headquartered at Mammoth Hot Springs located at the northern en-
trance on Highway 89.
The locations and addresses of the U.S. Forest Service District Offices
are as follows:
Gallatin - U.S. Federal Building Shoshone - West Yellowstone Highway
Box 130 P.O. Box 961
Bozeman, Montana 59715 Cody, Wyoming 82414
33
-------
'—45°
Figure 2. Map of Yellowstone National Park.
-------
Targhee - 420 N. Bridge Street Bridger-Teton - U.S. Forest Service
Anthony, Idaho 83445 Jackson, Wyoming 83001
Accessibility (Logistics)
Accessibility into portions of the Park by motor vehicles is made possible
through the following five major entrances: Gardiner, Cook City, Cody, Teton
National Park, and West Yellowstone. State Highways are 191, 20, 287, 89, 14,
16, and 212. These form a network of easily accessible roads through the cen-
tral portion of the Park; however, many areas such as in the southeast, south-
west, and portions of the northeast are accessible only by foot and pack trails.
The absence of roads and trails over a large portion of the Park makes explora-
tion difficult.
The small number of service roads that do exist generally parallel the
main State Highways. As such, they would not be useful for gaining access into
the many remote regions of the Park.
The walking and pack trails are fairly extensive throughout some of the
Park. However, any sustained and heavy sampling would require the use of pack
animals and/or the use of aircraft. Sample integrity would be difficult under
these conditions.
Site Integrity
It is very likely that sites in the southeast, southwest, and northeast
portions of the Park are remote enough to be able to maintain site integrity.
The occasional penetration by hikers should have a minimal effect. Further,
the fact that this is a national park assures protection for the future.
Vegetation Types
Most of the 9,100 square kilometers of Yellowstone National Park has been
described as being vegetatively monotonous (Cooper, 1975), having few terres-
trial vegetative types. Within the elevational range of approximately 1,650
meters to a high of over 3,000 meters, four major and two minor terrestrial
vegetative types have been identified (Despain, 1973). Also, four different
aquatic or water-associated types are described:
Spruce - Fir Type (Pioea - Abies')—Location — this type is common, but is
well developed only in the northwestern corner of the Park. It occupies the
northwest and northeast slopes at elevations between 2,100 meters and 2,400
meters on moderately well-drained benches and alluvial flats. It is the most
extensive of the very mesic vegetative types.
Dominant Species — In many areas, Pioea engelmannii and P. glauca domin-
ate to such an extent that Abies is present only as seedlings or sapling-sized
accidentals (Cooper, 1975). However, many areas are dominated by A. lasioearpa
and/or an equal mix of the two dominates. White bark pine (Pinus albieaulis)
may also be a major component, even the dominant species at times. The average
35
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density of spruce ranges from 133 to 178 trees/hectare and fir 173 to 207 trees/
hectare. In areas where white bark pine dominates, its density ranges from 126
to 444 trees/hectare (Despain, 1973).
Douglas - Fir type (Pseudotsuga Menziesii)—Location — this type is
generally found at lower elevations, 1,800 meters to higher elevations on the
south facing slopes where it occurs in a serai role in the Spruce-Fir type.
It also represents local forests of the warmest and driest environments usually
receiving less than 51 centimeters of rainfall per year (Despain, 1973).
Dominant Species — The dominant species are Pseudotsuga menziesii3 Popu-
lus tremuloides, Pinus oontoTta, and mixes of Pioea engelmanmii and P. glauoa.
This forest is also characterized by an understory of big sagebrush Artemisia
tridentata and various grasses. It can also be distinguished by its many large,
fire-scarred, areas.
Lodgepole - Pine type (Pinus contovta)—Location — one of the largest
types in the Park, it is generally found in areas where moisture is more favor-
able, such as pond margins, drainage ways and north-facing slopes. This type
is found between 2,300 meters to 2,560 meters elevation and receives between
50 to 100 centimeters of precipitation per year.
Dominant Species — The lodgepole pine type is dominated by Pinus aontorta
with little or no Pioea or Abies in the understory. The lodgepoles are slower
growing and may reach ages in excess of 300 years. Density is about 325 trees/
hectare for trees greater than 10 centimeters in diameter (Despain, 1973).
White bark pine may also be present in both overstory and understory. The cli-
max condition in lodgepole is perhaps determined by the combination of relative-
ly low precipitation and the nutritionally poor nature of the soils derived
from rhyolite.
Meadow type—Locations — meadows occur at most elevations throughout the
Park. They can be subdivided into two subtypes:
a. The wet meadows in which water, usually to a depth of 5 to 8 cen-
timeters covers most of the area for long periods of time during much of the
growing season. The dominant vegetation in this subtype is from the genus Carex,
Also represented are the grasses Alapecurus aequalis and Hordeum bTaahyanthenm
(Reed, 1952).
b. The second meadow subtype is the dry meadow. The dominant spe-
cies again are from the Capex genus; however, the species are different than
found in the wet meadows. A greater abundance of grass is found in this sub-
type including Bromus spp, Poa palustris, and Agrostis spp.
Cold Desert type—Location — this type, relatively small in area, lies
near Gardiner, Montana, along the northern boundary of the Park at elevations
between 1,670 and 1,830 meters (Despain, 1973).
Dominant Species — This type similar to the Great Basin cold desert for-
mation is dominated by big sagebrush A. tridentata, Sarcobatus spp, Eurotia
lanata, and the grass Bouteloua spp. It is commonly found in areas receiving
less than 38 centimeters annual precipitation and on heavy soils derived from
shales.
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Alpine Tundra—Location — there is not much information available con-
cerning this type, however, it is found in Yellowstone in areas above 3,000
meters.
Dominant Species — Plant species include mosses, Mountain avens, and na-
tive dandelions.
Riverside Shrub type—Location — this type occurs along most of the main
river systems throughout the Park. It is characterized by shrubs and small
tree species, primarily of the Salix genus. Dominant species include S. farrae,
S. lutea, S. dnarmondiana3 and S. exigua.
Rivers — All of the rivers receive runoff of thermal waters from geysers
and hot springs that may influence aquatic plant and animal populations in many
portions of these water systems. Chemically the rivers in this region are
sodium-bicarbonate-chloride waters. Calcium and magnesium occur in consider-
ably lower concentrations. The water chemistry is directly related to the
products of weathering of sodium and potassium aluminosilicates together with
silica, which largely comprise the bedrock of this region (Wright and Mills,
1967).
Dominant Species — this type includes Chora Vulgaris, Potamogeton fill—
form-is, P. stviot'tfolius 3 p. natans, and the aquatic mosses Hygroamb'lys'tegiwn
fluwiat-ile and Fissidens grandifrons.
Thermal Pools and Hot Springs—Locations — thermal pools and hot springs
are most common. They are characterized by hot or warm water with temperatures
approaching 90° C or higher. Often source temperatures will exceed runoff or
mouth temperatures by 10 times within a few hundred meters.
Dominant Species — As many thermal plants and animal species are tempera-
ture tolerant and also, due to the wide variety of temperatures in the many
geothermal pools and hot springs, species abundance and population densities
change as a function of thermal sources. The following are the common diatom,
algal and bacterial species found in the hot waters throughout the Park (Stocker,
1967): Schizothrix caluiola, Mougeotia spp.} Qscillatoria terebriformisj
Syneohooooous spp.3 S. minervae, S. lividis, Paraaoenia spp.3 Borill-us stearo-
thermophilusj Thermus aquations3 Calothrix spp., Mastigooladus spp., Chora
Vulgaris, Pinnularia rm'-orostrawcon, Gomphonema parvulum, Aohnanthes grimmi,
Navioula oinota, Rhopalodia gibberula, Amphora coffeaeformis, and Denticula
elegans.
Geology
The initial geologic investigations of Yellowstone were primarily recon-
naissance studies conducted by Hayden (1872). His work was primarily concerned
with the geography and with the local hot springs and geysers of this area.
During the latter part of the 1800's, more geologic and topographic studies
were completed by Hague (1896) and Hague and Iddings (1899). Their work show-
ed the presence of extensive rhyolite formations within the Park; however, no
attempt was made to map the other geologic formations within the rhyolite com-
plex.
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Allen and Day (1935) conducted a detailed Investigation of the hot springs.
Similarly, Fenner (1934, 1936) reported on the alteration of the rhyolite by hot
spring waters. He also reported (1938, 1944) on the petrology of the Gardiner
River Complex.
Further studies by Howard (1937) identified and described the geomorphic
history of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone. During this same period, work
on the volcanic activity in Yellowstone was reported by Dorf (1939). He re-
ported that volcanic outbursts occurred intermittently in Yellowstone beginning
during the early Eocene and continuing throughout the Tertiary. Rouse (1937)
described these volcanic formations as being from andesite and docite, consist-
ing predominantly of breccias and agglomerates, having the appearance of mud
flows. He further identified the accumulation of the andesites, breccias, and
associated basalts to thicknesses of up to 2,000 meters in the Absaroka Range
along the eastern border of the Park. The breccias were also noted to crop out
in the Gallatin Range in the northwest corner of the Park, in the Washburn Range
north of Yellowstone Lake, and at a number of localities in the foothills of the
Wind River and Teton River along the southern boundary.
The centers of volcanic eruption were disputed during these early explora-
tions. For example, intrusive rocks similar to the breccias in composition
were found in the Gallatin Range. Hague (1899) interpreted this source of
breccias near Electric Peak as being the core of a large volcano. He also
identified Hurricane Mesa in the Absaroka Range as the core of another major
volcano. Later, Rouse (1937) disagreed and refuted this by reporting that the
breccias were deposited by hundreds of small vents and a few volcanos of moder-
ate sizes scattered throughout this area.
Apparently, the eruption of the breccias was followed by an interval of
erosion as the rhyolite which covers nearly two-thirds of the Park was reported
by Boyd (1961) to have been deposited upon this eroded breccia surface.
Features of the present-day landscape as reported by Keefer (1972) origi-
nated from the Pliocene time. He further reported that during this time the
entire region was being uplifted to heights several thousand meters above the
present elevations. These forces accounted for the many large steep-sided
block mountains bounded by normal faults. While some blocks sank, others rose,
sometimes on the order of several thousand meters. For example, the Gallatin
Range in the northwest corner of the Park was lifted as a rectangular mountain
block along two 32-kilometer long normal faults which border this range on
each side.
The rise in elevation and the dissection of this region into many moun-
tainous fault blocks gave rise to increases in the rate of erosion. Once slow
streams turned into fast moving rivers that cut deeply into the surface fea-
tures. Rock debris were stripped and carried off. It is believed that at the
end of the Pliocene the Yellowstone region was highly dissected mountains con-
sisting of many table topped and canyon lands. Resemblances of this can be
seen in the Absaroka Range running along the east side of the Park. This moun-
tain range and the Washburn Range located in the central part today represent
small remnants of the vast pile of Absaroka volcanic rocks that once covered
all of the Yellowstone region.
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Figure 3. Outline of the Yellowstone caldera,
39
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At the beginning of the Quaternary period, the formation of the 2,600-
square-kilometer Yellowstone caldera began (Figure 3). As the magma built up
and accumulated beneath Yellowstone, it developed into such an explosive state
that two caldera-forming eruptions occurred—the first, 2,000,000 years ago,
and the second, 600,000 years ago. As both eruptions affect the central part
of the Park, features related to the first eruption were largely destroyed.
During the first eruption lava and ash flows filled old canyons and val-
leys which had been eroded into the "Absaroka pile." Eventually much of the
older landscape was buried by ash. As the hot pumice, ash, and molten rock
cooled, it formed horizontal sheets of compact rock similar in composition to
rhyolite, also termed ash-flow tuff or Yellowstone tuff (Reefer, 1972). The
rhyolite plateau is made up of this ash flow and welded tuff with subsidiary
rhyolite domes of basalt and rhyolite-basalt mixed lava. The Yellowstone tuff
is exposed over a 1,550 square kilometer area within the Park along with the
plateau flow which covers nearly 2,600 square kilometers in the Madison Central
and Pitchstone Plateaus (Boyd, 1961).
With the removal of hundreds of cubic kilometers of molten rock after the
eruptions, the caldera collapsed into the two major magma chambers. The depth
of collapse has been estimated to be several thousand meters. In part the ba-
sin occupied by Yellowstone Lake owes its existence to the caldera collapse.
The second eruption was confined primarily to the caldera proper. The
lava poured out from many fissures flooding the caldera floor. As the lava
began to fill the caldera basin, it overflowed toward the southwestern portion
of the Park. Again the lava cooled, forming the gently rolling plateau surface
of central Yellowstone commonly called the Rhyolite Plateau as previously de-
scribed. This plateau covering more than 2,000 square kilometers is character-
ized by moderate valleys and rolling hills formed between adjacent lava flows,
with streams and rivers flowing in many of the ready-made channels. The Rhyo-
lite and the ash-flow tuffs are the predominant rock along many of the Park
roads. A number of basalt flows did occur in this area forming some of the
most unusual rock formations in the Park. They are characterized by a series
of upright many-sided columns.
Another caldera-forming event occurred in the central Yellowstone region
between 125,000 and 200,000 years ago. This eruption of rhyolite ash flows and
the subsequent collapse of the caldera formed the deep depression now filled by
the west thumb of Yellowstone Lake.
The last outpouring of lava occurred 60,000 to 75,000 years ago. The hot
water and steam activity still remain as a vivid reminder of Yellowstone's vol-
canic past.
In 1972, Christiansen and Blank described the major rocks formed after the
three volcanic periods. Formed during the first period were rocks comprised of
precaldera - Junction Butte basalt and rhyolite, the Huckleberry Ridge tuff of
the Yellowstone Group, and the post-caldera Lewis Canyon rhyolite and basalt
of the narrows. Most of the rock formed during the second period is largely
buried; however, the Mesa Falls tuff, also, of the Yellowstone Group, is pres-
ent at the surface in certain areas. The rocks of the third volcanic eruption
40
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are represented by the precaldera Mount Jackson rhyolite, post-Lava Creek ba-
salt, Lava Creek tuff, and Yellowstone tuff.
The final sculpturing of Yellowstone occurred during the last 100,000
years by glaciation. This region was glaciated at least three times. The
glaciations were from, oldest to youngest, the pre-Bull Lake, Bull Lake, and
Pinedale. Their precise age and duration are imperfectly known, but estimates
based on a few radiometric determinations are: (1) the oldest glaciation (pre-
Bull Lake glaciation) began more than 300,000 years ago and ended between
180,000 and 200,000 years ago; (2) Bull Lake Glaciation began about 125,000
years ago and ended more than 45,000 years ago; (3) Pinedale Glaciation began
about 25,000 years ago and ended about 8,500 years ago (Keefer, 1972). The
pre-Bull Lake and Bull Lake are known only from scattered deposits of rock
debris, glacial moraines, and other features, but the distribution of these
deposits indicates that glaciers were widespread throughout the region and
occurred both between and during eruptions of the Rhyolite Plateau. The ef-
fects of the Pinedale glaciers, on the other hand, are obvious in many parts
of the Park, and the history of this youngest glacial cycle is known in much
greater detail than that of the two older ones.
In the early stages of Pinedale Glaciation, an enormous icefield built up
in the high Absaroka Range southeast of the Park area. A glacier, fed by this
icefield, flowed northward down the upper Yellowstone valley and into the basin
now occupied by Yellowstone Lake. At about the same time, another great ice-
field formed in the mountains north of the Park and sent tongues of ice south-
ward toward the lower Yellowstone and Lamar River valleys. Smaller valley
glaciers flowed westward out of the Absaroka Range along t-he east edge of the
Park, and still others formed along the main ridges and valleys of the Gallatin
Range, in the northwestern part of the Park. Thus, many huge masses of ice
from the north, east, and southeast converged and met in the Park.
For the next 10,000 years, the ice thickened and spread out over more and
more of the Park area. The mass, centered over the Yellowstone Lake basin,
grew to a depth of 900 meters or more and dominated the entire scene. Eventu-
ally, the Pinedale glaciers covered about 90 percent of Yellowstone (Figure 4).
Only the west edge of the Park and perhaps a few of the highest peaks and rid-
ges within the Park remained free of ice (Reefer, 1972).
After their maximum advance, the Pinedale glaciers began to melt, leaving
behind the rock debris they had gouged from the landscape and had pushed or
carried along with them. These glacial moraines are now found in many areas
throughout the Park. In places, glacial ice and/or rock debris formed natural
dams across stream valleys, thereby impounding lakes. Parts of Hayden Valley,
for example, contain layers of very fine sand, silt, and clay several tens of
meters thick that accumulated along the bottom of a large lake. This lake
formed behind a glacial dam across the Yellowstone River near Upper Falls.
Some of the glacial dams broke and released water catastrophically, causing
giant floods; the occurrence of one such flood is particularly evident along
the Yellowstone River valley near Gardiner, Montana.
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/
'
•
7
20 MILES
Figure 4. Extent of ice in Yellowstone National Park.
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By about 12,000 years ago the thick Pinedale ice sheet had melted entirely
from the Yellowstone Lake basin and most other areas of the Park, although val-
ley glaciers continued to exist in the mountains until about 8,500 years ago.
Then following a short period of total disappearance, small icefields formed
again in the heads of some of the higher mountain valleys. Since the melting
of the Pinedale ice, however, none has descended as a glacier into the lower
stretches of the valleys (Reefer, 1972).
Soils
Soils data from Yellowstone are extremely limited. The only data avail-
able from within the Park boundaries are shown on the General Wyoming soil map,
Figure 5, as prepared by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (Wyoming General
Soil Survey, 1975).
All of the soil associations within the Park are classified as soils typ-
ical of mountains or mountain valleys. They are all of similar origin, formed
from either residual or transported materials.
The only detailed soil survey completed is of the Gallatin Canyon Area.
This area borders a small portion of the extreme northwest corner of the Park
beginning approximately 48 kilometers north of West Yellowstone and ending about
24 kilometers southwest of Bozeman. Six different soil associations that have
been identified to be on the Park boundary include the Loberg, Teton-Cheadle,
Garlet-Loberg, Leavitt-Hanson, Leavitt-Loberg, and the miscellaneous steep
mountainous lands (Olsen et al., 1971).
The extent of these associations within the Park is unknown, however, the
soil descriptions of each are as follows.
Loberg Association — This soil association is on forested, undulating to
hilly and mountainous, glacial till uplands. Slopes range from 8 to 40 per-
cent. It occurs in large areas in the basins of West Fork, Beaver, Porcupine,
Portal, Squaw, and Moose Creeks as well as other major tributaries of the Gal-
latin River. It is mostly located midway between the steep bedrock uplands
and the grassland soils developed in till of lower elevations or the valley
floor. Much of this association has "kettle and kame" topography character-
istic of till deposits. However, there are some long, smooth, steep slopes
primarily on the upper portions of the association. Rock outcrops occur in
some delineations as narrow ridges or knobs. There are some very stony areas
that are usually associated with the steeper slopes. Vegetation consists most-
ly of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir with an understory of pine grass, elk
sedge, and shrubs. This association is between 1,800 to 2,400 meters in ele-
vation. Mean annual precipitation is 60 to 120 centimeters; 40 to 100 centi-
meters of this comes in the form of snow. It is common to have a frost during
each of the summer months. This association consists of about 8,000 hectares,
or approximately 17 percent of the survey area. Loberg soils comprise about 80
percent of the association. Soils resting on bedrock at depths of less than 50
centimeters, rock outcrop, rock rubble, and other miscellaneous soils make up
about 20 percent of the survey area. Logging operations on this association
are severely hampered on slopes that exceed 30 percent. Very stony and rock
outcrop areas also present some difficulties in the placement and building of
43
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Rock Outcrop-Cryoboralfs-Cryoborolls Association
\ Cryochrepts-Cryumbrepts Association
Cryoboralfs-Cryoborolls-Rock Outcrop Association
Cryoborolls-Cryaquolls Association
Figure 5. Soil associations in Yellowstone National Park.
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logging roads. Soil losses can be held to a minimum by the proper location
and grading of these roads.
Loberg soils are drained well. A typical profile under a thin layer of
forest litter consists of a light gray or light grayish brown loam over a thick
brown clayey subsoil that is gravelly, cobbly and stony. The substratum is a
very gravelly to stony clay loam. They are noncalcareous to depths of 1 meter
or more. Coarse fragments increase with depth from about 35% in the upper part
of the profile to over 60% in the substratum. There are stones on the surface
and throughout the profile. These soils are slowly permeable. They are used
primarily for timber products. They represent about 80% of the association.
Leayitt-Loberg Association—This soil association is a complex of grass-
land and forested soils developed in glacial till on undulating to hilly and
mountainous uplands. The four main areas of occurrence are between Beaver and
the West Fork Creeks, along Porcupine and Tepee Creek drainages, and also south
of the mouth of Cinnamon Creek. It occurs at elevations ranging between 1,800
and 2,000 meters. Slopes range from 8% to 40%. Much of this association has a
"kettle and kame" topography. Vegetation on the Leavitt soils consists of Idaho
fescue, rough fescue, mountain brome, shrubby cinquefoil, bluegrasses, and forbs.
Lodgepole pine and Douglas fir are the primary vegetation on the Loberg soils.
Annual precipitation ranges from about 50 to 100 centimeters, of which 30 to
60 centimeters come in the form of snow. It is common to have a frost during
each of the summer months. There are approximately 2,200 hectares in this
association comprising about 4.8 percent of the survey area.
Teton-Cheadle Association—This grassland association of soils is primarily
on mountain "park" areas. Landscapes are generally smooth, but may include some
ledgerock outcrop areas downslope from the rounded ridges. Dominant slopes are
between 10 and 40 percent. This association occurs at elevations between 1,700
and 2,560 meters. Annual precipitation ranges from about 50 centimeters to near
150 centimeters at the higher elevations; 30 to 100 centimeters of this is in
the form of snow. Frost usually occurs at least once during each of the summer
months at elevations above 1,800 meters. Vegetation consists of Idaho and rough
fescues, mountain brome, shrubby cinquefoil, bluegrasses, and forbs. This as-
sociation comprises about 1,900 hectares, or approximately 4.1 percent of the
survey area. Teton soils make up about 65%, Cheadle 20%, and other miscella-
neous soils and rock outcrops, about 15%. Cheadle soils are on the convex sur-
faces, along ridges, and rounded knobs. Teton soils are on the long smooth
slopes between the ridges and drainageways. Hobacker and Adel soils are most
common along creeks. Rock outcrop is usually associated with the Cheadle soils
along ridges and points of hills in areas of less than a hectare in size. This
association is used for grazing of livestock and wildlife. Elk are the prime
users of this association in the Porcupine and Tepee Creek drainages and also
in the upper portions of Portal, Beaver, Taylor Fork, and other drainages. Pro-
per range management practices and wildlife control measures will maintain and
improve the vigor and amount of the more desirable species of grass.
Teton soils are well drained. A typical profile has 18 to 30 centimeters
of very dark brown or black loam surface layer, a grayish brown or yellowish
brown, prismatic and blocky structured, light clay loam subsoil, and a calcar-
eous loam substratum that rests on partially weathered sandstone. Depth to bed-
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rock is usually between 75 and 100 centimeters. Gravel and cobble content
throughout the profile ranges from 5% to 30%. These are moderately permeable
soils with medium to moderately slow runoff. They represent about 65% of the
association.
Cheadle soils are excessively drained. A typical profile has a thin,
dark grayish brown to very dark grayish brown gravelly loam surface layer, a
weak blocky structured, grayish brown, gravelly loam subsoil, and a calcareous
gravelly to very gravelly loam substratum. Fractured hard bedrock occurs with-
in 50 centimeters of the surface usually between 25 to 45 centimeters. Runoff
is rapid. Cheadle soils represent about 20% of the association.
Garlet-Loberg Association—This soil association is on steep and very
steep mountain slopes. Sharp ridges separated by deep cut canyons characterize
the landscape. Rock outcrop, rock rubble, and landslide areas are common. This
association is at elevations of 1,800 to 2,600 meters. Annual precipitation
ranges from 60 to 120 centimeters; 60 to 100 centimeters of this comes in the
form of snow. Vegetation consists of lodgepole pine and Douglas fir with an
understory of pine grass, elk sedge, and shrubs. This association comprises
about 11,000 hectares, or approximately 23.2 percent of the survey area. The
major soil in this association is Garlet—very gravelly to stony loam. It com-
prises about 65 percent; Loberg stony soils, 20 percent; Teton, Cheadle, and
other soils 15 percent. Garlet occurs on the long steep mountain slopes bet-
ween the ridges and the drainageways unless interrupted by the occurrence of
Loberg soils on the lower portion of the landscape. These forested soils which
developed in till also occur at the head of drainageways, immeditely below steep
mountain cirques. This association is primarily used as watershed; however,
some logging is done at lower elevations on some of the less sloping areas.
Wildlife also graze the "park" areas and grass-shrub areas along drainageways.
Leavitt-Hanson Association—This is a grassland association of soils on
undulating to steep glacial till uplands. Landscapes are complex and typically
glacial till "kettle and kame" topography. Most of the slopes are between 8
and 35 percent. This association commonly occurs midway between the forested
till soil areas and the soils of the valley terraces below. It is at eleva-
tions of 1,600 to 2,000 meters. Annual precipitation is 50 to 75 centimeters;
30 to 50 centimeters of this comes in the form of snow. Frost can be expected
to occur at least once during each of the summer months above 1,800 meters.
Vegetation consists mostly of Idaho and rough fescues, bluegrasses, forbes, big
sage and other shrubs. This association comprises about 2,500 hectares, or
approximately 5.4 percent of the survey area. The largest areas of this as-
sociation are located on Porcupine, Tepee, West Fork, and Beaver Creek drain-
ages. Leavitt stony loam is the dominant soil type; however, there are areas
of cobbly loam and some areas free of coarse fragments in the surface layer.
The latter is most common on the north-facing slopes of the Porcupine Creek
drainage. In this area the Leavitt soils have thicker, dark-colored surface
layers than is modal for the series. Leavitt soils consistently occupy the
sloping lands between the ridges, or knobs, and the drainageways and concave
areas. Hanson very cobbly and stony soils are on the knobs and ridges. The
highest concentration of cobbles and stones is associated with this soil.
Adel, Michelson, or Hobacker soils occur throughout the association. Some
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seeped soil areas occur along some drainageways. An occasional small inter-
mittent lake is trapped in the undulating uplands. Leavitt soils make up about
60% of the association, Wa.nson 30%, and other miscellaneous soils 10%. This
association is used almost entirely for grazing. Good range management prac-
tices are essential to the maintenance and improvement of the native range on
this association.
Leavitt soils are drained well. A typical profile is over 1.5 meters
deep. It has a dark brown or very dark brown, loam surface layer, 20 to 40
centimeters think, and a dark grayish brown or brown cobbly subsoil of heavy
clay loam to light clay texture. The substratum is gravelly to very gravelly
and cobbly clay loam. They are lime-free to depths of 50 to 90 centimeters and
become strongly calcareous below. Coarse fragments in the surface layer range
from 0 to 30%, increasing to 35 to 60% through the subsoil and substratum. Per-
meability is moderately slow. Effective rooting depth is more than 90 centi-
meters.
Hanson soils are drained well. A typical profile is over 1.5 meters deep.
It has a 25-centimeter very dark brown or black, noncalcareous, very cobbly
loam surface layer; a dark grayish brown, calcareous, very cobbly loam subsur-
face horizon and a nearly white, strongly calcareous, very cobbly to very stony
loam subsoil and substratum. Throughout the association, the Hanson soils have
surface layers of loam, gravelly to very gravelly loam, cobbly to very cobbly
loam and stony to very stony loam. Very cobbly and stony loam is dominant.
Thickness of the dark-colored surface layer varies from 18 to 40 centimeters.
Content of coarse fragments throughout the profile varies from 35 to 60%. They
usually increase with depth.
Miscellaneous Steep Mountainous Lands—This association consists of mis-
cellaneous lands, rockland, rock outcrops and rock rubble on steep and very
steep canyon sidewalls and ridges. The majority of this association is located
along the Gallatin River Canyon. Miscellaneous lands consist of soils of
variable textures and variable depths over bedrock. The content of rock frag-
ments in these soils varies from those with only a few pebbles in them to those
that are very cobbly and stony. Vegetation consists mostly of lodgepole pine
and Pouglas fir; however, there are grassland areas and some mixed timber and
grass areas. Timber growth is quite variable, ranging from a few scattered
trees to some dense groves- The thicker stands are on north-facing slopes and
along coulees. Logging on this association is prohibited by the very steep
slopes except on the lower, less sloping fans and footslopes. Grazing is pri-
marily by wildlife. This association comprises about 10,000 hectares or ap-
proximately 21 percent of the survey area. The shallower soils usually occur
on convex slopes along ridges. The deeper soils are on fans and footslopes at
lower elevations. About 25 percent of the association consists of rock outcrop
and rock rubble. They occur at all levels in the landscape; however, rock out-
crop is dominant on the upper slopes. Limestone rockland is most common along
the Gallatin River Canyon; however, rockland at the head of side drainages at
higher elevations consists of older granitic and andesitic rocks. Much of the
soil on the steep slopes has formed in material moved down slope by gravita-
tional creep. Soils on the lower slopes are developed mostly in local collu-
vial and alluvial materials.
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Hydrology
The initial points for two of the most extensive drainage systems in the
United States are located within Yellowstone National Park on the eastern side,
the Missouri river system via the Yellowstone, Madison, and Gallatin Rivers;
and on the western side the Columbia River system via the Snake River. These
surface waters are fed by an annual precipitation which averages approximately
40 centimeters at Old Faithful and Mammoth, and increasing with increasing ele-
vation in the Park's many mountainous regions.
The elevational gradient of many of the Park's broad and flat-bottomed
rivers ranges from 2 to 6 meters per kilometer. However, a number tff streams
and rivers drop an average of 9 to 19 meters per kilometer (Reefer, 1972).
Although Yellowstone is rich in surface waters, such as its many streams,
rivers, and lakes, its most famous attractions are its many thermal features.
The number of individual thermal hot springs and pools has been estimated to
be from 2,500 to 10,000. They are scattered throughout many regions of the
Park on hillsides, in valleys, frequently following rivers or near lakeshores
and exposed in the open or concealed in the extensive forests.
Two essential ingredients are necessary for thermal activity, the first
being heat. Contrary to popular opinion the underground temperatures have not
cooled measurably during the last 100 years. According to Keefer (1972) geo-
logic studies have indicated that very high heat flows have continued for at
least the past 40,000 years. The lowest elevation in the Park where boiling
springs are found is 1,800 meters in the Yellowstone Canyon, whereas, the site
at Washburn Springs, about 2,500 meters, is perhaps as high as that of any
springs for which data are available. The difference in the boiling points at
these two places is 1.84° C (Allen and Day, 1935). in the more important hot-
spring areas the boiling point of water varies around 93° C, fluctuating with
the atmospheric pressure at a rate of about 0.01° C for every 0.25 millimeters
in the barometer readings.
Dissolved mineral matter in the hot-spring waters ranges from 1 gram to
less than 3 grams per liter. The mineral constituents in the alkaline waters
consist mainly of silica with chloride, bicarbonate, and sulphate of sodium,
and in sulphate waters, silica, sulphuric acid, and sulphates of common rock
metals. Apparently, these minerals have an insignificant effect upon the boil-
ing point. In waters containing large amounts of sulphuric acid or ammonium
sulphate, the elevation of the boiling temperature may range from 0.05° C to
0.10° C, but springs of such composition are very unusual in the Yellowstone
Park (Allen and Day, 1935).
The second ingredient for thermal activity is water. Studies described by
Keefer (1972) indicated that nearly all of the water associated with the thermal
activities originates above ground as rain and/or snow with little coming from
the underlying magma. Research drill holes in Yellowstone have also indicated
that surface waters drain into underground passages reaching depths of over 300
meters. As the waters increase in temperature, a corresponding decrease in
weight (density) occurs. As a result, the hot water rises toward the surface
being pushed upward by colder waters which in turn sink and keep the water
48
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channels filled, thus a giant convection current operates continuously supply-
ing very hot water to the thermal pools and springs. Extensive data on tem-
perature ranges and discharge rates of thermal waters in Yellowstone National
Park are given by Allen and Day (1935).
Paleobotany
In 1970 Baker reported that the analytical data from pollen and seeds ob-
tained from cores of soil collected near Yellowstone Lake indicated that initial
woody plants in this region were Pinus albicaulis3 Picea enge1maniis Abies 1a-
siocccppa, Populus balsamifeTa, and Juniperus oomnmis.
Baker further concluded that vegetation near the tree line was a subalpine
parkland or alpine tundra during the late glacial period. A cold, moist climate
is implied by this type of vegetation with an average annual temperature 13.9 C
cooler than at present. This estimated 13.9° C temperature change is apparently
a good estimate as the closest weather station shows the present average annual
temperature to be 1° C. Approximations of mean annual temperatures during late
glacial periods is near -3° C.
During the post glacial period, 11,500 ± 350 years ago, as determined by
radiocarbon dating of sediments collected by Baker (1970), there was a change
in vegetative type. During this period, the Pinus contorta zone was dominated
by the lodgepole pine. Pseudotsuga was present but not abundant, as low pollen
percentages were found for this species. The older portion of this post gla-
cial zone was characterized by a Pinus oontOYta, Pinus albioaulis community
lacking any Pioea and Abies species. This vegetation suggests a cool but much
drier climate than during the later glacial periods. The mid-portion of this
zone, 50,000 to 10,160 years old, indicates a greater domination of P. aontorta.
The pollen spectra resembles the present day P. oontOTta forest and suggests
that this period had the warmest and driest climate of the post glacial period.
From the past 5,000 years to the present time, this region is character-
ized by increases in Picea and Abies and a higher percentage of Cyperaceae
pollen. All three are represented by macrofossils. The plant community was
probably a Pinus cont-OTta forest similar to the present. The pollen and macro-
fossils of Pioea and Abies suggest a climate slightly cooler and moister than
that of the mid-portion.
In another pollen-dating study conducted near Yellowstone National Park by
Waddington and Wright (1974) similar results as reported by Baker (1970) were
obtained. Waddington and Wright concluded that alpine vegetation or a spruce-
fir parkland prevailed on the Yellowstone plateau, back to the time of degla-
ciation more than 14,360 years ago.
About 11,500 years ago the vegetation shifted rapidly to a mosiac of spruce-
fir-white bark pine and lodgepole pine, perhaps with some openings of Artemisia.,
implying a warmer climate. The trend culminated in the Altithermal interval,
here dated as 9,000 to 45,000 years ago, when lodgepole pine probably dominated
the entire Yellowstone plateau. A slight subsequent increase in spruce and fir
pollen implies a reversal of the climatic trend.
49
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Meteorology
The Continental Divide which passes through this biosphere reserve site,
along with the many mountain ranges that run in a variety of different direc-
tions and orientations, make climatic generalizations and pattern recognition
extremely difficult.
Meteorology data as reported by Cooper (1975) indicate that the precipi-
tation regime changes from the western Wyoming area, where monthly precipita-
tion is fairly uniform, to the central portions of Wyoming which have wider
monthly variations and peak during the month of May. He further states that
available data obtained near the northern portions of Yellowstone National Park
show generally low precipitation and relatively high temperatures which would
coincide wi'th the development of the xeric portion of the Pseudotsuga vegeta-
tion type.
The highest precipitation for the general area was recorded at Island Park
Dam, one of the lowest recording stations (1,920 meters in elevation). This
station lies in the Island Park Basin some 10 kilometers east of the Yellow-
stone plateau. Nearly 53 kilometers due east and 452 meters higher, the Lake
Yellowstone station records less precipitation and virtually the same tempera-
ture regime as the Island Park Dam station (see Table 6). The higher precipi-
tation at Island Park Dam can be attributed to the approach effect generated
as air masses are forced upward after accumulating moisture while traversing
the Snake River Plains. It is notable that the dry Pseudotsuga series stands
that one might expect to find on the low altitude, south-facing slopes of the
Centennial Range to the north of Island Park are extremely scarce and poorly
developed owing to the high rainfall of this basin.
Approach effects, cold air drainage, valley effects, and other meteoro-
logical phenomena peculiar to mountainous regions virtually preclude extrapo-
lation of climatic area much beyond any recording station.
The climate data as shown on Table 6 are from available studies in or near
the boundaries of Yellowstone National Park. At best, they represent the cli-
mate of the forest community in their immediate vicinity.
Additional records show that the average yearly temperature near Yellow-
stone Lake ranges from 0° C to 1° C, and is 1.5° C at Old Faithful. Also, snow
accumulation ranges from 1.5 to 30 meters throughout much of the Park.
50
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TABLE 6. CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA BY MONTHS FOR STATIONS REPRESENTING BASAL ELEVATIONS IN AND NEAR
YELLOWSTONE PARK. (Cooper, 1975)
STATION
Mammoth, Wyoming
Lamar Ranger Station, Wyoming
Cooke City, Montana
West Yellowstone, Montana
Lake Yellowstone, Wyoming
Island Park Dam, Idaho
ELEVATION
Feet
(Meters)
6230
(1899)
6470
(1972)
7553
(2302)
6662
(2030)
7762
(2366)
6300
(1920)
Ta
Pb
T
P
T
P
T
P
T
P
T
P
Dec.
22.6
1.10
16.3
0.86
_
-
15.0
2.18
-
1.69
19.5
2.92
WINTER
Jan.
18.5
1.08
12.2
0.93
_
-
11.7
2.50
_
1.90
15.6
6.16
SUMMER
Feb.
19.6
1.01
16.9
0.72
_
-
16.2
1.81
_
1.53
16.8
3.24
June
54.
2.
51.
2.
_
-
51.
2.
_
2.
52.
3.
3
24
7
11
5
44
18
6
56
July
62
1
58
1
59
1
1
60
1
.9
.15
.3
.26
_
-
.6
.26
_
.38
.5
.01
Aug.
60.8
1.23
56.3
1.29
_
-
57.1
1.62
_
1.38
59.6
1.32
Mean
Annual
Values
37.9
15.33
36.0
13.43
33.5
27.64
35.1
21.22
_
19.87
36.2
32.29
T - Temperatures in °F
P - Precipitation in inches
-------
Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park
The Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Park biosphere reserve consists of two
nearly equal-sized adjoining portions (Figure 6). Geographically, Kings Can-
yon National Park lies to the north, bordered by the Sierra National Forest on
both its west side and northernmost point, and the Inyo National Forest on its
east side. The Kings Canyon portion is the smaller of the two, consisting of
approximately 1,445 square kilometers and is included on the following U.S.
Geological Survey's 15-minute quadrangles: Huntington Lake, Patterson Moun-
tain, Black Cap Mountain, Tehipite Dome, Mt. Goddard, Marion Peak, Big Pine,
Mt. Pinchot, Waucoba Mountain, and Independence.
The southern portion, Sequoia National Park, is bounded by Inyo National
Forest on its east side and Sequoia National Forest to the south. The west
side is predominately bordered by private land with a small portion surrounded
by the Sierra National Forest. This portion consists of 1,618 square kilome-
ters and is included on the following U.S. Geological Survey's 15-minute quad-
rangles: Giant Forest, Kaweah, Triple Divide Peak, Mineral King, Mount Whit-
ney, Kern Peak, Olancha, and Big Pine.
Both of these National Parks are under the supervision of the U.S. Nation-
al Park Service, headquartered at Three Rivers, California.
Topographically, this area is a mountainous region, ranging from slightly
more than 350 meters in elevation on its western boundary to over 4,400 meters
in elevation at the summit of Mount Whitney on its eastern side (Vankat, 1970).
It lies predominantly on the western slopes of the southern portion of the
Sierra Nevada-
Geologically, it is made up of mesozoic granitic which is typical of the
Sierra Nevada batholith. Also, scattered throughout are pre-Cretaceous meta-
morphic and metasedimentary rock outcroppings. As expected, the soils are
typical of the parent material (Matthews and Burnett, 1966).
This region is typical of the climatic patterns of many western mountain
ranges: increasing precipitation and decreasing temperature with increasing
elevation. Local climatic data have indicated this region to be typically
Mediterranean with warm dry summers and cool wet winters (Vankat, 1970). Also,
winter precipitation falls as rain in the low elevations and snow, at times
quite heavy, in the middle and upper elevations.
Vegetatively this region is composed of both montane and subalpine forests
with meadows and lakes scattered throughout both forest types. The dominant
plant genera are P-inus and Abies with a scattering of the distinctive species,
Sequoia gigantea throughout the montane forests.
Ownership
Kings Canyon and Sequoia are two separate adjoining National Parks. They
are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. Park Service's Regional Office located
at 450 Golden Gate Avenue in San Francisco, California. The resident head-
quarters for both parks is located at Three Rivers, California. Also, the
52
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SIERRA NATIONAL FOREST
\ JOHN MUIR
WILDERNESS
-
KINGS CANYON
NATIONAL
MONARCH
WILDE RNE
Upropowd)
SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK
— -« r*
INYO
NATIONAL
FOREST
SEQUOIA NATIONAL
FOREST
O Frasno
O
Sanger
O ViMlia
NOTE: WILDERNESS AHfAS AND NATIONAL PARK AREAS
WITHIN THE KINGS RIVER WATERSHED ARE SHADED
EXHIBIT
CONSULTIVE PLANNERS
Figure 6. Kings River watershed.
53
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jurisdiction of these two parks is under the direction of a single resident
superintendent.
The locations and addresses of the district offices of the U.S. Forest
Service whose forests border the Kings Canyon and Sequoia National Parks are
as follows:
Sequoia National Forest Sierra National Forest Inyo National Forest
900 W. Grand Avenue U.S. Federal Building 2957 Birch Street
Porterville, CA 93257 1130 0 Street Bishop, CA 93514
Fresno, CA 93721
Accessibility
There are no motor vehicle roads crossing the Sierra Nevada mountains in
either Sequoia or Kings Canyon National Parks. A number of paved and/or light
duty roads do, however, provide access into parts of the southern and western
portions of both Parks. The most notable of these include California State
Highway 198 entering at Ash Mountain in the southwestern corner of Sequoia and
extending approximately 29 kilometers north near Grant Grove Village. A number
of U.S. Forest Service light duty and recreational roads exit near the Village
on Highway 198 running east toward Kings Canyon, but end about 3.2 kilometers
west of the Park boundary. Another light duty road enters near Oak Grove con-
tinuing east exiting near Silver City. Access is limited on this road during
the winter months, as it is not maintained.
The only road entering Kings Canyon is California State Highway 180. This
road, approximately 11 kilometers in length, enters near Cedar Grove and ends
at Zumwalt Meadows.
The remaining areas of these two parks are accessible only by foot and
pack trails. As this area is covered by a network of trails too numerous to
identify here, only the major trails and access points will be identified.
The Pacific Crest Trail runs the entire length of both Parks paralleling
the eastern boundary and accessible via Whitney Portal, Kearsarge Pass, and
Bishop Pass. Other trails include the High Sierra and the California hiking
and riding trails running north-south in the central portion of Sequoia. A
number of trails running both north-south and east-west in Kings Canyon are
apparently not named. Extensive sampling in this area would require the use
of pack animals and/or the use of aircraft. Sample integrity would be diffi-
cult under many conditions.
Site Integrity
As part of the National Park System, the Parks are reserved, in theory,
forever. Therefore every confidence can be had that the ownership of the land
is not likely to change. Also, the Parks are big enough that adequate buffer
zones can be established around each of the actual sampling sites. If the sites
are properly chosen, human interference on these sites should be at a minimum.
Also, very little management activity occurs, such as forest cutting, etc., and
therefore there is little likelihood that the site will be impacted from this
type of activity.
54
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Vegetation types
The vegetation in this area has been identified and mapped by Vankat (1970)
and the Natural Resources Management Corporation (1975).
Twelve major vegetative types and subtypes have been identified in this
region. These types, along with other pertinent information, are listed as
follows:
Deciduous Oak Woodland Vegetative Type—Location — primarily in the west-
ern portion of the Parks at elevations between 400 meters and 1,500 meters.
Aspect — consists of scattered trees, few shrubs and a dense herbaceous
understory. This type is broken into two subtypes, the Blue Oak and the Cali-
fornia Black Oak.
Blue Oak Subtype—Location — occurs primarily in the lower and middle
elevations between 400 meters and 800 meters. Dominant vegetation — Quercus
douglasii, Q. wislizeni and Aesaulus oali-fornioa are the common tree species
with Arctostaphylos vise-Ida, and Rhamnus CYOGea common. The vegetative cover
commonly exceeds 80% with shrubs contributing less than 2%, trees between 30
and 80%, and herbaceous species contributing up to 80% at times.
California Black Oak Subtype—Location — occurs primarily in the middle
and upper elevations between 800 meters and 1,500 meters. Dominant vegetation
— Q. kelloggii, Q. douglasii, Aesaulus californiaa, Umbellulapia californiaa*
and Q. wisl-i-seni- are the dominant tree species along with dominant shrub spe-
cies, CeTO'is OGO-Ldental-is and Rhamnus crocea. Total vegetative cover is gener-
ally over 80% with shrubs contributing 3% and tree species from 65% to 90%.
Grassland Vegetative Type—Location — closely associated with the decid-
uous oak woodland type at elevations from 400 meters to 1,500 meters. Dominant
vegetation — perennial bunchgrasses. Many areas, however, have been taken
over by annuals, many of which are not common to California. Vegetative cover
can approach 100%, because of the successful invasion of annuals. In many
areas, 94% of the total cover can consist of these species.
Chaparral Vegetation Type—Location — this type occurs throughout the
western portion of the Park usually between 400 meters and 1,600 meters in ele-
vation. This type is dominated by shrubs which form dense canopies. It is
divided into two subtypes, the Chamise and the mixed.
1. Chamise Chaparral Subtype—Location — occurs on the west and south-
ern exposures of many drainages throughout the Park. It also occurs at the
lower and middle elevational ranges, 400 meters to 900 meters. Dominant spe-
cies — Adenostoma fasoiculatum is the most dominant species along with Ceano-
thus cuneatus and Apctostaphy'los viscida. Ground cover is usually 85% and 95%
with Adenostoma faso'lculatwn accounting for 75% of this total. Trees are com-
monly absent but may be scattered near type boundaries (ecotonal areas). Her-
baceous species can contribute 30% to 50% of the ground cover, especially dur-
ing the spring months when adequate moisture is available.
55
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2. Mixed Chaparral Subtype—Location — commonly occurs on the north
and east slopes at the middle and higher elevations, 900 meters to 1,600 meters.
Dominant vegetation — closely related to the oak woodland subtypes with Aes-
culus califomica and Q. wislizeni being the dominant tree species with Quer-
ous ahryso'lepis common. Common shrubs include Rhus diveTsiloba, Lonicera in-
terrupta and Cercis occidentalis. Ground cover can exceed 94% with herbaceous
species contributing from 50% to 75%, shrubs 30% to 60% and trees 40% to 60%.
Yucca Vegetation Type—Location — Foothill portions usually within the
elevational ranges of 600 to 1,500 meters. Found on very steep slopes of meta-
morphic or metasedimentary rock. Dominant species — Yucca whipplei.
Live Oak Woodland Vegetation Type—Location — occurs generally within 400
meters to 2,300 meters in elevation. However, in some areas such as in Kern
Canyon it is found up to 2,600 meters in elevation. This vegetation type has
been broken into two subtypes, the lowland and the upland.
1. Lowland Live Oak Woodland Subtype—Location — found primarily in the
low elevations, 400 meters to 1,100 meters, in riparian habitats. Dominant
species — Aesculus cdlifornica and Q. wislizeni are the dominant tree species,
with Q. douglasii and Umbellulavia californica common. Common shrub species
include Rhus tvilo'bata., Ceanothus velutinus and Fremont-la ealifomica with
Rhus diversiloba and Cercis occidental-is being dominant. Vegetative cover av-
erages around 90%, with herbaceous species contributing between 20% aad 80%,
shrubs between 15% and 35%, and tree species between 30% and 80%.
2. Upland Live Oak Woodland Subtype—Location — normally found on steep
rocky slopes at the upper elevations, 1,100 meters to 2,300 meters. Dominant
species — Q. wislizeni and Umbellularia califovnica. The vegetative cover is
commonly around 75% and is composed almost entirely of the two dominant species
Q. wislizeni and U, ealifomica.
Montane Chaparral Vegetation Type—Location — this type is found through-
out the Park at elevations ranging from 1,200 to 3,300 meters. Dominant spe-
cies — It is dominated by a dense cover of shrubs such as Arctostaphylos pa-
tula, A. manzanita, Ceanothus cordulatus, Prunus emavginata3 and many species
of Salix. Apparently this vegetation type has not been extensively studied,
as it is thought that due to the species diversity, many subvegetative types
could be made.
Coniferous Forest Vegetation Type—Location — this type, similar to the
Montane Chaparral vegetation type, occurs throughout the Parks. It occurs pri-
marily between 1,400 meters to 3,500 meters in elevation and is subdivided into
the following six subtypes.
1. Yellow Pine Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — it is found over
a wide elevational range, 1,400 meters to 2,700 meters, and under a variety of
exposures. A division within this subtype can be made between Finns ponderosa
and Pinus jeffreyi. Dominant species — The Ponderosa pine community is domi-
nated by P. ponderosa, Libocedrus decurrens, Q. "kelloggii, P. lambertiana, and
Abies concolor. Also found are Q. chrysolepiss Chamaebatia foliolosa3 and Arc-
tostaphylos viscida. The total vegetative cover exceeds 80% at times with her-
56
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baceous species contributing between 0.1% and 10%. Shrub cover is extremely
variable, depending on the area. Tree cover varies between a low of 60% and a
high of 95%. The Jeffrey pine communities are also commonly found throughout
the Parks, usually on south and west facing slopes. The dominant tree species
include P. jeffreyi, Libooedrus deourrens, and Abi-es concolor. Aretostaphylos
patula is the dominant shrub. Total vegetative cover is generally less than
found in the P. ponderosa communities, being around 65%. Herbaceous species
contribute around 20% with tree and shrubs contributing between 40% and 60%.
2. White Fir Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — this type is found
over a wide elevational range, 1,500 meters to 2,600 meters, and is quite vari-
able in species composition. At the lower elevations it contains elements of
the yellow pine subtype, and elements of the red fir and lodgepole pine subtypes
at the upper elevations. Dominant species — Perhaps the most notable distinc-
tion in this subtype is between groves which contain Sequoiadendron giganteum
and those without. The area containing S. giganteum also includes a mixture
of conifers such as Abies conoolov, Libooedrus deourrens, Pinus lambertianaj
P. ponderosa, and the black oak Quercus kelloggii. At higher elevations P.
geffreyi replaces P. ponderosa, and decreases of Q. kelloggii and L. deaurrens
are evident. Those areas which lack S. giganteum are dominated by the tree
species A. eoneolor, P. lambertiana, L. decurrens3 and Q. kelloggii. The dom-
inant shrub is Rosa spithamea. In many areas, however, shrubs are altogether
absent. Vegetative cover varies between 75% and 95%, with annual species con-
tributing between 1% and 25%, shrubs 0% to 25%, and trees generally over 75%.
3. Red Fir Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — this subtype is gener-
ally found in the 2,100-meter to 3,200-meter elevational range. It contains
elements of the white fir subtype at lower elevations and at the higher eleva-
tions may contain elements of the lodgepole pine subtype. Dominant species —
The major species are the red fir, Abies magnifioa, along with the pine, Pinus
aontorta. A. conoolor is also an important species in many areas of this sub-
type. Shrubs are noticeably absent in this subtype. Vegetative cover is quite
variable, usually varying between 40% and 95% depending on area and exposure.
Herbaceous species usually contribute between 1% and 5% with the remaining be-
ing supplied by the tree species.
4. Lodgepole Pine Coniferous Forest Subtype—Location — the lodgepole
pine subtype is commonly found in all areas of the Park between 2,100 meters
and 3,300 meters in elevation. Dominant species — Pinus oontorta is the dom-
inant species, occurring in pure stands throughout many areas. Only one shrub,
Ribes montigenwn3 is considered significant in this subtype. Vegetative cover
is near 80% with annual species contributing 30%, shrubs 0% to 15%, and trees
up to a high of 80%.
5. Foxtail, Western White, and White Bark Pine Coniferous Forest
Subtype—Location — this subtype is a subalpine community found throughout the
Parks between 2,900 and 3,600 meters in elevation. Dominant species — Most of
the timberline stands are composed of P. balfouriana, P. monticola, and P. albi-
caulis. In some areas P. oontorta can be considered a member of this subtype.
Shrub species in this subtype are noticeably absent in many areas. Vegetative
cover is normally around 25% but may reach 80% in some areas. Herbaceous spe-
cies contribute around 10% with the tree species contributing the remainder.
57
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However, depending on location, shrubs may provide up to 10% ground cover.
Juniper Woodland Vegetation Type—Location — occurs primarily in
areas between 900 meters and 1,800 meters elevation throughout the Parks. Dom-
inant species — This type is similar in aspect to the cold desert formations
in Utah and Nevada. It consists of scattered trees, primarily Juniperus ooo^-
dentalis and Pinus monophylla in stands of Artemisia tridentata and Cercocar-
pus ledifoli-us. P. jeffveyi and P. ponderosa can be found intermittently
throughout this vegetative type. Vegetative ground cover would be approxi-
mately 30% and 40%, with shrub species comprising 75% of the ground cover.
Wet Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type is common through-
out the Parks above 1,800 meters in elevation. It is characterized by peren-
nial sedges, bushes and grasses that are normally dependent on abundant mois-
ture throughout the growing season (Bennett, 1965). This type is divided into
two subtypes, the coarse-leaved sedges and the fine-leaved sedges.
1. Coarse-Leaved Sedge Wet Meadow Subtype—Location — common
throughout the Parks above 1,800 meters. Dominant species — Three species of
the genus Carex are found in this subtype. They include C. 'ianuginosa, C. vos-
tratctj and C. nebvascensis. Vegetative cover varies between 90% and 100% de-
pending on season. All three species are of equal importance.
2. Fine-Leaved Sedge Wet Meadow Vegetation Subtype—Location — com-
mon throughout the Parks above 1,800 meters. Dominant species — This subtype
is composed of Ccacex festivefia, C. vioavia3 C. speotabilis3 C, subn-igvioans3
and Poa pratensis (Bennett, 1965). Vegetative cover is similar to the coarse-
leaved subtype and would be between 90% and 100% depending on available moisture
and season.
Woodland Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type also occurs
throughout the Park at elevations above 1,000 meters. Dominant species — This
community consists of scattered trees of Pinus oontOTta, Populus fremontii3 P.
triehocarpa.; and P. tremuloides. In 1965, Bennett reported that this type prob-
ably represents past wet meadows that have been invaded by the cottonwood
trees. As such, a herbaceous understory is an important constituent of this
vegetative type.
Shorthair Meadow Vegetation Type—Location — this type is scattered
throughout the Park at high elevations, usually above 2,400 meters. Dominant
species — Dense mats of Carex exserta^ Calamagrostis breweri and Trisetim
spp. are commonly found in this dry upland meadow type. Ground cover usually
exceeds 90% with all three species contributing.
Alpine Fell-Field Vegetation Type—Location — this type is found
throughout the Parks above the timberline. Dominant species — This vegetative
type is a variety of perennial herbs scattered between a rocky terrain. Spe-
cies commonly found in this type include Carex helleri, Eriogomcm ovali-foliim,
Ivesia shockleyi and Eulsea algida. Vegetative cover varies depending on ex-
posure, but probably averages near 25%.
58
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Geology
The topography of Kings Canyon-Sequoia National Parks is mountainous, rang-
ing in elevation from 350 meters on the western boundary to 4,418 meters at
the summit of Mount Whitney. The major drainage systems include the Kaweah and
the Kings Rivers located on the western side, which drain to the San Joaquin
Valley. The Kern River drainage of the eastern and southern portions is domi-
nated by canyons, plateaus, and mountain peaks sculptured by glaciers (Vankat,
1970). Lying to the east of the Sierra Nevada escarpment is the Owens Valley.
The geological makeup of the Parks is mostly mesozoic granitic rock typi-
cal of the Sierra Nevada batholith with scattered pre-Cretaceous metamorphic
and metasedimentary rock outcroppings. In 1958, Ross geologically identified
and described an area of about 390 square kilometers in Sequoia and Kings Can-
yon National Parks. It lies on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada Moun-
tains in Talane County.
About 78 square kilometers of this area is underlain by metamorphic rocks.
The three largest masses, completely surrounded by igneous rocks, are roof pen-
dants. They have a general orientation that parallels the attitude of known
roof rocks to the north, and west.
Regular, persistent layers of differing mineralogical composition in the
schistose rocks of the largest metamorphic body, as well as the interlayering
of the schists with marble and quartzite, suggest that metamorphic layering is
a reflection of sedimentary bedding. Schistosity is essentially parallel to
the metamorphic layering.
The metamorphic body of Redwood Mountain is identified as being metasedi-
mentary rocks similar to the larger mass to the south. The most easterly pen-
dant body probably contains a large amount of silicic metavolcanic rocks and
is notably lacking in quartzite and marble. The remaining small metamorphic
bodies are either root portions of roof pendants or large zenoliths.
Schist is the most common of the metasedimentary rocks and is most abun-
dant in the western part of the largest metamorphic mass, the Redwood Mountain
body, and in some of the large zenoliths. The rocks are dark gray to black on
fresh surfaces, but have a distinctive reddish-brown weathered surface. The
reddish-brown color is commonly reflected in the soil adjacent to schist out-
crops.
An approximate average composition of the schists is 25% potash feldspar
and intermediate plagioclase, 25% biotite, and 35% quartz. The remaining 15%
is muscovite, epidote in the more calcareous schists, magnetite, zircon, apa-
tite, garnet, and rarely andalusite. The parent rocks were probably shales,
argillaceous siltstones, and fine-grained sandstones in an intermixed sequence.
An alternation of micaceous-feld-spathic and quartzose layers is common with
the layers ranging in thickness from a fraction of a millimeter up to 5 mm.
Finegrained, massive quartzite, ranging from cloudy white to dark gray in
color, is second to the schist in abundance and is most common in the south-
eastern portion of the largest pendant. Resistant quartzite beds form promi-
nent narrow ridges on both sides of the Middle Fork of the Kaweah River near
59
-------
Hospital Rock; the local name Devil's Rockpile is applied to an area of blocky
quartzite rubble from the ridge just north of the Hospital Rock Camp. The most
common type of quartzite is predominantly quartz with subordinate amounts of
feldspar and mica. Small amounts of diopside are also present, as are the com-
mon accessory minerals apatite, magnetite, and zircon. The parent rock of the
quartzite was sandstone or chert with some argillaceous and calcareous impuri-
ties.
Calcareous rocks—in particular, marble—are abundant in a band trending
northwest through the largest pendant. The most prominent outcrops of the band
are in the canyon of the Marble Fork of the Kaweah River, along Paradise Ridge,
and near Crystal Cave. Smaller isolated marble and calchornfels masses are
found along General's Highway east of the Ash Mountain Park Headquarters. The
fine- to coarse-grained marble is snow white to dark gray in color, much of it
is banded, and the alternating gray and white layers probably reflect original
bedding. A great variety of calc-silicate minerals has been developed where
impurities were present in the marble, or where material has been added from
the plutonic rocks. The calc-silicate materials are commonly pod-like and
discontinuous, but in some localities well-layered plagioclase-pyroxene horn-
fels probably reflect original composition and bedding. The calc-silicate
minerals are best developed in the isolated calcareous bodies east of the Ash
Mountain Park Headquarters and around the Harrington tungsten mine on the North
Fork of the Kaweah River. The most common minerals are calcite, pyroxene of
the diopside-hedenbergite series, garnet of the grossularite-andradite series,
wollastonite, idocrase, quartz, plagioclase, epidote, hornblende, and biotite.
Scheelite is also found locally in the calcareous rocks.
Amphibolite and amphibole schist are locally abundant north of Amphitheater
Point, and less common as lenses in the schist and quartzite elsewhere in the
roof pendants. The amphibolitic rocks are dark green, fine to medium grained,
and generally somewhat schistose. Hornblende and intermediate plagioclase are
the principal constituents, but some specimens are as much as 40 percent diop-
side. Biotite, quartz, and clinozoisite are less abundant; magnetite, titanite,
apatite, zircon, pyrite, and rutile are present as accessory minerals.
Rocks with relict volcanic or tuffaceous texture are rare in the roof pen-
dants. Some of the hornfels and schist of the easternmost large roof pendant
have affinities with volcanic rocks and will be considered as possible meta-
volcanic rock.
North of Amphitheater Point a small amount of metadacite is present. The
rock has a blastoporphyritic texture, with plagioclase, quartz, and hornblende
phenocrysts. The square cross-section of the quartz phenocrysts is suggestive
of a volcanic origin. Associated specimens with clastic quartz grains suggest
a tuff or tuffaceous sediment.
Near the Park Headquarters at Ash Mountain, the Ash Mountain complex was
described. The major rock type of this complex is a dark-gray, fine-grained
rock of quartz diorite composition which is intruded by a fine-grained, lighter
gray rock also of quartz diorite composition. Smaller amounts of quartz dio-
rite, resembling material of the Giant Forest pluton, and granite of the Cactus
Point pluton are also present within the complex.
60
-------
The dark-gray, fine-grained rock contains approximately 60% intermediate
andesite and traces of potash feldspar. Quartz composes 15% of the average
specimen as does brown biotite. The remaining 10% of the rock is green horn-
blende. Some hornblende crystals are sieve-like and have a structure resem-
bling schiller structure. Apatite, sphene, zircon, and magnetite are also pres-
ent. The average grain size of the specimens is 0.2 mm and the crystals are
anhedral.
The lighter gray fine-grained rock contains approximately 50% intermediate
andesite, 30% anhedral quartz, and 20% yellow- to deep-brown pleochroic, irreg-
ular biotite. Allenite is present in some of the specimens, as well as small
amounts of apatite, magnetite, and zircon. The average grain size is 0.3 mm
and most of the constituents are anhedral.
East of the Park Headquarters hornfelsic fine-grained rocks grade into
schistose rocks. The hornfelsic schists resemble the fine-grained rocks of
the Ash Mountain complex.
Plutonic rocks underlie the remaining 340 square kilometers. The mineral
composition of these rocks is summarized in Table 7. Details on each of these
compositions are available from Ross (1958).
Work on the absolute age of granitic rocks based on the lead-alpha activ-
ity ratio of the accessory minerals particularly zircon, by Larsen et al.,
1952 and 1954, has given an average age of 100 million years (mid-Cretaceous)
for several granitic rocks from the Sierra Nevada. Five of these specimens
were from the Bishop district, about 64 kilometers northeast of the Sequoia
area. Determinations of radioactive argon show that the granitic rocks of the
Yosemite Valley area are about 83 to 95 million years old (Evernden et al.,
1957).
The granitic province from the Klamath Mountains to Baja, California, con-
tains intrusions as old as the Upper Jurassic and as young as the Upper Creta-
ceous. The granitic rocks of the Sequoia area belong somewhere within this
range; recent work suggests a Cretaceous age.
Matthes (1965) reported that in the Pleistocene Epoch, both the Kaweah
Basin and the upper Kern Basin were occupied by glacier systems. These were
the most southerly of the major glacier systems of the Cascades-Sierra Nevada
chain. Being less favorably situated than those to the north, they were of
smaller volume; nevertheless, glaciers of considerable size formed in both
basins, especially the Kern, during each of the three glacial stages—the Gla-
cier Point Stage, the El Portal Stage, and the Wisconsin Stage.
In the Kaweah Basin, the development of glaciers was limited by the fact
that this basin heads not along the lofty main crest of the Sierra Nevada but
on the Great Western Divide and on other secondary crests that are only part
way up the Sierra west slope. Evidence is present in this basin for the earli-
est stage, the Glacier Point, but is extremely meager for the next stage, El
Portal. For the most recent stage, the Wisconsin, the records are far better.
They indicate that during both of these stages the converging canyons of the
61
-------
TABLE 7. SUMMARY OF MINERAL COMPOSITIONS OF THE PLUTONIC ROCKS. (Ross, 1958)
ROCK
Alaskite
Lodgepole granite
Pear Lake quartz monzonite
Cactus Point granite
Big Baldy granite
Weaver Lake quartz monzonite
Big Meadow pluton
Giant Forest pluton
Tokopah porphyritic granodiorite
Clover Creek granodiorite
Cow Creek granodiorite
Potwisha quartz diorite
Elk Creek gabbro
PLAGIOCLASE
An
10
15-25
20-25
10-25
20-30
10-35
30-42
18-48
30-40
20-45
30-40
30-55
45-80
Percent
20-30
15-45
40
10-20
5-60
25-45
30-75
30-75
45
40-55
50-65
55-70
50-85
Potash
feldspar
40-50
25-45
30
40-70
15-55
25-40
2-35
tr.-40
22
15-30
10-15
0-tr.
Quartz
30
25-35
30
15-30
20-35
25-35
15-30
10-35
23
20-25
15-30
15
0-5
Biotite
0-tr.
5
tr.
3-5
3-5
1-5
4-7
4-4
5
4-7
5
7-10
0-5
Hornblende Others
Muscovite 0-tr.
0-tr.
Muscovite tr.
0-tr. Muscovite 0-tr.
tr.-2
0-tr.
0-tr.
0-10 Pyroxene 0-tr.
•
5
4-7
tr.
8-20
tr.-48 Pyroxene 0-20
Olivine tr.
No. of
thin
sections
studied
3
7
1
4
5
11
20
70
1
3
2
2
7
Sphene, magnetite, zircon, apatite and allanite are common accessory minerals; monazite, garnet, and pyrite
only locally present.
-------
Kaweah Basin became pathways for cascading ice streams. Even the larger of
these streams, however, attained a length of only 16 kilometers. The ice
streams, therefore, fell short of uniting to form a major trunk glacier cor-
responding to the ones in the main drainage basins to the north and in the Kern
Basin to the east. They formed relatively small separate glacier systems, one
or more in the headwater areas of each of the main branches of the Kaweah. For
the most part, the glaciers were confined to the canyons, and these they filled
only in part. The lowest altitude reached by the ice in El Portal Stage was
about 1,400 meters; in the Wisconsin Stage, about 1,600 meters.
The Kern glacier system was a many-branched ice body fed from ranks of
cirques along the high bordering ranges. Since the Kern Canyon extends in a
nearly straight line through the middle of the upper Kern Basin, and the trib-
utary canyons branch from it like the ribs in an oak leaf, the Kern glacier
system had much the same leaflike pattern.
The maximum extent reached by the Kern glacier system in the Glacier Point
Stage cannot be determined with certainty, but the evidence would seem to war-
rant the inference that the glacier advanced approximately as far as its suc-
cessor of the El Portal Stage.
Records of El Portal Stage, though incomplete, can be interpreted with
more assurance. The volume of ice was then greater in some places than the
canyons could hold; the ice locally spread across intervening divides and over
benchlands on either side of the main canyon to a total breadth of 6 to 10
kilometers, thus producing a central ice sheet about 78 square kilometers in
extent. The overall length of the Kern glacier system was 51 kilometers; the
terminus of the trunk glacier lay at an altitude of 1,700 meters in the bend
of the canyon to the north of Hockett Peak (at latitude 36°14', which may rep-
resent the southern limit reached by glacial ice in the Sierra Nevada).
Records of the Wisconsin Stage are for the most part very well preserved.
They indicate that during this stage the Kern glacier system had less volume
than during the El Portal Stage and remained a sprawling ice body whose trunk
and branches lay confined within their respective canyons as distinct ice
streams separated one another by mountain spurs or low divides. The tributary
glaciers were as much as 24 kilometers long. The overall length of the Kern
glacier system is 40 kilometers. The farthest point reached by the terminus of
the trunk glacier coincides with the south boundary of the Park; the boundary
posts stand at an altitude of 1,935 meters on the curving outer moraine that
marks the extreme limits of the Wisconsin glaciation.
Soils
The soils of the Kings Canyon and Sequoia National Parks have not yet been
surveyed. However, surveys of a few areas adjacent to the western boundaries
in Fresno and Tulare counties are complete.
Soils that are apparently typical of portions of the Parks consists of (1)
excessively drained to well-drained soils of the lower foothills and (2) some-
what excessively drained and well-drained soils of the upper foothills. The
soils in this area formed mainly from granitic, metamorphic, serpentine, and
63
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basic igneous rocks. Small areas formed on colluvium, and many small valleys
formed on local alluvium (Soil Conservation Service, 1971).
The foothills extend to the east from the edge of the San Joaquin Valley.
Relief ranges from undulating to very steep, and elevation increases to the
east. Except where canyons have been cut, the soils formed in material from
granitic rock tend to have smoother, less steep slopes than the other soils.
The areas derived from metamorphic, serpentine, or basic igneous rocks gen-
erally have rougher, steeper slopes.
The uplands of the Sierra Nevada foothills are not divided physiographi-
cally, but are divided on the basis of climate into the lower and upper Sierra
Nevada foothills. The gradual increase in average annual precipitation and a
decrease in average annual temperature is closely related to the increase in
elevation. The lower foothill area is warmer and drier than the upper foothill
area.
The following soil series are common in these adjacent areas:
Aiken Series
The Aiken series consists of deep or very deep, well-drained soils
that have a fine-textured subsoil. These soils formed in material weathered
from basalt. In a typical profile, the surface layer is brown and dark-brown
loam about 23 centimeters thick. The subsoil to a depth of several meters is
reddish-brown and has a subangular blocky structure. The upper part is clay
loam, but the main part of the subsoil is heavy clay. Weathered basalt under-
lies the soil at depths in excess of 1 meter. The entire profile is slightly
acid to medium acid.
Basic igneous rock land is made up of areas that are 50% to 90% out-
crops of basalt or metamorphic volcanic rock, mainly hornblende schist. In
some areas more than 90% of the surface is basaltic rock. These are the colum-
nar jointed cliffs adjacent to the remnants of old volcanic flows on top of
Table Mountain and Squaw Leap.
Most areas of basic igneous rock land are steep to extremely steep,
but some areas on hilltops or mesas have more gentle relief. The surface of
these areas is generally very rough and broken and is stony as well as rocky.
The outcrops are dull or dark in color and irregular in shape.
In most places the soil material between the outcrops is loamy and
similar to adjacent soils that were formed from the same rock. Commonly, the
depth of soil material is extremely variable within short distances. The nat-
ural vegetation is mainly annual grasses and forbs with some shrubs and hard-
wood trees, including interior live oak and canyon live oak. On north slopes
and at higher elevations in the foothills, the cover of woody vegetation in-
creases.
Except for some areas on rock faces, the general drainage is good
to somewhat excessive. Runoff is variable; it is rapid in some local areas.
However, over most of the areas of this land, surface water can drain into the
many vertical cracks in the rocks or be trapped and absorbed by the soil mate-
rial between the outcrops, where it is released more slowly.
64
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Holland Series
The Holland series consists of deep to very deep, well-drained soils
with thick fine-textured subsoils formed in place, under forest, from the
weathering of granitic rock, principally quartz diorite and tranodiorite.
These soils are inextensive in this survey area; they are in the lower lying
parts of more extensive areas of Holland soil that exist in the Sequoia Na-
tional Forest east of the survey area.
A typical profile in this survey area has a brown, slightly acid,
coarse, sandy loam surface layer that is high in organic matter and is about
25 centimeters thick. The boundary between the surface layer and subsoil is
not abrupt. The subsoil is a thick, reddish-brown, moderately acid sandy clay
loam. It grades into well-weathered granitic rock at a depth of about 2 meters.
Sierra Series
The Sierra series consists of well-drained to somewhat excessively
drained soils with a sandy clay loam to clay loam subsoil that formed in place
from deep weathering of granitic rock. The parent rock is principally quartz
diorite and has a fairly high proportion of dark-colored, iron-bearing minerals.
These soils are mostly rolling to very steep and mountainous. Slopes are 3% to
70%. Large outcrops of parent rock are common.
In a typical profile, the surface layer is neutral to slightly acid,
grayish-brown sandy loam and is about 33 centimeters in thickness. The subsoil
is medium acid, reddish-brown clay loam and brown sandy clay loam about 150
centimeters thick. It is underlain by deeply weathered quartz diorite at a
depth of about 2 meters.
Hydrology
The hydrology of the Kings Canyon-Sequoia reserve is limited to the surface
description of the Kings River Watershed as described by Kings River Conserva-
tion District (Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975). The described
area includes most of the Kings Canyon National Park as shown on Figure 6.
In the Sierra Nevada the annual distribution of stream runoff resembles
the uneven distribution of precipitation during the year, except that the
greatest amounts of runoff occur during the snowmelt period of April through
July. The total annual runoff of the Kings River for the 79 years (1895-96
through 1973-74) of record is shown on Table 8. The average annual runoff dur-
ing this period is 1,668,500 acre-feet, with the lowest annual recorded during
the 1923-24 water year (392,000 acre-feet or 23% of normal) and the highest re-
corded during the 1968-69 water year (4,386,200 acre-feet or 263% of normal).
Approximately 20% of the annual runoff is produced by the North Fork, 40% by
the Middle Fork, and the remaining 40% by the Main Fork of the Kings River.
Wide variation in precipitation, snowpack accumulation, and runoff from
season to season in the Kings River Watershed is typical of other southern
Sierra Nevada watersheds. Table 9 lists the water-year runoff and/or snowmelt
season runoff for the Kings River at Piedra, the water-year precipitation for
65
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TABLE 8. KINGS RIVER INVESTIGATION
ANNUAL DISCHARGE OF KINGS RIVER AT PIEDRA
(From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975).
Water
Year
1895-96
1896-97
1897-98
1898-99
1899-00
1900-01
1901-02
1902-03
1903-04
1904-05
1905-06
1906-07
1907-08
1908-09
1909-10
1910-11
1911-12
1912-13
1913-14
1914-15
1915-16
1916-17
1917-18
1918-19
1919-20
1920-21
1921-22
1922-23
1923-24
1924-25
1925-26
1926-27
1927-28
1928-29
1929-30
1930-31
1931-32
1932-33
1933-34
1934-35
Runoff
1000 A.F.*
1535.7
1948.5
880.7
1278.2
1306.8
2956.0
1504.6
1639.8
1687.2
1448.1
3900.1
2733.2
997.0
2798.6
1779.0
2826.7
968.1
941.6
2548.4
1817.1
3041.8
1892.6
1363.7
1203.3
1404.7
1532.0
2197.6
1555.9
392.0
1290.2
1036.7
1984.3
970.9
850.0
862.7
465.4
2083.5
1181.4
657.4
1621.2
Water
% Normal Year
92.0
116.8
52.8
76.7
78.3
177.2
90.2
98.3
101.1
86.8
233.7
163.8
59.7
167.7
106.6
169.4
58.0
56.4
152.7
108.9
182.3
113.4
81.7
72.1
84.2
91.8
131.7
93.3
23.5
77.3
62.1
118.9
58.2
50.9
51.7
27.9
124.9
70.8
39.4
97.5
1935-36
1936-37
1937-38
1938-39
1939-40
1940-41
1941-42
1942-43
1943-44
1944-45
1945-46
1946-47
1947-48
1948-49
1949-50
1950-51
1951-52
1952-53
1953-54
1954-55
1955-56
1956-57
1957-58
1958-59
1959-60
1960-61
1961-62
1962-63
1963-64
1964-65
1965-66
1966-67
1967-68
1968-69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
79-Year Average
Runoff
1000 A.F.
1876.5
2341.0
3283.3
974.2
1791.2
2543.0
1999.4
2026.6
1168.3
2062.5
1612.1
1107.4
995.4
960.7
1280.9
1600.8
2856.0
1154.7
1324.6
1122.9
2585.5
1245.2
2544.2
806.7
714.5
569.0
1900.2
1939-0
911.5
2013.7
1215.8
3374.3
843.2
4386.2
1330.6
1174.9
859.5
2135.4
2095.9
1668.5
% Normal
112.5
140.3
196.8
58.4
107.4
152.4
119.8
121.5
70.0
123.6
96.6
66.4
59.7
57.6
76.8
95.9
171.2
69.2
79.4
67.3
155.0
74.6
152.5
48.3
42.8
34.0
113.9
116.2
54.6
120.7
72.9
202.2
50.5
262.9
79.7
70.4
51.5
128.0
125.6
100.0
* See Appendix A for Metric Conversion
66
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the period 1931 through 1970 at Balch Power House and the April 1 snowpack
accumulation (expressed as water content in inches) at Rowell Meadows. Varia-
tion in these hydrologic parameters from season to season indicates a range of
basin conditions which far overshadows the increase in runoff and associated
hydrologic parameters through weather modification.
The gauging station at Piedra has been in operation since 1895 and pro-
vides the longest set of flows available in the Kings River Basin. The North
Fork gauge near Cliff Camp, in operation since 1921, is the second longest set
of recorded flows. Other stream gauging stations went into operation in the
early 1920*s. During the late 1950rs and early 1960's, additional gates were
installed, principally at damsites and at tributaries of the Kings River. Ta-
ble 10 shows the number, location, and drainage area of the selected stream
gauging stations and Figure 7 presents the length of record available in bar-
graph form.
Shown on Figure 8 is a graph illustrating the flows of the Kings River
(at Piedra), by water years, in millions of acre-feet. The graph also shows
the cumulative deviations from the mean flows, from which the magnitude and
duration of historically wet and dry periods can be observed. The three water
years from 1958-59 through 1960-61 represent the most severe 3-year drought in
the history of recorded flow on Kings River. These three years provided only
43% of the long-term average supply; this can be compared with the 4-year
drought from 1927-28 through 1930-31, which had a supply of 48% of average.
Surface water in the Kings River Basin is of excellent mineral quality and
suitable for all beneficial uses assigned to it by the California Regional Water
Quality Control Board, Central Valley Region (CVWOCB). For management purposes,
the CVWQCB has divided the Kings River into five segments—Kings River above
Kirch Flat, Kirch Flat to Pine Flat Dam, Pine Flat Dam to Friant-Kern Siphon,
Friant-Kern Siphon to People's Weir, and People's Weir to Stinson Weir (North
Fork), and from Stinson Weir to Empire Weir No. 2 (South Fork).
Waters of the upper reaches of the Kings River are clear, free from foam
or detectable color and odor, a neutral pH, dissolved oxygen near saturation,
low levels of dissolved minerals and nutrients, and an aquatic flora and fauna
typical of unpolluted waters (Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975).
Measurement of pH and hardness' show the upper Kings River to be neutral,
and soft to moderate calcium bicarbonate in nature. Dissolved oxygen levels
are high, ranging from 74% to 111% saturation; water temperatures are low, rang-
ing from about 5 C to 18 C with maximums occurring in August or September and
minimums in December or January. Concentrations of dissolved minerals are low
and no chemical anomalies are apparent.
Concentrations of suspended sediments are low, seldom exceeding 30 mg/1.
Figure 8 also indicates that sediment production from the watershed is very
low (approximately 1 to 1/2 acre-foot per year) under present conditions. Be-
cause of the steep gradients of the streams, little sediment deposition occurs
within the project area.
67
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TABLE 9. KINGS RIVER INVESTIGATION
VARIABILITY IN OBSERVED HYDROLOGIC DATA BY SEASON
(From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975)
Water
Year
1931
32
33
34
1935
36
37
38
39
1940
41
42
43
44
1945
46
47
48
49
1950
51
52
53
54
1955
56
57
58
59
1960
61
62
63
64
1965
66
67
68
69
1970
Water-Year
Runoff
% of Avg.
28
133
75
42
103
120
149
209
52
114
162
128
129
74
131
103
71
63
61
82
102
182
74
85
73
172
80
167
53
46
36
119
121
56
128
77
215
54
280
85
Water-Year
Runoff
1000 A.F.
465.8
1083.5
1180.9
658.8
1621.3
1876.5
2340.8
3275.1
974.4
1790.4
2542.8
2005.3
2026.6
1168.2
2062.4
1612.0
1107.3
996.2
960.7
1281.0
1601.0
2856.0
1155.0
1330.0
1143.0
2695.0
1259.0
2615.0
823.7
718.9
571.5
1871.9
1902.0
877.9
2013.7
1215.8
3374.3
843.2
4386.2
1330.6
April- July
Runoff
1000 A.F.
355.2
1585.0
984.0
407.2
1335.4
1428.8
1730.2
2316.1
656.4
1305.5
1910.3
1553.2
1380.7
926.9
1517.5
1128.1
726.4
868.7
821.1
1028.3
853.7
2196.0
865-6
1060.5
862.0
1570.3
996.5
2016.8
528.2
547.2
402.4
1485.2
1409.9
630.1
1326.2
910.8
2330.0
565.7
3140.5
886.4
Water-Year
Precip.
Balch P.H.
Inches*
17.37
33.64
21.13
16.44
34.30
32.30
38.04
46.12
22.63
31.72
38.65
32.05
34.89
24.43
32.39
24.89
26.17
23.84
21.28
24.20
33.45
39.68
21.32
27.08
22.95
41.37
25.11
43.77
17.65
18.79
18.64
33.83
32.33
21.69
34.69
20.73
49.17
17.48
60.58
.. -i — — • •
April 1 Snow-
Pack Water
Content-Inches
Rowel 1 Mdw.
38.3
25.1
14.4
13.2
31.7
43.1
48.0
14.8
32.4
42.7
34.7
38.2
25.8
32.9
20.9
18.9
18.9
23.2
22.6
11.1
20.6
31.0
19.2
27.0
20.1
15.4
14.8
12.1
41.7
17.5
12.5
25.3
19.3
43.1
16.5
73.9
19.3
* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.
68
-------
Paleobotany
Little Information could be gathered on the paleobotany of the Sequoia-
Kings Canyon areas.
Meteorology
The climatological patterns found within the Kings Canyon-Sequoia region
are profoundly influenced by topography. Total precipitation increases within
the Sierra Nevada foothills as the moist air ascends the relatively steep
Sierra slope. Precipitation ultimately drops off above 2,700 meters. Grant
Grove, at 2,000 meters in elevation, averages approximately 100 centimeters
of precipitation annually (Biswell et al., 1966). Thunderstorms are recorded
about five days per year at lower elevations, while 8 to 10 recordings per
year are typical for higher altitudes.
Amounts of snowfall at low elevations are very light—about 2.5 centime-
ters annually at elevations of 400 meters—increasing to about 600 centimeters
annually above 2,400 meters. At the higher elevation, snow remains throughout
the winter. Accumulations of 180 to 200 centimeters are not uncommon, and
depths of 300 centimeters or more have been recorded. Typically, it is around
the 10th of May before the last snow melts at Grant Grove.
In general, average temperature decreases as altitude increases with a
wide range of temperatures represented within the Park region. In July, daily
maximum temperatures average over 38° C within the thermal belt associated with
the Sierra Nevada foothills, which extends for a distance up river canyons.
Higher in the mountains, summer temperatures are cooler than the valley, and
winter temperatures may be quite cold. Stations from 1,700 meters to 2,100
meters have averages in July below 18° C and in January from -1° C to 0° C.
Table 11 shows the precipitation and temperatures at Ash Mountain elevation
500 meters and Giant Forest at 1,953 meters during 1964 (Vankat, 1970).
In open areas of the region the prevailing wind direction is from the
northwest during most of the year, although south-easterly winds are more com-
mon during November, December, and January. In mountainous terrain there is
a tendency for air to move up-slope during the day and to drain down-slope
during the night. Relative humidity is fairly high during the winter months,
ranging from 50% to 70%. Low readings are the rule during the rest of the
year. Late summer and fall are particularly dry in this area (Kings River
Weather Modification Program, 1975).
69
-------
TABLE 10. KINGS RIVER BASIN GAUGING STATIONS
(From Kings River Weather Modification Program, 1975)
Station
No.
2220
2217
2215
2185
2135
2130
2184
2165
2150
2146
2145
2180
2170
Name and Location
Kings River at Piedra
Mill Creek near Piedra
Kings River below Pine Flat Drum
Kings River below North Fork
Kings River above North Fork
Kings River near Hume
North Fork Kings River below
Dinkey Creek
North Fork Kings River above
Dinkey Creek
North Fork Kings River near
Cliff Camp
Helms Creek below Courtright Dam
Helms Creek at Sand Meadows
Dinkey Creek at Mouth
Dinkey Creek at Dinkey Meadow
Drainage Area
(sq. mi.)*
1687
127
1545
1342
952
835
387
250
181
39.7
34.7
136
50.8
* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.
70
-------
OP
C
M
ro
3* fl>
(!) O
o
W I-!
H- Of
3 CO
CM
CO ill
W 0>
H- H-
< M
(D 03
H O4
I-1
W ro
P3
CO P)
CO
ro
M
ro
o
rt
ro
ex
H
ro
I
00
p
c
00
OP
CO
rt
H-
I
CO
STATION
NUMBER
2220
2217
2215
2185
2135
2130
2184
2165
2150
2146
2145
2180
2170
STREAM
GAGING STATION
KINGS RIVER AT PIEDRA
MILL CREEK NEAR PIEDRA
KINGS RIVER BELOW
PINE FLAT DAM
KINGS RIVER BELOW
NORTH FORK
KINGS RIVER ABOVE
NORTH FORK
KINGS RIVER NEAR HUME
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
BELOW DINKEY CREEK
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
ABOVE DINKEY CREEK
NORTH FORK KINGS RIVER
NEAR CLIFF CAMP
HELMS CREEK BELOW
COURTRIGHT DAM
HELMS CREEK AT
SAND MEADOWS
DINKEY CREEK AT MOUTH
DINKEY CREEK AT
DINKEY MEADOW
DRAINAGE]
AREA I
(mi.2) 1
1687
127
1545
1342
952
835
387
250
181
39.7
34.7
136
50.8
WATER YEARS (OCTOBER THROUGH SEPTEMBER)
— CM
CMCM
RE
-
•
•
CM
cn
COF
"•
10
895
cn
|
I
g
cn
CM
in
cn
1
in
0
-
1C
in
cn
wm
m
0)
m
cn
••
•
O
cn
CM
-------
MEAN ANNUAL RUNOFF FOR 77-YEAR PERIOD 1895-96 THROUGH 1971-72= 1,656,900 ACRE-FEET
Figure 8. Wet and dry periods in the runoff in Kings River at Piedra.
72
-------
TABLE 11. CLIMATIC DATA AT ASH MOUNTAIN AND GIANT FOREST--1964 (Vankat, 1974)
MONTH
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Annual
Normal Mean Monthly
Preclpitation(inches) *
Ash Mountain
4.55
4.85
4.28
3.00
1.17
0.24
0.05
0.04
0.21
0.99
2.19
4.95
26.52
Giant Forest
7.85
8.49
6.88
4.52
1.90
0.42
0.12
0.12
0.35
1.68
3.70
8.37
44.40
Normal Mean Monthly
Temperature (°F)
Ash Mountain
46.2
49.3
53.0
59.6
66.0
74.6
83.4
81.8
76.6
66.4
55.3
48.6
63.4
Giant Forest
32.0
33.4
37.3
42.1
47.8
55.5
64.0
63.2
59.2
49.5
40.5
34.8
46.6
* See Metric Conversion Table, Appendix A.
73
-------
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80
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Non-Metric Unit
acre
APPENDIX A
METRIC CONVERSION TABLE*
Multiply by
Metric Unit
0.40468 hectare (ha)
(one hectare = 10,000 square meters)
cubic meters (m3)
meter (m)
liter (1)
millimeter (mm)
kilometer (km)
liter (1)
kilogram (kg)
* English units were used interchangeably in this report, because much of the
source data were not available in metric units.
acre-foot
foot
gallon
inch
mile
pint
pound
1233.48
0.3048
3.7854
(one liter = 0.001 cubic meter)
2.54
1.609
0.473
0.453
81
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APPENDIX B. SPECIES LIST* — YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK
I. VEGETATION
DicTanaoeae
Ceratodon purpureus
Bryoceae
Bryum Turbinalum
Equisetaceae
Equisetum arvense
Equisetum arvense, var. alpestre
Equisetum hiemale
Equisetum laevigatum
Equisetum variegatum
Se lag-Lne 1 laceae
Selaginella densa
Typhaceae
Typha latifolia
Sparganiaceae
Sparganium androcladum
Najadaoeae
Potamogeton alpinus
Potamogeton filiformis
Potamogeton gramineus
Potamogeton natans
Potamogeton nodosus
Potamogeton strictifolius
Potamogeton tenuifolius
Pinaoeae
Abies lasiocarpa
Juniperus communis
Juniperus scopulorum
Picea engelmanni
Picea glauca
Picea pungens
Pinus albicaulis
Pinus contorta
Pinus flexilis
Pseudotsuga menziesii
A 1-Lsmaaeae
Sagittaria arifolia
GTomineae
Agropyron albicans
Agropyron caninum
Agropyron dasystachyum
Agropyron spicatum
Agropyron subsecundum
Agropyron trachycaulum
*Except where noted, species lists were based on U.S. Park Service lists.
82
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'Boute1o^^a
Agrostis alba
Agrostis exarata
Agrostis hiemalis
Alopecurus aequalis
Beckmannia syzigachne
Bromus anomalus
Bromus carinatus
Bromus cHiatus
Bromus commutatus
Bromus inermis
Bromus tectorum
Calamagrostis canadensis
Calamagrostis inexpansa
Calamogrostis rubescens
Dactylis glomerata
Danthonia intermedia Vasey
Deschampsia caespitosa
Elymus anerecis
Elymus condensatus
Elymus glaucus
Festuca idahoensis
Glyceria borealis
Glyceria elata
Glyceria pauciflora
Glyceria striata
Hersperochloa kingii
Hierochloe odorata
Hordeum brachyantherum
Hordeum jubatum
Koeleria cristata
Melica spectabilis
Muhlenbergia andina
Muhlenbergia filiformis
Muhlenbergia racemosa
Muhlenbergia richardsonis
Orhyzopsis hymenorden
Phalaris arundinacea
Phleum pratense
Panicum thermale
Poa annua
Poa canbyi
Poa fendleriana
Poa interior
Poa leptocoma
Poa nervosa
Poa palustris
Poa pratensis
Sitanion hystrix
Sphenopholis obtusata
Stipa columbiana
Stipa comata
Stipa lettermanni
Stipa occidentalis
Stipa richardsoni
Trisetum spicatum
Trisetum wolfii
Cyperaoeae
Carex aquatilis
Carex arthrostachya
Carex aurea
Carex chimaphila
Carex concinnocdes
Carex douglasii
Carex eastwoodiana
Carex festivells
Carex geyeri
Carex gravida
83
-------
Cyperaceae (continued)
Carex hoodii
Carex interior Bailey
Carex lanuginosa Michx
Carex nebraskensis
Carex occidentalis
Carex phaeocephala
Carex rossii
Carex rostrata
Carex vesicaria
Eleocharis acicularis
Eleocharis macrostachya
Eleocharis obtusa
Eleocharis pauciflora
Scirpus subterminalis
Lermaoeae
Lemna minor
Lemna trisulca
Juncaoeae
Juncus balticus
Juncus bufonius
Juncus confusus
Juncus ensifolius
Juncus filformis
Juncus longistylis
Juncus parryi
Juncus saximontanus
Lili-geeae
Alliutn spp.
Allium brevistylum
Allium textile
Brodiaea douglasii
Camassia quamash
Erythronium grandiflorum
Fritillaria atropurpurea
Fritillaria pudica
Sesporum trachycarpum
Smilacina stellata
Smilacina racemosa
Streptopus amplexifolius
Zygadenus paniculatus
Zygadenus elegans
Iridaceae
Sisyrinchium idahoense
OTohidaoeae
Calypso bulbosa
Corallorhiza mertensiana
Corallorhiza striata
Goodyera oblongifolia
Habenaria hyperborea
Habenaria unalascensis
Spiranthes romanzoffiana
Salicaceae
Populus angustifolia
Populus balsamifera
Populus tremuloides
Salix caudata
Salix drummondiana var. subcoerulea
Salix exigua
Salix farrae
Salix geyeriana
Salix luted
Salix luted var. platyphylla
84
-------
Salioaoeae (continued)
Salix mackenziana
Salix melanopsis
Salix melanopsis var. tenerrima
Salix pseudocordata var. aequalis
Salix scpuleriana
Salix wolfii
Salix wolfii var. idahoensis
Betulaceae
Alnus tenuifolia
Betula glandulosa
Cannofainaeeae
Humulus lupulus
Urt-icaceae
Urtica gracilis
Santalaoeae
Comandra pallida
Lopanthaoeae
Arceuthobium americanum
Polygonaceae
Eriogonum heracleoides
Eriogonum subalpinum
Eriogonum umbellatum
Pachistima myrsinites
Polygonum amphibium
Polygonum avi.culare
Polygonum bistortoides
Polygonum buxiforme
Polygonum douglasii
Polygonum fluitans
Rumex acetosella
Rumex crispus
Rumex fueginus
Rumex paucifolius
Rumex triangulivalvis
Chenopod-Lgceae
Blitum capitatum
Chenopodium album
Chenopodium aridum
Eurotia lanata
Kochia scoparia
Monolepis nuttalliana
Salsola pestifer
Sarcobatus spp.
Portulacaoeae
Claytonia lanceolata
Caryophy1laeeae
Arenaria congesta
Arenaria lateriflora
Cerastium oreophilum
Sagina saginoides
Spergularia rubra
Stellaria americanum
Stellaria longifolia
Stellaria longipes Goldie
Nynrphapceae
Nuphar polysepalum
85
-------
Ranunculaoeae
Aconitum columbianum
Actaea rubra
Anemone globosa
Aquilegia caerulez
Clematis columbiana
Clematis eriophora
Delphinium nelsoni Greene
Delphinium occidentale
Ranunculus acriformis var. montanensis
Ranunculus aquatilis var. capilaceus
Ranunculus cymbalaria
Ranunculus glaberrimus
Ranunculus inamoenus
Ranunculus natans
Ranunculus sceleratus var. multifidus
Thalictrum fendleri
Thalictrum occidentale
Thalictrum sp.
Berberidaceae
Berberis repens
Mahonia aquifolium
Cruoiferae
Arabis drummondii
Arabis exilis
Arabis glabra
Arabis hirsuta
Arabis holboellii
Arabis nuttallii
Barbarea americana
Capsella bursa-pastoris
Cardamine breweri
Descurainia pinnata
Descurainia sophia
Draba stenoloba
Erysimum cheiranthoides
Lepidium campestre
Lepidium densiflorum var. bourgeauanum
Lepidium perfoliatum
Lesquerella prostrata
Rorippa palustris
Thlaspi arvense
Thlaspi parvilflorum
CyassutaGeae
Sedum debile
Sedum lanceolatum
Sedum stenopetalum
Heuchera parviflora
Lithophragma bulbifera
Lithophragma parviflora
Parnassia parviflora
Saxifraga montanensis
Saxifraga punctata var. arguta
Saxifraga rhomboidea
Grossu lar-i-aoeae
Ribes cereum
Ribes inerme
Ribes lacustre
Ribes sativum
Ribes setosum
Ribes viscosissimum
Ribes montigenun
86
-------
Rosaoeae
Amelanchier alnifolia
Fragaria bracteata
Fragaria glauca
Fragaria pauciflora
Fragaria platypetala
Fragaria vesea
Fragarta virgtniara
Geum macrophyllum
Geum triflorum
Physocarpus malvaceus
Potentilla arguta spp. conyallaria
Potentilla arguta spp. typica
Potentilla diversifolia
Potentilla flabelliformis
Potentilla fruticosa
Potentilla gracilis spp. nutallii
Potentilla monspeliensis
Potentilla pulcherrima
Prunus melanocarpa
Prunus virginiana
Purshia tridentata
R,osa acicularis
Rosa fendleri
Rosa woodsii
Rubus parviflorus
Rubus strigosus
Sieversia ciliata
Sorbus scopulina
Spiraea betulifolia
Spiraea lucida
CaatQoeae
Astragalus adsurgens Leguminosae
Astragalus agrestis
Astragalus alpinus
Astragalus bodini
Astragalus decumbens var. oblongifolius
Astragalus glareosus
Astragalus miser
Caragana arborescens
Glycyrrhiza lepidota
Hedysarum boreale var. cinerascens
Lupinus argenteus
Lupinus humicola
Lupinus lepidus spp. caespitosus
Lupinus leucophyllus
Lupinus parviflorus
Medicago lupulina
Medicago sativa
Melilotus alba
Melilotus officinalis
Opuntia polyocantha
Oxytropis deflexa
Trifolium hybridum
Trifolium pratense
Trifolium repens
Trifolium rydbergii
Vicia americana var. linearis
It-Lnaoeae
Linum lewisii
Linum perenne
Geyaniaceae
Geranium nervosum
Geranium richardsonii
Geranium viscosissimum
87
-------
Catl-jtT'io'haceae
Callitriche palustris
Lirnnanthaoeae
Floerkia occidentalis
Celastraceae
Pachystima myrslnites
Epilobium angustifolium
Epilobium latifolium
Epilobium paniculatum
Epilobium saximontanum
Epilobium suffruticosum
Gayophytum diffusum
Oerothera herteranthera
Pyrola asarifolia
Pyrola secunda
Acer glabrum
Acer grandidentata
Khamnaceae
Ceanothus velutinus
Rhamnus alnifolia
Malvaceae
Sphaeralcea rivularis
Vi,o1aaeae
Viola adunca
Viola canodensis
Viola nephrophylla
Elaeagnaoeae
Elaeagnus commutata
Shepherdia canadensis
Qngcsraceae
Epilobium adenocaulon
Halovagidaceae
Hippuris vulgaris
Myriophyllum verticillatum
Myriophyllum exalbescens
UmbellifeTae
Angelica pinnata
Berula erecta
Bupleurum americanum
Heracleum lanatum
Ligusticum filicinum
Lomatium ambiguum
Lomatium dissectum
Lomatium simplex
Osmorhiza chilensis
Osmorhiza depauperata
Osmorhiza obtusa
Osmorhiza occidentalis
Perideridia bolanderi
Perideridia gairdneri
Sium suave
Cornaoeae
Cornus stolonifera
88
-------
Ericaceae
Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
Chijnaphila umbellata
Menzlesia ferruginea
Pterospora andromeda
Pyrola asartfolia
Pyrola chlorantha
Pyrola secunda
Vaccinium membranaceuin
Vacciniumt scoparium
Vacci.nium globulare
Prjmulaceae
Androsace septentrionalis var. pube-
rulenta
Androsace septentrionalis var. subum-
bellata
Dodecatheon pauciflorum
Fro sera speciosa
Gerrtiancaceae
Gentiana amarella
Gentiana thermal is
Swetia radiata
Po lemoniaceae
Collomia linearis
Gilia aggregata
Linanthus septentrionalis
Phlox longifolia
Phlox multiflora
Polemonium caejruleum var. occidentalis
Polemonium pulcherrimum
aoeae
Phacelia franklinii
Phacelia heterophylla
Phacelia leucophylla
Phoulia hostata
Hydrophyllum capitatum
Nemophila breviflora
Cryptantha affinis
Hackelia diffusa var. caerulescens
Hackelia floribunda
Lappula cenchroides
Lappula foliosa
Lithospermum ruderale
Myosolis arvensis
Labiatae
Agastache urticifolia
Dracocephalum parviflorum
Mentha canadensis
Prunella vulgaris
Scutellaria galericulata
Scrophu lar-igceae
Castilleja flava
Castilleja lineariaefolia
Castilleja longispica
Castilleja lutea
Castilleja miniata
Castilleja rhexifolia
Collinsia parviflora
Cordylanthus ramosus
Mimulus guttatus
Orthocarpus luteus
Pedicularis groenlandica
Pedicularis paysoniana
89
-------
Scrophu lca>-iaceae (continued)
Penstemon aridis
Penstemon deustus
Penstemon procerus
Penstemon subglaber
Veronica americana
Veronica peregrins
Veronica serpyllifolia
Symphoricarpos rivularis
Symphoricarpos tetonensis
Valeriana dioica
Valeriana obovata
Valeriana occidentalis
OTobanohaoeae
Orobanche fasciculata
Orobanche ludoviciana
Orobanche uniflora
Lentibulariaceae
Utricularia vulgaris
Plantaginaceae
Plantago lanceolata
Plantago major
Rubiaaeae
Galium bifolium
Galium boreale
Galium trifidum
Caprifoliaceae
Linnaea borealis var. americana
Lonicera involucrata
Lonicera utahensis
Sambucus melanocarpa
Symphoricarpos albus
Symphoricarpos occidentalis
Symphoricarpos oreophibes
Canrpanulaceae
Campanula rotundifolia
Lobe l-iaceae
Porterella carnosula
Compositae
Achillea millefolium
Agoseris elata
Agoseris glauca
Agoseris glauca var. laciniata
Agoseris purpurea
Antennaria aprica
Antennaria arida
Antennaria corymbosa
Antennaria dimorpha
Antennaria lanata
Antennaria luzuloides
Antennaria parvifolia
Antennaria racemosa
Antennaria rosea
Arnica chamissonis
Arnica cordifolia
Arnica latifolia
Artemisia abrotanum
Artemisia cana
90
-------
Compositge (oont-vmedl
Artemisia dracunculoides
Artemisia ludoviciana
Artemisia tridentata
Artemisia tripartita
Aster campestris
Aster canescens
Aster chilensis
Aster coerulescens var. laeteyirens
Aster conspicuus
Aster engelmonnii
Aster foliaceus var. apricus
Aster foliaceus var. frondeus
Aster integrifolius
Aster occidentalis
Aster parelegans
Balsamorrhiza sagittata
Besseya wyomingensis
Chaenactis douglasii
Chrysopsis yillosa
Chrysothamus nauseosus
Chrysothamus viscidiflaces
Cirsium arvense
Cirsium drummondii
Cirsium uniutalum
Conyza canadensis
Crepis acuminata
Crepis intermedia
Crepis tectorum
Crepis alrabarba
Crepis atrabarba
Erigeron divergens
Erigeron peregrinus
Erigeron glabellus
Erigeron spp.
Erigeron ochroleucus
Erigeron pumilus spp. concinnoides
Erigeron speciosus
Eriophyllum lanatum
Gnaphalium chilense
Gnaphalium palustre
Grindelia squarrosa
Haplopoppus acaulis
Helionthella uniflora
Helionthella quinquenervis
Hieracium albiflorum
Hieracium cynoglossoides
Hieracium scouleri
Iva zanthifolia
Lactuca integrata
Machaeranthera pulverulenta
Machaeranthera viscosa
Madia glomerata
Matricaria suaveolens
Rudbeckia occidentalis
Senecio crassulus
Senecio cymbalariodes
Senecio glaucescens
Senecio hydrophilus
Senecio perplexus
Senecio streptanthifolus
Senecio serra
Solidago lepida var. elongata
Solidago lepida var. fallax
Solidago multirodiata
Solidago missouriensis
Solidago nemoralis
Stephanomeria tenuifolia
Tanacetum vulgare
91
-------
Compositae (continued)
Taraxacum officinale
Tetradymia inermts
Tragopogon porrifolius
Viguiera mutiflora
Wyethia helianthoides
Apoeynaoeae
Apocunum androsaemifolium
II. INSECTS (Vincent, 1967)
Coleopters (Order)
Dtptera (Order)
Antocha spp.
Atherix spp.
Cinygmula sp.
Ephemerella hystlrix
Glossosoma spp.
Hexatema spp.
Hexatone spp.
Rhittrogenia hageni
Simulium spp.
Ephemeropters (.Order)
Pleooplera (Order)
Acroneuria pacifica
Acroneuria theodora
Acrynopteryx spp.
Alloperla spp.
Claassenia sabulosa
Isoperla spp.
Leutra spp.
Nemoura spp.
Pteronarcys California
Triehoptera (Order)
Arctopsyche grandis
Dolophiledes spp.
Glossosoma spp.
Rhyacophila spp.
Rhyarophila airopedes
Ephydra lamproscatella
Paracoenia turbida
Partnuniella thermalis
Pteromalidae Urolepis
III. FISHES
Native Fishes:
Catostomus ardens (Utah Sucker)
Catostomus catostomus (Longnose Sucker)
Catostomus platyrhynchus (Mountain Sucker)
Cottus bairdii (Mottled Sculpin)
Gila atraria (Utah Chub)
Prosopium williamsoni (Mountain Whitefish)
Rhinichthys cataractae (Longnose Dace)
Rhinichthys osculus (Speckled Dace)
Richardsonius balteatus (Redside Shiner)
Richardsonius balteatus x Rhinichthyes
osculus (Redside Shiner x Speckled
Dace Hybrid)
Salmo Clarki (Cutthroat Trout)
Thymallus arcticus (Arctic Grayling,
American)
92
-------
Introduced Fishes:
Couesius plumbeus (Lake Chub)
Salmo gairdneri (Rainbow Trout)
Salmo gairdneri K Salmo Clarkii (Rainbow
x Cutthroat Trout Hybrid)
Salmo trutta (Brown Trout)
Salyelinus fontinalis (Brook Trout)
Salvelinus namayrush (Lake Trout)
IV. BIRDS
Acanthis flammea
Accipiter cooperii
Accipiter gentilis
Accipiter striatus
Actitis macularia
Aechmophorous occidentalis
Aegolius acadicus
Aegolius funereus
Aeronautes saxatalis
Agelaius phoenicieus
Aix sponsa
Ammodramus savanarium
Anas acuta
Anas carolinensis
Anas cyanoptera
Anas discors
Anas platyrhynchos
Anas strepera
Anthus spinoletta
Aquila chrysaetos
Ardea herodias
Asio flammeus
Asio otus
Asyndesmus lewis
Aythya affinis
(Common Redpoll)
(Cooper's Hawk)
(Goshawk)
(Sharp-shinned Hawk)
(Spotted Sandpiper)
(Western Grebe)
(Saw-whet Owl)
(Boreal Owl)
(White-throated Swift)
(Red-winged Blackbird)
(Wood Duck)
(Grasshopper Sparrow)
(Pintail)
(Green-winged Teal)
(Cinnamon Teal)
(Blue-winged Teal)
(Mallard)
(Gadwall)
(Water Pipit)
(Golden Eagle)
(Great Blue Heron)
(Short-eared Owl)
(Long-eared Owl)
(Lewis' Woodpecker)
(Lesser Scaup)
93
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BIRDS (continued)
Aythya americana
Aythya collaris
Aythya valisineria
Bombycilla cedrorum
Bombycilla garrulus
Bonasa umbellus
Botaurus lentiginosus
Branta canadensis
Bubo virginianus
Bucephala albeola
Bucephala clangula
Bucephala islandica
Buteo jamaicensis
Buteo lagopus
Buteo regalis
Buteo swainsoni
Calamospiza melanocorys
Calcarius lapponicus
Canachites canadensis
Capella gallirago
Carpodacus cassinii
Cathartes aura
Catharus fuscescens
Catharus guttata
Catharus ustulatus
Catoptrophorous semipalmatus
Centrocercus urophasianus
Certhia familiaris
Charadrius vociferus
Chen hyperborea
Chlidonias niger
Chlorura chlorura
Chondestes grammacus
Chordeiles minor
(Redhead)
(Ring-necked Duck)
(Canvasback)
(Cedar Waxwing)
(Bohemian Waxwing)
(Ruffed Grouse)
(American Bittern)
(Canada Goose)
(Great Horned Owl)
CBufflehead)
(Common Goldeneye)
(Barrow's Goldeneye)
(Red-tailed Hawk)
(Rough-legged Hawk)
(Ferruginou's Hawk)
(Swainson's Hawk)
(Lark Bunting)
(Lapland Lockspur)
(Spruce Grouse)
(Common Snipe)
(Cassin's Finch)
(Turkey Vulture)
(Veery)
(Hermit Thrush)
(Swainson's Thrush)
(Fillet)
(Sage Grouse)
(Brown Creeper)
(Killdeer)
(Snow Goose)
(Black Tern)
(Green-tailed Towhee)
(Lark Sparrow)
(Common Nighthawk)
94
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BIRDS (continued)
Cinclus mexicanus
Circus cyaneus
Colartes spp.
Contopus sordidulus
Coryus brachyrynchos
Coryus corax
Crocethia alba
Cyanocitta stelleri
Dendragapus obscurus
Dendrocopos pubescens
Dendrocopos villosus
Dendroica auduboni auduboni
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica townsendi
Dolichonyx oryzivorous
Dumetella carolinensis
Egretta thula
Empidonax difficilis
Empidonax hammondii
Empidonax oberholseri
Eremophila alpestris
Erolia bairdii
Erolia melanotos
Erolia ininutilla
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Eupoda montana
Falco colujnbarius
Falco mexicanus
Falco peregrinus
Falco spaverius
Fulica americana
Gavia Immer
Geothypis trichas
Glaucidium gnoma
(Dipper)
(Marsh Hawk)
(Common Flicker)
(Western Wood Peewee)
(Common Crow)
(Common Raven)
(Sanderling)
(Stellar1s Jay)
(Blue Grouse)
(Dowry Woodpecker)
(Hairy Woodpecker)
Ofellow-rumped Warbler)
(Yellow Warbler)
(Townsend's Warbler)
(Bobolink)
(Catbird)
(Snowy Egret)
(Western Flycatcher)
(Hammond's Flycatcher)
(Dusky Flycatcher)
(Horned Lark)
(Baird's Sandpiper)
(Pectoral Sandpiper)
(Least Sandpiper)
(Brewer's Blackbird)
(Mountain Plover)
(Merlin)
(Prairie Falcon)
(Peregrine Falcon)
(American Kestrel)
(American Coot)
(Common Loon)
(Common Yellowthroat)
(Pygmy Owl)
95
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BIRDS (continued)
Grus canadensis
Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Hesperiphona vespertina
Hirundo rustica
Histrionicus histrionicus
Hydroprogne caspia
Icterus spp.
Iridoprocne bicolor
Junco spp.
Lanius excubitor
Lanius ludovicianus
Larus californicus
Larus delawarensis
Larus Philadelphia
Larus pipixcan
Leucosticte atrata
Leucosticte tephrocotis
Limosa fedoa
Lobipes lobatus
Lpphodytes cucullatus
Loxia curvirostra
Loxia leucoptera
Mareca Americana
Megacryle alcyon
Mergus merganser
Mergus serrator
Melospiza lincolnii
Melospiza juelodia
Molothrus ater
Myadestes towsendi
Nucifraga columbiana
Numenius americanus
Nuttallornis borealis
(Sandhill Crane)
(Pinon Jay)
(Bald Eagle)
(Evening Grosbeak)
(Barn Swallow)
(Harlequin Duck)
(Caspian Tern)
(Northern Oriole)
(Tree Swallow)
(Dark-eyed Junco)
(Northern Shrike)
(Loggerhead Shrike)
(California Gull)
(Ring-bill Gull)
(Bonaparte's Gull)
(Franklin's Gull)
(Black Rosy Finch)
(Gray-crowned Rosy Finch)
(Marbled Godwit)
(Northern Phalarope)
(Hooded Merganser)
(Red Crossbill)
(White-winged Crossbill)
(American Widgeon)
(Belted Kingfisher)
(Common Merganser)
(Red-breasted Merganser)
(Lincoln Sparrow)
(Song Sparrow)
(Brown-headed Cowbird)
(Townsend's Solitaire)
(Clark's Nutcracker)
(Long-bill Curlew)
(Olive-sided Flycatcher)
96
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BIRDS (continued)
Nycticorax nycticorax
Olor buccinator
Olor columbianus
Oporornis tolmiei
Oreoscoptes montanus
Otus asio
Oxyura jamaicenses
Pandion haliaetus
Parus atricapillus
Parus gambeli
Passer domesticus
Passerculus sandwichensls
Passerella iliaca
Passerina amoena
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Perdix perdix
Perisoreus canadensis
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Phalacrocorax auritus
Pheucticus melanocephalus
Pica Pica
Picoides arcticus
Picoides tridactylus
Pinicola enucleator
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Piranga ludoviciana
Plectrophenzx nivalis
Podiceps auritus
Podiceps caspicus
Podilymbus podiceps
Pooecetes gramineus
Porzana Carolina
Recurvirostra americana
Regulus calendula
(Black-crowned Night Heron)
(Trumpeter Swan)
(Whistling Swan)
(MacGillivray's Warbler)
(Sage Thrasher)
(Screech Owl)
(Ruddy Duck)
(Osprey)
(Black-capped Chickadee)
(Mountain Chickadee)
(House Sparrow)
(Savannah Sparrow)
(Fox Sparrow)
(Lazuli Bunting)
(White Pelican)
(Gray Partridge)
(Gray Jay)
(Cliff Swallow)
(Double-crested Cormorant)
(Black-headed Grosbeak)
(Black-billed Magpie)
(Black-back Three-toed Woodpecker)
(Northern Three-toed Woodpecker)
(Pine Grosbeak)
(Rufous-sided Towhee)
(Western Tanager)
(Snow Bunting)
(Horned Grebe)
(Eared Grebe)
(Pied-billed Grebe)
(Vesper Sparrow)
(Sora)
(American Avocet)
(Ruby-crowned Kinglet)
97
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BIRDS (continued)
Regulus satrapa
Riparia riparia
Rynchophanes mccownii
Salpinctes obsoletus
Sa,yornis saya
Seiurus noyeboracensis
Selasphorus platycercus
Selasphorus rufus
Setophaga ruticilla
Sialia currucoides
Sitta canadensis
Sitta carolinensls
Sitta pygmaea
Spatula clypeata
Spectyta cunicularia
Sphyrapicus thyroideus
Sphyrapicus yarius
Spirus pinus
Spinus tristis
Spizella arborea
Spizella breweri
Spizella passerina
Steganopus tricolor
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis
Stellula calliope
Sterna hirundo
Strix nebulosa
Sturnella neglecta
Sturnus vulgaris
Surnia ulula
Telmatodytes palustris
Totanus flavipes
Totanus melanoleucus
Trachycineta thalassina
(Golden-crowned Kinglet)
(Bank Swallow)
(McCown's Longspur)
(Rock Wren)
(Say's Phoebe)
(Northern Waterthrush)
(Broad-tailed Hunmingbird)
(Rufous Hummingbird)
(American Redstart)
(Mountain Bluebird)
(Red-breasted Nuthatch)
(White-breasted Nuthatch)
(Pygmy Nuthatch)
(Northern Shoveler)
(Burrowing Owl)
(Williamson's Sapsucker)
(Yellow-billed Sapsucker)
(Pine Siskin)
(American Goldfinch)
(Tree Sparrow)
(Brewer's Sparrow)
(Chipping Sparrow)
(Wilson's phalarope)
(Rough-winged Swallow)
(Calliope Hummingbird)
(Common Tern)
(Great Gray Owl)
(Western Meadowlark)
(Starling)
(Hawk Owl)
(Long-billed Marsh Wren)
(Lesser Yellowlegs)
(Greater Yellowlegs)
(Violet-green Swallow)
98
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BIRDS (continued)
Tringa solitaria
Troglodytes aedon
Turdus migratorius
Tyrannus tyrannus
Tyrannus vertical is
Vermivora celata
Vireo gilvus
Vireo olivaceous
Vireo solitacius
Wilsonia pusilla
Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus
Zonotrichia albicollis
Zonotrichia leucophrys
(Solitary Sandpiper)
(House Wren)
(American Robin)
(Eastern Kingbird)
(Western Kingbird)
(Orange-crowned Warbler)
(Warbling Vireo)
(Red-eyed Vireo)
(Solitary Vireo)
(Wilson's Warbler)
(.Yellow-head Blackbird)
(White-throat Sparrow)
(White-crown Sparrow)
Accidental Species:
Agelaius tricolor
Anas rubripes
Casmerodius albus
Coccyzus Erythrophthalmus
Cypseloides niger
Denoroica striata
Eudocimus albus
Grus americana
Limosa haemastica
Mycteria americana
Nyctea scandiaca
Oidejnia nigra
Quiscalus quiscula
Sterna albifrons
Strix varia
Vermivora ruficapilla
(Tri-colored Blackbird)
(Black Duck)
(Common Egret)
(Black-billed Cuckoo)
(Black Swift)
(Blackpoll Warbler)
(White-faced lois)
(Whooping Crane)
(Hudsonian Godwit)
(Wood Stork)
(Snowy Owl)
(Black Scoter)
^Common Crackle)
(Least Tern)
(Barred Owl)
(Nashville Warbler)
V. MAMMALS
Alces alces
(Moose)
99
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MAMMALS (continued)
Antilocapra americana
Bison bison
Canis latrans
Canis lupus
Castor canadensis
Ceryus canadensis melsoni
Citellus armatus
Citellus lateralis
Clethrionomys gapperi
Eptesicus fuscus
Erethizon dorsatum
Eutamias amoenus
Eutamias minimus
Eutamias umbrinus
Felis concolor
Glaucomys sabrinus
Gulo luscus
Lasionycterius noctiyagans
Lasiurius cinereus
Lepus americanus
Lepus Townsendi
Lutra canadensis
Lynx canadensis
Lynx rufus
Marmota flaviyentris
Martes americana
Martes pennanti
Mephitis mephitis
Microtus montanus
Microtus pennsylyanicus
Microtus richardsoni
Mustela erminea
Mustela frenata
Mustela vison
(Pronghorn - Antelope)
(Buffalo)
(Coyote)
(Gray Wolf)
(Beaver)
(Elk - Wapiti)
(Uinta Ground Squirrel)
(Golden-mantle Squirrel)
(Boreal Redback Vole)
(Big Brown Bat)
(Porcupine)
(Yellow Pine Chipmunk)
(Least Chipmunk)
(Uinta Chipmunk)
(Mountain Lion - Cougar)
(Northern Flying Squirrel)
(Wolverine)
(Silver-haired Bat)
(Hoary Bat)
(Snowshoe Hare - varying Hare)
(Whitetail Jackrabbit)
(River Otter)
(Lynx)
(Bobcat)
(Yellowbelly Marmot)
(Marten)
(Fisher)
(Skunk, spotted)
(Mountain Vole)
(Meadow Vole)
(Richardson Vole)
(Shorttail Weasel)
(Longtail Weasel)
(Mink)
100
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MAMMALS (continued)
Myotis evotis (Long-ear Bat)
Myotis lucifigus (Little Brown Bat)
Neotoma cinerea (Bushytail Woodrat)
Ochotona prtnceps (Pi^a - cory)
Odocoileus hemionus (Mule Deer - Blacktail)
Odocoileus vtrginianus (Whitetail Deer)
Ondatra zibethjtca (Muskrat)
101
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APPENDIX C. SPECIES LIST* —
SEQUOIA AND KINGS CANYON NATIONAL PARKS
I. VEGETATION
Anacardiaaease
Rhus leucodermis
Rhus diyersiloba
Rhus trilobata var. malcophylla
Apocynaceae
Apocynum androsaemifolium
AristolQckiaoeae
Asarum hartivegii
Betulaeeae
Corylus cornuta var. californica
Bopag-inaaeae
Cryptantha nubigena
Calyoanthaoea
Calycanthus occidentalis
CaprjfoItaceae
Lonicera interrupa
Symphoricarpos sp.
Syruphoricarpos acutus
Cayyophy 1laoeae
Stellarla jamesiana
Compositae
Baccharis sp.
Artemisia tridentata
Draba oligosperma
Draba densifolia
Draba breweri
Draba lemmonii
Haplopappus macronema
Hulsea algida
Adenocaulon bicolor
Hieracium albiflorum
CoTnaoeae
Cornus nutlallii
CTucjferae
Phoenicaulis eurycarpa
Cupvessaoeae
Libocedrces decurrens
Juniperus occidentalis
*Taken from U.S. Park Service lists.
102
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Cajcex lanugijiosa
Carex rostrata
Carex nebrascensis
Gar ex festivella
Carex vicaria
Carex speclabilis
Carex subnigricans
Carex exserta
Carex helleri
Carex breweri
Arctostaphylos viscider
Arctostaphylos patula
Arctostaphylos manzanita
Arctostaphylos nevadensis
Phyllodoce breweri
Fagaceae
Quercus douglassi
Quercus wislizeni
Quercus kelloggii
Quercus chrysolepis
Castamopsis sempervixeng
Eippooas tanaceae
Aesculus californica
Rydrophy I laoeae
Eriodictyon californicum
Draperia systyla
Juncaeeae
Luzula spicata
Laweaoeae
Uwbellularia californica
Legiminosae
Cercis occidentalis
Lupinus latifolius var. columbianus
Jj'L'ieaoeae
Yucca whipplei
Desporum hookeri
Smilacina racemosa var. amplexicaulix
Clintonia uniflora
Qteaaeae
Fraxinus dipetala
Poa pratensts
Calamagrostis breweri
Calaniagrostis canadensis
Trisetum wolf ii
Trisetum spicatum
Festuca brachyphylla
Poa rupicola
Poa suksdorfii
Onagraeeae
Epilolium obcordatum
Qrehidaoeae
Goodyera oblengifolia
pinaoeae
Abies concolor
Abies magnifica
103
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Pinaceae (continued)
Pinus albicaulis
Pinus balfouriana
Pinus contorta
Pinus jeffreyii
Pinus lajubertiana
Pinus njonophylla
Pinus ponderosa
Tsuga mertensiana
PO 1emonig.oeae
Polemonium exemium
Polygonaeeae
Eriogonum ovalifolium
Oxyria digyna
Pteridaeeae
Pteridium aquilinum var. lanuginosum
Pyrolaceae
Chemaphila umbellata var. pccidentalis
Pyrola picta
Pyrola picta spp. dentata
Ceanothus cordulatus
Ceanothus cuneatus
Ceanothus integerrimus
Ceanothus paryifolius
Ceanothus yelutinus
Cercocarpus ledifolius
Chamaebatia foliolosa
Fragaria californica
Holodiscus microphyllus
Ivesia shockleyi
Potentilla diversifolia
Rhamnus crocea
Rosa penetorum
Sglioaceae
Populus fremantii
Populus tremuloides
Populus trichocarpa
Salix orestera
galix sp.
SaxifTagaoeae
Philadelphus Lewisii spp. californicus
Ribes divaricatum
Ribes roezlii
Ribes sp.
Scrophulariaoeae
Castilleja nana
Penstemon davidsonii
Stepculiaeeae
Fremontia California
Taxaoeae
Torreya californica
Taxodiaoeae
Sequoiadendron giganteum
Umbell-Lferae
Galium sparsiflorum
104
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Umbelliferae (continued)
Galium triflorum
Osmorhija chilensis
Yiolaoeae
Viola lobata.
Rare and endangered plant species
Aster pieysonii
Carpentaria ealifornica
Castilleja oulbertsonii
Dieentra formosa spp. nevadensis
Eriophyllwn lanatwn par. crooeum
lyesia argyroeoma
Lewisia oongdonii
Lupinus dalesiae
Phaoelia orogenes
Phalaoroseris bolanderi
Raillardella Muirii
Strepanthus farnsworthianus
Strepanthus graoilis
II. FISH
Catostomus occidentalis
Mylopharodon conocephalus
Salmo aquabonita
Salvelinus fontinalis
Salmo gairdneri
Salmo trutta
(Sacramento Sucker)
(Hard Head Minnow)
(Golden Trout)
(Eastern Brook Trout)
(Rainfow Trout)
(Brown Trout)
III. AMPHIBIANS
Batrachoseps attenuatus
Batrachoseps relictus
(California Slender Salamander)
(Relictual Slender Salamander)
105
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AMPHIBIANS (continued)
Bufo boreas
Bufo canorus
Ensatina eschscholtzi
Hydromantes platycephalus
Hyla regilla
Rana boylei
Rana catesbeiana
Rana muscosa
Triturus torosa
(Western Toad)
(YoSemite Toad)
(Eschscholtz Salamander)
(Mount Lyell Salamander)
(Pacific Tree Frog)
(Foothill Yellow-legged Frog)
(Bullfrog)
(Mountain Yellow-legged Frog)
(California Newt)
IV. REPTILES
Anniella pulchra
Charina bottae
Clemmys marmorata
Cnemidophorus tigris
Coluber constrictor
Contia tenuis
Crotalus viridis
Diadophis punctatus
Eumeces gilberti
Gerrhonotus coeruleus
Gerrhonotus multicarinatus
Hypsiglena torquata
Lampropeltis getulus
Lampropeltis zonata
Masticophis lateralis
Phrynosoma coronatum
Pituophis melanoleucus
Sceloporus graciosus
Sceloporus occidentalis
Tantilla planiceps
Thamnophis couchi
Thamnophis elegans
(California Legless Lizard)
(Rubber Boa)
(Pond turtle)
(Western Whiptail)
(Racer)
(Sharp-tailed Snake)
(Western Rattlesnake)
(Ringneck Snake)
CGilbert's Skink)
(Northern Alligator Lizard)
(Foothill Alligator Lizard)
(Spotted Snake)
(Common Kingsnake)
(California Mountain Kingsnake)
(Striped Racer)
(Coast Horned Lizard)
(Gopher Snake)
(Sagebrush Lizard)
(Western Fence Lizard)
(Western Black-headed Snake)
(Western Aquatic Garter Snake)
(Western Terrestrial Garter Snake)
106
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REPTILES (continued)
Thamnophls sirtalis
Uta stansburiana
(Common Garter Snake)
(Side-blotched Lizard)
V. BIRDS
Accipiter cooper,!.!
Acclpiter gentilis
Accipiter striatus
Actitis macularia
Aegolius acadicus
Aeronautes saxatalis
Agelaius phoeniceus
Amphispiza belli
Anas platyrhynchos
Aphelocoma coerulescens
Archilochus alexandri
Ardea herodias
Asyndesmus lewis
Bombycilla cedorum
Branta canadensis
Bubo yirginianus
Buteo jamaicensis
Calypte anna
Carpodacus cassinii
Carpodacus mexicanus
Carpodacus purpureus
Cathartes aura
Catharus guttata
Catharus ustulatus
Catherpes mexicanus
Certhia familiaris
Chaetura vauxi
Chamaea fasciata
Chorura chlorura
(Cooper's Hawk)
(Goshawk)
(Sharp-shinned Hawk)
(Spotted Sandpiper)
(Saw-whet Owl)
(Wiite-throated Swift)
(Red-winged Blackbird)
(Sage Sparrow)
(Mallard Duck)
(Scrub Jay)
(Black-chinned Hummingbird)
(Great Blue Heron)
(Lewis' Woodpecker)
(Cedar Waxwing)
(Canada Goose)
(Great Horned Owl)
(Red-tailed Hawk)
(Anna's Hummingbird)
(Cassin's Finch)
(House Finch)
(Purple Finch)
(Turkey Vulture)
(Hermit Thrush)
(Swainson's Thrush)
(Canyon Wren)
(Brown Creeper)
(Vaux's Swift)
(Wren-tit)
(Green-tailed Towhee)
107
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BIRDS (continued)
Chondestes grammacus
Cinclus mexicanus
Colartes spp.
Columba fasciata
Contopus sordidulus
Corvus corax
Cyanocitta stelleri
Cypseloides niger
Dendragapus obscurus
Dendrocopos albolarvatus
Dendrocopos nuttallii
Dendrocopos pubescens
Dendrocopos villosus
Dendroica auduboni
Dendroica nigrescens
Dendroica occidentalis
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica townsendi
Dryocopos pileatus
Empidonax spp.
Euphagus cyanocephalus
Falco sparverius
Glaucidium gnoma
Hesperiphona vespertina
Icterus spp.
Iridoprocne bicolor
Ixoreus naevius
Junco spp.
Leucosticte tephrocotis
Lophortyx californicus
JJegaceryle alcyon
Melanerpes formicivorous
Melospiza lincolnii
Melospiza melodia
(Lark Sparrow)
CDipper)
(Common Flicker)
(Band-tailed Pigeon)
(Western Wood Peewee)
(Common Raven)
(^teller's Jay)
(Black Swift)
(Blue Grouse)
(White-headed Woodpecker)
(Nuttall's Woodpecker)
(Downy Woodpecker)
(Hairy Woodpecker)
(Audubon's Warbler)
(Black-throated Gray Warbler)
(Hermit Warbler)
(Yellow Warbler)
(Townsend's Warbler)
(Pileated Woodpecker)
(Flycatchers)
(Brewer's Blackbird)
(American Kestrel)
(Pygmy Owl)
(Evening Grosbeak)
(.Northern Oriole)
(Tree Swallow)
(Varied Thrush)
(Dark-eyed Junco)
(Gray-crowned Rosy Finch)
(California Quail)
(Belted Kingfisher)
(Acorn Woodpecker)
(Lincoln's Sparrow)
(Song Sparrow)
108
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BIRDS (continued)
Mimus polyglottos
Molothrus ater
Myadestes townsendi
Myiarchus cinerascens
Nucifraga columbiana
Nuttallornis borealis
Oporornis tolmiei
Oreortyx pictus
Otus asip
Otus flammeolus
Parus gambeli
Parus inornatus
Passer domesticus
Passerella tliaca
Passerina amoena
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Phainopepla nltens
Phalaenoptilus nuttallii
Pheucticus melanocephalus
Pinicola enucleator
Pipilo erythrophthalmus
Pipilo fuscus
Piranga ludoviciana
Poliopttla caerulea
Psaltrlparus minimus
Regulus calendula
Regulus satrapa
Salpinctes obsoletus
Sayornis nigricans
Selasphorus rufus
Selasphorus sasin
Sialia currucoides
Sialia mexicana
Sitta canadensis
(Mockingbird)
(Brown-headed Cowbird)
(Townsend's Solitaire)
(Ash-throated Flycatcher)
(Clark's Nutcracker)
(Olive-sided Flycatcher)
(MacGillivray's Warbler)
(Mountain CJuail)
(Screech Owl)
(Flammulated Owl)
(Mountain Chickadee)
(Plain Titmouse)
(House Sparrow)
(Fox Sparrow)
(Lazuli Bunting)
(Cliff Swallow)
(Phainopepla)
(Poor-will)
(Black-headed Grosbeak)
(Pine Grosbeak)
(Rufous-sided Towhee)
(Brown Towhee)
(Western Tanager)
(Blue-gray Gnatcatcher)
(Bush-tit)
(Ruby-crowned Kinglet)
(Golden-crowned Kinglet)
(Rock Wren)
(Black Phoebe)
(Rufus Hummingbird)
(Allen's Hummingbird)
(Mountain Bluebird)
(Western Bluebird)
(Red-breasted Nuthatch)
109
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BIRDS (continued)
Sitta carollnensis
Sitta pygmaea
Sphyrapicus ruber ruber
Sphyrapicus thyroideus
Sphyrapicus yarius
Spinus pinus
Spinus psaltria
Spizella passerina
Stelgidopteryx ruficollis
Stellula calliope
Strix occidentalis
Sturnella neglecta
Sturnus vulgaris
Tachycineta thalassina
Thryomanes bewickii
Toxostoma redivivum
Troglodytes aedon
Troglodytes troglodytes
Turdus migratorius
Tyrannus verticalis
Vermivora celata
Vermivora ruficapilla
Vireo gilvus
Vireo solitarius
Wilsonia pusilla
Zenaidura macroura
Zonotrichia atricapilla
Zonotrichia leucophrys
(White-breasted Nuthatch)
(Pigmy Nuthatch)
(Red-breasted Sapsucker)
(Williamson's Sapsucker)
(Yellow-bellied Sapsucker)
(Pine Siskin)
(Lesser Goldfinch)
(Chipping Sparrow)
(Rough-winged Swallow)
(Calliope Hummingbird)
(Spotted Owl)
(Western Meadowlark)
(Starling)
(Violet-green Swallow)
(Bewick's Wren)
(California Thrasher)
(House Wren)
(Winter Wren)
(American Robin)
(Western Kingbird)
(Orange-crowned Warbler)
(Nashville Warbler)
(Warbling Vireo)
(Solitary vireo)
(Wilson's Warbler)
(Morning Dove)
(Golden-crowned Sparrow)
(White-crowned Sparrow)
Accidental Species;
Agelaius tricolor
Aimophila ruficeps
Alectoris graeca
Aquila chrysaetos
(Tricolored Blackbird)
(Rufous-crowned Sparrow)
(Chukar (introduced)
(Golden Eagle)
110
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BIRDS (continued)
Charadrius vociferus
Chordeiles minor
Corvus brachrhynchos
Geococcyx californianus
Gymnogyps californianus
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
Lanius ludovicianus
Loxia curvirostra
Meleagris gallopavo
Pandion halidetus
Passerculus sandwichensis
Picoides arcticua
Spinus lawrencei
Spizella breweri
Strix nebulosa
Vireo huttoni
(Killdeer)
(Common Nighthawk)
(Common Crow)
(Roadrunner)
(California Condor)
(Bald Eagle)
(Loggerhead Shrike)
(Red Crossbill)
(Turkey - introduced)
(American Osprey)
(Savannah Sparrow)
(Blackbacked 3-toed Woodpecker)
(Lawrence's Goldfinch)
(Brewer's Sparrow)
(Great Gray Owl)
(Button's Vireo)
VI. MAMMALS
Antrozous pallidus
Aplodontia rufa
Eassariscus astutus
Canis latrans
Canis lupus
Castor canadensis
Citellus beecheyi
Citellus beldingi
Citellus lateralis
Dipodomys heernanni
Eptesicus fuscus
Erethizon dorsatum
Euderma maculata
Eutamias alpinus
Eutamias merriami
(Pallid Bat)
(Mountain Beaver)
(Ringtail Cat)
(Coyote)
(Wolf)
(Beaver)
(California Ground Squirrel)
(Belding Ground Squirrel)
(Golden Mantled Ground Squirrel)
(Heermann Kangaroo Rat)
(Big Brown Bat)
(Porcupine)
(Spotted Bat)
(Alpine Chipmunk)
(Merriam Chipmunk)
111
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MAMMALS (continued)
Eutamias speciosus
Eutamias Umbrinus
Felis concolor
Fells domesticus
Glaucomys sabrinus
Gulp luscus
Lasionycteris noctivagans
Lasiurus borealis
Lasiurus cinereus
Lepus californicus
Lepus townsendii
Lutra canadensis
Lynx rufus
Marmota flaviventris
Martes americana
Martes pennant!
Mephitis mephitis
Microtus californicus
Microtus longicaudus
Microtus montanus
Mus tnusculus
Mustela erminea
Mustela frenata
Myotis californicus
Myotis evotis
Myotis lucifugua
Myotis subulatus
Myotis thysanodes
Myotis volans
Myotis yumanensis
Neotoma cinerea
Neotoma fuscipes
Neotoma lepida
Ochotona princeps
(Lodgepole Chipmunk)
(Uinta Chipmunk)
(Mountain Lion)
(House Cat)
(Northern Flying Squirrel)
(Wolverine)
(Silver-haired Bat)
(Red Bat)
(Hoary Bat)
(Blacktail Jackrabbit)
(Whitetail Jackrabbit)
(River Otter)
(Bobcat)
(Yellow-belly Marmot)
(Marten - Pine Marten)
(Fisher)
(Striped Skunk)
(California vole)
(Long-tail vole)
(Mountain vole)
(House mouse)
(Short-tail Weasel)
(Longtail Weasel)
(California Bat)
(Long-ear Bat)
(Little Brown Bat)
(Small-footed Bat)
(Fringed Bat)
(Long-legged Bat)
(Yuma Bat)
(Bushytail Woodrat)
(Dusky-footed Woodrat)
(Desert Woodrat)
(Pika, Cony, Rock Rabbit)
112
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MAMMALS (continued)
Odocoileus hemionus
Ondatra zibethica
Ovis canadensts
Perognathus californicus.
Peromyscus boylei
Peromyscus califoritlcus
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus truei
Phenacomys intermedius
Pipistrellus hesperus
Plecotus townsendi
Procyon lotor
Reithrodontomys megalotis
Scapanus latimanus
Sciurus grlseus
Sorex obscurus
Sorex ornatus
Sorex palustris
Sorex trowbridgii
Sorex vagrans
Spilogale putorius
Sylyilagus audubonii
Sylyilagus backjnani
Tadarida brasiliensis
Tamiasciurus douglasi
Taxidea taxus
Thomomys bottae
Thomomys monticola
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Ursus americanus
Vulpes fulya
Zapus prlnceps
(Mule Deer)
(Muskrat)
(Bighorn Sheep)
(California Pocket Mouse)
(Brush Mpuse)
(California Mouse)
(Deer Mouse)
(Pinyon Mouse)
(Heather Vole)
(Western Pipistrelle)
(Western Big-ear Bat)
(Raccoon)
(Western Harvest Mouse)
(California Mole)
(Western Gray Squirrel)
(Dusky Shrew)
(Ornate Shrew)
(Northern Water Shrew)
(Trowbridge Shrew)
(Vagrant Shrew)
(Spotted Skunk)
(Desert Cottontail)
(Brush Rabbit)
(Mexican Freetail Bat)
(Douglas Squirrel - Chicaree)
(Badger)
(Pocket Gopher)
(Sierra Pocket Gopher)
(Grey Fox)
(Black Bear)
(Red Fox)
(Western Jumping Mouse)
113
*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1978 - 786-260/2015 Region No. 9-1
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
REPORT NO.
EPA-600/4-78-052
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSION NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
DEVELOPMENT OF A POLLUTANT MONITORING SYSTEM FOR
INTERNATIONAL BIOSPHERE RESERVES
5. REPORT DATE
September 1978
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
G. B. Wiersma, K. W. Brown, and A. B. Crockett
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
1HD620
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-Las Vegas, NV
Office of Research and Development
Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
13 TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA/600/07
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT
This report presents an initial approach to identifying and solving the problems
of developing a monitoring system for Biosphere Reserves. To date, most proposals
have only focused on the selection of Reserves, pollutants to monitor, etc.; the
real-world problems of how to monitor and collect and preserve samples and of
statistical considerations and the logistics involved, have not been considered.
This report attempts to address these problems and proposes specific field work
to determine what additional problems may be encountered and what research is
still required to enable us to develop a responsive and cost-effective pollutant
monitoring program for Biosphere Reserves. Items covered include sample site
selection criteria, statistical considerations, pollutant level monitoring
techniques suitable to background areas, the development of biological monitors
and accumulators and the development and application of pollutant impact moni-
toring techniques. Quality assurance requirements are also discussed. The
above subjects are set in a site-specific framework of Yellowstone National
Park and Sequoia-Kings Canyon National Parks.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS
c. COSATI Field/Group
Environmental biology
Site survey
Pollution
Chemistry
Sequoia-Kings Canyon
Yellowstone
Biosphere reserves
06F
08G
08H
07B
07C
07D
18. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
RELEASE TO PUBLIC
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
UNCLASSIFIED
21. NO. OF PAGES
124
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
UNCLASSIFIED
22. PRICE
A06
EPA Form 2220-1 (Rev. 4-77) PREVIOUS EDITION is OBSOLETE
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