Drinking Water
Academy
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
DWA
Source Water Assessment
and Protection
(with Examples of Best Management
Practices and Other Measures for
Protecting Drinking Water Supplies)
Seattle, WA
Session 1: May 12, 2003
Session 2: May 13, 2003
-------
*
* -^
I
SOURCE WATER ASSESSMENT AND PROTECTION
(With Examples of Best Management Practices and Other
Measures for Protecting Drinking Water Supplies)
EPA Region 10
Seattle, Washington
Session 1: May 12,2003
Session 2: May 13,2003
AGENDA
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
DWA
9:00 - 9:15 AM Welcome and Introductions
9:15-10:15 AM Source Water, Contamination Threats, and Source Water
Assessments
10:15-10:30 AM Break
10:30 - 12 Noon Source Water Protection Authorities and Techniques
12:00-1:OOPM Lunch
1:00-2:30 PM
2:30-2:45 PM
Source Water Protection Best Management Practices and Preventive
Measures, Part 1
Break
2:45 - 4:00 PM Source Water Protection Best Management Practices and Preventive
Measures, Part 2
4:00 - 4:30 PM Discussions, Evaluation, and Wrap Up
-------
SOURCE WATER ASSESSMENT AND PROTECTION
(With Examples of Best Management Practices and Other
Measures for Protecting Drinking Water Supplies)
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
DWA
Course Description: The 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments called for assessing
drinking water sources and encouraging protection of drinking water supplies. To design and implement
an effective local source water protection program, local entities need information on specific protective
measures that are available to prevent contamination of their drinking water supplies. This course
provides training materials on the concepts and components of source water assessment and protection,
along with best management practices (BMPs) and other preventive measures for about a dozen different
sources of contamination that threaten source water.
The course will cover a number of topics that include:
•Define source water and explain its importance;
•Review of hydrology, hydrogeology, and delineation of source water protection areas;
•Describe potential threats to source water and source water assessment methods;
•Discuss SDWA's major source water protection programs;
•Describe source water protection measures and measures for specific sources; and
•Discuss what individuals and organizations can do to foster source water protection.
For specific sources of contamination, this course will discuss protection measures for:
•Storm water runoff;
•Septic systems;
•Above and underground storage tanks;
•Vehicle washing;
•Small quantity chemical use, storage and disposal;
•Animal waste from livestock, pets, and wildlife;
•Agricultural application of fertilizers;
•Turf grass and garden application of fertilizers;
•Large-scale application of pesticides;
•Small-scale application of pesticides;
•Combined and sanitary sewer overflows;
•Aircraft and airfield deicing operations;
•Highway deicing operations, and
•Abandoned wells.
For each source, the training will discuss places where the source can be found; why it should be
managed; and best or most-used protection measures.
Course materials can be found at: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwa/electronic/ematerials.htm (under
Source Water Protection Program).
Instructor: Dr. Chi Ho Sham is a Vice President and Senior Scientist at The Cadmus Group, Inc. He has
20 years of experience in water quality and drinking water protection issues. Dr. Sham received his
doctoral degree from the State University of New York at Buffalo in 1984 with a focus on hydrology and
geographic information system applications. Before joining the consulting field, Dr. Sham was a faculty
member at the Boston University's Center for Energy and Environmental Studies from 1982 to 1992,
where currently he is an Adjunct Professor. He also serves as a Director on the Ground Water Protection
Research Foundation and as the Vice Chair on the Source Water Protection Committee of the American
Water Works Association.
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 816-F-99-004
Environmental Protection (4606) September 1999
Agency
vvEPA Fact Sheet
The Drinking Water Academy
WHAT IS THE DRINKING WATER ACADEMY?
The Drinking Water Academy (DWA) is a long-term training initiative established by the Office
of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW) to expand EPA's capability to support states
and other organizations as they implement the Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA) Amendments
of 1996. The goal of the DWA is to assist EPA, states and tribes to build program capability
to successfully carry out the SDWA requirements. This, in turn, will promote increased
program compliance and greater public health protection.
WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES?
EPA created the DWA in response to the far reaching changes brought forth by the 1996 SDWA
Amendments. The Amendments created new programmatic challenges for states and water
systems and also provided new funding opportunities to meet these growing needs. EPA has
promulgated and will continue to promulgate and implement new regulations. States, in
addition to maintaining their current drinking water programs, are required to adopt and
implement these new regulations and other requirements. For example, States must adopt new
microbial and disinfection by-products standards, increase source water protection efforts,
develop new funding programs to provide low-cost loans for the construction of important
drinking water infrastructure needs, and states must encourage greater public awareness and
involvement in how their drinking water programs are developed and implemented.
NEED FOR TRAINING?
The new requirements and approaches to regulating drinking water systems have increased the
need for training EPA, state, and tribal personnel, particularly those personnel new to SDWA
programs. The Academy will focus on helping EPA and states to maintain a high level of
expertise in their drinking water programs, which otherwise could be diminished through
personnel changes and lack of sustained training. The DWA will help strengthen the knowledge
of all staff about statutes, regulations, and other important SDWA requirements.
WHAT TYPES OF TRAINING NEEDS WILL BE ADDRESSED?
The DWA curricula are being developed by a workgroup composed of state and EPA personnel,
to meet the training needs of SDWA EPA and state program staff responsible for Public Water
System Supervision, Underground Injection Control, Ground Water, and Source Water
Protection programs. Training will take place through a combination of classroom style,
workshops, web-site based, and on-site inspections where appropriate. Field work, where
applicable, may include inspections of public water systems and UIC wells. Trainers will have
extensive experience with SDWA programs.
HOW CAN I OBTAIN MORE INFORMATION?
For general information on the SDWA, call the Safe Drinking Water Act hotline at
1 -800-426-4791 or (202) 260-7908. For information on the Drinking Water Academy, please
visit the DWA website at http://vvww.epa.gov/safewater/dwa.html or contact James Bourne at
(202) 260-5557 or boiirne.iames(5)epa.gov.
-------
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
Visit EPA's Drinking Water Academy Web Site
at:
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwa.html
The Drinking Water Academy's Web site is your source of information for
drinking water training. The site includes:
D Background information on the DWA,
D A regularly-updated calendar of course offerings, and
D Detailed course descriptions.
The Electronic Workshop provides self-paced training modules that give a broad
introduction to the many facets of the Safe Drinking Water Act. In addition, the
site provides links to other organizations that provide relevant training.
-------
Drinking Water
I Academy Bulletin
tnttf'
IN THIS ISSUE . . .
• OWA Complete* New Sanitary
Survey Video
• OWA Focuses on Security at
Small Water Systems
* Drinking Water Academy
Contact*
• Drinking Water Institute
Teacher Training Program
• Electronic Sanitary Survey
Project Update
• Training Course Schedule
D W A
**-.**
Winter 2003
D W A
,«.«*••
The DWA Completes Another
Successful Year
Te Drinking Water Academy has com-
pleted a busy fourth year. In FY 2002,
it made 66 training deliveries. The
DWA completed development of 5 courses, all
of which can be downloaded from its Web site
(www.epa.gov/safewatw/dwa/electronic.html):
Introduction to UIC Permitting; From Risk to
Rule: How EPA Develops Risk-Based Drinking
Water Regulations; Risk Communication under
SDWA; Developing Water System Managerial
Capacity; and Developing Water System
Financial Capacity.
The DWA piloted two new courses, American
Government Roles, and The Clean Water Act
and the Safe Drinking Water Act. The DWA
course catalog now offers 50 different courses.
The DWA also provided significant support
to the sanitary survey program. It established
one more sanitary survey training center at the
Maryland Center for Environmental Training at
the College of Southern Maryland. The DWA is
also addressing security as part of its sanitary
survey efforts (see related article on page 2).
The DWA's Web site has also expanded over
the past year. Averaging 11,000 hits per month,
the site now has 18 courses that can be down-
loaded, links to SDWA implementation informa-
tion, and a Spanish language site that includes
relevant information.
For FY 2003, the DWA plans to maintain the
current level of deliveries and continue to
increase the number of course offerings, while
setting two new goals :
i* Increase the use of advanced communi-
cation technologies to support training
activities.
i^ Expand the areas of concern to include
security issues at water systems.
These new goals will challenge the DWA to
continue to provide training at the highest levels
while responding to the audience's need for
convenient, cost-effective training that ad-
dresses the issues they currently face. I*
DWA Developing
Security Training
Drinking water utilities face an array of
requirements and challenges to ensure
the safety and security of our water
supplies. The DWA is developing a training
course that will help to make sense of the
myriad security issues.
The day-long course is geared toward federal
and state drinking water staff. While not
directly responsible for carrying out security
requirements, these staffers perform sanitary
surveys, provide technical assistance and
training, and otherwise oversee, regulate, or
advise drinking water systems. They must be
knowledgeable about security issues in order to
respond to questions from drinking water
utilities and to provide direction as necessary.
The course will cover statutes, such as the
Bioterrorism Act, and Presidential orders that
contain security provisions applicable to
drinking water systems. It will also describe
EPA's role in their implementation. A major
requirement of the Bioterrorism Act is that
drinking water systems of a certain size conduct
vulnerability assessments. The course will
explain the requirements for vulnerability
assessments and discuss assistance available
from EPA and others for systems conducting
the assessments. This assistance includes
financial assistance, guidance, training, and
other tools. The course will also discuss
Continued on page 4.
-------
TheSefore
Bet
I DWA Completes New Sanitary Survey Video
T
ie DWA has completed the eighth video
in its popular series for sanitary survey
inspectors, Before You Begin. . . . This
latest video focuses on ground water under the
direct influence of surface water (GWUDI). Like
the other videos, it provides a refresher on key
points to consider before conducting a sanitary
survey of a small water system.
In this video, Private Investigator Lance
Archer investigates a small system suspected to
have a GWUDI water source. The video stresses
understanding GWUDI, the impact of local
geology, examining wells in confined and
unconfmed aquifers, looking for red flags that
may indicate GWUDI, evaluating test data for
potential GWUDI, follow-up tests, and regula-
tory requirements for GWUDI systems.
The video joins seven previously issued videos
addressing cross-connections, distribution
systems, gas chlorination, hypochlorination.
sampling and monitoring, storage facilities, and
wells. The videos are available for $30 each
($225 for the complete set), plus shipping costs,
from the National Environmental Training
Association (NETA). For an order form, go to
vAvw.epa.gQV/safewater/dwa/orderform.pdf, (*
DWA Focuses on Small Water System Security
Te DWA continues to address security This Guide is designed to be used by the staffs
issues for small water systems. In of small water systems to help determine areas
cooperation with the Association of of possible vulnerablility and to identify security
State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA) enhancements that utilities should consider. This
and the National Rural Water Association self-assessment can be conducted on all compo-
(NRWA), the DWA developed the Security nents of the system (wellhead or surface water
Vulnerability Self-Assessment Guide for Small intake, treatment plant, storage tanks, pumps,
Water Systems. The Guide is available in Adobe distribution system, and offices). The document
Acrobat format and can be downloaded from
www.epa.g0v/satewater/dwa/ vufnerability.pdf.
Drinking Water Academy Contacts
Contact Location Telephone
E-mail
Jackie LeClair
Norma Ortega
Rick Rogers
Janine Morris
Bill Spaulding
Bill Davis
Stephanie Lindberg
Dan Jackson
Barry Pollock
Bill Chamberlain
Mark Anderson
James Weddell
Stew Thornley
Murlene Lash
Mario Salazar
James Bourne ,
EPA Region 1
EPA Region 2
EPA Region 3
EPA Region 4
EPA Region 5
EPA Region 6
EPA Region 7
EPA Region 8
EPA Region 9
EPA Region 10
Virginia
Texas
Minnesota
EPA HQ
EPA HQ
EPA HQ
(617)918-1549
(212)637-4234
(215)814-5711
(404)562-9480
(312)886-9262
(214)665-7536
(913)551-7423
(303)312-6155
(415)744-1854
(206)553-8515
(804)786-5569
(512)239-4798
(651)215-0771
(202)564-3818
(202)564-3894
(202)564 4095
leclair.jackie@epa.gov
ortega.norma@epa.gov
rogers.rick@epa.gov
morris.janine@epa.gov
spaulding.william@epa.gov
davis.williamh@epa.gov
lindberg.stephanie@epa.gov
jackson.dan@epa.gov
pollock.barry@epa.gov
chamberlain.william@epa.gov
manderson@vdh.state.va.us
j weddell@tnrcc.st ate. t x.us
ste w. thorn ley @health.state.mn. us
iash.rmirlene@epa gov
salazar mario@epn .gov
bourne. james@epa gov
is designed primarily for systems that serve
populations of up to 3,300 persons.
As a follow-up activity, a subgroup of the
ASDWA Sanitary
Survey Work Group met
on September 19 and
20, 2002 to discuss
development of a
method to assess small
system security as part
of a sanitary survey.
The group finished the
guidance in December.
In addition to the
guidance, the DWA will
develop a sanitary
survey training module
addressing small system
security. The DWA
plans to deliver the
training module in each
EPA region.
For more information
about the DWA's
security activities,
contact Jamie Bourne at
bourne. jamesuJ epii.gov
or (202) 564-4095. i*
-------
Drinking Water Institute Teacher Education Program
Te Minnesota Department of Health
(MDH) and the Minnesota Section of
the American Water Works Association
(AWWA) have developed the Drinking Water
Institute, an award-winning 3-day seminar for
science teachers. At the Institute, teachers learn
about drinking water, develop their own curricu-
lums, and prepare action plans to integrate
drinking water into their classwork.
The Drinking Water Institutes are led and
conducted by the Science Museum of Minnesota
in St. Paul, recognized as the premier means of
delivering teacher education in the state. Drink-
ing water professionals present basic information
on drinking water, including water sources, water
chemistry, and how water works in nature and in
the developed environment. Science Museum
staff members focus on teaching teachers to
present this material in an inquiry-based manner.
Instead of lecturing students about a topic and
then asking questions, an inquiry-based science
teacher first gives students some material, such
as a ground water map. The teacher then has the
students make observations and formulate
questions about the material. The students
determine how to find the answers, reach a
conclusion, and defend it. In this way, the
science students act like scientists.
Teacher Training and Networking
The Science Museum staff leads the teachers
in a series of inquiry-based activities, which the
teachers later use in their classrooms. Having the
teachers develop their own inquiry-based
curriculums, rather than telling them in writing
what to do, greatly increases the chances that
drinking water topics will find their way into the
teachers' classrooms.
Another important aspect of the Institute is the
community connection. On one day of the
Institute, water superintendents work with the
teacher from their area. In this way, teachers learn
about their region's water quality and supply
issues. They also establish a relationship with
their local water superintendent, who can speak
to the teacher's class and host a class tour of the
water treatment plant.
Institutes Planned for 2003
Funded with seed money from the MDH and
Minnesota AWWA, the first Drinking Water
Institute was held in Eden Prairie, Minnesota,
during June 2001. The 18 teachers attended a
follow-up session and presented their action
plans at the Science Museum of Minnesota the
following October.
The second Drinking Water Institute will be
held in New Ulm, Minnesota, in June 2003, and
the third is planned for Rochester, Minnesota,
also in 2003. Sponsors hope that 24 teachers
will attend the future Institutes and that at least
two can be held each year. However, keeping
that schedule depends on securing other sources
of funding, such as donations from commercial
organizations and grants from foundations.
Teachers who complete the entire course,
including the follow-up session, and submit an
action plan receive two college credits.
Institutes Get Results
Evaluations and follow-up with the teachers
indicate the program is getting curriculum of
drinking water curriculum into classrooms. The
Institute's first class annually educates approxi-
mately 2,500 students on the importance of
drinking water.
In 2002, the Drinking Water Institute received a
national educational award from American Water
Works Association.
This successful program can be replicated
outside Minnesota. The Science Museum of
Minnesota, which focuses on inquiry-based
teaching, can train teachers in other states on
how to use this technique.
More information on the Drinking Water
Institute, including how to contact committee
members and the Science Museum of Minnesota,
is available at www.mnawwa.org/Education/
youth e
By working
with their
local water
superintendents,
teachers learn
about regional
drinking water
issues and
connect with
someone who
can address
their classes
or host field
trips to the
local drinking
water
treatment
plant.
-------
Excitement Continues to Build for Electronic
Sanitary Survey Project
The New
England states
are moving to
adopt the use
of PDAs to
assist in
conducting
sanitary
surveys; other
states and
several Tribal
programs are
also moving in
this direction.
Momentum is quickly building as work
continues on the Electronic
Sanitary Survey Project. This project
encourages the use of personal digital assistants
(PDAs) by sanitary survey inspectors.
Each PDA will contain a checklist with the
eight sanitary survey elements for inspectors to
use when gathering and recording data during a
survey. When the sanitary survey is complete,
the inspector will download the data to an
Access database on a desktop computer. A
module will generate reports from the database.
In the Bulletin's previous issue, we described
the project's benefits:
(^ Standardizing the sanitary survey format.
i* Increasing sanitary survey inspectors'
efficiency.
I* Making data from sanitary surveys more
accessible to drinking water managers.
I* Providing the ability to analyze the data
from the surveys.
Jamie Bourne, Chancellor of the Drinking
Water Academy, and Chris Lavelle of the Idaho
Department of Environmental Quality gave a
joint presentation at the Association of Drinking
Water Administrators' meeting in Salt Lake
City. Interest from the states was high, so Jamie
also gave an informal evening working session.
The current project has two components. The
first is a generic sanitary survey format that
incorporate the eight elements of a sanitary
survey. A work group of states, EPA, and
sanitary survey trainers will develop this aspect
of the project. EPA, state, and SDW1S-STATE
Sample Checklist Menu
|P09DOO2
General Info
Oroundwater
Surface Water
Treatment
Storage
Distribution
Pumping
Financial Capacity
Record Edit Option Q $?
staff members are also participating to ensure
compatibility between the two programs.
The second element is a pilot of the program
in several states. The DWA will assist those
states in adapting the generic form to include
any state-specific requirements. The DWA will
also provide training and technical assistance to
the pilot states, who must purchase the hardware
to support the project. Currently, the New
England states are moving to adopt the use of
PDAs; Nebraska, Iowa, New Mexico, Arizona,
and several Tribal programs are also moving in
this direction.
For more information on the project, contact
Jamie Bourne at boume.james(gepa.gov or (202)
OWA Developing Security It ammo (Continued from Page 11
emergency response plans and available assis-
tance for developing them. Last, the course will
explain how EPA will share and protect, as
appropriate, security-related information.
The DWA expects that ihe training will be
available in the spring and hopes to present it
once in each EPA Region. For more information
about the course, contact Jamie Bourne at (202)
564-4095 or houinc.james:a c'pa.gov. |*
-------
Training Course Schedule
©
Course Title
Audience
Schedule
Location
Contact
Risk Communication Under
the Safe Drinking Water
Act
Region 10 trainers
Jan. 28-30, 2003 Lake Oswego, OR Maryann Helferty
(206)553-1587
helferty.maryann@epa.gov
Regional and state staff Jan. 29, 2003 120 locations by Holly Fleming
Arsenic Rule satellite (202) 564-9909
fleming.holly@epa.gov
Surface Water Rules
Risk Communication Under
the Safe Drinking Water
Act
Regional and state staff Jan. 30, 2003 120 locations by Holly Fleming
satellite (202)564-9909
fleming.holly@epa.gov
Region 10 water Jan. 31, 2003 Lake Oswego, OR Maryann Helferty
systems (206)553-1587
helferty.maryann@epa.gov
Sanitary Survey Training
Region 4 sanitary survey Feb. 4-7, 2003
inspectors
Alpharetta, GA
Janine Morris
(404) 562-9480
morris.janine@epa.gov
Risk Communication Under
the Safe Drinking Water
Act
Alaska drinking water Mar. 3-7, 2003 Anchorage, AK James Weise
staff (907)269-7647
james_wase@env¥con.state.ak.us
Sanitary Survey Training
Risk Communication Under
the Safe Drinking Water
Act
Alaska sanitary survey May 12-16, 2003 Anchorage, AK Nicole Duclos
inspectors (907) 747-7756
nicole.duclos@uas.alaska.edu
Water system operators. May 1 372003
managers, and regula-
tors
Boise, ID
Margo Partridge
(360)753-9459
partridge.margo@epa.gov
Laboratory Certification:
Chemical Parameters
Regional and state staff June 16-20, 2003 Cincinnati, OH
with responsibilities for
certifying laboratories
that analyze drinking
water samples
Pat Hurr
(513)569-7678
hurr.pat@epa.gov
Laboratory Certification:
Microbiological Parameters
Regional and state staff June 23-27, 2003 Cincinnati, OH
with responsibilities for
certifying laboratories
that analyze drinking
water samples
Pat Hurr
(513)569-7678
hurr.pat@epa.gov
Introduction to the Public
Water System Supervision
Program
Headquarters staff Sept. 9, 2003 Washington, DC Jamie Bourne
(202)564-4095
bourne.james@epa.gov
Introduction to EPA's
Drinking Water Source
Protection Programs
Headquarters staff
Sept. 16, 2003 Washington, DC Jamie Bourne
(202)564-4095
bourne.james@epa.gov
American Government
Roles
Headquarters staff Dec. 9& 10,2003 Washington, DC Jamie Bourne
(202)564-4095
bourne.james@epa.gov
DWA courses may be presented as requested. See the course catalog on the DWA Website for more information (www.epa.gov/safewater/
dwa/course.html).
Office of Water (4606)
EPA 816-N-03-002
www.epa.gov
Winter 2003
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
September 11,2000
Introduction to ERA'S
Drinking Water
Source Protection
Programs
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
-------
September 11,2000
Drinking Water Academy
The mission of the Drinking Water Academy (DWA) is to enhance the
capabilities of State, Tribal and EPA staff to implement Safe Drinking Water
Act (SOWA) requirements. Through classroom instruction, Web-based
training, and the availability of training modules and other information, the
DWA works to bring new personnel up to speed and enhance the skills of
current drinking water staff.
The DWA provides training in SDWA's three major program areas:
^ Public water system supervision;
> Underground injection control; and
^ Source water protection.
The DWA provides an introductory course in each of these three areas, as well
as an introductory overview of SDWA. It also provides regulatory training
and technical training on specific topics such as sanitary surveys.
This course is a combination of the introductory source water protection
course and the new source water protection practices course. The purpose of
this course is to provide information on source water assessment and
protection measures to technical assistance providers who, in turn, will assist
local level water suppliers and communities who are responsible for protecting
their source water.
-------
September 11,2000
Objectives
Explain sources of water and threats to drinking
water
Explain the concept of source water protection
and program components
Describe types of State and local measures for
protection
Describe interrelationships with Clean Water Act
programs
Explain funding mechanisms
-------
September 11,2000
Objectives
Define source water contamination
prevention measures
Discuss types of prevention measures
Describe measures for specific sources
Discuss what individuals and
organizations can do to foster source
water protection
In addition, you should be able to:
^ Discuss types of prevention measures;
* Describe measures for specific sources; and
^ Discuss what individuals and organizations can do to foster source water
protection.
-------
September 11,2000
Water and the
Hydrologic Cycle
-------
September 11, 2000
Sources of Water
Hw V"v
^&&
grounds
(satur
To understand the importance of protecting water sources, we must begin with
a basic understanding of where our drinking water comes from. Drinking
water is either ground water or surface water.
Ground water is water that fills the open spaces, or pore space, within the
subsurface.
Surface water is an open body of water, such as a river, stream, lake, or
estuary. All of these receive water from precipitation, runoff from higher
elevations, or recharge from ground water moving below the stream or lake
bed.
Ground water under the direct influence of surface water (GWUDI) is any
water beneath the surface of the ground with: 1) significant occurrence of
insects or other macroorganisms, algae, or large-diameter pathogens such as
Giardia lamblia; or 2) significant and relatively rapid shifts in water
characteristics such as turbidity, temperature, conductivity, or pH that closely
correlate to climatological or surface water conditions. Direct influence must
be determined for individual sources based on site-specific measures and in
accordance with criteria established by the particular State. The State
determination for direct influence may be based on site-specific measurements
of water quality and/or documentation of well construction characteristics and
geology with field evaluation. (40 CFR 141.2)
/ -<
-------
September 11,2000
Ground Water
The subsurface is divided into zones or layers based on hydrologic properties.
* The zone of aeration, also known as the vadose zone or the unsaturated
zone, is directly below the surface and contains some water. In the zone
of aeration, water and air fill the voids between soil or rock particles.
* Deeper in the ground is the zone of saturation. In the zone of saturation,
the subsurface is completely saturated with water.
* The point where the zone of aeration meets the zone of saturation is
known as the water table.
Water table levels fluctuate naturally throughout the year based on seasonal
variations. In addition, the depth to the water table varies. For example, in
southern Louisiana, the water table may be as shallow as 2 inches below the
surface, while in the Mojave Desert the water table may be 600 feet below the
surface.
The saturated zone may form an aquifer. An aquifer is a geologic formation/
that contains water in quantities sufficient to support a well or spring.
-------
September 11,2000
Types of Openings In Selected Water-Bearing
Rocks
M 3 Millimeters h- ^ 20 Meters
Pores in
unconsolid-
ated
sedimentary
deposits
Rubble zone
and cooling
fractures in
extrusive
igneous rocks
Caverns in
limestone
and dolomite
Fractures in
intrusive
igneous rocks
V-
Ground water moves through the subsurface pore spaces in clay, silt, sand,
gravel or openings in bedrock. Flow will vary due to the type of geologic
formation. It is important to understand ground water movement prior to
selecting appropriate tools to protect the ground water.
The picture in the top left corner shows pore spaces in unconsolidated
sedimentary deposits such as sand and gravel. This type of geology is
common in the Texas Gulf Coast Basin.
The picture in the top right comer shows solution channels in limestone or
dolomite. This type of geology is common in Florida, Kentucky and Missouri.
The picture in the bottom right corner shows fractures in crystalline rocks such
us granite. This type of geology is common in New England, the
Appalachians, and the Rocky Mountains.
The picture in the bottom left shows fractures in intrusive igneous rocks. This
type of geology is common in Hawaii, Washington, and Idaho.
-------
September 11, 2000
WATER
TABLE
DIVIDE
RECHARGE AREA
DISCHARGE
AREA
T
Depending on the subsurface geology and pressure, ground water may travel at
different rates. As shown in the graphic above, ground water may take days,
months, or thousands of years to travel a given distance depending on the
conditions in the subsurface.
Understanding the "time of travel" is important to identifying the areas to be
protected. Where ground water moves slowly there is time for contaminants or
pathogens to break down or be absorbed by the surrounding soil or rock before
it reaches a well. Contaminants in rapidly-moving ground water would not
necessarily be broken down before reaching a well. (See the slide on
Vulnerability and Sensitivity of Drinking Water Sources for more
information.)
-------
September 11, 2000
The Relationship of Ground Water
and Surface Water
Precipitation
Evaporation
Ground water and surface water are closely related. This relationship is part
of the hydrologic cycle.
Precipitation that falls from the atmosphere in the form of rain or snow:
^ Reaches the land surface and recharges rivers, lakes, wetlands, and other
surface water bodies directly;
^ Infiltrates (seeps into) the ground and eventually reaches the ground
water; or
* Evaporates back into the atmosphere.
Within an aquifer, ground water flows in much the same way that surface
water does, along natural contours within the subsurface. Where ground water
flows intersect a stream or lake bed, the ground water can recharge that water
body, or vice versa.
A surface water body that is recharged by ground water is known as a gaining
stream. Where the water from the stream infiltrates to the ground water, the
stream is known as a losing stream. The direction in which water Hows may
vary throughout the year, depending on ground water and surface water levels
at a "iven season.
10
-------
September 11,2000
Paths of Water Flow Within Watershed
Precipitation
IUI
Stream
l^fPlll
3
1.Overland Flow 2. Shallow Subsurface Storm Flow 3. Ground Water Flow
There are three major ways that water moves within a watershed:
* Overland flow;
* Shallow subsurface storm flow; and
* Ground water flow.
Understanding the flow of water is critical to determine the appropriate areas
to be protected through inclusion in a wellhead or watershed protection area.
Contaminant loading that occurs through shallow subsurface flow can cause a
well receiving the waters to be designated as ground water under the influence
of surface water.
::
-------
September 11, 2000
Hydrologic Budget
Evapotranspiration
Pumping
Precipitation
Recharge
Well
t
Septic Road with
System Catch basin
*mSF
Ground Water / Surface Water
Interaction
Aquifer
The direction of flow between ground water and surface water may also be
influenced by a pumping well (drinking water well). Use of pumping wells
near a stream or lake may draw that water into the ground water and
subsequently into a drinking water supply well.
\2
-------
September 11,2000
Threats to Sources
of Drinking Water
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
13
-------
September 11,2000
Vulnerability and Sensitivity
of Drinking Water Sources
• Surface water
- Runoff
- Ground water infiltration
• Ground water
- Infiltration from the surface
- Injection of contaminants
- Naturally occurring substances
Surface water is vulnerable to contamination from both runoff and ground water infiltration. Runoff
from surface areas in a watershed, either near a drinking water supply intake or in upstream tributaries,
may contain contaminants, including human or animal wastes. In addition, contaminated ground water
may recharge streams or lakes spreading the contamination to a surface water source.
Ground water can become contaminated through infiltration from the surface, injection of contaminants
through injection wells (including septic systems), or by naturally occurring substances in the soil or rock
through which it flows. Depending on the hydrogeologic setting, contaminants in ground water may
migrate far from the source and pollute water supplies far away. The properties of the aquifer and
overlying soils affect contaminant movement. For example, highly permeable aquifers conduct ground
water flow quickly, allowing little time to detect a contamination plume before it reaches a drinking water
supply.
Contaminant transport in ground water may be affected by physical, chemical, or biological processes
between the contaminants, the ground water, and-the aquifer materials. For example, some contaminants
may be adsorbed onto soil particles within the aquifer or overlying rock layers. Furthermore, different
contaminants move at varying rates and persist in the subsurface for different lengths of time. Some
organic contaminants may be consumed by microbes in the soil in a process known as biodegradation.
Wells that are improperly completed or abandoned provide a direct conduit for surface contamination to
get to ground water. A properly designed and constructed well includes several features that reduce the
risk of contaminating ground water. These include casing to prevent the collapse of the wall of the bore
hole; grout to fill the open space left outside the well casing to prevent surface water from entering the
well; screens at the intake point to hold back unstable aquifer material; and well head covers or seals at
the top of the casing or pipe sleeve to prevent contaminated water from entering the well.
14
-------
September 11,2000
What Health Effects Can
Contaminated Source Water
Cause? _
• Acute health effects
Chronic health effects
There are two major types of health effects—acute and chronic.
^ Acute health effects are immediate (appearing within hours or days) effects that
may result from exposure to certain contaminants such as pathogens (disease
causing organisms) or nitrate that may be in drinking water.
- Pathogens are usually associated with gastrointestinal illness and, in
extreme cases, death, especially among immune-compromised individuals,
such as AIDS patients.
- Nitrate in drinking water also poses an acute health threat to infants. High
levels can interfere with the ability of an infant's blood to carry oxygen.
This potentially fatal condition is called methemoglobinemia or "blue baby
syndrome." Nitrates may also indicate the possible presence of other more
serious residential or agricultural contaminants such as bacteria.
> Chronic health effects are the possible result of exposure over many years to a
drinking water contaminant, especially at levels above its maximum level
established by EPA. Chronic health effects include birth defects, cancer, and
other long-term health effects. Contaminants causing chronic health effects are
mostly chemical contaminants and include, among others, byproducts of
disinfection, lead and other metals, pesticides, and solvents. For example, some
disinfection byproducts are toxic and some are probably carcinogens. Exposure
to lead can impair the mental development of children. However, there is
usually little risk from short-term exposure to these contaminants at levels
typically found in drinking water.
15
-------
September 11,2000
What Contaminants Cause
Acute Health Effects?
• Viruses (e.g., Norwalk virus)
• Bacteria (e.g., Shigella,
E.Coli)
Parasite - Parasite -
Giardia lamblia Ciyptosporidium
Parasites, protozoa or cysts
Nitrate
Warning Sign About
Dangers of Nitrate
-
S
,,,rruvilSIXCHOHDl«»l .
MAXIMUM 1IMIIS
WITH VM«I IH mCKAPrt WO*
AW IMAIITS UHDII < MONTHS DID
KM DlUlli Oil i .
MM- • 1IV711I •
01
otrr-
Pathogens, which can cause acute health effects, are microorganisms that can cause disease in humans,
animals and plants. They may be bacteria, viruses, or parasites and are found in sewage, in runoff from
animal farms or rural areas populated with domestic and/or wild animals, and in water used for
swimming. Fish and shellfish contaminated by pathogens, or the contaminated water itself, can cause
serious illnesses.
* A virus is the smallest form of microorganism capable of causing disease. A virus of fecal origin is
called an enterovirus and is infectious to humans by waterborne transmission. These viruses, such
as the Norwalk virus and a group of Norwalk-like viruses, are of special concern for drinking water
regulators. Many waterborne viruses can cause gastroenteritis, with symptoms that include
diarrhea, nausea, and/or stomach cramps. Gastroenteritis can be fatal for people with compromised
immune systems. The World Health Organization counts waterborne viruses as second only to
malaria in lost work time and dollars in the global economy.
Bacteria arc microscopic living organisms usually consisting of a single cell. Waterbome disease-
eausing bacteria include E. coli and Shigclla.
* Proto-oa or parasites are also single cell organisms. Examples include Giardia lamhlia and
Cryptosporidium. Giardia lamhlia was only recognized as being a human pathogen capable of
causing waterborne disease outbreaks in the late 1970s. During the past 15 years, Giardia lamhlia
*? has become recognized as one of the most common causes of waterborne disease in humans in the
I 'nitcd States. The protozoa Ci-}-r>tosr>oridium (often called "crypto") K common]^ found in lakes
and rivers and is hiL'hlv resistant to disinfection used in cMonm^C'iyptosporidium has caused
several large outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness. . .- ,-,-£
* Nitrate in drinking water at levels abov£10 ppmlj; a health risk for infants less than six months old.
High nitrate levels in drinking water cancauSe blue baby syndrome. Nitrate levels may rise quickly
for short periods of time because of rainfall or agricultural activity.
16
-------
September 11,2000
What Contaminants Cause
Chronic Health Effects?
• Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs)
• Inorganic chemicals (lOCs)
• Synthetic organic chemicals (jSOCs)
Contaminants that can cause chronic health effects include byproducts of disinfection, lead and other
metals, pesticides, and solvents. Sources of these contaminants include:
> Commercial activities such as automotive repair facilities, laundromats and dry cleaners, airports,
gas stations, photographic processors, and construction sites often use materials that are toxic.
^ Industrial activities such as chemical manufacturing and storage, machine or metalworking shops,
and mining operations often use substances that can contaminate drinking water supplies.
* Petroleum product storage in underground tanks is one of the greatest threats to ground water
quality.
^ Agricultural activities such as use of pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers applied to crops on
farmland may be highly toxic and can remain in soil and water for many months or years. These
same substances are used by millions of homeowners as well.
> Urban activities such as improper disposal or leaks of household hazardous wastes, can seep into
the ground or run into storm drains and contaminate ground water.
> Other sources of water contamination include chemicals used for road de-icing and maintenance,
landfills, and surface impoundments.
Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) vaporize at relatively low temperatures. They include mostly
industrial and chemical solvents such as benzene and toluene. Benzene has the potential to cause
chromosome aberrations and cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels above the maximum contaminant
level. Toluene has the potential to cause pronounced nervous disorders such as spasms, tremors,
impairment of speech, hearing, vision, memory, and coordination; and liver and kidney damage from a
lifetime exposure, especially at levels above the MCL.
Inorganic chemicals (lOCs) include metals and minerals. Some of these have the potential to cause
chronic health effects. For example, lead has the potential to cause stroke, kidney disease, and cancer
from a lifetime exposure, especially at levels above the MCL.
Synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) are man-made and include pesticides such as atrazine and alachlor.
Atrazine has the potential to cause weight loss; cardiovascular damage; retinal and some muscle
degeneration; and cancer from a lifetime exposure at levels above the MCL. Alachlor can cause eye,
liver, kidney, or spleen problems; anemia; and an increased risk of cancer from life-time exposure,
especially at levels above the MCL.
17
-------
September 11, 2000
Contamination Pathways
.
» « «
• • .
Surface water is vulnerable to contamination from direct discharges, runoff and ground
water inflow. Chemical and microbiological contaminants (represented by the red diamonds)
may enter surface water through runoff, or through direct disposal into rivers or streams;
acid rain may affect surface water sources; and contaminated ground water may interact with
surface water and spread contamination. Surface water is vulnerable to both chemical and
microbiological contamination and in most cases requires treatment, filtration and/or
disinfection before it is safe to drink. Runoff from surface areas in a watershed, either near a
drinking water supply intake or in upstream tributaries, may contain contaminants, including
human or animal wastes (represented by the yellow circles). In addition, contaminated
ground water may recharge streams or lakes spreading the contamination to a surface water
source.
Ground water, which is protected by layers of soils and other subsurface materials,
sometimes does not require treatment prior to use. However, ground water can become
contaminated through infiltration from the surface, injection of contaminants through
improperly constructed or defective injection wells (including septic systems), or by
naturally occurring substances in the soil or rock through which it flows. Depending on the
hydrogeologic setting, contaminants in ground water may migrate from the source and
pollute water supplies far away. The properties of the aquifer (i.e..ground water within the
subsurface zone of saturation in sufficient quantities to support a well or spring) and
overlying soils affect contaminant movement. For example, highly permeable aquifers
conduct ground water flow quickly, allowing little time to detect a contamination plume
before it reaches a drinking water supply.
Ground water under the direct influence of surface water (GWUDI) faces the same risks as
surface water and the same treatment should be used before using GWUDI as a source of
drinking water.
18
-------
September 11,2000
What Does
Ground Water
Contamination
Look Like?
100 AshumetWell
This slide shows a model of a plume of ground water contamination. The
contamination source is in the darkest red area where the concentration of
contaminant X is 400 mg/L.
* As the plume spreads, the concentration of the contaminant is diluted.
* When the plume reaches the Ashumet drinking water well, contaminant
X is at a concentration of 200 mg/L.
The transport of contaminants in the subsurface is complicated because it is
affected by many physical, chemical, and biological processes. It is not
enough to understand the properties of the contaminant itself. The aquifer
materials, other contaminants in the water, and pumping the water may also
affect the transport.
For example, the temperature of the water may affect the transport of
microbiological contaminants in particular; some contaminants may be filtered
out of water in small pore spaces in the aquifer; contaminants may biodegrade
when they come in contact with microorganisms in soil; and pumping the
water may affect the direction or quantity of the water flow.
In sum, the processes occurring in the subsurface are complex and should be
considered in source water protection efforts.
[9
-------
September 11, 2000
What Does Surface Water
Contamination Look Like?
Surface water is also vulnerable to contaminants causing chronic health
effects. These contaminants may enter surface water through runoff or waste
disposal into rivers or streams.
Chemical contamination of water will likely be invisible to the naked eye.
Chemical transport in surface water can be affected by circulation patterns,
time of transport, or dilution.
20
-------
September 11,2000
What Are the Sources of
Contaminants With Acute
Health Effects?
• Animal feeding operations
• Agriculture
• Septic systems and cesspools
Contaminants capable of causing acute health effects can come from a variety
of sources, including animal waste, septic systems, sewage, and animal
feeding operations (AFOs).
* Animal feeding operations are agricultural enterprises where animals
are kept and raised in confined situations. AFOs contribute about one-
third to one-half of the non-point surface water pollution in the United
States, primarily from the improper handling of animal wastes. Manure
and wastewater from AFOs can contribute pathogens, such as
Cryptosporidium, to drinking water sources.
* A variety of agricultural activities can threaten drinking water supplies.
Each year in the United States, millions of tons of fertilizers are applied
to crops on farmland (and on residential lawns and golf courses).
Fertilizers can be a significant source of nitrate and nitrite
contamination.
^ Household septic systems and cesspools, if not properly maintained,
also may contaminate ground water supplies with nitrates or
microbiological contaminants. The following slides explain more about
septic systems.
21
-------
September 11, 2000
Septic Systems Do Not Treat Chemicals
As noted on the previous slide, septic systems are a common source of ground
water contamination.
Septic systems may contribute nitrate and microbiological contaminants to
ground water. Other contaminants, such as oil or solvents, may also be
introduced through septic systems if homeowners use them for disposal (by
pouring them down the drain).
Septic systems used for disposal of industrial or commercial wastes may fail
due to the types of substances disposed, causing not only potential nitrate and
microbiological problems, but other contamination in the ground water as
well.
If septic systems are properly sited, the soil should "treat" at least some of the
contaminants. In other words, certain contaminants should attenuate (i.e.,
weaken or be reduced) in the soil before reaching ground water.
However, if improperly sited, the soil is unsuitable, or the system has failed,
contaminants can quickly migrate directly into ground water.
Studies show that no commercial septic additives have any beneficial effect on
a properly-maintained septic system (National Small Flows Clearinghouse
Study, North Carolina State University. 1999).
-------
September 11, 2000
Sewage Breakout at Land Surface
Septic systems may also contaminate surface water sources. When improperly
sited on soil that is already saturated or in soil that is impermeable, the waste
may pond on the surface and contaminate surface water sources.
Improper maintenance can also lead to contamination.
-------
September 11,2000
What are the Sources of
Contaminants with Chronic Health
Effects?
Industrial and commercial
activities
Agriculture
Landfills and surface
impoundments
Urban uses
A variety of activities can threaten drinking water supplies with contaminants that may cause
chronic health effects.
Various commercial and industrial activities can affect water quality. Some of the
contamination sources are small "mom-and-pop" type operations; others are large, multi-acre
facilities. Commercial activities that can affect water supplies include automotive repair
facilities, laundromats and dry cleaners, airports, gas stations, photographic processors, and
construction sites. Industrial activities such as chemical manufacturing and storage, machine
or metalworking shops, and mining operations often use substances that can contaminate
drinking water supplies.
Many industrial or commercial facilities store fuel in above-ground or underground storage
tanks. Petroleum storage in underground tanks is one of the greatest threats to ground water
quality. EPA estimates that approximately one-third of all such storage systems in the
country are leaking.
Agricultural activities can threaten drinking water supplies. Pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers applied to crops on farmland may be highly toxic and can remain in soil and water
for many months or years.
Urban activities can be harmful to ground water and surface water supplies. Improper
disposal or leaks of a number of substances used by homeowners, such as cleaning supplies,
furniture stripping or refmishing chemicals, pesticides, fertilizers, and paint, can seep into the
ground or run into storm drains and contaminate ground water.
Other sources of water contamination include chemicals used for road de-icing and
maintenance, landfills, and surface impoundments.
24
-------
September 11,2000
Example: Industrial Contamination
Many of the chemicals used at industrial operations can contaminate large
quantities of water even if only small amounts of a contaminant are present.
Drinking water standards are measured in parts per million or parts per billion.
25
-------
September 11, 2000
Source Water
Assessments
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
26
-------
September 11, 2Mf
What is a Source
Water Assessment?
•PMWU^*ii«»*riKt«Hrf'vt%.«%
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Assessments
as the Basis of Protection
• Provide important information
• May be used to prioritize protection
activities
Completed source water assessments provide important information.
Typically, information collected during an assessment includes delineated
protection areas, locations of wells and intakes, inventories and locations of
potential contaminant sources, determinations of relative threats to drinking
water sources, and hydrogeological data.
Source water assessment information, in conjunction with other watershed
assessment efforts, by identifying relative threats to water quality, can help
water systems and localities determine protection priorities for addressing
these threats.
28
-------
September 11,2000
Elements of State
SWAPs
• Public participation in developing SWAP
• Plan to delineate areas, inventory
contaminants, determine susceptibility
• Timetable for implementation, agencies
involved, plan to update assessments
• Plan to make the results of
assessments available to the public
According to SDWA Section 1453, each State must develop and submit to
EPA a Source Water Assessment Program (SWAP) that includes four
elements:
* Public, technical, and citizen advisory group involvement in the
development of the State-wide SWAP.
* A plan to complete source water assessments for each public water
system (PWS) to identify watersheds and ground water recharge areas
that supply public drinking water systems, inventory potential
contaminant sources, and determine the water system's susceptibility to
contamination.
^ A plan to implement its chosen source water assessment approach, i.e., a
timetable for completing assessments, roles of various State and other
agencies, and plans for updating the assessments.
^ A plan to provide the public with access to the results of the
susceptibility determination.
All States were required to submit their SWAP strategies to EPA by February
6, 1999. EPA has since approved the States' submittals. Each State has two
years, plus a possible extension of up to 18 months, to complete all of its
source water assessments after EPA approval of their SWAP.
States must implement source water assessments according to the approved
program.
29
-------
September 11,2000
SWPA Delineations for
Surface Water-Based
Systems
K.UFTMftCS
ROTE
Kit A.C»,V „
A source water protection area is the watershed or ground water area where
contamination sources may contribute pollution to the water supply. The
purposes of the source water protection area delineation are to:
> Identify land areas that affects sources' water quality; and
^ Identify the areas to be addressed in the source water assessment.
For PWSs relying on surface water, the delineated source water protection
area must include the entire watershed upstream of the PWS's intake structure,
up to the State border. Whenever possible, States should also include in their
delineations those parts of a watershed that are outside their State boundaries. .
For surface water-based PWSs, delineations must take into account the
impacts of ground water on surface water. The source water protection areas
may include surface water contribution areas and zones of ground water
contribution to public surface water supplies. The consideration of surface I
water contribution areas and zones of ground water contribution during the /
delineation process is known as "conjunctive delineation."
30
-------
September 11,2000
SWPA Delineations for Ground
Water-Based Systems
Zone4
Row Path'
For PWSs relying on ground water, the SWPA should be delineated in
accordance with wellhead protection methods. Sometimes, it may be
necessary to delineate source water protection areas either inside of or in
addition to typical wellhead protection areas.
A wellhead protection area is the surface and subsurface area surrounding a
well or well field through which contaminants can reach the water supply.
In the slide above, Palm Beach County, Florida, designates four regulation
zones around each regulated well based on time of travel criteria and draw
down.
31
-------
September 11,2000
Contamination Source
Inventories
Identify contaminants of concern
Identify significant potential sources
In developing a contaminant source inventory, assessors must identify all
contaminants of concern and all significant potential sources of those
contaminants.
Contaminants of concern include:
> Raw water contaminants regulated under the SDWA (contaminants with
an established maximum contaminant level [MCL]);
* Contaminants regulated under the Surface Water Treatment Rule; and
^ Cryptosporidium.
In addition, States may include contaminants that are not regulated under
SDWA but that may present a threat to public health, such as certain
microbiological contaminants (e.g., pathogenic viruses).
A significant potential source of contamination is any facility or activity that
stores, uses, or produces, as a product or by-product, any contaminant of
concern and has a sufficient likelihood of releasing such contaminant to the
environment at levels that could contribute significantly to the concentration
of these contaminants in source water protection areas of a public water
system.
The source inventory must include a clear description of the sources of
contamination (or categories of sources) either by specific location or by area.
Inventories may also include anticipated future sources of contamination.
32
-------
September 11,2000
Contamination Source
Inventories (continued)
Start with a broad review
- Use Federal, State, and local databases
Narrow with "on-the-ground" surveys
Reviewing existing data bases can provide a "first cut" inventory at little or no
cost. Many Federal, State, and local agencies maintain data on facilities that
use, store, or manufacture potential contaminants. Examples include EPA's
National Priorities List of Superfund sites and National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permittees; State records on underground
storage tanks, salt storage facilities, and landfills and surface impoundments;
and local land use maps or lists of commercial and industrial activities.
Vulnerability assessments performed by PWSS staff can also provide
information.
Once a broad review of existing data is complete, inventories can be narrowed
to focus on specific protectiveness goals or to gain more detailed information.
Focused inventories can include windshield surveys (driving around the
delineated area noting potential sources), mail or telephone surveys, and door-
to-door surveys in which individual residents and business owners are
interviewed about activities and their associated risks.
In conducting inventories for local WHP programs, many communities have
been creative in seeking the assistance of volunteers. For example, in some
communities retired senior citizens with years of technical work experience
conducted windshield surveys.
33
-------
September 11, 2000
Susceptibility
Determinations
Municipal Water
Supply Well
The third component of a complete SWA is the susceptibility determination.
This refers to a determination of the susceptibility of the water supply to
contamination, based on the contamination source inventory and other relevant
factors. The susceptibility determination is useful for decisions regarding
management of the source water protection area and source water protection
activities.
The susceptibility determination may be based on:
^ Hydrologic and hydrogeologic factors such as ground water or surface
water movement;
* Characteristics of the contaminants (e.g., toxicity, environmental fate
and transport);
^ Characteristics of the potential source of the contaminant (location,
likelihood of release, effectiveness of mitigation measures); and
* Other factors such as well intake and well integrity.
The susceptibility determination may be an absolute measure of the potential
for contamination of the public water supply, a relative comparison between
sources within the source water protection area, or a relative comparison to
findings by other assessments.
In defining sources, multiple units can be considered a single source. For
example, multiple septic systems in one subdivision would likely be
considered one source.
34
-------
September 11,2000
Making Assessments
Available to the Public
When the assessments are complete, States must make the results available to the
public. The results must be understandable and should include maps of the delineated
source water protection area and significant sources of contamination described in the
inventory. This requirement is consistent with the 1996 Amendments' emphasis on
more public notice and involvement.
Drinking water utilities' annual consumer confidence reports (CCRs) may be the most
efficient way to distribute the assessment results or announce their availability.
CCRs give consumers information on their drinking water and opportunities to get
involved in protecting their source water.
EPA's "Surf Your Watershed" Internet site provides State or watershed level
information about protection efforts and drinking water (http://www.epa.gov/
surmewi/watershed.html). The Index of Watershed Indicators (IWI) describes the
condition and vulnerability of over 2,000 watersheds. Surf and IWI can benefit
source water protection by providing key environmental data to the public.
The Environmental Monitoring for Public Access and Community Tracking
(EMPACT) Program is a new approach to collecting, managing, and presenting
useful, plain-language, environmental information at the city or community level. A
pilot project on the Raccoon and Des Moines Rivers in Des Moines, Iowa, will focus
on drinking water monitoring to give citizens information on source water quality.
This program is only available to communities that compete successfully for it.
Assessment, results could also be made available in customers' water bills, local
libraries, municipal offices, or by a telephone or on-line computer system.
35
-------
September 11,2000
Updating Source
Water Assessments
• New items to consider:
- Newly regulated contaminants
- New PWSs, intakes, or wastewater
discharges
- Changes in land use
- Local information
After the initial source water assessments are complete, EPA recommends that
they be reviewed and updated periodically to address regulatory changes or
new activities in the source water protection area. Things to be considered in
updating assessments include:
> Contaminants to be addressed in new and future EPA rulemakings, such
as the Ground Water Rule, the Chemical Monitoring Reform Rule and
Alternative Monitoring Rule, and the Class V Underground Injection
Control Rule;
* New PWSs, wells or surface water intakes, or wastewater discharge
permittees;
* Changes in land use such as new industrial or agricultural activity; and
* Additional local information that may be currently unavailable but
gathered over time.
36
-------
September 11, 2000
The Concept of
Source Water
Protection
State and Local Frameworks
to Protect Sources of Drinking Water
While the assessment is an important first step to protecting a drinking water
source, a protection program requires on-the-ground management strategies
based on community-wide involvement.
Local communities, working in cooperation with State agencies, can use the
information gathered through the assessment process to create a broader
source water protection program to address current problems and prevent
future threats to the quality of their drinking water supplies. EPA will also
continue to support State and local programs through guidance and funding.
Specific Federal, State and local drinking water source protection programs
are described in the following slides.
37
-------
September 11,2000
Historical Basis -
Early State Approach
• Multiple barrier approach used by
States since early 1900s included
source selection and protection
• Sanitary surveys to check system from
source to tap
In the 19th century, State public health agencies began to protect sources of
drinking water in response to widespread epidemics attributed to drinking water
contamination. By the mid-1900s, State public health departments were well-
established regulatory agencies.
The predominant philosophy in these State programs was a multiple barrier
approach to prevent or treat drinking water contamination. The first barrier was
selection and protection of an appropriate source. For surface sources, this
meant locating and constructing water intakes to ensure little or no
contamination from fecal bacteria. For ground water sources, this meant
constructing wells in appropriate locations, at appropriate depths, and with
approved construction methods (e.g., casing and grouting).
Other barriers included treatment (selected to be appropriate to the quality of
the source water) and distribution (to promote full circulation and avoid
stagnant water conditions that might facilitate microbial contamination). The
integrity of distribution systems was periodically checked to avoid any type of
cross-connection whereby untreated or contaminated water might enter the
system.
One method to implement the multiple barrier approach was to conduct routine
sanitary surveys where State sanitarians or engineers inspected water systems
and checked all components of the system from source to tap. Sanitary surveys
identified problems and potential problems thereby preventing contamination of
water supplies.
38
-------
September 11,2000
Definition and Importance
of Source Water Protection
• Source water protection is defined as
efforts to protect drinking water sources :
- Surface water
- Ground water
• Why protect source water?
- Public health protection
- Economic benefits
- Environmental benefits
Whether a public water system relies on surface water, ground water, or a
combination of the two, protection of a water system's source is important.
^ If source water becomes contaminated, threats to public health are
increased.
^ In addition, expensive treatment or replacement or relocation of the
water supply may be required. Treatment or relocation costs are passed
on to every user served by the public water system.
^ Water is a limited resource. If a source becomes contaminated, there
may not be another source available that can be developed.
Protection of existing sources of water is the most prudent way to protect
public health, and keep treatment costs to a minimum.
Existing Federal laws have tended to focus on specific sources, pollutants, or
land uses that may affect water quality, and have not addressed the need for an
integrated, multi-disciplinary approach to environmental management.
Historically, successes in controlling water pollution have been most
widespread in surface water through control of point sources and in ground
water by preventing contamination from hazardous waste sites.
39
-------
September 11, 2000
Authority for the SWP
Program
• SDWA Section 1452 authorizes funding
for SWP programs
Section 1453 assessments provide the
basis for SWP
Non-regulatory program at the Federal
level
May be regulatory at the State and local
levels
The 1996 SDWA Amendments added Section 1453 which provides for State-
wide source water protection programs. Source water protection consists of
two major components:
^ Source water assessments (SWAs) assess the source water area and
identify threats.
* Source water protection programs protect against threats identified in
the assessment.
Source water protection encompasses ground water and surface water sources
and integrates earlier efforts by EPA and the States, including WHP, Sole
Source Aquifer, and Clean Water Act programs and watershed initiatives.
While SWAPs are mandated in the SDWA, they are to be conducted by States.
The source water protection program is non-regulatory at the Federal level. At
the State and local levels, the program may be regulatory.
40
-------
September 11,2000
SWP Program
Components:
Federal Programs
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
There are many programs administered by. EPA and by other Federal agencies
that can be used to protect source water, especially surface water.
EPA-administered programs include those under the Safe Drinking Water Act
and the Clean Water Act.
Other Federal agencies that administer relevant programs include the
Departments of Agriculture, Transportation, and the Interior, the Army Corps
of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey.
In addition, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) provides an
important opportunity to point out potential drinking water impacts and
recommend alternative sites or mitigative measures.
41
-------
September 11, 2000
SDWA Source Water
Protection Programs
• 1974 SDWA
- Sole Source Aquifer program
- Underground Injection Control program
• 1986 SDWA Amendments: Wellhead
Protection program
• 1996 SDWA Amendments
- Source Water Petition program
- Source Water Assessment program
The Federal government began a limited role in protecting drinking water with the creation of the
U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) in 1912 and the PHS's subsequent regulation of drinking water
in interstate commerce (e.g., on interstate carriers). Prior to 1974, States were responsible for
protecting drinking water and ground and surface water sources.
SDWA, first enacted in 1974, included provisions for a program to protect ground water sources -
- the Sole Source Aquifer program. This program prohibits Federal financial assistance for
projects that might contaminate an aquifer that has been designated by EPA as a sole or principal
source of drinking water for an area.
The 1974 SDWA also included provisions for the Underground Injection Control (UIC)
program. This program protects Underground Sources of Drinking Water (USDWs) from
contamination through injection wells.
The 1986 SDWA Amendments established the Wellhead Protection (WHP) Program in Section
1428. This non-regulatory program includes provisions to protect the surface and subsurface
areas around public drinking water wells and offers communities a cost-effective means of
protecting vulnerable ground water supplies.
The 1996 Amendments established the Source Water Assessment Program (discussed later) and
the Source Water Petition Program.This program, authorized by SDWA Section 1454, is
voluntary for States, and is intended to support locally-driven efforts designed to address a limited
number of contaminants identified in the statute. See the State Source Water Protection Programs
Guidance (August 1997) at www.epa.gov/safewater/swp/swp.pdffor additional information.
Except for the UIC program, EPA's ground water and source water programs are not regulatory.
There are no enforceable national ground water standards. These programs typically educate,
facilitate, coordinate, and assist with protection of ground water.
42
-------
September 11,2000
What Is the Sole Source
Aquifer Program?
A sole source aquifer:
- Supplies at least 50% of
drinking water
- Is the only feasible
drinking water source that
exists
Allen County Sole Source
Aquifer Boundaries
The Sole Source Aquifer Protection Program is authorized by Section 1424 of
the Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. The program provides for EPA review
of proposed Federal financially-assisted projects, such as highway
improvements, wastewater treatment facilities, or agricultural projects that can
potentially contaminate a designated sole source aquifer.
A sole source aquifer, or principal source aquifer:
Supplies at least 50 percent of the drinking water consumed in the area
overlying the aquifer; and
Is the only physically, legally, and economically feasible water source
for all those who depend on the aquifer for drinking water.
K
43
-------
September 11,2000
Sole Source Aquifer
Program (continued)
Any person or
organization may
petition EPA to
designate an aquifer
as a sole source
70 designated sole
source aquifers as
of February 2000
Allen County Sole Source
Aquifer Boundaries
Any person or organization may apply to designate an aquifer as a sole source
by submitting a petition to EPA. As of February 2000, there are 70 designated
sole source aquifers in the U.S.
The 1986 Amendments re-established the Sole Source Aquifer Program and
authorized a demonstration project to assist local governments that made a
start in protecting their sole source aquifers. These projects were never funded
or implemented.
44
-------
September 11,2000
Significance of the Sole
Source Aquifer Program
• EPA reviews Federally-funded projects
• Information from SSA designation can
help delineate SWPAs
• SSAs can raise community awareness
• SWAPs can help evaluate candidate
SSAs
Proposed projects with Federal financial assistance that have the potential to contaminate SSAs are
subject to EPA review by a ground water specialist. This review may be coordinated with National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) reviews and with relevant Federal, State and local agencies.
Examples of projects that might be subject to review include highways, wastewater treatment
facilities, construction projects that involve storm water disposal, public water supply wells and
transmission lines, agricultural projects that involve the management of animal waste, and projects
funded through Community Development Block Grants. Project reviews can result in:
* EPA requirements for design improvements, ground water monitoring programs, maintenance
and educational activities that would not otherwise occur; or
* Direct technical assistance, by identifying specific activities that may lead to ground water
contamination. In addition, technical assistance usually involves site-specific coordination of
ground water protection activities among State and local environmental and public health
protection agencies.
The hydrogeologic and water usage information required by EPA during the process of designating
a sole source aquifer can help define source water protection areas and determine the susceptibility
of water supplies. Sole source aquifer project reviews can be a valuable source of information on
potential contaminant sources in source water protection areas.
A sole source aquifer designation can also increase community awareness on the use, value, and
vulnerability of aquifers and build support for implementing various ground water protection efforts
at the local level.
The information from source water assessments can be used to help evaluate whether an area meets
SSA designation criteria, and can provide useful information for project reviews, such as the
location of delineated source water protection areas, potential or existing sources of contamination,
and local variations in aquifer susceptibility.
Some States have chosen to regulate activities in SSAs to provide additional ground water
protection.
45
-------
September 11, 2000
t is the UIC Progra
The UIC program mission is to protect underground sources of drinking water from
contamination by regulating the construction and operation of injection wells.
Injection is defined as subsurface emplacement of fluids through a bored, drilled, or driven
well or through a dug well where the depth of the dug well is greater than the largest surface
dimension; or a dug hole whose depth is greater than the largest surface dimension; or an
improved sinkhole; or a subsurface fluid distribution system.
Protection of ground water from this potential source of contamination is significant since
there are estimated to be more than 600,000 injection wells in the U.S. that dispose of a variety
of wastes including hazardous waste. (Only a small portion of injection wells inject hazardous
waste.)
Underground sources of drinking water (USDWs) are important sources of drinking water. In
order to understand the definition of a USDW, there are some basic concepts that must be
understood.
^ Water contains dissolved minerals, especially salt. The salinity of water is expressed as
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), measured as parts per million (ppm) or the equivalent
milligrams per liter (mg/L).
Water with between 0 and 500 mg/L TDS is considered to be suitable for human
consumption. Water that has a higher salinity than drinking water may be used for many
other purposes (e.g., agricultural and industrial uses). In addition, water containing up
to 10.000 mg/L TDS can potentially be treated to reduce TDS to drinkable~quality
'levels. Waters containing in excess of 10.000 mg/L TDS are called brine, or simply salt
water.
Thus, Underground Sources of Drinking Water are aquifers (geologic formations where water
collects in quantities sufficient to support a well or spring) with less than 10,000 mg/L TDS.
The graphic is a simplified picture of this. Whether there is a layer of fresh water with high
IDS water underneath depends on the location.
LPA regulates underground injection control wells in order to protect USDWs.
46
-------
September 11,2000
Mineralized
Ore Body
Exempt
Aquifer
Injection wells may be used to purposefully inject fluid; they may also serve as a conduit for
fluids to drain or seep into the subsurface.
Injection wells are used to put fluid into the subsurface versus drinking water wells which are
used to take water out o/the subsurface.
There are many types of injection wells. In order to regulate the universe of wells, EPA
established five classes of injection wells.
* Class I wells are technologically sophisticated wells that inject large volumes of
hazardous or non-hazardous wastes into deep, isolated rock formations.
* Class II wells inject fluids associated with oil and natural gas production.
^ Class HI wells inject super-hot steam, water, or other fluid into mineral formations, i
which is then pumped to the surface and the minerals are extracted. tf
* Class IV wells inject hazardous or radioactive wastes into or above underground sources
of drinking water. These wells are banned. All existing Class IV wells were approved
under State and Federal cleanup programs, such as those under RCRA or CERCLA.
^ Class V wells use injection practices that are not included in the other classes. Class V
wells vary widely. Some are technologically advanced wastewater disposal systems
used by industry, and others are "low-tech" holes in the ground.
47
-------
September 11,2000
What Is Wellhead
Protection?
Protection of ground water
sources
Authorized by SDWA Section
1428 of the 1986 amendments
EPA-approved, State-designed
wellhead protection plans can
receive Federal funding to protect
ground water sources
Requirements for Federal
compliance
Section 1428 of the 1986 SDWA Amendments created the Wellhead
Protection (WHP) Program, which offered communities a cost-effective
means of protecting vulnerable ground water supplies. This program does not
address surface water supplies.
The 1986 Amendments required each State to submit a comprehensive State
wellhead protection plan to EPA within three years. EPA reviewed the State-
proposed wellhead protection programs; if a program was disapproved, the
State could not receive Federal funds to implement its program. Congress
believed that this enabled EPA to direct the use of scarce Federal dollars in the
most effective way, while letting States continue to pursue their preventative
programs. Currently, 49 States and two Territories have EPA-approved WHP
programs.
To establish wellhead protection programs, communities delineate vulnerable
areas and identify sources of contamination. Through regulatory or non-
regulatory controls, local officials and volunteers manage contamination
sources and protect their water supply, as well as plan for contamination
incidents or other water supply emergencies.
-------
September 11,2000
Wellhead Protection
Plan for the future
Choose management tools
Inventory contamination sources
Delineate the
WHPA
Form a team
Establishing and implementing a local WHP program consists of five basic steps:
^ Forming a WHP planning team: assembling a group of knowledgeable
people, including volunteers, to develop and implement the WHP program.
* Delineating a wellhead protection area: mapping the areas that provide
recharge to a drinking water well or that might lead to contamination.
Wellhead protection areas are for a public drinking water source, not any
area surrounding ground water. Delineations may range from simple radii
around each well to complex hydrogeologic models.
* Identifying potential sources of contamination: determining whether any
potentially hazardous activities are occurring in the wellhead protection area.
^ Choosing management tools: selecting regulatory (e.g., zoning ordinances)
or non-regulatory (e.g., public education) controls to protect ground water.
* Planning for contingencies: developing ways to respond to short-term
emergencies such as hazardous spills, or long-term threats, such as providing
alternative water supplies.
The public information requirements for the SWP program do not apply to the
WHP program. However, throughout its development and implementation,
education and outreach are essential to the success of a local WHP effort.
49
-------
September 11, 2000
Drinking Water Well:
Zone of Contribution
Plan View
Profile View
A wellhead protection area is defined in the 1986 SDWA Amendments as "the
surface and subsurface area surrounding a water well or wellfield supplying a
public water system, through which contaminants are reasonably likely to
move toward and reach such water well or wellfield."
Wellhead protection area boundaries can be based on the zone of contribution
(ZOC) to the well or a more arbitrary consideration such as a manually drawn
circle of a set radius around a well. To determine the zone of contribution, the
hydrologic and hydrogeologic factors must be considered.
A zone of influence (ZOI) is an area where the pumping well influences the
water level. Notice that for a pumping water well in a sloping water table (the
majority of cases), the ZOI covers only a portion of the ZOC.
50
-------
September 11,2000
WHP Significance -
Most CWSs Use Ground Water
100-
% OF CWS
• Ground Water
• Surface Water Systems
Wellhead protection efforts are significant because many water systems use
ground water as their primary source of drinking water.
Of all community water systems (a water system serving 25 people at least 60
days of the year or a system with at least 15 service connections), just over 80
percent rely on ground water as their primary source. Most of these systems
are small systems. (Of community water systems, 93 percent serve fewer than
10,000 people.) Smaller water systems are more likely to choose ground water
sources, which usually require less treatment and usually involve smaller
capital expenditures.
Even though small systems relying on ground water are numerous, they serve
only a small fraction of the population. For example, systems that serve 3,300
people or fewer make up over 85 percent of CWSs nationwide, yet serve less
than 10 percent of the population.
Wellhead protection efforts continue today and make up a significant part of
by the source water protection program.
51
-------
September 11,2000
What Is the SWP
Petition Program?
• SDWA Section 1454_
• State-administered, voluntary program
• Supports local SWP efforts
• May use DWSRF funds
• EPA developed guidance
Section 1454 of the SDWA establishes a State-administered Source Water Petition Program, which is
voluntary for States, and supports locally-driven efforts to address a limited number of contaminants
identified in local SWP assessments. Petitions may address:
* Pathogenic organisms that are regulated (or for which regulation is required) by EPA drinking
water standards; or
^ Contaminants detected in source water that are not at levels "reliably and consistently" below the
MCL in the source water at the intake structure or in any collection, treatment, storage, or
distribution facility.
Under the State program, an owner or operator of a CWS, or a municipal or local government or
political subdivision within the State may submit a source water quality protection partnership petition
to the State, requesting assistance in support of a local, voluntary, incentive-based partnership among
interested parties to protect their drinking water supply.
The central focus of the petition program is to reduce or eliminate contaminants in the water supply by
addressing their origin; obtain financial or technical assistance to facilitate efforts to protect source water
in order to meet national primary drinking water regulations and standards; and help develop voluntary
and incentive-based strategies for the long-term protection of source water supplying a CWS. A State
may choose to focus its protection efforts on educating, equipping, and funding local communities and
conservation districts to undertake local source water protection initiatives.
A State may submit for approval a plan for a Petition Program at any time; it is not necessary to wait
until source water assessments are completed. To date, no States have established petition programs.
The process is very time-consuming, however, as there must be consensus-building at many levels. The
assessment program can continue while a State is developing a Petition Program.
See the State Source Water Protection Programs Guidance (August 1997) at www.epa.gov/
ogwdwOOO/swp/swp.pdf for additional information.
52
-------
September'11,2000
Emergency Powers
• Available to any SDWA program under
Section 1431
• EPA may take enforcement action if a
contaminant in drinking water presents
an imminent and substantial
endangerment to public health
EPA may exercise this authority if State and local authorities have not acted.
If practicable, EPA must consult with State and local authorities prior to taking
action.
EPA may issue administrative orders, including orders to provide alternative
water supplies.
EPA may also take a civil action, including requesting the court for restraining
orders or permanent or temporary injunctions.
Violators are subject to penalties up to $15,000 per day for violation of an
order.
53
-------
September 11,2000
Other Source Water
Protection
Programs and
Initiatives
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
There are many programs administered by EPA and by other Federal agencies
that can be used to protect source water, especially surface water.
EPA-administered programs include those under the Clean Water Act. EPA
also uses the hazardous waste and underground storage tank programs under
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA); the Superfund
program under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
and Liability Act (CERCLA); and the pesticides program under the Federal
Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) to enhance source water
protection.
Other Federal agencies that administer relevant programs include the
Departments of Agriculture, Transportation, and the Interior, the Army Corps
of Engineers, and the U.S. Geological Survey.
In addition, the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) provides an
important opportunity to point out potential drinking water impacts and
recommend alternative sites or mitigative measures.
In addition to these programs, EPA is carrying out or supporting some key
source water protection initiatives, including a Source Water Contamination
Prevention Strategic Plan and source water protection field projects through
grants to the National Rural Water Association and the Environmental Finance
Center Network.
54
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water
Protection Initiatives
• Source Water Contamination
Prevention Strategy
• National Rural Water Association
• Environmental Finance Center Network
HL
'Environmental
Finance!
Centeij
EPA is working with the States and other partners to develop a Source Water
Contamination Prevention Strategic Plan as a national framework for source
water protection efforts. The goal of the plan is to protect current and
potential drinking water sources and the health of those who rely on those
sources. The proposed long-term vision is that all interested stakeholders
using a variety of tools in a coordinated fashion, establish barriers that
significantly lower the risk of contamination entering current and potential
drinking water resources.
The objectives of the plan will include enhancing coordination with Clean
Water Act and other EPA programs and with other Federal agencies to better .
support local source water prevention priorities.
The National Rural Water Association has hired new field technicians to help
water systems and localities in 27 project areas in 11 States to develop and
implement source water protection plans through 2001.
The Environmental Finance Center Network is also helping water systems and
localities develop and implement source water protection plans in eight project
areas in eight States.
55
-------
September 11,2000
PWSS:
Focuses
on PWSs
and Provision
of Safe
Drinking Water
SWP:
Protects Ground
and
Surface Water
Sources
UIC addresses specific sources of contamination of ground water. (Remember
that ground water is the primary source for more than 80 percent of CWSs!)
SWP addresses protection of ground water and surface water sources on a
wellhead or watershed basis.
PWSS focuses on providing safe drinking water by establishing standards for
drinking water and water systems.
TOGETHER, these programs enhance the capacity of PWSs to achieve their
public health objectives.
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• Information collected through source
water assessments may be used in the
development of new regulations
• Source water assessments are also tied
to existing regulations
Source water protection is one of many protective components of the current
and proposed rules and programs under the SDWA. Source water protection
and source water assessments can benefit from information and resources
available through other SDWA programs. Likewise, source water activities
can be useful to and benefit other programs under the Act.
57
-------
September 11,2000.
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• Existing programs
- Surface Water Treatment Rule
- Interim Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule
- Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule
- Class VUIC Rule
Source water assessments can help States and systems comply with Federal and State
drinking water regulations. Under the Surface Water Treatment Rule, surface water-based
systems that are seeking a waiver from the filtration requirements must meet water quality
criteria and have a SWP plan that includes delineated source water protection areas and
inventoried potential sources of pathogens in their watershed.
Assessments could also provide information on potentially-contaminating activities in the
watershed, and help States and systems prepare for the Interim Enhanced Surface Water
Treatment Rule(IESWTR) and Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule (D/DPB)
requirements to conduct routine sanitary surveys at surface water systems.
In its final Class VRule (December 7, 1999) EPA targeted high-risk Class V UIC wells -
large-capacity cesspools and motor vehicle waste disposal wells ~ and linked the
requirements for existing motor vehicle wells within critical ground water areas, including
some areas assessed through State drinking water source assessment and protection
programs.
Class V wells are sometimes difficult to locate. Contaminant source inventories conducted
under source water assessments may yield information useful to the Class V program by
locating wells and identifying the need for regulation of other types of Class V wells.
Conversely, Class V program staff can provide location information on these wells to source
water protection programs helping to identify potential sources of contamination.
58
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• Existing programs (continued)
- Consumer Confidence Report rule
The Consumer Confidence Report (CCR) rule requires all public water
system operators to report annually on the status of their water systems. The
reports must include information on the source and quality of the source water,
and the results of a local source water assessment, when complete.
^ The CCR must specifically describe the source water (ground water,
surface water, or a combination), and the commonly-used names of the
water sources.
* Information from the area's source water assessments must also be
provided in the CCR, if available, including a brief summary of the
system's susceptibility to potential sources of contamination and
information on how consumers can obtain a copy of the assessment.
* The system can also highlight additional efforts to protect source water
or provide updated information on completed assessments.
CCRs are a way to raise consumers' awareness of the sources of their drinking
water and the importance of source water protection. By understanding where
their drinking water comes from consumers can make informed decisions
regarding their use of drinking water and may be motivated to join efforts to
protect it.
59
-------
September 11, 2000
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• Existing programs (continued)
-Interim monitoring relief (Section 1418(a))
- Permanent monitoring relief and alternative
monitoring guidelines (Section 1418(b))
Increased flexibility built into the 1996 SDWA Amendments allows for source water
assessments to serve as a basis for flexibility under drinking water regulations.
^ States can provide monitoring flexibility to systems whose sources historically
have been relatively free of contamination and whose susceptibility to
contamination is well understood.
^ The statute provides for waivers from certain testing or treatment requirements
under Section 1418, interim monitoring relief, and permanent monitoring
relief and alternative monitoring.
Only public water systems that have completed assessments are eligible for alternative
monitoring. However, alternative monitoring does not apply to microbiological
contaminants, disinfection byproducts, or corrosion byproducts.
^ For example, a community that demonstrates that potential sources of cyanide,
such as metal plating industries or mines, are not present in its source water
protection area or, if present, are adequately controlled so that the water system
is not susceptible to cyanide contamination, may be eligible for a monitoring
waiver. Such a waiver may allow the system to reduce monitoring for cyanide,
resulting in considerable cost savings.
Regulations were proposed, but are not yet final, for chemical monitoring reform.
These regulations would revise the monitoring requirements for 64 chemicals based
on the risk of contamination for each water system, and establish a simple, uniform
sampling schedule for those systems without an apparent or significant risk of
contamination.
60
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• Existing programs (continued)
- Capacity development (Section 1420)
- Operator certification (Section 1419)
- Sanitary surveys
A water system must have technical, managerial, and financial "capacity," according to the SDWA.
Technical capacity may be generally understood in terms of three issues: source water adequacy,
infrastructure adequacy and technical knowledge.
^ Source water adequacy can be defined as reliable water sources, awareness of source water
issues, and may include a SWP plan.
* Source water assessments can provide information directly relevant to determining source water
adequacy, and, in turn, building of technical capacity and a capacity development strategy.
A fully trained operator, as the on-site professional, should understand the benefits of multiple barriers
to prevent contamination of drinking water supplies and should be able to provide important insights
into the risks to water supplies from different, potential sources of contamination.
States administer operator certification programs that meet the guidelines published by EPA on
February 5, 1999. Beginning in 2001, EPA must withhold 20 percent of a State's Drinking Water
Revolving Fund capitalization grant unless the State has adopted and is implementing a substantially
equivalent operator certification program.
A sanitary survey is an inspection of all components of a water system from source to tap. The
inspection should identify potential sources of contamination and can provide the opportunity for
States to conduct source water delineations and assessments, update SWAPs, and follow up on the
development of SWP activities. In addition, States could use information collected in source water
assessments, whether done separately or concurrently, to enhance sanitary survey information and to
identify systems of concern that should receive priority for surveys.
61
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection in
the SDWA Scheme
• The Ground Water Rule is set to be
promulgated in 2001 or 2002
In developing the Ground Water Rule, EPA is considering strategies for
alternatives to disinfection to control risk from microbial contamination.
These strategies could include delineating microbial protection areas,
inventorying potential sources of microbial contamination, and assessing
hydrogeologic conditions and the effectiveness of microbial source
management controls, which could draw from or support source water
assessment efforts.
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection
under the Clean Water Act
SDWA
Water Systems
Ground
Water
Ground Water
Used as
Drinking Water
Surface
Water
Used as
Drinking
Water
Wastewater
Treatment Plants
Surface Water
Used for
Industrial Uses,
Recreation,
Wildlife Habitat,
and Fishing
Wastewater
Discharges
The Safe Drinking Water Act and the Clean Water Act intersect in protecting
surface water used as drinking water.
-------
September 11, 2000
Source Water Protection
under the Clean Water Act
Clean Water m Act ion Plan
ROTrU'T
The Clean Water Action Plan (CWAP) is a 1998 Presidential initiative. Its goal is to
protect public health and restore the nation's waterways by emphasizing collaborative
strategies built around all activities that affect bodies of water and the communities
they sustain.
> The CWAP provides for cooperation between State, Federal,Tribal, regional,
and local governments, as well as private partners. It provides a forum to
collaborate on strategies for protecting and restoring priority watersheds.
> A key element of the Action Plan is the integration of public health and aquatic
ecosystem goals when identifying priorities for watershed restoration and
protection. The Action Plan assigns priority to drinking water source areas
needing protection.
Under the CWAP, States, Tribes, local governments, organizations and the public will
work together to conduct unified watershed assessments. This process will assess
watershed conditions; identify watersheds where aquatic systems do not meet clean
water and natural resource goals; identify the highest priority watersheds for
restoration and target a subset of that group for restoration action strategies; determine
what other issues, such as protection of drinking water, need to be addressed; and
ensure that all the appropriate stakeholders are involved in the process.
Completed source water assessments can help Federal agencies direct protection
programs to highest priority source waters and help guide agency decisions regarding
placement and construction of new facilities.
The signatories to the CWAP agreement include: EPA, the U.S. Postal Service, the
Department of Energy, the Department of Transportation, the Department of the
Interior, the Tennessee Valley Authority, the Department of Defense, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, and the Department of Commerce.
64
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection
under the Clean Water Act
"Point" sources or "non-
point" sources
National Pollutant
Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES)
Water quality standards
Total Maximum Daily
Loads (TMDLs)
The CWA, SDWA's partner in water legislation, designates surface water contamination
sources as "point sources" or "non-point sources." Point sources are direct discharges to a
single point; examples include discharges from sewage treatment plants, and some industrial
sources. Non-point sources are diffused across a broad area and their contamination cannot be
traced to a single discharge point. Examples include runoff of excess fertilizers, herbicides,
and insecticides from agricultural lands and residential areas; oil, grease, and toxic chemicals
from urban runoff and energy production; and sediment from improperly managed
construction sites, crop and forest lands, and eroding streambanks.
The primary regulatory mechanism provided by the CWA is the National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System (NPDES) permit program. It requires permits for all discharges of
pollutants to surface waters from pipes, outlets, or other discrete conveyances (i.e., point
sources). Permits are not required, however, for non-point sources. Under the CWA, non-
point source pollution is addressed through non-regulatory means.
Water quality standards are set by authorized States and Tribes to restore and maintain the
physical, chemical and biological integrity of the nation's waters and to meet the goal of
"fishable/swimmable" water. A water quality standard consists of three elements:
* The designated beneficial use of a water body;
> The water quality criteria (i.e., the quality of the water) necessary to protect that use; and
^ An antidegradation policy.
Under CWA Section 303(d), States are required to identify waters that do not meet water
quality standards after the implementation of nationally required levels of pollution control
technology, and to develop Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDLs). for those waters. TMDLs
are used to determine the maximum allowable amount of pollutants that can be discharged to
impaired waters. Based on this determination, pollutant loadings are allocated among pollution
sources in a water segment. TMDLs also provide a basis for identifying and establishing
controls to reduce both point and non-point source pollutant loadings. State lists that identify
waters needing TMDLs, and TMDLs developed for specific water bodies, are a useful source
of information for the development of source water assessments.
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection and
Watershed Approaches
• Collecting information and using data
according jo CWA Sections 303(d),
305(b), 319, and 320
Unified watershed assessments are developed through a cooperative integration of existing
assessment reports and processes, using existing and appropriate data and information. States,
interstate commissions, and Tribes monitor water quality and identify waters and watersheds
not meeting clean water goals in several ways under the Clean Water Act (CWA):
^ Using monitoring and other water quality information to develop lists of waters not
meeting clean water goals and needing response actions to restore water quality (Section
303(d));
^ Collecting water quality information and reporting on the condition of waters every two
years (Section 305(b));
^ Identifying water bodies that are impaired by nonpoint sources of pollution (Section
319); and
^ Collecting, characterizing and assessing data on toxics, nutrients, and natural resources
to identify problems and develop Action Plans to restore and protect the 2EL estuaries of
national significance (Section 320).
66
-------
September 11, 2000
Source Water Protection and
Watershed Approaches
• Working with EPA and Federal agencies
to compile diverse data on water quality
• Preparing SWAPs
• Conducting studies and other activities
States also work with EPA and other Federal agencies to organize diverse information
concerning watershed health, such as data on wetland loss, sediment contamination,
discharge permit violations, and related factors, and to present this information for each of
the over 2,000 watersheds in the country.
States conduct source water assessments of drinking water source waters required by the
SDWA.
States also conduct studies and other activities such as:
* Developing project priority systems for clean water and drinking water State revolving
loan funds;
> With Federal agencies, conducting flood plain studies and developing appropriate
plans;
* Identifying coastal water quality problem areas as part of efforts to reduce polluted
runoff to coastal waters; or
^ Developing assessments of wetland areas that need special attention or protection.
67
-------
September 11,2000
Source Water Protection in
the CWA Scheme
• Linkages to CWA programs
- Program support
- Information exchange
Many opportunities exist for combining efforts and resources to jointly
implement CWA programs and source water protection programs that fall
under the SDWA. CWA programs could provide funding, program support, or
information to support source water assessments or promote local SWPPs, or
vice versa.
CWA programs have broad-based goals (to protect water for aquatic life,
wildlife, and certain human uses, including water supply for human
consumption), while SDWA programs focus on water for human consumption.
However, CWA programs such as the National Estuary Program, State Clean
Lakes Programs, the Great Lakes National Program, and the Wetlands
Program can directly or indirectly protect sources of drinking water.
Partnerships between the two statutes are also possible under State and local
non-point source programs, the TMDL Program, and the NPDES permit
program.
EPA's Index of Watershed Indicators provides another avenue for data
sharing. The Index describes the condition and vulnerability of over 2,000
watersheds in the United States. It could serve as a starting point to identify
the most serious water quality problems and help determine where to focus
further assessment and protection programs.
68
-------
September 11,2000
How Does It All Fit Together?
35»: .'S?.'. <-^HSpB5!r \r*
ion^W'F
Source Water Assessments and Unified Watershed Assessments:
Sole.Source,
Aquifer Program J
* ^ &_*^^ — ^H—*«- ^a»
The Clean Water Action Plan (CWAP) and Watershed Approach are the
concepts that serve as the umbrella over the source water protection program
and all of its components.
Likewise, the Source Water Protection program is an umbrella over the ground
water program and the new Source Water Assessment Program.
SWAPs are not intended to replace existing programs addressing pollution
sources. Instead, the assessments will act as a lens for such programs at the
Federal, State and local levels to focus on safe drinking water supplies. The
integration of SWAPs with wellhead protection programs, comprehensive
State ground water protection programs and sole source aquifer designations,
as well as watershed, nonpoint source, pesticide, waste and other established
programs, will help States and localities develop the most effective source
water protection plans to avoid costly contamination events.
Rivers and streams were historically covered only by the Clean Water Act.
SWP adds a component on surface water protection to the SDWA.
69
-------
September 11,2000
Other Federal Source
Protection Programs
(
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF
AGRICULTURE
USGS
science for a changing world
There are many other Federal agencies that have programs that can contribute to source water
protection.
USDA's Natural Resource Conservation Service obtains advice from State Technical Committees,
which may include State water agencies, on source water-related activities under the Environmental
Quality Incentives Program (EQIP). State water program officials have opportunities to integrate
source water assessment and protection objectives with USDA conservation program concerns.
NRCS provides technical advice and some cost-share assistance to farmers on best management
practices.
USDA also sponsors the Farm*A*Syst and Home*A*Syst network of 50 State interagency programs
that help farmers, ranchers and homeowners identify environmental and health risks on their property,
and take voluntary actions to reduce these risks and protect drinking water. USDA has a number of
other programs that foster source water protection, including the Cooperative State Research
Education and Extension Service, the Forest Service, and the Rural Utilities Service.
USGS provides scientific information on water resources, biological resources, mapping, and
geology, to support wise management of our natural resources. USGS will provide water-quality and
land-use data that may be useful in drinking water source assessments. In addition, on a cost-share
basis, USGS can provide technical assistance on source water protection area delineation, including
hydrogeological analyses, ground water age-dating and flow modeling, and delineation of ground
water contributing areas using flow models.
EPA and the Department of Transportation have a partnership to implement the Transportation Equity
Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), which includes provisions to ensure environmentally sound
transportation systems.
The Department of Transportation is also in the process of identifying drinking water unusually
sensitive areas (USAs). DOT is evaluating Federal and State data sources in order to generate the
drinking water USAs. This will allow transportation projects to be reviewed for potential drinking
water impacts.
70
-------
September 11,2000
Other Federal Source
Protection Programs
US Army Corps
of Engineers*
Council on
li Environmental Quality
See
http://www.epa.gov/
safewater/
protect/feddata.html
for a list of Federal
data sources related
to source water
protection
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service within the Department of the Interior (DOI) has a
National Wetlands Inventory Project that provides maps and digital wetland data with
site specific classification and location information. Land management agencies at
DOI, including the Bureau of Land Management, the National Park Service, the
Bureau of Reclamation, and the Office of Surface Mining, can be important partners
in coordinating source water assessments.
EPA and the Army Corps of Engineers jointly administer Section 404 of the Clean
Water Act, which regulates the discharge of dredged or fill material into waters of the
U.S. This program can be used for watershed and special area management planning.
The Council on Environmental Quality implements the National Environmental Policy
Act (NEPA), which requires environmental assessments or environmental impact
statements for Federally-funded activities. NEPA ensures that adverse environmental
impacts will be avoided or mitigated through the assessment process.
71
-------
September 11,2000
Funding for Source
Water Protection
How Do We Pay For These
Programs?
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
72
-------
September 11,2000
DWSRF Set-Asides
The 1996 Amendments authorized a Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) program to
help public water systems finance the costs of drinking water infrastructure needs. The DWSRF
program encourages States to develop long-term sources of drinking water funding. Congress
appropriated $9.6 billion to the DWSRF from fiscal year 1994 through fiscal year 2003. States
that do not meet certain requirements are subject to withholding of their DWSRF allotment.
The Amendments allow States to set aside funds from the new DWSRF for eligible source water
assessment and protection activities, including land acquisition. The intent of this funding is to
give States flexibility to shape SWP programs to fit their needs. Every State has the opportunity to
use a portion of the DWSRF to accomplish source water assessments and protection efforts.
Under SDWA Section 1452(g), States may use up to 10 percent of their DWSRF grants to
administer or provide technical assistance through source water protection programs. States must
provide a one-to-one match for all funds set aside for State program management under this
Section. Section 1452(g) funds may be used to:
* Administer source water protection programs;
* Complete contamination source inventories and susceptibility determinations; and
^ Provide technical assistance.
Under Section 1452(k), States may set aside up to 15 percent of their capitalization grants to fund
several types of source water protection activities. However, no more than 10 percent of the grant
can be used for a single type of source water protection activity. Section 1452(k) funds may be
used for:
Loans to public water systems to purchase land or conservation easements;
Loans to CWSs for implementing voluntary, incentive-based source water protection;
Loans to community water systems '(CWSs) for implementing source water protection
partnerships;
A one-time set-aside from the FY 1997 grant to delineate and/or assess SWP As. Many
States took the maximum ten percent for this set-aside to pay for assessment work through
2003;and
Establishing and implementing wellhead protection programs.
73
-------
September 11,2000
State Ground Water
Program Grants
• Authorized under Section 1429 of the
1996 SDWA Amendments
• These funds have never been
appropriated
• Ground water programs currently
funded under CWA Section 106
Section 1429 of the SDWA Amendments of 1996 authorizes EPA to make
ground water protection grants to help States develop and implement programs
to ensure the coordinated and comprehensive protection of their ground water
resources. However, Congress has never appropriated funds for these grants.
The amount of a ground water protection grant awarded is based on the extent
of ground water resources in the State and the likelihood that awarding the
grant will result in sustained and reliable protection of ground water quality.
Section 1429 also authorizes EPA to award grants for innovative State
programs to prevent ground water contamination. A State may apply for a
grant under Section 1429 whether or not it has an EPA-endorsed
comprehensive State ground water protection program.
State ground water programs are currently funded under Section 106 of the
Clean Water Act. States are encouraged to use up to 15 percent of their grants
for ground water protection.
74
-------
September 11,2000
Other Funding Sources
• CWA funding
- Clean Water State Revolving Fund
-Funding under Sections 104(b)(3), 106,
319,and604(b)
• EPA Environmental Education grants
Clean Water Act funding may be used to fund certain SWP activities, and cost savings
could be realized through combining SWP and CWA efforts.
* CWA State Revolving Fund loans may be used for watershed protection;
* Funds allocated under Section 106 of the CWA may be set aside for State
ground water programs;
* Section 319 funds, which are aimed toward non-point source pollution
prevention, may also be used for source water protection; and
* Under Section 104(b)(3) States, Tribes and local governments can receive
assistance in building wetland management programs.
* Under section 604(b), each State will reserve either one percent of its
allotment or $100,000, whichever is greater, to carry out planning
activities defined under sections 205(j), water quality management
planning, and 303(e), water quality standards and implementation.
In addition EPA provides environmental education grants to schools and
organizations. Although this is not a significant source of funds, EPA has awarded
grants to local school groups for monitoring and other drinking-water-related
activities.
75
-------
September 11,2000
Who Ultimately
Protects the Source?
States are uniquely positioned and qualified to foster comprehensive SWP
because they implement most existing water and natural resource programs.
However, in order to be effective, source water protection ultimately has to be
implemented as a community-based program. While Federal and State
programs can guide source protection programs, source water protection
activities are largely the responsibility of local jurisdictions.
Implementing a source water protection program involves community support,
public education, land use planning, and planning for emergencies — all
locally-based concepts. It may also involve many localities cooperating with
support from regional. State or Federal entities.
76
-------
September 11, 2000
Where Do We Go From
Here?
The 1996 SDWA amendments generated a lot of activity: new regulations; new
programs; and new funding. This reminds us that in spite of tremendous progress, a
lot of work remains to be done.
The 25th anniversary of SDWA (1999) is a cause for re-examination of the direction
of SDWA programs and rededication to the goal of providing safe drinking water for
all.
The Drinking Water Futures Forum was created by the 25th Anniversary partnership
to evaluate the challenges facing the nation in ensuring a safe supply of drinking
water, and to develop a plan to meet these challenges.
Forum partners discussed issues in seven areas. For source water protection, the
questions are:
^ Given the national trends of increasing population, urbanization and
development, how can the drinking water program help ensure the availability
and good quality of drinking water, on the source water side (e.g.,
institutionalizing public health and aquatic protection), the demand side (e.g.,
water conservation) and the treatment side (e.g., gray water systems,
desalinization, etc.)?
* How can we better focus each level of government and the private sector on
better coordination in planning for the future of a safe and reliable drinking
water supply?
The goal for source water protection for the next 25 years is to have all sources of
public water supply with source water protection programs in place.
77
-------
September 11,2000
Tribes
By 2005, 40 percent of the population served
by Tribal community water systems will
receive their water from systems with source
water assessments and, where needed,
source water protection programs in place
Tribes are encouraged to prepare SWAPs,
but it is not required by law
EPA will provide technical and financial
support to interested Tribes
Since no Tribe, except the Navajo Nation, has PWSS primacy yet, the
requirement to complete source water assessment programs on Tribal land will
be implemented under EPA's direct implementation authority.
EPA's objective is that "by 2005, 40 percent of the population served by
Tribal community water systems will receive their water from systems with a
completed source water assessment and, where needed, source water
protection programs in place."
Although Tribes are not required by law to complete source water assessment
or protection programs, EPA is firmly committed to protecting drinking water
sources on Tribal lands and will encourage and support Tribes' efforts to do so.
78
-------
February 2002
Benefits of Source
Water Protection
DRINKING
WATER
ACADEMY
"An Ounce of Prevention Is Worth a Pound of Cure."
Many communities are implementing protection efforts to prevent
contamination of their drinking water supplies. These communities, counties,
and locally financed water districts have found that the less polluted water is
before it reaches the treatment plant, the less extensive and expensive the
efforts needed to safeguard the public's health.
Studies have shown that the cost of dealing with contaminated ground water
supplies for the communities studied was, on average, 30 to 40 times more
(and up to 200 times greater) than preventing their contamination.
Further, clean water and healthy ecosystems offer other unquantifiable
benefits, in terms of the quality of our lives.
This section describes the benefits of preventing drinking water
contamination. It describes and compares the costs of contamination and the
benefits or costs-avoided due to preventive measures.
-------
February 2002
Avoid Costs of
Contamination
Quantifiable costs - treatment and
remediation; finding and replacing water
supplies; public information campaigns;
regulatory compliance; loss of property
value and tax revenue
Less quantifiable costs - health costs; lost
productivity; lost economic development
opportunities; lost consumer confidence
The benefits to communities of protecting their drinking water supplies might best be understood by
describing the costs of failing to protect them. These costs include those that are relatively easy to
capture in monetary or economic terms and those that are not. Easily quantifiable costs of drinking
water supply contamination include:
treatment and/or remediation,
finding and developing new supplies and/or providing emergency replacement water,
abandoning a drinking water supply due to contamination,
paying for consulting services and staff time,
litigating against responsible parties,
conducting public information campaigns when incidents arouse public and media interest in
source water pollution,
meeting the regulations of the Safe Drinking Water Act, such as the Disinfection Byproduct and
monitoring requirements,
loss of property value or tax revenue, and
loss of revenue from boating or fishing when a lake or reservoir is used as a drinking water
supply.
Costs that are not easily quantified include:
^ health related costs from exposure to contaminated water,
* lost production of individuals and businesses, interruption of fire protection, loss of economic
development opportunities, and
lack of community acceptance of treated drinking water.
1-2
-------
February 2002
Contamination
Is Expensive
A community may
spend millions of
dollars responding
to contamination
One basic truth is that dealing with contamination is expensive. Consider the
following communities' experiences.
^ In Perryton, TX, carbon tetrachloride was detected in the ground water
supply. Remediation cost this small community an estimated $250,000.
* Pesticides and solvents in Mililani, Hi's ground water required the
system to build and operate a new treatment plant. The plant cost $2.5
million, and annual operation costs are $154,000.
* The towns of Coeur d'Alene, ID and Atlanta, MI have experienced
contamination of their ground water supplies. Each had to replace its
water supply, at costs of approximately $500,000.
* Solvents and Freon in the ground water serving Montgomery County,
MD are requiring the county to install water lines and provide free water
to its customers. This has cost the County over $3 million, plus $45,000
per year for 50 years.
^ Cryptosporidium in Milwaukee's river water sickened hundreds of ,
people and required the city to upgrade its water system. The cost of the
system improvements, along with costs to the water utility, city, and
Health Department associated with the disease outbreak were $89
million.
Preventing drinking water contamination can save communities similar
response costs.
1-3
-------
February 2002
Saving Money
Through Prevention
Cost savings via
complying with
standards
Monitoring waivers
Water as a
commodity or raw
material -- quality
matters
Prevention can save communities money in other ways.
Communities with effective drinking water contamination prevention
programs may enjoy substantial savings in the costs of complying with
SDWA or similar state regulations. For example, water purveyors that
minimize algae growth by implementing programs that prevent nutrients from
entering water supply reservoirs will likely minimize the cost for treating the
water to remove total organic carbon in compliance with the Disinfection
Byproducts Rule.
Water suppliers with programs in place to prevent contamination of drinking
water also may be eligible for waivers from some monitoring requirements,
thereby reducing monitoring costs. Such waivers have already saved
Massachusetts water systems approximately S22 million over the three-year
compliance cycle, while Texas water systems saved $49 million over two and
one-half years.
In addition, water can be thought of as a commodity that water systems sell
and fanners use as a raw material. Once it becomes contaminated, it loses
value because it cannot be sold to customers, or it must be treated prior to
being sold or used. Uncontaminated water has value to the PWS, determined
by the price of water its customers are willing to pay.
1-4
-------
February 2002
Other
Economic Benefits
Real estate values
Business
development
- Tax revenues
- Jobs
Recreation and
tourism revenue
Preventing contamination of drinking water can also help to maintain real
estate values in areas served by protected water supplies. In regions affected
by water supply contamination, declines in real estate values have been clearly
documented, such as in Cape Cod, Massachusetts.
Protecting water supplies may also prevent the loss of existing or potential
tax revenues and jobs when businesses refuse to locate or remain near places
with known or suspected problems. For example, a survey by the Freshwater
Foundation found that five Minnesota cities collectively lost over $8 million in
tax revenues because of real estate devaluation as a result of ground water
pollution.
Preventing contamination of a water supply that serves as a major scenic or
tourist attraction can safeguard local tourism and recreation revenues. For
example, the annual value of tourism and recreation in the Kcuka Lake
watershed in upstate New York was conservatively estimated at SI 5 million in
1996. Keuka Lake provides drinking water for the villages of Penn Yan,
Hammondsport, Keuka Park, and Dresden.
"The integrity of a town's water reflects upon the integrity of the
companies within that town."
Sain Ro\\\e. President of I'erv/ine Products in \Vestford. MA, on
businesses 'preference for communities with protected water
mppttss,
1-5
-------
February 2002
Still More
Economic Benefits
Detention pond
BMPs are standard
operating procedures
that can reduce the
threats that activities at
homes, businesses,
agriculture, and industry
can pose to water
supplies
BMPs can increase the
aesthetic beauty and
value of residential and
commercial properties
Some best management practices, such as aesthetically designed runoff controls
offer financial benefits in addition to their environmental benefits. When designed
and sited correctly and safely, artificial lakes or wetlands can increase the value
of surrounding property (and the tax revenue they generate).
Developers often realize higher (and quicker) sales from homes adjacent to a wet
pond; walking paths and fitness equipment can add to the aesthetics of the area and
provide recreational uses, further increasing property values. In general, the
proximity to water raises the value of a home, by up to 28 percent, according to a
1993 study conducted by the National Association of Home Builders.
A few cases illustrate this point:
* In the Sale Lake subdivision of Boulder, CO, lots surrounding a constructed
wetland drew a 30 percent price premium over those with no water view.
* In the Hybernia community of Highland Park, 1L, waterfront lots surrounding
a constructed detention pond/stream system draw a 10 percent premium above
those with no water view.
* BMPs can increase rental values as well. At the Lynne Lake Anus in St.
Petersburg. PL, apartments or townhouses facing detention ponds on the
property return rents of S15 to $35 more per month than those that do not.
Similar trends are seen in rental fees for commercial property, such as office
space in Fairfax County, VA.
1-6
-------
February 2002
Non-Monetary Benefits
In addition to the monetary benefits of preventing contamination of drinking
water supplies, there are benefits that are difficult (or controversial) to assign a
dollar value. While difficult to quantify monetarily, they have a direct link to
quality of life. Their importance may rival or exceed that of monetary
benefits. For example, protection of human health is the driving force behind
the Nation's water supply protection programs.
Other quality of life benefits include safeguarding resources for future
generations, building confidence in the water supply, and maintaining healthy
ecosystems and opportunities for recreation.
1-7
-------
February 2002
Health Benefits
T« LAtt 6 MBUTA8U
K» BflMMIIG OR MTMC
»WA«DOUS 10 WUR tCAlffl
Reduce risk to human
health
- illnesses and death
- productivity and
wages
- medical expenses
Preventing contamination of drinking water supplies should result in reduced
risk to human health from both acute and chronic ailments. Overall, the U.S.
is doing a good job delivering safe drinking water to the public, but challenges
remain and may increase as new waterbome disease agents and chemicals are
found in water supplies. Although most people experience only mild illnesses
from waterborne microbes, pathogenic organisms such as Cryptosporidium
and some strains of E. coli can be transmitted to people through drinking water
and cause serious illness or even death.
In addition to threats posed by microbial contaminants, other substances can
contaminate water supplies. Metals, volatile organic carbons, synthetic organic
chemicals, and pesticides can cause serious health problems for persons
exposed to them over long periods of time at levels exceeding health-based
drinking water standards. Potential health effects of long-term exposure to
these pollutants include cancer, birth defects, and organ, nervous system, and
blood damage.
The health-related costs of contamination can include lost wages, hospital and
doctor bills, and in extreme cases, death.
1-8
-------
February 2002
Quality of Life Benefits
Safeguarding
resources for future
generations
Building confidence in
the water supply
Healthy ecosystems
and recreational
benefits
Stewardship of water resources is an important goal for people in a community
who care about the fate of their children and grand children. Protecting water
supplies for future generations brings with it a sense of accomplishment and
legacy, and generates an attitude of pride in the community.
Effective communities often exhibit a prevailing attitude of trust toward the
local government structure. If residents have a high level of confidence in the
ability and commitment of the people on whom they depend for clean water,
they are much more likely to be supportive of these departments on a day-to-
day basis, as well as at town or city council meetings when programs and
budgets are presented. This attitude is critical to continued success in
providing high quality water.
By ensuring clean water resources, a community helps to support the
biological systems on which life depends. Plant and wildlife ecosystems
benefit from clean water as much as people do. In addition to providing
drinking water, clean water resources often enhance recreational activities.
such as swimming, fishing, and boating. These and other activities, in addition
to enhancing the quality of life for people who engage in them, may provide
enormous tourism or other economic benefits to local economics.
1-')
-------
February 2002
The Costs of Prevention
• Vary based on the prevention
measure(s) selected
• Differ from community to community
Of course, there are costs associated with preventing contamination of
drinking water supplies.
The cost to an individual supplier or community greatly depends on the types
of preventive measures it chooses to implement. Protective measures can be
relatively simple and inexpensive (such as public education programs) to
expensive (such as purchasing land or easements). Program costs include
staffing; program planning, development, and administration; land or
easement purchases; and structural management measures.
^ Constructed management devices such as wetlands and retention
basins, can cost approximately $100,000 for a 50-acre site, plus the value
of the land they occupy.
^ Housekeeping measures such as street sweeping cost public works
departments depending on the frequency at which they are performed.
These costs may vary greatly from community to community and place to
place, and will depend on such factors as the value of real estate in a particular
area and the measures the community selects to protect its water supplies.
1-10
-------
February 2002
Comparing
Costs and Benefits
Responding to
contamination can
be as much as 200
times as costly as
prevention
EPA studied the contamination and prevention costs to six small- and
medium-sized communities that experienced contamination of their ground
water supplies and subsequently developed a wellhead protection program.
^ Costs of contamination included costs of remediation activities,
replacing water supplies, and providing water.
^ Prevention costs include basic program costs for delineating a protection
area, identifying potential sources of contamination, developing an
initial management plan, and planning for alternative water supplies and
other responses in case of an emergency.
* The ratio of the benefits of avoiding contamination to the costs of the
wellhead programs ranged from 5 to 1 to 200 to 1.
-------
February 2002
SWP Is Worth It
Comparing the costs of contamination to the costs to prevention reveals that
prevention programs are generally well worth the cost and effort as an
effective "insurance" against contamination and its associated costs.
If you add the considerable quality of life benefits that are potentially provided
by a source water protection program, the program may prove to be a bargain.
1-12
-------
September 11,2001
State and Local
Measures to
Protect Source Water
m
September 11,2001
What approaches has your State used to protect source water?
2-1
-------
September 11,2001
State Approaches to
Source Water Protection
• Regulatory requirements
• Grant and loan programs
• Surface water and watershed
approaches
States use a variety of approaches to protect source water, including regulatory
programs and grant and loan programs.
State surface water and watershed protection activities also contribute to
source water protection.
These are discussed in more detail in the slides that follow.
-------
September 11,2001
State Regulatory Approaches
• Location and siting standards
• Underground storage tank requirements
• Storm water regulations
• Wetlands regulations
• State environmental protection statutes
• Spill control activities
• Water quality standards
• Pesticide management plans
States can often regulate the location of facilities that have the potential to contaminate ground water from
their activities or from spills. States sometimes prohibit siting certain kinds of facilities in source water
protection areas; for example, new landfills, transfer stations, or large wastewater facilities. States can also
condition the siting of certain kinds of facilities, for example, by requiring buffer zones.
Underground storage tanks (USTs) are a significant potential source of ground water contamination. State
UST programs include requirements for setbacks; design, construction, and installation; monitoring and
inspection; and recordkeeping.
State storm water programs regulate municipal separate sewer systems (MS4s) and certain industrial and
construction activities. Operators or MS4s and covered construction and industrial activity are required to
apply for NPDES permits and implement storm water management controls that effectively reduce or prevent
the discharge of pollutants into receiving waters.
Wetlands can provide a range of different functions and benefits to local communities, including intercepting
and filtering pollutants, thereby improving source water quality and possibly reducing treatment costs.
Integrating wetlands protection and restoration into source water programs can highlight the importance of
targeting wetlands and source waters as high priority areas for protection and can reduce duplication of or
conflicting efforts.
States also generally have statutes that are the State-level equivalent of the National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA).- Like NEPA, these statutes require environmental assessments and avoidance or mitigation of
adverse impacts from defined activities.
State water quality standards could be the core framework on which to base source water protection. Where a
particular water is designated as domestic water supply, human health criteria are benchmarks to determine if
the water is meeting its drinking water use, establish the basis for controls on pollutant discharges, and support
management actions to ensure that the drinking water use will be attained.
In 1996, within the context of Comprehensive State Ground Water Protection Programs, EPA proposed to
restrict the use of certain pesticides through the development and use of State Management Plans that would
allow the States flexibility to protect ground water in the most appropriate way for local conditions.
2-3
-------
September 11,2001
State Funding Options
• Drinking Water State Revolving Fund
• Clean Water State Revolving Fund
-Section 319
- Section 604(b)
- Section 104(b)(3)
The Drinking Water State Revolving Fund is discussed in more detail later in
this presentation.
The Clean Water State Revolving Fund includes a number of provisions that
can be used to support source water protection.
* Under section 319 of the Clean Water Act, States and Tribes can receive
grants to support a wide variety of activities, including technical
assistance, financial assistance, education, training, technology transfer,
demonstration projects, and monitoring to assess the success of specific
nonpoint source implementation projects.
^ Under section 104(b)(3), States, Tribes and local governments can
receive assistance in building wetland management programs. Since
1995, Congress has appropriated $15 million annually to support the
grant program. Grant funds can be used to develop new or refine
existing wetland protection, management, or restoration program, but
they may not be used to support program operations.
* Under section 604(b), each State will reserve either one percent of its
allotment or SI 00,000, whichever is greater, to carry out planning
activities defined under sections 205(j), water quality management
planning, and 303(e), water quality standards and implementation.
2-4
-------
September 11,2001
Current State Surface Water
and Watershed Approaches
• Collecting information and using data
according to CWA Sections 303(d),
305(b), 319, and 320
Unified watershed assessments are developed through a cooperative integration of existing
assessment reports and processes, using existing and appropriate data and information. States,
interstate commissions, and Tribes monitor water quality and identify waters and watersheds
not meeting clean water goals in several ways under the Clean Water Act (CWA):
> Using monitoring and other water quality information to develop lists of waters not
meeting clean water goals and needing response actions to restore water quality (Section
303(d));
* Collecting water quality information and reporting on the condition of waters every two
years (Section 305(b));
* Identifying water bodies that are impaired by nonpoint sources of pollution (Section
319); and
* Collecting, characterizing and assessing data on toxics, nutrients, and natural resources
to identify problems and develop Action Plans to restore and protect the 28 estuaries of
national significance (Section 320).
2-5
-------
September 11,2001
Current State Surface Water
and Watershed Approaches
• Working with EPA and Federal agencies
to compile diverse data on water quality
• Preparing SWAPs
• Conducting studies and other activities
States also work with EPA and other Federal agencies to organize diverse information
concerning watershed health, such as data on wetland loss, sediment contamination,
discharge permit violations, and related factors, and to present this information for each of
the over 2,000 watersheds in the country.
States conduct source water assessments of drinking water source waters required by the
SDWA.
States also conduct studies and other activities such as:
* Developing project priority systems for clean water and drinking water State revolving
loan funds;
* With Federal agencies, conducting flood plain studies'and developing appropriate plans;
* Identifying coastal water quality problem areas as part of efforts to reduce polluted
runoff to coastal waters; or
> Developing assessments of wetland areas that need special attention or protection.
2-6
-------
September 11, 2001
Source Water
Protection Measures
as
September 11,2001
2-7
-------
September 11,2001
What are Source Water
Protection Measures?
• Practices to prevent contamination of
ground water and surface water that are
used or potentially used as sources of
drinking water
• Protection measures form the first
barrier to drinking water protection
Protection of drinking water sources is important to prevent contamination. The cost
of cleaning up often exceeds the cost of prevention.
Many types of management measures are available to address threats identified
within a watershed. These include land use controls, such as subdivision and zoning
regulations; regulations, permits, and inspections; constructed or vegetative systems;
and good housekeeping practices for proper use of equipment and chemical products
or wastes; and other tools, such as public education.
Protection measures are part of a multi-barrier approach to drinking water protection,
along with treatment, monitoring, operator capacity, and maintenance of the
distribution system.
The following slides present measures that communities, businesses, and individuals
can take to protect source water.
2-8
-------
September 11,2001
How Can Protection
Measures Fit into a SWPP?
• Impose by regulation
• Encourage through non-regulatory
means
• Combine approaches as appropriate
given site-specific considerations
• Depending on their situation, local government officials can choose from a variety of
regulatory and non-regulatory measures to address identified or potential threats to their
• water supplies.
• Regulatory controls include zoning ordinances and subdivision controls, construction
and operating standards, health regulations (such as storage tank and septic tank
requirements), and permitting or inspections.
> Examples of local zoning ordinances to protect ground water and surface water
sources of drinking water can be found at http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/ and
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/.
• Non-regulatory controls include purchase of property or development rights,
encouraging the use of best management practices, public education, household
hazardous waste collection programs, and economic incentives such as agricultural cost-
share programs.
• A combination of these methods is usually necessary for an effective management plan.
In addition, the same end can usually be achieved through different means. For example,
setbacks can be achieved through permits or local ordinances. The range of feasible tools
will depend on the local authority to regulate land uses, and the nature of the
contamination threats.
• To see how communities are combining protection measures to protect their drinking
water supplies, go to EPA's compilation of local case studies in source water protection
at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/protect/casesty/casestudy.html. The local contacts
listed at the end of each case study should be able to provide you with some tips on how
to put together your own protection plan.
2-9
-------
September 11,2001
Many of the available management measures are known as best management
practices (BMPs). BMPs are standard operating procedures that can reduce
the threat that normal activities at homes, businesses, agricultural lands or
industry can pose to water supplies. BMPs have been developed for many
activities and industries that store, handle, or transport ha/ardous or toxic
substances. They can help prevent the release of these substances or control
these releases in an environmentally sound manner, and encourage the
adoption of voluntary design or procedural standards.
-------
September 11,2001
Selecting Protection
Measures
• Land use controls
• Regulations and permits
• Structural measures
• Good housekeeping practices
• Public education
• Land management
• Emergency response planning
Many management measures are available to prevent pollution, control
contaminants at the source, or treat wastewater. One alone usually is not
sufficient, and combinations of measures work best.
In choosing the most appropriate measures, local government officials and
water system operators should consider their situations, and may need to
prioritize the implementation of specific measures to make the most of the
resources available to them.
Local government officials should look creatively at existing ordinances and
regulations. They may be able to use rules passed for other reasons to address
source water issues. For example, if special permits are allowed when
necessary to protect public safety or health, it is possible that they could be
used for source water protection.
Selection of management measures will be based on a variety of factors,
including the physical properties of the watershed (annual precipitation, soil
type and drainage, ground water and surface water hydrology, and space
limitations), land uses and potential contaminants, type of contamination
problem (e.g., point source or non-point source), public acceptance of
measures, cost, maintenance needs, and aesthetics.
2-11
-------
September 11,2001
Land Use Controls
• Subdivision growth controls
• Zoning
• Land purchase
• Acquisition of development rights
• Land use prohibitions
Land uses that pose risks to source water can be controlled or moved from
sensitive areas. Local government officials can use subdivision and growth
controls to reduce population density, or zoning ordinances to prohibit or
restrict certain activities in SWPAs.
By acquiring the rights to development on parcels of land through purchase or
donation of the land, local government officials have complete control over
the activities in critical areas.
The high cost of purchasing property or development rights makes this
impractical for many communities. Some States have grants for acquiring
environmentally sensitive lands and non-profit organizations such as local or
regional land trusts can assist communities by acquiring land within SWPAs.
The American Farmland Trust and the Nature Conservancy are examples of
non-profit organizations that focus on protection of water resources through
land acquisition. USDA's Conservation Reserve Program also manages a
program to obtain easements on environmentally sensitive land.
Often, the greatest consideration in passing regulatory land use controls is the
political acceptability of limiting certain activities. However, most people
consider passing zoning ordinances to be the right and responsibility of local
governments, and public education about the importance of protecting water
supplies can increase the acceptance of land use controls.
The next few slides describe land use controls for managing SWPAs.
2-12
-------
September 11,2001
Subdivision
Growth Controls
• Primary purpose is to control division of
land into lots suitable for building
• Can protect drinking water supplies
from
- Septic system effluent
- Storm water runoff
As the nation's population increases, sprawl and the proliferation of homes,
businesses, and associated activities such as pesticide and fertilizer use, and
septic systems, can threaten drinking water supplies.
Subdivision regulations govern the process by which individual lots of land are
created out of larger tracts. Subdivision regulations are intended to ensure that
subdivisions are appropriately related to their surroundings. General site
design standards, such as preservation of environmentally sensitive areas, are
one example of subdivision regulations.
Ways in which subdivision requirements can protect water supplies include:
* Ensuring that septic systems and storm water infiltration structures do
not contaminate ground water; and
* Managing drainage (e.g., using erosion controls) to ensure that runoff
does not become excessive as the area of paved surfaces increases and to
provide recharge to aquifers.
2-13
-------
September 11,2001
Subdivision Growth Controls
Cluster and Planned Unit Development
• Cluster development
- More development in less space
- Encourages greater protected space
• Planned unit development
- Diverse land uses in contained land area
- Reduces infrastructure costs
A cluster development puts more buildings in a smaller space to keep
development outside of the protected areas.
A planned unit development is a planned combination of diverse land uses,
such as housing, recreation and shopping, in one contained development or
subdivision.
These dense developments may result in reduced infrastructure costs. The
following slides show how cluster and planned unit developments work.
2-14
-------
September 11,2001
Zone of Contribution
to PWS
This slide shows a standard subdivision development.
2-1.
-------
September 1 1. 2001
Zone of Contribution
toPWS
• This slide shows the same number of units as on the previous slide. However.
in this slide, the development is clustered resulting in no development in the
/one of contribution.
• Note that in a cluster design, there can also he a common septic tank collection
svstem. instead of each dwelling havinu its own svstcm.
-------
September 11,2001
Zoning
Zoning Map
Zoning is the division of a municipality or county into districts for the purpose
of regulating land use. Communities traditionally use zoning to separate
potentially conflicting land uses from one another. Examples of how zoning
can be used to protect drinking water sources include requirements that limit
impervious surfaces, encourage open space, locate high risk activities away
form drinking water sources, or encourage cluster development to reduce
runoff. For example, Brunswick, Maine, adopted a threshold that no more than
5 percent of a site to be developed in its Coastal Protection Zone may be
impervious area.
Zoning is an effective regulatory tool for preventing threats to water sources
from new development, and zoning ordinances are usually well-accepted as
the prerogative of local governments. Unfortunately, zoning is of limited use
in addressing threats from existing land uses, because they are "grandfathered"
(i.e.. exempt from new zoning requirements) when zoning laws take effect.
Zoning ordinances may be difficult to pass where citizens want to encourage
growth and economic development.
1'xamples of local zoning ordinances to protect ground water and surface
water sources of drinking water can be found at
http:. uww.epa.gov owater ordconv and
htlp: \v\vw.cpa.gov ouo\\ tips ordinance .
2-17
-------
September 11,2001
Overlay Zoning District
In an overlay district, boundaries for an area are defined and local ordinances
and bylaws enacted to protect or limit specific land uses with the area. Such a
district "overlies" and supercedes existing zoning for an areas.
An overlay district may cover all or part of a regular zone or zones.
All of the provisions of the underlying zone remain the same, including use,
density, and setbacks, for example.
What changes is that there are new and additional requirements established by
the overlay district to meet source water protection objectives. Overlay zoning
can be particularly useful for adopting additional wellhead protection and
water supply watershed zones. Creating a source water protection overlay
district may involve such measures as restricting the use of septic systems or
limiting development to low-density residential.
An advantage of using an overlay /one is that it can target changes to source
\\ater protection areas alone, and allow uses outside the /one to continue.
2-18
-------
September 11.2001
Land Purchase and
Development Rights
Land purchases
Conservation
easements
Land trusts and
conservancies
The best way to control activities within sensitive areas is to purchase land
and/or development rights to that land. Communities may purchase land
outright or obtain conservation easements, which are voluntary arrangements
preventing a landowner from performing certain activities or prohibiting
certain kinds or densities of development. The easements become attached to
the deed for the property, and remain in effect when it is sold or transferred.
Restrictions in the deed make it clear that the land cannot be developed based
on the rights that have been purchased.
The primary disadvantage to purchasing property or development rights is the
high cost, so it is impractical for many communities. Land trusts or
conservancies can purchase land outright, or be recipients of conservation
easements or land donations. Lain! owners can also gam tax benefits from
donating their land for environmental protection. Some States offer grants or
loans to communities for acquiring environmentally sensitive lands. Certain
non-profit orgam/ations such as local or regional land trusts, can assist
communities by acquiring land.
-------
September 11,2001
Land Purchase and
Development Rights
RUST
Hundreds of nonprofit land trusts work independently or with local governments to
purchase land or acquire easements. Many focus on protection of water resources.
Examples of some government and land trust projects include:
Two families donated conservation easements to the Napa County Land Trust
(California) to keep the land undeveloped and protect the water used in towns and
vineyards downstream.
* Government Canyon is the recharge zone for the Edwards Aquifer, sole source of
drinking water for San Antonio, Texas. A recent proposal to build 766 homes
and an IS-hole golf course sparked formation of a government-private coalition
that purchased the land for $2 million. Austin, Texas, also depends on the
Edwards Aquifer. Citizens voted to authorize $20 million in bonds to purchase
critical watershed land for open space.
Six hundred \\ater companies control much of the land in Connecticut that
provides drinking water. Filtration standards have increased the cost of using
reservoirs as public drinking water sources and changes in Connecticut
regulations allow private water companies to distribute profits from land sales to
shareholders. 1 he result is a dramatic increase in the sale of watershed land. The
Trust for Public I and is working with the State go\eminent to develop a policy
for watershed management, develop a public education program, and design a
State public finance program to conserve \\atershed lands. Already, they have
purchased several large watershed areas and reservoirs (and obtained a pledge of
VMiO.ooo from Paul Newman to protect a "oO-acre water company property that
was on the market).
2-20
-------
September 11,2001
Land Use Prohibitions
• Effective way to remove threats from
sensitive areas
• Source-specific and chemical-specific
standards
Hazardous chemicals that are caustic, toxic, or volatile can endanger public
health or water supplies. Authorities can opt to prohibit or limit the storage or
use of large supplies of dangerous substances in sensitive areas.
Land use prohibitions can be very effective ways to remove potential
contamination sources from water supply areas. Because they are very
restrictive, local government officials should use hydrologic studies to verify
their necessity. If potentially threatening land uses already exist in the area, a
phased-in approach may be more acceptable. For example, a ban on
underground storage tanks could ban new USTs immediately, and phase out
existing tanks as their service lives expire by requiring replacement tanks to be
above ground.
2-21
-------
September 11,2001
Land use prohibitions can be aimed at controlling either activities that use
dangerous substances (source-specific standards) or the materials themselves
(contaminant-specific standards).
Examples of source-specific standards include:
* Prohibiting gas stations in sensitive areas, or requiring double-hulled or
corrosion-resistant design of underground storage tanks.
* Septic system requirements, such as minimum setbacks from surface
water or separations from the water table, or mandatory- maintenance and
inspections schedules.
Contaminant-specific standards may prohibit the use of heavy metals,
petroleum products, solvents, or radioactive materials in source water
protection areas. Regulations on the application of pesticides, fertili/er.
manure, and sludge are also examples of contaminant-specific standards.
-------
September 11,2001
Regulations and
Permits
• Construction and operating standards
• Permit requirements
• Land use prohibitions
• Public health regulations
Management measures can be imposed by regulation or through permit
requirements. Local government officials can require owners of facilities that
can endanger drinking water supplies to comply with standards for proper
design, operation, or maintenance.
In some communities, local government officials may encounter public
resistance to regulations, and the cost to administer permitting or inspection
programs can be high. However, regulations can be an effective way to
control certain activities in source water protection areas. Most regulatory
controls are subject to the provisions of State enabling legislation, and require
careful drafting to avoid potential legal challenges.
The next few slides describe regulatory options available to local government
officials.
2-23
-------
September 11,2001
Construction and
Operating Standards
Construction and operating standards may be imposed to reduce threats to
water supplies from some activities. For example:
* Storage tanks may be required to have a double-hulled construction and
leak detection systems.
> Homeowners with septic systems may be required to construct them
using approved designs or maintain their systems regularly.
Construction and operating standards may require some of the constructed
devices, operating and maintenance practices, or product and waste disposal
procedures described later in this section.
2-24
-------
September 11,2001
Permit Requirements
• Local authorities can require permits
• Permit fees can help recover program
costs
• Permits can be site-specific
• Inspections enforce permit requirements
Municipalities can require owners or operators of facilities that can pose a
potential risk to water supplies to obtain permits. Permits allow authorities to
maintain an inventory of potential contamination sources, periodically inspect
facilities for compliance with ordinances, require minimum construction or
operating standards (see previous slide), and periodically reexamine the
appropriateness of the source or activity to determine if revisions (or
discontinuance) are necessary.
Permitting fees can help recover the costs associated with tracking and
maintaining source-specific information.
Existing Class V motor vehicle waste disposal wells are an example of a use
for which a permit may be required.
One provision of a permit may be periodic inspections. Inspections can
identify people who are not complying with standards, and can also provide an
opportunity to educate them about proper procedures and make sure they are
following them.
Permits can also be site-specific, and permit requirements can be tailored to
the specific location or activity.
2-25
-------
September 11,2001
Public Health Regulations
• Underground storage tanks
- Construction standards
- Leak testing
• Septic systems
- Number and size in a given area
- Siting, setback distances and construction
- Maintenance standards
• Floor drains
'Regulation by a local health department can help protect source waters.
Examples of areas that health departments typically regulate are underground
storage tanks, septic systems and floor drains.
* Prohibition .or registration of residential underground storage tanks, leak
testing, ground water monitoring, and construction standards can help to
reduce the risk from these tanks.
> Regulations addressing the number and size of septic systems allowed in
an area, construction and siting standards, bans on certain solvent
cleaners, maintenance standards, and setback distances can help to
ensure that septic systems do not contaminate source water.
> Towns may implement controls prohibiting any floor drain that
discharges to ground water when the drain is located in an area where
pollutants may enter the drain.
Health departments may regulate numerous other activities that could
contribute to contamination of source waters. Coordination at the local level
to ensure that the appropriate departments are involved in source water
protection efforts is important.
Health regulations are usually an accepted regulatory option for local
governments. Although implementing a new program of inspections and
enforcement may require significant resources, this infrastructure often already
exists within local government. Local officials can direct or coordinate these
resources to work on source water priorities.
2-26
-------
September 11,2001
Other Local Regulatory
Tools
• Large lot zoning
• Growth controls
• Regulation of privately-owned
wastewater treatment plants
• Septic cleaner bans
• Private well protection
A number of other regulatory tools exist that help to protect SWPAs. These
include:
* Large lot zoning, used to reduce the impacts of residential development
by limiting the number of units within the SWPA. However, this often
leads to increases in impervious surfaces. Managed development might
be a better tool;
* Growth controls, used to time or limit the occurrence of development
within SWPAs;
> Regulation or prohibition of privately-owned wastewater treatment
plants, used to control small sewage treatment plants in SWPAs;
* Septic cleaner bans prohibit the application of certain solvents within
SWPAs; and
* Private well protection protects on-site water supply wells by requiring
permits with appropriate well-to-septic system setbacks and water
quality testing.
2-27
-------
September 11,2001
Structural Measures
• Constructed systems or devices
• Vegetative measures
Structural BMPs refer to man-made systems or devices designed to prevent
contamination. They may work by preventing leaks or contamination, or
stopping them at the source; collecting or diverting hazardous or toxic
components of a waste stream; or encouraging filtration or infiltration of
wastewater to allow natural processes to remove contaminants.
Where they are not imposed by local regulations or ordinances (see above),
land owners should be encouraged to adopt these BMPs.
The next few slides describe and give examples of constructed and vegetative
BMPs.
2-28
-------
September 11,2001
Constructed Systems
or Devices
FilPipe
Float
Automatic shut-off and
leak detection devices
on USTS
Secondary containment
Drainage diversion
Segregated floor drains
Waste collection
devices
Constructed devices or retrofits to existing machinery or operations can detect
equipment failures or leaks, contain contaminants at the source, or catch
spilled chemicals. Examples include:
> Secondary containment structures, such as oil-retaining catch basins,
containment berms for above ground storage tanks, or impervious
surfaces for tank placement.
* At animal feeding operations, earthen ridges or diversion terraces to
direct surface flow away from animal waste.
* Leak detection devices on storage tanks, including automatic tank gauges,
vapor monitoring, interstitial monitoring, and ground water monitoring.
* Segregating floor drains from wastewater carrying hazardous or toxic
wastes, such as photography development fluids.
* Devices to collect and store wastewater for proper disposal.
2-29
-------
September 1 I. 2001
Vegetative Measures
Swales
• Natural vegetation is remarkably effective at filtering contaminants before
they reach water bodies or seep into the ground water. It can also slow the
speed of runoff to prevent erosion.
• Vegetative measures capitali/e on these abilities to promote filtering or
infiltration of waste water. They are often used to mitigate the damage caused
by runoff over farm land, roads, or in urban areas.
• Examples include constructed wetlands, vegetated buffer strips along shore
lines, or grassed swales or depressions that collect runoff, encourage
infiltration, or reduce erosion.
• They often require little maintenance, other than proper management of runoff
they collect, and can improve land values. For example, in residential areas
real estate values ma\ be higher for properties surrounding a constructed
\\etland. However, these \egetati\e measures also require proper management
of runoff.
2-30
-------
September 11,2001
Good Housekeeping
Practices
• Equipment operation and
maintenance
• Product storage, use and handling
• Waste storage and disposal
• May be required by local ordinances
or health regulations
Homeowners and business owners should be made aware that careful handling
of potentially dangerous substances and proper use of the equipment and
chemicals they use every day can go a long way to protecting their water
supply. These "good housekeeping" practices typically do not require
significant expenditures or drastic changes to customary activities, and can
often save money by eliminating waste of the products they buy.
People should be encouraged to limit fertilizer applications to lawns and
gardens, and properly store chemicals to prevent contamination of storm water
runoff. Chemicals and oil should not be poured into sewers. Pet wastes, a
significant source of nutrient contamination, should be disposed of properly.
Employees should be trained in the use of BMP devices and safe use and
storage of chemicals at the workplace.
Some of these practices may be imposed by local ordinances or health
regulations (such as maintenance requirements for septic systems). If not,
their use should be encouraged through public education.
2-31
-------
September 11,2001
Equipment Operation
and Maintenance
Proper maintenance of vehicles and household, farm, construction, and
industrial equipment prevents accidents, leaks, and breakdown of pollution
preventing design. It also extends their service lives, saving owners money.
Septic system maintenance reduces the threat of leakage of the tank and
possible contamination of ground water by pathogens. It can also save
home and business owners money by avoiding costly repairs.
Vehicle maintenance increases the life span of cars and trucks,
construction vehicles, and farm equipment. Properly maintained
equipment reduces the likelihood of spills and accidents, and offers other
environmental benefits, such as reducing air pollution.
Washing vehicles before they leave a construction site keeps sediment on
the site and out of roadway storm sewers.
Inspecting storage tanks for potential leaks helps to ensure that chemicals
do not spill on the ground or seep into the ground water. Avoiding leaks
saves the tank owner money on the purchase of the substance stored.
Keeping equipment properly calibrated (e.g., tor fertili/.er and pesticide
application) is also important.
2-32
-------
September 11,2001
Product Storage, Use
and Handling
Properly used, most chemical products available to homeowners are safe for
the environment. One of the most basic aspects of proper product storage and
use is following the manufacturer's directions. Land and business owners
should understand that reading and following the directions on the label of
pesticides, fertilizers, and automotive products can protect their drinking water
supply. Other safe product use and handling practices include the following:
* Pesticide and fertilizer application equipment should be loaded over
impervious surfaces, so that any spills can be cleaned without seeping
into ground water. Farmers and homeowners should purchase only what
they need, and store and apply excess product to plants or crops during
subsequent applications, or give leftovers to a neighbor instead of
throwing them out.
* Selecting appropriate low sudsing, low phosphate, biodegradable
detergents at vehicle washing operations maximizes the effectiveness of
oil water separation and retention in control devices.
2-33
-------
September 11,2001
Proper Waste Storage
and Disposal
Photot '..« Chapter APWA
Relatively small amounts of waste from leaking containers and dumping
dangerous substances (which may be illegal) can contaminate large volumes
of water.
Proper storage of products and disposal of wastes is important to protecting
water supplies. For example:
Recycling used oil and automotive fluids, batteries, pesticides and
fertilizers, and household ha/ardous materials can be encouraged with
community ha/ardous waste collection days.
Absorbent pads should be kept at facilities where chemicals are used to
quickly clean and contain spills.
Storage above ground is preferred to underground storage, as this makes
it easier to discover leaks.
Motor \elncle fluids such as oil and gasoline, and pesticides should be
stored in a covered structure, away from the elements to prevent damage
to containers.
2-34
-------
September 11,2001
Other Tools
Public education
Environmentally responsible land
management
Water Conservation
Financial incentives
Emergency response planning
Public education is critical to a drinking water supply management program.
As people become aware of the importance of protecting their water supply
and how easily this can be accomplished, management measures have a
greater chance of success.
Encouraging homeowners and farmers to manage their land in an
environmentally responsible manner reduces risks due to contaminated runoff.
Governments may provide financial incentives to encourage activities that
protect sources of drinking water. For example, payments to farmers are
available under the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Conservation Reserve
Program for constructing vegetated buffer strips, and under the Environmental
Quality Incentives Program for constructing animal waste control structures.
Emergency response planning is the last step in the process: if protective
measures should fail or disaster strikes, a response plan is key to mitigating
adverse effects.
These tools for source water protection are described on the next few slides.
2-35
-------
Public Education
Many people inadvertently contribute to pollution simply because they do not realize
that their activities can contaminate water supplies. A public education campaign can
explain how each business and household can protect drinking water sources.
Appropriate topics for households include environmentally responsible landscaping and
lawn care; safe use of pesticides, herbicides, and motor vehicle fluids; care of septic
systems; proper disposal of chemicals and used oil (never to sewers or septic tanks);
and water conservation techniques.
Many communities have developed public education programs designed to encourage
adoption of BMPs and waste minimization strategies.
Public education can also build support for regulatory initiatives.
2-36
-------
Responsible Land Management
Land owners should be encouraged to conduct activities in a manner that
reduces threats to drinking water supplies. Environmentally responsible land
management does not mean that people must cease certain activities or make
drastic changes to their businesses, rather that they re-think the way they go
about their activities. For example:
Environmentally sensitive landscaping relies on native plants that grow
dense root systems to encourage infiltration and reduce erosion. These
plants have the best chance for survival with the least amount of
watering, pesticides, and fertilizers, saving the land owner money.
Proper lawn maintenance involves aerating soils and planting climate-
appropriate species of grasses that need the least chemical assistance to
thrive.
Conservation tillage, crop rotation, contour strip farming (shown
above), and animal grazing management can protect valuable farm
land and reduce loss of pesticides and nutrients to the environment and
sediment.
Integrated pest management is the coordinated use of pest and
environmental information with available pest control methods to
prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical
means and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the
environment.
Financial incentives are available from the U.S. Department of Agriculture for
some of these agricultural measures.
2-37
-------
September 11,2001
Emergency
Response Planning
What if..?
Despite the best management measures, accidents or disasters can happen.
Local government officials should be prepared for unforseen circumstances.
Emergency response planning or contingency planning is the process of
identifying potential threats and formulating response scenarios.
An emergency response plan is a set of "what ifs" about things that can
adversely affect water supplies, and how local government officials would
respond.
Elements of municipal emergency response plans should include information
about the water system, potential contamination sources and their locations,
fire-fighting plans, needed equipment and supplies, surface spill reporting
forms and names and phone numbers of emergency response contacts, and
short- and long-term water supply options.
Business owners may also be required to have emergency response plans on
file if, for example, they handle or use hazardous materials and are subject to
the Emergency Preparedness and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA) or
the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA).
Municipalities should have written emergency response plans on file, and
responding parties such as police and fire departments, health officials, and
response contractors and public water suppliers should be aware of them.
2-38
-------
September 11,2001
Water Conservation
• Limiting water withdrawals preserves
water supplies
• Useful in reducing:
, - Salt water intrusion in coastal areas
- Rate of contaminant transport in a
contaminated plume
• Conservation can be achieved by
individual effort; this is also a limitation
Water conservation is an important SWP tool because it reduces pumping
from primary ground water sources.
Where contaminant plumes exist, conservation may reduce the rate of
contaminant transport, delaying the arrival of contamination at the drinking
water source, and allowing time for preventive measures.
Conservation can reduce problems caused by salt water intrusion in coastal
areas. In some cases, conservation may reduce the need for mandatory controls
in the future.
Conservation can be achieved by the combined actions of individual
consumers; for example, by installing low flow showerheads and toilets and
repairing leaks.
Implementing some conservation measures may also be limited by a public
water system's capabilities or jurisdiction; for example, low flow equipment in
individual homes.
2-39
-------
September 11,2001
Water Conservation
• Water rights issues can be a
disincentive to conserve water
• Rights to conserved water may be lost
• Some States now allow users to retain
their rights to conserved water
Water rights are legally protected rights to take possession of water occurring in a
water supply and to divert it for a beneficial use. There are several legal doctrines that
govern water rights:
* Riparian doctrine grants rights to an owner of land contiguous to a water body
to take water for use on that land. Atlantic coast, southern, and Great Lakes
States generally grant water rights based on this doctrine. Many States
(particularly Atlantic coast States) grant regulated riparian rights.
* Prior appropriation doctrine (or appropriative rights) grant rights based on
when the water was first put to beneficial use. The first to use the water retains
rights to the water. All States west of the Mississippi (except Oklahoma and
California) grant rights based on prior appropriation. Oklahoma and California
use mixed doctrines.
* Federal and Tribal rights are reserved rights. They are based on the date when
the land was first set aside. This right was established in a lawsuit brought by
the U.S. on behalf of the Ft. Belknap Tribe, whose water was being diverted
upstream by settlers. The Supreme Court established that the water right of the
Tribe was prior and reserved (the decision also applied to all Federal lands).
Unlike State rights under prior appropriation systems, Federal and Tribal
reserved water rights may remain unused without being lost.
State systems for managing water rights sometimes provide that rights are lost to the
extent water is not used, including where water is saved through conservation. This
can be a disincentive to conserve. Some State laws now authorize users to retain
rights in the water they conserve if it is put to beneficial use or transferred.
2-40
-------
July 2001
Source Water
Protection
Measures for
Specific Sources
This section will discuss protection measures for specific sources:
Storm water runoff;
Septic systems;
Above and underground storage tanks;
Vehicle washing;
Small quantity chemical use, storage and disposal;
Animal waste from livestock, pets, and wildlife;
Agricultural application of fertilizers;
Turf grass and garden application of fertilizers;
Large-scale application of pesticides;
Small-scale application of pesticides;
Combined and sanitary sewer overflows;
Aircraft and airfield deicing operations;
Highway deicing operations; and
Abandoned wells.
For each source, we will discuss places where the source can be found; why it
should be managed; and best or most-used protection measures.
3-1
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Erosion from runoff
Storm water runoff is rain or snow melt that flows off the land, from streets, rooftops, and lawns.
Urban and suburban areas are predominated by impervious cover including rooftops of buildings and
other structures; pavement on roads, sidewalks, and parking lots; and impaired pervious surfaces
(compacted soils) such as dirt parking lots, walking paths, baseball fields and suburban lawns. Storm
water can also be a problem in rural areas if there is not sufficient vegetation or other means of
controlling erosion.
Storm water runoff is a major contamination pathway for many of the specific sources we will discuss
in this section. Oil, gasoline, and automotive fluids drip from vehicles onto roads and parking lots.
Storm water runoff from shopping malls and retail centers also contains hydrocarbons from
automobiles. Landscaping by homeowners, around businesses, and on public grounds contributes
pesticides, fertilizers, and nutrients to runoff. Construction of roads and buildings is another large
contributor of sediment loads to waterways. In addition, any uncovered materials such as improperly
stored hazardous substances (e.g., household cleaners, pool chemicals, or lawn care products), pet and
wildlife wastes, and litter can be earned in runoff to streams or ground water. Illicit discharges to storm
drains (of used motor oil, for example), can also contaminate water supplies.
All of this impervious area prohibits the natural infiltration of rainfall through the soil, which could
filter some contaminants before they reach ground water, or slow runoff. Development also reduces
the amount of land available for vegetation, which can mitigate the effects of rapid runoff and filter
contaminants. When the percentage of impervious cover reaches 10 to 20 percent of a watershed area,
Degraded water quality becomes apparent.
When runoff is confined to narrow spaces, such as streets, the velocity at which water flows increases
greatly. This contributes to erosion and increased flooding (especially in areas without vegetative
cover), sedimentation into surface water bodies, and reduced ground water recharge. Sediment
deposited in streams can increase turbidity; provide a pathway for pathogens and viruses; decrease
reservoir capacity; smother aquatic species, and lead to habitat loss and decreased biodiversity of
aquatic species.
The protection measures that follow can be used to control runoff from the many urban and rural
sources of potential source water contamination.
3-2
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Nonstructural
measures to control
runoff
- Good housekeeping
- Public education
- Roadway
maintenance
- Erosion and
sedimentation
control measures
Sewer stenciling
Nonstructural pollution source control and protection measures include public education to
homeowners and business owners on good housekeeping, proper use and storage of household
toxic materials, and responsible lawn care and landscaping; storm drain stenciling; hazardous
materials collection; and eliminating illegal discharges. Building and site-development codes
should encourage best management practices.
On roadways, proper maintenance ofrights-of-way, including chemical and nutrient control,
street cleaning or sweeping, storm drain cleaning, and use of alternative or reduced de-icing
products can reduce the pollutant content of runoff.
Without appropriate erosion and sedimentation control (ESC) measures, construction activities
can contribute large amounts of sediment to storm water runoff. Erosion can be controlled by
planting temporary fast-growing vegetation, such as grasses and wild flowers. Covering top soil
with geotextiles or impervious covers will protect it from rainfall. Good housekeeping
measures for construction sites include construction entrance pads and vehicle washing to keep
sediment and soil on-site. Construction should be staged to reduce soil exposure, or timed to
coincide with periods of low rainfall and low erosion potential, such as in the fall, rather than
during spring rains. Other measures include sediment traps and basins; sediment fences; wind
erosion controls; and sediment, chemical, and nutrient control. Ordinances can require plan
reviews of construction activities to ensure that erosion is minimized, or require ESC measures
during construction. Inspections and repairs will maintain the working order of ESC measures.
Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to reduce the flow of contaminants
into storm water. For example, subdivision controls help to ensure that expected development
will not compromise protection of drinking water. Requiring proper drainage management (e.g.,
erosion control) in new developments will ensure that runoff does not become excessive as
areas of paved surfaces increase. Low impact development incorporates maintaining pre-
development hydrology, considering infiltration technology, re-routing water to recharge the
aquifer, and minimize disturbances from development.
3-3
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Engineered devices to
control runoff
- Grassed swales
- Buffer strips
- Filter strips
- Wet ponds
- Constructed wetlands
- Infiltration practices
- BMPs for Class V wells
Porous design minimizes
impervious area
• Constructed devices work by encouraging infiltration, or filtration and settling
of suspended particles, or a combination of these processes.
• For example, minimizing directly connected impervious areas is important to
reducing the flow and volume of runoff. Planners should direct runoff from
roofs, sidewalks, and other surfaces over grassed areas to promote infiltration
and filtration of pollutants prior to surface water deposition.
• Porous design of parking lots also provides places for storm water to infiltrate
to soils. Concrete grid pavement is typically placed on a sand or gravel base
with void areas filled with pervious materials such as sand, gravel, or grass.
Storm water percolates through the voids into the subsoil.
• Planting landscaped areas lower than the street level encourages drainage.
• It is important when designing these devices to use the right materials and,
after construction, to conduct appropriate maintenance.
3-4
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Grassed swale
Filter strip
Structural designs are used to control runoff or temporarily store storm water on site. A
number of structural devices have been developed to encourage filtration, infiltration, or
settling of suspended particles.
Grassed swales (shown on the left) are shallow, vegetated ditches that reduce the speed and
volume of runoff. Soil removes contaminants by infiltration and filtration. Vegetation, or
turf, prevents erosion, filters out sediment, and provides some nutrient uptake. Maintenance
involves regular mowing, re-seeding, and weed control, along with inspections to check for
erosion and ensure the integrity of the vegetative cover. To function appropriately, the
inflow to the swale must be sheet flow from a filter strip or impervious surface (not at the
end of a pipe). Swales have demonstrated solids removals exceeding 80 percent. Swales
should preferably be planted with native plants and regularly maintained to ensure continued
proper operation.
Grassed waterways are wide, shallow channels lined with sod, used as an outlet for runoff
from terraces. They are used to prevent gully erosion, rather than for filtering pollutants.
Like swales, they require regular maintenance and should be planted be native plants.
Buffer strips are combinations of trees, shrubs, and grasses planted parallel to a stream.
Buffer strips should consist of three zones—about four or five rows of trees closest to the
stream, one or two rows of shrubs, and a 20 to 24 foot wide grass zone on the outer edge.
They decrease the velocity of runoff to moderate flooding and prevent stream bank erosion,
but do not necessarily increase infiltration.
Filter strips (shown in the right photograph) are areas of close-growing vegetation on gently
sloped land surfaces bordering a surface water body. They work by holding soil in place,
allowing some infiltration, and filtering solid particles out of the runoff from small storms.
3-5
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Wet Ponds and Constructed Wetlands
• Storm water ponds, or wet ponds (shown above), consist of a permanent pond,
where solids settle during and between storms, and a zone of emergent
wetland vegetation where dissolved contaminants are removed through
biochemical processes.
• Constructed wetlands are similar to wet ponds, with more emergent aquatic
vegetation and a smaller open water area. Storm water wetlands are
fundamentally different from natural wetlands in that they are designed to treat
storm water runoff, and typically have less biodiversity than natural wetlands.
A wetland should have a settling pond, or forebay, if significant upstream soil
erosion is anticipated. Coarse particles remain trapped in the forebay, and
maintenance is performed on this smaller pool. Wetlands remove the same
pollutants as wet ponds though settling of solids and biochemical processes,
with about the same efficiency.
3-6
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Infiltration Practices
Infiltration practices (basins and trenches) are long, narrow stone-filled
excavated trenches, three to 12 feet deep. Runoff is stored in the basin or in
voids between the stones in a trench and slowly infiltrates into the soil matrix
below, where filtering removes pollutants. Infiltration devices alone do not
remove contaminants, and should be combined with a pretreatment practice
such as a swale or sediment basin to prevent premature clogging. Maintenance
consists of inspections annually and after major rain storms and debris
removal, especially in inlets and overflow channels. Infiltration devices and
associated practices can achieve up to 70 to 98 percent contaminant removal.
Infiltration chambers can also be used for septic and storm water
management. Infiltration septic chambers replace conventional stone and pipe
leach fields. A subsurface infiltration storm water system replaces retention
ponds, large diameter pipe and stone, and other storm water designs.
Infiltration chambers have been used in drainfield, leach field, mound, and
sand filter applications. However, maintenance can be difficult. They are
sometimes hard to monitor and to dig up.
Swirl-type concentrators are underground vaults designed to create a circular
motion to encourage sedimentation and oil and grease removal. The currents
rapidly separate out settleable grit and floatable matter, which are concentrated
for treatment, while the cleaner, treated flow discharges to receiving waters.
Swirl concentrators have demonstrated total suspended solids and BOD
removal efficiencies exceeding 60 percent.
3-7
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Storm drain
Storm water
drainage wells
(Class V)
Protection measures
for Class V wells
- Siting
- Design
- Operation
Protection measures for Class V storm water drainage wells address siting,
design, and operation of these wells.
Siting measures for storm water drainage wells include minimum
setbacks from surface waters, drinking water wells, or the water table.
Storm water drainage wells may also be prohibited from areas of critical
concern, such as source water protection areas, or from areas where the
engineering properties of the soil are not ideal for their performance.
> Available design measures for storm water drainage wells include
sediment removal devices (such as oil/grit separators or filter strips), oil
and grease separators, and pretreatment devices such as infiltration
trenches or wetlands. Maintenance of these BMPs is crucial to their
proper operation.
Management measures related to operation include spill response,
monitoring, and maintenance procedures. Source separation, or keeping
runoff from industrial areas away from storm water drainage wells,
involves using containment devices such as berms or curbs.
3-8
-------
July 2001
Storm Water Runoff
Municipal separate
storm sewer
systems (MS4s)
- Regulated under the
NPDES Program
- Over 5,000
nationwide
EPA '$ National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
Permitting Program regulates storm water runoff from municipal separate
storm sewer systems (MS4s) and industrial activity (including construction).
The current rules establish permit requirements for more than 5,000 MS4s
nationwide. NPDES storm water permits issued to MS4s require these MS4s
to develop the necessary legal authority to reduce the discharge of pollutants
in storm water to the maximum extent practicable and to develop and
implement a storm water management program that includes:
* Structural and source control measures to reduce pollutants from runoff
from commercial and residential areas, including maintenance,
monitoring, and planning activities;
^ The detection and removal of illicit discharges and improper disposal
into the storm sewer;
^ Monitoring and control of storm water discharges from certain industrial
activities; and
^ Construction site storm water control.
In addition, the storm water rule for certain small MS4s requires post-
construction storm water management controls. These local controls are in
addition to existing federal regulations that require NPDES permits of all
construction activities disturbing greater than one acre.
Recently, EPA developed a menu of BMPs that provides more than 100 fact
sheets on measures that small MS4s could use to control urban storm water
runoff. The menu is available from EPA's website at www.epa.gov/npdes.
3-9
-------
July 2001
Septic Systems
WE
Septic systems are used to treat and dispose of sanitary waste, that is, wastewater from
kitchens, clothes washing machines, and bathrooms. When properly sited, designed,
constructed, and operated, they pose a minimal threat to drinking water sources. On the
other hand, improperly used or operated septic systems can be a significant source of
ground water contamination that can lead to waterbome disease outbreaks and other
adverse health effects. [Note that large capacity cesspools are not septic systems.]
A typical household septic system consists of a septic tank, a distribution box, and a drain
field. The septic tank is a rectangular or cylindrical container made of concrete, fiberglass,
or polyethylene. Wastewater flows into the tank, where it is held for a period of time to
allow suspended solids to separate out. The heavier solids collect in the bottom of the
tank and are partially decomposed by microbial activity. Grease, oil, and fat, along with
some digested solids, float to the surface to form a scum layer.
The partially clarified wastewater that remains between the layers of scum and sludge
flows to the distribution box, which distributes it evenly through the drain field. The drain
field is a network of perforated pipes laid in gravel-filled trenches or beds. Wastewater
flows out of the pipes, through the gravel, and into the surrounding soil. As the
wastewater effluent percolates down through the soil, chemical and biological processes
remove some of the contaminants before it reaches ground water.
Septic systems can be a significant source of ground water contamination leading to
waterborne disease outbreaks and other adverse health effects. The bacteria, protozoa,
nitrate and viruses found in sanitary wastewater can cause numerous diseases, including
gastrointestinal illness, cholera, hepatitis A, blue baby syndrome and typhoid.
3-10
-------
July 2001
Septic Systems
ground surface
backfill-*
perforated p
original *oN
Septic system drain field
Most jurisdictions require minimum horizontal setback distances from features such as buildings and
drinking water wells and minimum vertical setback distances from impermeable soil layers and the
seasonal high water table. Areas with high water tables and shallow impermeable layers should be
avoided because there is insufficient unsaturated soil thickness to ensure sufficient treatment. Soil
permeability must be adequate to ensure proper treatment of septic system effluent. If permeability is
too low, the drain field may not be able to handle wastewater flows, and surface ponding (thus
contributing to the contamination of surface water through runoff) or plumbing back-ups may result.
If permeability is too high, the effluent may reach ground water before it is adequately treated. Well-
drained loamy soils are generally the most desirable for proper septic system operation.
Septic tanks and drain fields should be of adequate size to handle anticipated wastewater flows. In
addition, soil characteristics and topography should be taken into account in designing the drain field.
Generally speaking, the lower the soil permeability, the larger the drain field required for adequate
treatment. Drain fields should be located in relatively flat areas to ensure uniform effluent flow.
Effluent containing excessive amounts of grease, fats, and oils may clog the septic tank or drain field
and lead to premature failure. The installation of grease interceptors is recommended for restaurants
and other facilities with similar wastewater characteristics.
Construction should be performed by a licensed septic system installer to ensure compliance with
applicable regulations. The infiltration capacity of the soil may be reduced if the soil is overly
compacted. Care should be taken not to drive heavy vehicles over the drain field area during
construction or afterward. Construction equipment should operate from upslope of the drain field
area. Construction should not be performed when the soil is wet, or excessive soil smearing and soil
compaction may result.
Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to protect source water from potential
contamination. For example, subdivision or health regulations can specify the number and size of
septic systems allowed in a development, construction and siting standards, maintenance standards,
and setback distances. In making siting decisions, local health officials should also evaluate whether
soils and receiving waters can absorb the combined effluent loadings from all of the septic systems in
the area.
3-11
-------
July 2001
Septic Systems
Inadequate septic system operation and maintenance can lead to failure even when systems are
designed and constructed according to regulation. Homeowners associations and tenant associations
can play an important role in educating their members about their septic systems. In the case of
commercial establishments such as strip malls, management companies can serve a similar role.
Septic system owners should continuously monitor the drain field area for signs of failure, including
odors, surfacing sewage, and lush vegetation. The septic tank should be inspected annually to ensure
that the internal structures are in good working order.
Many septic systems fail due to hydraulic overloading that leads to surface ponding. Reducing
wastewater volumes through water conservation is important to extend the life of the dram field.
Conservation measures include using water-saving devices, repairing leaky plumbing fixtures, taking
shorter showers, and washing only full loads of dishes and laundry. Wastewater containing water
softeners should not be discharged into the septic system to minimize hydraulic load. In addition,
surface runoff from driveways, roofs, and patios should be directed away from the drain field.
If an excessive amount of sludge is allowed to collect in the bottom of the septic tank, wastewater will
not spend a sufficient time in the tank before flowing into the drain field. The increased concentration
of solids entering the drain field can reduce soil permeability and cause the drain field to fail. Septic
tanks should be pumped out every two to five years, depending on the tank size, wastewater volume,
and types of solids entering the system. Garbage disposals increase the volume of solids entering the
septic tank, requiring them to be pumped more often.
Household chemicals such as solvents, drain cleaners, oils, paint, and pesticides can interfere with the
proper operation of the septic system and cause ground water contamination. Grease, cooking fats,
coffee grounds, sanitary napkins, and cigarettes do not easily decompose, and contribute to the build-
up of solids in the tank. The use of additives has not been proven to improve the performance of
septic systems. In fact, additives containing solvents or petrochemicals may actually reduce the septic
system's treatment capacity or cause ground water contamination.
Vehicles and heavy equipment should be kept off the drain field area to prevent soil compaction and
damage to pipes. Trees should not be planted over the drain field because the roots can enter the
perforated piping and lead to back-ups. Last, avoid any type of construction over the drain field.
Impervious cover can reduce soil evaporation from the drain field, reducing its capacity to handle
wastewater.
3-12
-------
July 2001
Above and Underground
Storage Tanks
Corroded underground storage tank
Above ground storage tanks (ASTs) are tanks or other containers that are above ground, partially
buried, bunkered, or in a subterranean vault. Underground storage tanks (USTs) are tanks and
any underground piping that have at least ten percent of their combined volume underground.
The majority of storage tanks contain petroleum products (motor fuels, petroleum solvents,
heating oil, lubricants, used oil, etc.). ASTs are typically found in marketing terminals, refineries,
and fuel distribution centers, while most USTs are found at motor vehicle service stations. In fact,
the U.S. EPA regulates more than 1.2 million USTs containing petroleum products. Storage
tanks may also be found in airports, school bus bams, hospitals, automotive repair shops, military
bases, farms, residential areas and industrial plants. Accidental releases of chemicals from
storage tanks can contaminate source water. Materials spilled, leaked, or lost from storage tanks
may accumulate in soil or be carried away in storm water runoff.
The major causes for storage tank releases are holes from corrosion, improper installation, failure
of piping systems, and spills and overfills. Federal regulations were developed to prevent, detect,
and correct UST releases. While most USTs were required to comply with these regulations by
December 1998, certain storage tanks were exempted (see 40 CFR 280.10).
Additionally, large capacity AST and UST owners storing oil products may need to comply with
Federal Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations (see 40 CFR Part
112).
Local governments can use land use controls to address some of the potential risks from USTs
and ASTs. For example, zoning can restrict these activities to specific geographic areas that are
away from drinking water sources. Prohibition of gas stations (which use USTs) in source water
protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter source water. Local
governments may also require permits that impose additional requirements such as setbacks, open
spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control of site access points; and regulation of
hours and methods of operation.
3-13
-------
Above Ground Storage
Tanks
Shattered abova ground tank farm
Corrosion
protection
Secondary
containment
Monitoring
Periodic cleanup
Evaporation
protection
Proper closure
July 2001
Federal AST Requirements for Tanks Storing Petroleum Products (see 40 CFR Part 112).
• Follow standard tank filling practices when filling tanks to prevent spills and overfills. Furthermore, all
ASTs should have a secondary containment area that contains spills and allows leaks to be more easily
detected. The containment area surrounding the tank should hold 110 percent of the contents of the largest
tank plus freeboard for precipitation. Secondary containment for ASTs must be impermeable to the
materials being stored. Methods include berms, dikes, liners, vaults, and double-walled tanks. A manually
controlled sump pump should be used to collect rain water that may accumulate in the secondary
containment area. Any discharge should be inspected for petroleum or chemicals prior to being dispensed.
• Routinely monitor ASTs to ensure they are not leaking. An audit of a newly installed tank system by a
professional engineer can identify and correct problems such as loose fittings, poor welding, and poorly fit
gaskets. After installation, inspect the tank system periodically to ensure it is in good condition.
Depending on the permeability of the secondary containment area, more frequent containment area checks
may be necessary. Areas to inspect include tank foundations, connections, coatings, tank walls, and the
piping system. Integrity testing should be done periodically by a qualified professional and in accordance
to applicable standards.
• If an AST has remained out of service for more a year or more, many States require owners to maintain and
monitor the tank, declare the tank inactive, or remove it. If the tank is declared inactive, remove all
substances from the AST system (including pipes) and completely clean the inside. Secure tanks by bolting
and locking all valves, as well as capping all gauge openings and fill lines. Clearly label tanks with the date
and the words "Out of Service." Samples may be required when removing tanks to determine if any
contamination has occurred. Most States require out-of-service tanks to be inspected and meet leak
detection requirements before they are put back into service.
Additional AST Protection Measures
• The location of the facility must be considered in relation to drinking water wells, streams, ponds and
ditches (perennial or intermittent), storm or sanitary sewers, wetlands, mudflats, sandflats, farm drain tiles,
or other navigable waters. The distance to drinking water wells and surface water, volume of material
stored, worse case weather conditions, drainage patterns, land contours, soil conditions, etc., must also be
taken into account.
• ASTs should have corrosion protection for the tank. Options include elevating tanks, resting tanks on
continuous concrete slabs, installing double-walled tanks, cathodically protecting the tanks, internally
lining tanks, inspecting tanks according to American Petroleum Institute standard, or a combination of the
options listed above. All underground piping to the tank should be double-walled or located above ground
or cathodically protected so you can inspect it when it fails.
• Local jurisdictions may want to implement registration programs for exempt tanks, in order to exercise
some oversight of their construction and operation. Furthermore, most States also require inspections for
ASTs by fire marshals. Inspection programs can be expanded to cover water contamination issues. Tier 2
reporting to local fire departments under the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act
(EPCRA) can be a resource to local jurisdictions.
3-14
-------
July 2001
Underground Storage
Tanks
'roper installation
Corrosion protection
Spill prevention
Overfill protection
Leak detection
Proper closure
Backfilling an UST installation
in a lined pit
Federal UST Requirements (see 40 CFR Part 280)
• Proper installation. USTs must be installed according to industry standards with great care to maintain the
integrity and the corrosion protection of the tank. Tanks must also be properly sited away from wells,
reservoirs, and floodplains. Ideally, all types of USTs should be located outside of source water protection
areas.
• Corrosion protection. UST systems must be made of noncorrodible material, such as fiberglass, or have
corrosion protection provided in other ways, such as by being made of externally coated and cathodically
protected metal, having double-walls, metal having a thick corrosion resistant cladding or jacket, or having
an internal tank lining.
• Spill protection. USTs must have catchment basins that can catch spills that may occur when the delivery
hose is disconnected from the fill pipe. A catchment basin is basically a bucket sealed around the fill pipe.
• Over/ill protection. When an UST is overfilled, large volumes can be released at the fill pipe and through
loose fittings on the top of the tank or a loose vent pipe. USTs must have overfill protection devices, such
as automatic shutoff devices, overfill alarms, and ball float valves. In addition, proper filling procedures
during fuel delivery must be followed to reduce the chance of spills or overfills.
• Leak detection. Leak detection options include automatic tank gauging, interstitial monitoring, statistical
inventory reconciliation, vapor monitoring, and ground water monitoring. All leaks must be detected in a
timely manner, before they become big cleanup and liability problems.
• Proper closure. The regulatory authority needs to be notified 30 days before UST closure, and a
determination must be made if any contamination of the environment has occurred. The tank must be
emptied and cleaned, after which it may be left underground or removed. Standard safety practices should
always be followed when emptying, cleaning, or removing tanks.
Additional protection Measures
• Local governments can use land use controls to address some of the potential risks from USTs. For
example, zoning can restrict these activities to specific geographic areas that are away from drinking water
sources. Prohibition of gas stations (which use USTs) or residential heating oil tanks in source water
protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter source water. Local governments
may also require permits that impose additional requirements such as setbacks, open spaces, buffers, walls
and fences; street paving and control of site access points; and regulation of hours and methods of operation.
Local jurisdictions may want to implement registration programs for exempt tanks, in order to exercise
some oversight of their construction and operation.
• Work with your State and local UST regulatory authorities to ensure that adequate inspection of UST sites
takes place regularly — inspections that verify whether USTs are properly equipped, operated, and
maintained so they will not pose a threat to your water source.
3-15
-------
July 2001
Vehicle Washing
Facilities
Minimize runoff
Enclose wash areas
and locate them on
impervious surfaces
Use alternative
cleaning agents
Vehicle washing is the cleaning of privately owned vehicles (cars and trucks), public vehicles
(school buses, vans, municipal buses, fire trucks and utility vehicles), and industrial vehicles
(moving vans or trucks and tractors). Vehicle wash water contains oil, grease, metal (paint chips),
phosphates, detergents, soaps, cleaners, road salts, and other chemicals. These chemicals can
contaminate source water when they are allowed to enter storm water drains and injection wells,
instead of being diverted to treatment plants or transported to vegetative areas, where the grass can
filter the contaminants from the water.
Vehicle washing facilities should be designed and operated to minimize runoff. Warning signs
should be posted for customers and employees instructing them not to dump vehicle fluids,
pesticides, solvents, fertilizers, organic chemicals, or toxic chemicals into catch basins. Catch basins
are chambers or sumps that channel surface runoff to a storm drain or sewer system. Vehicle wash
facilities should stencil warnings on the pavement next to the grit trap or catch basin. All signs
should be in a visible location and maintained for readability.
Wash areas should be located on well-constructed and maintained, impervious surfaces (i.e.,
concrete or plastic) with drains piped to the sanitary sewer or other disposal devices. The wash area
should extend at least an additional four feet on all sides of the vehicle to trap all overspray.
Enclosing wash areas with walls and properly grading wash areas prevents dirty overspray from
leaving the wash area, and the overspray can be collected from the impermeable surface.
The impervious surfaces should be marked to indicate the boundaries of the washing area and
the area draining to the designated collection point. Washing areas should not be located near
uncovered vehicle repair areas or chemical storage facilities; chemicals could be transported in
wash water runoff.
Cleaning wash areas and grit traps or catch basins regularly can minimize or prevent debris
such as paint chips, dirt, cleaning agents, chemicals, and oil and grease from being discharged
into storm drains or injection wells.
Using alternative cleaning agents such as phosphate-free, biodegradable detergents for vehicle
washing will reduce the amount of contaminants entering storm drains. Cleaning agents containing
solvents and emulsifiers should be discouraged because they allow oil and grease to flow through
the oil/water separator (see below) instead of being separated from the effluent. In addition, these
cleaning agents will remain in the wastewater and can pollute dnnking water sources.
3-16
-------
July 2001
Vehicle Washing
Facilities
Car wash with vegetated area
When sanitary sewers are not available for managing wastewater, there are several different
approaches that can be taken depending on the size of the site, available resources, and State and
local requirements.
Grassed swales and constructed wetlands can be used to filter sediment (see slides # 3-5 to 3-7 for
more information).
Collection sumps are deep pits or reservoirs that hold liquid waste. Vehicle wash water
accumulates in the collection sumps, and is pumped or siphoned to a vegetated area (grassed swale
or constructed wetland). Sediment traps can also be used to strain and collect the vehicle wash
water, prior to pumping or siphoning the wash water to a vegetated area.
Oil/water separators are tanks that collect oily vehicle wash water that flow along corrugated plates
to encourage separation of solids and oil droplets. The oily solids or sludge can then be pumped out
of the system through a different pipe. The sludge can be hauled off site, and the wash water can be
discharged to vegetated areas or to a treatment plant. There are two types of oil/water separators,
one that removes free oil that floats on top of water, and one that removes emulsified oil, a mixture
of oil, water, chemicals, and dirt. Choose the separator that fits the needs of the vehicle wash
facility.
Recycling systems reduce or eliminate contaminated discharges to storm water drains and injection
wells by reusing the wash water until the water reaches a certain contaminant level. The waste
water is then discharged to a collection sump or to a treatment facility.
Local governments can use land use controls to protect source water from potential contamination
from vehicle washing facilities. For example, zoning can restrict this activity to specific geographic
areas that are distant from drinking water sources. Localities can also prohibit vehicle washing
activities in source water protection areas to reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter
source water. Local governments may also require permits that impose additional requirements such
as setbacks, open spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control of site access points;
and regulation of hours and methods of operation.
3-17
-------
July 2001
Small Quantity Chemical
Use, Storage, and Disposal
Small quantity chemical users include dry cleaners, beauty shops, photo finishers, vehicle
repair shops, printers, laboratories, academic institutions, water supply facilities, nursing
homes, medical facilities, and many others. These businesses use solvents, corrosives, dry
cleaning agents, heavy metals and inorganics, inks and paint, lead-acid batteries, plating
chemicals, cyanide, and wood preserving agents, among other chemicals, in their daily
business. These contaminants have a variety of environmental and health hazards. For
example, a dry cleaning filtration residue, perchloroethylene, causes kidney and liver damage
in both humans and animals. It is among the most common contaminants in ground water
and a very small amount can contaminate many thousands of gallons of water. Used cyanide,
a common waste product of metal finishing, is considered an acutely hazardous waste and
can be toxic in very small doses.
Improper disposal of chemicals from these users can reach ground or surface water through a
number of pathways. If substances from these businesses are accidentally or intentionally
discharged into storm drains, contamination of ground and surface waters can occur.
Improper disposal into sewers can also endanger the ability of publicly-owned treatment
works (POTWs) to properly treat wastewater. Chemicals poured into septic systems or dry
wells can leach into ground water or contribute to treatment system failure. Chemical users
should always ensure that haulers they hire to carry their waste off-site are properly licensed
and that they deliver the waste to appropriate disposal sites.
A useful tool for making disposal decisions is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
These sheets provide important information regarding contents of commercial products and
enable a facility to determine whether materials will produce hazardous waste. MSDS data
(i.e., chemical name, ingredients, possible carcinogens, and other known hazards) are also
important for chemical use, storage and spill control. MSDS documents can be obtained
from manufacturers and should be kept readily accessible.
3-18
-------
July 2001
Small Quantity Chemical
Use, Storage, and Disposal
DUCE
CYCLE
Water-based paint
Good waste reduction and management strategies can significantly reduce the threat
of hazardous materials to drinking water sources. Reading the label on chemical
containers is one of the simplest and most important protection measures. The label
provides information on proper use, storage, and disposal and may provide emergency
information in the event the product is accidentally spilled or ingested.
Follow the manufacturer's directions when mixing or using chemicals to prevent
producing large quantities of useless material that must be disposed of as waste.
Responsible purchasing can also drastically decrease the amount of hazardous waste
for disposal.
^ This includes ordering materials on an as-needed basis and returning unused
portions back to vendors.
* The toxicity of waste can be reduced by purchasing and using the least
hazardous or least concentrated products available to accomplish their processes.
Such substitutions include the use of water based paints, or high solids solvent
based paints when water based paints are not available. Cleaning products and
solvents, which can contain highly toxic or harsh chemicals, can be replaced
with less hazardous counterparts. Printing businesses can use nontoxic inks that
are free of heavy metal pigments.
Another method of waste reduction is trading waste with other businesses. Waste
exchanges reduce disposal costs and quantities, reduce the demand for natural
resources, and increase the value of waste.
3-19
-------
July 2001
Small Quantity Chemical
Use, Storage, and Disposal
Conduct a chemical
audit
Implement a chemical
management plan
Store chemicals
properly
Do not empty in sinks
or drains
Chemical audits are a good starting point. It is important to understand
chemical needs for the facility and compare these to the chemical supply on
hand. A chemical management plan that includes a list of chemicals used, the
method of disposal such as reclamation or contract hauling, and procedures for
assuring that toxic chemicals are not discharged into source water should be
implemented.
Proper on-site storage of hazardous substances helps to prevent accidental
leaks. Designated storage areas should have paved or impervious surfaces, a
protective cover, and secondary containment around all containers. Containers
should have clear and visible labels that include purchase date and all
information presented on the distributor's original label. Dating materials
allows facilities to use older materials first. When not in use, storage
containers must be sealed to prevent spills and the loss of chemicals to the air.
Storage areas and containers should be thoroughly inspected on a weekly basis
and secured against unauthorized entry.
Hazardous waste should never be discharged into floor drains, storm drains,
toilets, sinks, other improper disposal areas, or other routes leading to public
sewers, septic systems, or dry wells. Chemical waste should be disposed of
according to the manufacturer's directions and State and local requirements. A
facility may unwittingly create excess harmful materials by mixing hazardous
with nonhazardous waste. Avoiding this practice can significantly reduce the
burden of hazardous waste disposal and increase the possibility of recycling
materials. Many local communities sponsor household hazardous waste
events to collect and properly dispose of small quantities of chemicals.
3-20
-------
July 2001
Small Quantity Chemical
Use, Storage, and Disposal
Have a spill
response plan
Do not mix
hazardous and
nonhazardous
waste
When hazardous substances are unintentionally released, the event is
considered a spill and must be treated appropriately. A good spill response
plan minimizes the risk of bodily injury and environmental impact and reduces
liability for clean-up costs and injuries. It is best kept where it can be easily
viewed by employees near mixing and storage areas. Besides detailed
instructions for staff, a spill response plan includes a diagram showing the
location of all chemicals, floor drains, exits, fire extinguishers, and spill
response supplies. Spill response supplies (e.g., mop, pail, sponges, absorbent
materials) should also be listed. Someone trained in these procedures must be
on site or easily reachable during hours of operation.
Other practices to control spills include the use of funnels when transferring
harmful substances and drip pans placed under spigots, valves, and pumps to
catch accidental leakage. Sloped floors allow leaks to run into collection areas.
Catch basins in loading dock areas, where nearly one third of all accidental
spills occur, can help recapture harmful chemicals. All practices should be
performed in a way that allows the reuse or recycling of the spilled substance.
3-21
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Livestock
Pets
Wildlife
Animal waste comes from a variety of sources, the most obvious of which are livestock
animals. Estimates indicate that the quantity of animal waste is 13 times greater than
human sanitary waste generation in the United States. Livestock waste can be
introduced to the environment through direct discharges, open feedlots, land application,
animal housing, and pastures.
Wild birds and mammals can pollute surface waters through direct contact. Gulls and
waterfowl commonly visit or inhabit open reservoirs. Birds are widely reported to be
one of the most common and significant sources of contamination to open reservoirs.
Companion animals, particularly dogs, are also significant contributors to source water
contamination. Studies performed on watersheds in the Seattle, Washington, area
found that nearly 20 percent of the bacteria found in water samples were matched with
dogs as the host animals. Horses are also significant sources of waste. The average
horse produces 45 pounds of waste each day, which may be difficult for small horse
farms to manage properly.
Probably the greatest health concern from animal wastes is pathogens such as
Cryptosporidium, Giardia lamblia, the more virulent strains of E. Coli, and Salmonella.
They can cause serious gastrointestinal illness lasting 2 to 10 days in healthy
individuals, but can be fatal in people with weakened immune systems.
Animal waste contains many pollutants of concern that affect humans and water quality.
Such pollutants include oxygen-demanding substances that can lead to fish kills and
degraded water quality; solids that can increase turbidity and decrease the aesthetic
value (e.g., taste and odor) of water; and nutrients that can cause algal blooms or
methemoglobanemia. Blue Baby Syndrome, in infants. Metals such as arsenic, copper,
selenium, and zinc that are added to animal feed can be toxic to humans, plants and
animals.
3-22
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Hog parlor with lagoon
Feedlot management
- Waste lagoons
- Litter storage facilities
- Clean water diversion
- Composting
Several feedlot management measures are available to reduce contact between livestock and poultry manure
and precipitation or runoff.
A lagoon, or waste storage pond, is made by excavating earth fill for temporary storage of animal waste.
This practice can reduce the organic, pathogen, and nutrient loading of surface waters but may contaminate
ground water if not constructed and maintained properly. Due to the nsk to ground water, good planning,
siting, design, and maintenance are critical when using a lagoon for animal waste storage.
Poultry litter storage facilities are designed to keep rain water and runoff away from poultry house wastes
stored for later application to crops. Types of litter storage buildings (ranging from the least to most
protective of water sources) include open stockpiles, covered stockpiles, bunker-type storage, and roofed
storage structures. The appropriate size of the storage structure will depend on the amount of litter removed
and the frequency of poultry house cleanouts.
Clean water diversion is an effective protection measure that avoids contamination of precipitation and
surface flow as it makes its way to drinking water sources. Rain gutters and downspouts on animal shelter
roofs keep runoff clean by directing precipitation away from manure. Another tactic to prevent runoff
contamination is to construct superficial diversions, including earthen ridges or diversion terraces built above
the feedlot or barnyard to direct surface flow away from waste.
Composting can help eliminate pathogens and reduce the volume of manure. Composting is the controlled
biological decomposition of organic materials; it can be aerobic (occurring with oxygen) or anaerobic
(occurring with little or no oxygen). Compost sites should be located away from drinking water wells and
water sources to avoid leaching during heavy rain and on fairly flat sites where water does not collect or run
off. Composting should take place at the proper temperature and for an appropriate length of time to kill
pathogens in the manure.
Once runoff becomes contaminated, vegetative filter strips and other means can be used to control overland
flow. Such measures treat runoff from feedlots or grazing areas by absorbing nutrients, bacteria, and
chemicals.
3-23
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Livestock fencing
Land application
of manure
- Nutrient
management
- Proper placement
- Crop rotation
Pasture or
grazing
management
- Fencing
• Proper land application of manure incorporates effective nutrient management to minimize the quantity
of nutrients available for loss. This is achieved by developing a comprehensive nutrient management
plan and using only the types and amounts of nutrients necessary to produce the crop, applying nutrients
at the proper times and with proper methods, implementing additional farming practices to reduce nutrient
losses, and following proper procedures for fertilizer storage and handling.
• Correct placement of manure in the root zone can greatly enhance plant nutrient uptake and minimize
losses. Manure should be incorporated into the subsurface, rather than surface applied, to reduce runoff
and production of vapors. Waste should never be applied to frozen, snow-covered, or saturated ground.
Good management of irrigation water can help maximize efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching.
• Proper manure application rates are also important. Applying waste at the time of maximum crop
uptake can minimize loss to surface runoff and decrease the amount of manure needed to fertilize crops.
Calculating the optimal rate of application also includes crediting other sources that contribute nitrogen
and phosphorus to the soil. Further, appropriate manure application is based on realistic yield goals
established by the crop producers. Yield expectations are established for each crop and field based on soil
properties, available moisture, yield history, and management level. Soil sampling is necessary to
determine plant nutrient needs and to make accurate fertilizer recommendations.
• Conservation tillage and buffers can reduce runoff over feeding and grazing lands and transport of
livestock wastes to water sources. In conservation tillage, crops are grown with minimal cultivation of
the soil. This way, plant residues are not completely incorporated into the soil, providing cover and
reducing runoff. Buffer strips and filter strips are created by planting dense vegetation near surface water
bodies. The vegetation reduces runoff and strains and filters sediments and chemicals.
• Where the amount of animal waste produced is more than can be properly utilized by all the crops in the
area, programs to move the excess manure out of the watershed or source water protection area or to
develop an alternative use for the manure other than land application may be necessary.
• Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and economic benefits by minimizing fertilizer and
pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop rotation plan provides nitrogen for subsequent crops.
Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen left in the soil by shallow-rooted crops.
• Several pasture or grazing management methods are available to keep livestock away from water bodies.
In addition to preventing damage to stream banks, fencing can be used to keep livestock from defecating
in or near streams or wells. Fencing designs include standard or conventional (barbed or smooth wire),
suspension, woven wire, and electric fences. Height, size, spacing, and number of wires and posts are a
function of landscape topography as well as the animals of concern. Providing alternative water sources
and hardened stream crossings for use by livestock will lessen their impact on water quality.
3-24
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs)
Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
regulations, concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are defined as
point sources and are subject to permitting where they discharge or have the
potential to discharge pollutants (40 CFR 122.23). EPA regulations define a
CAFO based on the size of the animal feeding operation or its size in
combination with the manner of discharge.
An animal feeding operation can also be designated a CAFO when the permit
authority determines it is a significant source of pollution. A NPDES permit
authorizes, and imposes conditions on, the discharge of pollutants. The permit
must include technology-based limitations and, if necessary, more stringent
water quality-based limitations. EPA has published technology-based
limitations (e.g., effluent guidelines) for feedlots at 40 CFR Part 412. The
guidelines include numeric limits, non-numeric effluent limitations, and
requirements for facilities to use specific BMPs.
EPA published a proposed rule in the Federal Register on January 12, 2001
(66 FR 2960,) that would revise and update both the definition of a CAFO and
the effluent guidelines for feedlots. These revisions seek to address water
quality issues posed by changes in the animal production industry as well as to
more effectively address the land application of CAFO-generated manure and
process wastewater. Additional information on this proposed rule can be
obtained at http://www.epa.gov/npdes/afo.
3-25
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Managing pet
waste
- Clean up waste
- Bury waste
- Keep pets away
from streams
and lakes
The most effective way for pet owners to limit their pet's contribution to source water
contamination is to simply clean up and dispose of pet waste. As long as the droppings are not
mixed with other materials, pet waste should be flushed down the toilet. This allows waste to be
properly treated by a community sewage plant or septic system. Also, pet waste can be buried or
sealed in a plastic bag and put into the garbage if local law allows it.
To bury pet wastes, dig a hole at least one foot deep, and place three to four inches of pet waste at
the bottom. Use a shovel to chop and mix the wastes into the soil at the bottom, then cover the
wastes with at least 8 inches of soil to keep rodents and pets from digging them up. Pet wastes
should only be buried around ornamental plants, and never in vegetable gardens or food-growing
locations.
Pet wastes are not recommended for backyard compost piles. While animal manures can make
useful fertilizer, parasites carried in dog and cat feces can cause diseases in humans and should
not be incorporated into compost piles. Dogs and cats should be kept away from gardens as well.
Pets should not be walked near or allowed to swim in streams, ponds, and lakes. Stream banks
should not be part of the normal territory of animals. Instead, walk pets in grassy areas, parks, or
undeveloped areas. Pet wastes left on sidewalks, streets, or other paved and hard surfaces are
readily carried by storm water into streams. Pet wastes should be kept out of street gutters and
storm drains.
Some more advanced practices that can be adopted in public parks are doggy loos and pooch
patches. Doggy loos are disposal units installed in the ground where decomposition can occur. If
pets are allowed off-leash, they can be trained to defecate on pooch patches, which are sandy
areas designated for that purpose. Special bins can also be provided for the disposal of pet waste.
Wherever pets defecate, whether in public parks or backyards, try to have them use areas of long
grass. This "Long Grass Principle" can be used to prevent source water contamination. Not
only are dogs readily attracted to long grass, but long grass helps to filter pollutants and the feces
can decompose naturally while minimally polluting runoff.
3-26
-------
July 2001
Animal Waste
Snow geese
Wildlife waste
- Harassment
programs
- Reducing
attractiveness of
water supply areas
• While there are a variety of ways to decrease the risk posed by wildlife, by
either removing attractants or harassing nuisance species, any such plans
should only be implemented with a good understanding of the nuisance
wildlife population in question. For example, Federal or State permits may be
required for wildlife control harassment programs; additionally some nuisance
species, such as Canada geese, are protected by Federal law and harming the
birds or their eggs may result in stiff penalties. Consult fish and wildlife
agencies regarding the handling of protected species.
• Harassment programs can be implemented to repel birds and wildlife from
valuable surface waters. These include habitat modification, decoys, eagle
kites, noisemakers, scarecrows or pyrotechnics, plastic owls, dog hazing, and
deterrent wires strung across the water source. A daily human presence can
keep birds and other wild species away.
• Reducing the attractiveness of water supply areas to wildlife may encourage
these species to live elsewhere. Diverting species from sensitive areas can be
accomplished using shoreline fencing, mowing, landscaping changes, tree
pruning (to reduce bird roosting), or drainage devices (to keep beavers and
muskrats from building dams and dens). For example, converting large grassy
areas, such as corporate lawns, to native vegetation may make these areas less
attractive to Canada geese.
• Keep food sources to a minimum by prohibiting feeding by the public,
removing trash, securing poultry, livestock, and pet feed, and reducing
palatable plant species.
3-27
-------
July 2001
Agricultural Fertilizer
Application
Fertilizer spreader
Time nitrogen
fertilizer
applications for
maximum uptake
To minimize
phosphorus runoff,
control erosion
and apply
phosphorus based
on soil tests
Fertilizer application is required to replace cropland nutrients that have been
consumed by previous plant growth. It is essential for economic yields.
However, excess fertilizer use and poor application methods can cause
fertilizer movement into ground and surface waters. While fertilizer
efficiency has increased, it is estimated that about 25 percent of all preplant
nitrogen applied to com is lost through leaching (entering ground water as
nitrate) or denitrification (entering the atmosphere as nitrogen gas).
The two main components of fertilizer that are of greatest concern to source
water quality are nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P). Nitrogen is used to
promote green, leafy, vegetative growth in plants. Phosphorus promotes root
growth, root branching, stem growth, flowering, fruiting, seed formation, and
maturation.
Time nitrogen fertilizer applications to coincide as closely as possible to the
period of maximum crop uptake. Fertilizer applied in the fall has been shown
to cause ground water degradation in areas with high precipitation in the fall
and winter. Partial application of fertilizer in the spring, followed by small
additional applications as needed, can improve nitrogen uptake and reduce
leaching.
Phosphorus fertilizer is less subject to leaching, but loss through surface runoff
is more common. To minimize losses of phosphorus fertilizer, applications
should only be made when needed (e.g., determined through soil testing) and
at recommended rates.
The use of organic nutrient sources, such as manure, can supply all or part of
the nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs for crop production. However,
like inorganic fertilizers, organic fertilizers can also cause excessive nutrient
loads if improperly applied.
3-28
-------
July 2001
Agricultural Fertilizer
Application
Use proper
application rates
Correctly place
fertilizer
Calibrate
application
equipment
Wheat-corn-fallow rotation
One component of a comprehensive nutrient management plan is to determine proper fertilizer
application rates. The goal is to limit fertilizer to an amount necessary to achieve a realistic yield
goal for the crop. Soil sampling and crediting other sources are part of the concept. Yearly soil
sampling is necessary for determining plant nutrient needs and making accurate fertilizer
recommendations. More accurate fertilizer recommendations are made by crediting other sources
that contribute nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil. Previous legume crops, irrigation water, manure,
and organic matter all contribute nitrogen to the soil, while organic matter and manure contribute
phosphorus.
Nitrogen fertilizers come in several different forms and applying the appropriate form can reduce
leaching.
Inspect fertilizer application equipment at least once annually. Application equipment must also be
properly calibrated to insure that the recommended amount of fertilizer is spread.
As with all chemicals, closdy follow label directions for storing and mixing fertilizer and for
disposing empty containers. Permanent fertilizer storage and mixing sites need to be protected from
spills, leaks, or storm water infiltration. Storage buildings should have impermeable floors and be
securely locked. Impermeable secondary containment dikes can also be used to contain liquid spills
or leaks. Fertilizer must not be stored in underground containers or pits.
To prevent accidental contamination of water supplies, mix, handle, and store fertilizers away from
wellheads and surface water bodies. Ideally, producers should mix and load fertilizers at the
application spot. Spills must be recovered immediately and reused or properly disposed of. Granular
absorbent material can be used at the mixing site to clean up small liquid spills.
Irrigation water should be managed to maximize efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching.
Irrigated crop production has the greatest potential for source water contamination because of the
large amount of water applied. Both nitrogen and phosphorus can leach into ground water or run off
into surface water when excess water is applied to fields. Irrigation systems, such as sprinklers, low-
energy precision applications, surges, and drips, allow producers to apply water uniformly and with
great efficiency. Efficiency can also be improved by using delivery systems such as lined ditches and
gated pipe, as well as reuse systems such as field drainage recovery ponds that efficiently capture
sediment and nutrients. Gravity-controlled irrigation or furrow runs should be shortened to prevent
over watering at the top of the furrow before the lower end is adequately watered.
3-29
-------
July 2001
Agricultural Fertilizer
Application
Use environmentally-
friendly farming
techniques
- Crop rotation
- Buffer and filter strips
- Conservation tillage
- Laser-controlled land
leveling
- Precision agriculture
No tillage wheat farming
• Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and economic benefits by minimizing fertilizer and
pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop rotation plan provides nitrogen for subsequent crops.
Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen left in the soil by shallow-rooted crops. Cover
crops stop wind and water erosion, and can use residual nitrogen in the soil.
• A complete system is needed to reduce fertilizer loss. Components of this system often include farming
practices that are not strictly related to fertilizer, such as conservation tillage and buffers.
• Creating buffer strips or filter strips can impede runoff and help filter nitrogen and phosphorus from
runoff (see slides #3-5 to 3-7 for more information).
• Conservation tillage is another field management method used to reduce runoff. In conservation tillage,
crops are grown with minimal cultivation of the soil. When the amount of tillage is reduced, the plant
residues are not completely incorporated and most or all remain on top of the soil. This practice is critical
to reducing phosphorus losses because the residue provides cover and thereby reduces nutrient runoff
and erosion by water.
• A high-tech way to level or grade a field is to use laser-controlled land leveling equipment. Field
leveling helps to control water advance and improve uniformity of soil saturation in gravity-flow
irrigation systems. This improves irrigation efficiency and reduces the potential for nutrient pollution
through runoff.
• Precision agriculture is a suite of information technologies used to monitor and manage sub-field spatial
variability. Variable rate application of seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, and irrigation water can enhance
producers' profits and reduce the risk to the environment from agricultural production by tailoring
chemical use and application more closely to ideal plant growth and management needs.
• Components of a comprehensive precision farming system typically include intensively testing soils or
plant tissues within a field; equipment for locating position within a field with the Global Positioning
System (GPS); a yield monitor; a computer to store and manipulate spatial data using Geographic
Information System (GIS) software; and a variable-rate applicator. More involved systems may also use
remote sensing from satellite, aerial, or near-ground imaging platforms during the growing season to
detect and treat areas of a field that may need more nutrients.
• Precision farming has the potential to reduce off-site transport of agricultural chemicals from surface
runoff, subsurface drainage, and leaching. Two years of Kansas field data indicate less total nitrogen
fertilizer use with precision farming than with conventional nitrogen management.
• Several organizations can provide advice to help you select appropriate management practices in
agricultural situations. Within the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the Natural Resources Conservation
Service and the Cooperative State Research, Education and Extension Service, can provide assistance.
Local soil and water conservation districts can also help.
3-30
-------
July 2001
Turf Grass and Garden
Fertilizer Application
The care of landscaped areas can contribute to the pollution of storm water and
ground water. Heavily landscaped areas include residential yards, commercial
lawns, golf courses, ball fields, and parks. The soil in many of these areas
requires frequent fertilization to maintain its turf grass. Because excess
fertilizer use and poor application methods can cause fertilizer movement into
sources of drinking water, the increased application of lawn and garden
fertilizers in recent years has raised concern over the pollution of surface water
and ground water.
Fertilizer applications should be based on soil tests to avoid the economic and
environmental costs that can be incurred with excess fertilizer use. A soil test
will show the levels of phosphorus and potassium present in the lawn;
however, soil tests for nitrogen are rare. Samples can be tested using readily
available field kits or submitted to a private laboratory or cooperative
extension service for testing and interpretation.
3-31
-------
July 2001
Turf Grass and Garden
Fertilizer Application
Composting can supply nutrients to the soil
Selecting the appropriate fertilizer is the next crucial step after receiving soil testing
results. Most homeowners use blended fertilizers that list percentages of nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium in the fertilizer. For example, a 100-pound bag of 10-5-10
would contain ten pounds of nitrogen, five pounds of phosphorus, and ten pounds of
potassium. If the soil test shows phosphorus is high, then a fertilizer with a low
percentage of phosphorus should be chosen (such as 20-0-10 or 24-3-8). Most lawns
contain adequate phosphorus, and continuous use of fertilizers high in phosphorus can
result in excessive buildups of phosphorus. These lawns are more likely to contribute
high levels of phosphorus to surface water during storm runoff events. The use of
organic nutrient sources, such as manure, can supply all or part of the nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium needs for turfgrass and gardens. However, organic
fertilizers can also cause excessive nutrient loads if improperly applied.
To help maintain a healthy lawn it is best to mow frequently at a height of 2.5 to 3
inches. Grass clippings should remain on the lawn to decompose and recycle
nutrients back to the lawn. By leaving grass clippings on the lawn, nitrogen
applications can be reduced by 30 to 40 percent.
Wherever possible, plant low maintenance, native plants and grasses (for example,
xeriscaping is a landscaping method to minimize the use of water in dry climates) to
minimize the use of fertilizer. Plants that are adapted to the local soils require less
fertilization and watering. In fact, these practices can reduce required lawn
maintenance up to 50 percent.
The use of an appropriate form of nitrogen fertilizer can reduce the potential for
leaching and runoff problems. Quick-release fertilizers should be used on heavy clay
or compacted soils, because the longer a fertilizer granule remains intact, the greater
the chances it will be washed away into surface water. On sandy soils, however,
nitrogen can leach through the soil quickly. On these soils, slow-release nitrogen
sources provide soluble nitrogen over a period of time so a large concentration of
nitrogen is not made available for leaching.
3-32
-------
July 2001
Turf Grass and Garden
Fertilizer Application
Calibrate
equipment
Properly apply
fertilizer
Irrigate after
application
Follow label
directions
While the proper time of year to fertilize varies by location, applying a
smaller amount of fertilizer at a higher frequency is often best. Ideally
fertilizer application should be timed to coincide as closely as possible to the
period of maximum uptake and growth.
Core compacted soil before applying fertilizer to insure incorporation. In all
types of soil, it is always best to incorporate organic fertilizers into the lawn.
When the phosphorus in organic fertilizer remains on top of the soil it has an
increased chance of washing away during heavy rains. Fertilizer should never
be applied to frozen ground, and also should be limited on slopes and areas
with high runoff or overland flow.
It is important to irrigate 'A to 'A inch of water immediately after application
of phosphorus or water-soluble nitrogen fertilizer. Afterwards, the key is to
add only enough water to compensate for that removed by plant uptake and
evaporation; this will minimize potential pollution problems from runoff and
leaching.
To ensure the proper amount of fertilizer is applied, properly calibrate
spreaders. As spreaders get older, settings gradually change because of wear
and tear. Regular cleaning and lubrication of the spreader will help it perform
properly.
Buffer strips or filter strips can be created to slow runoff and help filter
nitrogen and phosphorus from runoff (see slides #5-7 for more information).
Follow label directions when storing and handling fertilizer and disposing of
empty containers. Stored fertilizer should be kept covered and on pallets to
keep precipitation off and to reduce the possibility of water damage.
Spreaders should be filled on hard or paved surfaces where spills can be
cleaned up mechanically - sweeping or scooping up the spilled granules.
3-33
-------
July 2001
Large-Scale Pesticide
Application
Spraying cotton in Mississippi
Pesticides (including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides) contain a variety of chemicals
used to control pests, insects, and weeds. They are used in a variety of applications to reduce
damage to plants by insects and other pests, and to control overgrowth of undesirable plant
species.
Pesticides are applied to crops by aerial spraying, topsoil application (granular, dust or liquid
formulations, or spray using truck or tractor-mounted equipment), soil injection, soil
incorporation, or irrigation. Aerial spraying and topsoil application pose the greatest risks for
pesticides to enter surface water bodies from runoff. Soil injection and incorporation pose the
greatest likelihood for ground water contamination because pesticides placed in the soil are
subject to leaching. The application of pesticides through irrigation (chemigation) can also
cause ground water contamination; for example, an imgation pump may fail while the
pesticide-metering equipment continues to operate and cause highly concentrated pesticide
levels to be applied to a field. Pesticides can reach ground water through drains, sink holes,
and other conduits as well.
Excess rain or irrigation water can wash pesticides from plants and soil. This can, in turn, run
off into streams. Pesticides can leach into the soil if plants are watered or rainfall occurs soon
after application. Some pesticides resist degradation by microbes in the soil and will
eventually leach into the ground water.
Pesticides contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds. By nature, they are
poisonous, and while they can be safely used if manufacturers' usage directions are followed,
they can, if mismanaged, seep into surface water and ground water supplies. They can be
difficult and expensive to remove, and, if inhaled or consumed, be hazardous to human health.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) involves the carefully managed use of three different pest
control tactics - biological, cultural, and chemical - to get the best long-term results with the
least disruption of the environment. Biological control means using natural enemies of the
pest, like lady bugs to control aphids. Cultural or horticultural control involves the use of
gardening methods, like mowing high to shade out weeds. Chemical control involves the
judicious use of pesticides.
If pesticides must be used, proper handling and application according to the EPA-approved
label are essential. Select an effective pesticide for the intended use and, where possible, use
products that pose lower human and environmental risks. Read the pesticide label for
guidance on required setbacks from water, buildings, wetlands, wildlife habitats, and other
sensitive areas where applications are prohibited.
3-34
-------
July 2001
Large-Scale Pesticide
Application
Integrated Pest
Management
combines three pest
control tactics
- Biological
- Cultural or
horticultural
- Chemical
The leaf beetle Diorhabda elongata;
first approved biological control
agent for salt cedar in the US
Never start an application if a significant weather event such as rainfall is forecast; the rainfall may
cause drift or soil runoff at the application site. Pesticide application just before rainfall or irrigation
may result in reduced efficacy if the pesticide is washed off the target crop, resulting in the need to
reapply the pesticide.
Crop rotation reduces pesticide use by breaking the pest cycle. As crops are rotated, pests such as
insects and weeds cannot adapt to the changes in nutrient sources. Insects will move to another
location where they can find food. Weeds will become dormant until the right condition returns.
Pesticide rotation reduces the risk of pest-resistant pesticides. As pesticides are used year after year,
pests will develop immunities to the pesticide, requiring increased application of pesticides to get the
same result.
Soil incorporation involves placing the pesticide into the top two inches of soil by tillage, where it
is less likely to be removed by surface runoff. Incorporation can reduce runoff by as much as two-
thirds compared to surface application.
Timing of the application of pesticides is important. Early pre-plant application is the application
of pesticides before the plant emerges from the soil. This application, using less than the labeled
rate, can reduce potential pesticide runoff by up to one-half. When used in early April, pre-plant
applications can provide effective control and the applied pesticides will be less vulnerable to spring
and early summer runoff. If additional control is needed with a pre-emerge or post-emerge product,
spot treatment should be practiced.
Post-emergence application is the application of pesticides after the plant emerges from the soil.
Post-emergence application of pesticides should be done during low periods of rainfall. Post-
emergence application can reduce pesticide runoff because a much smaller amount of pesticide (as
compared to the labeled rate) is applied.
Split application, with one-half to two-thirds of the pesticide applied prior to planting and one-half
to one-third applied at planting, can reduce pesticide runoff by up to one-third. If good weed control
is achieved with the pre-emergence application, the post-emergence application may not be
necessary.
3-35
-------
July 2001
Large-Scale Pesticide
Application
Ultra low volume herbicide application
Pesticide storage is key to preventing ground water contamination. If pesticides are stored in intact
containers in a secure, properly constructed location, pesticide storage poses little danger to ground
water. Some States, including Maryland, New Hampshire, North Carolina and Washington, have
regulations on the storage of small quantities of pesticides. Nearly half the States have regulations
for the storage of large tanks of pesticides. Secondary containment, such as an impermeable
(waterproof) floor with a curb and walls around the storage area, will minimize pesticide seepage
into the ground or spreading to other areas if a liquid pesticide storage tank leaks. The capacity of
liquid tank secondary containment should be sufficient to contain the volume of the largest tank.
Dry pesticides should be protected from precipitation. An operator should always be present when
pesticide is being transferred.
Proper mixing and loading practices can also prevent contamination of ground water and surface
water by pesticides. Mixing and loading on an impermeable concrete surface allows most spilled
pesticides to be recovered and reused. The impermeable surface, or pad, should be kept clean and
large enough to hold wash water from the cleaning of equipment, and to keep spills from moving
off-site during transfer of chemicals to the sprayer or spreader. Ideally, the pad should slope to a
liquid-tight sump that can be pumped out when spills occur.
Improper disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination. To prevent
ground water contamination, use returnable containers and take them back to the dealer as often as
possible. Pressure-rinse or triple-rinse nonreturnable containers immediately after use, since residue
can be difficult to remove after it dries, and pour the into the spray tank. Puncture nonreturnable
containers and store them in a covered area until they can be taken to a container recycling program
or a permitted landfill. Contact the Ag Container Recycling Council at www.acrecycle.org or 877-
952-2272 for more on a recycling program near you. Shake out bags, bind or wrap them to
minimize dust, and take them to a permitted landfill. Do not bury or burn pesticide containers or
bags on private property.
3-36
-------
July 2001
Small-Scale Pesticide
Application
Select disease-
resistant plants
Use plant
management
techniques
Use natural
biological controls
and manual control
activities
Pesticides are also used in a variety of smaller applications to control insects and other pests, and to
control overgrowth of undesirable plant species. They are used by homeowners and lawn care
companies for lawn care and gardening activities. Many homeowners plant non-native plant species
that require pesticides, fertilizers, and watering to keep them healthy.
Commercial establishments such as golf courses and cemeteries, and recreational areas such as parks
and other open spaces use pesticides for similar purposes. Shorter grasses typical of golf courses are
less resistant to insects and require application of pesticides to keep them healthy. Pesticides are also
used to maintain lawns in cemeteries and commercial areas. Herbicides are used along roadways and
transportation and utility corridors to limit vegetation growth and increase visibility for drivers or
access to power lines.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) applies to small-scale use of pesticides as well as large-scale
usage.
* Select healthy seeds and seedlings that are known to resist diseases and are suited to the
climate.
* Alternate your plants each year. Insects will move to another location where they can find
nutrients, and weeds will remain dormant until their nutrient source is replenished.
^ Manual activities such as spading, hoeing, hand-picking weeds and pests, setting traps, and
mulching are all good ways to get rid of pests without using pesticides.
^ Proper plant management can improve plant health and reduce the need for pesticides. Use
mowing and watering techniques that maintain a healthy lawn and minimize the need for
chemical treatment. Maintain proper drainage and aeration to encourage the growth of
microbes that can degrade pesticides. Reduce watering to control seepage of pesticides to the
ground water; this effort conserves water and reduces runoff.
^ Use of biological controls reduces the need for chemical pesticides. Plants that attract
predatory species, such as birds and bats, can enhance landscaping and naturally reduce pests.
3-37
-------
July 2001
Small-Scale Pesticide
Application
Pesticide Label Example
ZAPPO
by M.
s.CouUon:
-48* KMpnlolnMhotcrMnii.
tlMCMMittB).
-UK Man
_1TK raid
DfeMd «mr Wb hue* ApWx
Ifed JpUM MUM, Ha, Uatr
BagiudSDlkl.
ortafeM om»tw. Oo not put
food of wiik cont%lnf>
DkKtfariK Spny *•"•**» on WuMftel putt, ftp** w Me.
•HUT. HeuMtaM PMB (HoichM. Mh fM= 2 tiblnimm p«
grtu el MM. 8pny on KM taqunM by Imca. Add oonnlcw-
ton of tad, dWm, MMfc vtf «*r. ftapal n mcMwy. Via*
Uktec (Bmmt, BIUM| Bum*, dung*, CwMMr. fefc. Bern.
Pw, PMBM): t1Mt> p« g*n mw. Oo nM iprtr to Bmral Md
PW« «•»* 3 dm it torn* M) B Bniwl fcrtu* Ubtng*,
Kih «IMi 7 MX mlrlo Bum
•«* 1 dqr m tan«i»ipot or ipni nkt.
AMid camfl «tt Me Mdi «n Bid hanti tnmqMr al)»
Mllte msm *j. M pabaMaa, •eon, UB > |>hy«|.
d» unuouuir. MM » Ptqntelm; EmBmr Wonwfen-eat
Da net g*>, pen, IBM er «tof« M«r MM «f ae«n IMU.
fc« load pupoui atar •».•» pgcfid*. Oo no)
OiipiMelcanWMf ««M«mp«. INi padiilfrikiML KMpeulef
an, bgd> ol ««i». Do not cottontail mtor by duaing ot mnlgaMt
or t»|mil of onto. Apply fete produrt wly •> (DMlIM PO Ikto
U1UL TNk pratuo fe MgNy ndc u DM*. Pnmdlm tofotroiton mqr te
NOTICE Burv ttMMM it i»*ara*a>y hr aM/ «nd «M not to
PndUd 1223J44 CM Rip. No. 0000 8PA EU111-324
ChKBlu Ch«oW Cor^»n». 100 Uiki Sual. bttttto*. MO C4U1
Proper application of pesticides reduces the amount of chemicals applied to
the ground and saves landowners money by reducing the amount of pesticides
purchased. Read the label for usage, disposal, and emergency information.
Calibrate application equipment, follow pesticide manufacturers' directions,
and select leaching-resistant or "slow release" pesticides. Application as
large droplets could prevent pesticide losses due to wind dispersion. Mix and
load pesticides only over impervious surfaces, such as cement, that do not
contain floor drains or storm water drain inlets.
Pesticides should not be applied immediately before or after a rainfall. The
rainfall may cause surface runoff at the application site. Pesticide applications
just before rainfall also result in reduced efficacy as the pesticide is washed off
the target plant, resulting in the need to reapply the pesticide. Also, the soil
removed by the runoff can carry the pesticide to the local storm water drain,
and contaminate local source waters.
Proper storage is important in preventing both surface water and ground water
contamination. Store pesticides in intact containers in a shed or covered
structure on an impermeable surface such as concrete. You must follow
directions for storage on pesticide labels, although the directions are usually
general, such as "Do not contaminate food or feed by storage of disposal." Do
not store pesticides in areas prone to flooding. Keep pesticides in their
original containers; if the label is unreadable, properly dispose of the product.
3-38
-------
July 2001
Small-Scale Pesticide
Application
Lady bugs are a
natural biological
control for aphids
Spill clean up is another important protection measure. Promptly sweep up dry
spills and reuse the pesticides as intended; dry spills are usually easier to clean. For
liquid spills, recover as much of the spill as possible and reuse it as intended. It may
be necessary to remove some contaminated soil. Have cat litter or other absorptive
materials available to absorb unrecovered liquid from the floor. Be sure to have an
emergency contact number to call for help, if necessary. Be sure to check the label
for proper handling of the chemicals.
Disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination if the
containers are not stored or cleaned properly. Chemical residues from these
containers can leak onto the ground. Homeowners and other users may have smaller
quantities of pesticides and empty containers and different disposal options than
farmers.
* Homeowners usually use nonreturnable containers, and have the option of
participating in their local community household hazardous waste collection
events. Partially-full and empty containers may be given to household
hazardous waste collection. Homeowners should only triple rinse pesticide
containers if they are able to use the rinse water immediately, e.g., on plants
that require pesticides. Rinse water should never be disposed down a drain or
into a sewer system. Recycle plastic and metal containers whenever possible,
keeping in mind that non-hazardous container recycling programs may refuse
to take pesticide containers. Empty containers may be disposed in regular trash.
Shake out bags, bind or wrap them to minimize dust, and put them in regular
trash. Do not bury or burn pesticide containers or bags on private property.
Homeowners may give unused pesticides to a neighbor rather than throw them
away.
3-39
-------
July 2001
Combined and Sanitary
Sewer Overflows
Combined sewer overflow
Combined sewer outlet
Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage from municipal
sanitary sewer systems from broken pipes, equipment failure, or system overload.
Combined sewer overflows (CSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage and storm water
from municipal sewer systems or treatment plants when the volume of wastewater
exceeds the system's capacity due to periods of heavy rainfall or snow melt. The
untreated sewage can be discharged directly into surface waters including streams, lakes,
rivers, or estuaries.
SSOs and CSOs can carry bacteria, viruses, protozoa (parasitic organisms), helminths
(intestinal worms), and inhaled molds and fungi directly into source water, and can
cause diseases that range in severity from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening
ailments such as cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, and severe gastroenteritis.
People can be exposed to the contaminant from sewage in drinking water sources, and
through direct contact in areas of high public access such as basements, lawns or streets,
or water used for recreation.
Monitoring and maintenance programs are key in preventing SSOs and CSOs.
Sanitary sewer collection system operators should visually inspect and monitor their
sewer lines, service connections, and sewer line joints regularly and develop and use a
maintenance plan. Maintenance programs should also include cleaning sewer lines,
connections, and pumps. If trash and sediments build up in the sewer lines, they will
block the sewage from flowing to the collection system or treatment plant.
Employee training is an important tool for preventing contamination from sewer
overflows. Employees should be trained on how to run the equipment and shut it down,
if necessary, to prevent overflows. Employees should have access to and knowledge of
contingency and emergency response plans. If there is an incident, they should know to
notity public water suppliers. They should be aware of any potential for overflow
events and be prepared to take appropriate action to prevent sewage from entering
source water.
3-40
-------
July 2001
Combined and Sanitary
Sewer Overflows
Sanitary sewer overflow
Public education involves informing the community and developers of how sewer overflows occur,
and what they can do to prevent them. Developers should be aware of the sewer collection design
capacity, and plan accordingly. As new communities are developed, the additional sewage can
overload the collection system. Developers should check to make sure the new sewer lines are
compatible with the existing sewer system. If the lines do not fit the joints, then the sewage can leak
out of the system, or rain water or snow melt can infiltrate the cracked lines and cause overflows.
Developers should also make sure that sewer lines are not placed near trees; the roots can grow into
the sewer lines and crack them. The community can help prevent overflows by conserving water
and flushing only appropriate items.
Incorporating system upgrades is another viable option, but this can be very expensive. As sewer
systems become older, sewer lines and connections have to be repaired or replaced. Equipment
also has to be replaced or updated as new technology becomes available. As new communities are
developed, new sewer lines will be added to the collection system. Eventually the sewer system will
reach its design capacity and will have to expand or a new collection system will have to be built.
Adding a "wet weather" storage facility such as an overflow retention basin to sewer collection
system will reduce SSOs and CSOs by capturing and storing excess flow. The stored volumes of
sewage and storm water are released to the waste water treatment plant after the wet weather event
has subsided and the treatment plant capacity has been restored.
Eliminating direct pathways of sewage overflows to source water is an effective measure to prevent
contamination. Regrading areas around pump stations and "vulnerable" manholes can divert
overflow sewage from entering surface water directly. In addition, plugging storm water drainage
wells (i.e., drywells used to discharge storm water underground) in the vicinity of pump stations and
manholes would eliminate conduits for sewage overflow to enter the ground water.
CSO control technologies include a number of engineering methods such as deep tunnel storage, in-
system control/in-line storage, off-line near-surface storage/sedimentation, vortex technologies, and
disinfection. In urban areas, where space constraints are severe, deep tunnel storage can be a viable
option for managing CSOs. In-line storage, along with control strategies, can be used to maximize
the flows to treatment plants. Vortex separators regulate flow and cause solids to separate out from
the combined flow, therefore allowing clarified flow to be discharged to surface water. Disinfection
using liquid hypochlonte is the most common practice in treating CSOs, and alternatives such as
ultraviolet light, ozone, or gaseous chlorine are also available.
3-41
-------
July 2001
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
21 million gallons
of deicing/anti-
icing fluid are
discharged to
surface waters
annually.
Aircraft surfaces must be deiced and anti-iced to ensure the safety of passengers. Paved areas on airfields must
also be kept ice-free. However, prevention measures are necessary to ensure that deicing operations do not
contaminate drinking water sources.
The most common technique for aircraft deicing/anti-icing is the application of chemical deicing/anti-icing
fluids (ADF), which are composed primarily of ethylene or propylene glycol. Deicing/anti-icing fluids also
contain additives, such as corrosion inhibitors, flame retardants, wetting agents, and thickeners that protect
aircraft surfaces and allow ADF to cling to the aircraft, resulting in longer holdover times (the time between
application and takeoff during which ice or snow is prevented from adhering to aircraft surfaces).
Chemicals commonly used for deicing/anti-icing of paved areas include ethylene or propylene glycol, urea,
potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate, calcium magnesium acetate (CMA), or an ethylene glycol-
based fluid known as UCAR (containing ethylene glycol, urea, and water). Sand and salt may also be used.
EPA estimates that 21 million gallons of ADF are discharged to surface waters annually across the country, and
an additional 2 million gallons are discharged to publicly owned treatment works (POTWs). Unless captured for
recycling, recovery, or treatment, deicing agents will run off onto the ground where they may travel through the
soil and enter ground water, or run off into streams. Unprotected storm water drains that discharge to surface
water or directly to the subsurface are also of concern.
Ethylene and propylene glycol can have harmful effects on aquatic life due to their high biological oxygen
demand. Depletion of oxygen, fish kills, and undesirable bacterial growth in receiving waters may result.
Although pure ethylene and propylene glycols have low aquatic toxicity, ethylene glycol exhibits toxicity in
mammals, including humans (with the potential to cause health problems such as neurological, cardiovascular,
and gastrointestinal problems, senous birth defects, and even death when ingested in large doses).
Additives in deicing/anti-icing fluids can be significantly more toxic to the aquatic environment than glycols
alone. Corrosion inhibitors are highly reactive with each other and with glycols; reactions can produce highly
toxic byproducts. Additives such as wetting agents, flame retardants, pH buffers, and dispersing agents also
exhibit high aquatic and mammalian toxicities.
Sodium chloride (salt) is applied to paved surfaces to prevent icing. Sodium can contribute to cardiovascular,
kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure. Chloride adds a salty taste to water and
corrodes pipes.
3-42
-------
July 2001
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
Infra-red deicing system.
?'
Alternative airfield deicing products such as potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate,
potassium formate, or CMA instead of urea or glycol deicers have lower toxicities, are readily
biodegradable, and have a lower BOD in the environment. Many of these products can be applied
using the same mechanical spreaders used for urea or spray booms used for glycol-based fluids.
A
Reducing Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluid Usage on Aircraft
• Mechanical deicing technologies eliminate the need for deicing fluids and reduce the need for anti-
icing fluid. Below are some examples of newer technology.
> Boot deicing works by inflating a rubber boot located on the leading edge of an aircraft wing.
When inflated, the boot causes ice to crack and become dislodged from the surface. Passing air
blows the ice away. This method is used primarily on propeller-driven aircraft.
> For small aircraft, infra-red deicing systems use natural-gas-fired radiant heaters inside a drive-
through hanger.
* Electrical resistive heating can remove ice from the surface of small to medium sized aircraft.
By applying resistive heating to heating mats located near the skin of an aircraft, ice is melted
and is easily dislodged from aircraft surfaces.
^ Hot air blast deicing systems use heated compressed air to blow snow and ice off of aircraft
wings. This may be followed by conventional deicing/anti-icing.
• A computerized spraying system to apply deicing chemicals may reduce the use of deicing/anti-icing
fluids. These systems can reduce both the volume of deicing fluid used and the time needed for
deicing, and increase the collection efficiency of runoff. These "car-wash" style systems can be
operated by personnel with a minimum of training. This option may be cost-prohibitive for smaller
airports, and in some cases, planes may need additional deicing using traditional means (trucks or fixed
booms) to deice engine inlets, undercarriages, or the underside of aircraft wings.
,<
3-43
-------
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
Infra-red deicing system.
Alternative airfield deicing products such as potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate,
potassium formate, or CMA instead of urea or glycol deicers have lower toxicities, are readily
biodegradable, and have a lower BOD in the environment. Many of these products can be applied
using the same mechanical spreaders used for urea or spray booms used for glycol-based fluids.
Reducing Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluid Usage on Aircraft
Mechanical deicing technologies eliminate the need for deicing fluids and reduce the need for anti-
icing fluid. Below are some examples of newer technology.
Boot deicing works by inflating a rubber boot located on the leading edge of an aircraft wing.
When inflated, the boot causes ice to crack and become dislodged from the surface. Passing air
blows the ice away. This method is used primarily on propeller-driven aircraft.
For small aircraft, infra-red deicing systems use natural-gas-fired radiant heaters inside a
drive-through hanger.
Electrical resistive heating can remove ice from the surface of small to medium sized aircraft.
By applying resistive heating to heating mats located near the skin of an aircraft, ice is melted
and is easily dislodged from aircraft surfaces.
Hot air blast deicing systems use heated compressed air to blow snow and ice off of aircraft
wings. This may be followed by conventional deicing/anti-icing.
A computerized spraying system to apply deicing chemicals may reduce the use of deicing/anti-icing
fluids. These systems can reduce both the volume of deicing fluid used and the time needed for
deicing, and increase the collection efficiency of runoff. These "car-wash" style systems can bo
operated by personnel with a minimum of training. This option may be cost-prohibitive for smaller
airports, and in some cases, planes may need additional deicing using traditional means (trucks or fixed
booms) to deice engine inlets, undercarriages, or the underside of aircraft wings.
3-44
-------
July 2001
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
Disposal of spent fluid:
Deicing pads
Vacuum sweeper trucks
Detention basins
Bioremediation systems
Transport to a POTW
Collection and Disposal of Spent Fluid to Reduce Runoff
• Centralized deicingpads restrict aircraft deicing to a small area, minimizing the volume and allowing
for the capture of deicing waste. A deicing pad is specially graded to capture and route contaminated
runoff to tanks. If the pads are located near gate areas or at the head of runways, deicing may be
completed just prior to takeoff; as a result, less Type IV anti-icing fluid may be necessary. In addition,
the fluids recovered from deicing pads may be suitable for reuse.
• Vacuum sweeper trucks collect spent aircraft and airfield deicing fluids as well as any slush or snow
from gate areas, ramps, aircraft parking areas, taxiways, and aircraft holding pads. The recovered fluid
may be suitable for recycling.
• Detention basins or constructed wetlands are open-water ponds that collect ADF runoff from runways
and airport grounds. Basins allow solids to settle, and reduce oxygen demand before the runoff is
discharged to receiving waters. A pump station can discharge metered runoff by way of an airport
storm sewer.
• Anaerobic bioremediation systems, in conjunction with sewage treatment plants or detention basins,
can be an effective means to dispose of glycol-contammated runoff. Bioremediation systems generally
consist of a runoff collection and storage system, an anaerobic bioreactor treatment system (one that
requires little or no oxygen), and a gas/heat recovery system. These systems can reduce oxygen
demand levels sufficiently to permit unrestricted disposal to a sewage treatment plant. Additionally,
these systems can remove additives from runoff. An economic benefit to the anaerobic process is that
it converts glycol in runoff to methane gas that can be used for heating.
• Transport of spent fluid to a sewage treatment plant by way of a sanitary sewer is almost always the
most economical method of treating deieing fluid, provided that sufficient biological loading capacity
is available at the treatment plant. However, many sewage treatment plants will only accept limited
quantities of glycol-contaminated runoff; check with the appropriate local agency to verify applicable
regulations. Airport maintenance crews should not assume that storm drains are routed to a sanitary
sewer. They should he knowledgeable about which drains or collection systems discharge directly to
surface waters or to the subsurface, e.g., through a dry well.
3-45
-------
July 2001
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES)
Underground Injection Control (UIC)
Program
Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permitting Program, airports are
required to obtain permit coverage for storm water discharges from vehicle maintenance, equipment
cleaning operations, and airport deicing operations. While specific permit conditions vary from state-
to-state, in general, NPDES storm water permits require airports to develop and implement Storm
Water Pollution Prevention Plans (SWPPPs) that include the following elements:
* Description of potential pollutant sources and a site map indicating the locations of aircraft and
runway deicing/anti-icing operations and identification of any pollutant or pollutant parameter of
concern.
^ Description of storm water discharge management controls appropriate for each area of
operation.
* Consideration of alternatives to glycol- and urea- based deicing/anti-icing chemicals to reduce
the aggregate amount of deicing chemicals used and/or lessen the environmental impact.
* Evaluation of whether deicing/anti-icing over-application is occurring and adjustment as
necessary.
^ Employee training on topics such as spill response, good housekeeping, and material
management practices for all personnel that work in the deicing/anti-icing area.
Many NPDES storm water permits issued to airports also require monitoring to evaluate the
effectiveness of storm water controls in preventing deicing/anti-icing activities from impacting
receiving water quality. For example, monitoring requirements for airport deicing/anti-icing activities
in EPA's Multi-Sector General Permit include monthly inspections of existing storm water controls
during the deicing season (weekly if large quantities of deicing chemicals are being spilled or
discharged), quarterly visual monitoring of storm water discharges, and periodic effluent monitoring.
Storm water that discharges directly to the subsurface by way of dry wells, drain fields, or any other
type of distribution system is subject to Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program requirements.
These types of drainage systems are regulated as Class V injection wells and operators should contact
their state or federal UIC Program authority for information on applicable regulations.
3-46
-------
July 2001
Aircraft and
Airfield Deicing
Recycling ofglycol from spent deicing/anti-icing fluid decreases the amount that
reaches and potentially impairs surface and ground waters. The recycling process
consists of several steps including filtration, reverse osmosis, and distillation to
recover glycol from spent deicing fluid. Technology is available to recycle fluids
containing at least 5 percent glycol. Glycol recycling reduces the amount and strength
of wastewater, reducing wastewater disposal costs. In addition, the recovered glycol
may be sold; the value of recovered glycol depends on the type ofglycol and its
concentration and purity. Recent developments have made on-site recycling successful
at smaller airports; however the volume of fluid used at very small airports may still
be insufficient to make recycling economically viable at these facilities.
Employee training is an important tool in reducing contaminated runoff. Deicing
personnel receive eight hours of FAA-mandated training, but industry sources state
that three years of experience is required to become adept at aircraft deicing.
Personnel should be trained on proper application techniques and best management
practices, and be informed of the presence of any sensitive water areas nearby.
Properly trained personnel will also use less deicing/anti-icing fluid, saving money
and reducing contamination.
Monitor ground water quality and identify the direction of ground water movement
on-site through the creation of a water table map. Once the direction of ground water
flow is known, annual monitoring up gradient and down gradient of deicing areas
should provide early detection of deicing fluid contamination and other harmful
impacts.
3-47
-------
July 2001
Highway Deicing
Deicing chemicals are used to clear roads covered by snow and ice during winter weather to
make roadways safe; however, the runoff associated with highway deicing may contain
various chemicals and sediment which have the potential to enter surface and ground water
sources.
The most commonly used and economical deicer is sodium chloride, better known as salt,
because it lowers the freezing point of water, preventing ice and snow from bonding to the
pavement and allowing easy removal by plows. Salt contributes to the corrosion of vehicles
and infrastructure, and can damage water bodies, ground water, and roadside vegetation.
Sodium is associated with general human health concerns. It can contribute to or affect
cardiovascular, kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure.
Chloride adds a salty taste to water and corrodes pipes.
These issues have led to the investigation and use of other chemicals as substitutes for and
supplements to salt. Other deicing chemicals include magnesium chloride, potassium acetate.
calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate, and potassium chloride.
Anti-caking agents are often added to salt, the most common of which is sodium ferrocyanide.
There is no evidence of toxieity in humans from sodium ferrocyanide. even at levels higher
than those employed for deicing. However, some studies have found that the resulting release
of cvanidc ions is toxic to fish.
.> 4S
-------
July 2001
Highway Deicing
Road Weather
Information Systems
provide data on air
and pavement
temperatures,
precipitation, and the
amount of deicing
chemicals on the
pavement.
The goal of prevention measures for roadway deicing is to minimize the loss of deicing chemicals
due to overuse and mishandling. Management of deicing chemicals focuses on reducing waste
through training and access to information on road conditions through the use of technology.
Generally, optimal strategies for keeping roads clear of ice and snow will depend on local climatic,
site, and traffic conditions, and should be tailored as such. Road maintenance workers should be
trained on these measures prior to the winter season. Personnel should also be made aware of
areas where careful management of deicing chemicals is particularly important, e.g., sensitive
water areas such as lakes, ponds, and rivers. Similarly, personnel should be aware of runoff
concerns from roadways that are near surface water bodies or that drain to either surface water or
the subsurface (e.g., through a dry well).
Alternative deicing chemicals include calcium chloride and calcium magnesium acetate (CMA).
Another alternative, sodium ferrocyanate, should be avoided due to its toxicity to fish. Although
alternatives are usually more expensive than salt, their use may be warranted in some
circumstances, such as near habitats of endangered or threatened species or in areas with elevated
levels of sodium in the drinking water. Other considerations for using alternatives to salt include
traffic volume and extreme weather conditions. Each deicer works differently in various climatic
and regional circumstances. Combining deicers, such as mixing calcium chloride and salt, can be
cost-effective and safe if good information on weather conditions and road usage are available.
Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS) help maintenance centers determine current weather
conditions in a given location. Since the mid-1980's, increasing numbers of states are using this
technology. Sensors collect data on air and pavement temperatures, levels of precipitation, and
the amount of deicing chemicals on the pavement. The data are paired with weather forecast
information to predict pavement temperatures for a specific area and determine the amount of
chemicals needed in the changing conditions. The strategically placed stations are 90 to 95
percent accurate. This information is also used for anti-icing treatment to allow for chemicals to
be applied before the pavement free/es, reducing the amount of deicing chemicals used. Several
states are developing satellite delivery of this information to maintenance workers.
3-49
-------
July 2001
Highway Deicing
Anti-icing can reduce the amount of
chemicals needed to keep roads safe.
Anti-icing orpretreatment methods are increasingly being used as a preventative tool. Anti-
icing may require up to 90 percent less product than is needed for deicing after snow and ice
have settled on road surfaces. Deicing chemicals, often liquid magnesium chloride, are
applied to the pavement before precipitation or at the start of a storm to lower the freezing
point of water. Timing is everything in the process, and weather reports or RWIS data can
assist in determining the best time and place to apply chemicals.
Some states have installed fixed chemical spraying systems in highway trouble spots, such as
on curves and bridges, to prevent slippery roads. Chemicals are dispensed through spray
nozzles embedded in the pavement, curbs, barriers, or bridge decks. Though expensive to
implement, this technique saves materials and manpower and reduces deicing operations
during a storm.
Spreading rates and the amount of deicer used are important considerations. Some studies
have shown that snow melts faster when salt is applied in narrow strips. In a technique known
as windrowing, spreading is concentrated in a four to eight foot strip along the centerline to
melt snow to expose the pavement, which in turn warms a greater portion of the road surface,
and causes more melting.
Timing of application is also an important consideration. It takes time for the chemical
reactions of salt and other deicers to become effective, after which a plow can more easily
remove the snow. Sand should not be applied to roadways if more snow or ice is expected, as
it will no longer be effective once covered. Traffic volume should also be taken into
consideration, as vehicles can disperse deicers and sand to the side of the road. The timing of
a second application is dictated by the road conditions. For example, while the snow is slushy
on the pavement, the salt or deicer is still effective. Once it stiffens, however, plowing should
be done to remove excess snow.
3-50
-------
July 2001
Highway Deicing
Plows are a chemical-free option for clearing snow and ice.
Application equipment aids in the proper distribution of deicer chemicals. Many trucks are
equipped with a spinning circular plate that throws the chemicals in a semi-circle onto the
road. A chute is used to distribute in a windrow, typically near the centerline of the road.
Modified spreaders prevent the over-application of materials by calibration or by the speed of
the truck and should be used. Spreader calibration controls the amount of chemicals applied
and allows different chemicals to be distributed at different rates. Annual equipment
maintenance and checks should be conducted to ensure proper and accurate operation.
Plowing and snow removal are chemical-free options to keep roads clear of snow and ice.
With plowing, less chemicals are needed to melt the remaining snow and ice pack. For
specific weather conditions, specialized snow plows may be used. For example, various
materials, such as polymers and rubber, can be used on the blade.
Pre-wetting of sand or deicing chemicals such as salt can provide faster melting. Salt can be
pre-wetted through a spray as it leaves the spreader. Sand is often pre-wet with liquid deicing
chemicals just prior to spreading, an effective method for embedding the sand into the ice and
snow on the pavement.
Street sweeping during or soon after the spring snow melt can prevent excess sand and
deicing residue from entering surface and ground waters. Many road departments sweep
streets at least once in the spring.
Proper salt storage is a key measure to prevent the introduction of potentially harmful
contaminant loads to nearby surface and ground waters. It is important to shelter salt piles
from moisture and wind, as unprotected piles can contribute large doses of sodium chloride to
runoff. Soil type, hydrology, and topography must also be appropriate for the storage area.
Any runoff should be cleaned up immediately and the collected brine reused. Spills during
loading and unloading should be cleaned as soon as possible. Salt should be stored outside of
wellhead and source water protection areas, away from private wells, sole source aquifers
(where feasible), and public water supply intakes. Ground water quality monitoring near salt
storage and application sites should be performed annually.
3-51
-------
July 2001
Abandoned Wells
Locations often
unknown
Common nearby
activities may
degrade water
quality
Runoff also
poses threats
Abandoned wells present safety hazards and pose a potential threat to the
quality of drinking water. As municipal water supplies reach suburban and
rural areas, such as farms and old homestead sites, many older wells are no
longer needed and are often neglected or forgotten. In many cases, property
owners are not aware that abandoned wells exist on their property. Old and
abandoned monitoring, irrigation, pump and treat, and distribution wells can
also pose a risk. No one knows how many abandoned wells there are, but
estimates for each of the Midwestern States range in the hundreds of
thousands.
Common rural activities that occur in the vicinity of a wellhead may degrade
ground water quality. Fanners or landowners mix and apply fertili/crs and
pesticides on fields and crop lands. Livestock and animal feeding operations
produce animal wastes. Rural sites with wells typically have septic systems to
treat household wastewater, and faulty septic systems located in areas with
thin soil and porous rock can allow wastewater to enter the aquifer and wells.
Runoff from vehicle and farm equipment washing carries chemicals and other
contaminants. In addition, runoff from waste disposal sites and storage areas
carries contaminants that threaten ground water quality.
3-52
-------
July 2001
Abandoned Wells
Grout Pump
Grout
• Plug abandoned
wells
• Use licensed
well drillers
Neat cement grout
The most effective way to minimize risks from abandoned wells is to find
them and properly plug them.
While abandoned wells can be anywhere, some indicators that there may be an
abandoned well in the area include depressions in the ground surrounded by
vegetation, or structures such as hand pumps, pipes in the ground, or old farms
that would accompany a well. Historical photographs, land records and
permits, and previous land owners are additional sources of information that
may yield the locations of abandoned wells.
In general, plugging a well involves measuring the diameter of the well bore to
determine the amount of fill needed, removing debris or obstructing materials,
and filling the well with plugging materials and grout. Available fill materials
include sand and gravel, clay, sodium bentonite, or cement grout. Specific
procedures will vary depending on the well site, depth, and properties.
State or local health departments may have requirements for proper sealing of
a well, and some require that licensed well drillers do the job.
3-53
-------
July 2001
Acknowledgements
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency would like to acknowledge
the contributions of the members of the Source Water Protection Best
Management Practices Advisory Group, under the leadership of Steven
Ainsworth of the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water.
• Beatriz Oliveira
• Bruce Olsen
• Roberta Parry
• Kenneth Pelletier
• Art Persons
• Shari Ring
• Andrea Ryon
Rita Bair
James Bourne
Ross Brennan
Hamilton Brown
Richard Cobb
James Crawford
Anthony Dulka
Jack Falk
MaryJo Feuerbach
Nancy Fitz
Claire Gesalman
Robert Goo
Richard Gullick
Denise Hawkins
Joyce Hudson
Elizabeth Hunt
Paul Jehn
Joseph Lee
Marty Link
Ryan McReynolds
Karen Metchis
Douglas Minter
Chi Ho Sham
Paul Shriner
Stephanie Vap-Morrow
Hal White
Pamla Wood
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency would like to acknowledge the contributions of
the members of the Source Water Protection Best Management Practices Advisory Group,
under the leadership of Steven Ainsworth of the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water.
The members are Rita Bair, U.S. EPA, Region 5; James Bourne, U.S. EPA, Office of Ground
Water and Drinking Water; Ross Brennan, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management;
Hamilton Brown, State Services Organization; Richard Cobb, Illinois Environmental
Protection Agency; James Crawford, Mississippi Department of Environmental Quality;
Anthony Dulka, Illinois Environmental Protection Agency; Jay Evans, U.S. EPA, Office of
Underground Storage Tanks; Jack Falk, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management;
MaryJo Feuerbach, U.S. EPA, Region 1; Nancy Fitz, U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs;
Claire Gesalman, U.S. EPA, Office of Pesticide Programs; Robert Goo, U.S. EPA, Office of
Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds; Richard Gullick, American Water Works Company, Inc.;
Denise Hawkins, The Cadmus Group, Inc.; Joyce Hudson, U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater
Management; Elizabeth Hunt, Vermont Department of Environmental Conservation; Paul
Jehn, Ground Water Protection Council; Joseph Lee, Pennsylvania Department of
Environmental Protection; Marty Link, Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality; Ryan
McReynolds, U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water; Karen Metchis, U.S.
EPA, Office of Wastewater Management; Douglas Minter, U.S. EPA, Region 8; Beatrix
Oliveira, U.S. EPA, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response; Bruce Olsen, Minnesota
Department of Health; Roberta Parry, U.S. EPA, Office of Policy; Kenneth Pelletier,
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection; Art Persons, Minnesota Department
of Health; Shari Ring, The Cadmus Group, Inc.; Andrea Ryon, Metropolitan Washington
Council of Governments; Chi Ho Sham, The Cadmus Group, Inc.; Paul Shriner, U.S. EPA,
Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water; Stephanie Vap-Morrow, Nebraska Department
of Environmental Quality; Hal White U.S. EPA, Office of Underground Storage Tanks; and
Pamla Wood, Kentucky Department for Environmental Protection.
3-54
-------
July 2001
Class Discussion:
Implementing Source
Water Protection
Measures
4-1
-------
July 2001
Residential Subdivision
Class Discussion: Students should consider and discuss what actions each of the
following entities could take to implement or facilitate implementation of source
water protection measures in the community pictured above:
* Local government officials
Water systems
* Environmental and community groups
* Business owners and their trade associations, including farmers
Homeowners
What types of issues might they lace when trying to adopt or implement protection
4-2
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA816-F-01-020
July 2001
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Storm Water Runoff to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Storm water runoff is rain or snow melt that flows off the land, from streets, rooftops, and
lawns. The runoff carries sediment and contaminants with it to a surface water body or
infiltrates through the soil to ground water. This fact sheet focuses on the management of
runoff in urban environments; other fact sheets address management measures for other
specific sources, such as pesticides, animal feeding operations, and vehicle washing.
SOURCES OF STORM WATER RUNOFF
Urban and suburban areas are predominated by impervious cover including pavements on roads.
sidewalks, and parking lots; rooftops of buildings and other structures; and impaired pervious
surfaces (compacted soils) such as dirt parking lots, walking paths, baseball fields and suburban
lawns.
During storms, rainwater flows across these impervious surfaces, mobilizing contaminants, and
transporting them to water bodies. All of the activities that take place in urban and suburban
areas contribute to the pollutant load of
storm water runoff. Oil, gasoline, and
automotive fluids drip from vehicles onto
roads and parking lots. Storm water runoff
from shopping malls and retail centers also
contains hydrocarbons from automobiles.
Landscaping by homeowners, around
businesses, and on public grounds contributes
sediments, pesticides, fertilizers, and
nutrients to runoff. Construction of roads and
buildings is another large contributor of
sediment loads to waterways. In addition,
any uncovered materials such as improperly
stored hazardous substances (e.g.. household
cleaners, pool chemicals, or lawn care
products), pet and wildlife wastes, and litter can be earned in runotf to streams or ground water.
Illicit discharges to storm drains (e.g.. used motor oil), can also contaminate water supplies.
Storm water is also directly iniected to the subsurface through Class V storm water drainage
wells. 1'hese \\ells are used throughout the country to divert storm water runoff from roads.
roofs, and paved surfaces. Direct injection is of particular concern in commercial and light
industrial settings (e.g.. in and around material loading areas, vehicle service areas, or parking
lots).
Parking Ini runofl
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE STORM WATER RUNOFF NEAR THE
SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Impervious areas prohibit the natural infiltration of rainfall through the soil, which could filter
some contaminants before they reach ground water. Also, impervious surfaces allow the
surface runoff to move rapidly. Development reduces the amount of land available for
vegetation, which can mitigate the effects of rapid runoff and filter contaminants. When the
percentage of impervious cover reaches 10 to 20 percent of a watershed area, degraded water
quality becomes apparent.
There are three primary concerns associated with uncontrolled runoff: (1) increased peak
discharge and velocity during storm events resulting in flooding and erosion; (2) localized
reduction in recharge; and (3) pollutant transport.
When runoff is confined to narrow spaces,
such as streets, the velocity at which water
flows increases greatly with depth. This
contributes to erosion in areas without
vegetation cover, increased flooding in low
lying areas, and sedimentation in surface
water bodies. Sediment deposited in streams
can increase turbidity, provide transport
media for pathogenic bacteria and viruses,
and decrease reservoir capacity. Sediments
also smother aquatic species, leading to
habitat loss and decreased biodiversity of
aquatic species. The fast-running runoff is not afforded an opportunity to infiltrate into the
subsurface, and ground waters are not recharged by rain events.
EPA considers storm water runoff to be one of the most important sources of
contamination of the nation's surface waters. According to a nationwide study, 77
of 127 priority pollutants tested were detected in urban runoff. Some of the principal
contaminants found in storm water runoff include heavy metals, toxic chemicals, organic
compounds, pesticides and herbicides, pathogens, nutrients, sediments, and salts and other tie-
icing compounds. Some of these substances are carcinogenic; others lead to reproductive.
developmental, or other health problems that are associated with long-term exposure.
Pathogens can cause illness, even from short-term exposure, that can be fatal to some people.
Urban runoff is commonly collected in storm sewers and
discharged to waterways untreated, so that any contaminants
carried by the storm water are discharged to surface water
bodies that are used as the sources of drinking water. In
addition, about 20 percent of the population in the I S is
served by combined sewer s\ sterns (tor both sanitary waste
and storm water) that, during heavy storm events, allow
contaminants from sanitary sewage to discharge directly to
waterways untreated.
F.rosion
AN All .ABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS STORM WATER
RUNOFF
A variety of management practices, including pollution prevention and treatment devices, arc
available to abate storm water pollution. Hie most effectue storm \vater pollution prevention
plans combine these measures and reflect local soil, precipitation, and land use conditions. Some
of the more \\rdelv-used management measures are described below.
-------
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination.
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction.
Pollution source control and prevention measures include public education to homeowners and
business owners on good housekeeping, proper use and storage of household toxic materials,
and responsible lawn care and landscaping; storm drain stenciling; hazardous materials
collection; and eliminating illicit discharges. The incorporation of best management practices
(BMPs) in building and site-development codes, if feasible, should be encouraged. On roadways,
proper maintenance of rights-of-way, control of chemical and nutrient applications, street
cleaning or sweeping, storm drain cleaning, use of alternative or reduced de-icing products, and
equipment washing can reduce the pollutant content of runoff.
Without appropriate erosion and sedimentation control (ESC) measures, construction
activities can contribute large amounts of sediment to storm water runoff. Erosion can be
controlled by planting temporary fast-growing vegetation, such as grasses and wild flowers.
Covering top soil with geotextiles or impervious covers will also protect it from rainfall. Good
housekeeping measures for construction sites include construction entrance pads and vehicle
washing to keep sediment and soil on-site. Construction should be staged to reduce soil
exposure, or timed to coincide with periods of low rainfall and low erosion potential, such as in
the fall, rather than during spring rains. Other measures include sediment traps and basins;
sediment fences; wind erosion controls; and sediment, chemical, and nutrient control.
If available, ordinances and regulations on construction activities can require plan reviews to
ensure that erosion during construction is minimized or require ESC measures during
construction. Inspections of ESC measures and repair of controls where needed will maintain
the working order of these controls and maximize their benefit.
Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to protect source water from
potential contamination. For example, subdivision controls help to ensure that expected
development will not compromise drinking water quality or ground water recharge. Requiring
proper storm water management in new developments and redevelopments will ensure that
runoff does not become excessive as areas of paved surfaces increase. Low impact
development incorporates maintaining pre-development hydrology, considering infiltration
technology, and re-routing water to recharge the aquifer.
Minimi-ing directly connected impervious areas
(DCIAs) is important to reducing the flow and volume of
runoff. Planners should direct runoff from roofs.
sidewalks, and other surfaces over grassed areas to
promote infiltration and filtration of pollutants prior to
surface water deposition. Porous design of parking lots
also provides places for storm water to infiltrate to soils.
Concrete grid pavement is typically placed on a sand or
uravel base with void areas filled with pervious materials
such as sand, gravel, or grass. Storm water percolates
through the voids into the subsoil Planting landscaped
areas lower than the street level encourages drainage.
Structural designs are used to control runoff or temporarily store storm water on site. A
number of structural devices have been developed to encourage filtration, infiltration, or settling
of suspended particles. Some of the more commonly-used practices are described below.
-------
Grassed swales are shallow, vegetated ditches that reduce the speed and volume of runoff.
Soils remove contaminants by infiltration and filtration. Vegetation, or turf, prevents soil erosion,
filters out sediment, and provides some nutrient uptake. Maintenance of grassed swales involves
regular mowing, re-seeding, and weed control, along with inspections to check for erosion and
ensure the integrity of the vegetative cover. To function properly, the inflow to the swale must
be sheet flow from a filter strip or an impervious surface (i.e., not from the end of a pipe)
Swales have demonstrated solids removals exceeding 80 percent. Apart from grassed swales,
grassed waterways (wide, shallow channels lined with sod) are often used as outlets for runoff
from terraces.
Buffer strips are combinations of trees, shrubs, and grasses planted parallel to a stream. Buffer
strips should consist of three zones—about four or five rows of trees closest to the stream, one
or two rows of shrubs, and a 20 to 24 foot wide grass zone on the outer edge. They decrease
the velocity of runoff, thus moderating flooding and preventing stream bank erosion. The
vegetation and soils also strain and filter sediments and chemicals. Buffer strips should be
maintained by controlling weeds and mowing grasses once or twice annually. In the long term,
each zone should be harvested and replanted. About 10 to 20 percent removal of solids has
been demonstrated in buffer zones. These buffer strips, however, do not necessarily increase
infiltration.
Filter strips are areas of
close-growing vegetation on gently
sloped land surfaces bordering a
surface water body. They work by
holding soils in place, allowing some
infiltration, and filtering solid particles
out of the runoff from small storms.
Plants with dense root systems are
preferred; the ideal species and mixes
of vegetation are specific to the
region. The width and length of the
filter strip depends on the size and
grade of the slope it drains.
Maintenance activities include hitcr strip
inspections, mowing, and removal of
sediment build-up. Filter strips can remove nitrogen and phosphorus, but are less effective in
filtering pesticides. They are most effective when water flow is even and shallow and if grass
can regrow between rams.
Storm water ponds (wet ponds) consist of a permanent pond,
where solids settle during and between storms, and a /one of
emergent wetland vegetation where dissolved contaminants
are removed through biochemical processes Wet ponds arc
usually developed as water features in a commumtv.
increasing the value of adjacent property. Other than
landscape maintenance, only annual inspection of the outlets
and shoreline is required. Vegetation should be harvested
every 3 to 5 years, and sediment removed every 7 to 10 years.
Wet ponds can achieve 40 to 60 percent phosphorus removal and ^0 to 40 percent total mtrouen
removal.
Constructed wetlands are similar to \\et ponds, with more emergent aquatic vegetation and a
smaller open water area. Storm \\atei \\etlands are different from natural \\ctlands in that they
are designed to Heat storm water runoff, and typically have less biodiversity than natural
wetlands. A wetland should have a settling pond, or forebay, if significant upstream soil erosion
-------
is anticipated. Coarse particles remain trapped in the forebay, and maintenance is performed on
this smaller pool. Wetlands remove the same pollutants as wet ponds through settling of solids
and biochemical processes, with about the same efficiency. Maintenance requirements for
wetlands are similar to those of wet ponds.
Infiltration practices (basins and trenches) are long,
narrow stone-filled excavated trenches, 3 to 12 feet deep.
Runoff is stored in the basin or in voids between the
stones in a trench and slowly infiltrates into the soil matrix
below, where filtering removes pollutants. Infiltration
devices alone do not remove contaminants, and should be
combined with a pretreatment practice such as a swale or
sediment basin to prevent premature clogging.
Maintenance consists of inspections annually and after
major rain storms and debns removal, especially in inlets
and overflow channels. Infiltration devices and
associated practices can achieve up to 70 to 98 percent
contaminant removal.
Swirl-type concentrators are underground vaults innnraiu.n basm
designed to create a circular motion to encourage
sedimentation and oil and grease removal. The currents rapidly separate out settleable grit and
floatable matter, which are concentrated for treatment, while the cleaner, treated flow
discharges to receiving waters. Swirl concentrators have demonstrated total suspended solids
and BOD removal efficiencies exceeding 60 percent.
BMPs for Class V storm water drainage wells address siting, design, and operation of these
wells. Siting BMPs for storm water drainage wells include minimum setbacks from surface
waters, drinking water wells, or the water table. Storm water drainage wells may also be
prohibited from areas of critical concern, such as source water protection areas, or from areas
where the engineering properties of the soil are not ideal for their performance. Available
design BMPs for storm water drainage wells include sediment removal devices (such as oil/grit
separators or filter strips), oil and grease separators, and pretreatment devices such as
infiltration trenches or wetlands (described above). Maintenance of these BMPs is crucial to
their proper operation. Management measures related to operation include spill response,
monitoring, and maintenance procedures. Source separation, or keeping runoff from industrial
areas away from storm water drainage wells, involves using containment devices such as berms
or curbs (see the fact sheets on vehicle washing and small quantity chemical use for more
information on these devices).
EPA '.v National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (MPDES) Permitting Program
regulates storm water runoff from municipal separate storm sewer systems ( MS4s) and
industrial activity (including construction). The current rules establish permit requirements for
more than 5.000 MS4s nationwide. NPDES storm water permits issued to \IS4s require these
MS4s to develop the necessary legal authority to reduce the discharge of pollutants in storm
water to the maximum extent practicable and to develop and implement a storm \\ater
management program that includes:
• Structural and source control measures to reduce pollutants from runoff from
commercial and residential areas, including maintenance, monitoring, and planning
activities:
• Detection and removal of illicit discharges and improper disposal into the storm sewer:
• Monitoring and control of storm water discharges from certain industrial activities; and
Construction site storm water control.
-------
In addition, the storm water rule for certain small MS4s requires post-construction storm water
management controls. These local controls are in addition to existing federal regulations that
require NPDES permits of all construction activities disturbing greater than one acre.
Recently, EPA developed a menu of BMPs that provides more than 100 fact sheets on
measures that small MS4s could use to control urban storm water runoff. The menu is available
from EPA's Web site at www.epa.gov/npdes.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on storm water management measures. All of the documents
listed are available for free on the Internet. State departments of transportation or agriculture,
whose contact information can be found on the Internet or in the phone book, are also good
sources of information.
To pass local ordinances or regulations to affect storm water controls, contact city or county
public works departments, zoning offices, permitting offices, or transportation departments, who
typically have the authority to pass local ordinances. Contact local government authorities in
your area to see if there are ordinances in place to manage storm water. Numerous examples
of local source water protection-related ordinances for various potential contaminant sources
can be found at http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/,
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/, and
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm.
The following resources provide information on selection and design of specific management
measures:
The Center for Watershed Protection's Stormwater Manager's Resource Center
(www.stormwatercenter.net) provides technical assistance storm water management issues.
Northern Arizona University offers a course on wet weather flow management, materials are
available at http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~dmh3/egr499/.
Texas Nonpoint SourceBOOK (www.txnpsbook.org) contains four manuals on storm water
Best Management Practices, including "Urban Nonpoint Source Management," and an
interactive BMP selector.
U.S. EPA, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. (September 1999). The Class V
Underground Injection Control Study. Volume 3: Storm Water Drainage Wells. EPA/816-
R-99-014c. Retrieved May 2, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/classv/stw-fact.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Science and Technology. (August 1999). Preliminary Data Summary of
Urban Stormwater Best Management Practices. EPA-821-R-99-012. Retrieved February 7.
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/OST.
U.S. EPA. Office of Wastewater Management. (September 1992). Storm Water Management
for Industrial Activities: Developing Pollution Prevention Plans and BMPs. Retrieved
February 6. 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owrn/sw/indguide/index.htm
U.S. EPA. Office of Wetlands. Oceans, and Watersheds. (January 1993). Guidance
Specifying Management Measures far Sources of Nonpoint Pollution in Coastal Waters.
EPA-840-B-93-001c. Retrieved February 15. 2001. from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/OWOW
-------
Washington State Department of Transportation. (February 1995). Highway Runoff Manual.
M 31-16. Retrieved February 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/fasc/engineeringpublications/manuals/highway.pdf
Wyoming Department of Environmental Quality. (February 1999). Urban Best Management
Practices for Nonpoint Source Pollution. Draft. Retrieved February 21, 2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://deq.state.wy.us/wqd/urbbmpdoc.htm
University extension services are excellent sources for information on water quality issues,
including storm water management. The Oregon Department of Agriculture offers
comprehensive list of links to many of these on its Web site
(http://www.oda.state.or.us/Natural_Resources/wq_ces.htm).
Following are examples of extension services that offer fact sheets on a variety of storm water
management measures, including best management practices:
Iowa State University Extension (http://www.extension.iastate.edu/Pages/pubs/).
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service (http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/resources/).
Oklahoma State University. Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources
(http://agweb.okstate.edu/pearl/wqs).
Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service
(http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/menu.htm).
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA816-F-01-021
July 2001
vvEPA
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Septic Systems to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Septic systems (also known as onsite wastewater disposal systems) are used to treat and
dispose of sanitary waste. When properly sited, designed, constructed, and operated, they pose
a relatively minor threat to drinking water sources. On the other hand, improperly used or
operated septic systems can be a significant source of ground water contamination that can lead
to waterborne disease outbreaks and other adverse health effects.
This fact sheet discusses ways to prevent septic systems from contaminating sources of drinking
water. Septic systems that receive non-sanitary wastes (e.g., industrial process wastewater)
are considered industrial injection wells, and are not the primary focus of this fact sheet. Other
fact sheets in this series address prevention measures for contamination sources such as
fertilizers, pesticides, animal feeding operations, and vehicle washing.
SOURCES OF SEPTIC SYSTEM EFFLUENT
About 25 percent of U.S. households rely on septic systems to treat and dispose of sanitary
waste that includes wastewater from kitchens, clothes washing machines, and bathrooms.
Septic systems are primarily located in rural areas not served by sanitary sewers.
A typical household septic system consists of a septic
tank, a distribution box, and a drain field. The septic
tank is a rectangular or cylindrical container made of
concrete, fiberglass, or polyethylene. Wastewater
flows into the tank, where it is held for a period of time
to allow suspended solids to separate out. The heavier
solids collect in the bottom of the tank and are partially
decomposed by microb'ial activity. Grease, oil, and fat,
along with some digested solids, float to the surface to
form a scum layer. (Note: Some septic tanks have a
second compartment for additional effluent
clarification.)
WEI
6ROUNDWATER
The partially clarified wastewater that remains
between the layers of scum and sludge flows to the
distribution box, which distributes it evenly through the
drain field. The drain field is a network of perforated pipes laid in gravel-filled trenches or beds.
Wastewater flows out of the pipes, through the gravel, and into the surrounding soil. As the
wastewater effluent percolates down through the soil, chemical and biological processes remove
some of the contaminants before they reach ground water.
-------
Large capacity septic systems are essentially larger versions (with larger capacities and flow
rates) of single family residential septic systems, but they may have more than one septic tank or
drain field for additional treatment capacity. In some cases, an effluent filter may be added at
the outlet of the large capacity septic tank to achieve further removal of solids. Many large
systems rely on pumps rather than gravity to provide an even flow distribution into the drain
field.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE SEPTIC SYSTEMS NEAR THE SOURCES
OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Improperly sited, designed, operated, or maintained septic systems can be a significant source of
ground water contamination leading to waterborae disease outbreaks and other adverse health
effects. The bacteria, protozoa, and viruses found in sanitary wastewater can cause numerous
diseases, including gastrointestinal illness, cholera, hepatitis A, and typhoid.
Nitrogen, primarily from urine, feces, food waste, and cleaning compounds, is present in sanitary
wastewater. Consumption of nitrates can cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) in
infants, which reduces the ability of the blood to carry oxygen. If left untreated,
methemoglobinemia can be fatal for affected infants. Due to this health risk, a drinking water
maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/1) or parts per million (ppm)
has been set for nitrate measured as nitrogen. Even properly functioning conventional septic
systems, however, may not remove enough nitrogen to attain this standard in their effluent.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS SEPTIC SYSTEMS
Septic systems can contribute to source water contamination for various reasons, including
improper siting, poor design, faulty construction, and incorrect operation and maintenance. Most
States and localities regulate siting, design, and construction of septic systems and only regulate
operation and maintenance for large capacity septic systems. Some of the more widely used
prevention measures are described below. Your local health department should be able to
advise you on specific requirements for your community.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination,
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source water, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction
Siting
Most jurisdictions have adopted, for septic systems, minimum horizontal setback distances
from features such as buildings and drinking water wells and minimum vertical setback
distances from impermeable soil layers and the water table. Septic systems should be located a
safe distance from drinking water sources to avoid potential contamination. Areas with high
water tables and shallow impermeable layers should be avoided because there is insufficient
unsaturated soil thickness to ensure sufficient treatment. Soil permeability must be adequate
to ensure proper treatment of septic system effluent. If permeability is too low, the drain field
may not be able to handle wastewater flows, and surface ponding (thus contributing to the
contamination of surface water through runoff) or plumbing back-ups may result. If
permeability is too high, the effluent may reach ground water before it is adequately treated. As
a result, alternative systems may be necessary in karst areas. Well-drained loamy soils are
generally the most desirable for proper septic system operation. In making siting decisions, local
health officials should also evaluate whether soils and receiving waters can absorb the combined
effluent loadings from all of the septic systems in the area.
-------
Design and Construction
Septic tanks and drain fields should be of adequate size to handle anticipated wastewater
flows. In addition, soil characteristics and topography should be taken into account in designing
the drain field. Generally speaking, the lower the soil permeability, the larger the drain field
required for adequate treatment. Drain fields should be located in relatively flat areas to ensure
uniform effluent flow.
ground surface
backfill*
perforated pipe-»(
washed gravel ->
original soil -> j
Effluent containing excessive
amounts of grease, fats, and oils
may clog the septic tank or drain
field and lead to premature failure.
The installation of grease
interceptors is recommended for
restaurants and other facilities with
similar wastewater characteristics.
Septic drain field
should be performed
by a licensed septic system
installer to ensure compliance with applicable regulations. The infiltration capacity of the soil
may be reduced if the soil is overly compacted. Care should be taken not to drive heavy
vehicles over the drain field area during construction or afterward. Construction equipment
should operate from upslope of the drain field area. Construction should not be performed when
the soil is wet, or excessive soil smearing and soil compaction may result.
Operation and Maintenance
Proper operation and maintenance of septic systems is perhaps the most crucial prevention
measure to preventing contamination. Inadequate septic system operation and maintenance can
lead to failure even when systems are designed and constructed according to regulation.
Homeowners associations and tenant associations can play an important role in educating their
members about their septic systems. In commercial establishments such as strip malls,
management companies can serve a similar role. Septic system owners should continuously
monitor the drain field area for signs of failure, including odors, surfacing sewage, and lush
vegetation. The septic tank should be inspected annually to ensure that the internal structures
are in good working order and to monitor the scum level.
Many septic systems fail due to hydraulic overloading that leads to surface ponding. Reducing
wastewater volumes through water conservation is important to extend the life of the drain
field. Conservation measures include using water-saving devices, repairing leaky plumbing
fixtures, taking shorter showers, and washing only full loads of dishes and laundry. Wastewater
from basement sump pumps and water softeners should not be discharged into the septic system
to minimize hydraulic load. In addition, surface runoff from driveways, roofs, and patios should
be directed away from the drain field.
If an excessive amount of sludge is allowed to collect in the bottom of the septic tank.
wastewater will not spend a sufficient time in the tank before flowing into the drain field. The
increased concentration of solids entering the drain field can reduce soil permeability and cause
the drain field to fail. Septic tanks should be pumped out every two to five years, depending on
the tank size, wastewater volume, and types of solids entering the system. Garbage disposals
increase the volume of solids entering the septic tank, requiring them to be pumped more often.
-------
Household chemicals such as solvents, drain cleaners, oils, paint,
Pharmaceuticals, and pesticides can interfere with the
proper operation of the septic system and cause ground
water contamination. Homeowners should take
advantage of local hazardous waste collection
programs to dispose of these
wastes whenever
possible. Grease, cooking fats, coffee grounds, sanitary
napkins, and cigarettes do not easily decompose, and contribute
to the build-up of solids in the tank. The use of additives
containing yeast, bacteria, enzymes, and solvents has
not been proven to improve the performance of septic
systems, and may interfere with their normal
operation. Bacterial "starters" are not necessary
because a wide range of bacteria are normally
present in sewage entering the tank. Additives
containing solvents or petrochemicals can cause
ground water contamination.
Vehicles and heavy equipment should be kept off the drain field area to prevent soil compaction
and damage to pipes. Trees should not be planted over the drain field because the roots can
enter the perforated piping and lead to back-ups. Last, any type of construction over the drain
field should.be avoided. Impervious cover can reduce soil evaporation from the drain field,
reducing its capacity to handle wastewater.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
For information on septic system regulations in your community, contact your state or local
health department. The information sources below contain information on measures to prevent
septic system failures. All of the documents listed are available free of charge on the Internet.
Numerous documents on septic systems are available for download from U.S. Department of
Agriculture Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service State Partners.
Links to the various State Partners can be found at
http://www.reeusda.gov/1700/statepartners/usa.htm. Several examples of these documents are
presented below:
Bicki, T.J. and D.G. Peterson. "Septic Systems: Operation and Maintenance of On-site
Sewage Disposal Systems." Land and Water: Conserving Natural Resources in
Illinois, Number 15, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign. Retrieved February 26, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/pdf_pubs/SEPTIC.PDF.
Hiller, Joe and Andrea Lewis. (October 1994). Septic System Failure: What To Do.
University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service. B-1007. Retrieved February
27, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.uwyo.edu/ag/ces/PUBS/Wyl007.pdf.
Hiller, Joe and Andrea Lewis. (October 1994). Septic System Maintenance.
University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service. B-1008. Retrieved February
26, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.uwyo.edu/ag/ces/PUBS/Wyl008.pdf.
Porter, E., R. Rynk, K. Babin, and B.N. Burnell. Care and Maintenance of Your
Home Septic System. University of Idaho College of Agriculture, Cooperative
Extension System. CIS 1027. Retrieved February 27, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://info.ag.uidaho.edu/Resources/PDFs/CIS1027.pdf.
-------
Powell, G. Morgan. (March 1996). Get to Know Your Septic System. Kansas
Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State University. MF-2179. Retrieved
February 26, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/H20QL2/MF883.PDF.
Powell, G. Morgan. (July 1992). Septic Tank - Soil Adsorption System. Kansas
Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State University. MF-944. Retrieved February
27, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/H20QL2/MF944.PDF.
Powell, G. Morgan, Barbara L. Dallemand, Judith M. Willingharri. (August 1998).
Septic Tank Maintenance: A Key to Longer Septic System Life. Kansas Cooperative
Extension Service, Kansas State University. MF-947. Retrieved February 28, 2001
from the World Wide Web: http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/H20QL2/MF947.PDF.
Powell, G. Morgan, Barbara L. Dallemand, Judith M. Willingham. (December 1998).
Why Do Septic Systems Fail? Kansas Cooperative Extension Service, Kansas State
University. MF-946. Retrieved February 27, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/H20QL2/MF946.PDF.
Runyan, R. Craig, Septic Tank Maintenance. Cooperative Extension Service, College
of Agriculture and Home Economics, New Mexico State University, Guide M-l 13.
Washington State University Cooperative Extension and U.S. Department of
Agriculture. (Reprinted January 1998). Properly Managing Your Septic Tank
System. EB1671. Retrieved February 26, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb 1671/eb 1671 .html.
The National Small Flows Clearinghouse has developed a series of brochures on septic systems.
They can be found at http://www.estd.wvu.edu/nsfc/NSFC_septic_news.html.
North Carolina State University Water Quality Group. Septic Systems. Retrieved February 27,
2001 from the World Wide Web: http://h2osparc.wq.ncsu.edu/estuary/rec/septic.html.
Septic Information Website: Inspecting, Designing, & Maintaining Residential Septic
Systems. Retrieved February 28, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.inspect-ny.com/septbook.htm.
Stormwater Manager's Resource Center. Non-Stormwater Fact Sheet: Septic Systems.
Retrieved February 26, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.stormwatercenter.net/Assorted%20Fact%20Sheets/Tool7-Non_Stormwater/SepticS
ystems.htm.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (September 1999). The Class V Underground
Injection Control Study, Volume 5: Large Capacity Septic Systems. Retrieved February 27,
2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/classv/volume5.pdf.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Decentralized Onsite Management for Treatment of
Domestic Wastes. Retrieved May 1, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/seahome/decent.html.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Principles and Design of Onsite Waste Disposal
with Septic Systems. Retrieved May 1. 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/seahome/onsite.html.
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 916-F-01 -022
Environmental Protection (4606) July 2001
Agency
oERA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Above Ground Storage
Tanks to Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Above ground storage tanks (ASTs) are tanks or other containers that are above ground.
partially buried, bunkered, or in a subterranean vault. These can include floating fuel systems.
This fact sheet focuses on the management of facilities with ASTs to prevent contamination of
drinking water sources (ground water and surface water used as public drinking water supplies).
ABOVE GROUND STORAGE TANK USE
The majority of storage tanks contain petroleum products (e.g., motor fuels, petroleum solvents,
heating oil, lubricants, used oil). Oil storage facilities with ASTs are typically found in
marketing terminals, refineries, and fuel distribution centers. Storage
tanks may also be found in airports, school bus barns, hospitals,
automotive repair shops, military bases, farms, and industrial plants.
Discharges of chemicals, petroleum, or non-petroleum oils from
storage tanks can contaminate source water. Product spilled, leaked,
or lost from storage tanks may accumulate in soils or be carried away
in storm runoff.
Some of the causes for storage tank releases are holes from corrosion,
failure of piping systems, and spills and overfills, as well as
equipment failure and human operational error. The Spill Prevention
Control and Countermeasures (SPCC) regulations require owners or
operators of certain above ground oil storage facilities to prepare and
comply with written, site-specific, spill prevention plans (see 40 CFR
Part 112):
Facilities with a total above ground
oil storage capacity of more than
1.320 gallons;
Single above ground tanks with an
oil storage capacity of more than 660
gallons; and
Facilities with a combined
underground oil storage capacity
greater than 42.000 gallons.
.\ho\L- ground sumiuc tanks
^_
-------
Please note, however, that State AST regulations may be more stringent or differ in other ways
from the Federal requirements. You must check with local regulatory authorities to make sure
which ASTs are subject to what requirements. All AST facility owners or operators exempt
from these regulations should still consider implementing the prevention measures described in
this fact sheet to preclude future storage tank problems.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE ABOVE GROUND STORAGE TANKS NEAR
THE SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Storage tank releases can contaminate soil and drinking water supplies. Petroleum products are
composed of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Any oil spill can pose a serious threat to
human health and the environment, requires remediation that extends beyond your facility's
boundary, and results in substantial cleanup costs. Even a small spill can have a serious impact.
A single pint of oil released into the water can cover one acre of water surface area and can
seriously damage an aquatic habitat. A spill of only one gallon of oil can contaminate a million
gallons of water. It may take years for an ecosystem to recover from the damage caused by an
oil spill. The location of the facility must be considered in relation to drinking water wells,
streams, ponds and ditches (perennial or intermittent), storm or sanitary sewers, wetlands,
mudflats, sandflats, farm drain tiles, or other navigable waters. Factors such as the distance to
drinking water wells and surface water, volume of material stored, worse case weather
conditions, drainage patterns, land contours, and soil conditions must also be taken into
account.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS ABOVE GROUND
STORAGE TANKS
The following list of prevention measures is not all-encompassing; others can be found in the
references provided at the end of the document. Furthermore, detailed explanations of each
device mentioned below are found in the supporting documents. Please keep in mind that
individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent contamination of source
waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an overall prevention approach
that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost,
operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the source
water, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired degree of risk
reduction.
Federal AST Requirements under 40 CFR Part 112
Follow standard tank filling practices when filling tanks to prevent spills and overfills.
Furthermore, all ASTs should have a secondary containment area that contains spills and
allows leaks to be more easily detected. The containment area surrounding the tank should hold
110 percent of the contents of the largest tank plus freeboard for precipitation. Secondary
containment for ASTs must be impermeable to the materials being stored. Methods include
berms, dikes, liners, vaults, and double-walled tanks. A manually controlled sump pump should
be used to collect rain water that may accumulate in the secondary containment area. Any
discharge should be inspected for petroleum or chemicals prior to being dispensed.
Routinely monitor ASTs to ensure they are not leaking. An audit of a newly installed tank
system by a professional engineer can identify and correct problems such as loose fittings, poor
welding, and poorly fit gaskets. After installation, inspect the tank system periodically to
ensure it is in good condition. Depending on the permeability of the secondary containment
area, more frequent containment area checks may be necessary. Areas to inspect include tank
foundations, connections, coatings, tank walls, and the piping system. Integrity testing should
be done periodically by a qualified professional and in accordance to applicable standards.
-------
If an AST has remained out of service for more a year or more, many States require owners to
maintain and monitor the tank, declare the tank inactive, or remove it. If the tank is declared
inactive, remove all substances from the AST system (including pipes) and completely clean
the inside. Secure tanks by bolting and locking all valves, as well as capping all gauge
openings and fill lines. Clearly label tanks with the date and the words "Out of Service."
Samples may be required when removing tanks to determine if any contamination has occurred.
Most States require out-of-service tanks to be inspected and meet leak detection requirements
before they are put back into service.
Additional AST Prevention Measures
The following prevention measures go beyond the Federal regulations under 40 CFR Part 112,
but are highly recommended:
The location of the facility must be considered in relation to drinking water wells, streams,
ponds and ditches (perennial or intermittent), storm or sanitary sewers, wetlands, mudflats,
sandflats, farm drain tiles, or other navigable waters. The distance to drinking water wells and
surface water, volume of material stored, worse case weather conditions, drainage patterns, land
contours, and soil conditions must also be taken into account.
ASTs should have corrosion protection for the tank. Options include elevating tanks, resting
tanks on continuous concrete slabs, installing double-walled tanks, cathodically protecting the
tanks, internally lining tanks, inspecting tanks according to American Petroleum Institute
standard, or a combination of the options listed above. All underground piping to the tank
should be double-walled or located above ground or cathodically protected so you can inspect it
when it fails.
To maximize system safety, seal the floors, containment area, and sump pump pit with an
appropriate coating (e.g., petroleum resistant coating). Any accumulated water should be
inspected for petroleum or chemicals prior to discharge
Accumulated minor spillage, over time, may result in a film or sheen on collected rain water,
making it unsuitable for discharge to the soil or drains. Periodic cleanup of the containment
areas (e.g., sweeping with a broom and using limited absorbent) can prevent unnecessary dirt
and contaminant buildup.
'•mmm
While not a preventative measure for source water protection,
preventing evaporation has economic and air quality
benefits. To keep out rain and reduce evaporation losses and
moisture condensation, paint tanks a reflective color, install
them in an cast-west direction, install a low-pressure valve on
top of the tank, and cover the structure. A roof structure
covering a 10.000 gallon tank will conserve 600 to 1.000
gallons of gasoline per year, which would
have escaped by evaporation without the
shade cover.
Local jurisdictions may want to implement
registration programs for exempt tanks, in
order to exercise sonic oversight ot their
construction and operation. Furthermore,
most States also require inspections for
ASTs by fire marshals. Inspection prourams
can he expanded to cover water
contamination issues.
cicJ -VSt uith SCOMK|;II \ oml.imint'nl
-------
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
The following documents contain more detailed information on ASTs and are available for free
on the Internet. You can contact your EPA Regional SPCC or Oil Coordinator for more
information, as well. There are also State and local authorities that are often located in Oil,
Environmental, or Pollution Control Divisions who can provide you with local regulations for
ASTs.
Contact local government authorities in your area to see if there are ordinances in place to
manage ASTs. Numerous examples of local source water protection-related ordinances for
various potential contaminant sources can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm
The following documents provide additional information on AST prevention measures and
regulations:
Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University
of Florida.. Above-Ground Fuel Storage Systems (EES-61). (1992, October). Retrieved
February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs2/as04300.html
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Above-Ground Storage Tank Systems. (2000, October
18). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.pca.state.mn.us/cleanup/ast.html
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Out-of-Service Tank Systems. (1998, November).
Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.pca.state.mn.us/cleanup/ast.html
Purdue University Extension Service. Petroleum Product Storage Practices on the Farm.
(1991). Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~epados/farmstead/fuel/src/title.htm
South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Ground Water Quality
Program.. Frequently Asked Questions about UST and AST Systems, (n.d.). Retrieved
February 19, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.state.sd.us/denr/DES/Ground/tanks/FAQTANK.htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
SPCC Requirements and Pollution Prevention Practices for Bulk Storage Facilities, (n.d.).
Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www. epa.gov/oilspill/spcc/index. htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Storm Water Management for
Industrial Activities - Developing Pollution Prevention Plans and Best Management Practices.
Section 3.6 - Liquid Storage in Above-Ground Storage Tanks (EPA 832/R-92-006). (1992,
September). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/ovvnVsw/indguide/index.htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Oil Spill Program. Introduction and Background to the
Oil Pollution Prevention Regulation, (n.d.). Retrieved May 1, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/spcc/index.html
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA816-F-01-023
July 2001
4>EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Underground Storage
Tanks to Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
This fact sheet focuses on the management of underground storage tanks (USTs) to prevent
contamination of drinking water sources (ground water and surface water used as public
drinking water supplies). USTs are tanks and any
connected underground piping that have at least ten
percent of their combined volume underground. I S Is
contain either petroleum or hazardous substances identified
by the Comprehensive Environmental Response.
Compensation, and Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA),
except those substances listed as hazardous wastes. Over
95 percent of USTs contain petroleum.
UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANK USE
You are likely to find many USTs in the
vicinity of the water sources you want to
protect. Currently, the U.S. EPA regulates
about 714.000 active USTs located at about
269.000 sues nationwide. Many USTs are
located at filling stations that fuel vehicles, in
addition to thousands of roadside filling
stations. USTs can be found at airports, school
bus barns, hospitals, automotive repair shops.
military bases, industrial plains, residential
areas and other facilities.
Some US Is. like the follo\\mg. do not need to meet the Federal requirements:
• I S I s not stonily cither petroleum or certain hazardous substances:
• I ,11111 and residential tanks of I.Inn gallons or less capacity holding motor luel used loi
noncommercial purposes.
funks stormy healing oil used on the premises \\here u is stored;
• I .inks on or above the floor of undeniround areas, such as basements; a IK)
Septic tanks and s\ stems lor collecting storm water and wasle\\alcr
-------
Please note, however, that State UST regulations may be more stringent or differ in other ways
from the Federal requirements. You must check with local regulatory authorities to make sure
which USTs are subject to what requirements. For example, some States regulate heating oil
tanks and farm and residential tanks. Even if your UST does not need to meet Federal, State, or
local requirements, you should strongly consider implementing some of the prevention measures
mentioned in this fact sheet to preclude future releases.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE UNDERGROUND STORAGE TANKS
NEAR THE SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Most UST releases result from the corrosion of parts, improper installation, failure of piping
systems, poorly conducted fuel deliveries (spills and overfills), and improper operation and
maintenance of the UST system.
UST releases can contaminate soil and drinking water supplies. As of September 2000, almost
412,000 UST releases had been confirmed. Once in the soil, these releases can move rapidly
and threaten drinking water supplies. EPA estimates that about half of UST releases reach
ground water.
Petroleum includes carcinogenic compounds such as ben/ene.
Even at very low levels, fuel contaminants in water may not be
detected by smell or taste, yet they can affect human health.
Petroleum can also contain the additive methyl tertiary butyl ether
(MTBE), which can make water smell and taste bad enough to be
undnnkable. And it does not take much pollution to create a
drinking water problem. For example, an unrestricted gasoline leak
of one drop per second releases about 400 gallons per year. Even
a few quarts of gasoline in the ground water can pollute a drinking
water well. Also, cleaning up contaminated soil and ground water
involves expensive operations. Average cleanup costs at leaking
UST sites are about $125,000, and ground water cleanup at some
sites exceeds $1 million.
Leaking pipe from UST
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS UNDERGROUND
STORAGE TANKS
Federal UST regulations were promulgated in 1988 to prevent and detect UST releases (see 40
CFR Part 280). The following paragraphs briefly identify some basic UST requirements.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to pi cv cut
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination.
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source water, the public's
acceptance of the measures, and the
community's desired degree of risk
reduction.
Federal UST Requirements
Proper installation. \ STs must be
installed according to industry standards
with great care to maintain the integrity
and the corrosion protection of the tank
-------
Tanks must also be properly sited
away from wells, reservoirs, and
floodplains. Ideally, all types of
USTs should be located outside of
source water protection areas.
Corrosion protection. UST
systems must be made of
noncorrodible material, such as
fiberglass, or have corrosion
protection provided in other ways,
such as by being made of externally
coated and cathodically protected
metal, having double-walls, metal
having a thick corrosion resistant cladding or jacket, or having an internal tank lining.
Excavated USTs
Spill protection. USTs must have catchment basins that can catch spills that may occur when
the delivery hose is disconnected from the fill pipe. A catchment basin is basically a bucket
sealed around the fill pipe.
Overfill protection. When an UST is
overfilled, large volumes can be released at
the fill pipe and through loose fittings on the
top of the tank or a loose vent pipe. USTs
must have overfill protection devices, such as
automatic shutoff devices, overfill alarms, and
ball float valves. In addition, proper filling
procedures during fuel delivery must be
followed to reduce the chance of spills or
overfills.
Leak detection. Leak detection options include automatic tank gauging, interstitial monitoring,
statistical inventory reconciliation, vapor monitoring, and ground water monitoring. All leaks
must be detected in a timely manner, before they become big cleanup and liability problems.
Proper closure. The regulatory authority needs to be notified 30 days before UST closure, and
a determination must be made if any contamination of the environment has occurred. The tank
must be emptied and cleaned, after which it may be left underground or removed. Standard
safety practices should always be followed when emptying, cleaning, or removing tanks.
Additionally, some large capacity UST owners those who have more than 42.000 gallons of
oil storage capacity at one site — may need to comply with Federal Spill Prevention Control and
Countermcasures (SPCC) regulations. Refer to the above ground storage tank fact sheet or 40
CFR Part 112 for information.
Additional Prevention Measures
1 oca I jurisdictions may want to implement registration programs for exempt tanks, in order to
exercise some oversight of their construction and operation.
Local governments can use land use controls to address some of the potential risks Irom
I 'Sis. For example, /oning can restrict these activities to specific geographic areas that are
away from drinking \\ater sources. Prohibition of gas stations (which use USTs) or residential
-------
heating oil tanks in source water protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants
may enter source water. Local governments may also require permits that impose additional
requirements such as setbacks, open spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control
of site access points; and regulation of hours and methods of operation.
Work with your State and local UST regulatory authorities to ensure that adequate inspection
of UST sites takes place regularly — inspections that verify whether USTs are properly
equipped, operated, and maintained so they will not pose a threat to your water source. State
UST program contacts are among the many resources found at the Web site described below.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Information and publications on UST regulations and best management practices can be
obtained at no cost on the Internet at the following Web site address maintained by EPA's
Office of Underground Storage Tanks: http://www.epa.gov/OUST/. You can also call an EPA
Hotline at 1 -800-424-9346 for assistance and to order helpful publications about USTs. The
most useful general publication is called "Musts For USTs," a basic plain language description of
UST types and Federal requirements. Also, see EPA's Drinking Water Academy Web site at
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwa.html for a listing of documents on management measures.
Contact local government authorities in your area to see if there are ordinances in place to
manage USTs. Numerous examples of local source water protection-related ordinances for
various potential contaminant sources can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm
The following documents provide additional information on UST prevention measures and
regulations:
American Petroleum Institute. Preventing Spills in Storage Tanks. (1999, February 16).
Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.api.org/oilspills/tanks.htm
Iowa Department of Natural Resources. Groundwater Protection Fact Sheet -
Underground Storage Tanks. (1996, August). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World
Wide Web: www.state.ia.us/dnr/organiza/wmad/lqbureau/ust/genustl .htm
Iowa Department of Natural Resources, Waste Management Assistance Division.
Underground Storage Tanks - Frequently Asked Questions. (2001, January 15). Retrieved
February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.state.ia.us/dnr/organiza/wmad/lqbureau/ust/index.htm
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. Underground Storage Tank (UST) Systems. (2000,
December 27). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.pca.state.mn.us/cleanup/ust.html
Purdue University Extension Service. Petroleum Product Storage Practices on the Farm.
(1991). Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/~epados/farmstead/fuel/src/title.htm
South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Ground Water Quality
Program. Don 'l Wait Until 9S. (n.cl.). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://vvwvv.state.sd.us/denr/DES/Ground/tanks/dont-2.htm
-------
South Dakota Department of Environment and Natural Resources, Ground Water Quality
Program. Frequently Asked Questions about UST and AST Systems, (n.d.). Retrieved
February 19, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.state.sd.us/denr/DES/Ground/tanks/FAQTANK.htm
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Region 7. Region 7 Underground Storage Tank
Fact Sheet - Understanding the 1998 Requirements. (1998/1999, winter). Retrieved
February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http ://www. epa. gov/region7/programs/artd/ustbx/index2 .htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Musts for USTs - A Summary of Federal Regulations for Underground Storage Tank
Systems (EPA 510/K-95-002). (1995, July). Retrieved January 31, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.epa.gov/swerustl/pubs/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste and Emergency Response.
Straight Talk on Tanks - Leak Detection Methods for Petroleum Underground Storage
Tanks and Piping (EPA 510/B-97-007). (1997, September). Retrieved January 31, 2001 from
the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/swerustl/pubs/
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Underground Storage Tanks. Upgrading
UST Systems. (1998, May 27). Retrieved January 31, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www. epa. go v/s werust 1 /ustsystm/up grade. htm
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Underground Storage Tanks. What Do You
Need to Know about Underground Storage Tanks? (1999, June 7). Retrieved January 31,
2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/swerustl/cmplastc/knowneed.htm
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA816-F-01-024
July 2001
4>EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Vehicle Washing to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Vehicle washing is the cleaning of privately owned vehicles (cars
and trucks), public vehicles (school buses, vans, municipal buses,
fire trucks, and utility vehicles), and industnal vehicles (moving
vans or trucks and tractors). The vehicle wash water can carry
sediment and contaminants to surface waters, and can
contaminate groundwater by infiltration or by drainage to
subsurface wells and/or septic systems. This fact sheet focuses
on management of vehicle washing to prevent contamination of
drinking water sources.
PLACES WHERE VEHICLE WASHING OCCURS
Vehicle washing occurs at commercial car wash facilities (for both interior and exterior
cleaning), public works garages, car dealerships, truck stops, and any other facility that washes
vehicles. When vehicles are washed, contaminants in the wash water and the overspray can
enter source water untreated through surface runoff (e.g., through storm drains) and
underground discharge (e.g., through carwash wells or septic systems). Vehicle wash water
contains oil, grease, metal (paint chips), phosphates, detergents, soaps, cleaners, road salts, and
other chemicals that can contaminate source water.
EPA estimates that there are 7,200 carwash wells in the United States. These carwash wells,
which inject wash water into the subsurface, are categorized by EPA as Class V underground
injection wells. In a 1999 EPA study on Class V wells, concerns were raised about the use of
carwash wells to dispose of wash water from "wand washes" such as coin-operated, manual
facilities where people use hand-held hoses to wash vehicles. Because an attendant is not
usually on site, individuals may wash their engines or undercarriages using degreasers. wash the
exterior of their vehicles with chemicals other than common soap solutions, or may pour used oil,
antifree/e, or other ha/ardous materials down these drains.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE VEHICLE WASHING NEAR THE
SOURCES OK YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Managing vehicle washing near drinking water sources is important because the wash water
can flow into storm water drains and enter surface water sources untreated. I he wash water
can also percolate through the soil or enter the subsurface through carwash wells, and
contaminate ground water flic contaminants in vehicle wash water can cause a variety of
health effects, including kidney damage, circulatory system problems, increased cancer risk, and
delays in physical or mental development.
-------
Once a water supply becomes contaminated, it is very difficult and costly to treat. Treating the
water supply is a lengthy process and is not always successful. Using an alternative water
source may also be costly and impractical.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS VEHICLE WASHING
A variety of prevention measures, including nonstructural and structural activities, are available
to address vehicle washing. Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or
may not be adequate to prevent contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual
measures should be combined in an overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the
potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements
of the measures, the vulnerability of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures,
and the community's desired degree of risk reduction. Some of the more conventional
prevention measures are described below.
Local governments can use a variety of land use controls to protect source water from
potential contamination. For example, zoning can restrict certain activities to specific geographic-
areas that are distant from drinking water sources. Localities can also prohibit certain uses
within certain areas. For example, prohibition of vehicle washing activities in source water
protection areas can reduce the risk that harmful contaminants may enter source water. Local
governments may also require permits that impose additional requirements such as setbacks,
open spaces, buffers, walls and fences; street paving and control of site access points; and
regulation of hours and methods of operation. Local municipal treatment plants may have a
storm water treatment program; coordinate with your local municipal treatment plant to
eliminate illicit discharges. States may require vehicle washing facilities to apply for ground
water discharge permits. Many of these facilities discharge wastewater containing regulated
contaminants above the State's ambient ground water standards.
Design and Operation of Washing Facilities
Warning signs should be posted for customers and employees instructing them not to dump
vehicle fluids, pesticides, solvents, fertilizers, organic chemicals, or toxic chemicals into catch
basins. Catch basins are chambers or sumps which collect runoff and channel it to the storm
water drain or to the sanitary sewer. Vehicle wash facilities should stencil warnings on the
pavement next to the grit trap or catch basin. All signs should be in a visible location anil
maintained for readability.
•••••^•^^^•^^^••MMHMi
Wash areas should be located on well-
constructed and maintained, impervious
surfaces (i.e.. concrete or plastic) with drams
piped to the sanitary sewer or other disposal
devices. The wash area should extend for ai
least four feet on all sides of the vehicle to
trap all overspray. F-nclosing wash areas
with walls and propcih grading wash areas
prevent duty overspray from leaving the
wash area, allowing the overspray to be
collected from the impermeable surface.
t«KMr
il can\ ash
I he imperv ions surfaces should be marked to indicate the boundaries of the washing area and
the area draining to the designated collection point. Washing areas should not be located near
uncovered vehicle repair areas or chemical storage facilities; chemicals could be transported in
wash water runoff.
-------
Regular cleaning of wash areas and grit traps or catch basins can minimize or prevent debris
such as paint chips, dirt, cleaning agents, chemicals, and oil and grease from being discharged
into storm drains or injection wells.
Using alternative cleaning agents such as phosphate-free, biodegradable detergents for
vehicle washing will reduce the amount of contaminants entering storm drains. Cleaning agents
containing solvents and emulsifiers should be discouraged because they allow oil and grease to
flow through the oil/water separator (see below) instead of being separated from the effluent.
In addition, these cleaning agents will remain in the wastewater and can pollute drinking water
sources.
Proper Management of Wastewater
There are several approaches for managing wastewater, depending on the size of the site and
the resources available. These are described below.
Oil/water separators are tanks that collect oily vehicle wash water that flows along corrugated
plates to encourage separation of solids and oil droplets. The oily solids or sludge can then be
pumped out of the system through a different pipe. The sludge can be hauled off site, and the
wash water can be discharged to vegetated areas or to a treatment plant. There are two types
of oil/water separators, one that removes free oil that floats on top of water, and one that
removes emulsified oil, a mixture of oil, water, chemicals, and dirt. Choose the separator that
fits the needs of the vehicle wash facility.
Collection sumps are deep pits or reservoirs that hold liquid waste. Vehicle wash water
accumulates in the collection sumps, and is pumped or siphoned to a vegetated area (such as a
grassed swale or constructed wetland). Sediment traps can also be used to strain and collect
the vehicle wash water, prior to pumping or siphoning the wash water to a vegetated area.
Recycling systems reduce or eliminate contaminated discharges to storm water drains and
injection wells by reusing the wash water until the water reaches a certain contaminant level.
The wastewater is then discharged to a collection sump or to a treatment facility.
Where wastewater is not to be
disposed to a sanitary sewer, grassed
swales (shallow, vegetated ditches)
or constructed wetlands (retention
ponds with emergent aquatic
vegetation) can be used to hold
wastewater and allow contaminant
removal through infiltration and
filtration. These devices are
described in greater detail in the fact
sheet on managing storm water
runoff.
Education and Training
Carwash with \cgct.itc.l area
t'mployee training is an important tool to prevent vehicle wash water from entering storm
water drains and injection wells and contaminating source waters. Employees should be aware
of operation and maintenance procedures, proper disposal practices, and general housekeeping
activities. They should be a\\are of toxic chemicals, ifany. with which they may come in
contact, and have access to a chemical management plan, if applicable, and an emergency
contact list.
-------
At all designated washing areas, spill prevention, control, and management should be planned
and designed to prevent any spills of pollutants from entering surface water, ground water, or a
publicly or privately owned treatment works. A chemical management plan should be
implemented for vehicle washes that use metal brighteners, caustics or acids, halogenated
hydrocarbons, or solvents. The plan should include a list of the chemicals used, the method of
disposal such as reclamation or contract hauling, and procedures for assuring that toxic
chemicals are not discharged into source water.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on vehicle wash facilities and provide prevention measures to
avoid source water contamination. All of the documents listed are available for free on the
Internet. EPA's Office of Science and Technology provides effluent guidelines, pretreatment
standards and new source performance standards for transportation equipment cleaning
(http://www.epa.gov/ost/guide/teci/).
California Department of Transportation, Storm Water Compliance Review Task Force.
Maintenance Storm Water Pollution Prevention Bulletin. Retrieved February 24, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.dot.ca.gov/env/storm water/_pdfs/maintain/m6_98.pdf.
Natural Resources Defense Council. Storm Water Strategies. The Consequences of Urban
Storm Water Pollution. Retrieved March 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http: //w ww. nrdc. org/water/pollution/strom/chap3. asp.
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Environmental Fact Sheet.
Retrieved June 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.des.state.nh.us/factsheets/ws/ws-22-10.htm
Oregon Department of Environmental Quality. Best Management Practices for Storm Water
Discharges Associated with Industrial Activities. Retrieved February 24, 2001, from the
World Wide Web: http://www.deq.state.or.us/nwr/Industrial%20BMPs.pdf.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water.
Class V UIC Study Fact Sheet: Carwash Wells Without Undercarriage Washing or Engine
Cleaning. Retrieved March 08, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/classv/car-fact.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Ground and Drinking Water. The Class V Underground Injection Control
Study, Volume 4. Wells that Inject Fluids from Carwashes Without Engine or
Undercarriage Cleaning. Retrieved March 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://w\vw. epa.gov/safewater/uic/classv/volume4.pdf.
U.S. EPA,'Office of Science and Technology. Final Development Document for Effluent
Limitations Guidelines and Standards for the Transportation Equipment Cleaning
Category. Retrieved March 9, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/ost/guide/teci/supportdoc.html.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Storm Water Management Fact Sheet: Non-
Storm Water Discharges to Stonn Sewers. Retrieved March 9, 2001, from the Wold Wide
Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/nonstorm.pdf.
University of Wisconsin-Extension Water Resources Programs. Cleaning up Storm Water
Runoff, A Series of Fact Sheets about Storm Water Runoff. Retrieved January 23. 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://clean-water.mvex.edu/pubs/stonnie/index.ritml.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA816-F-01-025
July 2001
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Small Quantity
Chemical Use to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
Many small businesses, government agencies, and academic institutions use chemicals to carry
out their business functions. Although varying greatly in purpose, these small quantity chemical
users share in their ability to potentially contribute to the pollution of drinking water. Many
small businesses understand their day-to-day business operations but may lack familiarity with
procedures for proper use and management of chemicals. This fact sheet provides an overview
of prevention measures and demonstrates how precaution must be taken in all areas regarding
chemical use. Businesses that generate hazardous waste, as it is defined under the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act, should consult with their State hazardous waste agency
regarding proper handling and disposal.
PLACES WHERE SMALL QUANTITY CHEMICAL USE OCCURS
Small quantity chemical users include dry cleaners, beauty
shops, photo finishers, vehicle repair shops, printers,
laboratories, water supply facilities, academic institutions,
nursing homes, medical facilities, and many others. It is the
daily practices of these businesses that use chemicals and
produce chemical waste.
Degreasing, cleaning,
polishing, paint
preparation, rust
removal, and photo processing are just a fraction of the
activities in which small businesses are engaged.
Improper disposal of chemicals from these users can reach
ground or surface water through a number of pathways. If
substances from these businesses are accidentally or intentionally discharged into sewers,
contamination of ground and surface waters can
occur. Improper disposal into sewers can also
endanger the ability of publicly-owned
treatment works (POTWs) to properly treat
wastewater. Chemicals poured into septic
systems or dry wells can leach into ground
water or contribute to treatment system failure.
Chemical users should always ensure that
haulers they hire to carry their waste off-site are
properly licensed and that they deliver the
waste to appropriate disposal sites.
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE SMALL QUANTITY CHEMICAL USE NEAR
THE SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Many ordinary businesses use chemicals and produce chemical waste that can be harmful to
humans if ingested. Types of chemicals used by these businesses include solvents, corrosives,
dry cleaning agents, heavy metals and inorganics, inks and paint, lead-acid batteries, plating
chemicals, cyanide, and wood preserving agents. Each set of contaminants has its own
environmental and health hazards. For example, a dry cleaning filtration residue.
perchloroethylene, causes kidney and liver damage in both humans and animals. It is among the
most common contaminants in ground water and a very small amount can contaminate many
thousands of gallons of water. Used cyanide, a common waste product of metal finishing, is
considered an acutely hazardous waste and can be toxic in very small doses. Chemical
manufacturers can supply Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) which list these kinds of
dangers and help to categorize products and their waste.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS SMALL QUANTITY
CHEMICAL USE
Due to the large number and variety of businesses that use chemicals,
there arc a vast number of prevention measures, many of which are
specific to the facility of interest. This fact sheet discusses some
prevention measures that are common to most chemical using facilities.
Before a facility can implement any pollution prevention practice, it
must first assess what kinds of chemicals are used and how they are
used. Monitoring chemical use can help operators decide which option
will be the most beneficial. Businesses should start with easy and
inexpensive practices before considering more costly measures such as equipment and process
modifications. Some of the easiest and least expensive practices can produce the most effective
pollution prevention results.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination.
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction.
Ways to Avoid Excess Chemical Use
Good waste reduction and management strategies can
significantly reduce the threat of ha/ardous materials to
drinking water sources. Make sure employees carefully follow
the manufacturer's directions when mixing or using chemicals
to prevent producing large quantities of useless material that
must be disposed of as waste. The toxicity of waste can he
reduced by using the least ha/ardous or least concentrated
products available to accomplish their processes. Such
substitutions include the use of water based paints, or high
solids solvent based paints when water based paints are not
available. Cleaning products and solvents, which can contain
highly toxic or harsh chemicals, can be replaced with less
ha/ardous counterparts. Printing businesses can use nontoxic
inks that are free of heavy metal pigments.
Responsible purchasing can also drastically decrease the amount of waste for disposal. This
includes ordering materials on an as-needed basis ami returning unused portions hack to
vendors. A facility mav unwittingly create excess haimful materials by mixinu ha/ardous with
-------
nonhazardous waste. Avoiding this practice can significantly reduce the toxicity of waste
disposed and increase the possibility of recycling materials. Another method of waste reduction
is trading waste with other businesses. Waste exchanges reduce disposal costs and quantities,
reduce the demand for natural resources, and increase the value of waste.
Proper Use and Handling of Chemicals
Reading the label on chemical containers is one of the simplest and most
important prevention measures. The label provides information on proper
use, storage, and disposal and may provide emergency information in the
event the product is accidentally spilled or ingested. In cases where the
chemical is highly dangerous, the label will contain special warnings or
use restrictions.
Employee training is critical in preventing source water pollution by chemical using facilities.
While many preventive measures seem simple and straightforward, if they are not followed or
employees are unaware of them, significant consequences can result. All staff should be trained
to store materials properly and be aware of spill control and response protocols. Employees can
be encouraged to learn and retain proper procedures through periodic drills, pollution
prevention training workshops, and company incentive or reward programs.
Proper Storage and Disposal of Chemicals
Chemical audits are a good starting point. It is important to understand chemical needs for the
facility and compare these to the chemical supply on hand. Where appropriate, excess
chemicals should be removed (and properly disposed), or future purchasing adjusted to reduce
stored inventories. A chemical management plan that includes a list of chemicals used, the
method of disposal such as reclamation or contract hauling, and procedures for assuring that
toxic chemicals are not discharged into source water should be implemented.
Proper on-site storage of hazardous substances helps to prevent accidental leaks and applies
to both storage areas and containers. Designated storage areas should have paved or
impervious surfaces, a protective cover, and secondary containment around all containers to
catch spills. Containers should have clear and visible labels which include purchase date and
all information presented on the distributer's original label. Dating materials allows facilities to
use older materials first. When not in use, storage containers must be sealed to prevent spills
and evaporation. Storage areas and containers should be thoroughly inspected on a weekly basis
and secured against unauthorized entry. Care should be taken that chemical storage and
handling areas do not allow for contamination of storm water flows. EPA has developed
extensive guidance providing BMPs for storm water management in industrial settings.
Hazardous waste should never he discharged into floor drains, storm drains, toilets, sinks,
other improper disposal areas, or other routes leading to public sewers, septic systems, or dry
wells. Chemical waste should be disposed of according to the manufacturer's directions and
State and local requirements. Many local communities sponsor household hazardous waste
events to collect and properly dispose of small quantities of chemicals.
-------
A useful tool for making disposal decisions is the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS). These
sheets provide important information regarding contents of commercial products and enable a
facility to determine whether materials will produce hazardous waste. MSDS data (i.e.,
chemical name, ingredients, possible carcinogens, and other known ha/ards) are also important
for chemical use, storage and spill control. MSDS documents can be obtained from
manufacturers and should be kept readily accessible.
When hazardous substances are
unintentionally released, the event is
considered a spill and must be treated
appropriately. Spill prevention and control
includes spill response plans which serve as
guidance for employees in the event of a
large spill. A good plan minimizes
environmental impact and reduces liability
for clean-up costs and possible bodily
injuries. It should be kept where it can be
easily viewed by employees near mixing
and storage areas. Besides detailed
instructions for staff, a spill response plan
includes a diagram showing the location of all chemicals, floor drains, exits, fire extinguishers,
and spill response supplies. Spill response supplies (e.g., mop, pail, sponges, absorbent
materials) should also be listed. Someone trained in these procedures must be on site or easily
reachable during hours of operation.
Other practices to control spills include the use of funnels when transferring harmful substances
and drip pans placed under spigots, valves, and pumps to catch accidental leakage. Sloped
floors allow leaks to run into collection areas. Catch basins in loading dock areas, where nearly
one third of all accidental spills occur, can help recapture harmful chemicals. All practices
should be performed in a way that allows the reuse or recycling of the spilled substance.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on small quantity chemical use pollution prevention
practices. All of the documents listed are available I'ree of charge on the Internet.
Assistance is available to communities wishing to enact ordinances to protect water supplies
from contamination due to small quantity chemical use or to small businesses seeking to
improve their operations with management measures. Local fire departments or departments of
health have the authority to pass ordinances or regulations covering chemical use and safety.
Contact local government authorities in your area to see if there are ordinances in place to
manage small quantity chemical use. Numerous examples of local source water protection-
related ordinances for various potential contaminant sources can be found at
http: wwu.epa.gov ouater ordcom . http: uvvvv.epa.gov ouovv nps ordinance . and
http: • www.epa.gov ouovv nps ordinance links.htni. The Small Business Environmental Home
Page (http: www.smallbiz-enviroweb.org/fundstat.html) provides links to financial assistance
programs and other available assistance in all 50 States.
The following resources provide information on selection and design of specific management
measures:
Massachusetts Department of Environmental Protection. Bureau of Resource Protection.
Drinking Water Program. ( 1996, June). Tips for Protecting Your Drinking ll'citcr Su
Retrieved February 26. 2001. from the World Wide Web:
http: www.state.ma.us dep. brp dvvs tiles dontvhtm
-------
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. (1999, July). Disposal of Industrial Wastewater and
Alternatives. UICP/8-02/July 1999. Retrieved February 21, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.pca.state.mn.us/water/pubs/8-02.pdf
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. (1999, February). Best Management
Practices (BMPs) for Groundwater Protection. WD-WSEB-22-4. Retrieved February 26, 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.des.state.nh.us/factsheets/ws/ws-22-4.htm
New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Pollution Prevention Unit. (1998,
March). Environmental Compliance and Pollution Prevention Guide for Small Quantity
Generators. Retrieved January 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.dec.state.ny.us/website/ppu/ecppsqg.pdf
Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Hazardous Waste Management. (1997,
August). Your Business and Hazardous Materials Management. Retrieved February 21, 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.state.oh.us/dhwm/dwatt/brochure.htm
U.S. EPA, Envirosense. (1993, February). Case Study: Preventing Ground Water
Contamination. #1903. Retrieved February 21, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://es.epa.gov/techinfo/case/michigan/michcsl5.html
U.S. EPA, New England. (2000, April). What Role Does Your Business Have in Protecting
Drinking Water Sources. EPA-901-F-00-001. Retrieved February 21, 2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/regionO 1/eco/drinkwater/sourcewater.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste. (1996, April). Understanding the Hazardous Waste Rules.
EPA530-K-95-001. Retrieved May 1, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/epaoswer/hazwaste/sqg/handbook/sqg_pdf.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. (1992, September). Storm Water Management
for Industrial Activities: Developing Pollution Prevention Plans and BMPs. Retrieved May 1,
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/sw/indguide/index.htm
The following sites provide information on preventive measures for small quantity chemical
IISP'
use:
downthedrain.org is a site dedicated to reducing the threat of hazardous materials to our
drinking water supply, http://www.downthedrain.org
The Miami-Dade Department of Environmental Resource Management provides several
best management practices fact sheets for various types of facilities.
http://www.co.miami-dade.fl.us/derm/
The Small Business Environmental Home Page (http://www.smallbiz-enviroweb.org)
helps small business access environmental compliance and pollution prevention
information. Its publication section provides documents and web sites for various small
quantity chemical users.
The U.S. EPA's Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assistance
(http://es.epa.gov/oeca/main/compasst/index.html) provides documents and links related
to small quantity chemical users.
Information on waste exchange can be found on U.S. EPA's Envirosense web site for
Materials/Waste Exchange, http://es.epa.gov/program/iniative/vvaste/waste.html.
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA916-F-01-026
July 2001
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Livestock, Poultry, and
Horse Waste to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
Animal waste or feces have long been isolated from people for public health reasons. Yet,
animal waste is deposited daily into rivers, streams, and other water bodies. This waste poses a
continuous threat to human health. Appropriate steps must be taken to lower this risk and
prevent contamination of drinking water sources. This fact sheet addresses some source water
contamination prevention measures related to livestock, poultry, and horses that can improve
water quality and reduce the burden on drinking water treatment facilities. (Refer to the fact
sheet on pet and wildlife waste for information on management measures related to these
animals.)
SOURCES OF ANIMAL WASTE
Livestock and poultry are major
sources of waste. Estimates indicate
that the amount of livestock waste is 13
times greater than the amount of human
sanitary waste generated in the United
States. Livestock and poultry waste
can be introduced to the environment
through direct discharges, through land
application of manure, and from open
feedlots, barns and housing, and
pastures.
Cattle fcedlot
Companion animals, such as horses
used for showing and recreation, also produce waste that should be accounted for in pollution
prevention. Horses raised on hobby farms, while similar to livestock, are managed differently,
allowing for alternative prevention measures. The average horse produces about 45 pounds of
waste each day. an amount that can be overwhelming to those operating small, suburban horse
farms. Horses are rarely kept in a single facility of more than 50 animals. Although this lower
density eliminates some of the concerns that pertain to livestock, horse waste can be managed
using many of the same prevention measures used for livestock.
WHY IS II IMPORTANT TO MANAGE ANIMAL WASTE NEAR THE SOURCES ()l
YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Animal waste contains many pollutants that can contaminate surface and ground waters used as
drinking water sources. Probably the greatest health concern assoeiateil with livestock.
poultry, and horse wastes is pathogens. Many pathogens found in animal waste can infect
humans if ingested. Organisms like Cnpiosporidium, (Hardui lunihliu. and Salmonella can
induce symptoms ranging from skin sores to chest pain. E. coli. which causes diarrhea and
-------
abdominal gas, has been the source of disease outbreaks in several States. Particularly virulent
strains of E. coli can cause serious illness and even death. Cryptosporidium is of particular
concern because it is highly resistant to disinfection with chlorine. This protozoan causes
gastrointestinal illness that lasts 2 to 10 days in healthy individuals but can be fatal in people
with weakened immune systems. Cryptosporidium was responsible for more than 50 deaths
and an estimated 403,000 illnesses after contaminating a Milwaukee drinking water supply.
Runoff from cow manure application sites was a suspected source of the Cryptosporidium.
Animal wastes can contribute to nitrates in drinking water. Consumption of nitrates can cause
methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) in infants, which reduces the ability of the blood to
carry oxygen. If left untreated, methemoglobinemia can be fatal. Because of this health risk,
EPA set a drinking water maximum contaminant level (MCL) of 10 milligrams per liter or
parts per million for nitrate measured as nitrogen.
Animal waste contains many other pollutants of concern that affect humans and water quality.
Such pollutants include oxygen-demanding substances that can lead to fish kills and degraded
water quality. Solids from animal waste can increase turbidity and adversely affect the taste
and odor of waters. In addition, metals such as arsenic, copper, selenium, and zinc, which are
often added to animal feed, can be toxic to humans. Antibiotics, pesticides, and hormones, also
used in animal feeding operations, can become harmful pollutants as well.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS ANIMAL WASTE
Many prevention measures can
significantly reduce the impact of
waste from livestock, poultry, and
horses on water supplies. These
measures vary greatly in complexity
and cost. It should be noted that
individual prevention measures might
not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters.
Measures should be combined in an
overall pollution prevention approach
that considers the nature of the animal
waste, the vulnerability of the drinking
water sources, and the cost and
operation and maintenance
requirements of the measures.
Proper management of livestock waste
includes preventing animals and their
waste from coming into contact with
runoff and water sources, properly
applying waste as fertilizer on crop or
pastures, and appropriately managing
pastures.
Feedlot Management Measures
Several options are available to reduce
contact between manure and
precipitation or runoff through proper
storage and treatment of the manure
from animal operations. Among them are
water diversions, composting, and runoff
CAFO Permits
Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES) regulations, concentrated animal
feeding operations (CAFOs) are defined as point
sources and are subject to permitting where they
discharge or have the potential to discharge pollutants
(40 CFR 122.23). EPA regulations define a CAFO
based on the size of the animal feeding operation or its
size in combination with the manner of discharge. An
animal feeding operation can also be designated a
CAFO when the permit authority determines it is a
significant source of pollution. A NPDES permit
authorizes, and imposes conditions on, the discharge
of pollutants. The permit must include technology-
based limitations and, if necessary, more stringent
water quality-based limitations. EPA has published
technology-based limitations (e.g., effluent guidelines)
for feedlots at 40 CFR Part 412. The guidelines
include numeric limits, non-numeric effluent
limitations, and requirements for facilities to use
specific BMPs. EPA published a proposed rule in the
Federal Register on January 12, 2001 (66 FR 2960).
that would revise and update both the definition of a
CAFO and the effluent guidelines for feedlots. These
revisions seek to address water quality issues posed by
changes in the animal production industry as well as to
more effectively address the land application of
CAFO-generated manure and process wastewater.
Additional information on this proposed rule can be
obtained at http://www.epa.gov/npdes/afo.
waste storage lagoons, litter storage structures, clean
treatment.
-------
A lagoon, or waste storage pond, is made by excavating earth fill to provide temporary storage
of animal waste. This practice can reduce the amount of organics, pathogens, and nutrients
entering surface waters; however, lagoons can contaminate ground water if they are not
constructed and maintained
properly. Lagoons have three
distinct zones containing liquids,
sludge, and solids. These wastes
can later be pumped out and
applied to cropland as fertilizer.
Because of the risk to ground
water, good planning, design, and
4^ maintenance are critical when
JB using a lagoon for animal waste
.
Lagoon storage. I wo important
components are the location and
the liner of the lagoon. A lagoon should be placed in accordance with State and local
requirements for separation distances from nearby drinking water wells. Lagoons should be
located downslope from wells and never sited on floodplains. Lagoons should be designed to
contain at least a 25-year, 24-hour storm plus process wastewater. (A 25-year storm is one that
has a one-in-25 chance of
occurrence in a given year).
Hog parlor with hieoon
A lagoon should be constructed
with a low-permeability liner
made of synthetic material or
geotextiles or formed by
compacted clay or other soil
material. Once the liner is
established, it is imperative to
maintain its integrity during the
waste removal process. Any
erosion can lead to seepage and
subsequent contamination of
ground water. Two practices to
protect the liner are building a
concrete access ramp for waste
removal equipment, and operating equipment under dry conditions by first removing all the
liquids and letting the solids dry.
Poultry litter storage facilities are designed to keep rainwater and runoff away from poultry
house waste being stored for later application to crops. Litter storage can ensure that poultry
waste is applied under the proper conditions to protect the environment and to coincide with
soil and crop needs. Types of litter storage buildings (ranging from the least to the most
protective of water sources) include open stockpiles, covered stockpiles, hunker-type storage.
and roofed storage structures. The appropriate size of the storage structure depends on the
amount of litter removed and how often the poultry houses are cleaned out.
Clean water diversion is an effective measure that prevents contamination of precipitation or
sin lace How as it makes its way to drinking water sources. Proper storm \\ater management in
and around feedlots and livestock yards, including proper protection (or isolation) of
agricultural drainage well inlets, is essential to guarding against ground water contamination.
Rain gutters and downspouts on animal shelter roofs keep runoff clean by directing
precipitation away from manure. Another tactic to prevent runoff contamination is to construct
superficial diversions, such as earthen ridges or diversion terraces built above the teedlot or
barnvard, to direct surface flow awav from waste.
-------
Composting can help eliminate pathogens and reduce the volume of manure. Composting is
the controlled biological decomposition of organic materials; it can be aerobic (occurring with
oxygen) or anaerobic (occurring with little or no oxygen). It is perhaps the most common and
least costly method of handling livestock waste. Compost sites should be located away from
drinking water wells and water sources to avoid leaching during heavy rain. Also, piles should
be situated on fairly flat sites where water does not collect or run off. Once manure has fully
broken down into usable compost, it can be spread as fertilizer, using proper application
methods. Composting should take place at the correct temperature and for an appropriate
length of time to kill the pathogens in the manure.
Once runoff becomes contaminated, vegetative filter strips and other means can be used to
control overland flow. Such measures treat the runoff from feedlots or grazing areas by
absorbing nutrients, bacteria, and chemicals. More detailed descriptions of these types of
prevention measures can be found in the fact sheet on managing storm water runoff.
Proper Land Application oj Manure
Effective nutrient management minimizes the quantity of nutrients available for loss. This is
achieved by developing a comprehensive nutrient management plan and using only the types
and amounts of nutrients necessary
to produce the crop, applying
nutrients at the proper times and
with appropriate methods,
implementing additional farming
practices to reduce nutrient losses,
and following proper procedures
for fertilizer storage and handling.
Correct placement of manure in
the root zone can greatly enhance
plant nutrient uptake and minimize
losses. Manure should be
Animal waste used as fertilizer
incorporated into the subsurface,
rather than simply applied to the surface to reduce runoff and production of vapors. Waste
should never be applied to frozen, snow-covered, or saturated ground. Good management of
irrigation water can help maximize efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching.
Proper manure application rates are also important. Applying waste at the time of maximum
crop uptake can minimize loss to surface runoff and decrease the amount of manure needed to
fertilize crops. Calculating the optimal rate of application also includes crediting other
sources that contribute nitrogen and phosphorus to the soil. Furthermore, appropriate manure
application is based on yield goals established by the crop producers. Yield expectations are
established for each crop and field based on soil properties, available moisture, yield history.
and management level. Soil sampling is necessary to determine plant nutrient needs and to
make accurate fertilizer recommendations.
Conservation tillage and buffers can reduce runoff over feeding and grazing lands and transport
of livestock wastes to water sources. In conservation tillage, crops are grown with minimal
cultivation of the soil. Plant residues are not completely incorporated into the soil; instead they
remain to provide cover and reduce runoff. Buffer strips and filter strips are created by
planting dense vegetation near surface water bodies. The vegetation reduces runoff and filters
sediments and chemicals. For more information on buffer strips and filter strips, see the lact
sheet on storm water runoff.
In some areas of the country, the amount of animal waste produced is more than can be used by
all the crops in the area. In these cases, programs to move the excess manure out of the
-------
watershed or source water protection area or to develop an alternative use for the manure
(other than land application) might be necessary.
Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and economic benefits by minimizing
fertilizer and pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop rotation plan provides
nitrogen for subsequent crops. Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen left in the
soil by shallow-rooted crops. See the fact sheet on agricultural application of fertilizer for
additional information on measures such as laser-controlled land leveling, conservation tillage,
and buffer strips.
Pasture Management
Several methods are available to keep livestock away from
water bodies. In addition to preventing damage to stream
banks, fencing can be used to keep livestock from defecating
in or near streams or wells. Fencing designs include
standard or
conventional
(barbed or smooth wire), suspension, woven wire,
and electric fences. The height, size, spacing, and
number of wires and posts are a function of the
landscape topography as well as the animals of
concern. Optimum design criteria depend on the
specific situation and should be developed through
consultation with biologists. Providing alternative
water sources and hardened stream crossings for
use by livestock lessens their impact on water
quality.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on animal waste pollution prevention measures. All of the
documents listed are available free of charge on the Internet.
Contact the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Conservation District, and
Agricultural Extension Service representatives in your area. They can provide more
information on nutrient management and cost-share programs, such as the Environmental
Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), and the
Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP). to assist in financing source water
protection measures.
The Center for Watershed Protection, Storm Water Manager's Resource Center. Pollution
Prevention Fuel Sheet: Aninuil \\\iste Collection. Retrieved February 19. 2001. from the
World Wide Web: http://www.stormwatercenter.net
Fulhage, Charles D. (1993, October). Storing Poultry Litter. University of Missouri-Columbia,
Department of Agricultural Engineering. Water Quality Initiative Publication WQ212.
Retrieved May 21, 2001. from the World Wide Web:
http://muextension.missouri.edu/xplor/envqual/wq0212.htm
Hammond, C. Animal \\'aste anil the Environment. The University of Georgia College of
Agricultural & Environmental Sciences Cooperative Extension Service. Retrieved January 1').
2001 from the World Wide Web: hup: \v\v\v ces.uga.edu/pubcd/c827-w.htm]
-------
Kellogg, R. L, C.H. Lander, D. C. Moffitt, and N. Gollehon. (2000, December). Manure
Nutrients Relative to the Capacity of Cropland and Pastureland to Assimilate Nutrients:
Spatial and Temporal Trends for the United States. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Natural
Resources Conservation Service Economic Research Service. Retrieved May 21, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/land/pubs/manntr.html
Koelsch, R. (1999, January) Sludge Management for Anaerobic Lagoons and Runoff Holding
Ponds. Nebraska Cooperative Extension. G98-1371-A. Retrieved February 27, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/wastemgt/gl371.htm
Natural Resource Conservation Service, Water Science Institute. (2000, June). Waterborne
Pathogens in Agricultural Watersheds. Retrieved May 1, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/watershed/products.html
North Carolina State University Water Quality Group. (2000, August). National Management
Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Agriculture [Draft]. U.S. EPA, Office
of Water, Nonpoint Source Control Branch. Retrieved May 1, 2001, from the World Wide
Web: http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/agmm/index.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (1999, August).
Conservation Practices Training Guide. Retrieved April 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/tech_ref.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2000, December).
Comprehensive Nutrient Management Planning - Technical Guidance. Retrieved April 30,
2001 from, the World Wide Web:
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/PROGRAMS/ahcwpd/ahCNMP.html
U.S. EPA, Office of. Ground Water and Drinking Water. (1999, April). Uncovered Finished
Water Reservoirs Guidance Manual. EPA-815-R-99-011. Retrieved February 19, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/safewater/mdbp/pdf/uncover/ufw8p.pdf
U.S. EPA, Office of Science and Technology. (1999, January). Preliminary Data Summary:
Feedlots Point Source Category Study. EPA-821-R-99-002. Retrieved February 19, 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/ostwater
The following sites provide publications and information on livestock management and related
prevention measures:
Idaho One Plan (http://www.oneplan.org) provides a catalog of best management
practices.
Iowa State University Extension. http://www.exnet.iastate.edu/Pages/pubs/fml.htm
Michigan Department of Agriculture. Right to Farm Program.
http://www.mda.state.mi.us/right2fanTi/fami.htm
Texas Agricultural Extension Service, http://agextension.tamu.edu
U.S. Department of Agricultural, Natural Resources Conservation Service's
Conservation Practice Standards site provides links to State Conservation Practice
Standards and other documents. http://vvvv\v.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/practice_stds.html
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management, has a site dedicated to animal feeding
operations, http://vvwvv.epa.gov/ovvmitnet/afo.htm
U.S. EPA, Office of Wetlands, Oceans, and Watersheds.
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/agriculture.html
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA916-F-01-027
July 2001
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Pet and Wildlife Waste
to Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Animal waste or feces have long been isolated from
people for public health reasons. However, droppings
from pets, such as dogs, cats, exotic birds and rabbits, are
deposited into rivers, streams, and other water bodies and
can threaten human health. This fact sheet addresses
some of the measures pet owners can take to improve
water quality and reduce the burden on drinking water
treatment. (See the fact sheet on livestock, poultry, and
horse wastes for information on management measures
related to these animals.)
SOURCES OF PET AND WILDLIFE WASTE
While livestock are the greatest contributor of animal waste, perhaps the least suspected source
of animal waste is man's very own best friend. Pets, particularly dogs, are significant
contributors to source water contamination. Studies performed on watersheds in the Seattle,
Washington, area found that nearly 20 percent of the bacteria found in water samples were
matched with dogs as the host animals.
Wild birds and small mammals can introduce microorganisms into a water supply through
direct contact or from watershed runoff. Wildlife commonly associated with microbial
contamination of drinking
water supplies include deer,
beavers, muskrats, rodents,
gulls, and geese. Birds are
widely reported to be one of
the most common and
significant sources of
contamination of open
reservoirs. Areas that are
suitable for pets can attract
wildlife as well, so tips pet
owners can use to deter
wildlife are presented in this
fact sheet.
Slum siccsc
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE PET AND WILDLIFE WASTE NEAR THE
SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Probably the greatest health concern associated with animal wastes is pathogens. Many
pathogens found in animal waste can infect humans if ingested. Organisms such as
Cryptosporidium, Gian/ia lamblia, and Salmonella can induce symptoms ranging from skin
sores to chest pain. E. coli, which causes diarrhea and abdominal gas, has been the source of
disease outbreaks in several States. Particularly virulent strains off. coli can cause serious
illness and fatalities. Cryptosporidium is of particular concern because it is highly resistant to
disinfection with chlorine. This protozoan causes' gastrointestinal illness lasting two to ten
days in healthy individuals but can be fatal in people with weakened immune systems.
Dog and cat droppings often contain roundworms and other parasitic nematodes. Infection by
just a few roundworms usually causes no problems, but more severe infections may cause
fevers, bronchitis, asthma, or vision problems. Cat feces may contain toxoplasmosis, a parasite
that infects humans and other animals. Cats are the only animals known to excrete
toxoplasmosis oocysts, which are resistant to most disinfectants. Toxoplasmosis is a serious
health concern for pregnant women and immuno-compromised individuals.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS PET AND WILDLIFE
WASTE
The most effective way for pet owners to limit their pet's contribution to source water
contamination is to simply clean up and dispose of pet waste. As long as the droppings are not
mixed with other materials, pet waste should be flushed down the toilet. This allows waste to
be properly treated by a community sewage plant or septic system. Also, pet waste can be
buried or sealed in a plastic bag and put into the garbage if local law allows it (check with the
local health department to be sure).
To bury pet wastes, dig a hole at least one foot deep, and place three to four inches of pet
waste at the bottom. Use a shovel to chop and mix the wastes into the soil at the bottom, then
cover the wastes with at least eight inches of soil to keep rodents and pets from digging them
up. Pet wastes should only be buried around ornamental plants, and never in vegetable gardens
or food-growing locations.
Pet wastes are not recommended for hack yard compost piles. While animal manures can
make useful fertilizer, parasites carried in dog and cat feces can cause diseases in humans and
should not be incorporated into compost piles. Dogs and cats should be kept away from
gardens as well.
Pets should not be walked near streams, ponds,
or lakes. Stream banks should not be part of the
normal territory of animals. Instead, walk pets
in grassy areas, parks, or undeveloped areas. Pet
wastes left on sidewalks, streets, or other paved
and hard surfaces are readily earned by storm
water into streams. Pet wastes should be kept
out of street gutters and storm drains.
Some more advanced practices that can be
adopted in public parks are doggy loos and
pooch patches. Doggy loos are disposal units installed in the ground where decomposition can
occur. If pets are allowed off-leash, they can be trained to defecate on pooch patches, which
are sandy areas designated for that purpose. Special bins can also be provided for the disposal
of pet waste. Wherever pets defecate, whether in public parks or backyards, the "Long (iras\
Principle" can be used to prevent source water contamination. Not only are dogs readily
attracted to long grass, but long grass helps to filter pollutants and the feces can decompose
-------
naturally while minimally polluting runoff. A height of around ten centimeters (10 cm) is
appropriate for such long grass. These long grass areas, however, should be placed away from
overland flow paths, stream channels, lakes, drinking water wells, and storm water drainage
inlets.
Managing Wildlife
Although there are a variety of ways to decrease the risk posed by non-domestic animals by
removing attractants or harassing nuisance species, any such plans should be implemented only
with a good understanding of the nuisance wildlife population in question. For example,
Federal or State permits might be required for wildlife control harassment programs; in
addition, some nuisance species, such as Canada geese, are protected by Federal law, and
harming the birds or their eggs can result in stiff penalties. Consult fish and wildlife agencies
regarding the handling of protected species.
Harassment programs can be implemented to repel birds and wildlife from valuable surface
waters. Available methods include habitat modification, decoys, eagle kites, noisemakers, and
scarecrows or plastic owls. A daily human presence can keep birds and other wild species
away.
Reducing the attractiveness of yards to wildlife might encourage these species to live
elsewhere. Species can be diverted from sensitive areas by using fencing, mowing, landscaping
changes, tree pruning (to reduce bird roosting), or drainage devices (to keep beavers and
muskrats from building dams and dens). Food sources can be kept to a minimum by
prohibiting feeding by the public, removing trash, securing pet feed, and reducing palatable
plant species.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on pet waste pollution prevention measures. All of the
documents listed are available free of charge on the Internet.
If your community does not regulate pet waste, e.g., with a "pooper-scooper" ordinance, try to
make it a priority of your local governing body. Contact the local animal control officer or
local or State department of health. Encourage the parks and recreation department to place
pet waste collection and disposal stations in public parks.
Home*A*Syst (www.uwex.edu/homeasyst) provides valuable information on environmental
and health issues in and around the home.
U.S. EPA, Long Island Sound Study. Pet Waste Poster. Retrieved February 19, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/region01/eco/lis/posters/pet.html
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 916-F-01 -028
Environmental Protection (4606) July 2001
Agency
-------
Another major component of fertilizer is phosphorus. Under certain conditions phosphorus can
be readily transported with the soil. In fact, 60 to 90 percent of phosphorus moves with the soil.
Phosphorus is the major source of water quality impairments in lakes nationwide. Even though
regulations that affect the taste and odor of
water are not Federally enforceable under the
Safe Drinking Water Act. municipalities
often must treat their drinking water supplies
for these aesthetic reasons.
The use of organic nutrient sources, such as
manure, can supply all or part of the
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs
for crop production. However, organic
fertilizers can also cause excessive nutrient
loads if improperly applied. Organic femll/or ,ipp,,callon
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS AGRICULTURAL
APPLICATIONS OF FERTILIZER
This section discusses some of the most often used prevention measures, but is not an
exhaustive list of all known measures. For information on additional prevention measures, see
the documents referenced in the last section of this fact sheet. Please keep in mind that
individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent contamination of source
waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an overall prevention approach
that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost,
operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the source
water, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired degree of risk
reduction.
The goal of these prevention measures is to minimize nutrient losses from agricultural lands
occurring by edge-of-field runoff and by leaching from the root zone. Effective nutrient
management abates nutrient movement by minimizing the quantity of nutrients available for
loss. This is achieved by developing a comprehensive nutrient management plan and using only
the types and amounts of nutrients necessary to produce the crop, applying nutrients at the
proper times and with proper methods, implementing additional fanning practices to reduce
nutrient losses, and following proper procedures for fertilizer storage and handling.
Application Rates and Fertilizer Types
One component of a comprehensive nutrient
management plan is to determine proper
fertilizer application rates. The goal is to limit
fertili/er to an amount necessary to achie\e a
realistic yield goal for the crop. Soil sampling
and crediting other sources arc also parts of the
concept.
SJS? Yearly soil sampling is necessary for
determining plant nutrient needs and to make
^ accurate fertilizer recommendations. Main
factors must be considered when determining
j. --':'_ •_ * sampling methods and frequency .
;|spreai Calculating the optimal rate of application also
includes crediting other sources that contribute nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil. Previous
legume crops, irrigation water, manure, and organic matter all contribute nitrogen to the soil.
while organic matter and manure contribute phosphorus.
-------
Along with soil samples and fertilizer credits from other sources, nitrogen fertilizer
recommendations are based on yield goals established by the crop producers. Yield
expectations are established for each crop and field based on soil properties, available moisture,
yield history, and management level.
Applying the appropriate form of nitrogen fertilizer can reduce leaching. Nitrate forms of
nitrogen fertilizer are readily available to crops, but are subject to leaching losses. Nitrate
fertilizer use should be limited when the leaching potential is moderate to high. In these
situations, ammonium nitrogen fertilizers should be used because they are not subject to
immediate leaching. However, ammonium nitrogen transforms rapidly into nitrate when soils
are warm and moist. More slowly available nitrogen fertilizers should be used in these
conditions. Nitrification inhibitors can also delay the conversion of ammonium to nitrate under
certain conditions.
Phosphorus fertilizer is less subject to leaching, but loss through surface runoff is more
common. To minimize losses of phosphorus fertilizer, applications should only be made when
needed (determined through soil testings) and at recommended rates.
Fertilizer Application Timing
Nitrogen fertilizer applications should be timed to coincide as closely as possible to the period
of maximum crop uptake. Fertilizer applied in the fall has been shown to cause ground water
degradation. Partial application of fertilizer in the spring, followed by small additional
applications as needed, can improve nitrogen uptake and reduce leaching. Reasons to alter
nitrogen amounts include abnormal weather or crop quality.
Fertilizer Application Methods
Fertilizer application equipment should be inspected at least once annually. Application
equipment must also be properly calibrated to insure that the recommended amount of fertilizer
is spread.
Correct fertilizer placement in the root zone can greatly enhance plant nutrient uptake and
minimize losses. Subsurface applied or incorporated fertilizer should be used instead of a
surface broadcast fertilizer. The most efficient application method for many crops, especially in
erosive soils, is to place dry fertilizer into the ground in bands. Band or drilled row fertilizers
are applied closer to the seed and can be recovered by the crop more efficiently. All surface-
applied fertilizers should be mechanically incorporated into the soil to reduce losses through
surface runoff and volatilization. Fertilizer should never be applied to frozen ground, and also
should be limited on slopes and areas with high runoff or overland flow.
Irrigation water should be managed to maximize
efficiency and minimize runoff or leaching. Irrigated
crop production has the greatest potential for source
water contamination because of the large amount of
water applied. Both nitrogen and phosphorus can leach
into ground water or run off into surface water when
excess water is applied to fields. Irrigation systems, such
as sprinklers, low-energy precision applications, surges.
and drips, allow producers to apply water uniformly and
with great efficiency. Efficiency can also be improved
by using delivery systems such as lined ditches and gated
pipe, as well as reuse systems such as field drainage
recovery ponds that efficiently capture sediment and nutrients. Gravity-controlled irrigation or
furrow runs should be shortened to prevent over-watering at the top of the furrow before the
lower end is adequately watered.
-------
Additional Farming Practices
A complete system is needed to reduce fertilizer loss. Components of this system often include
farming practices that are not strictly related to fertilizer, such as conservation tillage and
buffers.
Conservation tillage is another field management
method used to reduce runoff. In conservation tillage,
crops are grown with minimal cultivation of the soil.
When the amount of tillage is reduced, the plant
residues are not completely incorporated and most or
all remain on top of the soil. This practice is critical
to reducing phosphorus losses because the residue
provides cover and thereby reduces nutrient runoff
and erosion by water.
psp*
C'onxei\iition
Creating buffer strips or filter strips can impede runoff and help filter nitrogen and phosphorus
from runoff. Buffer strips and filter strips are created by planting dense vegetation near surface
water bodies. The root systems of these plants hold soil in place, thereby decreasing the
velocity of runoff and preventing erosion. The vegetation and soils strain and filter sediments
and chemicals. For more information on buffer strips and filter strips see the tact sheet on storm
water runoff.
Crop rotation can often yield crop improvement and
economic benefits by minimizing fertilizer and
pesticide needs. Planting legumes as part of a crop
rotation plan provides nitrogen for subsequent crops.
Deep-rooted crops can be used to scavenge nitrogen
left in the soil by shallow-rooted crops. Cover crops
stop wind and water erosion, and can use residual
nitrogen in the soil.
Wheat-corn-fallow rotation
A high-tech way to level or grade a field is to use
laser-controlled land leveling equipment. Field leveling helps to control water advance and
improve uniformity of soil saturation in gravity-flow irrigation systems. This improves
irrigation efficiency and reduces the potential for nutrient pollution through runoff.
Fertilizer Storage and Handling
Follow label directions for storing and mixing fertilizer and for disposing empty containers.
Lock or secure storage container valves when the container is not in use.
Protect permanent fertilizer storage and mixing sites from spills, leaks, or storm water
infiltration. Storage buildings should have impermeable floors and be securely locked.
Impermeable secondary containment dikes can also be used to contain liquid spills or leaks. Do
not store fertilizer in underground containers or pits.
To prevent accidental contamination of water supplies, mix, handle, and store fertilizer away
from wellheads and surface water bodies. Installing anti-backflow devices on equipment can
also prevent spillage. Ideally, mix and load fertilizers at the application spot.
Immediately recover and reuse or properly dispose of spills. Granular absorbent material can be
used at the mixing site to clean up small liquid spills.
-------
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These references have information on agricultural fertilizer use and best management practices.
All of the following documents are available for free on the internet. You should also contact
the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS),
Conservation District, and Agricultural Extension Service representatives in your area for more
information on nutrient management and cost-share programs, such as the Environmental
Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), and the
Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP), to assist in financing source water
protection measures.
Contact local government authorities in your area to see if there are ordinances in place to
manage fertilizer use. Numerous examples of local source water protection-related ordinances
for various potential contaminant sources can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm
The following documents provide more detailed information on prevention measures for
fertilizer use on the farm.
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Best Management Practices for Nitrogen
Fertilization (XCM-172). (1994, August). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/CROPS/pubcrop.htmWsoil
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Best Management Practices for Pesticide
and Fertilizer Storage and Handling (XCM-178). (1994, August). Retrieved February 9, 2001
from the World Wide Web: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/CROPS/pubcrop.htmWsoil
Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Best Management Practices for Phosphorus
Fertilization (XCM-175). (1994, August). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/CROPS/pubcrop.htmWsoil
Farm*A*Syst - University of Wiscocsin. Retrieved May 22, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.uwex.edu/farmasyst/
Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Service. Best Management Practices for
Nitrogen. (1996, March). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.oznet.ksu.edu/library/ageng2/tfWaterQuality
Kansas State University Cooperative Extension Service. Best Management Practices for
Phosphorus. (1998, February). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://vvwvv.oznet.ksu.edu/library/ageng2/tfWaterQuality
North Carolina State University. Sustainable Practices for Vegetable Production in the South -
Conservation Tillage. (1997, July 9). Retrieved March 14, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/sustainable/peet/tillage/c03tilla.html
Purdue University Extension Service. Fertilizer Storage and Handling on the Farm. (1999).
Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edu/-epados/farmstead/fert/src/title.htm
Texas Agricultural Extension Service. Reducing the Risk of Ground Water Contamination by
Improving Fertilizer Storage and Handling (B-6026). (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from
the World Wide Web: http://agpublications.tamu.edu/catalog/index.html
University of Maryland - Cooperative Extension. Agricultural Nutrient Management.
Retrieved May 22, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://vvwvv.agnr.umd.edu/users/agron/nutrient/
-------
University of Saskatchewan, Department of Agriculture. Fertilizer: The Basics, (n.d.).
Retrieved February 16, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ag.usask.ca/cofa/departments/hort/hortinfo/misc/fertiliz.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture. Irrigation Systems and Land Treatment Practices. (2001,
February 6). Retrieved March 14, 2001 from tiie World Wide Web:
http://l 51.121.66.126/Briefmg/wateruse/Questions/glossary.htm
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Comprehensive
Nutrient Management Planning - Technical Guidance. (2000, December). Retrieved April 30,
2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.nhq.nrcs.usda.gov/PROGRAMS/ahcwpd/ahCNMP.html
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Conservation
Practices Training Guide.' (1999, August). Retrieved April 30, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.ftw.nrcs.usda.gov/tech_ref.html
Virginia Cooperative Extension. Fertilizer Storage, Handling, and Management (442-906).
(1996, June). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ext.vt.edu/pubs/farmasyst/442-906/442-906.html
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 816-F-01 -029
Environmental Protection (4606) July 2001
Agency
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Turfgrass and Garden
Fertilizer Application to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
Fertilizers are made up of organic and inorganic materials that are added to soil to supply
nutrients required for plant growth. If improperly managed, fertilizer elements, specifically
phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N), can run off into surface water or leach into ground water.
This fact sheet focuses on the management of small-scale fertilizer applications to prevent
contamination of drinking water sources (ground water and surface water used as public
drinking water supplies); see the fact sheets on pesticide application and storm water for other
preventative measures related to lawn and garden care.
FERTILIZER USE IN TURFGRASS AND GARDENS
The care of landscaped areas can
contribute to the pollution of surface
water and ground water. Heavily
landscaped areas include residential
yards, commercial lawns, golf
courses, ball fields, and parks. The
soils in many of these areas require
frequent fertilization to maintain their
turf grass. Because excess fertilizer
use and poor application methods can
cause fertilizer movement into
sources of drinking water, the
increased application of lawn and
garden fertilizers in recent years has
raised concern over the pollution of surface water and ground water.
The two main components of fertilizer that are of the greatest concern to source water quality
are nitrogen and phosphorus. Nitrogen is used to promote green, leafy, vegetative growth in
plants. Plants with nitrogen deficiency show stunted growth. Phosphorus promotes root growth.
root branching, stem growth, flowering, fruiting, seed formation, and maturation.
A recent nonpoint source loading analysis from a New Jersey study indicated that ten percent of
the nitrogen and four percent of the phosphorus applied annually in a ll>3-square-mile area of
landscaped residential development ended up in surface waters as a result of over-application.
Another study (South Jersey Resource Conservation and Development Council, Inc.) found that
more than 50 percent of the nitrogen in fertili/er leaches from lawns when improperly applied.
This kind of nutrient loss can be reduced by following the prevention measures given in this fact
sheet.
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE FERTILIZER USE NEAR THE SOURCES
OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Improper or excessive use of fertilizer can lead to nitrate pollution of ground or surface water.
Nitrogen fertilizer, whether organic or inorganic, is biologically transformed to nitrate that is
highly soluble in water.
Use of nitrogen-containing fertilizers can contribute to nitrates in drinking water. Consumption of
nitrates can cause methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome) in infants, which reduces the
ability of the blood to carry oxygen. If left untreated, methemoglobinemia can be fatal for
affected infants. Due to this health risk, EPA set a drinking water maximum contaminant level
(MCL) of 10 milligrams per liter (mg/1) or parts per million (ppm) has been set for nitrate
measured as nitrogen.
Phosphorus is the other element of concern in fertilizer. Under certain conditions phosphorus
can be readily transported with the soil. In fact, 60 to 90 percent of phosphorus moves with the
soil. Phosphorus is the major source of water quality impairments in lakes nationwide. Even
though regulations that affect the taste and odor of water are not Federally enforceable under
the Safe Drinking Water Act, municipalities often must treat their drinking water supplies for
these aesthetic reasons.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS TURFGRASS AND
GARDEN APPLICATIONS OF FERTILIZER
This section discusses some of the most often used prevention measures, but is not an
exhaustive list of all known measures. For information on additional prevention measures, see
the documents referenced in the last section of this fact sheet. Please keep in mind that
individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent contamination of source
waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an overall prevention approach
that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost, operational,
and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the source water, the
public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired degree of risk reduction.
Ways to Eliminate Excess Fertilizer Use
Fertilizer applications should be based on so/7 tests to avoid the economic and environmental
costs that can be incurred with excess fertilizer use. A soil test will show the levels of
phosphorus and potassium present in the lawn; however, soil tests for nitrogen are rare.
Nitrogen is highly mobile in the soil and tests generally provide little useful information relative to
lawns. Most newly planted areas should be tested during initial planting and every one or two
years following that. A minimum of three to four weeks after the last fertilization should pass
before sampling. For sampling, 15 to 20 cores should be taken at about three to four inches in
depth and mixed in a plastic container. Samples can be tested using readily available field kits or
submitted to a private laboratory or extension office for testing and interpretation.
Selecting the appropriate fertilizer is the next crucial step after receiving soil testing results.
Most homeowners use blended fertilizers that list percentages of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in the fertilizer. For example, a 100-pound bag of 10-5-10 would contain ten pounds
of nitrogen, five pounds of phosphorus, and ten pounds of potassium. The remainder of the bag
contains micronutrients and filler materials that allow for an even application of nutrients. If the
soil test shows phosphorus is high, then a fertilizer with a low percentage of phosphorus should
be chosen (such as 20-0-10 or 24-3-8). Most lawns contain adequate phosphorus, and
continuous use of fertilizers high in phosphorus can result in excessive buildups. These lawns
are more likely to contribute high levels of phosphorus to surface water during storm runoff
events. The use of organic nutrient sources, such as manure, can supply all or part of the
-------
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium needs for turfgrass and gardens. However, organic
fertilizers can also cause excessive nutrient loads if improperly applied.
Nitrogen should be applied as recommended for the type of grass being grown. It is often
recommended that 1,000 square feet of lawn requires 0.5 pounds of nitrogen per month of
active growth. A good rule is never to apply more
than one pound of nitrogen fertilizer per 1,000 square
feet of lawn in any one application. For vegetable and
flower gardens only 0.1 to 0.2 pounds of nitrogen per
100 square feet should be applied per year, although
corn, tomatoes, and cole crops may require more.
To help maintain a healthy lawn it is best to mow
frequently at a height of 2.5 to 3 inches. Grass
clippings should remain on the lawn to decompose
and recycle nutrients back
to the lawn. By leaving
grass clippings on the
lawn, nitrogen applications
can be reduced by 30 to
40 percent.
Mulching lavvnmowcr
Native plants
Wherever possible, low maintenance, native plants and grasses
should be planted to minimize the use of fertilizer. Plants that are
adapted to the local soils require less fertilization and watering (for
example, xeriscaping is a landscaping method to minimize the use
of water in dry climates). In fact, these practices can reduce
required lawn maintenance up to 50 percent. Local planting
suggestions may be obtained from State and county extension
offices and Web sites.
Proper Fertilizer Application
The use of an appropriate form of nitrogen fertilizer can reduce the potential for leaching and
runoff problems. Quick-release fertilizers should be used on heavy clay or compacted soils,
because the longer a fertilizer granule remains intact, the greater the chances it will be washed
away into surface water. On sandy soils, however, nitrogen can leach through the soil quickly.
On these soils, slow-release nitrogen sources provide soluble nitrogen over a period of time so a
large concentration of nitrogen is not made available for leaching. Fertilizer bags are generally
labeled as a ratio of water-insoluble nitrogen (WIN) slow-release fraction, to water-soluble
nitrogen (WSN) quick-release fraction. A large WIN/WSN ratio indicates a high percentage of
slow-release nitrogen is contained in the product.
While the proper time of year to fertilize varies by location, applying a smaller amount of
fertilizer at a higher frequency is often best. Eliminating excess nutrients in soil reduces the
chances of polluting surface runoff and ground water. Ideally, fertilizer application should be
timed to coincide as closely as possible to the period of maximum uptake and growth. The most
active growth periods are spring and fall in cool climates and early and late summer in warm
climates. Avoid fertilizer applications before heavy rains.
Core compacted soils before applying fertilizer to insure incorporation In all types of soil, it
is always best to incorporate organic fertilizers into the lawn. When the phosphorus in organic
fertilizer remains on top of the soil it has an increased chance of washing away during heavy
-------
rains. Fertilizer should never be applied to frozen ground, and also should he limited on slopes
and areas with high runoff or overland flow.
It is important to irrigate with V* to Vi inch of water immediately after application of phosphorus
or water-soluble nitrogen fertilizer. Afterwards, the key is to add only enough water to
compensate for that removed by plant uptake and evaporation; this will minimize potential
pollution problems from runoff and leaching. Over-watering can increase nitrogen loss five to
11 times the amount lost when proper watering strategies are used. Soaker hoses and trickle or
drip irrigation systems are preferred
alternatives to sprinkler systems. These
systems deliver water at lower rates,
which can conserve water, increase the
volume infiltrated, and reduce surface
runoff.
To ensure the proper amount of fertilizer
is applied, spreaders should be properly
calibrated. As spreaders get older,
settings gradually change because of
wear and tear. Regular cleaning and
lubrication of the spreader will help it
perform properly. Labels on fertilizer
bags often list the proper spreader settings for different types of spreaders. In general, drop
spreaders are slower and more precise than rotary spreaders. Drop spreaders should be used
near bodies of water because rotary spreaders can easily cast granules into the water bodies.
Buffer strips or filter strips can be created to slow runoff and help filter nitrogen and
phosphorus from runoff. Buffers to runoff can be created simply by avoiding consistent mowing
near water bodies. Additionally, natural deep-rooted vegetation can be planted to enhance
nutrient filtering. Soil is held in place by the root systems of these plants. This decreases the
velocity of runoff and helps prevent erosion near sources of surface water. The vegetation and
soil strain and filter sediments, nutrients, and chemicals. For more information on buffer strips
and filter strips see the fact sheet on storm water runoff.
Fertilizer Storage and Handling
Closely follow label directions when storing and handling fertilizer and when disposing empty
containers. Stored dry fertilizer poses little threat to ground water as long as it is kept dry.
Therefore, stored fertilizer should be kept covered to keep precipitation off. Keep hags on
pallets to reduce the possibility of water damage.
1 ill spreaders on hard or paved surfaces where spills can he cleaned up easily by sleeping or
scooping up the spilled granules.
Additional Prevention Measures lor Coll Courses
Golf course fairways, tees, and greens should be located where the seasonal water table is not
excessively high. Fertilizer movement will he lowest on these sites.
State or local governments can produce guidelines for the design and maintenance of golf
courses. These guidelines can require golf course developers and managers to submit plans for
approval that show how they intend to lessen the impact of the site on the natural resources of
the area. Plan requirements could include mound water and surface water monitoring, and
design specifications, such as vegetative buffers or erosion controls
-------
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These documents contain information on fertilizer use and best management practices. All
sources are available for free on the Internet.. See EPA's Guide to Source Water Information
at www.epa.gov/safewater/protect/sources.html for a listing of resources on management
measures. You can also contact your local Extension Service for more information.
Contact local government authorities in your area to see if there are ordinances in place to
manage fertilizer use. Numerous examples of local source water protection-related ordinances
for various potential contaminant sources can be found at:
http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/links.htm
The following documents provide more detailed information on prevention measures for fertilizer
use in lawns and gardens.
Home*A*Syst - University of Wisconsin. Retrieved May 22, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.uwex.edu/homeasyst/
North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service. Water Quality and Professional Lawn Care
(WQWM-155). (1995, September). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/Turffiles/pubs/wqwml55.html
Purdue University Extension Service. Beneficial Lawn Care and Chemical Management.
(n.d). Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://pasture.ecn.purdue.edii/~epados/lawn/src/title.htm
South Jersey Resource Conservation and Development Council, Inc. Non-Point Pollution
Prevention - Homeowner, (n.d.). Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.sjrcd.org/ce/erosion3.htm
University of Idaho, College of Agriculture. Fertilizer BMPs for Your Lawn. (1994, April).
Water Quality Update, volume 4, number 2. Retrieved February 9, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.uidaho.edu/vvq/wqu/wqu42.html
University of Maryland - Cooperative Extension. Information Central - Greenhouse,
Nursery, Landscape, & Turf. Retrieved May 22, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www.agnr.umd.edu/CES/greennursury.html
University of Minnesota Extension Service. Fertilizer - Phosphorus and Water Pollution
(282). (1992). Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http://www. extension. umn.edu/info-u/environment/BD282. html
University of Minnesota Extension Service. Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and
Garden Fertilizers (FO-2923-GO). (1999). Retrieved February 12. 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://wAvw.extension.umn.edu/distributiorVhorticulture/DG2923.htmI
University of Minnesota Extension Service. Turfgrass Management for Protecting Surface
Water Quality (BU-5726-GO). (1997). Retrieved February 12, 2001 from the World Wide
Web: http://www.extension.umn.edu/clistribution/horticulture/DG5726.html
University of Wisconsin - Extension. Lawn and Garden Fertilizers (GWQ002). (1999).
Retrieved January 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.dean-
water.uwex.edu/pubs/stewards/index.html
-------
University of Wisconsin - Extension. Step in the Right Direction with Proper Lawn
Fertilizing, (n.d.). Retrieved January 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.dean-
water.uwex.edu/pubs/stewards/index.html
University of Wisconsin - Extension. Steps for Maintaining Healthy Lawns and Quality
Waters, (n.d.). Retrieved January 23, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.dean-
water.uwex.edu/pubs/stewards/index.html
The following documents are examples of local guidelines for the design and maintenance of
golf courses:
Baltimore County Environmental Protection and Resource Management. Environmental
Guidelines for the Design and Maintenance of Golf Courses, (n.d.). Retrieved May 17,
2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/golf.htm
Worcester County Department of Planning, Permits & Inspections. Voluntary Guidelines
Recommended for Golf Courses in Worcester County & the Delmarva Peninsula, (n.d.).
Retrieved May 18, 2001 from the World Wide Web:
http ://www. dnr. state. md. us/bay/tribstrat/gol f. html
The following University of Florida website details their outreach program to reduce non-point
source pollution, which includes proper nutrient management techniques:
http://hort.ufl.edu/fyn/
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA916-F-01-030
July 2001
Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Large-Scale Application
of Pesticides to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
Pesticides (including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides) contain a variety of chemicals
used to control pests, insects, and weeds. They are used in a variety of applications to reduce
the damage to plants by insects and other pests, and to control overgrowth of undesirable plant
species. This fact sheet describes measures to prevent the contamination of drinking water
sources from large-scale pesticide application for agricultural use. Prevention measures for
small-scale pesticide application (e.g., on lawns, schools, golf courses, and parks) are addressed
in a separate fact sheet.
SOURCES OF PESTICIDES
Pesticides are applied to crops by aerial spraying, topsoil application (granular, dust or liquid
formulations, or spray using truck or tractor-mounted equipment), soil injection, soil
incorporation, or irrigation. Aerial spraying and topsoil application pose the greatest risks for
pesticides to enter surface water bodies from runoff. Soil injection and incorporation pose the
greatest likelihood for ground water contamination because pesticides placed in the soil are
subject to leaching. The
application of pesticides
through irrigation
(chemigation) can also
cause ground water
contamination; for example,
an irrigation pump may fail
while the pesticide-metering
equipment continues lo
operate and cause highly
concentrated pesticide
levels to be applied to a
field. Pesticides can reach
ground water through
drains, sink holes, and other
conduits as well.
Hxcess rain or irrigation
water can wash pesticides from plants and soil. This can. in turn, run off into streams.
Pesticides can leach into the soil if plants are watered or rainfall occurs soon after application.
Some pesticides resist degradation by microbes in the soil and will eventually leach into the
around water.
-------
WHY FS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE PESTICIDES NEAR THE SOURCES OE
YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Pesticides contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds. By nature, they are
poisonous, and while they can be safely used if manufacturers' usage directions are followed,
they can, if mismanaged, seep into surface water and ground water supplies. They can be
difficult and expensive to remove, and, if inhaled or consumed, be hazardous to human health.
The synthetic organic chemicals in pesticides have been linked to serious health problems
including cancer, liver and kidney damage, reproductive difficulties, and nervous system
effects.
Once a water supply becomes contaminated with a pesticide, treating it can be very difficult and
costly. Treating the water supply is a lengthy process and is not always successful. Using an
alternative water source may also be costly and impractical. For example, it would be very
expensive to connect to another public water system, and drilling new wells does not
necessarily guarantee that the new ground water source will not be contaminated.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS PESTICIDES
Prevention measures are available to protect source waters from pesticide contamination. They
range from simple, common sense housekeeping activities to more complex activities such as
constructing storage facilities. The most effective pesticide prevention measures encompass
both simple and complex practices to reduce the potential for pesticides to move into source
waters. The prevention measures can be divided into those that protect surface water from
pesticide runoff and those that protect ground water from leaching or percolation.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination,
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction. The following are the more conventional prevention measures used to
avoid contamination from pesticides.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the use of all means
of pest control (chemical and non-chemical) in a compatible
fashion to reduce crop losses. Pesticides are the last line of
defense and are used only when pest levels are causing
sufficient damage to offset the expense of the application.
1PM includes regular field scouting or
monitoring to check levels of pest
populations and their damage to
determine management needs, be it
pesticide application or other
management actions. Scouting can be accomplished by a trained fanner or a
crop consultant. IPM also includes non-chemical control measures such a*
mechanical, cultural and biological controls, sanitation, and pest-resistant
plants are highly recommended. Wherever possible, it is preferable to use
crop rotation, select resistant plant varieties, clean tractors and combines thoroughly between
fields to reduce weed seed introductions, and use cultivation to control weeds. Kfforts should
be made to maximixe the benefits of naturally occurring biological controls and use pcsin.uk'-.
only when necessary. Many insecticides are broad spectrum materials that also affect
beneficial insects and arthropods.
Mh.iKh clone.!!.!
-------
Proper Pesticide Application
If pesticides must be used, proper handling and application according to the EPA-approved
label arc essential. Select an effective pesticide for the intended use and, where possible, use
products that pose lower human and environmental risks (i.e., low-persistence). Read the
pesticide label for guidance on required setbacks from water, agricultural drainage wells and
tile networks, buildings, wetlands, wildlife habitats, and other sensitive areas where
applications are prohibited.
Never start an application if a significant weather event such as rainfall is forecast; the rainfall
may cause drift or soil runoff at the application site. Pesticide application just before rainfall or
irrigation may result in reduced efficacy if the pesticide is washed off the target crop, resulting
in the need to reapply the pesticide.
Wavs to Reduce Pesticide Use
Crop rotation reduces pesticide use by breaking up
the pest cycle. As crops are rotated, pests such as
insects and weeds cannot adapt to the changes in
nutrient sources. Insects will move to another
location where they can find food. Weeds will
become dormant until the right condition returns.
Crop rotation also increases crop yields and lowers
irrigation and fertilizer cost. Pesticide rotation
reduces the risk of pesticide-resistant pests. As
pesticides are used year after year, pests develop
immunities to them, resulting in increased
application of pesticides.
Com - wheat- fallow iniation
Soil incorporation involves placing the pesticide into the top two inches of soil by tillage,
where it is less likely to be removed by surface runoff, reducing runoff by as much as two-
thirds compared to surface application. Post-emergence application is the application of
pesticides after the plant emerges from the soil; it requires a much smaller amount of pesticide
(as compared to the labeled rate) for the same pest control. Post-emergence application of
pesticides should be done during low periods of rainfall; spring or windy conditions may reduce
the time available for application.
Early pre-plant application is the application of pesticides before the plant emerges from the
soil. This application, using less than the labeled rate, can reduce potential pesticide runoff by
up to one-half. When used in early April, pre-plant applications can provide effective control
and the applied pesticides will be less vulnerable to spring and early summer runoff. If
additional control is needed with a pre-emerge or post-emerge product, spot treatment should
be practiced.
Split application, with one-half to two-thirds of the pesticide applied prior to planting and one-
half to one-third applied at planting, can reduce pesticide runoff by up to one-third. If good
weed control is achieved with the pre-einergence
application, the post application may not be
necessary. Wherever feasible, the use of reduced
rates for pesticide application or combination
products (containing less toxic chemicals) will U!M>
help reduce runoff of the more toxic chemicals.
Very low applications of pesticides may not be
effective for high weed infestations or very wet
springs.
-------
Proper Pesticide Storage and Handling
Pesticide storage is key to preventing ground water contamination. If pesticides are stored in
intact containers in a secure, properly constructed location, pesticide storage poses little danger
to ground water. You must follow directions for storage on pesticide labels, although the
instructions are usually general, such as
"Do not contaminate water, food or feed
by storage or disposal." Some States,
including Maryland, New Hampshire,
North Carolina and Washington, have
regulations on the storage of small
quantities of pesticides. Nearly half the
States have regulations for the storage of
large tanks of pesticides. Secondary
containment, such as an impermeable
(waterproof) floor with a curb and walls
around the storage area, will minimi/e
pesticide seepage into the ground or
Pestic.de storage tanks spreading to other areas if a liquid
pesticide storage tank leaks. The capacity
of liquid tank secondary containment should be sufficient to contain the volume of the largest
tank. Dry pesticides should be protected from precipitation. An operator should always be
present when pesticides are being transferred.
Proper muting and loading practices can also prevent contamination of ground water and
surface water by pesticides. Mixing and loading on an impermeable concrete surface allows
most spilled pesticides to be recovered and reused. The impermeable surface, or pad, should be
kept clean and large enough to hold wash water from the cleaning of equipment, and to keep
spills from moving off-site during transfer of chemicals to the sprayer or spreader. Ideally, the
pad should slope to a liquid-tight sump that can be pumped out when spills occur.
Spill clean up is another important prevention measure. Dry spills should be promptly swept
up and reused. For liquid spills, recover as much of the spill as possible and reuse the pesticide
as intended. If a spill involves soil around the mixing pad. it may be desirable to remove sonic
contaminated soil, which can be spread on fields under certain circumstances if allowed by your
State pesticide regulatory agency (usually the Department of Agriculture). In addition, clay,
sawdust, or cat litter should be available to absorb unrecovered liquid from concrete pads.
Finally, an emergency response plan for the site is important - to know where the runoff water
will flow, how to handle a particular chemical, and whom to call for help.
Improper disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination. To prevent
ground water contamination, use returnable containers and take them back to the dealer as often
as possible. Pressure-rinse or triple-rinse nonreturnable containers immediately alter use, since
residue can be difficult to remove after it dries, and pour the into the spray tank. Puncture
nonreturnable containers and store them in a covered area until they can he taken to a container
recycling program or a permitted landfill. Contact the Ag Container Recycling Council at
www.acrecycle.org or 877-952-2272 for more on a recycling program near you. Shake out
bags, bind or wrap them to minimize dust, and take them to a permuted landfill. Do not bm\ 01
burn pesticide containers or bags on private property.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on pesticide management measures. All of the documents
listed are available for free on the Internet. Contact local government authorities in your area to
see if there are ordinances in place to manage pesticides. You should also contact the Natural
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), Conservation District, and Agricultural I,,\tcnsion
Service representatives in your area. They can provide more information on pesticide
-------
management and cost-share programs, such as the Environmental Quality Incentives Program
(EQIP), the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP), and the Conservation Reserve Enhancement
Program (CREP), to assist in financing source water protection measures.
Extox Net FAQs. Pesticides: How They Affect You and The Environment. Retrieved March 8,
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/faqs/.
Extox Net FAQs. Pesticide Residues in Drinking Water. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the
World Wide Web: http://ace.orst.edu/info/faqs/safedrink/pest.htm.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services and Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. Best Management Practices for Agrichemical Handling and Farm
Equipment Maintenance. (1998, May) Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/slerp/nonpoint_stormwater/documents/pubinfo.htm#Best
Management Practices
Iowa State University, University Extension. Pesticides, Drinking Water, and Human Health.
Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://hermes.ecn.purdue.edu:8001/cgi/convertwq?6608
David Kammel et al. Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University Agricultural and Biosystems
Engineering Department, Designing Facilities for Pesticide and Fertilizer Containment, First
Edition. 1991. Cost if SI 5 plus shipping. Retrieved May 11, 200, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.mwpshq.org/catalog.html
Maryland Department of Agriculture. Storage and Transport. Retrieved May 30, 2001, from
the World Wide Web: http://www.mda.state.md.us/plarit/storage.htm
Maryland Department of the Environment. Buffer Protection and Management Ordinance,
Baltimore County, MD. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http:/www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/language.htm
Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture, Pesticide Bureau, Storage, Mixing and
Loading of Pesticides: Guidelines. Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.massdfa.org/pesticides/waste/index.htm
NCSU Water Quality Group. Guidance on Controlling Agricultural Sources ofNonpoint
Source Pollution. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.bae.ncsu.edu/bae/programs/extension/wqg/.
New Hampshire Department of Agriculture. Markets and Food, Regulations: Disposal and
Storage of Pesticides and Pesticide Containers. Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide
Web: http://w\vw.state.nh.us/agric/ar&l.html
Penn State Pesticide Education Program. The Fate of Pesticides in the Environment. Retrieved
January 23, 2001from the World Wide Web: http://www.pested.psu.edu/fact8.html.
Purdue University, Conservation Technology Information Center. Conservation Technology
Information Center Home Page. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ctic.purdue.edu/KYW/wspartners/statevvscontacts.html.
Purdue University, Conservation Technology Information Center. Know Your Waters/ted: State
Watershed Contacts. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ctic.purdue.edu/KYW/wspartners/statewscontacts.html.
-------
Purdue University Cooperative Extension Service. Pesticides and Container Management
(PPP-21).. (1992, December) Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.agcom.purdue.edu/AgCom/Pubs/PPP/PPP-21 .pdf
Texas A&M, Texas Agricultural Extension Service. Pesticide Characteristics that Affect
Water Quality. Retrieved February 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://entowww.tamu.edu/extension/bulletins/water/water_01.html.
Texas A&M, Texas Agricultural Extension Service. Reducing the Risk of Ground Water
Contamination by Improving Pesticide Storage and Handling. Retrieved January 23, 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://agpublications.tamu.edu/catalog/index.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Region 5 Water Division. Electronic
Compendium of Groundwater Protection Ordinance. (1998, October). Retrieved May 22,
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/r5water/ordcom/.
U.S. EPA, Region 5. SOFTWARE For Environmental Awareness. (2000, August). Retrieved
January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/seahome/.
U.S. EPA, Office of Water. Model Ordinances to Protect Local Resources: Links. Retrieved
May 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/stormwater.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Water. Model Ordinances to Protect Local Resources: Storm Water
Control Operation and Maintenance. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owow/nps/ordinance/stormwater.htm.
University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Cooperative
Extension Service. Your Drinking Water: Pesticides. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the
World Wide Web: http://www.ces.uga.edu/pubcd/C819-6W.html.
University of Nebraska Extension Service. Best Management Practices to Reduce Atrazine
Runoff from Corn Fields in Nebraska. Retrieved January 25, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/Water/gl323.htm.
University of Nebraska Extension Service. Best Management Practices for Agricultural
Pesticides to Protect Water Resources. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide
Web: http://www.ianr.unl.edu/pubs/water/gl 182.htm.
Vermont Department of Agriculture. Food and Markets web site on regulations on the control
of pesticides. Section XIII deals with storage, transportation and disposal. Retrieved May 30,
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.state.vt.us/agric/VTregs91.htm
Washington State Department of Agriculture. Pesticide Management: Storage (non-bulk and
bulk storage). Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.wa.gov/agr/pmd/pesticides/storage.htm
Wisconsin Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Chemical Cleanup Program. Containment
of Pesticides and Fertilizer. Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://datcp.state.wi.us/static/accp/contain.htm
-------
United States Office of Water EPA816-F-01-031
Environmental Protection (4606) July 2001
Agency
&EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Small-Scale
Application of Pesticides to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
Pesticides (including insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides) contain a variety of chemicals used
to control pests, insects, and weeds. They are used in many applications to reduce the damage
to plants by insects and other pests, and to control overgrowth of undesirable plant species. This
fact sheet describes measures to prevent contamination of drinking water sources from small-
scale pesticide application (i.e., on lawns, golf courses, cemeteries, parks, and roadways); see
also the fact sheet on prevention measures for large-scale pesticide application for agricultural
or farm conditions.
SOURCES OF PESTICIDES
Pesticides are used in a variety of applications in areas with
green spaces. They are used by homeowners, in commercial
establishments such as golf courses and cemeteries, and along
roadways. Homeowners use pesticides in lawn care and
gardening activities. Many homeowners plant non-native plant
species, which require pesticides, fertilizers, and watering to
keep them healthy.
Golf courses and recreational areas such as parks and other open spaces use pesticides for
similar purposes. Shorter grasses typical of golf courses are less resistant to insects and require
application of pesticides to keep them healthy. Pesticides are also used to maintain lawns in
cemeteries and commercial areas. Herbicides are used along roadways and transportation and
utility corridors to limit vegetation growth and increase visibility for drivers or access to power
lines.
Hxcess rain can wash pesticides from plants and soil. This can. in turn, run off into streams.
Pesticides can leach into the soil if plants are watered or rainfall occurs soon after application.
Some pesticides resist degradation by microbes in the soil and will eventually leach into the
ground water. Pesticides can reach ground water through drains, sink holes, and other conduits
as well.
\VIIY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE SMALL SCALE APPLICATION OF
PESTICIDES NEAR THE SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Pesticides contain a variety of organic and inorganic compounds. By nature, they are poisonous.
and while they can be safely used if manufacturers' usage directions arc followed, they can, if
-------
mismanaged, seep into surface water and ground water supplies. They can be difficult and
expensive to remove, and, if inhaled or consumed, be hazardous to human health. The synthetic
organic chemicals in pesticides have been linked to serious health problems, including cancer,
liver and kidney damage, reproductive difficulties, and nervous system effects.
Once a water supply becomes contaminated with a pesticide, it can be very difficult and costly
to treat. Treating the water supply is a lengthy process and is not always successful. Using an
alternative water source may also be costly and impractical. For example, it would be very
expensive to connect to another public water system, and drilling new wells does not necessarily
guarantee that the new ground water source will not be contaminated.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS SMALL-SCALE
PESTICIDE APPLICATION
Prevention measures are available to protect source water from pesticide contamination. They
range from simple, common-sense activities (e.g.. reading the label) to more complex activities
such as properly storing and disposing pesticides. Most prevention measures for small-scale
application of pesticides tend to be easy, low cost activities. The most effective pesticide
contamination prevention measures encompass both simple and complex practices to reduce the
potential for pesticides to move into source water. Prevention measures can be divided into
those that protect surface water from pesticide runoff and those that protect ground water from
leaching or percolation.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination,
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction. The following are the more conventional prevention measures used to
avoid contamination from small-scale application.
There are many options available to minimize the need for pesticides. Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) is the use of all means of pest control (chemical and non-chemical) in a
compatible fashion to reduce pesticide use. Pesticides are the last line of defense and are used
only when pest levels are causing sufficient damage to offset the expense of the application.
IPM includes regular monitoring to check levels of pest populations and their damage to
determine management needs, be it pesticide application or
other management actions. Monitoring can be accomplished
by a trained employee such as a facility manager. IPM also
includes non-chemical control measures such as
mechanical, cultural and biological controls, sanitation, and
pesticide-resistant plants are highly recommended. Where
possible alternate plants, select pest-resistant plant
varieties, and mulch the gardens or flower beds to reduce
weeds. Maximize the benefits of naturally occurring
biological controls by using pesticides only when necessary.
Many insecticides are broad spectrum materials and affect
beneficial insects and other arthropods as well as pests. If
pesticides must be used, select those that are designed
specifically for the pests you wish to control, and are low-
persistent in the environment.
-------
Proper Pesticide Application
away from
ensure that
problem.
Reading the label on the pesticide container is one of the simplest and
most important prevention measures. The label indicates the proper use,
rate of application, whether the pesticide is broad spectrum or selective
(i.e., kills everything or only a certain type of insect), and proper handling
of the pesticide. The label also provides information on proper storage and
disposal, and emergency contact numbers, if accidentally ingested. In
cases where the pesticide is highly toxic, the label will contain special
warnings and use restrictions, such as setbacks for mixing and application
wells or drinking water sources. Reading the label and following the directions will
pesticides are not over-used and are used in a way that is consistent with the pest
Proper application of pesticides reduces the amount of chemicals applied to the ground and
saves landowners money by reducing the amount of pesticides purchased. Calibrate application
equipment to allow correct application, follow pesticide manufacturers' directions, and select
leaching-resistant or "slow release" pesticides. Apply in large droplets to resist carrying away
by the wind. Mix and load pesticides only over impervious surfaces, such as cement, that do not
contain floor drains or storm water drain inlets; these drains may convey spills to ground water
sources. Check the pesticide label for pesticide application procedures; do not over-apply the
pesticide.
Pesticides should not be applied immediately before or after rainfall, as this may cause soil
runoff at the application site and the need to reapply the pesticide. The soil in the runoff can
carry the pesticide to the local storm water drain, and contaminate local source waters.
Ways to Reduce Pesticide Use
Select healthy seeds and seedlings that are known to resist diseases and are suited to the
climate. Strong seeds are likely to produce mature plants with little need for pesticides.
Planting pest-resistant plant varieties and local plant species will also reduce pesticide needs.
Alternate your plants each year; plants will not be vulnerable to the pests that survive the
winter. Insects will move to another location where they can find nutrients, and weeds will
remain dormant until their nutrient
source is replenished.
Manual activities such as spading,
hoeing, hand-picking weeds and
pests, setting traps, and mulching
are all good ways to get rid of pests
without using pesticides.
Homeowners have a tendency to
over-use pesticides, and should take
care to use only what they need.
Proper plant management can
improve plant health, reduce the
need for pesticides, and reduce
runoff and infiltration. I'se mowing and watering techniques that maintain a healthy lawn and
mmimi/e the need for chemical treatment. Maintain proper drainage and aeration to encourage
the growth of microbes that can degrade pesticides. Reduce watering to control seepage of
pesticides to the ground water; this conserves \\ater and reduces runoff.
-------
Use of biological controls reduces the need for chemical pesticides. Plants that attract
predatory species, such as birds and bats, can enhance landscaping and naturally reduce pests.
Proper Pesticide Storage and Handling
Proper storage is important in preventing both surface water and ground water contamination.
Store pesticides in intact containers in a shed or covered structure on an impermeable surface
such as concrete. You must follow directions for storage on pesticide labels, although the
directions are usually general, such as "Do not contaminate water, food, or feed by storage or
disposal." Do not store pesticides in areas prone to flooding. Keep pesticides in their original
containers; if the label is unreadable, properly dispose of the product.
Spill clean up is another important prevention measure. Promptly
sweep up dry spills and reuse the pesticides as intended; dry spills are
usually easier to clean. For liquid spills, recover as much of the spill
as possible and reuse it as intended. It may be necessary to remove
some contaminated soil. Have cat liner or other absorptive materials
available to absorb unrecovered liquid from the floor. Be sure to
have an emergency contact number to call for help, if necessary. Be-
sure to check the label for proper handling of the chemicals
Disposal of pesticide containers can lead to ground water contamination if the containers are
not stored or cleaned properly. Chemical residues from these containers can leak onto the
ground. Homeowners and other users may have smaller quantities of pesticides and empty
containers and different disposal options than farmers.
Homeowners usually use nonreturnable containers, and have the option of participating in their
local community household hazardous waste collection events. Partially-full and empty
containers may be given to household hazardous waste collection. Homeowners should only
triple rinse pesticide containers if they are able to use the rinse water immediately, e.g., on
plants that require pesticides. Rinse water should never be disposed down a drain or into a
sewer system. Recycle plastic and metal containers whenever possible, keeping in mind that
non-hazardous container recycling programs may refuse to take pesticide containers, limply
containers may be disposed in regular trash. Shake out bags, bind or wrap them to minimize
dust, and put them in regular trash. Do not bury or burn pesticide containers or bags on private
property. Homeowners may give unused pesticides to a neighbor rather than throw them away.
Farmers and users of larger quantities of pesticides (e.g.. golf course managers) may have
larger quantities of pesticides to store and dispose, and are often prohibited from participating in
community household hazardous waste collection events. To prevent ground water
contamination, use returnable containers as often as possible and take them back to the dealer.
For non-returnable containers, pressure-rinse or triple-rinse containers immediately alter thev
are empty, since residue can be difficult to remove after it dries, and apply the rinse water
appropriately (i.e.. on plants that require pesticides). Most States have collection programs tor
farmers and other pesticide users with unwanted pesticides, often referred to as Clean Sweep
programs. Many States also have pesticide container and recycling programs. Puncture
nonreturnable containers and store them in a covered area until they can be disposed according
to your State's guidelines. Shake out bags, bind or wrap them to mimim/e dust, and lake them to
a permitted landfill. Do not bury or burn pesticide containers or bags on private property.
C'ontact your State Department of Agriculture or Department of l-.n\ ironmciiul Quality lot
information. If containers are full or partially full and the pesticide is in good condition, it may he
given to another pesticide user. However, if the pesticide is labeled a restricted use pesticide, it
can only be distributed and used by certified applicators.
-------
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on pesticide management measures. All of the documents
listed are available for free on the Internet. Contact local government authorities in your area to
see if there are ordinances in place to manage pesticides.
AgSafe Coalition. Safely Handling Pesticides. Retrieved February 15, 2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.agsafe.org/series_l/pesticide.html.
California Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Pesticide Regulation. Tips for
Handling Pesticides Safely. Retrieved March 12, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/factshts/safeuse.htm.
EXTOXNET FAQs. Pesticides: How They Affect You and The Environment. Retrieved
March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/faqs/.
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services and Florida Department of
Environmental Protection. Best Management Practices for Agrichemical Handling and Farm
Equipment Maintenance. (1998, May) Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.dep.state.fl.us/water/slerp/nonpoint_stormwater/documents/pubinfo.htm#Best
Management Practices
Home*A*Syst. National Home*A *Syst Program. Retrieved May 22, 2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.uwex.edu/homeasyst/index.html.
Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture, Pesticide Bureau. A Homeowner's Guide
to Environmentally Sound Lawncare. Retrieved June 4, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.massdfa.org/pesticides/publications/homeowner.htm
Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture, Pesticide Bureau. Pesticide Storage and
Handling Practices in the home. Retrieved June 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.massdfa.org/pesticides/publications/publications_storage_home.htm
Massachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture, Pesticide Bureau. Storage, Mixing and
Loading of Pesticides: Guidelines. Retrieved May 30, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.massdfa.org/pesticides/waste/index.htm
National Pesticides Telecommunications Network. Pesticide Fact Sheets. Retrieved June 4,
2001, from the World Wide Web: http://nptn.orst.edu/nptnfact.htm
Natural Resources Defense Council. Pesticide Exposure and Toxicity to Infants and
Children. March 1998. http://www.nrdc.org/health/kids/cdw0398.asp.
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission. Source Protection: A Guidance
Manual for Small Surface Water Supplies in New England. March 1996.
Pesticide Watch. Pesticides and Human Health. Retrieved March 12, 2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://www.pesticidewatch.org/Html/PestProblem/HumanHealth.htm.
Schueler, Thomas R. and Heather K. Holland. "Toward a Low-Input Lawn." The Practice of
Watershed Protection: Techniques for protecting our nation 's streams, lakes, rivers and
estuaries 2( 1): 254-264.
-------
The Northwest Coalition for Alternatives to Pesticides. Alternatives Fact Sheets. Retrieved
January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.pesticide.org/factsheets.htmWalternatives.
Toxic Alert. Poison In The Grass: The Hazards And Consequences Of Lawn Pesticides.
Retrieved March 12, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.cqs.com/elawn.htm.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Environmental Health Hazard
Assessment. Pesticide Programs. Retrieved January 23, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.oehha.ca.gov/pesticides/programs/index.html.
U.S. EPA, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. Healthy Lawn, Healthy
Environment - Caring for Your Lawn in an Environmentally Friendly Way. 700-K-92-005.
June 1992. Retrieved January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/oppfeadl/Publications/lawncare.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances. Citizen's Guide to Pest
Control and Pesticide Safety. Retrieved January 24, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/OPPTpubs/Cit_Guide/citguide.pdf.
United States Geological Survey, National Water Quality Assessment Pesticide National
Synthesis Project. Pesticides in Ground Water. Retrieved January 23,2001, from the World
Wide Web: http://water.wr.usgs.gov/pnsp/gw/index.html.
-------
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of Water
(4606)
EPA916-F-01-032
July 2001
&EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Sanitary Sewer
Overflows and Combined Sewer
Overflows to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
Sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage from municipal sanitary
sewer systems as a result of broken pipes, equipment failure, or system overload. Combined
sewer overflows (CSOs) are discharges of untreated sewage and storm water from municipal
sewer systems or treatment plants when the volume of
wastewater exceeds the system's capacity due to periods of
heavy rainfall or snow melt. The untreated sewage can be
discharged directly into basements, streets, parks, and
surface waters including streams, lakes, rivers, or estuaries.
This fact sheet focuses on the management of SSOs and
CSOs to prevent contamination of drinking water sources:
see also the fact sheet on storm water runoff.
Samtarv sower mcrflow
OVERVIEW OF SSO AND CSO OCCURRENCE
Most cities and towns started building sewer collection systems over 100 years ago and many of
these systems have not received adequate upgrades, maintenance, and repairs over time. In
addition, cities use a wide variety of materials, designs, and installation practices to construct
sewer collection systems. Even well-operated systems may be subject to occasional blockages
or structural, mechanical, or electrical failures.
Sanitary sewer collection systems collect sewage and other wastewater and transport it to a
facility for proper treatment and disposal. Sanitary sewer overflows occur when untreated
sewage is discharged from the collection system due to pipe blockages, pipe breaks, infiltration
and inflow from leaky pipes, equipment failures, and insufficient system capacity.
COMBINED SYSTEM
Combined sewer systems are designed to carry
sanitary wastewater and storm water in the same
pipe to a sewage treatment plant during "dry
weather." In periods of rainfall or snow melt.
however, the wastewater volume in a combined
sewer system can exceed the capacity of the
sewer system or treatment plant. For this reason,
combined sewer systems are designed to
overflow occasionally and discharge excess
wastewater directly to nearby streams, rivers.
lakes, or estuaries.
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE SSOs AND CSOs NEAR THE SOURCES
OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
EPA estimates that there are at least 40.000
SSOs and thousands of CSOs each year.
The untreated sewage and wastewater from
these overflows can contaminate our waters,
causing serious water quality problems and
threatening drinking water supplies. It can
also back up into basements, causing
property damage, and create threats to public
health for those who come in contact with
the raw sewage and wastewater.
~~~
SSOs and CSOs can carry bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, helminths (intestinal worms), and inhaled molds and fungi directly into source water,
and can cause diseases that range in seventy from mild gastroenteritis to life-threatening
ailments such as cholera, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, and severe gastroenteritis. People can
be exposed to the contaminant from sewage in drinking water sources, and through direct
contact in areas of high public access such as basements, lawns or streets, or water used for
recreation.
When sewage floods basements, the damaged area must be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected
to reduce the risk of disease. Local health officials should be consulted to identify measures to
be taken to remove the sewage and reduce health risks. Pesticides and other chemicals tend to
be stored in basements. Where water from flooded basements that contain spilled chemicals is
pumped or released to the ground outside the building, it may percolate through the soil and
contaminate the ground water.
Under the Clean Water Act, discharges from point sources into waterways are prohibited unless
authorized by a National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permit. NPDES
permit requirements for municipal wastewater treatment plants must include limitations based on
secondary treatment, including limits on oxygen-demanding pollutants and suspended solids, as
well as any other more stringent requirements (such as disinfection) necessary to meet slate
water quality standards. Although CSOs are considered point sources, they are not subject to
secondary' treatment requirements; instead, NPDES permits for combined sewer systems are
based on the provisions of EPA's 1994 CSO Control Policy, which provides for implementation
of minimum technology-based controls and long-term control plans to meet water quality
standards. SSOs. on the other hand, typically are not permitted ami are generally prohibited.
EPA is considering how to better standardize NPDES permit conditions to clarify this prohibition
and provide for better operation and maintenance of sanitary sewers, increased attention to
system planning, and better notification to the public in the event of an overflow.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS SSOs AND CSOs
A variety of nonstructural and structural prevention measures are available to address SSOs and
C'SOs. Nonstructural activities tend to be more general and applicable to most sewer collection
systems. I'hev include, but are not limited to. visual inspections, monitoring and maintenance
programs, employee training, and public education. Structural activities tend to be more site-
specitic and can be very expensive to incorporate. I hey involve upgrading the colleciion
system, constructing wet weather storage facilities, or building a new sewer collection system
The most effective prevention plans encompass both structural and nonsti uctural activities.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination ot source waters. Most likelv, individual measures should be combined in an
-------
overall prevention approach thai considers the nature of the potential source of contamination,
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source waters, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction. Some of the more conventional prevention measures are described
below.
Cities estimate that 60 percent of SSOs come from leaking service lines, and monitoring and
maintenance programs are a key component in preventing them. Sanitary sewer collection
system operators should monitor their sewer lines, service connections, and sewer line joints
regularly to detect cracks and misalignments between joints that can cause leaks of untreated
sewage. Service connections must remain tightly sealed to prevent additional leaks from
occurring. Properly maintaining the sewer collection system allows parts of the sewer system to
be repaired or replaced, if necessary, before they break and cause more serious and expensive
problems.
Maintenance programs should also include
cleaning sewer lines, connections, and pumps. If
trash and sediments build up in the sewer lines,
they will block the sewage from flowing to the
collection system or treatment plant. As the
flow becomes blocked, the pressure on the lines
increases and the system becomes surcharged
leading to overflow of sewage out of manholes
and into the street. Surcharging can also cause
sewage backup into basements of homes
connected to the line. In some cases, the lines
may break and collapse, causing raw sewage
and wastewater to percolate through the soil to
ground water.
Storm drain
Employee training is an important tool for preventing contamination from sewer overflows.
Employees should be trained on how to run the equipment, and shut it down, if necessary, to
prevent overflows. Employees should have access to and knowledge of contingency and
emergency response plans. They should be aware of any potential for overflow events and be
prepared to take appropriate action to prevent sewage from entering the source water.
Public education involves informing developers and the public of how sewer overflows occur,
and what they can do to prevent them. Developers should be aware of the sewer collection
design capacity, and plan accordingly. As new communities are developed, the additional
sewage can overload the collection system. Developers should check to make sure the new
sewer lines are compatible with the existing sewer system. If the lines do not fit the |omts, then
the sewage can leak out of the system, or rain water or snow melt can infiltrate the cracked
lines and cause overflows. Developers should also make sure that sewer lines are not placed
near trees: the roots can grow into the sewer lines and crack them. The community can help
prevent overflows by conserving water and flushing only appropriate items. Citizens should also
be aware that hazardous substances, pesticides, and fertilizers could be carried off in storm
sewers and increase the deleterious effects of CS( K.
inspections of the surface and internal areas (pipelines and manholes) ensure that the
equipment is running properly and efficiently. Operators should pay specific attention to sunken
ureas in the groundcover above a sewer line and areas with ponding water. Operators should
perform these inspections on a daily or weekly basis at low flow times (e.g., overnight).
depending on the system si/e or frequency of overflows, and log their findings. Inspection
leports provide managers with pertinent information and keep them informed on how the system
is running. This will help avoid equipment failure and resulting overflows.
-------
Incorporating system upgrades is another viable option, but this can be very expensive. As
sewer systems become older, sewer lines and connections have to be repaired or replaced.
Equipment also has to be replaced or updated as new technology becomes available. As new
communities are developed, new sewer lines will be added to the collection system. Eventually
the sewer system will reach its design capacity and will have to expand or a new collection
system will have to be built.
Adding a wet weather storage facility such as an overflow retention basin to a sewer collection
system will reduce SSOs and CSOs by capturing and storing excess flow. The stored volumes
of sewage and storm water are released to the wastewater treatment plant after the wet
weather event has subsided and the treatment plant capacity has been restored. Retention
basins are designed to control both flow rate and water quality. These basins can remove
sediment and grit from the effluent before being released to the treatment plant. Retention
basins can be constructed either on- or off-line from the sewer collection system. On-line
basins are connected to the sewer system and retain excess flows when the inlet flow surpasses
the outlet capacity. Off-line basins are connected in parallel to the sewer system and receive
flows only during wet weather periods. Retention basins are typically earthen basins or covered
or uncovered concrete tanks. Covered basins are more widely used because they are safer and
provide better odor control and safety conditions.
Eliminating direct pathways of sewage overflows to source water is an effective measure to
prevent contamination. Regrading areas around pump stations and "vulnerable" manholes can
divert overflow sewage from entering surface water directly. In addition, plugging storm water
drainage wells (i.e., drywells used to discharge storm water underground) in the vicinity of pump
stations and manholes would eliminate conduits for sewage overflow to enter the ground water.
CSO control technologies include a number of engineering methods such as deep tunnel
storage, in-system control/in-line storage, off-line near-surface storage/sedimentation (mentioned
earlier), vortex technologies, and disinfection. In urban areas, where space constraints are
severe, deep tunnel storage can be a viable option for managing CSOs. Large volumes of
combined sewage can be diverted and stored in deep tunnels during a storm event. The stored
combined sewage is then pumped out from the tunnel and conveyed to sewage treatment plants
after the storm event subsides. Vortex separators regulate flow and cause solids to separate out
from the combined flow, therefore allowing clarified flow to be discharged to surface water.
Disinfection using liquid hypochlorite is the most common practice in controlling CSOs, and
alternatives such as ultraviolet light, ozone, or gaseous chlorine are also available.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on sanitary sewer overflows and combined sewer overflows.
All of the documents listed are available for free on the Internet.
Earth Day Indiana Handbook 1997-98. Combined Sewer Overflows... what you should know.
Retrieved February 15, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.kl 2. in.us/earthdayind/handbook2.html.
United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Wastewater Management. EPA 's
CSO Control Policy^- An Innovative Approach to Controlling Raw Sewage Discharges.
Retrieved February 14, 2001 from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/cso.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Collection Systems O&M Fact Sheet: Sewer
Cleaning and Inspection. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/sewcl.pdf.
-------
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Combined Sewer Overflow O&M Fact
Sheet: Proper Operation and Maintenance. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide
Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/o&m.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management;. Combined Sewer Overflow Management
Fact Sheet: Pollution Prevention. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/pullutna.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Combined Se\ver Overflow Technology Fact
Sheet: Retention Basins. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/csoretba.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Combined Sewer Overflow Technology Fact
Sheet: Screens. Retrieved March 8, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/screens.pdf.
U.S. EPA, Office of Waste Water Management. National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). Retrieved June 27, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/npdes
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Sanitary Sewer Overflows (SSOs). Retrieved
February 14, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/sso.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Sanitary Sewer Overflows- Wliat are they
and how can we reduce them? Retrieved February 20, 2001, from the World Wide Web:
http://www.epa.gov/owm/ssodesc.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. The Nine Minimum Controls. Retrieved
February 14, 2001, from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/h-nmclis.htm.
U.S. EPA, Office of Wastewater Management. Wet Weather. Retrieved February 14, 2001,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.epa.gov/owm/wet.htm.
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 816-F-02-018
Environmental Protection (4606) August 2002
Agency
&EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Aircraft and Airfield
Deicing Operations to Prevent
Contamination of Drinking Water
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) requires that aircraft surfaces be deiced and anti-
iced to ensure the safety of passengers. However, when performed without prevention
measures in place, airport deicing operations can contribute to contamination of ground water
and surface water supplies. This bulletin addresses two basic types of deicing/anti-icing
operations that take place at airports: the deicing/anti-icing of aircraft, and the deicing/anti-icing
of paved areas including runways, taxiways and gate areas. It also discusses some source
water contamination prevention measures available for use at smaller airports. Additional
information on deicing of roadways is presented in the bulletin on highway deicing.
AIRCRAFT DEICING/ANTI-ICING CHEMICAL USE
The most common technique for deicing/anti-icing of aircraft is the application of chemical
deicing/anti-icing fluids (ADF), which are composed primarily of ethylene or propylene glycol.
Frequently this is achieved using fixed booms or trucks with an operator bucket mounted on a
boom. Temperature and weather conditions dictate the required concentration of glycol in ADF,
but most operators use fluid with fifty percent glycol concentration by volume. Deicing/anti-
icing fluids also contain additives, including corrosion inhibitors, flame retardants, wetting agents.
and thickeners that protect aircraft surfaces and allow ADF to cling to the aircraft, resulting in
longer holdover times (the time between application and takeoff during which ice or snow is
prevented from adhering to aircraft surfaces). Limited information is available on the actual
chemical compositions of ADF because their formulations are considered trade secrets
Four types of deicing anti-icing fluid are used on aircraft, and vary by composition and holdover
time. Type I fluids, \\hich contain glycol and less than one percent additives, are most
commonly used tor deicing and have relatively short holdover times. Types II. III. and IV fluids
are used for anti-icing protection because
they contain higher concentrations of
additives (two percent or less) in addition
to glycol. Larger airlines use both Type I
and I'ype IV fluids for deicing and anti-
icing. Because longer holdover times are
not as important a consideration at smaller
airports, smaller airlines typically use Type
I and II Hinds, which contain smaller
amounts of additives, or no anti-icing fluids
at all.
-------
AIRFIELD PAVEMENT DEICING/ANTI-ICING CHEMICAL USE
Ice and snow is cleared from runways, taxiways, roadways, and gate areas using a combination
of mechanical methods (e.g.. plows and brushes) and chemical deicing agents. Pavement is
typically cleared with mechanical equipment, then chemically treated to prevent further snow
and ice accumulation. Chemicals commonly used for deicmg/anti-icing include ethylene or
propylene glycol, urea, potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium formate, calcium magnesium
acetate (CMA). or an ethylene glycol-based fluid known as UCAR (containing ethylene glycol,
urea, and water). Sand and salt (sodium or potassium chloride) may also be used, but they can
cause damage to aircraft surfaces and mechanical parts.
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE RUNOFF OF DEICING FLUID NEAR
THE SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
EPA estimates that 21 million gallons of ADF (50 percent glycol concentration) are discharged
to surface waters annually from airport deicing operations across the country, and an additional
2 million gallons are discharged
to publicly owned treatment
works (POTWs). Unless
captured for recycling, recovery.
or treatment, deicing agents will
run off onto bare or vegetated
. ground where they may travel
through the soil and enter ground
1 water, or run off into streams.
" Unprotected storm water drums
that discharge to surface water
or directly to the subsurface
(i.e., through a dry well) are also
of concern.
Ethylene and propylene glycol
can have harmful effects on aquatic life due to their high biological oxygen demand (H( >1»
Depletion of oxygen, fish kills, and undesirable bacterial growth in receiving waters may result.
Although pure ethylene and propylene glycols have low aquatic toxicity, ethylene glycol exhibits
toxicity in mammals, including humans (with the potential to cause health problems such as
neurological, cardiovascular, and gastrointestinal problems, serious birth defects, and even death
when ingested in large doses). Additionally, ethylene glycol is considered a hazardous air
pollutant (HAP), and is subject to reporting requirements under the Comprehensive
Environmental Response. Compensation and Liability Act (CERCI.A).
Additives in deicing anti-icing fluids can be significantly more toxic to the aquatic environment
than glycols alone. Corrosion inhibitors are highly reactive with each other and with I'lvcols:
reactions can produce highly toxic byproducts. Other additives such as wetting agents, flame
retardants. pH buffers, and dispersing agents also exhibit high aquatic and mammalian toxicities.
Manufacturers and formulators have attempted to reduce the toxicity of additives present in
their ADF formulations and, when possible, use environmentally benign chemicals. 1 he Societv
for Automotive Engineers (SAE) is currently working to set an A OF toxicity standard in the
near future
Sodium chloride, or salt, is applied to paved surfaces to prevent icing. (See the bulletin on
highway deicing for more information on deicing paved surfaces.) Sodium can contribute to
cardiovascular, kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure. I here is
no MCI, or health advisory level for sodium; however, there is a Drinking Water Equivalent
Level of 20 mg L. a non-enforceable guidance level considered protective against
-------
non-carcinogenic adverse health effects. Sodium is one of the contaminants EPA is considering
for a regulatory determination. Chloride, which has a national secondary drinking water
standard of 250 mg/L, adds a salty taste to water and corrodes pipes.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS AIRCRAFT AND
AIRFIELD DEICING
An overview of several management measures are described in this section, though they are not
exhaustive. The reference materials below can provide additional resources and information.
Please keep in mind that individual prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent
contamination of source waters. Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an
overall prevention approach that considers the nature of the potential source of contamination,
the purpose, cost, operational, and maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability
of the source water, the public's acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired
degree of risk reduction.
Alternative Deicing/Anti-Icing Materials
Use alternative airfield deicing products such as potassium acetate, sodium acetate, sodium
formate, potassium formate, or CMA instead of urea or glycol deicers. These products have
lower toxicities, are readily biodegradable, and have a lower BOD in the environment. Many of
these products can be applied using the same mechanical spreaders used for urea or spray
booms used for glycol-based fluids. (See the bulletin on highway deicing for more information
on some of these alternative deicers.)
Reducing Deicing/Anti-Icing Fluid Usage
On Aircraft:
Mechanical deicing technologies eliminate
the need for deicing fluids and reduce the
need for anti-icing fluid. Below are some
examples of newer technology.
• Boot deicing works by inflating a
rubber boot located on the leading
edge of an aircraft wing. When
inflated, the boot causes ice to
crack and become dislodged from
the surface. Passing air blows the
ice away. This method is used
primarily on propeller-driven
aircraft.
• For small aircraft, infra-red deicing systems use natural-gas-fired radiant heaters
inside a drive-through hanger. Follow-up chemical deicing or anti-icing is usually
required to prevent re-freezing.
• Electrical resistive heating can remove ice from the surface of small to medium sized
aircraft. By applying resistive heating to heating mats located near the skin of an
aircraft, ice is melted and is easily dislodged from aircraft surfaces.
flat air blast deicing systems use heated compressed air to blow snow and ice off of
aircraft wings. This may be followed by conventional deicing/anti-icing.
The installation of a computerized spraying system to apply deicing chemicals may reduce the
use of deicing/anti-icing fluids. These systems can reduce both the volume of deicing fluid used
and the time needed for deicing, and increase the collection efficiency of runoff. These "car-
wash" style systems can be operated by personnel with a minimum of training. This option may
Infra-red radiant healing unit.
-------
be cost-prohibitive for smaller airports, and in some cases, planes may need additional deicing
using traditional means (trucks or fixed booms) to deice engine inlets, undercarriages, or the
underside of aircraft wings. Deicing fluid sprayed from truck-mounted booms allows more
effective and efficient deicing. The deicer can be sprayed closer to the aircraft surface.
reducing over-spray and wastage.
Using ice detection systems or sensors,
especially on larger aircraft, can reduce and,
in some cases, eliminate application of
deicing fluid. Because operators and flight
crews often have difficulty detecting ice on
aircraft wings, aircraft are deiced whenever
ice is suspected to be present.
Magnetostrictive, electromagnetic, and
ultrasonic devices can detect ice on aircraft
surfaces, including areas that are difficult to
inspect visually and in cases where ice build-
up is not apparent. This allows operators to
more accurately determine when deicing is unnecessary and can decrease the amount of ADF
used at an airport.
Increase storage for multi-strength glycol solutions. Using a technique called "blending to
temperature," operators can van,' the concentration of glycol in deicing fluid. Operators.
particularly at small airports, commonly use a fluid with 50 percent glycol, a concentration that is
formulated for worst-case cold weather conditions. However, concentrations of 30 to 70
percent glycol may be used in different conditions. Reducing the glycol concentration in deicing
fluid decreases the amount of glycol in surface runoff and storm water collection systems.
On Pavement Surfaces:
Prevent strong bonding of ice to pavement surfaces by pre-treating and/or promptly treating
pavement using either mechanical methods or chemicals. Pre-treating pavement with chemicals
such as aqueous potassium acetate prior to the onset of free/ing conditions or a storm event can
allow easy removal of snow and ice using sweepers and plows. The FAA estimates that the
correct application of pavement anti-icing chemicals can reduce the overall quantity of
pavement deicing'anti-icmg agents used by 30 to 75 percent.
Use mechanical methods for dry snow removal rather than applying chemicals.
('se the proper amount of pavement deicing/anti-icing chemicals by follow ins-
recommendations from the manufacturer, and properly maintaining spreading equipment. I his
will reduce unnecessary or over-application of chemicals, .\\oul applying glycol-ba.sed deiccrs
near storm drains, particularly those that are not routed to a publicly-owned sewage tieatment
plant.
Collection and Disposal of Spent Fluid to Reduce Runoff
Centralized deicing pads restrict aircraft deicing to a small area, minimi/ing the volume and
allowing lor the capture of deicing waste. A deicing pad is specially graded to capture and unite
contaminated runoff to tanks. If the pads are located near gate areas or at the head of runways.
deicing may be completed just prior to takeoff; as a result, less fype IV anti-icing fluid may be
necessary for shorter holdover tunes, reducing the amount of gl\cols released onto the runwav
or into the air. In addition, fluids recovered from deicing pads may be suitable for reuse.
-------
Vacuum sweeper trucks "collect spent aircr'aft.'arid airfield deicing fluids as well as any slush or
snow from gate areas, ramps, aircraft parking areas, taxiways, and aircraft holding pads.
Vacuum vehicles are a cost-effective alternative to installing traditional drainage collection
systems or deicing pads, typically ranging in cost from $200,000 to $400,000 each. In addition,
the recovered fluid may be suitable for recycling.
Detention basins or constructed wetlands are open-water ponds that collect ADF runoff from
runways and airport grounds. Basins allow solids to settle, and reduce oxygen demand before
the runoff is discharged to receiving waters. A pump station can discharge metered runoff by
way of an airport storm sewer. Airports operating these may be required to install liners to
protect ground water and monitoring wells to detect leakage from breached liners. An aeration
system may be required to treat glycol contaminated runoff. See the storm water bulletin for
more information on runoff controls.
Anaerobic bioremediation systems, in conjunction with sewage treatment plants or detention
basins, can be an effective means to dispose of glycol-contaminated runoff. Bioremediation
systems generally consist of a runoff collection and storage system, an anaerobic bioreactor
treatment system (one that requires little or no oxygen), and a gas/heat recovery system. These
systems can reduce oxygen demand levels sufficiently to permit unrestricted disposal to a
sewage treatment plant. Additionally, these systems can remove additives from runoff. An
economic benefit to the anaerobic process is that it converts glycol in runoff to methane gas that
can be used for heating.
Transport of spent fluid to a sewage treatment plant by way of a sanitary sewer is almost
always the most economical method of treating deicing fluid, provided that sufficient biological
loading capacity is available at the treatment plant. However, many sewage treatment plants
will only accept limited quantities of glycol-contaminated runoff; check with the appropriate local
agency to verify applicable regulations: Airport maintenance crews should not assume that
storm drains are routed to a sanitary sewer. They should be knowledgeable about which drains
or collection systems discharge directly to surface waters or to the subsurface, e.g., through a
dry well.
Recycling and Recovery of Spent Fluid
Recycling of glycol from spent deicing/anti-icing fluid decreases the amount that reaches and
potentially impairs surface and ground waters. The recycling process consists of several steps
including filtration, reverse osmosis, and distillation to recover glycol from spent deicing fluid.
Technology is available to recycle fluids containing at least 5 percent glycol. Glycol recycling
reduces the amount and strength of wastewater, reducing wastewater disposal costs. In addition,
the recovered glycol may be sold; the value of recovered glycol depends on the type of glycol
and its concentration and purity. Recent developments have made on-site recycling successful at
smaller airports; however, the volume of fluid used at very small airports may still be insufficient
to make recycling economically viable at these facilities.
Additional Prevention Measures
Under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permitting Program,
airports are required to obtain permit coverage for storm water discharges from vehicle
maintenance, equipment cleaning operations, and airport deicing operations. While specific
permit conditions vary from state-to-state. in general, NPDES storm water permits require
airports to develop and implement Storm Water Pollution Prevention Plans (SWPPPs) that
include the following elements:
-------
• Description of potential pollutant sources and a site map indicating the locations of
aircraft and runway deicing/anti-icing operations and identification of any pollutant or
pollutant parameter of concern.
Description of storm water discharge management controls appropriate for each area of
operation.
• Consideration of alternatives to glycol- and urea- based deicing/anti-icing chemicals to
reduce the aggregate amount of deicing chemicals used and/or lessen the environmental
impact.
• Evaluation of whether deicing/anti-icing over-application is occurring and adjustment as
necessary.
• Employee training on topics such as spill response, good housekeeping, and material
management practices for all personnel that work in the deicing/anti-icing area.
Many NPDES storm water permits issued to airports also require a variety of monitoring
activities to evaluate the effectiveness of storm water controls in preventing deicing/anti-icing
activities from impacting receiving water quality. For example, monitoring requirements for
airport deicing/anti-icing activities in EPA's Multi-Sector General Permit include monthly
inspections of existing storm water controls during the deicing season (weekly if large quantities
of deicing chemicals are being spilled or discharged), quarterly visual monitoring of storm water
discharges, and periodic effluent monitoring for BOD, chemical oxygen demand (COD),
ammonia, and pH (for larger users of deicing/anti-icing chemicals) during storm events.
Storm water that discharges directly to the subsurface by way of dry wells, drain fields, or any
other type of distribution system is subject to Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program
requirements. These types of drainage systems are regulated as Class V injection wells and
operators should contact their state or federal UIC Program authority for information on
applicable regulations.
Employee training is an important tool in reducing contaminated runoff. Deicing personnel
receive eight hours of FAA-mandated training, but industry sources state that three years of
experience is required to become adept at aircraft deicing. Personnel should be trained on
proper application techniques and best management practices, and be informed of the presence
of any sensitive water areas nearby. Properly trained personnel will also use less deicing/anti-
icing fluid, saving money and reducing contamination.
Monitor ground water quality and identify the direction of ground water movement on-site
through the creation of a water table map. Once the direction of ground water flow is known,
annual monitoring up gradient and down gradient of deicing areas should provide early detection
of deicing fluid contamination and other harmful impacts.
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These sources contain information on airport deicing practices and facilities and provide
prevention measures to avoid source water contamination. All of the documents listed are
available for free on the Internet.
Bremer, Karl. The Double Deicing Dilemma. Airport Magazine.
hror//www.aiiportnet.org/depts/publical;ainTiags/am91093/deicing.htm
Bremer, Karl. The Three Rs, Reduce, Recover and Recycle. Airport Magazine.
http:jVwww.aiiportnet.oru/depts/publicat/AlRMAGS/Am3498/deicing.htm
FAA (2001) Northwest Mountain Regional Airport Plan 2001.
http:/.i'\vww.nvv.faa.uov/airooi1.s/Plaiis/RAP/
-------
FAA (2001) Electronic Aircraft Icing Handbook: Chapter III.
http://www.fire.tc.iaa.gov/aar421/eaihbpg.html
FAA Management of Airport Industrial Waste. Change 1 (1997) and Change 2 (2000)
http://www.faa.gov/arp/pdi/5320-151.pdf
http://www.faa.gov/arp/pdfo300-142.pdf
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency. (2000) Protecting Water Quality in Urban Areas: Best
Management Practices for Dealing with Storm Water Runoff from Urban, Suburban and
Developing Areas of Minnesota, http://www.pca.state.nin.us/\vater/pubs/swm-ch7.pdf
Switzenbaum, Michael S., Shawn Veltman, Theodore Schoenberg, Carmen Durand, Dean
Mericas, and Bryan Wagoner. (1999) Best Management Practices for Airport Deicing
Stormwater. University of Massachusetts Water Resources Research Center.
http://vvww.umass.edu/tei/wiTC/pdf/Switzl73.pdf
USEPA. (1999) Storm Water Technology Fact Sheet: Airplane Deicing Fluid Recovery
Systems. EPA-832-F-99-043, United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water,
Washington DC. http://www.epa.gov/owm/mtb/airplnde.pdf
USEPA. (1998) EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project: Air Transportation
Industry, Sector Notebook Project, EPA/310-R-97-001. http://es.epa.gov/oeca/sector/ffair
USEPA. (2000) Preliminary Data Summary: Airport Deicing Operations (Revised). EPA-821-
R-00-016, United States Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water, Washington, DC.
http://www.epa.gov/ost/'guide/airpoi1/airport.pdf
USEPA. (2001) Contaminant Candidate List Preliminary Regulatory Determination Support
Document for Sodium, EPA 815-R-01-014, United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water. http:/Avww.epa.gov7'safewater/ccl/pdf/sodium_final_rsd.pdf
USEPA. (No Date) EPA Office of Federal Activities: Pollution Prevention / Environmental
Impact Reduction Checklist for Airports, http://es.epa.gov/oeca/ofa/pollprev/airpoit.htnil
USEPA. (No Date) Shallow Injection Wells (Class V ). Available at
httu://www.epa.gov/safewater/uic/classv.html
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
-------
United States Office of Water EPA 816-F-02-019
Environmental Protection (4606) August 2002
Agency
4>EPA Source Water Protection
Practices Bulletin
Managing Highway Deicing to
Prevent Contamination of
Drinking Water
We depend on clear roads and highways for safe travel and the continual flow of goods and
sen. ices. Deicing chemicals are used to clear roads covered by snow and ice during winter
weather. The runoff associated with
highway deicing may contain various
chemicals and sediment which have the
potential to enter surface and ground
water sources. This bulletin focuses on
the management of highway deicing
chemicals. See the bulletin on storm
water runoff for additional management
measures.
USE OF HIGHWAY DEICING
CHEMICALS ^f flP
Fach winter, state, county, and local
transportation departments stock their arsenal with the tools necessary to face whatever winter
storms may bring. This arsenal includes a variety of chemicals to melt snow and ice. This
preparedness has a high price tag; in the U.S.. an estimated $2 billion is spent each year on
chemicals, materials, labor, and equipment for winter road maintenance.
The most commonly used and economical deicer is sodium chloride, better known as salt; 15
million tons of deicing salt arc used in the U.S. each year. Salt is effective because it lowers the
free/ing point of \\ater. preventing ice and snow from bonding to the pavement and allowing
easy removal by plows. However, the use of sail is not without problems. Salt contributes to
the corrosion of vehicles and infrastructure, and can damage water bodies, ground water, and
roadside vegetation. These issues have led to the investigation and use of other chemicals as
substitutes for and supplements to salt. Other deicing chemicals include magnesium chloride.
potassium acetate, calcium chloride, calcium magnesium acetate, and potassium chloride (these
are described below).
Abrasives such as sand are often used in conjunction with deicing chemicals to provide traction
for vehicles, particularly on corners, intersections, and steep grades. However, when sand is
overused, it often ends up in the environment, either as dust particles that contribute to air
pollution or in runoff to streams and rivers.
-------
WHY IS IT IMPORTANT TO MANAGE HIGHWAY DEICING NEAR THE
SOURCES OF YOUR DRINKING WATER?
Salt and other deicing chemicals can concentrate in runoff, which enters surface water or
percolates through soil to reach ground water sources. It is difficult to generalize and quantify a
deicer's effect on water bodies on a national level due to the complexity of stream environments
and lack of detailed data. Furthermore, runoff is often diluted once it enters larger bodies of
water, though it may affect smaller streams and creeks along highways. Generally, reservoirs
and other drinking water supplies near treated highways and salt storage sites are susceptible to
contamination, therefore special consideration and best management practices (BMPs) are
needed to protect them.
Sodium is associated with general human health concerns. It can contribute to or affect
cardiovascular, kidney, and liver diseases, and has a direct link to high blood pressure. Elevated
sodium levels in sources of drinking water could prove dangerous, and dietary intake of sodium
should be restricted. There is no MCL or health advisory level for sodium; however, there is a
Drinking Water Equivalent Level of 20 mg/L, a non-enforceable guidance level considered
protective against non-carcinogenic adverse health effects. Sodium is one of the contaminants
EPA is considering for a regulatory determination.
Chloride, for which EPA has established a national secondary drinking water standard of 250
mg/L, adds a salty taste to water and corrodes pipes. The water quality standard for chloride is
230 mg/L, based on toxicity to aquatic life.
Anti-caking agents are often added to salt, the most common of which is sodium ferrocyanide.
There is no evidence of toxicity in humans from sodium ferrocyanide, even at levels higher than
those employed for deicing. However, some studies have found that the resulting release of
cyanide ions is toxic to fish.
AVAILABLE PREVENTION MEASURES TO ADDRESS HIGHWAY DEICING
This section provides an overview of several management measures. The reference materials
below can provide additional resources and information. Please keep in mind that individual
prevention measures may or may not be adequate to prevent contamination of source waters.
Most likely, individual measures should be combined in an overall prevention approach that
considers the nature of the potential source of contamination, the purpose, cost, operational, and
maintenance requirements of the measures, the vulnerability of the source water, the public's
acceptance of the measures, and the community's desired degree of risk reduction.
The goal of these prevention measures is to minimize the loss of deicing chemicals due to
overuse and mishandling. Management of deicing chemicals focuses on reducing waste through
training and access to information on road conditions through the use of technology. Generally,
optimal strategies for keeping roads clear of ice and snow will depend on local climatic, site, and
traffic conditions, and should be tailored as such. Road maintenance workers should be trained
on these measures prior to the winter season. Personnel should also be made aware of areas
where careful management of deicing chemicals is particularly important, e.g.. sensitive water
areas such as lakes, ponds, and rivers. Similarly, personnel should be aware of runoff concerns
from roadways that are near surface water bodies or that drain to either surface water or the
subsurface (e.g.. through a dry well).
-------
Alternative deicing chemicals include
calcium chloride and calcium
magnesium acetate (CMA). Another
alternative, sodium ferrocyanate,
should be avoided due to its toxicity to
fish. Although alternatives are usually
more expensive than salt, their use may
be warranted in some circumstances,
such as near habitats of endangered or
threatened species or in areas with
elevated levels of sodium in the
drinking water. Sensitive areas and
ecosystems along highways should be
mapped, and the use of deicing
alternatives should be targeted to those spots. Other considerations for using alternatives to salt
include traffic volume and extreme weather conditions.
Anti-icing chemical application.
Each deicer works differently in various climatic and regional circumstances. For example, salt
is most effective at temperatures above 20° F. As an alternative, calcium chloride is effective
for temperatures that dip below 0° F and is fast acting, making it ideal for several areas of the
country. In New England, it is used as an alternative on roadways in areas with high sodium
concentrations in water. However, its high cost limits its use to these severe conditions. CMA
has had limited use on roadways because of its high cost and the fact that it is only effective
above 23° F; however, research shows few negative impacts on human health and the
environment. Combining deicers, such as mixing calcium chloride and salt, can be cost-effective
and safe if good information on weather conditions and road usage are available.
Road Weather Information Systems (RWIS) help maintenance centers determine current
weather conditions in a given location. Since the mid-1980's.
increasing numbers of states are using this technology.
Sensors collect data on air and pavement temperatures, levels
of precipitation, and the amount of deicing chemicals on the
pavement. The data are paired with weather forecast
information to predict pavement temperatures for a specific
area and determine the amount of chemicals needed in the
changing conditions. The strategically placed stations are 90
to 95 percent accurate. This information is also used for anti-
icing treatment (described below) to allow for chemicals to be
applied before the pavement freezes, reducing the amount of
deicing chemicals used. Several states are developing satellite
delivery of this information to maintenance workers.
.•tnti-iciiif; or prctrcatmcnt methods are increasingly being
" used as a prevcntative tool. Anti-icing may require up to 90
percent less product than is needed for deicing after snow and
ice have settled on road surfaces. Deicing chemicals, often
liquid magnesium chloride, are applied to the pavement before
precipitation or at the start of a storm to lower the free/ing point of water. Magnesium chloride
is effective in extreme cold temperatures (as low as -13 I-') and is cost effective as well.
Timing is everything in the process, and weather reports or RVVIS data can assist highway
departments in determining the best time and place to apply chemicals. Anti-icing programs can
avoid over-application of deicing chemicals alter a storm event because less ice and snow bonds
to the road. Several states reported improvements in traffic mobility and traction after using
anti-icing treatment techniques. The Pacific Northwest Snowfighters (PNS) Association
evaluates the safety, environmental preservation, and performance of winter road maintenance
RWIS Unit.
-------
products, including road deicers and anti-icers. PNS maintains, monitors, and updates a list of
approved products on its web site (see the section on additional information below).
Some states have installed fixed chemical spraying systems in highway trouble spots, such as on
curves and bridges, to prevent slippery roads. Chemicals are dispensed through spray nozzles
embedded in the pavement, curbs, barriers, or bridge decks. Using pavement temperature and
precipitation sensors, maintenance workers can monitor conditions and activate these fixed
maintenance systems. This technique saves materials and manpower and reduces deicing
operations during a storm. Though expensive to implement, these systems can be beneficial for
areas such as bridges that cross sensitive water bodies, because the risk of over-application is
reduced through the systems' efficiency.
Spreading rates and the amount of deicer used are important considerations. Some studies
have shown that snow melts faster when salt is applied in narrow strips. In a technique known
as windrowing. spreading is concentrated in a four to eight foot strip along the centerline to melt
snow to expose the pavement, which in turn warms a greater portion of the road surface, and
causes more melting. This technique can be used on
lesser traveled roads. The amount used is important, since
too much deicer can be ineffective, as chemicals will be
dispersed (i.e., to the side of the road) where they cannot
melt snow and ice. If not enough deicer is used, the
chemical interaction with ice needed for melting will not
occur, wasting the application. Here is where knowledge
of the specific conditions of precipitation and the pavement
is needed. For example, shaded areas have lower
pavement temperatures and ice forms easier; therefore, more chemicals may be needed in these
spots. As a general rule, less chemicals should be used when the temperatures are rising, and
more should be used when they are falling.
Timing of application is an important consideration, as the strategy of anti-icing indicates. It
takes time for the chemical reactions of salt and other deicers to become effective, after which
a plow can more easily remove the snow. Sand should not be applied to roadways if more snow
or ice is expected, as it will no longer be effective once covered. Traffic volume should also be
taken into consideration, as vehicles can disperse deicers and sand to the side of the road. The
timing of a second application is dictated by the road conditions. For example, while the snow is
slushy on the pavement, the salt or deicer is still effective. Once it stiffens, however, plowing
should be done to remove excess snow.
Application equipment aids in the proper distribution of deicer chemicals. Many trucks are
equipped with a spinning circular plate that throws the chemicals in a semi-circle onto the road.
A chute is used to distribute in a windrow, typically near the centerline of the road. Modified
spreaders prevent the over-application of materials by calibration or by the speed of the truck
and should be used. Spreader calibration controls the amount of chemicals applied and allows
different chemicals to be distributed at different rates. Equipment can also be used to vary the
width of the deiced area. General equipment maintenance and checks should be conducted at
least once a \ear to ensure proper and accurate operation.
Plowing and snow removal are chemical-tree options to keep roads clear of snow and ice.
With plowing, less chemicals are needed to melt the remaininn snow and ice pack. For specific
weather conditions, specialized snow plows may he used. For example, various materials, such
as polymers and rubber, can be used on the blade.
Pre-wetting of sand or deicmg chemicals such as salt is a widespread practice. The resulting
brine mixture can provide faster melting. Suit can be pre-wetted through a spray as it leaves the
spreader. Sand is often pre-wet with liquid deicing chemicals just prior to spreading. This is an
-------
effective method for embedding the sand into the ice and snow on the pavement. This
technique can pay for itself through the savings in materials because less sand or salt bounces
off the pavement and is lost.
Street sweeping during or soon after the spring snow melt can prevent excess sand and deicing
residue from entering surface and ground waters. Many road departments sweep streets at
least once in the spring, with either a broom sweeping or vacuuming vehicle. The sweepings
can be added to sand piles for future reuse.
Proper salt storage is a key measure to prevent the introduction of potentially harmful
contaminant loads to nearby surface and ground waters. It is important to shelter salt piles from
moisture and wind, as unprotected piles can contribute large doses of sodium chloride to runoff.
Salt should be stored inside a covered, waterproof structure, such as a dome or shed. Soil type,
hydrology, and topography must also be appropriate for the storage area. Any runoff should be
cleaned up immediately and the collected brine reused. Spills during loading and unloading
should be cleaned as soon as possible. Salt storage sites should also be located outside of
wellhead and source water protection areas, away from private wells, sole source aquifers
(where feasible), and public water supply intakes. These areas should be identified so
application in these areas can be controlled and storage precautions enforced.
Ground water quality monitoring near salt storage and application sites should be performed,
at minumum, annually. Site-specific water table maps that show the direction of groundwater
flow should be reviewed, and monitoring performed up gradient and down gradient of storage
and application sites to detect contamination. •-
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
These resources contain information on deicing chemicals, related studies, or BMPs. All of the
documents listed are available for free on the Internet. State departments of transportation,
whose contact information can be found on the Internet or in the phone book, are also good
sources of information.
Caraco D. and R. Claytor. (1997) Storm Water BMP Design Supplement for Cold Climates.
Center for Watershed Protection. Ellicott City, MD. http://www.cwp.org/cold-climates.htm
Center for Watershed Protection, 8391 Main Street, Ellicott City, MD, 21043
http://www.cwp.org. CWP also maintains the Stormwater Manager's Resource Center,
http://www.stormwatercenter.net
Church, P. and P. Friesz. (1993) Effectiveness of Highway Drainage Systems in Preventing
Road-Salt Contamination of Ground Water: Preliminary Findings. Reprinted from:
Transportation Research Record. No. 1420. National Research Council.
lillp://\vww.nap.edu/books;N1000Q09/html/index.html
Granato, G.E. and K.P. Smith.-(1999) Estimating Concentrations of Road-Salt Constituents
in Highway-Runoff from Measurements of Specific Conductance. U.S. Department of the
Interior. U.S. Geological Survey. Water Resources Investigation Report 99-4077.
hup:/. ;ma.waier.usus. uo v/'juranato.-WRIR99-4077.pdf
Iowa Institute of Hydraulic Research, College of Engineering, The University of Iowa. (2001)
The Use of Abrasives in Winter Maintenance: Final Report of Project TR 434. Wilfrid A.
Nixon. Ph.D., P.E. IIHR Technical Report No. 416. March.
litti:):.-/\v\vw.sicop.nci/A bras! vcs%20rcport. od f
-------
Michigan Department of Transportation. (1993) The Use of Selected Deicing Materials on
Michigan Roads: Environmental and Economic Impacts. December.
http://w\vw.mdot.state.ini.us/mappub/deicing/
New England Interstate Water Pollution Control Commission. (1996) Source Protection: a
Guidance Manual for Small Surface Water Supplies in New England. March.
New Hampshire Department of Environmental Services. Road Salt and Water Quality.
Environmental Fact Sheet WMB-4. 1996.
http://www.des. state, nh. us/factsheets/\vmb/wmb-4.htm
Ohrel, R. (1995) Choosing Appropriate Vegetation for Salt-Impacted Roadways. Watershed
Protection Techniques. 1(4): 221-223.
http://www.stormwatercenter.iiet/Database Files/Publications Database lPage92.html
Ohrel, R. (1995) Rating Deicing Agents: Road Salt Stands Firm. Watershed Protection
Techniques. 1(4): 217-220.
hltp://vvvvw.stoiTnvvatercenter.net/Patabase_Files/PublicatiQiis Database_lPage423.html
Pacific Northwest Snowfighters Association. Website includes a monitored and updated list of
approved deicing products. hilpv/www.wsdot.wa.govvTossc/maiiit'pns/htm/resoiirces.htrn
Road Management Journal. (1997) Using Salt and Sand for Winter Road Maintenance.
[Information reproduced with permission from the Wisconsin Transportation Bulletin No. 6,
March 1996.] December, http://vvww.usroads.eom/iournals/p/rmj/9712/rm971202.him
The Salt Institute, 700 N. Fairfax Street, Suite 600, Fairfax Plaza, Alexandria, VA 22314-2026
703.549.4648. Website contains useful information on salt storage and its Sensible Salting
Program, http://www.saltinstitute.org
Seawell, Charles and Newland Agbenowosi. (1998) Effects of Road Deicing Salts on
Groundwater Systems.
www.ce.vt.eda/prouram_areas/environmental/teach/'uwprimeivroadsalt/roadsalt.html
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. (1991) Highway Deicing:
Comparing Salt and Calcium Magnesium Acetate. Special Report 235.
http://gulliver.trb.org/publications/sr/sr235.html
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (1996) Manual of
Practice for and Effective Anti-icing Program: A Guide for Highway Winter Maintenance
Personnel. Publication No. FHWA-RD-95-202. June.
http://www.lh wa.dot.gov/reports/mopeap/eapcov. htm
USEPA. (2001) Contaminant Candidate List Preliminary Regulatory Determination Support
Document for Sodium, EPA 815-R-01-014, United States Environmental Protection Agency,
Office of Water, http://www.epa.gov/safewateivccl/pdt7sodium final rsd.pdF
USEPA. (No Date) Shallow Injection Wells (Class V ). Available at
http:-'/www.epa.gov/sal'ewater-iiic.'classv.hlrnl
USEPA links to sites on Roads, Highways, and Bridges:
hHD:.'-'www.ena.uov/owownDS;roadshw\'s.himl
-------
USGS. (1999) An Overview of the Factors Involved in Evaluating the Geochemical Effects of
Highway Runoff on the Environment. Open-File Report 98-630.
http://ma.water.usgs. gov/FH\V'A/products/ofr98-630.pdf
USGS. (no date) National Highway Runoff Water-Quality Data and Methodology Synthesis
State Transportation Agency Reports. htlp://ma.water.usgs.gov/FHWA/qw/state.htni
Warrington, P.D. (1998) Roadsalt and Winter Maintenance for British Columbia
Municipalities. Best Management Practices to Protect Water Quality. December.
htrp://'\vlapw\vw.gov.bc.ca/wat/wq/bmps/roadsalt.htrnl
Winter Maintenance Virtual Clearinghouse, Federal Highway Administration. U.S. Department
of Transportation. http:/./ww\v. tliwa.dot.gov/winter
-------
This page intentionally left blank.
------- |