EPA-R2-73-210

April 1973                 Environmental Protection Technology Series
Stationary Internal
Combustion Engines
in the United  States

                       I*1*8"**
                                Office of Research and Monitoring
                                U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
                                Washington, D.C. 20460

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                                       EPA-R2-73-210

  Stationary  Internal

 Combustion Engines

             in the

      United States
                 by

          Charles R. McGowin

       Shell Development Company
        Bellaire Research Center
        3737  Bellaire Boulevard
          Houston, Texas 77025
   Contract No. EHSD 71-45, Task No. 24
       Program Element No. 1A2014
      EPA Task Officer:  J.H. Wasser

        Control Systems Laboratory
  National Environmental Research Center
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711
             Prepared for

     OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
   U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460

             April 1973

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This report has been reviewed by the Environmental Protection Agency
and approved for publication.  Approval does not signify that the
contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Agency,
nor does mention of trade names or commercial products constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
                                     11

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                                   Abstract

          A survey of stationary reciprocating engines in the U.S. was conducted
to compile the following information:  (1) types and applications of engines,
(2) typical pollutant emissions factors for diesei, dual fuel, and natural gas
engines, (3) differences between engines that cause emissions to vary, (4) total
horsepower and emissions from engines, (5) pollution potential of stationary
engines in densely populated regions, and (6) potential emissions control
techniques.  Where appropriate, gas turbines were included in the survey.
                                                            4
          in 1971, an estimated 34*8 million horsepower of reciprocating engines
and 35.5 million horsepower of gas turbines were operating in the U.S.  The
principal functions of engines are oil and gas pipelines (35%), agriculture
(227.), and electric power generation (167.).  Total NOx emissions from engines
are 2.2 million tons annually, of which 42 percent are generated by pipeline
engines.  Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions are an order of magnitude
lower.  Emissions control techniques having potential as short to intermediate
term solutions include precombustion chambers for diesei engines and water
injection and valve timing modifications for gas and diesei engines.  Over the
longer term, catalytic reduction of NOx appears to have the greatest potential.
                                      ill

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                               Table  of  Contents
                                                                         Page
 Abstract	ill
 Table  of  Contents	iv
 I.   Introduction 	  .......... 	   1
      1. Objectives and Scope  ....  	  .....   1
      2. Survey of  Stationary  Engine Manufacturers   ...  	   1
      3. Organization of the Report	   2
 II.   Summary and Conclusions	   2
      1. Installed  Horsepower  and Emissions  	   2
      2. Stationary Engines as a Local  Pollution  Source	   5
      3. Trends in  Engine Applications   	  •   5
      4.  Potential  for Emissions Control	   6
      5.  Conclusions	   6
III.   Types and Applications of Engines  in  the  U.S	   7
      1. Types of Engines	   7
          a.  Natural Gas Engines  .	   7
          b.  Diesel Engines ............  	  ...   8
          c.  Dual Fuel Engines	   9
      2  . Applications	   9
          a.  Oil and Gas Industry	   9
          b.  Electric Utility  Industry   	  ...  11
 IV.   Trends in the  Use of Stationary Engines and  Gas Turbines	II
      1. Natural Gas Pipelines	11
      2. Electric Power Generation	11
  V.   Emissions Factors for Gas Turbines and  Diesel, Dual Fuel and
      Gas Engines   • •	16
      1. Effect of  Engine Operating  Conditions  	  16
         a.  Air Fuel Ratio	16
         b.  Engine Torque  	19
      2. Test Procedures  	19
      3. Emissions  Factors  	  23
      4. Differences in Emissions Factors  	  23
      5. Sources of Data	25
      6. Method of  Derivation	-.  .  25
                                     iv

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                                                                          Page
 VI.   Installed  Horsepower,  Fuel Consumption, and Emissions of
      Stationary Engines and Gas Turbines  in the U.S	 .......  25
      1.   Overall Statistics	  26
      2.   Electric Power Generation  	 .......  26
          a.   Power Generation and Capacity	f . .	26
          b.   Population Characteristics of Reciprocating Engines  	  29
          c.   Fuel Consumption and Emissions  ........*.  	  29
      3.   Crude  Oil, Product, and Natural Gas Pipelines	29
          a.   Installed Horsepower   	  29
          b.   Fuel Consumption and Emissions	34
      4.   Natural Gas Processing Plants  	  34
      5.   Oil  and Gas Exploration and Production	37
          a.   Exploration	37
          b.   Production	40
      6.   Miscellaneous Applications	  46
HII.   Significance of Stationary Engines as a Local Pollution Source  ...  46
      1.   Natural Gas Transmission Compressor Stations - An Example   ...  48
      2.   Conclusion	48
|II.   Potential  Emissions Control Methods for Stationary
      Reciprocating Engines  	  50
      1.   Promising Emission Control Methods  	 .  	  50
      2.   Engine  Modification Methods 	  52
          a.   Operating Conditions	52
          b.   Hardware Modifications  	  61
              (1)   Exhaust Recirculation	  61
              (2)   Water Injection	   65
              (3)   Valve Timing	65
              (4)   Stratified Charge Combustion 	  65
      3.   Exhaust Treatment  Controls  	  70
          a.   Exhaust Thermal Reactors   	 .......  73
          b.   Stack Gas Scrubbing and Solid Sorption   	  73
          c.   Catalytic Converters	   73
              (1)   Oxidation of CO and Hydrocarbons	  73
              (2)   Reduction of NOx by CO, H2» NH3, or Natural Gas  ....  73
  Bibliography ........ 	 .... 78
  Appendix	A-l

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         Stationary Internal Combustion Engines in the United States

     I.  Introduction

         Stationary internal combustion engines are used by virtually every
segment of U.S. industry.  Gas turbines and reciprocating engines drive elec-
tric power generators, pipeline compressors and pumps, municipal water and
sewage pumps, and various types of industrial equipment.
                                                       4
         At the present time, emission regulations do not exist for stationary
engines either at the state or federal level.  The logical first step in the
development of fitIona1 and effective regulations IB to investigate the contri-
bution of stationary engines to atmospheric pollution.  This report describes
the results of a brief survey of stationary engines in the U.S. with the purpose
of providing some of this needed information.

1.  Objectives and Scope

         The general objective of the survey was to estimate the contribution
of stationary reciprocating engines to atmospheric pollution in the U.S.  More
specifically, the following information has been sought:

         a.  Types and applications of engines.

         b.  Typical mass emissions factors for diesel, dual fuel,
             and gas engines.

         c.  Importance of other pollutants besides nitrogen oxides.

         d.  Differences between engines that cause emissions to differ.

         e.  Installed horsepower,  power generation,  fuel consumption,
             and emissions from stationary engines and gas turbines.

         f.  Pollution potential of large installations of engines in
             densely populated regions, e.g., gas  pipeline compressor
             stations .

         g.  Potential emissions control techniques.

         h.  Independent check of previous estimate of NOx emissions from
             engines by ESSO Research and Engineering Company.

         Although the survey was oriented towards  reciprocating engines, data
for other power sources, particularly gas turbines, are included in the  dis-
cussion wherever appropriate.

2.  Survey of Stationary Engine Manufacturers

         The figures and data discussed in this report are based on both pub-
lished documents and a survey of engine manufacturers conducted by question-
naire.  Sample copies of the survey questionnaire  and accompanying letter are
contained in the Appendix to this report.  The questionnaire asks for engine
population and emissions data for each manufacturer's line of stationary

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engines .  The intention was to use these data to generate detailed information
on the  total installed horsepower in the U.S., and the distribution of horse-
power by type, size, and geographical location.  Unfortunately, only a few of
the questionnaires that were returned contained the data needed to perform this
kind of analysis.  Consequently  it was necessary to rely on other data sources.
However, much of the data used to derive emissions factors in this report were
taken directly from the questionnaire responses.  In addition, engine design
data for early engine models no  longer in production were provided by some
manufacturers.  The completed survey questionnaires are contained in the con-
fidential supplement to this report.

         Supplemental data sources included statistical publications of the
Federal Power Commission, American Gas Association, and American Petroleum
Institute and various trade journals including Power, World Oil, and The Oil
and Gas Journal.

3.  Organization of the Survey Report

         Following the Introduction and Summary and Conclusions sections, there
is a brief  description of the types of engines in use and their applications
in Section  Three.  The fourth section describes current trends in the use of
stationary  engines and gas turbines.  Section Five presents the emissions
factors used to estimate annual  emissions and discusses reasons for differences
in emissions factors .  Section Six contains estimates of annual power genera-
tion, fuel  consumption, and emissions from stationary engines in the U.S.  The
seventh section discusses the potential of stationary engines as local pollu-
tion menaces in populated areas.  The final and eighth section discusses the
methods available for reducing pollutant emissions.  The Appendix contains a
sample  of the survey questionnaire sent to the U.S. engine manufacturers, the
emissions data used to derive emissions factors presented in Section Five, and
supplemental data on installed horsepower at gas pipeline compressor stations
and electric power generating facilities.

    II.  Summary and Conclusions

1.  Installed Horsepower and Emissions

         The major results of the stationary engine survey are shown in Table 1
and Figure  1.  In 1971, the estimated total horsepower of reciprocating engines
was 34.7 million Bhp.  The total for gas turbines was 35.5 million Bhp.  The
major applications of reciprocating engine horsepower are oil and gas pipeline
pumps and compressors (35.1%), agriculture (21.6%), electric power generation
(15.5%), and natural gas production (9.3%).  About 54 percent of the recipro-
cating  engine horsepower is natural gas engine, and 34.2 percent and 11.8 per-
cent are diesel and dual fuel engine, respectively.  About 76 percent of the
fuel Btu's consumed by reciprocating engines are provided by natural gas and
the remainder by distillate fuel oil.

         Estimated power generation figures indicate that reciprocating engines
are running at about 58 percent capacity while gas turbines are running at
about 22 percent capacity.  Capacity factors are low in electric power genera-
tion (~ 12 percent) due to the use of engines and turbines in peak shaving
service.  In contrast, capacity  factors are relatively high on gas pipelines
(90 percent) , where gas engine and turbine compressors are run almost continu-
ously at full load.

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                             TABLE 1
        Estimated Installed Horsepower. Fuel Consumption

             Power Generation, and Emissions in 1971
Installed Horsepower (Bhp)
Reciprocating
 I.C. Engine

 34,739,000
    Gas
  Turbine

35,490,000
Fuel Consumption:
  Natural Gas (106 SCF)
  Fuel Oil (1000 Bbls)
  1,010,105
     50,750
 1,518,540
    45,400
Power Generation
  (106 Bhp-hr)
    176,870
    69,510
Capacity Factor
     58.17.
    22.4%
Emissions (Tons)
  NOx
  CO
  HC.
  2,230,000
    651,600
    282,100
   130,200
NOx Emissions as a
  Percentage of Total NOx
  Emissions in 1968:a'
    All Sources
    Stationary Sources Only
     10.8%
     17.6%
     0.6%
     1.0%
  All Sources:  20,600,000 tons; Stationary Sources
  Only:  12,700,000 tons (Reference 40).

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            INSTALLED  HORSEPOWER   DISTRIBUTION - RECIPROCATING ENGINES
                      TOTAL  HORSEPOWER:  34,739,000 Bhp
 OIL & GAS
EXPLORATION

    GAS  PLANTS
                                                    NATURAL  GAS
                                                        54.0 V.
         NO*  DISTRIBUTION  ENGINES-
         ANNUAL TOTAL- 2,230,000 TONS
                          GAS PLANTS
                              18.9 %
                         AGRICULTURE
                          14,3 %
FUEL BTU DISTRIBUTION-ENGINES
NATURAL GAS: 1.01 x 1012 SCF
NO. 2 FUEL OIL: 50.75 « 106 Bbls
                                                    NATURAL GAS
                                                        75.9 %
                    TONS  NO«
             BTU
    72/396/8
  Figure 1.  Population Characteristics of Stationary ...Engines  in  the U.S.

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         Total NOx emissions  from stationary  reciprocating  engines  were  an
estimated 2.2 million  tons  in  1971.  This  figure  is almost  identical.to  the
previous estimate published by ESSO Research  and  Engineering  in  1969
(2.3 million tons).  The ESSO estimate did not  include emissions  from sources
outside of the oil and gas  industry.  In addition, NOx estimates  emissions for
the individual sectors are higher than those  presented in this report.
Figure 1 shows that about 80 percent of the present estimate  of  total  NOx
emissions from stationary engines is generated  by oil and gas related  applica-
tions.  Consequently,  the present estimated NOx emissions are lower than but
still the same order of magnitude as the ESSO estimates.

         Hydrocarbon and CO emissions are estimated to be 282 and 652  thousand
tons, respectively, and are not felt to cause significant problems.  Hydro-
carbon and CO emissions are generally low for diesel engines, however  smoke and
particulate emissions are sometimes troublesome.  Two cycle gas engines have
somewhat higher hydrocarbon emissions than other engines.

2.  Stationary Engines as a Local Pollution Source

         In some applications such as natural gas pipelines, it is not uncommon
to have 20 to 60 thousand horsepower of reciprocating engine capacity at a
single location.  In order to determine whether these large engine colonies
adversely affect the air environment in densely populated areas, "house count"
data provided by a large gas pipeline company were analyzed to determine the
population density in the immediate vicinity of the compressor stations.   The
analysis indicated that human exposure to the engine emissions is minimal in
terms of the number of people affected.  Most of the stations are remote -
37 percent have no houses or people within an eighth of a mile.   It is still
significant, however, that there is some  human exposure at the majority of the
compressor stations.

3.  Trends in Engine  Applications

         In recent years, the major users of stationary engines  and gas tur-
bines - large electric utilities and natural gas pipelines - have been favoring
large gas turbines in new installations.   The  primary reason is  the relative
ease and cost of installation.  Small rural electrical utilities and total
energy installations  in hospitals,  schools, and commercial establishments are
still favoring diesel-electric sets.  Reciprocating gas engines  are being re-
placed in process applications in refineries and chemical plants by electric
and steam turbine drive units, for  reasons of greater reliability and  less
down time.  Crude oil and products  pipelines use some  diesel and dual  fuel
engines to drive pumps, however, the major power source is the electric motor.

         Crude oil production uses  engines to  drive only  about four percent of
the estimated 400,000 beam-pumped wells in existence,  the remainder being
driven by electric motors.  Most of the 53,000 oil wells  on  gas  lift are  sup-
plied high pressure gas from gas engine-compressors .

         Large electric utilities are favoring so-called  combined cycle gas
turbine units in new installations.   A waste heat  boiler  recovers heat from
the turbine  exhaust and generates steam for process use or to drive a  steam

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turbine.  The industry is now looking towards the gas turbine for continuous
power generation in addition to peak power generation.  This is due to the
delays in nuclear plant construction while environmental questions are being
answered.

         The use of reciprocating engines in stationary applications is growing
moderately in some areas, e.g., rural electric power, declining in others,
e.g., process compression, and staying relatively constant in others.

4.  Potential for Emissions Control

         Two types of emission controls are available for reducing NOx emis-
sions from stationary engines - engine modification and exhaust treatment.
Engine modification controls can be further broken down into changes in
operating conditions and hardware modifications.

         Simple changes' in operating conditions that reduce emissions include
retarding the ignition timing, increasing air/fuel ratio, reducing torque,
increasing speed, decreasing air manifold temperature, and increasing exhaust
back pressure.  More drastic changes that require hardware modifications in-
clude exhaust recirculation, water injection, increased valve overlap, and use
of a precombustion chamber or stratified charge combustion.  Most of these
changes  cause fuel consumption to increase so that the exhaust treatment
methods  may be more attractive long term solutions.  They include exhaust
thermal  reactors, catalytic oxidation of CO and hydrocarbon, catalytic reduc-
tion of  NOx by CO, H2, natural gas, or ammonia, stack gas scrubbing, and solid
sorbents.  The catalytic converter appears to be the only practical exhaust
treatment method for stationary engines.

         The control methods having the greatest potential over the short and
intermediate terra appear to be valve timing adjustment and water injection for
gas engines and precombustion chambers and water injection for diesels.  Over
the long term, catalytic reduction of NOx by ammonia or natural gas appears to
have the greatest potential.  In the case of reduction by ammonia, the method
will work in the presence of high oxygen concentrations, and oxidation of CO
and unburned hydrocarbons proceeds simultaneously.  Catalytic reduction has
the additional advantage that it is not necessary to change engine operating
conditions away from the optimum conditions for maximum performance or fuel
economy.

         It must be emphasized, however, that a significant level of develop-
ment work must be carried out before effective emissions control of stationary
engines will be possible.  The development effort should focus on maximizing
fuel economy, performance, and engine life while minimizing pollutant emissions.

5.  Conclusions

         a.  Total NOx emissions from reciprocating engines and gas turbines
were 2.2 million and 110 thousand tons, respectively, in 1971.

         b.  These figures are of the same order of magnitude as estimates
published by ESSO in 1969, although contributions from the various applications
differ.

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          c.   Hydrocarbon  and  carbon monoxide  emissions  from stationary  engines
 are  of minor  importance relative  to nitrogen  oxides.  Sulfur dioxide  emissions
 are  a  problem only where  fuel  sulfur content  is  significant.

          d.   The  present  trend  in gas  pipelines,  large  electric utility, oil
 refinery,  and chemical plant applications is  towards gas turbine, steam turbine
 and  electric  drives and away  from reciprocating engines.  However, rural elec-
 tric utilities and other  small  applications in remote locations are continuing
 to rely  on diesel engines.

          e.   Large installations  of reciprocating engines on gas pipelines and
 at electric power plants  do not pose a significant pollution threat to  densely
 populated  areas.  However, it  is  still significant that small numbers of people
 are  exposed to high NOx emissions  in some cases .

          f.   Short term NOx control methods with the highest potentials are
 precombustion chambers for diesels, increased valve overlap for four-cycle
 naturally  aspirated engines, and  water injection for all types of engines.

          g.   Over the longer term, catalytic exhaust treatment methods have the
 highest  potential.

         h.   Emissions regulations for stationary engines must allow adequate
 time for  the  development of effective and economical emissions control tech-
 nology.  It will be necessary to demonstrate that the emissions control  system
 does not adversely affect engine life,  reliability, or fuel consumption.

   III.  Types and Applications of Engines in the U.S.
1.  Types of Engines

         Stationary reciprocating engines can be classified into several cate-
gories depending upon the method of ignition of the fuel-air mixture,  number
of strokes per cycle, methods of air and fuel charging,  and application.
Table 2 summarizes the various alternatives.

         The air/fuel mixture is ignited either by an electrical spark discharge
(spark ignition engines) or by compression heating (diesel engines).   Either
two or four strokes per cycle are used.   Air is introduced by natural  aspira-
tion, air blower, supercharging, or turbocharging.  Fuel is introduced by car-
buretion or direct injection into the cylinder.  Fuels include natural gas,
distillate fuel oil, residual fuel oil,  and even crude oil in a few cases.
Most stationary engines operate at medium and high speeds (>1000 rpm)  and are
connected externally to other equipment, such as electric power generators,
pumps, and high speed compressors.  Other engines are built to run  at  low
speeds and drive reciprocating compressor cylinders built integrally into the
engine block.  These integral compressors are used mainly in oil and gas pro-
duction and on natural gas pipelines.

     a.  Natural Gas Engines

         Natural gas engines are almost  always spark ignited, since it is
difficult to run a high compression ratio diesel engine  on gas fuel without
detonation and uneven burning.  Ignition timing is usually advanced to up to

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                                       8
20 degrees before top dead center.  In  four cycle gas engines, the gas fuel is
either mixed with air in a carburetor and  passed into the cylinder through an
intake valve or  is  injected directly into  the cylinder.  Pour-cycle gas engines
can be naturally aspirated, i.e., the air/fuel mixture is drawn into the engine
by the natural pumping action of the cylinders.  Supercharging and turbocharging
are used to supply  air to the engine above atmospheric pressure and increase
the power output of a given engine.  The turbocharger is powered by an exhaust*
driven turbine,  while the supercharger  is  driven off the engine crankshaft.

         In two-cycle gas engines the fuel is injected directly into the cylin-
der, and combustion and scavenging air  enter through ports in the cylinder wall
which are uncovered as the piston nears the bottom of its stroke.  Two-cycle
engines can be either "uniflow" or "loop"  scavenged.  In the former case, In-
coming air dilutes  the exhaust gases and the mixture exits through an open
exhaust valve in the cylinder head.  In loop-scavenged engines, the scavenging
air-exhaust mixture leaves through exhaust ports in the cylinder wall.  A ridge
on top of the piston causes air to loop through the cylinder and sweep out the
exhaust gases.   As  a result of exhaust  scavenging, exhaust pollutants are
diluted to about 1/2 to 2/3 of their original concentrations.  Thus, in the
case of two cycle engines, air/fuel ratio  cannot be estimated directly from
exhaus t compos i t ion.
Ignition Type
                   TABLE 2

 Types of Stationary Internal Combustion Engines

   Spark Ignition           Diesel             Dual Fuel
Fuel
Natural Gas
No. 2 Oil
Natural Gas 95%
Strokes/Cycle
                            2 or 4
Air Charging:
  2-cycle
  4-cycle
<-Atmospheric Blower, Supercharged, or Turbocharged--
<-Naturally Aspirated, Supercharged, or Turbocharged*
Fuel Charging
Direct Injection
or Carbureted
Direct Injection
or Precombustion
Chamber
Direct Injection
Engine Speed
High Speed or
Low Speed
Integral Compressor-
Engine
High Speed
High Speed or
Low Speed
Integral Compressor
     b.  Diesel Engines

         The general features and forms of diesel engines are similar to those
of spark ignition gas engines with a  few exceptions.  The fuel is generally a
light distillate oil such as No. 2 oil.  Combustion is controlled by injecting
fuel into the cylinder through a spray nozzle at the proper time during the
compression stroke, usually a few degrees before top dead center.  Diesel
engines have higher compression ratios than spark-gas engines, typically

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 13:1 vs 8:1.  This allows compression heating of air trapped in the cylinder
 to a high enough temperature to ignite the fuel droplets as they are injected
 into the cylinder.

          Caterpillar Tractor and several other diesel manufacturers use a pre-
 combustion chamber to initiate combustion.^*29)  The fuel is injected into a
 small chamber appended to the main cylinder chamber, where it ignites in the
 presence of less than the stoichiometric requirement of.air.  The mixture is
 then forced out into the main chamber where the air/fuel mixture is very lean,
 typically 20:1.  This system is analogous to  the stratified charge combustion
 system being considered for automotive NOx control.   Indeed, one advantage of
 the precombustion chamber system over the conventional system is that smoke,
 NOx, and exhaust odor have been found to be lower.^)

      c.  Dual Fuel Engines

          Dual fuel engines can operate either on 100 percent fuel oil or a
 mixture of natural gas and fuel oil,  usually  up to 95 percent natural gas on
 the basis of heating value.  The fuel oil serves as  a pilot for ignition of
 the gas fuel, which is difficult to ignite by compression heating alone.

          Dual fuel engines have at least two  advantages  over spark ignition
 gas engines and full diesel engines - greater fuel  flexibility  and better fuel
 economy.  The higher compression ratio results in higher thermal efficiency
 than occurs in the spark gas engine.

         A variation of the dual-fuel engine,  the tri-fuel engine allows
operation in the spark ignition gas mode as well as the full diesel and dual
fuel modes.

2.  Applications

         The major applications of stationary engines and gas turbines in the
industrial, commercial, and public sectors are listed in Table 3.  The most
prevalent uses are as power sources for electric power generators and gas pipe-
line compressors.

     a.  Oil and Gas Industry

         The oil and gas industry is probably the single largest user in terms
of installed horsepower and power generation.   In oil and gas exploration,
engines are used to drive drilling equipment,  mud pumps, and electric power
generators.  Some oil well beam pumps are driven directly by small engines,
while other wells are pumped by "gas lift", with gas supplied by an engine-
driven compressor.  Natural gas processing plants use engines to drive both
refrigeration and process compressors.  Natural gas pipelines are major users
of large integral gas engine-compressors.  Oil refineries and chemical plants
use engines to a limited extent to drive process compressors and stand-by
electric power generators.  The most frequent  applications are catalytic crack-
ing and reforming units.  There seems to be a trend in refineries and chemical
plants, however, to replace engines by electric motors and steam turbine drives.

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                                  10
                         TABLE 3
 Applications of Stationary Internal Combustion Engines
Industry

Electric Utility
 Principle
Engine Types

Diesel
Dual Fuel
Gas Turbine
        Application

1. Continuous power
   generation
2. Peaking power
3. Standby power
4. Total energy
Natural Gas Utility
Spark Ignition-Gas 1. Compressor drives -
Gas Turbine           transmission, distri-
                      bution, storage, field
                      and gathering.
Petroleum
Spark Ignition-Gas
Diesel
Gas Turbine
I. Oil and gas well dril-
   ling operations.
2. Oil well pumping
3. Gas well recompression
4. Gas plant compressors
5. Refinery process compressor*
6. Plant cooling water pumps
7. Electric power generation
 Chemical
Spark Ignition-Gas 1. Process compressors
Diesel             2. Cooling water pumps
Gas Turbine        3. Electric power generation
General Industrial
Spark Ignition-Gas 1. Electric power generation
Diesel             2. Mechanical drive
Dual Fuel
Gas Turbine
Commercial and
Municipal
Spark Ignition-Gas 1. Electric power generation
Diesel             2. Total energy
Gas Turbine        3. Water pumping
                   4. Sewage pumping

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                                    11
     b.  Electric Utility Industry

         The electric utility  industry uses engines  and  gas  turbines  for both
continuous and peaking power service.  The emphasis  is on  peaking power in
large utility companies and on continuous power  in smaller municipal  utilities.
Total energy systems have been on the rise in recent years in  schools,  hospi-
tals, and shopping centers.^'  These systems generate all required electric
power and use the waste heat to generate steam and provide other  utilities .

         Municipalities and commercial concerns  use  engines  principally to
generate either continuous or standby electric power and to  drive  water and
sewage pumps.

    IV.  Trends in the Use of Stationary Engines and Gas Turbines

         The current trends in new engine orders reflect the pressures  coming
from environmental, cost, and fuel shortage considerations.  Gas turbines  are
known to provide more reliable service at lower  installed  cost per horsepower
than diesel and gas engines.  As described later, NOx emissions are about  an
order of magnitude lower and CO and hydrocarbon emissions  are not a problem
in the case of gas turbines.  Consequently, the shipments  of new gas turbine
equipment have risen steeply in the last five years, while reciprocating
engine shipments have decreased some.

         Figure 2 shows annual shipments of new nonautomotive gasoline, diesel,
and natural gas reciprocating engines in the U.S. for the years 1958 through
1970-37,38)  Table 4 shows the ultimate applications of the three types of
engines.  The totals include engines exported from the United States, the num-
ber exported being less than 5 percent in most cases.

1.  Natural Gas Pipelines

   „     Gas engine shipments have dropped significantly from a peak of 18,000
in 1966 to about 7,000 in 1970.  This is viewed to be the result of both the
economic recession and the inroads made by the gas turbine in new compressor
horsepower on natural gas pipelines .  Figure 3 shows new and added compressor
horsepower installed on U.S. transmission pipelines for the years 1960 through
1971.^2)  Before 1968, the reciprocating gas engine held a decided edge; how-
ever, the gas turbine has been in the lead since.  In 1971, almost twice as
much gas turbine horsepower as reciprocating horsepower was installed by the
industry.  In new installations, the trend is towards using a single large gas
turbine, typically 10 to 20,000 hp, to drive a centrifugal compressor.  The
reasons are dependability, ease of operation, and installed cost.  The gas
turbine costs about half as much as the gas engine-compressor to install
($271/hp vs $426/hp in 1971).21,32)   Additions to existing  compressor  stations
often use equipment that is similar to what  is already  present, i.e.,  gas engine
or turbine.   It should be noted,  however,  that very little  expansion is  presently
in progress, as the gas supply is not presently increasing and the industry is
struggling to supply gas to existing customers.

2.  Electric Power Generation

         The electric utility industry is also making increasing use of the
gas turbine-generator set in new installations.   Annual installations  are
expected to hover around 6,000 MW capacity over the next three years.      For
the past five years or so, the large investor-owned electric  utilities have

-------
                                      12
   Ul

   Z
       10 .10*
        8.10*
        6.10*
        4*10*
      250«I03
   o

   2  200 «io3
   u.  150 «103
   o
      100«io3
      16,000
       12,000
        8000
        4000
                SOURCE: U.S. DEPT OF COMMERCE. CURRENT INDUSTHIAl BEPOftTS


                       INTERNAL  COMBUSTION  ENGINES
                    GASOLINE-FUELED
DIESEL
                     NATURAL GAS
                                      \
                                                J_
                   1958    1960   1962     1964   1966    1968    1970    W72

                                           YEAR
Figure  2.   Annual Shipments of Non-Automotive Reciprocating; Engines in U.S

                                     1958 to 1970

-------
                     TABLE ft




Internal Conbuition Engine*: Munber va End Uae
37,38)

Year:
Gasoline:
Marine
Lawn & Garden^
Chain Saw* J
Agriculture
Subtotal 8,
Construct Ion
Generator Sets
General Industrial 1.
Subtotal I,
Overall total 9,
Diesel:
Marine
Acriculture
Subtotal
Construction
Generator Sees
toconotlva 1
General Industrial/
Subtotal
Overall Total

1970

61,663
013,961
169,977
245.601
152,178
86,264
073,564
312,006
557,607

6,745
65,641
72.386
91.048 •
10,201
52.218
153.647
225,853

1969

106,693
8,717,864
187,437
9.011.994
175,605
90,760
1.249.185
1.515^550
10,527,544

8,604
80.264
86.868
104.284
8.535
52.045
164.864
253,732

1968

84,624
8,236,693
193.380
8,514,697
104,638
67,798
1,134,638
1,307,074
9,821,771

9,762
96.460
106.222
92,932
6.070
46.645
145.647
251,869

1967

103,478
7,555.701
202,167
7,861.346
121,225
67,930
1.070.887
1,260,042
9,121,388

9.764
102,459
112.223
90,338
5.564
44,127
140,229
252,452

1966

103,899
6,422,221
482,194
509.543
7,517,857
132,214
76,678
1.173,939
1,382,831
8.900,488

7,213
94,509
101,722
98.865
12,746*1
152.767
254.489

1965

39,937
5.766.819
442,855
417.507
6.667.118
85.076
67,769
1.087.760
1,240,605
7,907,723


103.325
103,325
56.305*'
13.2091
73.880
143.394
246.719

1964

29.463
4,760,683
435,152
434,175
5.659,473
66,052
59,190
949,007
1.074,249
6.733,722


118,064
118.064
47. Ill*5
9,548
63.320
119.979
237.043

1963

28,005
5.084,262*1
373, 263/
430.362
5.915,892
51,136
43,542
851,068
945,746
6,825,638


82,028
82,028
36.86la>
8,519
1.419
50,517
97.316
179,344
1963-70
Cumulative Total

557,762
56,291,668
2,544.548
59.393.978
888,124
559,931
8.590.048
10.038.103
69.432.081


742.750
,

74,392

1.901.501

Z of Total

0.80* '
81.08
3.66
85.54*
1.28
0.81
12.37
14.46*
100.00*


39.06%


3.911

IOO.OOX

-------
                                                                  TABLE 4, (continued)
tear
                       1970
1969
            1968
1967
                                    1966
                                                                                    196S
                                    1964
1963
   Include* Marine engines.
   1963-70
Cumulative Total    I of Total
Agriculture
Con* t ruction I
I
Generator Set* J
General tndu« trial
Subtotal
Overall Total
2,9B7b>

fc\
Z,34Z
1.8JI
4,163
7,150
3,257


2,694
1.002
3.696
6,953
3,947


3,547
1.028
4,575
8,522
6,873


4,799
1,260
6,059
12,932
11,460


S.S39
1,135
6,674
18,134 •
5,654


8,266
839
9,105
14,759
5,780


7,700
911
8,611
14,391
8,788


5,142
562
5,704
14,492
48,746


40,029
8.558
48,587
97.333
50.08T.


41.13
8.79
49.92
100.00%
   Batfautea baaed on distribution of gaa engine* In Agriculture and Con*truetion/Generator  Seta  for  previous  three year*.

-------
    800
         REFERENCE: OIL AND GAS JOURNAL  (REF. 32)
   700
   600
I
ac
O
   500
O  400
UJ
ce
a.
    300
o


I  200
    100
                             TOTAL  GAS ENGINE & TURBINE
                                       I
                         I
              1961    1962     1963    1964
1965    1966     1967    1968    1969    1970    1971     1972

      YEAR
    72/396/2
                Figure 3.  New and Added Compressor Capacity on Gas Transmission Pipelines -

                                                1960 to 1971

-------
                                       16
favored gas turbines over reciprocating  engines  in new peak shaving  units.   As
a result of delays  in  the construction of new nuclear generating  capacity,  due
to environmental questions,  the  industry is  looking at the  gas  turbine  to gen-
erate continuous power in addition  to peaking power.

         Forecasts  of  fuel  shortages and rising  fuel oil  prices have brought
renewed interest from  the industry  in combined-cycle gas  turbines. *'  A waste
heat boiler recovers energy ftoffl the hot exhaust from the gas turbine and
generates steam to  drive an auxiliary steam  turbine.   As  much as  a 40 percent
increase in power capacity  is  achieved by using  the combined cycle as opposed
to the "open" cycle with no heat recovery.   This at least partially  eliminates
one of the prime objections to the  gas turbine - its low  cycle  efficiency,
typically 23 percent in the open cycle configuration.

         Reciprocating engines,  principally  diesel and dual fuel  engines, will
find continuing demand as power  sources  for  electric generators in small munici-
palities, hospitals, schools,  and shopping centers which  are too  small  to use
a large gas turbine unit.   Table 5  summarizes data from the trade journal
Power,34) collected in an annual survey  of engines ordered  from U.S. engine
manufacturers.  The samples are  heavily  weighted towards  electric power genera-
tion, and do not fairly represent engines ordered by other  segments  of  industry,
particularly the petroleum  industry.  Consequently,  the table shows  only the
percentages for the principle  applications,  types, and fuels for  engines ordered
in the U.S. and Canada.  Recently there  has  been a marked increase in applica-
tions in continuous electric power  generation.   Most of the engines  are full
diesel, and the principle fuels  are No.  2 fuel oil in the case  of diesel engines
and No. 2 fuel oil  and natural gas  in the case of dual fuel engines.

     V.  Emissions  Factors  for Gas  Turbines  and  Diesel, Dual Fuel, and  Gas
         Engines

         The emissions factors used to estimate  total NOx,  CO,  and hydrocarbon
emissions from stationary engines are described  in this section.  Before pre-
senting the data, it is appropriate to discuss several important  points which
greatly affect the  magnitude of  pollutant emissions  from  engines.  These include
both the engine operating conditions at  the  time of  the emissions tests, and the
emissions test methods.

1.  Effect of Engine Operating Conditions

         Exhaust emissions  can vary over a considerable range depending upon
the condition of the engine, operating conditions, and various design factors.
The most important  operating conditions  are  the  air/fuel  ratio of the trapped
charge mixture, and the load or  torque on the engine.   Other factors  of lesser
importance include  the ignition  timing (reciprocating engines), and  the air
temperature and humidity.

     a.  Air/Fuel Ratio

         The air/fuel  ratio  can  be  expressed  as  either a  weight or volume ratio
(gas fuels).  It expresses  the relative  fractions of  air  and fuel present in
the mixture burned  in  the cylinders of reciprocating  engines and  in  the corabus-
tors of gas turbines.  Perhaps a  more meaningful parameter  is the equivalence
ratio 0, which is the  ratio  of the  stoichiometric and  actual air/fuel ratios:

                           f . (A/F)StoUh

                             " WF)Actu.l    '

For 0 less than unity, the air/fuel mixture  is lean.

-------
                                    TABLE S
Statistical Survey of Stationary Engine! Purchased in U.S.  and Canada by Year
Reference: Fewer "Plant Design Report!1'

Principle Use
Electric Power Generation
Continuous Power
Peaking Power
Standby Power
Total Energy
Subtotal (Electric Gen.)
Pump Drive
Compressor Drive
Mechanical Drive
Other
Total
Engine Type
natural Cas
Pull Diesel
Dual Fuel
Trt-Fuel
Total

1963

29.01
1.0
26.0
0.0
56.07.
17.0
27.0


100.0%

30.4%
49.0
19.6
1.0
100.01

1964

34.01
3.0
26.0
0.0
63.0%
18.0
19.0


100.0%

38. OX
49.0
12.0
1.0
100.01

1965

26.27,
13.1
9.8
U.5
60.62
0.0
6.5
32.7
0.2
100.0%

53.8%
26.1
20.1
0.0
100.0%
Year of Survey
1966 1967

26,5%
2.4
8.4
6.0
43.3%
7.2
49.5
0.0
0.0
100.0%

52.3% 67.2%
12.4 18.4
35.3 14.4
0.0
100.0% 100.0%
1963 through 1972

1968

27.3%
0.0
1.6
17.9
46.8%
13.3
30.2
9.7
0.0
100.0%

66.1%
13.6
19.3
1.0
100.0%

1969

30.0%
8.0
11.0
21.0
60.0%
6.5
18.5
5.0
0.0
100.0%

43.4%
32.4
24.2

100.0%

1970

20.0%
19.0
21.0
34.0
94.0%
0
2.0
4.0
0.0
100.0%

21. 2%
46.5
32.J

100.0%

1971

34.9%
12.6
21.3
25.7
94.5%
3.0
2.5
0.0
0.0
100.0%

22.2%
45.5
32.3
*•
100.0%

1972

51.0%
9.0
31.0
0.3
91.3%
2.0
0.0
0.0
6.7
100.0%

-
58.0%
42.0

100.0%

-------
                                                                       TABLE 5 (continued)






fcinclpal Baa                   1963	1964	1965	1966      '  1967	1968	1969	1970	1971	1972
Fuel Typ«
Ho. 2 Oil
M». 2 Oil and CM
No. 5 Oil
Ho. 6 Oil
Havy Oil '
Metal Oil
Crude Oil
natural Cat
Othar
Total

35.01 37.9%




1S.O 1.8

50.0 53.5
6.8
100.01 100.01

21.91 8.9Z
14.4
1.1
.2
.2
4.9 3.3
.9
73.2 69.2
1.8
100.01 100. 0*
.
24. n 43.01
24.2 21.2

.5

6.1 3.0

45.5 . 32.3

100.01 100.01

40. 3Z
14.9

2.0

3.0

39.8

100.0%

41. a
40.2
1.0


16.6


1.0
100.01
                                                                                                                                                                    00

-------
                                      19


         Literature  data  in  Figure  4  demonstrate  how the  air/fuel ratio affects
exhaust concentrations of NOx,  CO,  and  hydrocarbon  for  a  4-cycle  gasoline -
fueled laboratory engine.*'  The NOx  concentration  reaches  a  maximum for an
air/fuel ratio  slightly on the  lean side of  stoichiometric.   Richer mixtures
result in  lower available oxygen concentrations,  while  leaner mixtures result
in  lower flame  temperatures.  Both  factors result in less favorable conditions
for the formation of nitrogen oxides.   Carbon  monoxide  emissions  are essentially
functions  of oxygen  availability and  thus are  significant only for rich mixtures.
Hydrocarbon emissions result principally from  quenching o-f  the combustion re-
action at  the cylinder wall  and tend  to be higher for both  rich and very lean
mixtures,  the  former effect results  from the  lack  of available oxygen for
combustion and  the latter from  lean misfires under  oxygen rich conditions .

     b.  Engine Torque

         Varying load is  the predominant factor which causes  emissions from
engines and gas turbines  to vary with time.  Laboratory studies suggest,  how-
ever, that the  effect is  primarily  one  of simultaneous  changes in the  air/fuel
ratio.  '  Nevertheless,  load or torque has a  primary effect  on emissions via
its effect on combustion  pressure which in turn affects the rates of formation
of  nitrogen oxides and combustion of CO and hydrocarbons .

         Figure 5 shows the effect  of torque on the  brake specific mass  emissions
of  nitrogen oxides for three Cooper Bessemer engines.25,35)   The  two spark-
ignition gas engines (GMVA-8 and GMVH-8) show  great  sensitivity of specific  NOx
emissions  to torque, while the diesel engine (KSV-12) is  less  sensitive  to torque
in  both the full diesel and dual fuel modes.   Data  from other  sources  show the
same relative effects for gas and diesel engines.9)  As torque increases,  the
air/fuel ratios decrease and combustion temperatures increase  in  both  gas and
diesel engines.  In  the case of natural gas combustion, both  effects  tend to
increase NOx emissions.  However, the two effects tend  to cancel  in liquid fuel
combustion in diesel engines.  The  air/fuel ratio is already on the rich  side of
the peak NOx setting, and further enrichment leads  to lower NOx formation.
Thus, the  gas engine exhibits greater NOx sensitivity to  torque than  the  diesei
engine.

         Gas turbines are also known to exhibit NOx sensitivity to  load.   '
Combustion intensity and temperature increase with load,  leading  to higher NOx
concentrations  in the exhaust.   However, exhaust  flow does not  increase in
proportion to load.  Thus, specific mass emissions of NOx are  less  sensitive
to  load than in the case of gas engines.

         At a given speed, power output is proportional to torque.  Hence,
derating an engine, i.e., operating below rated load, would be  expected to be
an effective NOx control method only in the case of gas engines.  As load  is
reduced, the magnitude of diesel and dual fuel NOx emissions per  unit  power
output does not change significantly.   It is also significant  that  as  load is
reduced, specific fuel consumption and HC and CO emissions both increase  in
gas and dual fuel engines.  This is illustrated in Figure 6 for a Cooper-
Bessemer GMVA-8 gas engine.  ^)

2.  Test Procedures

         Considerable variations in exhaust emissions can result  from  seemingly
minor differences in test procedures.   In addition to the exhaust concentrations
of pollutants,  it is necessary to determine engine power output and exhaust  flow
rate in order to calculate specific mass emission rates (grams/brake/horse-
power-hour).   The latter requires accurate measurement of fuel flow rate

-------
                       20
                                           -3000
                                                 o
                                                 I
                                            1000
-1000
                                                  1
                                                  8
                                                 I
               air fuel ratio by wt

The effects of air-fuel ratio on hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide,
        and nitric oxide exhaust emissions.
                Figure 4 (Reference  1).

-------
                                 21
       CB GMVA-8
       2 CYCLE
                            STANDARD CONDITIONS
       ATMOSPHERIC
       GAS ENGINE
                                 CB GMVH-8
                                 2-CYCLE  TURBOCHARGED GAS ENGINE
                                                DIESEL  MODE
                                                 DUAL FUEL MODE
                          CB KSV-12
                          4-CYCLE  TURBOCHARGED
                          DIESEL/DUAL FUEL ENGINE
72/396/3

Figure 5.
           60
       80
  100     120    140

TORQUE  (BMEP)  psi
160
180
200    220
Effect  of Load on Specific NOx  Emissions - Cooper Bessemer Gas and
                     Diesel Engines

-------
                           22
     700
 LL.
 O

 w  600
 on

 <  500
 LU
 |  400
 LU
 t—

     300


   o,900
   «A

0^700
^•"  «»

^2 500

   °" 300
  !«.

 i 8000
 X
 CO
 > 7500
 CO

 Sj? 700°
 CO
 Q.
 X
 CO
 ^
  
-------
                                      23
and composition and air flow rate or exhaust C(>2 and 02 concentration.  Differ-
ent analytical instruments may yield differing values for C02 or 02 concentra-
tions which would lead to different exhaust flows and specific mass emissions
values.  In those cases in which the engine is driving a pump or compressor,
it might be difficult to determine power output, which would introduce some
uncertainty into the results.  Likewise, different exhaust sample treatment
and analytical techniques will cause differences.  Consequently, there is a
great deal of uncertainty in the emissions factors presented in the next sec-
tion, and they can only be considered to be order of magnitude estimates.

         There has been some effort within the U.S. engine manufacturing
industry to standardize emissions testing procedures for stationary engines.
The Diesel Engine Manufacturers Association has developed an emissions test
code in cooperation with the University of Michigan.  The test code has been
reviewed by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and is being revised
before being published.  It is hoped that the DEMA Emissions Test Code will
eliminate much of the variation found in emissions test data.

3.  Emissions Factors

         Table 6 summarizes the emissions factors used to estimate exhaust
emissions from gas, diesel, and dual fuel engines and gas turbines in the U.S.
Emissions factors are reported for nitrogen oxides (as NC^), carbon monoxide
(CO), and total hydrocarbons (HCt as methane) in units of (grams/brake horse-
power hour), (Ib/million Btu fuel burned) and ppra concentration at stoichio-
metric conditions.  The sources of data and method of derivation are described
be low.

         An important point to note is that diesel engine emissions are usually
but not always, measured over the California 13 mode test cycle, which is sum-
marized in the Appendix.  Consequently, diesel emissions factors are given in
two groups - the first group is based on emissions data collected over the
13 mode cycle, while the second is based on emissions tests run at constant
speed and load.  The latter factors should be used in those cases where the
engines are run for long periods of time at constant speed, e.g., electric
power generation.

4.  Differences in Emissions Factors

         Except for gas turbines, dual fuel, and precombustion chamber diesel
engines, NOx factors exhibit only minor differences among the different engine
types, and NOx factors are in the range 10 to 14 graras/Bhp-hr.  Gas turbines
are an order of magnitude lower, primarily as a result of the lower peak tem-
peratures in the combustion chamber.  Gas turbine emissions of NOx are higher
by about a factor of two in the oil fired mode than in the gas fired mode.46)
Precombustion chamber type diesels emit about half as much NOx as direct injec-
tion diesels.  This is probably due to a stratified charge combustion effect in
which combustion is initiated in a fuel-rich environment.  The dual-fuel engine
has a significantly lower specific fuel consumption than the gas engine, which
is probably the reason NOx emissions are also lower.  The dual-fuel engine burns
gas predominantly.  Ignition occurs by compression heating and liquid fuel igni-
tion, leading to higher thermal efficiencies and lower BSFC.

         Hydrocarbon and CO emissions data show more variability between
engines and emissions tests.  However, four-cycle engines show generally

-------
                                                                    TABLE 6
                                              Stationary Engine and Gas Turbine Emi»tlon Factors
Engine * Chat
type Cycle* *!r

Diesel 4 TC
HA
TC
HA
2 SC
1 4 TC
1
3 HA
^
5

H Dual fuel 4 TC

Natural Gas 4 TC
NA
4 TC
V
2 TC
Atmos.
Cas Turbine
*&

DI
DI
PC
PC
DI
DI
PC
PC



in

01
c
BSFC
16/Bhp-hr
0.37
0.43
0.37
0.43
0.40
0.37
0.37
0.43


Btu/Bhp-hr
5970

6830
7150
High Speed 7000
01
01

6635
7100
11,185
NOx

13.8
11.2
5.3
5.9
14.7
11.0
7.5
6.0



8.2

12.2
11.8
12.8
10.5
12.0
1.7
g7Bhg.hr

3.8
5.3
1.6
2.5
6.1
3.9
0.92
0.96



2.0

1.0
1.4
5.7
2.7
0.3
-
HC

1.4
5.6
0.34
0.3
0.8
0.13
0.10
0.18



3.1

2.0
2.0
2.1
4.4
4.0
-
NOx

4.2
2.9
1.6
1.5
4.1
3.3
2.3
1.6



3.0

3.9
3.6
4.0
3.5
3.3
0.34
lb/106 Btub>
CO

1.2
1.4
0.49
0.65
1.7
1.2
0.28
0.25



0.74

0.32
0.43
1.8
0.90
0.093
-
HCr

0.43
1.4
0.10
0.078
0.22
.040
.030
.047



l.l

0.65
0.62
0.66
1.5
3.3
-
ffi!'

3220
2250
1240
1180
3170
2570
1750
1200



2050

2660
2460
2730
2360
2520
225
Stoichioe
CO

1460
1750
610
820
2160
1490
350
320



410

360
480
1990
1000
100
-
ietricc)
"t

940'
3220
230 i
170
500^
9fl|
70
100]



1430

1250
1200
1280
2830
2410
-
Remarks



13 Mode Test


Constant
Conditions












                                                                                                                                                                  ISA
«) "TC" - Turbocharged, "SC" - Supercharged, HA - Naturally-Aspirated, "DI" - Direct Injection, "PC" *  Precombustlon Chamber.


b) Assumes: Gas LHV - 950 |^; Oil HHV - 19,600 Btu/lb; Dual fuel engines bum 21X ail, 791 gas.
                          5Cr


e) Assumes: KW oil • 180, ife - 12.7, % • 27.4; for gas n- - 1.1, tv - 4.4.

-------
                                      25
higher CO emissions and lower hydrocarbon emissions than 2-cycle engines.  Many
4-cycle engines are operated at or near stoichioraetric conditions which in-
creases CO emissions.  Conversely, 2-cycle engines operate with large excess
air quantities trapped in the cylinder during combustion.  However, un burned
fuel can more easily escape from two-cycle engines, particularly loop-
scavenged engines in which the exhaust escapes through ports in the cylinder
walls.

         Hydrocarbon and CO emissions are not generally a problem for gas
turbines .  Secondary air dilutes the exhaust to approximately 400% excess air
at high temperature which effectively oxidizes any unburned hydrocarbon and CO.

5.  Sources of Data

         The emissions factors are composites of data collected from 1) litera-
ture sources, 2) survey questionnaire responses from engine manufacturers, and
3) industrial sources of field data.

         Diesel engine factors are based on the questionnaire responses of
Allis Chalmers, Caterpillar Tractor, and Cooper Bessemer and data published by
Cooper Bessemer^' and the U.S. Bureau of Mines .23, 24)  nual fuel engine
factors are based on data supplied by DeLaval Turbine and data published and
                            35)
rived from data supplied by Cooper Bessemer ,  .    Ingersoll Rand,  Caterpillar
supplied by Cooper Bessemer.     Gas engine and gas turbine factors were de-
                                              .35)
Tractor, and Southern California Gas Company.

6 .  Method of Derivation
         The emissions factors for each type of engine are averages of full
load specific mass emissions (grams/Bhp-hr) weighted by the brake horsepower
of each engine included in the sample.  Specific fuel consumption factors
(Btu/Bhp-hr) are derived in the same way.  Emissions factors related to heat
duty (lb/10° Btu) are derived by dividing the mass emissions factor by the
fuel consumption factor and converting grams to pounds.  Exhaust concentrations
of pollutants are derived by calculating the exhaust volume (wet) that would
result at stoichiometric conditions per unit power generation (Bhp-hr) .  Gas
fuel is assumed to have a heating value of 950 Btu/lb and carbon and hydrogen
numbers of 1.1 and 4.4 moles/mole fuel, respectively.  The corresponding
quantities for liquid fuel are 19,600 Btu/lb, 12.7 and 27.4 moles/mole, and
the molecular weight is 180.

    VI.  Installed Horsepower, Fuel Consumption, and Emissions of Stationary
         Engines and Gas Turbines in the U S .

         This section presents estimates of the total installed horsepower,
annual fuel consumption, and pollutant emissions for stationary engines and
gas turbines in the U.S.  The major engine users included in the tabulation
are electric power generation, oil and gas pipelines, natural gas processing
plants, oil and gas exploration, crude oil production, and natural gas produc-
tion.  Other miscellaneous applications include water and sewage pumping and
industrial drives .

-------
                                       26
1.  Overall  Statistics

         Table  7  is  a  tabulation of estimated installed horsepower,  fuel con-
sumption, and annual emissions  for stationary reciprocating engines  and gas
turbines in  the U.S.

         In  1971,  the  total  installed horsepower was 34.7 million horsepower
for reciprocating  engines  and  35.5 million horsepower for gas turbines.  The
breakdown of reciprocating engine horsepower by type is 34.2 percent diesel,
11.8 percent dual  fuel,  and  54  percent gas engine.   For reciprocating engines
15.5 percent of the  horsepower  is used in electric  power generation, 35.2 per-
cent on oil  and gas  pipelines,  21.6 percent in agricultural irrigation pumping,
9.3 percent  in  natural gas production, and smaller  fractions in oil  and gas
exploration, and  crude oil production.  The gas turbine statistics have been
adjusted to  reflect  an estimated 7.5 million kilowatts additional generating
capacity brought  into  operation during 1971 by the  electric utilities.*"'  This
was done to  bring  the  electric  utility data for 1970,  presented in the next
section, up  to  1971  levels.

         Total  fuel  consumption by engines and gas  turbines is estimated to be
1.5 x  1012 SCF  natural gas and  96 million barrels distillate fuel oil.   About
66 percent of the  gas  and  53 percent of the oil are burned in stationary engines*

         Total  NOx,  CO,  and  hydrocarbon emissions from reciprocating engines
are estimated to  be  2.3  million, 6.52 thousand, and 282 thousand tons,  respec-
tively.  Estimated NOx emissions from gas turbines  are 130 thousand  tons.   Of
the total NOx emissions  from reciprocating engines,  it is estimated  that
41.7 percent is from oil and gas pipelines,  18.9 percent is from natural gas
processing plants, 14.3  percent is from agricultural sources,  and 13.8 percent
is from natural gas  production.

2.  Electric Power Generation

         On  the basis of total  installed horsepower of reciprocating engines
and gas turbines  (19.2 x 10& kw or 25.8 x 106 Bhp in 1970),  electric power gen-
eration is the  major user  of internal combustion power. **•'  Since capacity
factors are  about  12 percent, however, electric power  generation is  over-
shadowed by  oil and  gas  pipelines in power generation  and pollutant  emissions*

     a.  Power  Generation  and Capacity

         Table  8 summarizes  Federal Power Commission estimates  of U.S.  electric
power capacity  and generation from all sources  for  1970,  1980,  and 1990.H)
In 1970, the total power generating capacity was 340 x 106 kw and power genera-
tion was 1541 x 109  kw-hr.   Stationary engines  and  gas turbines  provided 5.6
percent of the  generating  capacity and 1.4 percent  of  the power  generation.
By 1990, it  is  predicted that total capacity and generation will increase
271 and 284  percent, respectively.   At the same time,  the contribution  of
engines and  gas turbines  to total generating  capacity will increase slightly
to 6.0 percent, while the  contribution to power generation will  decrease to
0.8 percent.

         About  20 percent  of the I.C.  engine and gas turbine  capacity was  pro-
vided by engines in  1970.11) This fraction  will decrease to  16  percent by 1980.
PPC statistics  show  that the proportion was  16  percent engines  in large investor-
owned utility companies  in 1970.   This fraction will decrease  further as  large
combined-cycle  gas turbines  are  installed instead of diesel-electric sets.

-------
                                                                                                   TABLE 7
                                                   Stationary Emtnaa  and Cat Turblnei - Eattnatad Inatatled Horaepoyar. Fuel ceniuupcton mi Ealealona - 1971
Fuel Conaimptlon
Xnatalled Horeepover Iff Bhp Netural Cae
Application
Electric Power Generation
Oil and Cae Pipeline!
•atural Caa Proceeelng Plente
Oil and Cae Exploration
Crude Oil Production
Natural Gee Production
Agricultural
Induatrtel Proceea
Municipal Hater end Savage
Total

T or Total
leelancatlag Onljr
Including Cae Turbine
Oleeel
l.J70«>
830
0
1,500
0
0
7.500
0
465
11,865


34.161
16.90
Duel Fuel
3.710''
390
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4,100
M.739

11.807.
1.84
Gaa Engine Gaa Turbine Total 10" SCF
90*' in,440b) 15,S10k> 119,120
10,990 3,520 15,710 749,590
2,410 1,510 3,940 404,300
500 0 2,000 4,755
8S2 0 n 39,870
1.217 0 0 177,610
0 0 7.500
230 0 230 11,100
465 0 930 22,500
18,774 35. *90 '0,2 29 1,928,645


54.047. 100. OT 66.071
26.73 50.53 100.0
Annual Eallllonl.
No. 2 Oil Dec Iproca ting Englnee
1000 Bbll NOX CO HC(
48,100 62,440
7.030 930,200
429,690
2,530 31,720
62,370
308.200
14,300 318.700
19.300
3,990 76.100
«6,1M 2.229,720


52.781
94.481
18.200
297,800
55,170
11,170
22,030
98,300
116,900
6,160
21,900
651,630



100. OT
16,260
279,200
117,240
2,840
25,930
98,300
2,900
6,160
12,500
282,110



100. Ot
Toni
Ce< Turbtnei Total
NOx NOx
62,920 124,730
30,800 970,000
26,130 448,820
31,720
62.370
308,200
318,700
19,300
76,100
130,220 2, 159. 940



5.521
Power Generation
10* Bhp-hr
ftecip* Gaa Turoine
5.900 JJ.240
73.700 21.260
31,280 15,010
2,580
5,410
24,100
26,280
1,510
6,110
176.870 69,510

Capacity Factore
58.11 22.41

e) (atlwted 1970 data.
b) Mjuated fra eit luted (•>  turbine deta for 1970.

-------
                                     28
                                   TABLE 8
U. S. Electric Power Generation by Type of Capacity, 1970, 1980,
and 1990*

Power Source
Conventional hydro
Pumped -storage hydro
Fossil steam
Nuclear
1C engine
Gas turbine
U. S. Total
Conventional hydro
Pumped -storage hydro
Fossil steam
Nuclear
1C engine
Gas turbine
U. S. Total
Conventional hydro
Pumped -storage hydro
Fossil steam
Nuclear
1C engine
Gas turbine
U. S. Total
Capacity
106 kw %
51.6
3.6
259.1
6.5
4.0
15.2
340
68
27
390
140
8
32
665
82
70
558
475
12
63
1,260
1970
15.2%
1.1
76.2
1.9
1.2
4.4
100.0%
1980
10.2%
4.1
58.6
21.1
1.2
4.8
100.0%
1990
6.5%
5.5
44.3
37.7
1.0
5.0
100.0%
Generation
9
10 kw-hr %
- Actual
253
4
1,241
22
4.4
16.6
1,541
- Estimated
292
25
1,895
874
5.4
21.6
3,113
- Estimated
319
62
2,579
2,913
7.8
41.2
5,922
16.4%
0.3
80.5
1.4
0.3
1.1
100.0%
9.3%
0.8
60.9
28.1
0.2
0.7
100.0%
5.4%
1.1
43.5
49.2
0.1
0.7
100.0%
Capacity
Factor \
561
13
55
39
12
12
52%
49%
10
55
71
8
8
53%
44%
10
53
70
7
7
54%
^Annual Power Survey, 1970, Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C. (1971)

-------
                                      29
     b.  Population Characteristics of Reciprocating Engines

         ASME data on the cost of diesel and gas engine  power^) have  been
analyzed to determine the population characteristics of  I.C. engines  used  by
the electric utility industry.  The results are summarized in Table 9.  The
ASME engine sample represents about 20 percent of the reciprocating engine
horsepower used in electric power generation.

         About 36 percent of the engines and 30 percent  of the kilowatt capacity
are supplied by oil-fueled diesels and most of the remainders by dual-fuel
diesels.  Less than two percent is supplied by natural gas engines.   Overall,
55 percent of the engines are two-cycle and 45 percent are four-cycle .  The
average power capacity is 1793 kw and the average fuel consumption is
11,300 Btu/kw-hr (8425 Btu/Bhp-hr).  For No. 2 oil, this corresponds  to
0.5816/kw-hr (0.44 Ib/Bhp-hr).

     c.  Fuel Consumption and Emissions

         Table 10 summaries estimates of annual power generation, fuel consump-
tion and pollutant emissions from stationary engines and gas turbines in power
generation for the years 1970, 1980, and 1990.  Power generation was estimated
by assuming that engines and gas turbines generate power in the same ratio as
their installed capacities.  Fuel consumption and NOx, CO, and hydrocarbon
emissions estimates were calculated from power generation using weighted aver-
age factors based on the population distribution in Table 9.

         Total NOx emissions were 104 thousand tons in 1970 of which 60 percent
was generated by engines.  The fractional contribution from engines will de-
crease to 52 percent in 1990, as gas turbines are installed in favor of
reciprocating engines.  The absolute magnitude of NOx emissions from engines
and turbines in electric power generation is still small in comparison to
emissions from the oil and gas industry.

3.  Crude Oil, Product, and Natural Gas Pipelines

         In 1971, the total natural gas, crude oil, and products pipeline mile-
age in the U.S. was over 1,100,000 miles, long enough to circle the earth's
equator more than 40 times.  Of this total, about half is small diameter pipe
used in gas distribution to users, about a quarter is used in field gathering
and long distance transmission of natural gas, and a quarter is used in gather*
ing and transmission of crude oil and petroleum products.

     a •  Installed Horsepower

         Tables 11 and 12 summarize current estimates of total installed horse-
power by absolute magnitudes and percentages, respectively, for crude oil and
products pipelines and natural gas transmission, distribution, and field/
gathering pipelines.  These estimates are based on data published by the
American Gas Association,3>4) the American Petroleum Institute,5) Pipeline
News.33) and the Oil and Gas Journal.13)  Data from the last  reference are
reproduced in the Appendix.

         The total installed horsepower on all pipelines is estimated to be
22,125,000 Bhp.  Overall, reciprocating gas engines and electric drives make up

-------
                                                                         TABUE 9

                                     Reciprocating Engine Population Characteristics In Electric Power Generation
Number of Engines In Seller  454
Total Power Opacity: 806,120 kw
Total Power Generation:  1944.37 m 10*kw-hr
Engine Type
Oil-Fuel
Diesel
Dual-Fuel
natural G««
Spark
All Engines
2-Cyele
4-Cycle
Total
a-Cycle
4-Cycle
Total
2-Cycle
4-Cycle
Total
{•Cycle
4-Cycle
Total
Percent of Total
Kw Kw-hr
Hinder Capacity Generation
2S.U
10.8
35.9
30.0
32.1
62.1
0.2
1.8
2.0
55.3
44.7
100.0
21, 7t
7.5
29.2
34.6
34.6
69.2
0.2
1.4
1.6
36. S
43.5
100.0
19.91
6.1
26.0
40.0
32.2
72.2
0.06
1.7
1.8
60.0
40.0
100.0
Average Paver
Capacity per Unit
KM BHP
1548
1251 •
1458
2070
1928
1996
1690
1476
1499
1831
1764
1793
2075
1678
1956
2775
2585
2677
2266
1979
2011
2456
2366
2405
Average
Capacity
Factor
25.11
22.0
24.3
31.5
26.2
28.9
7.4
32.0
28.9
30.0
2S.6
27.5
Before
1945
47.1
33.3
43.1
1.5
2.8
2.2
0
25.0
22.2
21.S
10.7
16.7
Percent
1945-55
36.8
37.8
37.1
40.7
30.8
35.6
100.0
75.0
77.8
39.3
34.2
37.0
Installed
1955-65
12.3
22.2
15.2
37.8
37.0
37.4
0
0
0
26.4
32.1
29.0
After
1965
3.8
6.9
4.6
20.0
29.4
24.8
0
0
0
12.8
23.0
17.3
a) Data source "1972 Report on Dleeel and Gas Engine* tower Costs", American Society Hechenical Engineers,  New York (1972).
b) Dual-fuel engine data Include 2 trl-fuel 4-cycle engine* rated at 8110 kwj average fuel ml* 791 natural gas. 21X Vo. 2 fuel oil.

-------
                                             TABLE 10
Electric Power Generation, Fuel Consumption
, and Emissions - 1970, 1980, and
Fuel Consumption*"
Year
1970
1980
1990
Type
Recip. Engine3^
Gas Turbine
Total
Recip. Engine
Gas Turbine
Total
Recip. Engine
Gas Turbine
Total
Power
Generation
109kw-hr
4.4
16.6
21.0
5.4
21.6
27.0
7.8
41.2
49.0
Annual Emissions
106SCF
22,750
64,400
87,150
27,900
83,850
111,750
40,320
159,900
200,220
No. 2 Oil
103 bbls
2,900
30,400
33,300
3,590
53,000
56,590
5,180
75,850
81,030
NOx
62 ,440
41,710
104,150
76,630
54,280
130,910
110,700
103,500
204,200
CO
18,200
18,200
22,350
22,350
32,280
32,280
1990
Tonsc)
HCt
16,260
16,260
19,960
19,960
28,825
28,825
% of
NOx
60.0
40.0
100.0
58.5
41.5
100.0
51.7
48.3
100.0
a)  The following distribution of power generation (kw-hr)  is assumed for reciprocating engines:
    19.9% 2-cycle diesel, 6.1% 4-cycle diesel, 40.0% 4-cycle dual fuel,  32.2% 2-cycle  dual fuel,
    0.06% 2-cycle natural gas, and 1.7% 4-cycle natural gas.

b)  Fuel properties assumed:  gas LHV = 950 Btu/SCF, oil HHV  « 19,600 Btu/lb;  dual  fuel engines
    burn 79% gas, 21% oil based on Btu's.  Fuel consumption:  diesels 0.4 Ib/Bhp-hr, dual fuel
    6200 Btu/Bhp-hr, gas engine 7000 Btu/Bhp-hr, gas turbines 11,000 Btu/Bhp-hr.
c)  Emissions factors:
   Gratns/Bhp-hr
NOx     CO      HCt
                                                                                                            u>
      Reciprocating Engines
      Gas Turbines
9.6
1.7
2.8
0
2.5
0

-------
                                                           TABLE 11


                               Oil and Gas Pipeline* - Installed Horsepower and. Pipeline Mileage
_ Installed Coraoretsor and Pump Horsepower (BMP)
Natural Gaa Utilities Only
Conpressor
Drive
Bee Ip . Gag Engine
Diesel
Dual Fuel
Total Reeip.
Gas Turbine
Steam Turbine
Electric
Total Horsepower
Pipeline Miles
Trans -
Bis a Ion
7,573,030
-
-
7,573,030
3,090,940
129, SAO
470,830
11, 264, 360*)
252,621°)
Distri-
bution
680,760
16,740
-
697,500
-
42,180
333,570
1.073,250
595. 653* )
a) Source: Oil and Gas Journal . 127-139, June 12,
b) Source: Petroleum
c) Source; Ga* Pacts
4) Horsepower factors

Storage
1,042.390
-
-
1,042,390
-
-
-
l,042,390c)
3,704*)
1972.
Pacts and Figures. 1971 Edition. American
. A Statistical
Record of the
Gas Utility
Field +
Gathering Crude Oil
1,540,


1.540,
264.
-
-
1,804.
66,

225


225 1
160

4
385a) 5
556C>

Petroleum Institute
Industry
and power source distributions derived fro* data
147.280
783,590
211.230
,142,100
65,520
1,050
,032,700
,241, 370*)
149,051°)

, Mew York
In 1970, American Gas
In the ripe Line News '
Product*
6
28
178
213
100

1,384
1,699
73

(1971).
,120
,890
,430
,440
,940
-
,920
,300
,570b>


Total
10,989
829
389
12,208
3.521
172
6,222
22,125
1,141


.80S
.220
,660
.685
,560
,770
,040
,055
,155


I of
Total
49 .67X
3.75
1.76
55.181
15.92
0.78
28.12
I 00. 001
-


Association, Arlington, Virginia (1971).
•Annual Directory of Pipelines" 1971-72
                                                                                                                                                         U»
                                                                                                                                                         fO
Issue.

-------
TABLK  12

Oil
and Gas Pipelines - Percentage Breakdown of
Installed Horsepower by Power Source and Application
Percent of Total Within Application
Power Source
Recip. Gas Engine
Diesel
Dual Fuel
Total Recip.
Gas Turbine
Steam Turbine
Electric
Total
Total Horsepower

Trans -
mission
67.23%
-
-
67.237.
27.4
1.15
4.18
100.07.
11,264,360
Natural Gas
Distri- Field +
but ion Storage Gathering
63.43% 100.0% 85.36%
1.56
_
64.99% 100.07. 85.36%
14.64
3.93
31.08
100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
1,073,250 1,042,390 1,804,385
Crude Oil
2.81%
14.95
4.03
21 .79%
1.25
0.02
76.94
100.0%
5,241,370
Products
0.36%
1.70
10.50
12.56%
5.94
-
81.50
100.0% .
1,699,300
% of
Total
49.67%
3.75
1.76
55.18%
15.92
0.78
28.12
100.0%
22,125,055
                                                                  UJ

-------
                                      34


 the largest fractions of the total (49.7% and 28.1%, respectively).  Other
 power sources include diesel engines (3.8%), dual fuel engines (1.8%), gas
 turbines (15.9%), and steam turbines (0.8%).  Thus, reciprocating engines
 provide 55.2 percent and gas turbines 15.9 percent of the installed horsepower
 on pipelines.

          About 50 percent of the horsepower is located on natural gas trans-
 mission pipelines, 5 percent each on gas distribution lines and at storage
 fields, 10 percent in the field, 25 percent on crude oil pipelines, and
 5 percent on products pipelines .

          Most of the horsepower in natural gas pipeline applications is pro-
 vided by gas engines and turbines.  On transmission pipelines, 67.2 percent of
 the horsepower is gas engine, 27.4 percent is gas turbine and only 5.4 percent
 is steam turbine and electric drive.  In contrast, 76.9 percent and 81.5 per-
 cent of the horsepower on crude oil and products pipelines, respectively, are
 provided by electric drives, and only 23.0 percent and 18.5 percent comes from
 engines and turbines.

          Table 13 summarizes population data for reciprocating gas engines on
 natural gas transmission pipelines.  The data are derived from data published
 in an AGA directory of reciprocating engines.*)  A total of 3257 engines and
 6,926,289 horsepower are listed in the directory.  There are no naturally
 aspirated 4-cycle gas engines listed.  About 62.1 percent of the engines and
 47.0 percent of the horsepower are 2-cycle atmospheric gas engines.   Turbo-
 charged 2-cycle and 4-cycle engines contribute 30.6 and 22.4 percent of the
 horsepower.  Overall, the average horsepower is 2127 Bhp.

      b.  Fuel Consumption and Emissions

          Estimates of the current annual fuel consumption and  pollutant  emis-
 sions of NOx, CO, and hydrocarbons by pipeline engines and gas  turbines  are
 given in Table 14.  Power generation was estimated using pipeline  fuel consump-
 tion data published by the  U.S.  Bureau of Mines.   '   The relative  power
 generation by gas engines and turbines was assumed to be in  proportion  to  their
 power generating capacity.   Diesel and dual fuel  engine  power  generation were
 prorated from the gas engine  and  turbine power generation.   Emissions  factors
 for gas engines are composites  based on the population characteristics  in
 Table 13.

          Total NOx emissions  from pipeline engines and  gas  turbines  are  esti-
 mated to be 970,118 tons  of which 87.5 percent  comes  from  gas engines, and
 4.1  percent comes from gas  turbines.   Total CO and hydrocarbon emissions are
 each about one third  the  magnitude  of NOx  emissions.

 4.   Natural Gas Processing  Plants

         Natural  gas  processing plants  are  used to recover  liquid petroleum
 products  and  remove hydrogen  sulfide  from  produced natural gas.  Bureau  of
Mines data show that  during 1971, more  than 19  x  1012  standard cubic  feet of
 natural  gas were  processed  and 600  million  gallons of  liquid products were
 recovered  by  gas  plants  in  the U.S.   '

-------
                                                 TABLE  13
Population
Characteristics of Reciprocating Gas Engine
Number
Engine Type of Units
4-Cycle Spark-Gas
Naturally-Aspirated
Turbocharged
2 -Cycle Spark-Gas
Atmospheric
Turbocharged
Totals

0
808

2021
428
3257
on Natural Gas
7. of
Total No.

or.
24.8

62.1
13.1
100.0
Pipelines3^
Installed
Horsepower*1)

0
1,550,909

3,258,410
2,116,970
6,926,289
Compressors
7. of
Total BHP

07.
22.4

47.0
30.6
100.0
Average
Horsepower

-
1919

1612
4946
2127
                                                                                                                CO
a)  Data Source:   "Directory of Reciprocating Gas  Engines  in  Use  by  Various  Gas  Pipeline  Companies,"
    American Gas  Association, Arlington,  Va.  (Sept.  1971).
                                                                                             k
b)  Excludes unclassified horsepower.

-------
                                                TABLE  14
                          Oil and  Gas  Pipelines - Engine and Gas Turbine Fuel
Consumption, Power Generation, and Emissions (1971)
Engine Type
Recip. Gas Engine
Diesel
Dual Fuel
Total Recip.
Gas Turbine
Fuel Consumption3)
Gas No. 2 Oil
10aSCF 103 Bbls
488,900
6520
12,120 510
501,020 7030
248,570
Power
Generation*)
106Bhp-hr
66,350
5,000
2,350
73,700
21,260
1971 Emissions (Tons)a^
NOx CO
848,400 270,600
60,600 22,000
21,200 5,200
930,200 297,800
39,800
HCt
270,600
550
8,030
279,200
7. of
NOx
87.5%
6.2
2.2
95.97.
4.1
  Total                749,590b)     7030           94,960         970,000   297,800   279,200   100.07.

a)  Assumed values for brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC),  and specific emissions (BSE):
    Reciprocating Gas Engines

    Diesel Engines

    Dual Fuel Engines

    Gas Turbines
       BSFC

 7,000 Btu/Bhp-hr

0.4 Ib/Bhp-hr

 6,200 Btu/Bhp-hr

11,000 Btu/Bhp-hr
                                                         BSE1 (grams/Bhp-hr)
                                                           NOx    CO"HCT~
11.6   3.7   3.7

11     4     0.1

 8.2   2.0   3.1

 1.7
    Dual Fuel engines average 79% gas and 21% No. 2 oil based on Btu content.

b)  U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys, "Natural Gas Production and Consumption 1971" (1972)

-------
                                      37
     a .  Applications of Engines
                   /
         The  principle application of engines  in  gas  plants  is  to drive  gas
 compressors.  Other  power  sources include gas  turbines,  steam turbines,  and
 electric drives.   Gas turbines with heat recovery are being  favored  in new
 plants producing more than 200,000 gal/day liquids.  High"  speed 4-cycle  gas
 engines are favored  in smaller plants.

         In high pressure  gas plants, e.g., those that receive  gas at high
 pressure,  liquid products  are often recovered  cryogenically  and engines  and
 gas  turbines  drive refrigeration compressors and  compress  flashed gases.  In
 low  pressure  plants  the compressors raise the  gases to sales pressure
 (500 to 1000  psig).

     b.  Estimated Horsepower, Fuel Consumption,  and Emissions

         Table 15  summarizes estimates of current installed horsepower,  fuel
 consumption,  power generation, and pollutant emissions from engines and  gas
 turbines in gas plants.  The estimates are based  on a survey of a large  number
 of gas plants in the U.S.  The survey showed that about  100 hp of compressor
 capacity is installed per  10° SCF per day throughput and that about 46 percent
 of the installed horsepower is reciprocating gas  engine, 29 percent is gas
 turbine, 23 percent  is steam turbine, and 2 percent is electric drive.  The
 survey also showed that about 2.1 percent of the  gas throughput is burned in
 boilers, heaters, and other non-engine uses.

         Extrapolation of  these data to the 1971  gas throughput (19,253
 x 10 SCF) yields a  total  installed horsepower of 5,275,000 and an annual fuel
 consumption of 230,500 x 106 SCF in engines and of 173,800 x 106 SCF in  gas
 turbines.  Annual  power generation and emissions  were estimated from fuel
 consumption.  Annual NOx emissions for reciprocating engines were estimated
 at 420,690 tons and  those  for gas turbines, 28,130 tons.  The emissions  factors
 for  reciprocating gas engines are weighted averages and assume that the engine
 population consists of 69.0 percent 2-cycle atmospheric, 7.6 percent 4-cycle
 naturally aspirated, and 23.4 percent high speed  4-cycle turbocharged gas
 engines.  These proportions were also derived  from industry survey data.

 5.   Oil and Gas Exploration and Production

         Stationary engines are used to drive a variety of equipment in both
 oil  and gas exploration and production.  In exploration, gas and diesel engines
 drive electric generators, drawworks, drilling mud pumps, and rotary drilling
 rigs.  Crude oil production uses engines to drive beam pumps, gas lift com-
 pressors and hydraulic pump power pumps.  Repressuring compressors are driven
 by engines in gas production.

     a.  Exploration

         Figure 7 shows the trends in the  number of wells drilled and total
well footage in U.S.  oil and gas  exploration for 1962  through 1971.5.42)  During
this period, there  has been a general downtrend in the number of wells drilled
(-45%)  and an uptrend in the average  well  depth (+15%).   In 1971, 26,077  wells
were drilled,  of which 44.1 percent  were oil producers,  13.0 percent were gas
producers,  40.0 percent were dry  holes,  and  2.8 percent  were service wells.

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                                      38
                                  TABLE 15
           Natural Gas Processing Plants - Compressor Horsepower,
Power Generation, and Emissions - 1971

% of Total
Natural Gas Processed3) - 10* SCF
Liquids Recovered3) - 1000 Bbls .
Compressor Horsepower - Bhp
Reciprocating Gas Engines**)
Gas Turbines
Steam Turbines
Electric Drives
Total
Fuel Consumption - 10s SCF
Reciprocating Gas Engines
Gas Turbines
Boilers, Heaters, and Misc.
Total (3. 2% of throughput)
Power Generation and Emissions:0)
Reciprocating Gas Engines
Gas Turbines
Total
a) U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral
45.7%
29.0
23.1
2.2
100.0%
1.2%
0.9
1.1
3.2%
1971
19,252,807
617,915
2,410,600
1,529,800
1,218,500
116,100
5,275,000
230,500
173,800
211?790
616,090
Power
Generation Emissions Tons
!08Bhp-hr NOx
31,280 420,690
15,010 28,130
46,290 448,820
Industry Surveys, "Natural
CO HC^
55,170 117,240
0 0
55,170 117,240
Gas Production ant
    Consumption - 1971" (1972).

b)  Assume 69.07. 2-cycle atmospheric, 7.6%4-cycle naturally aspirated, and
    23.4% 4-cycle high-speed turbocharged gas engines.
c)  Fuel Consumption and Emissions Factors:
    Reciprocating Gas Engines
    Gas Turbines
   BSFC
Btu/Bhp-hr

   7,000
  11,000
                                                              Grams/Bhp-hr
 NOx

12.2
 1.7
 CO

1.6
0
HCt-

3.4
0
      Natural Gas  LHV:  950 Btu/SCF

-------
                                        39
   50,000
   45.000
   40,000
   35,000
o  30.000
0

ac
D
Z
   25.000
   20.000
   15. 000
   10.000
    5000
                                          TOTAL FOOTAGE
                                          TOTAL  WELLS DRILLED
                                            OIL WELLS DRILLED
                     DRY HOLES  DRILLED
                        GAS WELLS DRILLED
               _L
                       I
                                      I
                                                            I
       1962    1963    1964    1965
1966    1967

    YEAR
                                        200


                                        190


                                        180


                                        170
                                       160  -
                                           o

                                       .50?

                                            UJ
                                       140  O
                                       130 O
                                           O
                                           u.
                                       120
                                       110


                                       100
1968     1969    1970    1971
  72/396/4
              Figure  7.  U.S.  Oil and Gas  Exploration 1962  -  1971

              Source  :  World Oil. Forecast-Review  Issues  (1961-72)

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                                      40


The total footage drilled was 129 million feet, and the overall average well
depth was 4950 feet.

         Both diesel and gas engines are used on drilling rigs.  An industry
survey indicated that, on the average, each drilling rig uses about 1000 engine
horsepower of which 75 percent is diesel engine.  Typically, this includes two
75 kw AC power generators corresponding to a total of about 200 horsepower.
During 1971, an average of 1235 drilling rigs were in use in the U.S., a de-
crease from 1506 in 1970 and 2074 in 1969.  Assuming there are about 2000 drill-
ing rigs in existence, but not necessarily operating at the same time, the total
installed engine horsepower on drilling rigs is about 2 million Bhp.  Power
generation by engines is in the area of 2000 Bhp-hr per 100 ft of well depth
drilled.

         Table 16 summarizes estimated statistics for drilling rigs in oil and
gas exploration during 1971.  Power generation is estimated at 2.5 x 109 Bhp-hr,
corresponding to a capacity factor of about 14 percent.  Assuming 25 percent
of the power was generated by gas engines and the remainder by diesels, fuel
consumption is estimated at 2.5 million barrels of No. 2 fuel oil and 4800 mil-
lion SCF of natural gas.  Total NOx emissions are 31,700 tons of which 74 per-
cent is produced by diesels.

     b.  Production

         As shown in Figure 8, U.S. crude oil and natural gas production in-
creased steadily between 1962 and.1970 but since then have shown signs of
leveling off or decreasing. '*'  In 1971, crude oil production averaged
more than 9.5 million barrels per day and gross natural gas production was
more than 24 x 10^ SCF.  Approximately 78 percent of this gas production was
from gas wells and the remainder from oil wells.  Net marketed gas production,
left over after repressuring, vented, and flared gas are deducted, was more
than 22 x 1012 SCF.39>

         Tables 17 and 18 summarize estimated statistics for stationary engines
in crude oil and natural gas production, respectively.

    (1)  Oil Production

         In 1971, there were 512,471 producing oil wells in the U.S.  Approxi-
mately 92 percent of these were on artificial lift, and the remainder were
naturally flowing without the aid of mechanical pumps.  An industry survey
indicated that 78 percent of the wells are beam pumped, 10 percent are on gas
lift, and 3.5 percent are on hydraulic lift.  The pumping method depends on
well depth.  Beam pumps are favored for relatively shallow wells (<9000 feet)
and gas and hydraulic lifts for deeper wells.

         Beam pumps are usually driven by electric motors - only about 4 percent
are driven by gas engines.  Beam pump engines are specified to run at about
65 percent of rated load, so that NOx emissions are likely to be less than
half the full load value or about 5 grams/Bhp-hr.

         In contrast, compressors used in gas-lift pumping are almost always
driven by gas engines (95%).  Two-stage reciprocating compressors are most
common, and are built either integrally with the engine or as separate units.

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                                      41


                                  TABLE 16

        Oil and Gas Exploration - Power Generation. Fuel Consumption
                            and Emissions - 1971

                                                                     1971

Total Number of Wells Drilled in U.S.a>                                26,077

Total Footagea) -                        ft                       129,060,434

Average Footage*' -                      ft                             4,949
Installed Engine Horsepower
Power Generation^) 10s Bhp-hr
Fuel Consumption:0^ No. 2 Oil <§
Natural Gas
Emissions :^' .


Diesel Engines
Gas Engines
Total- *
a) Source: World Oil, February


75% (1000 Bbls)
@ 25% (10e SCF)

Tons
NOx CO
23,470 8,540
8,250 2,630
31,720 11,170
15, 1972.
2,000,000
2,581
2,526
4,755


HCt
213
2,630
2,840

b)  Assumes 2000 Bhp-hr/100 ft drilled.

c)  Assumes 75% of power generated by diesels  at  0.4  Ib/Bhp-hr,  7.3  Ib/gal
    and 25% by gas engines at 7000 Btu/Bhp-hr, 950 Btu/SCF.

d)  Emissions Factors:

                          Grams/Bhp-hr
                         NOx    CO   HCt

    Diesel Engines      11     4     0.1

    Gas Engines         11.6   3.7   3.7

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                                       42
    95
    9.0



1
•x.
ft
SJ   8.5
Of
oc
Z   80

O
    7.5
    7.0
    22
    20
    18
    16
2   14
    12
    10
                                        CRUDE OIL AND CON DEN SATE
                   GROSS NATURAL  GAS  PRODUCTION
                          (OIL AND GAS WELLS)
                                                             MARKETED GAS
                                                             PRODUCTION
                                             GROSS  PRODUCTION
         FROM  GAS  WELLS
                      (Ill
                         I	I
     1962    1963     1964     1965
1966    1967

  YEAR
1968    1969    1970    1971
  72/396/5
             Figure  8.   U.S.  Oil and Gas Production 1962 - 1971

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                                      43
                                   TABLE  17

                 Crude Oil Production  - Power Generation,  Fuel
                       Consumption, and Emissions  -  1971
                                                 % of Total
                                                                     1971
Number of Producing Oil Wells3)
Number on Artificial Lifta)
Estimated Number**'
Beam Pumped
Gas Lift
Hydraulic Lift
Estimated Number Driven by Engines^)
Beam Pumps
Gas Lift Compressors
Power Capacity and Generation
Beam Pump Gas Engines
Gas Lift Gas Engines
Fuel Consumption:6) 108 SCF gas
Beam Pump Engines
Gas Lift Engines
Total
Emissions*'
NOx
Beam Pump Engines 5,170
Gas Lift Engines 57,200
Total 62,370
91.7%
77.9
10.3
3.5
3.1
9.7
Bhp
214,000
638,000


Annual Tons
CO
3,830
18,200
22,030
512,471
469,809
399,277
52,562
18,270
15,971
49,934
10* Bhp-hr
938.0
4473.0
6,910
32,960
39,870

HCr
3,830
22,100
25,930
a)  Source:  World Oil, February 15, 1972.

b)  Based on industry survey of distribution of pumping units.
c)
                                                                  x 8760
Beam pump engine power generation
_ 2.5 (Average Well Depth)(Avg Daily Production) poil + water
              136,800 x (Avg fraction water) poil
Average daily production by engine driven beam pumps - 229,441 bbls, 78.6%
from 4500 ft wells (75% water) and 21.4% from 8500 ft wells (70% water).
d)
Gas lift engine power generation =
 c    r"/pri\ ^/n      n           "^  /
 { 23n   (-H    x 1.05  Bhp/108 SCF>  (G ... S?f P*a . —3.
 \     [Jfs/         J             \  \ Bbl oil produced)
Assumes compressor has n = 2 stages, pressure ratio is Pd/Ps » 14, and
G = 10,000 SCF of gas is injected in well per barrel of produced liquids
(oil and water).  Annual production by engine driven gas lift is
724,148,000 bbls.
                                                          i
e)  Assumes 7000 Btu/Bhp-hr at 950 Btu/SCF.

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                                      44
                             TABLE 17 (Continued)

f)  Emissions factors                 Crams/Bhp-hg
                                  NOx       CO      HCt

    Beam pump engines             5.0      3.7      3.7
    Gas lift engines             11.6      3.7      3.7

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                              45
                           TABLE 18
        Natural Gas Production - Power Generation, Fuel
                  Consumption, and Emissions
                                                     1971
Gross Productiona>:  Gas Wells (106 SCF)          18,925,136
                     Oil Wells (106 SCF)           5,187,837
                     Total     (106 SCF)          24,103,973
Number of Producing Gas Wellsb)                      117,300
Power Capacity - Gas Engines0)    (Bhp)            3,237,000
Power Generation - Gas Engines (106/Bhp-hr)           24,104
Fuel Consumption by Gas Engines^   (106/SCF)         177,608
_ .   .                     Emission Factor           Annual
Emissions:                      /_.   .                _
                           grams/Bhp-hr              Tons
               NOx             11.6                  308,200
               CO               3.7                   98,300
                                3.7                   98,300
a)  U.S. Bureau of Mines, Mineral Industry Surveys ,
    "Natural Gas Production and Consumption - 1971"  (1972) .
b)  World Oil, February 15, 1972.
c)  Assumes 1,000 Bhp-hr/106 SCF produced gas.
d)  Assumes 7,000 Btu/Bhp-hr at 950 Btu/SCF.

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                                      46


Compressor pressure  ratios are  typically  12  to  16.16>  Gas  lift  is the most
prevalent artificial  lift method  found  on offshore  platforms.

         Hydraulic lift  utilizes  a  submerged piston pump  driven  by a piston
engine running on high pressure hydraulic fluid supplied  from  the surface.  It
is assumed that  the  hydraulic pressure  pumps are driven by  electric drives.

         The estimated engine power generation  for  beam pump engines in 1971
was 938 x 106 Bhp-hr  and 4473 x 106 Bhp-hr for  gas  lift engines.  Fuel consump-
tion was 6900 x  106  SCF  and  32,960  x 106  SCF, respectively.  Beam pump and gas
lift engines emitted  5170 and 57,200 tons of nitrogen oxides,  respectively.

         These estimates were derived using  representative  well  data for the
Gulf Coast area  and  the  remainder of the  U.S.5' For the  Gulf  Coast area it
was assumed that the  average well depth is 8500 ft,  the produced liquids contain
70 percent water, 1971 production was 1,519  million barrels from 76,800 wells,
and 70 percent of the wells  are on  artificial lift.  For  the remainder of the
U.S., the average well depth is assumed to be 4500  feet,  water content is
75 percent, 1,967 million barrels were  produced in  1971 from 435,600 wells,
and 95 percent of the wells  are on  artificial lift.  Per  barrel  of fluids
produced by gas  lift, it was assumed that 10,000 SCF of gas is compressed.

    (2)  Natural Gas  Production

         In 1971, the number of producing gas wells  in the  U.S. was 117,300
and the gross natural gas production from gas wells  was 18.9 x 10   SCF, and
from oil wells 5.2 x  1012 SCF.  '   In gas production, engines  are used to
drive compressors that repressure gas for reinjection into  the producing
formation.  An industry  survey indicated  that gas engines generate about
1000 Bhp-hr per  million  standard  cubic  feet  of  gross production, not including
power generation in  gas-lift pumping of oil  wells.   Power generation and fuel
consumption are  estimated to be 24.1  x  10^ Bhp-hr and 177.6 x  10$ SCF, respec-
tively.  Annual  NOx emissions are 308,200 tons.

6.  Miscellaneous Applications

         Stationary engines  are also  used to drive agricultural water pumps,
industrial process equipment and  plant  air compressors, and municipal water
and sewage pumps.  Table 19  gives estimates  of  installed horsepower, power
generation, fuel consumption, and emissions  for each of these applications.
Estimated power  capacities are taken  from an AGA report.19^  For agricultural,
industrial, and  municipal engines,  respectively, it was assumed that capacity
factors are 40,  75, and  75 percent, and engine  types are diesel, gas engine,
and 50 percent diesel/50 percent  gas  engine.

   VII.  Significance of Stationary Engines  as  a Local Pollution Source

         In the  previous section, it  was  estimated that NOx emissions from
stationary reciprocating engines  total  2.2 million tons annually.  Almost half
of this is generated  by engines on  oil  and gas  pipelines alone.  Since large
concentrations of horsepower, e.g.,  10,000 to 60,000 Bhp,  are often located in
one place, it is important to determine the  potential of stationary engines as
pollution hazards in  populated areas.

-------
                                     47
                                 TABLE 19
Miscellaneous Applications - Installed Horsepower, Power
Generation and Emissions3^


Installed Horsepower
Estimated Capacity Factor
Power Generation
106 Bhp-hr
Engine Type;
Diesel
Natural Gas
Fuel Consumption:
1,000 Bbls Oil
106 SCF Gas
Emissions Tons:
NOx
CO
HCT
a) Source: American Gas
Agricultural
Wells
7,500,000
40%
26,280
1007.
07.
34,300
0
318,700
116,900
2,900
Association, Gas
Industrial
Process and
Plant Air
230,000
757.
1,510
07.
1007.
0
11,100
19,300
6,160
6,160
Engine Market
Municipal
Water and
Sewage Pumping
930,000
757.
6,110
507.
507.
3,990
22,500
76,100
25,900
12,500
Study, Report
    by William E. Hill and Co.  (1968).
b)  Assumes 0.4 Ib/Bhp-hr, 7.3 Ib/gal for diesels, 7,000 Btu/Bhp-hr,
    950 Btu/SCF for gas engines.
c)  Emission Factors:

    Diesels
    3as Engines
    grams/Bhp-hr
NOx       CO
11        4
11.6      3.7
0.1
3.7

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                                     48


1.   Natural Gas Transmission Compressor Stations - An Example

         The prime user of large concentrations of reciprocating gas engine
power is the natural gas transmission pipeline.  For one large U.S. gas trans-
mission company, installed horsepower at mainline compressor stations ranges
between about 15,000 and 40,000 Bhp.  The corresponding full-load NOx emission
rate ranges between 330 and 880 lb/hr.a'  Using standard dispersion formulas,
the maximum ground level NOx concentrations are predicted to range between
3900 and 10,500 micrograms/cubic meter, approximately one eighth mile downwind
(adjusted to one-hour sampling time) .**)  These predictions are very likely
conservative (high).  They are significantly higher than the California stan-
dard for nitrogen dioxide - 470 u-g/cu meter one hour maximum (0.25 ppm) .  Most
of the NOx is emitted as nitric oxide (NO), although it is converted rapidly
to nitrogen dioxide by photochemical reactions between NO, 02, hydrocarbons,
and OH free radicals.  Nevertheless, it is clear that gas pipeline engines are
potential problems in densely populated areas.

         The question is then, how dense is the population in the immediate
area surrounding the compressor stations?

         Figure 9 summarizes population data derived from the pipeline "house
count" compiled by a major gas transmission company.  The number of houses
located in a 1/4 x 1/4 mile square surrounding each compressor station was
determined.  Census data were used to estimate the number of people occupying
the houses.  The results of the analysis are reported in Figure 9 as the per-
centage of compressor stations having X people living within 1/8 mile and the
percentage having Y people within 1/8 mile per 1000 Bhp installed compressor
horsepower.

         More than 37 percent of the compressor stations have no houses or
people living within any of the 1/4  x 1/4 mile square areas.  An additional
34.2 percent of the stations have fewer than 10 people within the immediate
area.  Analysis of the data shows that fewer than six people live near most
of these stations.  Less than one person per 1000 Bhp installed horsepower is
in the immediate area at 79.8 percent of the stations.

2.  Conclusion

         These statistics indicate that human exposure to pipeline engine
emissions  is minimal.  It is still significant, however, that a small number
of people and station operators may  be exposed to ambient NOx concentrations
in excess of air quality standards .
a)  Assumes NOx emitted  at  10 grams/Bhp-hr  as

b)  D.  B. Turner,  Workbook  of Atmospheric Disperson Estimates  (Ref 44); assumed
    stability  Class  C, wind velocity  = 2 meter/sec, stack height  •» 20 meters,
        hour  sample)  = Q
    C(3 min sample)

-------
                                  49
O
to

a*

O
to
to
UJ
Of.
Q.


O
u
       371 %
                5.7%
                         28.5%
                                  2.9%
                           8.6%
                                    14.3%
                                            2.9%
                0-5     5-10    10-15    15-20    20-25

                NUMBER  OF PEOPLE  WITHIN  1/8 MILE
                                            25-30
to


O
CO

QC.

O
(/>
to
UJ
oe
a.


O
u
       371%
25.7%
         17.1%
                  8.6%
                                          5.7%
                                                   2.9%
                                            2.9%
                0-0.5   0.5-1.0   1.0-1.5    1.5-2.0   2X)-2.5   2.5-3.0

                   NUMBER  OF  PEOPLE/1000  Bhp
  72/396/7


   Figure  9.  Number of People Within 1/8 Mile  of Compressor Stations

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                                     50
  VIII.  Potential Emissions Control Methods for Stationary Reciprocating
         Engines

         During the past decade, the automotive industry has been actively
studying emissions control systems for the internal combustion engine in order
to meet increasingly restrictive regulations.  Consequently, the available
emissions control techniques are already well defined for the reciprocating
engine.  This section summarizes the available control methods and makes some
general observations on those methods that appear to have the greatest potential
for stationary engine applications.

1•  Promising Emissions Control Techniques

         The exhaust pollutants of concern are nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide,
hydrocarbons, and to a lesser extent, particulates and sulfur dioxide.  Two
types of control techniques are available - engine modification and exhaust
treatment methods (Table 20) .

         Engine modifications can be further classified into hardware changes
and simple changes in operating conditions .  Examples of the latter include
speed, torque, air/fuel ratio, ignition and fuel injection timing, air tempera-
ture and pressure, and exhaust back pressure-  Modifications that require hard-
ware changes include exhaust recirculation, water injection, modified valve
timing, compression ratio, and addition of precombustion chambers and other
combustion chamber modifications.  Most engine modifications cannot be used
to control NOx and CO/HC emissions simultaneously-  Changes that reduce NOx
emissions generally have the reverse effect on CO, and hydrocarbon emissions
and fuel consumption.  This behavior results from the fact that the conditions
that favor NOx  formation-high temperatures and readily available oxygen - also
favor  combustion of CO and hydrocarbons.

         Exhaust treatment controls include exhaust thermal reactors, catalytic
oxidation of CO and hydrocarbons, and catalytic reduction of NOx.  They can be
added  to new or existing engines with little or no effect on engine performance
and fuel consumption.

         Which  techniques would be the most effective emission control methods
for stationary engines?  The answer will  require a close examination of the
effects of the various controls on fuel consumption, reliability, durability
and engine life, in addition to emissions control effectiveness.  The fore-
casted increases in fuel prices, particularly natural gas, will place a pre-
mium on maximizing  fuel economy.  The high first cost of reciprocating engines
will eliminate  any emissions control method that adversely affects engine life
or realiability.  It  is clear that the answer cannot be quickly determined
without additional study.  However, on the basis of available information,
which  is summarized in the next sections, the following emission control
methods appear  to have the greatest potential as short term, intermediate term
and long term  solutions;

-------
                                51
                           TABLE  20
        Emission  Control Methods  for Reciprocating  Engines
     Engine Modifications
      A.  Operating Conditions:
      B.  Engine Hardware;
II.  Exhaust Treatment
1.  Speed
2.  Torque/Load
3.  Air/Fuel Ratio
4.  Ignition Timing
5.  Fuel Injection Timing
6.  Air Temperature
7.  Air Pressure
8.  Exhaust Back Pressure
1.  Exhaust Recirculation
2.  Water Injection
3.  Valve Timing
4.  Combustion Chamber -
    Stratified Charge
5.  Compression Ratio
      A.  Exhaust Thermal Reactor (CO/HC)
      B.  Catalytic Converter:   1.   Oxidation (CO/HC)
                                 2.   Reduction of NOx by CO,
                                     NH~,  or natural gas

-------
                                      52
  Engine               Short and Intermediate Terms               Long-Term

Diesel         Water Injection     Precombustion Chamber        Catalytic
                                                                NOx Reduction

Natural Gas    Water Injection     Increased Valve Overlap      Catalytic
                                   for 4-Cycle N.A. Engines     NOx Reduction

2.  Engine Modification Methods

     a.  Operating Conditions

         Over  the years, a  large number  of  papers have been published by the
auto industry  and the engine manufacturers  on the effect of operating condi-
tions on emissions .  Figure  10 contains  representative data published by Nebel
and Jackson of General Motors,26)  showing the effects of air/fuel ratio,
ignition timing, manifold pressure,  speed,  and compression ratio on exhaust
NOx concentration  for a single-cylinder  spark ignition gasoline engine.
Nitrogen oxides concentration increases  with spark advance, manifold pressure,
compression ratio, and  increasing  speed  under rich conditions and decreasing
speed under lean conditions.

         For  stationary engines, however, it is more meaningful to investigate
the effect of  operating conditions on mass  emissions and fuel consumption at
constant power.  The Cooper  Bessemer Company and Caterpillar Tractor Company
have published such data  for gas engines and diesel engines, respectively.
Some of the Cooper Bessemer  data were reproduced in a previous section of this
report  (Figures 5 and 6).

         Figures 11 through  16 show  the  effect of ignition timing, air flow
rate, air manifold temperature,  speed,  torque, and exhaust back pressure on
emissions and  fuel consumption for a Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 two cycle atmo-
spheric gas engine.  The data were generated in a joint test program conducted
by Cooper Bessemer and  Shell Development Company. ->'  Fuel consumption and NOx
emissions show the greatest  sensitivities to conditions, while CO and hydro-
carbon  emissions are relatively  insensitive.  The most dramatic effects are
those of torque at constant  speed  and speed at constant power (torque decreas-
ing as  speed  increases).

         Table 21 summarizes the effects of various changes away from standard
operating conditions for the GMVA-8.  Retarding the ignition from 10° to 4° btdc
reduces NOx emissions 16 percent but increases fuel consumption by 6 percent.
A reduction of the air  manifold  temperature from 130 to 80°F reduced NOx
emissions by  47 percent and  increased fuel  consumption by one percent.  The
most impressive NOx emissions reduction  occurred by increasing speed from 300
to 330  rpm.  NOx emissions  were  reduced  by  58 percent to 6.4 grams/Bhp-hr and
fuel consumption increased  only  1.6  percent.

         Simultaneous determination  of  the  air/fuel ratio of the mixture
trapped in the cylinder showed that  many of the effects are attributable in
part to a simultaneous  change in the air/fuel ratio.  Reducing the air/manifold
temperature and increasing  thij exhausc  back pressure each increased the air
density in the air manifold, resulting  in a leaner air/fuel mixture and lower
NOx emissions. Hence the effect of  a given parameter depends greatly on the

-------
                                       53
 MOO
                                                                 AM WEI IMIO
                                                                 MAN. A* ttf S.  >t ta. M,
                                                                 »«O       tone mm
                                                          t     *    10

                                                           COMWSMON IATIO
Figure 10.  Effect  of Air/Fuel Ratio. Spark  Timing.  Manifold Pressure.  Speed,
            and Compression Ratio on Exhaust NOx Concentration - 4-Cycle
            Gasoline  Engine (Reference 26).

-------
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                FIRING  PRESSURE
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                         MASS EMISSIONS
                           NOV
                                  CO
                             1
                                         1
                                                o
                                               U

                                                SI
                                                10
                                               CO
                                                 I


                                                10
          0246         8
                      IGNITION TIMING, °BTDC


            Figure  11.   Effect  of Ignition Timing

Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8  2-Stroke  Atmospheric Spark-Gas Engine
       1080 BHP at  300  RPM,  82.5 BMEP, Base Conditions

-------
                           55
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                        FUEL CONSUMPTION
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                            I
                                HCT
 2=$
.     .    .'
                                  CO
        120      140       160      180       200      220
         AIR FLOW RATE, % DISPLACEMENT AT 29*Hg, 80"F

            Figure 12.  Effect of Air Flow Rate
Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 2-Stroke Atmospheric Spark-Gas Engine
      1080 BMP at 300 RPM, 82.5 BMEP, Base Conditions

-------
                            56
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                   SPARK PLUG  GASKET TEMPERATURE

                                     I
                   FIRING PRESSURE
                  TRAPPED AIR/FUEL RATIO
                   FUEL CONSUMPTION
                   MASS EMISSIONS
             80       100       120       140

                 AIR MANIFOLD TEMPERATURE,  °F
                                                 160
       Figure 13.  Effect of Air Manifold Temperature

Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 2-Stroke Atmospheric Spark-Gas Engine

       1080 BHP at 330 RPM, 82.5 BMEP, Base Conditions

-------
                          57
                   CYLINDER EXHAUST
                     TEMPERATURE
                          O
                  SPARK PLUG GASKET
                     TEMPERATURE
                                FIRING PRESSURE
                          TRAPPED AIR/FUEL RATIO
          BASE CONDITIONS:
             300 rpm
                   FUEL CONSUMPTION
     275
300
325      350
 SPEED, rpm
375
400
       Figure  14.  Effect of Speed at Constant Power

Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 2-Stroke Atmospheric Spark-Gas Engine
          Power Output 1080 BMP, Base Conditions

-------
                            58
     700
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             FIRING PRESSURE
            FUEL CONSUMPTION
                              MASS EMISSIONS
                70       80       90
                        TORQUE  BMEP
100
110
       Figure  15.   Effect  of Torque  at  Constant Speed
Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8  2-Stroke  Atmospheric  Spark-Gas  Engine
              Base  Conditions,  Speed =  300 RPM

-------
                         59
 OL
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                 CYLINDER EXHAUST TEMPERATURI
                 SPARK PLUG GASKET TEMPERATURE
                 FIRING PRESSURE
                FUEL CONSUMPTION
                    246
                 EXHAUST BACK  PRESSURE,  Hg
                                                8
        Figure 16.   Effect of Exhaust Back Pressure

Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 2-Stroke Atmospheric Spark-Gas  Engine
       1080 BHP at  300 RPM, 82.5 BMEP,  Base Cpnditions

-------
              Table  21.  EMISSION CONTROL BY MODIFICATION OF OPERATING  CONDITIONS

                     Cooper Bessemer GMVA-8 Two-Stroke Atmospheric Spark-Gas Engine
Operating Conditions
•r • •
Base Conditions*'-
Retard Ignition
10° to 4° BTDC
Inerease Air Flow -
l6l to 201% Displacement
Decrease Air Manifold Temp
130 to 80°F
Increase Exhaust Back
Pressure 0 to 6" Hg
Increase Speed at Constant
BMP 300 to 330 RPM
Combination of:
4° BTDC Ignition
lOp'F Air Manifold Temp
4° BTDC Ignition
100°F Air Manifold Temp
182.1$ Displacement Air
4° BTDC Ignition
100 °F Air Manifold Temp
182.1$ Displacement Air
8.2" Hg Exhaust Back Pressure
Mass Emissions
(Grams/BHP-Hr)
NOX
15-23
12.75
14.66
8.09
9-53
6.41
10.63
8.73
5-26
HCT
1.94
2.26
2.14
2.19
2.16
2.24
2.08
2.19
2.28
CO
.29
•35
.22
.34
.30
.41
•32
•31
.40
Exhaust Cone
(Pl*v)
NOX
1079
918
842
574
686
418
760
549
332
HC«p
395
466
352
446
447
420
426
395
412
CO
34
42
21
40
36
44
38
32
41
Fuel
Consumption
(Btu/BHP-Hr)
7079
7496
7223
7169
7673
7192
7572
7654
8702
Change From
Base Values
NOX Emissions
-
-16.2$
-3-7$
-46.9$
-37-4$
-57.9$
-30.2$
-42.7$
-65-5$
Fuel Consumption
-
+5-8$
+2.0$
+1.2$
48.4$
+1.6$
. +7-0$
+8.1$
+22.9$
a)  Base Conditions:  Speed - 300 RPM
                     Power - 1080 BHP
                     Torque - 82.5 BMEP
                     Ignition - 10° BTDC
Air Flow Rate - 160$ Displacement
Air Manifold Temp - 130°F
Exhaust Back Pressure - 0" Hg

-------
                                      61
type of engine.  The same thing can be said for applicability of a given NOx
control technique.  For example, increasing the exhaust back pressure cannot
be applied to turbo-charged engines, and speed cannot be increased easily on
integral compressor engines due to torsional vibration criticals at some non-
design speeds.

         Figure 17 contains hydrocarbon, CO, and NO emission maps from
California 13 mode cycle tests of a typical Caterpillar preeombustion chamber
diesel engine. '  The maps show how mass emissions vary as functions of engine
power output and speed.  At a given speed, NO emissions are essentially propor-
tional to power output, and at constant power NO emissions tend to increase
with speed.  As pointed out previously, this behavior is fundamentally differ-
ent from that of gas engines.  Hydrocarbon and CO emissions exhibit much more
variability with speed, however.

     b.  Hardware Modifications

         The second phase in the application of emission controls is hardware
modifications.  The candidates include exhaust recirculation, water injection,
valve timing changes, combustion chamber redesign, and modifying the compres-
sion ratio.  Mass emissions are somewhat proportional to fuel consumption so
that changes that improve fuel economy may reduce emissions .

    (1)  Exhaust Recirculation (EGR)

         Exhaust recirculation (EGR)  is now being used by the U.S.  auto indus-
try in some new cars to reduce NOx emissions.   The fundamental effect is that
of charge dilution, i.e., oxygen concentration is lower and the heat capacity
of the charge is higher, leading to lower temperatures and lower NOx emissions.
Figure 18 shows the effect of EGR on  NOx concentration as a function of air/fuel
ratio and fraction EGR for a spark ignition gasoline engine.22)  At 15 percent
EGR, the peak NOx concentration is reduced by 85 percent.

         Caterpillar Tractor have published EGR data for a preeombustion cham-
ber diesel engine9' (Figure 19).  At  15 percent EGR and 100 percent rated
torque, NOx emissions decrease from 830 to 220 grams/hour, a  reduction of about
73 percent.  At higher speeds or lower torque, the effectiveness is diminished.

         Exhaust recirculation has a  great number of technical problems that
must be overcome before application to stationary engines. A system is needed
to accurately meter the amount of exhaust recirculated.  An efficient heat
exchanger must be developed to cool the exhaust without condensing  the water
vapor contained in the exhaust.  This is particularly true for four-cycle gas
engines for which exhaust temperatures are in the range 1100  to 1200°F.
Particularly for diesel engines, problems with fouling of intake manifolds,
after coolers, and other equipment by particulates must be overcome.   Finally,
the long term effects on lubricating  oil and engine life must be assessed.

         In view of these problems, it would appear that other control methods
have greater potential than EGR for effectively controlling emissions with
fewer problems.

-------
                                            62
                                   )00   121
400  800   1200  1600  2000 24C
       ENGINE SPEEO-RPM
          NO emission map-gm/ht
             BOO   1200" 1600  2000  2400
                     °400  800
              ENGINE SPEEO-RPM
                  HC emission map-gm/hr
       1600 2000  2400
ENGINE SPEED-RPM
 CO emission map-gm/hj
Figure  17.  Effect of Speed  and Power  Output on  Emissions  -  Caterpillar 4-Cycle
             Precombustion  Chamber Diesel (Reference  9).

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                                 63
        4000
                                         0% EXH. GAS
                                             RECYCLE
                                                A/F RANGE OF
                                                FUEL ATOM.
                                               .CARBURETOR
A/F RANGE OF
CONVENTIONAL
CARBURETORS .
      o
      z  200
           6
        UJ
        8
                            CO
                                       STOICHIOMETRIC A/F
            6
    10
12
14
16
18
20
22
                             AIR-FUEL RATIO
Figure 18.  Nitric Oxide Concentration in the Exhaust Gas of a Car as a Function
          of Air-Fuel Ratios with Recycling Rate as Parameter (Reference 22).

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   700

   600

   500
$
5  400
8  •
   300

   200

   100
100* RATiO TOKOUC
                   10     IS     20
                 S f XHAUST GAS RECI«CUIATEO
                           25
30
      Exhaust tecirculation versus NO emission - engine type D at
       1600 rpm
                                                 900

                                                 800

                                                 700

                                                 600

                                                 500
                                              Z
                300

                200

                100
                                      75% RATED TORQUE
                                                          100% RATED TORQUE
                                                      0      5      10      15      20     25
                                                            % EXHAUST GAS RECIRCULATED
                                                    Exhaust recirculation versus NO emission -engine type D at
                                                    2200 rpm
           Figure  19.  Effect  of Exhaust  Recirculation on  NOx Emissions - Caterpillar
                         4-Cycle  Precombustion Chamber  Diesel  (Reference  9).

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                                     65
    (2)  Water Injection

         Water injection serves the same function as exhaust recirculation in
reducing of NOx emissions - intake charge dilution.  It is accomplished by in-
jecting distilled or de ionized water either directly into each cylinder or at
the intake valve of each cylinder.  Injection of at least one pound of water
for each pound of fuel burned will reduce NOx emissions by 70 percent or more.
At the same time, fuel consumption is increased considerably.

         Figure 20 demonstrates the effect of water injection on exhaust NOx
emissions for a laboratory spark ignition gasoline engine .2°)  Under lean
conditions (0 - 0.93), injection of 1.25 Ib water/lb fuel reduces NOx concen-
tration from about 1000 to 100 ppm.  Similar data are given in Figure 21 for
a Caterpillar precombustion chamber diesel.^)  At 1.5 Ib water/lb fuel and
100% of rated torque, NOx mass emissions are reduced from 600 to 200 grams /hr,
a reduction of 67 percent.  The results of water injection tests on an
Ingersoll-Rand PKVGR-12 four-cycle naturally aspirated gas engine are shown in
Figure 22.^3)  Water injection at 2 gpm (1.62 Ib H20/lb fuel) reduced NOx
emissions by 82.4 percent but increased fuel consumption by 9.8 percent.

         Before water injection can be widely applied in the field, the long
term effects on lubricating oil and engine life will have to be investigated.
Economical sources of deionized water in remote locations are needed .  At
1.0 Ib water/lb fuel, a plant using 10,000 Bhp total horsepower will require
about 400 gallons per hour of distilled water at full load.

    (3)  Valve Timing

         Valve timing is also known to affect emissions.  In the case of four-
cycle naturally-aspirated engines, increasing the valve overlap will produce
the same effect as exhaust recirculation.  At the end of the exhaust stroke
the intake and exhaust valves are open simultaneously (overlap).  Exhaust gas
can pass back into the cylinder due to the pressure difference between the
intake and exhaust manifolds.  As valve overlap is increased, the fraction of
exhaust present in the fresh charge increases, resulting in an EGR effect.
         In a recent paper, Freeman and Nicholson of General Motors  '  present
data on the effect of valve timing on exhaust emissions from a 350 CID  auto-
mobile engine (Figure 23).   An increase in valve overlap from .38 deg-in to
2.74 deg-in reduced NOx emissions by about 60 percent.   Hydrocarbon emissions
are also reduced slightly,  while CO emissions are not affected.   The authors
do not provide any fuel consumption data,  however, it is probable that  fuel
economy does suffer as valve overlap increases .

         For stationary engine applications,  valve timing modification  has
some potential for emissions control.  It  is  a far simpler alternative  than
exhaust recirculation and could probably be applied to existing engines as
well as new engines.  Increased valve overlap, however, can be applied  only
to four-cycle naturally-aspirated engines .

    (4)  Stratified Charge  Combustion

         Stratified charge  combustion requires modification of the combustion
chamber and fuel injection  system such that ignition of the air/ fuel mixture

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                              66
     2 4000
     £3000

     §2000

     o:
1000
 800
 600

 400

     o
     O
     0  200
     (T
     H

        100
                      0.25   0.50    0.75    1.00
                        WATER-FUEL RATIO
                                             1.25
Figure 20.  Effect of Water Injection on NOx Emissions - 4-Cycle CFR Gasoline
          Engine (Reference 28).

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   800


   700


   600


   500


4=400

i
0300
z

   200


   100
             100% RATED TORQUE
75XRATED
TORQUE
     '0    .5     1.0   1.5    2.0   2.5    3.0
              LB OF WATER/IB OF FUEL

      Water induction versus NO emission - engine type A at
      1600 rpm
                                                          60X RATED
                                                           TORQUE
100X RATED TORQUE
                                                            1.0   1.5    2.0   2.5    3.0

                                                           16 OF WATER/LBOF FUEL

                                                Water induction versus NO emission - engine type A at   "
                                                2200 rpm
        Figure  21.   Effect of Water Injection  on NOx Emissions  - Caterpillar 4-Cycle
                     Precombustion Chamber Diesel Engine  (Reference 9).

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                          68
1300 i—
1200
             EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
            0.5       1.0       1.5       2.0
              WATER INJECTION RATE, gpm
                          FIRING PRESSURE
          WATER/FUEL RATIO
          FUEL CONSUMPTION
2.5
        FiRure 22.  Effect of Water Injection

Ingersoll-Rand PKVGR-12 4-Cycle N.A.  Spark-Gas  Engine

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                                       69
                                                    MTSNM
               ct
             W/M
               W-fU
               CM/*
                                       IS      II
                                       M/FKIUTIO
IT
II
                      12    II    14     IS
                                                 imm
                                                 1MFT-US
                                                 •T STAIR
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     II     IS
                                                  tug IPM
                                                  uinus
                                                  MT SPUR
                                                  1.1 M. M UCKPMSSNf
                                                           11     is
Figure  23.  Effect  of Valve  Overlap on  Emissions  -  4-Cycle  Gasoline Engine
                                     (Reference 15).

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                                      70


 occurs  under fuel rich conditions even though the air/fuel ratio of the overall
 mixture is  lean.   The system is analogous to two-stage air addition in boilers
 and  results in reduced NOx emission levels, due to the rich mixture present in
 the  combustion zone.   Hydrocarbon and CO emissions are generally low also due
 to the  overall lean air/fuel ratio.  Precombustion chambers have been in use
 since before air  pollution became a public concern.   The principal  advantages
 were smoother operation and easier starting.

         Caterpillar Tractor designs  their  line of diesel engines around the
 precombustion  chamber  concept.  '   Figure  24 is a  schematic  of the precombustion
 chamber built  into  the  cylinder head.  Air  enters through the intake valve and
 finds its way  into  the  precombustion  chamber.  Near the  end of the combustion
 stroke, fuel  oil  is injected into  the  precombustion chamber and  ignites upon
 contact with  air  heated  by  compression.   The  small volume of the precombustion
 chamber ensures that  less  than  the  stoichiometric amount of air  is present and
 NOx  formation  is  minimized.  Expansion of the hot gases  carries  them  into the
 main combustion chamber  where more  air is  present to complete the combustion
 of fuel and  CO.   To illustrate  the  effectiveness  of stratified charge combus-
 tion, NOx emissions  for  one  Caterpillar diesel with precombustion chamber were
 measured at  5.5 grams/Bhp-hr compared  to  11 or 12 grams/Bhp-hr for a  conven-
 tional  direct-injection  diesel.

         Stratified charge  combustion could also  be applied to spark  ignition
 engines .  Newhall and  El-Messiri  report data  from tests  of  a precombustion
 chamber system on a modified single cylinder  CFR  engine.  The fuel injector
 and  spark plug were mounted  in  the  precombustion  chamber and the fuel was
 iso-octane .   Figure 25 illustrates  the effect of  ignition timing and  fuel-air
 equivalence  ratio,  on  the  exhaust  concentration and mass emissions of NOx.
 The  overall  air/fuel mixture was  lean  in  each case, and NO  concentrations were
 less than 400 ppm for  ignition  advances up  to 15° btdc.  In comparison, the
 peak NOx concentration for  conventional carbureted gasoline engine is about
 3000 ppm at  15° btdc  (Figure 10).   Thus stratified charge combustion  results
 in almost an  order  of  magnitude reduction in NOx  emissions.

         The  effectiveness  of stratified  charge combusion for spark ignition
 gasoline engines  and  oil fire diesel  engines  has  been  demonstrated.  Injection
 of liquid fuel into the  precombustion chamber facilitates stratification of
 fuel-lean and  fuel-rich  regions in  the combustion chamber.  According to one
 gas engine manufacturer,  stratified charge  combustion  is also possible  for gas
 engines.  However,  it  is much more  difficult  to control and is more sensitive
 to operating  conditions.   Thus, stratified  charge combustion may not be practi-
 cal  in  the  case of  gas  engines.

         Additional development work will be necessary before additional diesel
 engine manufacturers will  be able  to  include  precombustion  chamber technology
 in their engine designs.   The use  of  precombustion chambers has  the potential
 of reducing  diesel  emissions of NOx by at  least a factor of two.

     (3)  Exhaust  Treatment  Controls

         Nitrogen oxides and unburned CO  and  hydrocarbons can be either removed
 or converted  to nitrogen,  carbon  dioxide, and water by devices located at the
 engine exhaust.   These  devices  include exhaust manifold  thermal reactors, cata-
 lytic converters, stack  gas  scrubbers, and  solid sorbents.  For reasons outlined
 in the following  sections,  including effectiveness, ease of installation, and
no adverse effect on fuel economy, we have  concluded that the catalytic converter
 is the most practical exhaust treatment system for stationary engines.

-------
                 71
                       FUEL  VALVE
                         PRECHAMBER
Figure 24.  Precombustion Chamber System (Reference 9),

-------
                                       72
                     I
                     a.
K


UJ

Z
O
u

iu
o

x
o
                     o 100
                     tr


                     z  _
                       500
                       400
                       300
                       ZOO
       Ignition Timing
                         0.5        0.6         07        0.8

                              FUEL-AIR  EQUIVALENCE RATIO
                     f



                     I
                     O 1.8
                     | 0.6


                     t>0.4


                     §0.2
                                            IGNITION IS'BTC
                          0.5         0.6         O.T


                            FUEL-AIR EQUIVALENCE RATIO
                                       0.8
Figure 25.  Effect of Ignition Timing and Fuel/Air Equivalence Ratio -

             4-Cycle Precombustion Chamber Gasoline Engine.  (Reference 27)

-------
                                      73
     a.  Exhaust Thermal Reactors

         The exhaust thermal reactor is a modified exhaust manifold designed
to maintain high enough temperatures to burn up unburned CO and hydrocarbons
in the exhaust - about 1300 to 1400°F.  The auto industry has found it neces-
sary to operate the engine on a rich mixture in order to provide enough CO and
hydrocarbon to maintain these temperatures.  Rich mixture operation is not
felt to be practical for stationary diesel and gas engines due to the resulting
poor fuel economy and smoke emissions.  Lean mixtures can also be used with
thermal reactors, however higher exhaust temperatures are required.

     b.  Stack Gas Scrubbing and Solid Sorption

         Stack gas scrubbing and solid sorption each create secondary pollution
problems that must be solved, the former a liquid waste problem, the latter a
solid waste problem.  Although these controls could be applied in the form of
a single unit that treats all exhaust from engines, boilers, and other combus-
tion equipment, they do not seem to have much potential for emissions control
of engines alone.

     c.  Catalytic Converters

         Both nitrogen oxides and unburned CO and hydrocarbons can be converted
to harmless species in catalytic converters.   The design of a catalytic unit
for a stationary engine would be much simpler than for an automotive engine,
because it would not be necessary to meet the automotive requirements of mini-
mum warmup time and operation over widely varying flow rates and temperatures.

    (1)  Oxidation of CO and Hydrocarbons

         In the converter, CO and unburned hydrocarbons are removed by catalytic
oxidation to C02 and water:

                        CO + 1/2 02 	> C02

                        HC +     02	> C02 + H20

The catalyst allows the reactions to occur at lower temperatures than are re-
quired in a noncatalytic thermal reactor.  Most four-cycle engines operate with
lean air/fuel ratios, and have sufficient oxygen present in the  exhaust for the
oxidation reactions (4-5%).  Two-cycle engines always have a large excess of
oxygen in the exhaust as a result of dilution by scavenging air  (15% 02).  How-
ever, four-cycle engines operating on a rich or stoichiometric mixture will
require mixing additional air with the exhaust.

    (2)  Reduction of NOx by CO, H2, NH3, or Natural Gas

         NOx can be removed by catalytic reduction by CO and hydrogen present
in the exhaust or by an added reducing agent  such as natural gas or ammonia:

-------
                                      74
                     NO + CO   	> C02 + 1/2 N2

                     NO + H2   	> H20 + 1/2 N2

                    4NO + CH4  	> C02 + 2H20 -f 2N2

                    3NO + 2NH3	> 3H20 + 5/2 N2

         Hydrogen and CO will be present in sufficient amounts for NOx reduc-
tion only in the case of four-cycle engines operating on rich mlxtnres.
Hydrogen is produced via the watergas shift reaction under rich conditions:

                     CO + H20	> H2 + C02

and is probably the primary reducing agent.  The automotive industry has found
that under certain conditions, mainly low oxygen concentrations and low tempera.
tures , the hydrogen can also reduce nitric oxide to ammonia:^)

                    5/2 H2 + NO	> NH3 + H20

leading to an unwanted by-product.

         Most stationary engines are operated at lean air/fuel settings for
reasons of better fuel economy.  Enough oxygen is present in the exhaust to
make it necessary to add a reducing agent such as hydrogen, natural gas, or
ammonia to the exhaust before catalytic reduction.  At high 02 concentrations,
it is known that hydrogen and natural gas will react preferentially with the
oxygen.  In the case of natural  gas, it is necessary to add enough gas to
completely react with the oxygen before NOx can be reduced.  If the oxygen
concentration is high, as in the case of two-cycle engines, it is necessary
to use multiple catalytic stages with interstage addition of natural gas in
order to avoid burning up the catalyst.

         Ammonia, however, will  reduce NOx even in the presence of oxygen.
Figure 26 reproduces data reported in an Ethyl Corporation patent. ')  Exhaust
from an internal combustion engine was passed over a palladium/copper oxide
catalyst and the conversion of NOx was monitored as a function of temperature.
An optimum temperature was found near 700°F at which overall NOx conversion
reached a maximum near 75 percent.  Above this optimum temperature, the ammonia
reducing agent begins to oxidize to nitric oxide and water:

                      2NH3 + 5/2 02	> 2 NO + 3 H20

         Similar data are shown  in Figure 27 for a platinum catalyst unit
operating at space velocities between 10,000 and 90,000 hr'1.'  The optimum
temperature occurs near 220°C (428°F).  Optimum removal of NOx is above 90 per-
cent, and is relatively insensitive to space velocities.  These results were
obtained using a synthetic mixture containing 3000 ppm NO, 3£y 02> 0.8%v H20,
and 3000 ppm NH3.  The water vapor content of engine exhaust is closer to
15 percent for four-cycle engines.  Consequently, the anticipated conversion
would very likely be lower, since water vapor competes for catalytic sites.

         A second advantage of the ammonia reduction system, is that catalytic
oxidation of CO and hydrocarbon will occur simultaneously over the same
catalyst.  For the copper oxide catalyst identified in Figure 26, 46 percent

-------
                                  75

ENGINE
A/F = 15

1100 ppm NO
140 ppm HC
O.2% v CO
i
, t
t

3 NO * 2NH3 — ^ -|-N2 + 3H2O
HC * O2 — »-CO2 + H2O
CO + -jO2 — »- CO2
CATALYTIC CONVERTER


               AIR    AQUEOUS  NH3
z
   100 r
    80
    60
8
O   40
2
    20
                             0.1 % Pd.  6%Cu on Si-olumina
                                       6% Cu on Si-alumina
          600     700     800     900     1000
                  CATALYST TEMPERATURE "F
             1100
 72/396/6
(REFERENCE; U.S.  PATENT 3,449,063)
            Figure 26.  Catalytic Reduction of NOx Bv Ammonia

-------
                                    76
              IOO,
                   140    180     220    260    300    340    380
                              INLET TEMPERATURE *C.
Figure 27.  Catalytic Reduction of NO  by Ammonia over  Platinum Catalyst
                                  (Reference 2).

-------
                                      77
of the carbon monoxide and 38 percent of the hydrocarbons had been removed at
the optimum temperature for NOx reduction (840°F).

         To maintain a space velocity in the range 30,000 to 50,000 hr'1, a
1000 Bhp engine would require about two cubic feet of catalyst.  The most
attractive catalyst configuration is the ceramic honeycomb supported catalyst
being favored by Ford Motor Company.  The system provides both longer life and
lower pressure drop than catalysts supported on ceramic pellets.  Presently, a
platinum honeycomb catalyst would cost about $1500/cu ft.  However, this price
will very likely drop in the future.  In any case, the cost of a catalytic unit
will probably be small relative to the cost of the engine itself ($200 to
$350/Bhp).

         Of all the possible emission control methods, catalytic reduction by
ammonia, natural gas or CO would seem to be the best long term NOx control
method for stationary engines.   The method allows operation of the engine at
conditions corresponding to maximum fuel economy or power, and is known to be
effective for controlling all three pollutants.

         Significant development work will be required, however, before wide
scale application will be practical.  Information on the optimum catalyst
formulation and composition, catalyst durability, and resistance to catalyst
poisons in the fuel must be sought to develop a practical catalytic converter
for stationary engines.  With regard to the ammonia NOx reduction system, it
must be determined whether the  system will work at the oxygen concentrations
present in two-cycle engine exhaust.  The effects of catalyst poisons present
in gas and oil fuel on catalyst life must be determined.  These include sulfur
and metal impurities.

-------
                                      78


                                Bibliography
 1.  Agnew, W. G., "Automotive Air Pollution Research",
     Proc. Royal Society. Ser. A. 307;  153-181  (1968)

 2.  Anderson, H. C., Green, W. J., and Steele,  D.  R.,
     "Catalytic Treatment of Nitric Acid Plant  Tail Gas",
     Ind. Ene. Chem.. 53   199-204  (1961)

 3.  Gas Facts, A Statistical Record of the  Gas  Utility  Industry in 1970,
     American Gas Association, Dept. of Statistics, Arlington, Va. (1971).

 4.  Directory of Reciprocating Gas Engines  in  Use  by Various Gas Pipe Line
     Companies,
     American Gas Association, Compressor Station Committee, Operating Section,
     Arlington, Va. (1971).

 5.  Petroleum Facts and Figures, 1971  Edition,
     American Petroleum Institute, Washington,  D.C. (1971)

 6.  1972 Report on Diesel and Gas Engines,  Power Costs,
     American Society of Mech. Engineers, New York, N.Y.  (1972).

 7.  Bartok, W. et al., Systems Study of Nitrogen Oxide Control Methods for
     Stationary Sources, Final Report
     Vol II, Contract PH-22-68-55, National  Air  Pollution Control Administration
     (1969)

 8.  Benson, J. D., "Reduction of Nitrogen Oxides in Automobile Exhaust",
     SAE Paper 690019  (1969).

 9.  Bosecker, R. E., and Webster, D. F., "Precombustion Chamber Diesel Engine
     Emissions - A Progress Report",
     SAE Paper 710672, National West Coast Meeting, Vancouver, B.C.  (1971)

10.  Daniel, W. A., "Engine Variable Effects on  Exhaust Hydrocarbon Composition,
     (A Single Cylinder Engine Study With Propane as the Fuel)",
     SAE Trans 670124, 774-795  (1968).

11.  The 1970 National Power Survey, Part I,
     Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C.  (1971)

12.  Statistics of Privately Owned Electric  Utilities in the United States 1970.
     Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C., (December 1971)

13.  statistics of Publicly Owned Electric Utilities in  the United States 1970.
     Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C., (February 1970)

14.  Statistics of Interstate Natural Gas Pipeline  Companies 1970,
     Federal Power Commission, Washington, D.C., (August 1971)

-------
                                     79
15.  Freeman, M. A. and Nicholson, R. C., "Valve  Timing for Control  of Oxides
     of Nitrogen (NOx)", SAE Paper 720121, Automotive  Engineering  Congress,
     Detroit, Michigan (1972)

16.  Frick, T. C., ed., Petroleum Production Handbook,  Vol.  I,
     McGraw Hill, New York (1962)

17.  Griffing, M. E. and Lamb, F. W., "Method of  Controlling Exhaust Emission",
     U.S. Patent 3,449,063, assigned  to Ethyl Corporation,  June  10,  1969.

18.  Hagen, D. F., and  Holiday, G. W.,  "The Effects  of  Engine Operating and
     Design Variables on Exhaust Emissions", Paper 486C,  SAE Combined National
     Automobile and Production Meetings (March 12-16,  1962).

19.  Gas Engine Market  Study, William E.  Hill and Co.,  Inc.,  Report  to
     American Gas Association, New York,  N .Y .  (1968)

20.  Huls, T. A. and Nickol, H. A., "Influence of Engine  Variables on Exhaust
     Oxides of Nitrogen Concentrations  from a Multicylinder  Engine", SAE Trans.
     670482, 256-265 (1967)

21.  Kennedy, J. L., "Gas turbines find wide range of uses  in oil  industry",
     Oil and Gas Journal, 108-112, August 7, 1967.

22.  Kopa, R. D., published discussion  of paper by H. K.  Newhall,
     "Control of Nitrogen Oxides by Exhaust Recirculation -
     A Preliminary Theoretical Study",  SAE Trans  670495,  1820-1836 (1967)

23.  Marshall, W. F. and Fleming, R.  D.,  "Diesel Emissions Reinventoried",
     U.S. Bureau of Mines,  Report of  Investigations  7530  (July 1971)

24.  Marshall, W. F. and Hum, R. W., "Factors Influencing Diesel Emissions",
     SAE Trans 680528,  2139-2150 (1968)

25.  McGowin, C. R., Schaub, F. S., and Hubbard, R. L.,
     "Emissions Control  of a Stationary Two-Stroke Spark-Gas Engine
     by Modification of Operating Conditions",  AGA/IGT
     Proc . 2nd Conf. Natural Gas Research and Technology, Atlanta, Ga., (1972)

26.  Nebel, G. J. and Jackson, M. W., "Some Factors Affecting the Concentration
     of Oxides of Nitrogen  in Exhaust Gases from Spark  Ignition Engines",
     J. Air Pollution Control Association 8,  213-219 (1958)

27.  Newhall, H. K., and El-Messiri,  I. A., "A Combustion Chamber Designed for
     Minimum Engine  Exhaust Emissions",  SAE Trans 700491, 383-397 (1971)

28.  Nicholls, J. E., El-Messiri, I.  A.,  and  Newhall, H.  K., "Inlet Manifold
     Water Injection for Control of Nitrogen Oxides  - Theory and Experiment",
     SAE Paper 690018, Automotive Engineering Congress, Detroit, Michigan (1969)

29.  Obert, E. F.,  Internal Combustion  Engines, 3rd Ed.,  International Textbook
     Co., Scranton,  Pa.  (1968)

30.  "Forecast/Review",  Oil and Gas Journal,  81-94, January  31, 1972.

-------
                                      80


31.  "Gas Pipelines", "Oil Pipelines", Oil and Gas Journal.  127-139,  June  12,
     1972.

32.  "15th Annual Study of Pipeline Installation and Equipment Costs",
     Oil and Gas Journal. 108-118, August^ v, 1972 (Also 1959 through 1971)

33.  "Annual Directory of Pipelines", Pipev  .ne News 1971-72 Issue, August 15,
     1971.

34.  "Annual Plant Design Report", Power. 116, November, 1972.
     (Published each year since 1960).

35.  Schaub, F. S. and Beightol, K. V., "NOx Emission Reduction Methods  for
     Large Bore Diesel and Natural Gas Engines", Paper 71-WA/DGP-2, ASME Winter
     Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C. (Nov. 28 to Dec. 2, 1971).

36.  Shelef, M. and Gandhi, H. S., "Ammonia Formation in Catalytic Reduction of
     Nitric Oxide by Molecular Hydrogen", IEC Product R and  D, 11, 2-11  (1972).

37.  "Shipments of Internal Combustion Engines 1958-67", U.S. Dept. of Commerce,
     Business and Defense Services Administration, Washington, D.C.   (1969).

38.  Current Industrial Reports.  "Internal Combustion Engines", U.S. Dept. of
     Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C., (1968, 1969, 1970).

39.  Mineral Industry Surveys,  "Natural Gas Production and  Consumption:  1971",
     U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C. (1972).

40.  Nationwide Inventory of Air Pollutant Emissions 1968, U.S. Dept. of H.E.W.,
     Public Health Service, Env. Health Service, NAPCA, Raleigh, N.C. (1970).

41.  Wimmer, W. B. and McReynolds, L. A., "Nitrogen Oxides and Engine
     Combustion", SAE Trans . , _7p_» 733-748 (1962).

42.  "Current Outlook", World Oil,  47-63, February 15, 1972.

43.  Hutchins, W. T., Panel Discussion, ASME, Diesel and Gas Engine Power
     Division, Meeting, St. Louis, Missouri, April, 1972.

44.  Turner, D. B., Workbook of Atmospheric Dispersion Estimates, U.S. Dept.
     of Health, Education, and Welfare, U.S. Public Health Service, NAPCA,
     Cincinnati, Ohio,
     Publication No. 999-AP-26  (1969).

 45.   Harmon,  R.  A.,  "Gas  Turbines  -  An  Industry with Woldwide  Impact",
      Mechanical  Engineering,  33-59  (March 1973).

 46.   Fenimore, C. P.,  Hilt,  M.  B.  and Johnson, R.  H.,  "Formation and  Measure*
      ment of  Nitrogen  Oxides  in Gas  Turbines", Gas Turbine  International,  l£
      (4), 38-41  (1971).

-------
                                     A-l
                                  Appendix

                                                                         Page
Survey Letter, List of Recipients, and Survey Questionnaire	A-l
California 13-Mode Cycle 	 A-15
Emissions Data
         4-Cycle Diesels - Direct Injection	*	» A-16
         4-Cycle Diesels - Precombustion Chamber	A-17
         2-Cycle Diesels - Direct Injection	A-18
         4-Cycle Dual - Fuel Engines	 A-19
         2-Cycle Turbocharged Gas Engines...	 A-20
         2-Cycle Atmospheric Gas Engines	A-21
         4-Cycle Turbocharged Gas Engines	A-22
         4-Cycle Naturally Aspirated Gas Engines	•	A-23
         4-Cycle High Speed Gas Engines	A-24
         Gas Turbines	A-25
Data from the Oil and Gas Journal (Ref 31):
         Gas Pipelines	A-26
         Oil Pipelines	 A-28
Data from Federal Power Commission (Ref 11):
         Estimated Generation by Regions and  Type of Capacity 1970,
         1980,  1990	A-32

-------
                                       A-3
   BEUAIRE
RESEARCH CENTER
                    SHELL  DEVELOPMENT  COMPANY
                          A DIVISION OF SHELL OIL COMPANY
                             3737 BEUAIRE BOULEVARD
                             HOUSTON, TEXAS  77025

                               August 10, 1972
  MAILING ADDRESS
   P. O BOX 481
HOUSTON. TEXAS 77001
   Mr. E. L. Case
   Vice President Marketing
   Worthington - CEI, Inc.
   1252 Elm Street
   West Springfield, Massachusetts  01089

   Dear Mr. Case:

                   STATIONARY ENGINE SURVEY - EPA SERVICES
                        CONTRACT EHSD-71-45, TASK 24

             We are conducting a survey of stationary reciprocating I.C.
   engines in the territorial U.S. for the Combustion Research Section of
   the Environmental Protection Agency's Office of Research and Monitoring.
   The objectives of the survey are:  first to estimate the present and future
   importance of stationary engines as sources of the major air pollutants and
   in particular nitrogen oxides, and second to compile existing data on emis-
   sion levels of stationary engines and the costs of emissions ccntrcl by
   various methods.  The survey will cover all types of reciprocating engines
   including diesel, spark ignition, naturally-aspirated, and super- and turbo-
   charged engines.

             The specific information being sought includes:

             1.  Engine design features in past, present, and future units.

             2.  Major engine manufacturers and associations representing the
   manufacturers and users.

             3.  General trends in engine types, ages, sizes, and applications.

             4.  Distribution of existing engines by type, size, application,
   industry, and geographical location.

             5.  Fuel types and their physical and chemical properties.

             6.  Fuel consumption classified by type and geographical location.

             7.  Achievable pollutant emission levels and the cost of emissions
   control.

             We believe that this information can be most efficiently obtained
   ftom the engine manufacturers directly rather than from the engine users.

-------
                                    A-4
Mr. E. L. Case                    -2-                   August 10, 1972
Hence, we have mailed the enclosed questionnaire to several engine manu-
facturers similar to your company.  The success of the survey depends on a
quantitative response by the industry.  Consequently, we urge you to par-
ticipate in the survey and to answer the questions as completely as possible.

          The questionnaire consists of seven sections, including (1) com-
pany identification,  (2) company products,  (3) engines in use,  (4) partici-
pation in manufacturers associations,  (5) design practices, (6) engine data,
and  (7) emissions data.

          Section 6 should be completed for each engine model now in use.  In
those cases in which the requested data are proprietary, please give as much
information as possible.  It would also be desirable if you could release
to us your experience or use list for  each engine model.  The data contained
in these lists will be used to compile a detailed census and a pollutant
emissions inventory for stationary engines, broken down by type, size, appli-
cation, and geographical area.  If you desire, we will keep your experience
lists in strictest confidence, and they will be returned to you without
being photocopied.  The engine census  will be reported in a format that does
not  identify either the engine manufacturers or specific locations.  Thus,
there is little risk of releasing confidential business data to the public.

          We are aware of several- existing compilations of stationary engines
in use by specific industries, such as the privately owned electric utility
and  natural gas pipeline and utility companies.  We do not feel, however,
that the survey will be sufficiently thorough without this direct survey of
the  engine manufacturers.

          We would appreciate receiving the completed questionnaire by
September 15, 1972.  A self-addressed, postage-paid envelope is enclosed
for  this purpose.  If you have any questions or desire additional copies of
all  or part of the questionnaire, please call us collect at:  713-667-5661
and  ask for C. R. McGowin.

          Your cooperation 'in participating in this survey will be greatly
appreciated .

                                    Very truly yours,

                                     ORIGINAL STfJ
                                     S.  A.  Shain
                                     Project Manager

 CMrpjh

 Enclosures
                                    •i

 be with enclosures:  E. E. Berkau, Combustion Research Section
                                    Environmental Protection Agency

 be without enclosures:  J. R. Street
                         F. A. Cleland
                         M. E. Doyle
                         C. R. McGowin

-------
                                    A-5
RECIPIENTS OF QUESTIONAIRE
 EPA STATIONARY ENGINE SURVEY
Mr. E. L. Case
Vice President Marketing
Worthington - CEI, Inc.
1252 Elm Street
West Springfield, Mass.  01089
Tel:  M3-781-0513
Mr. John Wheeler
Vice  President Sales
Waukesha Motor Company
Waukesha, Wisconsin  53186
Tel:  MU-51*7-3311
Mr. D. V. Shattuck
General Manager
Engine-Process Compressor Division
Ingersoll-Rand Company
Painted Post, New York  114-870
Tel:  607-937-2011
Mr. R. L. Patrick
Manager of Marketing
White Superior Division
White Motor Corporation
Springfield, Ohio  U5501
Tel:  513-32^-5811
Mr. C. R. Jones
Executive Vice President
Cooper Bessemer Company
Division of Cooper Industries
P. 0. Box 751
Mt. Vernon, Ohio  U3050
Tel:  6lU-397-0121

Mr. A. L. Foltz
General Ssles Manager
Engine Compressor Division
De Laval Turbine Inc.
550 85th Avenue
Oakland, California  9^621
Tel:  lfl5-638-0130
Mr. Richard Waldo
Manager Marketing
Reciprocating Products Division
Clark Engine - Compressor Division
Dresser Industries Inc.
P. 0. Box 560
Olean, N. Y.  1U760
Tel:  716-372-2101
Mr. T. J. Bullock
Manager Government Sales
Fairbanks Morse Power Systems Div.
Colt Industries Inc.
701 Lawton Avenue
Beloit, Wisconsin  53511
Tel:  608-36V1&11

Mr. Leo T. Brinson
General Manager
Nordberg, Division of
Rex Chainbelt Inc.
3073 S. Chase Avenue
P. 0. Box 383
Milwaukee, Wisconsin  53201
Tel:
Mr. A. A. Zagotta
Manager Sales and Service
Engine Division
All is- Chalmers Corp.
P. 0. Box 563
Harvey, Illinois  6ok26
Tel:  312-339-3300

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                                    A-6
RECIPIENTS OF ALTERNATE QCESTIONAIRE
EPA STATIONARY ENGINE SURVEY
Mr. L. C. Seward
Manager, Industrial Sales
Hectro-Motive Division
General Motors Corp.
LaGrange, Illinois  60525
Teli  312-485-TOGO
Manager  of  Sales  and  Services
Alco  Engines  Division
White Industrial  Power,  Inc.
Subsidiary  of White Motor  Corp.
100 Orchard Street
Auburn,  N.  Y.   13021
Mr.  H.  D.  Clark
Manager Product Development
Industrial Division Marketing Department
Caterpillar Tractor Company
Peoria, Illinois  6l602
Tel:  309-675-1000
 Mr.  I#n Sturdevant
 Chief Engineer
 Chicago Pneumatic Tool Company
 Orchard and Howard Street
 Franklin, Penna.   16323
 Tel:  814-U32-2168
 Mr.  R.  E.  Acker
 Manager of Market Planning and Research
 Detroit Diesel Allison
 Division of General Motors
 134-00 West Outer Drive
 Detroit, Michigan  48228
 Tel:  313-531-7100

-------
                                       A-7
                     EPA SERVICES CONTRACT EHSD-71-^5 - TASK 2k
                    Survey of Stationary Engine Manufacturers

                                                              Date
1.  Company Identification
    A.  Name and location of company:
        Name:
        Address:
        City:         __                  State:              _     Zip Code;
    B.  Person to contact regarding this report:
        Name:                                                    .
        Title:                                          	
        Address:
        City: 	  State: 	  Zip Code:
        Telephone (Area Code): 	
    C.  Person completing questionaire (if different from above):
        Name:       ..   . ,
        Title:                                       	
        Address:
        City: 	  State: 	  Zip Code:
        Telephone (Area Code): _____________—________—__—^__—-_—.
2.  Company Products
    List your company's major product lines in addition to engines.

-------
                                       A-8
3-  Engines in Use
    List below engine models manufactured by your company  and now  in use  in the U.S.
    For each engine, give a brief description, the number  and average age of those
    still in operation, and, if not proprietary,  the number sold over the last five
    years.
Engine
Model





















Brief Description





















Engines Still
Operating
Number





















Average Age





















Number
Sold Since
1967





















Still
on
Market?




















•

-------
                                        A-9
    Participation in Manufacturers1 Associations



    Describe below your company's participation in associations and industry



    groups associated with the manufacture and use of internal combustion engines,



    Mention company representation on executive committees and other leadership



    positions.
5.  Design Practice



    Describe briefly the present practices and criteria used in designing



    engines manufactured by your company.  Include discussion of your



    assessment of current trends in design,  size,  and application of engines.

-------
                                            A-10
 6.   Engine Data
Manufacturer:
     Complete for each stationary engine  model  now  in .use.  If some or all of the data are
 already in table form.it will be sufficient  to attach  these  tables and fill in the remaining
 data below.   If possible, attach experience  or use list  for  each model.
Engine Model:
No. Cylinders Available:
Type of Service:
Average Age of Engines:
Average Age Weighted by
Power Output:
Now being Marketed?:
Engine Type:
Strokes /Cycle
Ignition Type
Fuels"
c
Air Charging
Fuel Charging'
Exhaust Scavenging
Design Data:
Speed (rpm)
Torque- BMEP (psia)
Power-BHP/Cylinder
Bore x Stroke (in.)
Compression Ratio
Ignition Timing at
Rated Speed, Load
Air/Fuel Equivalence
Ratio Range
Guaranteed BSFC:
Other Design Features:



















































































































*    rk or compression ignition.
b Natural gas, diesel, dual, gasoline, or other fuel.
0 Naturally-aspirated, atmospheric, supercharged, turbocharged (pulse  or  constant pressure), or other
d Direct injection (single or divided chamber) , carbureted,  or other.
• Loop or uniflow.

-------
                                    A-ll
Emissions Data



A.  Have you conducted emissions tests on stationary engines manufactured by



your company?    Yes _____    No  _



If  answer is No, skip to question I.



B.  Which exhaust pollutants were nronitored?    Hydrocarbons	
                                                Carbon Monoxide



                                                Nitrogen Oxides



                                                Other
Were analyses performed for individual hydrocarbon components?    Yes



                                                                  No
                                                    •                ~


Nitrogen oxide components?                                        Yes



                                                                  No
C.  Which engine models were tested?  List below and indicate whether engine



vas tested on a test bench or at a field location.
Engine Tested
Location

-------
                                     A-12

D.  Which engine operating parameters were monitored during these tests?
    Air/Fuel Ratio	   Ignition Timing	
    Speed ____________________________   Air Temperature	
    Power Output
    Fuel Consumption
Other (Describe Below)
E.  If available, list ranges of exhaust pollutant concentrations measured in
    the exhaust and indicate whether engine was run at rated speed and load.
    In addition, give a brief description of test procedure,  analytical
    instrumentation used, etc.
Engine Tested










Pollutant










Concentration
Range









•
Rated
Conditions?











-------
                                    A-13
F»  Indicate below  those emissions  control methods you have tested on
stationary engines.
Air/Fuel Mixture Adjustment                .
Ignition Timing _________________________________
Fuel Injection Timing ____________________
Speed Adjustment
Exhaust Recycle    .
Water Injection 	
Stratified Charge Combustion
Catalytic Treatment ___________
Other
G.  Please comment on the effect of  these  emission controls on engine
performance, fuel consumption,  and other variables.   Give estimated cost of
application for both new and existing engines.

-------
                                     A-14
H. List below the percentage reduction in emissions obtained by application of



emission controls to stationary engines.
Engine Tested





















finission Control Used


















•


% Chang
NOX





















;e Mass En
HCT





















lissions
CO





















$ Change
Fuel Con-
IsumDtion






















-------
                                    A-15
I.  Are you aware of any emissions tests conducted by outside organizations on



your stationary engines?  Yes	  No	.   If yes, what organization?







If possible, describe results of the emissions tests below or attach report.

-------
                      A-16
       • California 13 Mode Cycle for Diesel Truck Engines

Rated Speed       Intermediate Speed    Low Idle Speed
% Load ±2%          % Load ±2%       % Load ±2%

    100                  100                 0
     75                   75                 0
     50                   50                 0
     25                   25
      2                    2

  Intermediate speed is peak torque speed or 60% of
rated speed, whichever is higher.
  Weighting factor is 0.20 for average low idle mode and
0.08 for all other modes.

-------
                                    A-18
                               EMISSIONS DATA
Engine
4-Cycle Diesels - Precotnbustion Chamber
BHP Specific Emissions
(Full BSFC (g/Bhp-hr)
Load) (Ifc/Bhp-hr) NOx CO HC
a\
Reference '
Turbocharged (13 Mode Test)
A
B
C
D
I
250
850
970
750
88.6
5.5
5.5
4.0
6.4
6.1
1.0 0.2
1.3 0.2
1.6 0.3
1.9 0.6
2.3 0.34
QI
QI
QI
QI
23
Turbocharged (Continuous Test)
E
I
750
100
7.8
5.6
0.8 0.05
1.6 0.4
QI
23
Naturally- Aspirated (13 Mode Test)
F
125
5.9
2.5 0.3
QI
Naturally- As pirated (Continuous Test)
       G        125                     6.0
0.96   0.18
QI
a) QI B Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                     A-19
                               EMISSIONS DATA

                    2-Cycle Diesels - Direct Injection
     Engine
 BHP
(Full
Load)
   BSFC
(Ib/Bhp-ht)
Specific Emissions
   (g/Bhp-hr)
NOx    CO    HC..
Reference
                                                                       a)
     (13 Mode Test)

       J         46.7

    (Continuous Test)

       J         50
                        14.7   6.1    0.8
                        14.6   2.5    1.2
                                      23
                                      23
a) QI s= Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                     A-20
                               EMISSIONS DATA

                         4-Cycle Dual-Fuel Engines
                BHP                   Specific Emissions
               (Full       BSFC           (g/Bhp-hr)
     Engine    Load)    (lb/Bhp-hr)    NOx    CO    HC     Reference0'

    (Turbocharged)

        A      7707        5760        7.7   0.61   1.9       QI
        B      4296        6340        8.96  4.50   5.16      35
a) QI = Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                    A-21
                                EMISSIONS DATA
2- Cycle Turbocharged Gas Engines
Engine
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
0
BHP
1600
2140
1940
5233
400
800
800
1000
2260
1950
1613
1535
3600
3655
2000
Specific Emissions
BSFC (g/Bhp-hr)
(Btu/Bhp-hr) NOx CO HCt
6632
7000
7200
6110
7177
7071
7071
7067
7500
7500
6099
6409
6123
6108
7067
20.13
7.4
8.9
11.8
7.6
14.2
9.4
16.8
9.6
12.1
9.7
10.9
9.1
7.4
8.5
0.17


2.0

1.7
6.0
7.4


3.8
3.0
1.8
2.5
4.6
1.58


1.1
10.1
4.4
30.6



4.5
3.2
4.1
4.4
5.4
a)
Reference
35
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
a) QI = Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                    A-22

                                EMISSIONS DATA
                      2-Cycle Atmospheric Gas Engines
                BHP                    Specific Emissions
               (Full        BSFC           (g/Bhp-hr)                 .
     Engine    Load)    (Btu/Bhp-hr)    NOx    CO    HCfc    Reference3'

       A        1080        7079       15.23  0.29   1.94      25
       B        1350        7700       10.0                    QI
       C        1600        7177        4.6          5.0       QI
       D         400        7177        7.6         10.1       QI
       E        2200        7774       17.9         17.0       QI
a) QI « Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                     A-23
                                 EMISSIONS DATA
                      4-Cycle Turbocharged Gas Engines
                BHP                    Specific Emissions
               (Full        BSFC           (g/Bhp-hr)                 .
     Engine    Load)    (Btu/Bhp-hr)    NOx    CO    HC     Reference


       A       1950         7300       14.1                    QI

       B       4000         6500       10.4                    QI
       C        925         7067       15.7   0.9    6.5       QI
       D        750         7063       12.5   1.1              QI
a) QI - Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                   A-24
                                EMISSIONS DATA
                  4-Cycle Naturally-Aspirated Gas Engines
Engine
A
B
C
D
E
F
BHP
(Full
Load)
225
800
1170
496
190
800
Specific Emissions
BSFC (g/Bhp-hr)
(Btu/Bhp-hr) NOx CO HCt

8432
6509
6599
5975

12.6
9.1
14.4
10.2
12.8
10.9
1.6
0.5
1.3
3.2
2.4

3.1
16.8
2.5
0.8
9.3
2.0
a)
Reference
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
a) QI = Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                    A-25
                                EMISSIONS DATA

                      4-Cycle High-Speed Gas Engines
               BHP                   Specific Emissions
              (Full       BSFC           (g/Bhp-hr)                 .
    Engine    Load)    Btu/Bhp-hr)    NOx    CO    HC     Reference3'


      A        310                    12.1   6.3   3.5       QI

      B       1323                    13.0   5.6   1.8       QI
a) QI = Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
                                    A-26
                                 EMISSIONS  DATA
Gas Turbines
Engine
Natural
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
BHP
(Full
Load)
Gas Fuel
6200
6900
1100
1100
13,950
13,950
14,700
14,700
14,700
BSFC
Btu/Bhp-hr)
12,377
12,104
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
11,000
Specific Emissions
(g/Bhp-hr)
NOx CO HCfc
3.2
2.8
0.84
1.0
1.7
1.5
0.92
1.6
1.5
Reference '
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
QI
a) QI = Questionnaire Response or User Survey

-------
GAS PIPELINES

Company
Alabama-Tennessee Natural Gas Co 	
Algonquin Gas Transmission Co. . . .
Arkansas Louisiana Gas Co. 	
Arkansas-Missouri Power Co. 	 	
Arkansas Oklahoma Gas Corp. 	 	
Boca Gas Gathering System, Inc. 	
Black Marlin Pipeline Co. 	
Blue Dolphin Pipe Line Co. 	
Bluebonriet Gas Corp. 	
Bluefield Gas Co. 	
Caprock Pipeline Co. 	
Carnegie Natural Gas Co.
Cascade Natural Gas Corp.
Chandeleur Pipe Line Co. . 	 	
Curarron Transmission Co.
Cities Service Gas Co.
Colorado Interstate Gas Co. 	
Columbia Gas Transmission Corp. . .
Columbia Gulf Transmission Co.
Commercial Pipeline Co., Inc. 	
Consolidated Gas Supply Corp. 	
Delta Gas, Inc. 	
East Tennessee Natural Gas Co. , . .
Eastern Shore1 Natural Gas Co.
El Paso Natural Gas Co. 	
Trans.
296
927
5,820
227
409
54
49

31
30
229
121
160

5,345
2,051
. 10,754
3,382

3,569

1,012
238
.. 12.611
Field Storage
1,876
204
58
2
894
48
'"39
2,602
2,003
6,569
3,886
10,102
8
4
174
130
1,136
519
22
Total
296
927
7,704
227
617
58
54
49
si
32
1.123
169
160
39
8.121
4,184
18.459
3.382
7,974
1.012
238
22.735


, — Transmission——.
No. Hp
2
3
19
....
"6
1
36
13
84
12
17
9
80
2.450
30,900
68,310
370
' 4,092
1,320
221,110
99,030
344,721
472,820
79,440
18,320
946.372
resser st
, 	 a
No.
44
6
2
1
6
3
32
36
30
54
65

itner 	 »
HP
40,370
590
610
340
500
5,182
70,480
68.247
107.095
205,370
573.545

Total
Up
2,450
30,900
108,680
960
610


340
4.592
6,502
291,590
167.277
451.816
472,820
284,810
18,320
1.519.917
Total
sales
(MMct) ,
33,513
137,111
409,452
7,370
14,841
2,770
•50.651
•64,750
1,609
1,228
2,728
27,548
64.912
•37,820
13,679
530,464
399,527
1,354.146
•616,565
369
704,930
90,114
7,980
1.797.920
Gas
plant
Operating
Additions nrnme
<•< MM
Net
laceme

12,803
167.719
457,105
10,689
17,471
946
6,749
104
1,710
868
41,843
16,400
1,180
332.522
258,916
1,087,711
616,714
570
637,650
1330
51,207
6,946
2.089.636
404
3,550
24,298
672
893
1

2
206
438
504
27,411
18,695
62,636
45,990
141
*,»
^
148,478
15,354
98,061
162,841
32,640
7,602
510
1,090
1,042
265
1,044
670
16,878
38,650
1,078
2,867
158.289
104,409
732,667
99,628
247
399,743
615
40,125
4.945
722.631
1,138
5,795
24,494
1.704
614
5
188
552
50
10
2.432
(873)
38
17.907
10,003
52,303
25386
(18)
20,142
2381
456
73.868

-------
GAS PIPELINES


tMpuy
Emmttsburf Gas Co 	
Equitable Gas Co. 	
Farmland Industries, Inc. 	
Florida Gas Transmission Co. 	
Gardner Pipeline, Inc. 	
Gas Transport, Inc 	
Grand Valley transmission Co 	 	
Granite State Gas Transmission, Inc. ...
Great Lakes Gas Transmission Co. 	
Great Plains Natural Gas Co. 	
Hampshire Gas Co. 	
Indiana Utilities Corp. 	
Inland Gas Co. 	
Inter-City Minnesota Pipelines Ltd. ....
Interstate Power Co. 	 	
Iowa-Illinois Gas & Electric Co 	
Iowa Public Service Co. 	
Iroquols Gas Corp. 	
Kansas-Nebraska Natural Gas Co. 	
Kentucky-West Virginia Gas Co, 	
Lawrenceburg Gas Transmission Corp. . .
Lake Shore Pipe Une Co. 	
Lone Star Gas Co. 	
Louisiana-Nevada Transit Co 	
Marengo Corp. 	
MeCulToch Interstate Gas Co. 	
Michigan Gas Storage Co. 	
Michigan Wisconsin Pipe Une Co 	
Mid Louisiana Gas Co 	
Midwestern Gas Transmission Co. 	
Mississippi River Transmission Corp. . . .
Montana-Dakota Utilities Co. 	
Mountain Fuel Supply Co 	
Mountain Gas Co. 	
Natural Gas Pipeline Co. of America 	
North Penn Gas Co 	
Northern Natural Gas Co. . 	
Northern Utilities. Inc. 	 	
Ohio River Pipeline Corp 	
Oklahoma Natural Gas Gathering Corp. .
O'Fallon Gas Service, Inc 	
Orange & Rockland Utilities, Inc. 	
Pacific Gas Transmission Co. 	
Panhandle Eastern Pipe Line Co. 	
Perm-Jersey Pipe Une Co. 	
Pennsylvania & Southern Gas Co. 	
Pennsylvania Gas Co. 	
Raton Natural Gas Co 	
Sabina Pipe Une Co. 	
Sea Robin Pipeline Co. 	
Trans.
13
796

4,212
8
91

65
1,022
65

21
139




1.144
.. 8,904
27
6
37
. 8,089
33
38
170
568
7.033
386
903
1,748
2,733
708
64
9,405
619
. 17.535
614
23
26


639
6.666
5
49
418
21
174
195
fhld Storage

1,174
52









348




234
1,548
1,779


1,954

r •

151
1,627
333

266
508
670

1,186
511
4.437
40

172



2363


239


27

129








18






187
12



72




24

12
41
2
6

197
17
97

—




93


115



Total
13
2,099
52
4,212
8
91

65
1.022
65
18
21
487




1,565
10,464
1,806
6
37
10,115
33
38
170
719
8,684
719
915
2,055
3,243
1.384
64
10,788
1,147
22,069
654
23
198


639
9,322
5
49
772
21
174
222
, — Transmission — > / 	 Other 	 %
No. Np No. Hp

7

20



1
12








5
18
2


25


2
1
35
2
14
21
13
3

49
6
59
2




12
41


2


....

28,150

144,500



375
298,500








9,400
81,760
4,485


33,450


5,500
15,700
637,810
20,100
86,010
119,325
39,905
14.720

911,700
625
869,260
820




233,970
586,354


9300




16

12






1

5




5
20
6


18



1
8
1
2
4
2
40

36
4
73
1

1



16


3




11,965

2.775






1.640

1,135




3.820
15,965
10,400


24,170



37,300
72,925
2.200
1,593
21,085
1,210
12,803

88,655
5,165
66.368
865

12.500



73,977


2,300



Total
hp

40,115

147,275



375
298,500

1,640

1,135




13.280
97,725
14,885


57,620


5,500
53,000
710,735
22,300
87,603
140,410
41,115
27.523

1.000,355
5.790
935,628
1,685

12,500


233.970
660,331


11,890



T»t»l
sales
(MMd)
448
89,463
•5,889
135,182
•217
3,849
3,222
4,083
84,729
3,997

270
18,033
7,113
25,040
86,552
54,889
138.377
119,205
24.413
5,305
14.945
434.180
4,552
561
22.472
88,328
763,229
31,836
209,506
244,464
48.879
125,647
2,635
1,062,582
28,434
877,774
22,157
10,285
18,899
562
23,316
339.565
770,800
•1,149
5,915
73,515
877
•60,846
80,016

plant

fount! MT
Additions rmmn*
if* tuun
Net
(nceae

487
200,802
600
367,720
244
1,247
1,096
2,814
302,610
7,118
5,791
715
11,211
2.532
16,643
96,283
38,246
215,321
185,473
89,085
201
1,934
528,425
1,579
150
8,647
51,282
939,040
35,315
133.249
174,353
119,746
224,961

1.285,461
21,887
1.198,692
15,627
1,053
6.311
1,535
44.962
177.104
705,013
236
9,442
56,820
1,095
19,104
83,416
2
12,715
5
4.356

7
11
133
28,115
514
5,791
41
1,126
419
937
5,805
2,228
12,767
18,212
4,226


21,284
69
7
1,015
152
82,578
4,139
4,510
5,964
5,829
15,471

57,705
1,511
40,897
1,071
131
171
212
4,782
7,884
40,219

755
2,628
14
10
4,363
271
83,888
88
95,393
29
1,676
585
3,090
70394
3,268
71
325
8,755
3,775
66.859
104,004
77,860
135,133
58,792
11.569
2,058
7,373
202.841
1,168
344
4,549
40,773
353.634
7,764
130,837
109,815
58,160
61,464
758
432,845
18,861
393,428
7,892
4.651
3,764
683
74,271
111.673
295,577
23
5,000
33,212
587
1,935
29,552
(18)
8,025
2
14.518

77
19
55
1,254
278
(72)
26
722
81
7324
9,112
10,082
5,780
7,651
3,410
17
36
25,809
(137)
16
(22)
1,906
26,635
1,418
5,818
6,991
7,792
8,351

41,559
947
76^67
604
19
179
45
7,474
4.705
36,056
5
369
2,638
30
383
3,402
                                                              I
                                                              ts>
                                                              oo

-------
GAS   PIPELINES

Company
Shenandoah Gas Co. 	
South County Gas Co. 	
South Georgia Natural Gas Co.
South Texas Natural Gas Gathering Co. ...
Southern Natural Gas Co. ....
Southwest Gas Corp.
Standard Pacific Gas Lines Inc
Sylvania Corp 	
Tenneco Gas Pipeline Co.
Tennessee Gas Pipe Line Co. 	
Tennessee Natural Gas Lines, Inc.
Texas Eastern Transmission Corp 	
Texas Gas Pipe line Corp. 	
Texas Gas Transmission Corp. .
Tidal Transmission Co.
Transcontinental Gas Pipe Line Corp.
Transwestern Pipeline Co. 	
TrunWine Gas Co.
Union Light, Heat ft Power Co 	
United Gas Pipe Line Co. 	 	
United Natural Gas Co 	
Valley Gas Transmission, Inc.
Washington Gas Light Co.
West Texas Gathering Co. 	
Western Gas Interstate Co.
Western Transmission Corp.
Wheeler Gas Co. 	
Zenith Natural Gas Co. 	
1971 Totals 	
1970 Titals
Differences 	

Trans.
68

773
302
6,681
1,447
224

12,740
17
56
8,738
57
5,535
85
8,638
3,123
3,138
'. 7,391
1,451
269
368
59
186


27

184,099
. 183,671
428
• Miles of p
Flild


290
148
48
55
48
41
86
842
1
1,627
1.522
66
35
18
52.929
51,996
933
Iiii*! In*—
Storage

43
2
183
183
92
29
21
136

3,704
3,582
122

Total
68
773
592
6329
1.447
224
91
12,797
17
56
8,969
57
5,759
85
8,816
3.123
3,980
30
9,039
3,109
269
368
125
186
35
45
240,732
239,249
1.493
< — TransBlnlon— > , Otter 	 >
No. Hp No. Hp

2
3
36
3
58
75
1
19
"36
85
16
32
12

1,013
1,021
(8)
3.500
9,000
351,160
5,200
1,188,325
1,176,110
2,000
459,010
933,385
187,828
308,450
189,305
8,913
11.264,360
10,626,328
638.0)4
7
80
1
1
29
10
12
2
7
7
1
2
3
i
717
713
4
	
2,590
11,864
825
16.200
84.998
14,097
42.919
23,550
38.250
8.098
550
15,920
1.079
300
1.804.385
1,825,470
178.915
Total
Dp
	
3,500
11,590
363,024
5,200
825
1.204,525
1,261,108
2,000
473,107
976,304
187,828
332,000
227,555
17,011
550
15,920
1.079
300
13.068.745
12451,798
816,949
Total
sales
(MMcfl
4,537
367
26,911
67,955
689,148
77,028
•110,001
1,757
1,291,367
80
32,879
983,161
8,050
738,538
24,246
981,309
325,213
537,361
17,006
1,388,973
98,155
32,821
106,140
93,631
4,056
940
103
1,136
19745,181
18,820.200
424,981
fias
plant
Operating
Additions rerenue
Net
lacomi

5,961
942
16,557
23,242
638,199
101,094
15,737
9,382
1,918,281
430
2,393
1,505,031
2.518
579,777
8,804
1,592.790
356,830
578,574
32,842
594.037
97,866
4,522
380,529
4,226
1.607
1,415
'454
21.686.034
20,729,147
996,887
262
29
199
308
24,701
6,583
1,426
2,842
60,148
11
59,288
3
18,653
4
50,206
16,081
12,830
2,982
7,662
4.187
115
28327
15
357
"" 3
1,065.981
2401,640
1,135,659
3,264
727
12,881
14.021
272.332
49,413
745
884
563,315
79
14,615
461,344
1,472
271,918
1,445
438,209
125,877
202,424
37,892
386,851
67.427
6433
141.317
17,567
1,023
197
85
222
8,859,187
8401,669
657.518
(3)
(12)
1,046
(285)
27,518
3,564
(61)
7
142,681
14
1,217
67,602
25
21,171
152
52403
14,460
13,656
2,282
7,670
5,854
61
9,102
93
52
(37)
(20)
3
936,982
819,680
121.302
 •Transported for others and not Included in total sales
 Data collected by Robert W. Gary, consultant


  OIL  PIPELINES
                                                                                                                                                                   I
                                                                                                                                                                   N)
  Company
          -Miles ef pipeline—

Gathering   TruntT  Predicts
                                                                            -DellMriu-
                                                             Total
                                (1.000 kW
                          Crate    Predicts
                                 Total
                                   	Total tranklim traffic	,
                                         (Million bbl-ailt!)
                                    Grade   Products    Total
                                                                     Carrier
                                                                    property
                                 Operating
                          Change   revenue
                         —HJ1.0
             $1.000)-
                                                                                                                                                       Net
                                                                                                                                                      Income
  Acorn Pipe Line Co.  ..
  Airforce Pipeline, Inc.  .
  Allegheny Pipeline Co.  .
  American Petrofina Co.
  Amoco Pipeline Co. ...
   2,465
8,621
  5
541
 46
 88
	      11,230    ...       11,230     5,215
    5     	      166      166
  541      	     8^85     8,685
   46     	      987      987
11,174    387,427    64,847   452,274   173,758
         5415
8,705     8,705
2,956     2,956
  48       48
2405   175,963
  3,256
   296
 11,988
  1,044
280,729
   5

1,574

2,904
 ug

 2,069
  144
68,692
  418
   28
  707
   96
13,819

-------
OIL   PIPELINES
Company
Arapahoe Pipe Line Co.
ARCO Pipe Line  Co.
Ashland Pipe Line Co.
Badger Pipe Line Co.
Bell Creek Pipe  Line Co.

Belle  Fourche Pipeline Co.
Bigheart Transport, Inc.
Black Lake Pipe Line Co.
Black Mesa Pipeline, Inc.
Buckeye Pipe Line Co.

Butte Pipe Line  Co.
Calnev Pipe Line Co.
Cherokee Pipe Line Co.
Chevron Pipe Line Co.
Cheyenne Pipeline Co.

Chicap Pipe Line Co.
Cities Service Pipe Line Co.
Collins Pipeline  Co.
Colonial Pipeline Co.
Continental Pipe Line Co.

Cook Inlet Pipe  Line Co.
CM, Inc.
Crown-Rancho Pipe Line Corp.
Diamond Shamrock Oil & Gas Co.
Dixie Pipeline Co.

Emerald Pipe Line Corp.
Eureka Pipe Line Co.
Fairview Pipe Line Co.
Four Corners Pipe Linj Co.
Getty Pipe Co.      .V

Gulf Central  Pipeline  Co.
Gulf Refining Co.
Hess Pipeline Co.
Humble Pipe Urn Co.
Hydrocarbon Transportation,  Inc.

layhawk Pipeline Corp.
Jet Line, Inc.
Kaneb Pipe Line Co.
Xaw Pipe Line Co.
Kenai Pipe Line  Co.

Kerr-McGee Pipeline Corp.
Lake Charles Pipe Line Co.
Lakehead Pipe Line Co., Inc.
Laurel  Pipe Line Co.
MAPCO, Inc.

Marathon Fipe Line Co.
Michigan-Ohio Pipeline Corp.
Mid-Valley Pipeline Co.
Minnesota Pipe Line Co.
Mobil Pipe Line  Co.

. 	 Crude
Gathering

705
2,590
519 ,

70




1,818


351
257
5

676


3,705

666




3,143
52
187


2,115
52
3.453

235


1.433

8




1.327


4,628
1 \
Trunk Pmihiet*

796
3,964
820


943

255

1.028
511

511
1,432
34
234
630


1.081
55
207




431

722


3,696
422
6,635

460



24
33
12
2,391


1.235
389
1,004
260
5,080

3.823
225
331




•273
3,020

260
1,515
1,494
220

106
124
3,690
564



622
1,298
113



575
1,880
1,858

2.350
1.232

90
1,261





451
4,274
715


2.426
Total

1.501
10.377
1.564
331
70
943

255
•273
5.866
511
260
2.377
3.183
259
234
1,412
124
3.690
5.350
55
873

622
1,298
113
3,574
52
909
575
1.880
7.669
474
17.438
1,232
695
90
1.261
1.433
24
41
12
2,391
451
4.274
3.277
389
1.004
260
12,134

(1,000 oM)
Crude Dwnlii***
WIUUV
25.637
279.079
66,920

3.985
34,450
7,320
10,827

153.590
26.079

25,592
166,042
703
51.951
83,543


115,889
52.200
18,892
$7.128



4.913
866
13.172


309.129
22,451
496.666

30.079


21,812
26,159
1.107
68,834
313.329


211.881
11.524
117.212
46.091
242.526
• • WMHWUl
140.939
6.300
44,470




*1,093
192.131

13.566
44,369
28.236
4.810

4,143
602
424.240
13,127



8,378
19.141
1.460



2.119
4.742
132.216

127,056
18.675

9.197
34,458





41.843
70,237
27,195


95,705

Tntat
IUUI
25.637
420,018
73,220
44,470
3,985
34,450
7,320
10,827
M.093
345.721
26.079
13.566
69.961
194.278
5,513
51,951
87,686
602
424,240
129.016
52.200
18,892
J7.128
8.378
19.141
1.460
4,913
866
13.172
2.119
M.742
441,345
22,451
623,722
18.675
30.079
9.197
34.458
21,812
26.159
1.107
68,834
313,329
41.843
70,237
239,076
11,524
117.212
46,091
338.231
' IBMI UUIimillC UCIIIb \
(Million Mi-Miles)
fruit* D~.J,.rf. T.tol
bill DC
9.545
74,210
42,423


18

1,863

15,300
6.816

2,266
23,738
24
10.876
11,892


14,256
1,497
609
$2,677



99

7,691


13,030
19
67,497

4,061



288
37
209
255,040


40.339
1,031
87,391
88,351
I IVHVVM
20,480
1,707
3,159




•298
26,699

2,620
10.139
8,800
1.058

392
2,679
483,211
2,779



2,845
12.171
129



112
3.131
25.077

10.117
7.516

560
7.257





7,431
28,536
4,380


20.317
IV Ml
9,545
94,693
44,130
3,159

18

1.863
•298
41,999
6,816
2.620
12.405
32,538
1,082
10.876
12.284
2.679
483.211
17.035
1.497
609
*2,677
2,845
12.171
129
99

7,691
112
t3,131
38.107
19
77,614
7,516
4.061
560
7,257

288
37
209
255,040
7,431
28,536
44,719
1,031
87,391
108,668
MIIWI
property

35,976
340,375
60.139
16,822
1.922
18,125
1,190
9,824
37,940
207,211
20,371
14,607
40,735
111,604
4,503
25,798
29,187
12,762
514,800
82,023
41.867
7.144
$2.013
17.757
56,950
1,337
8,171
747
47,765
3.135
106,078
197,314
20,013
400,288
79,552
17,377
5,445
37,081
11.539
12,213
855
4.466
329,941
54,138
126,726
116,914
6,315
80,274
18,193
258,820
Change
i nl fli

353
35.950
4.125
343

664
12
2

879
22
522
(247)
2,695

129
1.158
564
102.978
1,963
543
26

914
2,618

27
14
(45)

3,001
20,365
3,694
48,177
20,439
428
128
1.509
(30)
11

66
16.193
600
2.801
6.742
159
(741)
1.093
26,126
UpCltlUHg
ravtnui
Ml

4,290
46.193
17,928
4,593
472
6,890
6'4
1.575
4.753
39,741
4.128
4,951
7.264
25,030
1.009
2,516
8.335
2,819
108,820
23,996
11,808
1,319
*898
2,378
12,354
234
2.532
130
5,549
554
3,041
32.997
3.446
71,370
8,054
3,351
1,278
10,327
2,191
2,125
277
989
64,709
7,010
28,308
22,748
1.363
15,909
8,092
56,182
not
income

(18)
10.640
4,083
1,028
90
1,117
143
544
(421)
10.471
759
1.988
709
7,483
487
(200)
2,104
1.126
26.691
8,090
5,394

$625
102
3,864
57
135
18
118

(9,390)
5,638
682
25,605
1.567
588
130
2,409
248
462
78
212
18,009
1,192
10,650
5.017
58
3.863
2473
16,615
 I
W
o

-------
OIL PIPELINES

Company
Rational Transit Co. 	
Ohio River Pipe Urn Co. 	
Okan Pipeline Co. 	
Olympic Pipe line Co. 	
OKR Pipe line Co. 	
Paloma Pipe Line Co. 	
Panotex Pipe line Co 	
Phillips Petroleum Co. 	
Phillips Pipe Line Co 	
Pioneer Pipe Line Co. 	
Plantation Pipe Line Co. 	
Platte Pipe line Co. 	
Portal Pipe line Co. 	
Portland Pipe line Corp* 	
Pure Transportation Co. 	
Santa Fe Pipeline Co. 	
Shamrock Pipe line Corp. 	
Shell Pipe Line Corp. 	
Skelly Pipeline Co. 	
Sohio Pipe Line Co. 	
Southcap Pipe line Co. 	
Southern Pacific Pipe Lines, Inc. 	
Sun Oil Co. of Michigan 	
Sun Pipe line Co. 	
Tecwnseh Pipe Line Co. 	
fetberini
... 2326





238

... 1.190



210

654

589
... 2,148

... 1,377


. . . MIS

Trunk Products
840
2




97

1.996


1,257
550
514
533

233
4,955
133
1,344


1,197
206
6
111
438
314
604


362
2,695
303
3.948



80
821
181
306
143
3
2,461
9
1320

Total
3,672
113
438
314
604

335
362
5.881
303
3.948
1,257
760
514
1.267
821
1,003
7,409
276
2,724
2,461
9
3.832
206

(1.000bbO
Crude Products
8.167
2,970



15,985
4,141

99,055


55.937
7,363
160,493
103,035

13,969
353.646
4.910
78,175
35,753


100.877
29.688
247
3,765
4.719
48,403
24.164


11,642
128.431
6.476
169,452



15.483
7.832
7,722
77.112
• 10.161
1,177
171.156
6,792
65,448


Total
8.414
6,735
4.719
48.403
24.164
15.985
4.141
11.642
227.486
6.476
169,452
55.937
7,363
160,493
118.518
7,832
21,691
430.758
15,071
79.352
35,753
171.156
6.792
166.325
29.688
WllllBBbbl-milei)
Crude Products Total
660
6



1,774


22,653


37.735
2,647
26,692
23,508

764
118,776
654
17,335
22,604


6.251
3.467
1
250
780
8.153
8,559
	

3,112
41,943
1,719
98,111



180
6.430
601
3.618
1,445
4
20.581
61
7.927

661
256
780-
8,153
8359
1,774

3,112
64.596
1.719
98,111
37,735
2,647
26.692
23.688
6.430
1,365
122.394
2,099
17.339
22.604
20,581
61
14,178
3.467
Rirrhr
property
~~~ -^— —

Cninfe nitiue

net
Income

11,630
1,651
6,775
33,990
23,662
6,151
4,650
10,568
135,657
- 8,821
234,741
69,747
19,473
51,854
53,662
2,943
12350
203.979
7,105
132,790
28,692
121.600
649
75.522
14,750
410
354
8
3^06
630
1.241
60
(928)
(1.840)
10
42.105
(142)
(19)
958
1355
10
(108)
1,577
212
31,300
(314)
5.506
649
1,182
8
8467
301
1,113
7.219
6336
2,757
885
9,532
36,231
1.923
46,585
11.728
3,128
12.094
13,587
3.169
2,554
52.800
1,519
10^54
5,675
33.620
80
21,186
1357
(129)
(66)
207
2,565
1.650
1,232

869
5341
593
15,552
3.135
882
2.403
4,511
(1.751)
656
12.767
722
2,267
2,260
10323
14
4.829
273

-------
OIL  PIPELINES


fcwpaay
Texico-Cities Service Pipe Line Co.
Tern Eastern Transmission Corp 	
Texas-New Mexico Pipe Line Co 	
Texas Pipe Line Co. 	 	
Trans Mountain Oil Pipe line Corp.
Trans-Ohio Pipeline Co. .
UCAR Pipeline, Inc. 	
Wabash Pipe Line Co. 	
West Emerald Pipe Line Corp.
West Shore Pipe Line Co 	
West Texas Gulf Pipe Line Co,
Western Oil Transportation Co., Inc.
White Shoal Pipeline Corp.
Williams Brothers Pipe Line Co.
Wolverine Pipe Line Co 	
Wyco Pipe Line Co.
Yellowstone Pipe Line Co.
1971 teUls 	
1970 totals 	
Gathering Trunk
'. 2.069
1,659


918
3
45.656
45,479
1.878
2,214
«g
581
64,615
65,949
Products
277
2,600
552
34
58
372
296
296
7,503
455
731
751
63,500
60,354
Total
2.155
2,600
4.283
«»
34
58
372
296
296
581
918
3
7,503
455
731
751
173,771
171,712
Crate
98,480
162,453
334,424
79,279
132,526
16,702
9,285
13,093
5,379,513
5,280,999

(1.000 MO
Products
4,484
99,531
167,418
506
844
32.816
2,709
54,041
140,858
40,717
739
18,259
2.908.237
2,849,470

Total
102,964
99,531
162,453
501,842
79,279
506
844
32,816
2,709
54,041
132,526
16.702
9,285
153,951
40,717
739
18.259
8,287,750
8.130.469
, 	 TataJ tnuMine tiaflte 	 >
(Million Millies)
Grade Prodwts Total
22,559
19,949
88,736
3.608
54,044
330
173
1,434.314
1,414.987
429
49,834
9,098
17
26
5.357
661
6.624
57,883
8,791
4,522
8,460
1,082,691
1,019.714
22,988
49,834
19,949
97,834
3,608
17
26
5,357
661
6,624
54,044
330
58,056
8,791
4,522
8.460
2,497,005
2,434,201
Carrier
— _. , - afci
prepeny
Oparattaf
Guflca fwoMo
»t MUK
Met
(•cane

50,906
162,424
78,796
206,375
5,600
1,435
4,527
22,021
1,678
22,546
43,569
11350
2,522
350,341
32.313
20,566
26,499
8,255,295
5.778,271
38
7,713
510
6,048
306
32
35
656
15
(63)
1,125
10,099
1,113
420
144
427.574
375,395
6,923
33,019
13.707
45,627
1,797
106
73
3,600
491
6,287
8,423
2,908
815
56,953
4,962
5.072
6,480
1 ,254,109
1,186.701
1,368
11,399
3/421
12,580
702
38
(391)
569
70
1.357
2,114
1,427
364
14,594
951
1,333
1,741
312,818
298,327
                                 177
(1.334)
Differences	•   .
•Coal slurry  tAnhydrous ammonia  11970 data
Data collected by William 6. Edwards, transportation consultant
3,146
1,989     98.514    58.767   157.281    19.327    42.977    62.804   477,024    52,179    87,408     14,491

-------
                                   A-33
ESTIMATED ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION BY REGIONS AND TYPE OF CAPACITY, 1970,
                       1980, and 1990 (Ref. 11)
1970— Actual

Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	
Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	
Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	 ,
Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	
fanaHtv
MW
5,800
1,800
6,300
47,500
3,500

64,900
1,000
100 .
2,400
51,200
300 ..

55,000
9,300
100
2,700
51,600
0

63,700
3,500
400 ..
4,200
33,000
1,500

42.600
1960— Estimated
Generation
f — _-u..
10*
MWh
35
3
6
238
13
295
4
2
254

260
30
1
4
270
0
305
15
5
158
3
181
% Of
Total
11
1
2
80
4
100
1
0
97

100
9
0
88
0
too
8
0
2
87
1
100
**mfm***j
MW
ffoftkeait
.9 7,000
.0 9,000
.0 9,000
.7 47,000
.4 41,000
.0
East
.5
.8
.7

113,000
Ctntrai
2,000
4,000
7,000
77,000
13,000
.0 103,000
Southtait
.8 11,000
.3 4,000
.3 6,000
.6 77,000
.0 34,000
.0
Wat
.3
.0
.8
.3
.6
,0
132,000
Ctntrai
3,000
2,000
8,000
50,000
19,000
82,000
1990— Estimated
Generation
4*l^_._lA»
10*
MWh
34
8
6
228
251
527
4
4
5
398
82
493
37
4
4
383
214
642
14
2
5
235
117
373
Total
6.5
1.5
1.2
43.2
47.6
100
0
0
1
80
16
100
5
0
0
59
33
100
3
0
1
63
31
100
.0
.8
.8
.0
.8
.6
.0
.8
.6
.6
.7
.3
.0
.8
.5
.3
.0
.4
.0
v.«|r«v»7
MW
7,000
19,000
13.000
47,000
115,000
201,000
3,000
14,000
12,000
115,000
42,000
186,000
13,000
13,000
14,000
121,000
94,000
255,000
3,000
4,000
14,000
54,000
77,000
152.000
Generation
10*
MWh
35
17
9
190
691
942
6
12
8
604
265
895
38
11
9
573
590
1,221
14
4
9
220
457
704
gof
Total
3.7
1.8
1.0
20.2
73.3
100.0
0.7
1.3
0.9
67.5
29.6
100.0
3.1
0.9
0.7
47.0
48.3
100.0
2.0
0.6
1.3
31.2
64.9
100.0

-------
                                            A-34
                                                —Continued
1970— Actual
1980— Estimated
Generation
S^jMMMlAv f*nna«-i»v

Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T. . . .
Fossil steam 	 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	
Conv. hydro. . .
P.S. hydro
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	
Conv. hydro 	
P.S. hydro 	
I.C. and G.T 	
Fossil steam 	
Nuclear 	
Total 	

MW
2,300
100
2,100
44,400
0

48,900
29,700
1,100
1,500
31,400
1,200

64,900
51,600
3,600
19,200
259,100
6,500

340,000

10*
MWh
5
3
188
0
196
164
1
133
6
304
253
4
21
1,241
22
1,541
% of
Total
South
2.6
1.5
95.9
0.0
MW
Central
3,000
3,000
7,000
85,000
8,000
100.0 106,000
Wett
54.0 42,000
O.O 5,000
0.3 3,000
43.7 54,000
2.0 25,000
100.0
Contiguous
16.4
0.3
1.4
80.5
1.4
100.0
129,000
United States
68,000
27,000
40,000
390,000
140,000
665,000
Generation
10*
MWh
8
3
5
382
50
448
195
4
2
269
160
630
292
25
27
1,895
874
3,113
%ot
Total
1.8
0.7
1.1
85.2
11.2
100.0
31.0
0.6
0.3
42.7
25.4
100.0
9.4
0.8
0.9
60.9
28.0
100.0
1990— Estimated
Capacity
MW
4,000
8,000
14,000
139,000
46,000
211,000
52,000
12,000
8,000
82,000
101,000
255,000
82,000
70,000
75,000
558,000
475,000
1,260,000
Generation
10'
MWk
9
7
9
596
290
911
217
11
5
396
620
1,249
319
62
49
2,579
2,913
5,922
Total
1.0
0.8
1.5
65.7
31.8
100.0
17.4
0.9
0.4
31.7
49.6
100.0
5.4
1.0
0.8
43.5
49.3
100.0
Excludes in-plant uses but includes pumping energy for pumped storage projects.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
 SHEET
                    1. Report No.
If port No.
EPA-R2-73-210
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle
 Stat i onary I nternal Combustion Engines i n t he Unit ed
   Stat es
                                           5. Report Date
                                             April 1973
7. Author(s)
 Charles  R. McGowin	
9. Performing Organization Name and Address
 Shell Development Co.
 Bellaire Research Center
 3737  Bellaire Boulevard
 Houston. Texas  77025	
                                           8. Performing Organization Kept.
                                             No.
                                           10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
                                           11. Contract/Grant No.

                                              EHSD 71-45
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address
 EPA, Office of Research and Monitoring
 NERC/RTP,  Control Systems Laboratory
 Research Triangle  Park, North Carolina 27711
                                           13. Type of Report tt Period
                                              Covered
                                               Final
                                           14.
IS. Supplementary Notes
16. Abstracts
 The report gives the results of a survey of stationary reciprocating engines in the
 United States, conducted to compile the following information: (1) types and
 applications of engines; (2) typical pollutant emissions factors for diesel, dual fuel,
 and natural gas engines;  (3) differences between engines that  cause emissions to
 vary; (4) total horsepower and emissions  from engines;  (5) pollution potential of
 stationary engines in densely populated regions; and (6) potential emissions control
 techniques.  Where  appropriate, the survey includes gas turbines.
17. Key Words and Document Analysis.  17o. Descriptors
 Air Pollution
 *Internal Combustion Engines
 Stationary Engines
 Nitrogen Oxides
 Gas Engines
 Diesel Engines
 Gas Turbine Engines
17b. Identifiers/Open-Ended Terms
 *Air Pollution Control
 Stationary Sources
 Dual Fuel Engines
 Natural Gas Engines
17e. COSATI Field/Group  13B, 21A, 21B, 21D, 21E, 21G
18. Availability Statement
                    Unlimited
                                19. Security Class (This
                                  Report)
                                                      20. Security Class (This

                                                           UNCLASSIFIED
         21. No. of Pages
                                                    22. Price
CORMM
            V. S-72)
                                                                          USCOMM-DC I4MJ-P72

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    INSTRUCTIONS FOR  COMPLETING FORM  NTIS-35 (10-70) (Bibliographic Data Sheet based on COSATI
    Guidelines to Format Standards for Scientific and Technical Reports Prepared by or for the Federal Government,
    PB-180600).

    1.   Report Number.  Each individually bound report shall carry a unique alphanumeric designation selected by the performing
        organization or provided by the sponsoring organization. Use uppercase letters and Arabic numerals only.  Examples
        FASEB-NS-87 and FAA-RD-68-09. -            _..„.---•-.

    2.   Leave blank.      ,                    - -        ,..   . .

    3.  Recipient's Accession Number.  Reserved for use  by each report recipient.

    4.  Title and Subtitle.  Title should indicate clearly  and briefly the  subject coverage of the report, and be  displayed promi-
       nently.  Set subtitle,  if used, in smaller type or otherwise subordinate it to main title.  When a  report is prepared in  more
       than one volume, repeat the primary title, add volume number and  include subtitle for the specific volume.

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       (e.g., date of issue, date of approval, date of preparation.


    o.  Performing Organization Code.  Leave blank.

    7.  Authors).  Give name(s) in conventional order (e.g.,  John R. Doc, or J.Robert Doe).  List  author's affiliation if it differs
       from the performing organization.

    8*  Performing Orgonization Report Number.  Insert if performing organization wishes to assign this  number.
                                                                                 <
    9.  Performing Organization Name and Address. Give  name, street, city, state, and zip code.   List  no more than two levels of
       an organizational hierarchy.   Display the name of the organization exactly as it should appear in Government indexes such
       as  USGRDR-I.                                              ,

   10.  Project/Task/Work Unit Number.  Use the project, task  and  work  unit numbers under which the report was prepared.

   11.  Contract/Grant Number.   Insert contract or grant number under which report was prepared.

   12-  Sponsoring Agency Nome and  Address.  Include zip code.

   13.  Type of Report and Period Covered.  Indicate interim, final,  etc.,  and, if applicable, dates covered.

   14.  Sponsoring Agency Code.  Leave blank.

   IS.  Supplementary  Notes.  Enter  information not included elsewhere  but useful,  such as: Prepared  in cooperation  with .
       Translation of  ...  Presented at conference of ... To be published in ...  Supersedes . . .       Supplements

   '6.  Abstract.   Include a brief (200 words or less)  tactual summary of the most significant information contained in the report.
       If the report contains a significant bibliography or  literature  survey, mention it here.

   17.  Key Words and Document Analysis,  (a).  Descriptors.  Select from the Thesaurus of Engineering and Scientific Terms the
       proper authorized terms that identify the major  concept of the research and are sufficiently specific and precise to be  used
       as index entries for cataloging.
       (b). Identifiers and Open-Ended Terms.  Use identifiers for project names, code names, equipment designators, etc.  Use
       open-ended terms written in descriptor form for those subjects for  which no descriptor exists.                 t
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   21.  Number of Pages.   Insert the  total number of pages,  including this  one  and  unnumbered pages,  but excluding distribution
       list, if any.                                           ,..-.-

   22.  Price. Insert  the price  set by the National Technical Information Service or the Government Printing Office, if known.
                 -
FORM NTIS-3S (REV. 3-72)                                                                                  USCOMM-OC 14982-P72

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