xvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Administration And
Resources Management
(PM-211-D)
EPA/IMSD/90-005
March 1990
Selected Management
Articles
Strategic Planning
PEOPLE
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STRATEGIC PLANNING
MARCH 1990
Headquarters Library
Information Management and Services Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Room 2904 PM-211A
401 M STREET, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20460
(202) 382-5922
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
I. DEFINITION AND BENEFITS OF STRATEGIC PLANNING
II. STRATEGIC PLANNING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR 4
III. ENVIRONMENTAL CASE STUDIES 12
IV. STRATEGIC PLANNING TECHNIQUES 14
V. STRATEGIC PLANNING READINGS: MANAGEMENT BOOKS ... 21
EPA Headquarters Library Management Collection List of
Management Bibliographies 24
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STRATEGIC PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
Strategic planning is the pattern of decisions in an organization that
determines its mission. The strategic plan typically states the
organizational mission, objectives, purposes and goals. It is a source for
developing principal policies and plans for achieving goals. The strategic
planning process helps define an organization's unique position in the
context of clients' needs, societal trends and relationships with
cooperative and competitive organizations. Often the increasing pace of
change triggers the development of a formal strategic plan in
organizations that previously relied on tradition or intuitive management.
This bibliography, Strategic Planning, was developed for use by
EPA managers and staff for use in understanding and implementing
strategic planning. Citations with descriptive abstracts identifying
journal articles and books are grouped under the following topics:
Definition and Benefits of Strategic Planning, Strategic Planning in the
Public Sector, Environmental Case Studies, Strategic Planning
Techniques, and Strategic Planning Readings: Management Books.
Citations were selected for their relevance to the special interests
of EPA staff. This bibliography was compiled using the following
databases, accessed through DIALOG, a commercial database vendor:
ABI/INFORM, ENVIROLINE, MANAGEMENT CONTENTS, NTIS, POLLUTION
ABSTRACTS and BOOKS IN PRINT.
Other EPA Headquarters Library Management Bibliographies are
listed at the back of this bibliography. For additional management
information services, contact Anne Twitchell, Head Reference Librarian,
EPA Headquarters Library, 382-5922, or e-mail address A.TWITCHELL.
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DEFINITION AND BENEFITS OF STRATEGIC PLANNING
A Cycle of Organizational Strategy: The Adaptation Process in
U.S. Regulatory Agencies
Withane, Sirinimal
Organization Studies v9 n4 pp.573-597 1988
Longitudinal data on 8 US regulatory agencies are examined. A
framework is proposed that incorporates: 1. the strategic choice
view of organization-environment interactions, 2. the legitimacy
concerns of regulatory agencies, and 3. the progression of
adaptive cycles over time. The vertical dimension represents the
varying organizational emphasis toward structure, while the
horizontal dimension shows the differing organizational foci. The
strategies of agencies over time are suggested by 8 variables. A
Likert-type rating scale is used to measure the impact of these
variables over different strategies. The findings suggest that
the regulatory adaptation process is quite complex and dynamic.
Agencies employ different strategic emphases from time to time
and follow a certain pattern of strategy formation in their
adaptive cycles. Charts. Tables. References. Appendix.
(ABI/INFORM)
Strategic Planning: All the Right Moves
Titens, Sherman Jay
Association & Society Manager v!9 n6 pp.12-17 Oct/Nov 1987
Strategic planning is a way for an association to determine its
direction for the future and to control its destiny. Strategic
planning yields many benefits to an association, particularly
because it provides a frame of reference for making decisions and
solving problems. A strategic plan also can improve
communication, promote teamwork, and allow an association to deal
with many important issues. In planning its future, an
association must determine: 1. the organization's purpose, 2. the
priorities of members, based on an understanding of their needs,
3. who the current and potential members are, and 4. what kind of
programs the members expect for their money. The strategic
planning process generally includes the following steps: 1. focus
group meetings with board members, the professional staff, other
leaders, and the members, 2. a membership assessment/survey, 3. a
strategic planning workshop, 4. a purpose audit, 5. a market
audit, 6. an organization audit, and 7. development of a
strategic plan, an operating plan, and an implementation plan.
Tables. Charts. (ABI/INFORM)
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Strategic Business Planning for the Small- to Medium-Sized
Company
Lurie, Steven M.
CPA Journal v57 n6 pp.90-92 June 1987
All businesses have strategies methods used to make or sell
products or perform services. Strategic business planning is an
organized effort to establish clear, long-term goals and to
develop methods for achieving those goals. Companies of all sizes
can benefit from a structured strategic planning process. Smaller
companies need an organized planning process when input from
management is required or when strategies are complex. Regardless
of the extent of organization, planning is a continuous 7-stage
process. These stages include: 1. an analysis of the company's
current strengths and weaknesses in the areas of marketing,
production, and finance, 2. the definition of the entrepreneur's
personal goals for the business, 3. the definition of specific
business goals, 4. the development of strategies to achieve the
business goals, 5. the development and implementation of a 3-year
plan with specific action programs, 6. the monitoring of
performance, and 7. the reevaluation of goals and strategies.
(ABI/INFORM)
Strategic Systems Planning: Does It Pay?
Barnicoat, C. E.
Canadian Datasystems (Canada) v!9 n3
pp. 58-62 March 1987
By developing and maintaining a strategic systems plan since
1980, Alberta Energy, a department of the Provincial Government
of Alberta, has been able to reduce systems development costs by
up to 50%. The strategic systems plan also has made available
relevant data for strategic business planning and decision
making. The strategic assessment of the business was the first
stage in the planning process. In the 2nd stage, information
requirements were identified, and a systems architecture was
established. In the 3rd stage, a technical direction was
established that allows for systems integration and support.
Among the contents of the Strategic Systems Plan are: 1.. an
executive summary, 2. the organizational strategic business
objectives, and 3. systems budget protections for the plan
period. Charts. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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Strategic Planning Keeps You Ahead of the Pack
Howard, James S.; Emery, John
D&B Reports v33 n2 pp.18-21,62-63 March/April 1985
Despite problems that some have had with strategic planning, it
yields benefits more often than not. Strategic planning works
best for a company that needs to change and is ready to do it.
The planning process includes: 1. understanding the company, 2.
determining both corporate and personal objectives, 3.
considering future possibilities and charting a course, and 4.
anticipating how the plan will be implemented and what feedback
and controls will be needed. The owner of a small business can
sort out the good choices from the bad in the planning process by
looking at winning and losing strategies. While it is easy to
study the successes of other companies, it is harder to learn
from failures because companies avoid making their failures
visible. One should not plan by following past habits and
following the leader. Strategic planning must be based on
relevant and complete information. The best strategy is based on
knowing what one's customers want and being patient enough to
pursue that strategy as a way of life. Chart. Graph.
(ABI/INFORM)
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II. STRATEGIC PLANNING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Information Systems Planning
Wold, Geoffrey H.
Government Finance Review v5 n3 pp.23-26 June 1989
The need for a strategic, comprehensive information systems
resources plan in municipal government is more evident today than
ever before. The concept of strategic information systems
planning is defined as the process of establishing goals,
defining strategy and policy to achieve these objectives, and
developing detailed plans to ensure that the strategies are
implemented. Strategic information systems planning consists of 4
phases: l. organization assessment, 2. analysis of city
information requirements, 3. resource determination, and 4.
monitoring the performance against the plan. Following these
steps results in a 3- to 5-year strategic plan that enables data
processing systems to achieve the goals of the city. The plan
projects data processing expenditures for personnel, equipment,
software, and other data processing costs to assist city
management with decisions regarding allocation of resources.
Charts. Tables. (ABI/INFORM)
Strategic Planning for a Public Sector Enterprise
Karagozoglu, Necmi; Seglund, Ragnor
Long Range Planning (UK) v22 n2 pp.121-125 April 1989
The primary concern of strategic planning is matching
organizational capabilities with the opportunities and threats of
the environment. In the public sector, the adoption of strategic
planning has been limited. Public sector enterprises are of
special interest in the strategic planning field because they
contain characteristics of both private and public sector
organizations. An analysis of an organization's external
environment is at the heart of all approaches to strategy-making
in private sector companies. High environmental control over the
organization creates a great deal of stability and
predictability. Three sequential steps governing the strategic
planning process in public sector enterprises are: 1. the
metaplan, which refers to a plan of the strategic planning
process itself, 2. the synoptic plan, which is based on a
rational model of planning that has its roots in an analytic
framework that is logical and comprehensive, and 3. the action
plan, which is a negotiated version of the synoptic strategic
plan and which is geared toward implementation of the negotiated
goal. Charts. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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IRM in the Federal Government: Opinions and Reflections
Haney, Glenn P.
Information Management Review v4 n4 pp.39-45 Spring 1989
In the federal government, information resources management (IRM)
is the equivalent of management information systems (MIS), which
is used in private sector. IRM involves the acquisition,
processing, communication, and retention of information and
includes the management of the flow and use of all types of
information within the organization. The Paperwork Reduction Act
of 1980, which covered all areas of IRM and automatic data
processing, has provided the framework necessary for IRM managers
to effectively implement IRM concepts. A case report gives an
overview of critical IRM issues faced by the US Department of
Agriculture (USDA). The USDA's mission is to provide agricultural
information, services, and programs. The Office of Information
Resources Management (OIRM) provides leadership in the strategic
planning and use of information resources by USDA agencies. The
evolution of the USDA from the computer era to the information
era requires a strategic vision of the future, as well as the
integration of program and information planning. References.
(ABI/INFORM)
A Strategic Planning Process for Public and Non-Profit
Organizations
Bryson, John M.
Long Range Planning (UK) v21 nl pp.73-81 February 1988
Because changes in their external environments have destabilized
their traditional sources of revenue and increased the numbers of
requests for their services, strategic thought and action have
become increasingly important to the effective survival of public
and nonprofit organizations. These organizations have to ensure
responsiveness, develop effective strategies to cope with the new
environment, and develop a decision-making method. The key
decision makers need a process to identify the most important
issues facing the organization. A process is presented that is a
generic guide to thought and action. Adaptable to suit a given
situation, the process includes the development of an initial
agreement concerning: 1. the strategic planning effort, 2.
development and clarification of mission and values, 3. external
environmental assessment, 4. strategic issue identification, 5.
strategy development, and 6. a description of the organization in
the future. Charts. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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Back to the Future: Strategic Planning
Gair, Robert B.
Bureaucrat v!6 nl pp.7-10 Spring 1987
In 1979, following a change in senior management and a large
increase in public sector investment in Treasury Department
marketable securities, the Bureau of Public Debt became involved
with long-range strategic planning. Some of the results achieved
include: 1. the development of a book entry securities
transaction system that replaced paper securities with electronic
data, 2. installation of a new mainframe computer, and 3. the
conversion of US Savings Bonds from cardboard to paper stock.
Long-range strategic planning is now at the heart of the bureau's
overall management philosophy. Lessons learned from the
experience include: 1. Hierarchical decision making has proved
less effective than cooperative teamwork. 2. Replacing the small
group with a single, authoritarian leader tends to shut out new
ideas and stifle participation. 3. Every prototype for a long-
range strategic planning program in the public sector should have
a system for assessing the external environment for future trends
that might affect the organization. References. (ABI/INFORM)
Strategy, Values, and Productivity
Miller, Gerald J.; Rabin, Jack; Hildreth, W. Bartley
Public Productivity Review n43 pp.81-96 Fall 1987
It is argued that the values underlying strategy tend to differ
in many ways from the values now prevailing in the profession of
government financial management. For strategy to be useful, the
concept and its advocates must confront the problems for
productivity in changing value systems, however small these
changes may be, as well as the inherent productivity problems
when strategy is employed in a governmental, as opposed to a
private-sector, setting. An attempt is made to: 1. outline the
position of the advocates of strategy, 2. suggest the values that
may lie behind a broader definition of strategy, 3. use legal,
empirical, and deductive work to provide one interpretation of
the values that underlie current government financial management,
and 4. argue that current values and the values underlying
strategy conflict when the future productivity of the public
service is the criterion used for comparison. The value base of.
financial managers appears to favor control: Minimize cost given
fixed or stable production. Tables. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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Strategic Decision Making: Influence Patterns in Public and
Private Sector Organizations
Kenny, Graham K.; Butler, Richard J.; Hickson, David J.; Cray,
David; Mallory, Geoffrey R.; Wilson, David C.
Human Relations v40 n9 pp.613-631 September 1987
A study was conducted to examine whether differences exist
between influence patterns in decision making in public and
private sector organizations. Data from 30 UK organizations were
gathered on 150 cases of strategic decision processes. In each of
3 organizations (a utility, a university, and a manufacturer), 2
decisions were studied in greater depth by intensive case study
methods. Results indicated that there was a similarity in the
pattern of pervasive involvement of interest units. That is, a
bureaucratic homogeneity pervaded both sets of organizations.
However, some interesting exceptions did occur. Government
departments and agencies were more highly involved in public
sector decisions than in private sector decisions. Finally, it
was found that there were types of interest units that exerted
little influence upon the decision making and others that were
highly influential. Tables. References. (ABI/INFORM)
The Dynamics of Strategy in Public Organizations
Wechsler, Barton; Backoff, Robert W.
Journal of the American Planning Association v53 nl pp.34-43
Winter 1987
To assist in investigating the dynamics of strategy in public
organizations, a conceptual framework is set up that has 4 main
sections: l. the strategy environment, 2. strategy influencing
decisions, 3. strategic events, and 4. the strategic outcome. The
evolution of strategy from 1974-1984 is studied for 3 Ohio state
government agencies: 1. the Department of Natural Resources, 2.
the Department of Public Welfare, and 3. the Public Utilities
Commission of Ohio. Data are from intensive interviews with 38
individuals in the 3 agencies and analyses of annual reports,
budgets, and other documents. Findings suggest that changes in
the strategy environment produce strategy pattern alterations in
a particular agency. It seems that an administration must come to
accept multiple strategies among agencies. Public agency strategy
patterns are determined by the plans and actions of agency
leaders and environmental forces. Tables. Charts. References.
(ABI/INFORM)
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A Public Planning Perspective on Strategic Planning.
Kaufman, Jerome L.; Jacobs, Harvey M.
Journal of the American Planning Association v53 p.23(11)
Winter 1987
Strategic planning based on corporate practice is being put
forward and used as an approach to more effective communitywide
public planning. This article critically assesses the approach by
comparing it to ideas common in the planning literature and by
interviewing practitioners exposed to exercises in corporate-
style strategic planning in their communities. We conclude that
most of the ideas subsumed in this approach have been a part of
planning education for decades and that most practitioners
trained as planners view the approach as "old wine in new
bottles." Nevertheless, we argue that planners should view the
new popularity of corporate-style strategic planning as an
opportunity to revive interest in planning.
(Management Contents)
Applying Private-Sector Strategic Planning in the Public Sector
Bryson, John M.; Roering, William D.
Journal of the American Planning Association v53 nl pp.9-22
Winter 1987
Strategic planning is distinguished from more traditional
planning in that it places emphasis on: 1. action, 2.
consideration of a wide and diverse set of stakeholders, 3.
attention to external opportunities and threats and internal
strengths and weaknesses, and 4. awareness of actual or potential
competitors. Using an outline of a public-sector strategic
planning process developed by Bryson, Freeman, and Roering (1986)
and Bryson, Van de Yen, and Roering (1987) as a framework, 6
corporate-style strategic planning approaches and their
applicability to the public sector are discussed. The approaches
are: 1. the Harvard policy model, 2. strategic planning systems,
3. stakeholder management, 4. content models -(portfolio models
and competitive analysis), 5. strategic issues management, and 6.
process strategies (strategic negotiations, logical
incrementalism, and innovation). A framework-for-innovation
technigue that incorporates many of the elements of the 6
approaches is presented. Tables. Charts. Diagrams. References.
(ABI/INFORM)
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Improving the Prospects for Plan Acceptance in Public
Organizations
Mushkat, Miron
Long Range Planning (UK) v20 nl pp.52-66 February 1987
Public-sector planners recently have been urged to ''think
organizationally.'' Management science can help determine what
form this thinking should take within a complex institutional
setting. Churchman and Schainblatt's (1965) model provides a
useful basis for smoothing the relationship between the public-
sector planner and the operating manager. The mutual
understanding propagated through the model, though, is
idealistic, as it fails to address the need for persuasion
throughout the problem-solving process. Experience indicates that
there are other factors, in addition to cognitive style, that
determine managerial response in the public-sector planning
context. Participative model-building is not a mechanism likely
to be widely embraced by public organizations. Public planners
thus will need to resort to persuasion in their relationships
with operating managers. Given the importance of the assumptions
underlying the model, the investment in effort required for
identifying forms of persuasion consistent with the concept of
mutual understanding is highly desirable. Tables. Charts.
References. (ABI/INFORM)
Towards Non-Incremental Strategies in Developing Public Products
and Services
Mushkat, Miron
European Journal of Marketing (UK) v21 nl pp.66-73 1987
In designing strategies in the public sector, there are basically
3 main approaches: 1. incremental, where decision makers try to
preserve the prevailing equilibrium by introducing small-scale
changes and those changes that encourage continuity, 2.
branching, in which the search is for options from other policy
domains or other systems, and 3. inventive, which represents an
attempt to develop action plans that have no precedent in the
existing scheme or elsewhere. Usually, the incremental model is
viewed as the one that illustrates most accurately the actual
process of strategy development in the public sector. The logic
used by incrementalism advocates appears quite persuasive on the
surface, but reservations expressed by Goodin and Waldner (1979)
and Dror (1971) have been especially cogent. A review of their
critiques highlights the limitations of the incremental approach.
Charts. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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The Strategic Management Process at the Public Planning Unit
Level
Montanari, John R.; Bracker, Jeffrey S.
Strategic Management Journal (UK) v7 n3 pp.251-265 May/June
1986
A normative strategic management process for the public sector is
described. The state agency or department is considered the
strategic public planning unit (SPPU). Within a state government,
each department provides a different service to an almost
homogeneous segment of citizens. Each state unit operates in its
own context and must meet the demands of varied constituency
publics to be an effective service provider. The unique aspects
of public-sector strategic management are recognized, and several
stages that are specific to the public sector are integrated into
an established private-sector strategic management framework. The
SPPU strategic management process involves: 1. context analysis
and strategy development, 2. implementation strategy, and 3.
strategy evaluation. It is believed that state governments can
benefit from this type of strategic management process. Charts.
Graphs. References. (ABI/INFORM)
Strategic Planning and Management? Not Necessarily
Halachmi, Arie
Public Productivity Review vlO n2 pp.35-50 Winter 1986
In strategic planning, one of the main features is the evaluation
of the environment for opportunities and threats along with the
assessment of organizational strengths and weaknesses. There are
no constraints on the collection and analysis of information in
the private sector, but in the public sector, there are laws and
regulations that limit the ability of agencies to perform these
tasks. Private sector performance is measured primarily by
economic standards with a secondary group of indicators, such as
sound organizational structure, employee morale, and public
support. The secondary indicator group is of prime consideration
in public sector resource allocation decisions. Strategic
planning and management to improve productivity in the public
sector is likely to be more successful in agencies dealing with
areas like police, fire, public works, transportation,
corrections, and sanitation. In such agencies, there is a higher
likelihood of consensus on the basic mission of the organization,
and their work involves technical and technological
considerations. Tables. References. (ABI/INFORM)
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Strategic Management in Public and Private Organizations:
Implications of Distinctive Contexts and Constraints
Ring, Peter Smith; Perry, James L.
Academy of Management Review vlO n2 pp.276-286 April 1985
Public and private sector strategic managers work in different
contexts that produce distinctive constraints on their behaviors
and choices. Five key constraints on public sector managers are
identified and discussed as 5 propositions involving: 1. policy
ambiguity, 2. openness of government, 3. attentive publics, 4.
the time problem, and 5. shaky coalitions. Two important
implications of these 5 propositions are that strategic
management in the public sector may be very difficult, and that
the distinctive constraints imposed by the public context demand
a quite different set of behavioral responses from public
strategic managers. The processes and skills that public sector
managers often depend upon in dealing with the demands associated
with the 5 propositions can be classified under 4 types of
behavior: 1. maintaining flexibility, 2. bridging competing
worlds, 3. wielding influence, not authority, and 4. minimizing
discontinuity. It appears that application of private sector
models to the public sector is problematic; general models of
strategic management are needed. Chart. References.
(ABI/INFORM)
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III. ENVIRONMENTAL CASE STUDIES
The Environmental Survey: Strategic Planning for the Environment
Walker, Mary 1.
Natural Resources & Environment, v3 n2 p.29(5) Spring 1988
The environmental survey contains elements missing from
conventional environmental audits. The former process was
developed for application to doe installations as a means of
sound long-range planning to correct environmental problems. In
this one-time baseline effort, facilities are surveyed to obtain
sufficient information to identify problems and areas of
potential environmental risk and to establish priorities.
Information derived from the environmental survey is used to
prioritize mitigative and corrective actions. (Enviroline
88-081233)
Strategic Planning and Energy Conservation
Owens, Susan
Town Planning Review v57 nl p69(18) January 1986
Land use planning can make an important contribution to energy
conservation in the long-term. In practice, however, there has
been little integration of energy considerations into strategic
planning in the U.K. A survey of county planning authorities in
England and Wales reveals the extent to which structure plans
have included energy-related objectives, policies, and evaluation
criteria. A willingness to try to integrate energy considerations
into the structure planning process is expressed. Despite this
interest, central government has not encouraged the inclusion of
energy-related objectives and policies in structure plans.
(Enviroline 87-008278)
Strategic planning of seaport development in a global economy:
Observations of an executive port director
Boschken, H.L.
Coastal Zone Management Journal vl4 N3 pp.193-215 1986
Seaport management is central both to the use of coastal
resources and to the needs of a global economy. As the major
point of commercial activity along the coast and as a source of
pollution, harbors need to be administered strategically to
provide the greatest benefit according to economic and
environmental demands. This article is an annotated conversation
that provides a practitioner's insight into the management of
. 12'. • -•• " : ' / " ' '•
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change along the coastal zone.-To address the problem, modern
organization theory for new insight and application of concepts
to practice are probed. (Pollution Abstracts)
Health Issues and Legal Aspects of Asbestos Exposure in Buildings
(strategic planning for cogeneration and energy management)
Ewing W. M. ; Clay E. M. ; Spain W. H.
Association of Energy Engineers 8th World Energy Engineering
Congress, Atlanta, October 22-25, 1985, p533(4)
The health hazards associated with asbestos in buildings are
surveyed. Diseases associated with the inhalation of asbestos
fibers include asbestosis, lung cancer, and mesothelioma.
Statutory laws pertaining to this material and occupational
exposures are examined, with emphasis on osha and EPA
regulations. Most asbestos-related lawsuits are based on failure
to adequately test, failure to adequately notify and/or warn, and
failure to adequately remedy the problem. Controls and monitoring
suggestions are summarized. (Enviroline 86-056603)
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IV. STRATEGIC PLANNING TECHNIQUES
Intuition & Strategic Planning: How Organizations Can Make
Productive Decisions
Agor, Weston H.
Futurist v23 n6 pp.20-23 November/December 1989
To achieve the goal of increased productivity, an organization
must depend on its own abilities and those of its employees and
on how human-capital resources are organized. Through the
implementation of a brain-skill management program, an
organization's strategic planning and decision making can be
significantly improved. This program consists of the following
major components: 1. a systematic search for and appropriate use
of the intuitive talent that an organization already has or
requires, 2. the integration of this talent with more traditional
management approaches in the strategic-planning process to solve
critical problems or issues, 3. the development of the intuitive
talent within an organization for strategic problem solving, and
4. the creation of a supportive organizational environment in
which this brain-skill management program can be implemented.
Equations. Graphs. References. Tables. (ABI/INFORM)
Getting at Strategic Change, (multi-national corporation
management)
Catoline, James E.
Training & Development Journal v43 p.74(5) November 1989
Multi-national corporations'(MNCs) management is responding to
changing technology, high sales employee turnover, and increased
worldwide competition by instituting strategic change programs.
Interviewing managers in various countries' subsidiaries helps
identify major problems. The support and verification of
corporate managers should also be sought. A program, such as a
worldwide conference on international subsidiary management and
strategic planning, can then be planned. Logistical problems that
may arise in planning such an event include: designating a
location that is quiet, easily accessible and well-equipped;
involving external experts; and arranging reasonable time-frames
and budgets for the project. The conference's goals must also be
identified. Results may include: organizational restructuring;
changing the corporate marketing department's role; and market
expansion by disbursing research and development (R&D) and
manufacturing functions internationally. (Management Contents)
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Testing Plans Against Alternative Futures
Boshoff, Hentie
Long Range Planning (UK) v22 n5 pp.69-75 October 1989
Nine major shifts underlie the emerging new philosophy of
forecasting and planning: 1. from a purely internal focus to an
internal plus external focus, 2. from a single dimensional to a
multidimensional approach, 3. from a short-term to a long-term
focus, 4. from forecasting to identifying the direction of
change, 5. from fixed certainties to incorporating uncertainty,
6. from a purely statistical approach to one that accounts for
value judgments, 7. from technical to consultative planning,
which takes into account corporate culture and climate, 8. from
strategic planning to a strategic management that includes
strategic decision making, and 9. from reactive to proactive
planning. The best method for applying the changes in a practical
planning process involves an interactive process between
statistics and people-judgment that: 1. brings the underlying
process of change to the forefront, 2. can conceptualize
reactions to change, and 3. can cultivate an instinct for change
in management. Charts. References. (ABI/INFORM)
Strategic Planning for the Management Business.
Gray, John T.
Journal of Property Management v54 p.16(3) Sept-Oct 1989
Strategic planning, which involves conducting an overview of
business practices and projecting goals, can play an important
part in the success of a property management firm. However,
suggested guidelines can make the process more successful. Steps
in the strategic planning process can include: deciding on who
will attend planning meetings; reviewing materials before
attending meetings; and discussing corporate missions,
environmental factors, and competitive analysis. There are many
benefits of strategic planning such as: providing a bond between
employees who work together during the planning process;
developing a framework for employee self-management; and making
firms face significant competitive issues. (Management.
Contents)
Core Strategy: End Result of Restructuring?
Waddock, Sandra
Business Horizons v32 n3 pp.49-55 May/June 1989
Core strategy means focusing on a few, usually related, strategic
areas or business units in which a firm has built (or can build)
a significant amount of.knowledge and expertise. Core strategy,
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as it is ultimately defined by restructured firms, can mean •
active involvement in some manageable number of industries that
tap corporate and managerial expertise. A central element of core
strategy seems to be the emergence of an operations- and
customer-driven product-service mix. Core strategy requires a
focus for investment opportunities, revolving around traditional
or emerging areas of strength. Bringing a product-process nexus
and a customer orientation to the strategic forefront requires
numerous internal shifts in the business. These shifts involve
the redistribution of power within the organization. A major
theme that emerges in core strategies is the need for long-term
capital, research and development, and product-process
development. References. (ABI/INFORM)
What's the Logic of Strategic Planning?
Schilit, Warren Keith
Management Review v77 nil pp.41-43 November 1988
Strategic planning often is illogical because it fails to involve
rational decision making, optimization or maximization, and a
single goal. The planning process breaks down as planners neglect
to consider certain basic elements. First, the personal values of
the executives must be factored into the process. The illogical
actions of those outside and beyond the scope of the company can
create diversions to planning strategy. Finally, political
activity poses a force that is impossible to completely evaluate.
Planners can compensate for these illogical aspects by: 1.
stressing strategic thinking, 2. avoiding analysis-paralysis, 3.
being flexible, 4. considering illogical events, 5. planning
informally, 6. using multiple reference points, and 7. using
political tactics whenever appropriate. Although these
suggestions are beneficial, the planner should maintain the
standard analytical tools of the profession. A comprehensive
planning process incorporates the factor of uncertainty created
by illogical elements. (ABI/INFORM)
Gearing Up for a Strategic Change
Clark, Richard S.
CA Magazine (Canada) v!21 n5 pp.24-35 June 1988
Managing change is one of the most demanding tasks any chief
executive faces. Most managers are familiar with change
management, but they tend to approach change by following a
standard routine. Strategic change is not routine. It upsets the
links between activities in 3 systems: 1. the production system,
2. the political system, and 3. the cultural system. Successful
change strategies are built around the concept of systems
alignment, maintaining congruence among these 3 systems.
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Diagnosing alignment problems involves analyzing these 3 systems
in terms of 6 organizational components that are change "levers."
These are: 1. mission or strategy, 2. task analysis, 3. formal
organization, 4. people, 5. control, and 6. informal
organization. In getting people to do things differently,
managers must understand the resistors to change, such as fear of
loss without compensating gain. Steps managers can take to reduce
resistance in the course of a change program include: 1. Explain
why change is necessary. 2. Involve potential resistors in the
process. 3. Communicate. Promoting strategic change helps make it
happen, giving the programs visibility and personality. Tables.
Charts. (ABI/INFORM)
Improving the Effectiveness of Strategic Decision Making Using an
Integrated Decision Support System
Bidgoli, Hossein; Attaran, Mohsen
Information & Software Technology (UK) v30 n5 pp.278-284
June 1988
An integrated decision support system (DSS) is needed to provide
the variety of information needed for strategic decision making.
Such information should be primarily external, timely, and
appropriate. The DSS should be able to gather and analyze data
and information from such major business functional areas as
production, marketing, and finance. Integrated DSS design is now
a reality, thanks to the availability and declining cost of
powerful DSS products. The proposed DSS model can provide
immediate responses to requests for information about the costs
of producing and selling a particular product. "What if"
questions can be posed to test different environmental
assumptions. A timely multidimensional DSS model provides answers
almost immediately. External data can be accessed from outside
databases. Within the DSS, an expert system (ES) can be employed
to diagnose problems, analyze information, and recommend
alternatives. ESs are expected to become useful tools in DSSs and
add to the many unique features that make the DSS the ultimate
strategic decision-making tool for the future. Tables. Charts.
References. (ABI/INFORM)
Alternative World Scenarios for Strategic Planning
Taylor, C. W.
Army War Coll. Strategic Studies Inst., Carlisle Barracks, PA.
January 20, 1988 82p.
This Futures Report offers Department of the Army (DA) and
Department of Defense (DOD) planners, decisionmakers, and
policymakers useful ways to describe and examine alternative
futures. The report provides methods to project trends or events
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into the long-range future while retaining their plausibility.
Additionally, it presents possible alternative conditions, trends
and events that are likely to influence and challenge future
defense postures. Finally, the report introduces a plausible
framework for considering common future world environments in
midrange and long-range planning. (NTIS)
The Strategic Planner's Toolbox
Clark, Richard S.
CA Magazine (Canada) v!20 n7 pp.24-34 July 1987
Four recently developed quantitative techniques can simplify
corporate strategic planning. First, game theory can help
companies analyze competitive situations to select the best
strategies. In developing a new strategy, the. company should
consider the industry structure and the possibility of
retaliation. Game theory also can assist with pricing and
defensive strategies. Second, decision theory allows managers to
use their experience in a disciplined and structured manner to
construct decision trees for analyzing strategies affected by
risk and uncertainty. Third, experience curves are based on the
premise that value-added costs adjusted for inflation decline
systematically when cumulative volume increases. The underlying
factors reflected by experience curves include: 1. learning, 2.
technological advances, and 3. scale effects. Fourth, such
computer-based new decision support systems as Alacrity, Expert
Choice, and Decision Map allow microcomputer users to evaluate
alternatives in strategic planning. Illustrations. Tables.
Graphs. Diagrams. (ABI/INFORM)
An Examination of the Influence of Middle-level Managers in
Formulating and Implementing Strategic Decisions.
Schilit, Warren Keith
Journal of Management Studies v24 p.271(23) May 1987
The upward influence of middle-level managers (MLMs) on strategic
planning and decision-making is examined. It was found that: (1)
upward influence activity was more prevalent in low risk-return
types of strategic decisions than in high risk-return decisions;
(2) upward influence activity was more prevalent during the
implementation of strategic decisions than during the formulation
of such decisions; (3) managers most often used rational
arguments in their influence attempts; (4) managers were more
likely to be successful than unsuccessful in influencing their
superiors in strategic decisions; (5) managers most often
attributed their success in influencing their superiors to
internal causes and their failures to external causes; (6)
managers from private sector organizations exerted influence in
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both high risk and low risk strategic decisions more frequently
than did managers from public sector organizations; and (7) the
number of years working with the superior was the best predictor
of successful interactions and of risky decisions. Some insight
into the development of widespread strategic thinking in an
organization is provided. (Management Contents)
Categorizing Strategic Issues: Links to Organizational Action
Dutton, Jane E.; Jackson, Susan E.
Academy of Management Review v!2 nl pp.76-90 January 1987
A general conceptual framework is presented that is concerned
with how the meanings attached to strategic issues by decision
makers are translated into organizational responses. The model
integrates an interpretive view of organizational decision making
with cognitive categorization theory, providing a framework for
understanding why organizations in the same industry respond
differently to the same environmental events and trends. It is
believed that labeling an issue as either a threat or an
opportunity affects both subsequent information processing and
the motivations of key decision makers. It also is argued that
decision makers' cognitions and motivations systematically affect
the processing of issues and the types of organizational actions
taken in response to them. The model helps researchers better
understand the problem sensing and diagnosis process in decision
making. Tables. References. (ABI/INFORM)
External Scanning - A Tool for Planners, (identifying emerging
trends and the strategic planning process)
Pflaum, Ann M.; Delmont, Timothy J.
Journal of the American Planning Association v53 p.58(11)
Winter 1987
Public managers and planners inevitably face changing social,
economic, political, and technological conditions. Accordingly,
they need to be able to identify those issues and trends in the
external environment that will affect their own organizations.
External scanning is a tool that has been used in the corporate
sector and more recently has been found in the public sector.
This article is based on a review of the literature on external
scanning; the authors' experience as researchers, consultants,
and teachers; and a survey of 10 public-sector institutions that
practice external scanning. The authors suggest a model for
public-sector external scanning that uses in-house volunteers to
carry out the classic functions of external scanning: scanning,
analysis, and reporting. (Management Contents)
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The Effect of Management Styles on Strategic Planning, (analysis
of six management styles and their impact on corporate strategic
planning)
Mullen, Thomas P.; Stumpf, Stephen A.
Journal of Business Strategy v7 p.60(16) Winter 1987
A four-year research project that observed the decision-making
abilities of 531 executives and 410 business students identified
six patterns of speech which reflect management styles related to
strategic planning: (1) identifiers, (2) sorters, (3) selectors,
(4) unilateral discriminators, (5) evolvers, and (6) searchers.
These styles are analyzed as to their effectiveness in varying
corporate planning situations, using the ISSUES model (named from
the initial letters of each style of management identified). A
case history for each management style reveals the speech
patterns, strengths, weaknesses, psychological aspects, decision
styles, and personality traits associated with each managerial
classification. The study concludes that management styles
affect: strategic issue identification, organizational
effectiveness, interpersonal relationships among executives, and
the corporate decision-making process. (Management Contents)
Defining Strategic Problems: Subjective Criteria of Executives
Lyles, Marjorie A.
Organization Studies v8n 3 pp.263-279 1987
Strategic problems have a substantial influence on the entire
organization and are more complicated and ill-defined than other
problems. Most strategic problems are unstructured, and there is
no one best way for formulating the nature of the problem.
Strategic problem formulation (SPF) is a critical aspect of
strategic decision making for these problems. A survey instrument
mailed to Fortune 500 firms in 6 industries yielded 102 usable
replies. Based on Lyles and Mitroff (1980) and Lyles (1981), the
survey included 14 items corresponding to the activities of SPF,
and a semantic differential scale with 12 items was set up to
reflect composite scores representing clarity, politicality, and
complexity. It was indicated that managements do value and
recognize the complexity of the SPF process. The SPF process
employs more complicated inquiry methods than .those used in well-
defined problems, and these methods are seen by managers as
clearer than more simple inquiry techniques. Tables. Charts.
References. Appendix. (ABI/INFORM)
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V. STRATEGIC PLANNING READINGS: MANAGEMENT BOOKS
(Starred titles are available in the Headquarters Library
Management Collection.)
Applied Strategic Planning: A How to Do It Guide
Pfeiffer, J. William; Goodstein, Leonard D.; Nolan, Timothy
University Associates, 1986 544p.
** Cases in Strategic Management
Rowe, Alan J., et al.
Addison-Wesley, 1986 HD30.28.C39
Corporate Strategic Planning
Capon, Noel; Farley, John U.; Hulbert, James M.
Studies in Business, Government, & Society
Columbia University Press, 1987 592p.
** Corporate Strategies: A Selection of Readings from Business
Week
Hayes, Roger & Watts, Reginald
Nichols Publishing, 1986 HD60.H394
Designing Organizational Futures: A Systems Approach to Strategic
Planning with Cases for Public & Non-Profit Organizations
Ziegenfuss, James T., Jr.
C C Thomas, 1989 212p.
The Executive Guide to Strategic Planning Below
Patrick J.; Morrisey, George L.; Acomb, Betty L.
Management Series
Jossey-Bass, 1987 159p.
Getting Value from Strategic Planning: Highlights of a Conference
Caropreso, Frank, Ed.
Report Series No. 915
Conference Board, 1988 79p.
Handbook of Strategic Planning for Nonprofit Organizations
Espy, Siri N.
Praeger, 1986 143p.
** Making Strategy Work: How Senior Managers Produce Results
Hammermesh, Richard G.
John Wiley, 1986 245p. HD30.28.H35
Knowledge-Based Systems for Strategic Planning
Mockler, Robert J.
Prentice-Hall, 1988 368p.
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Plan to Succeed: A Guide to Strategic Planning
Stryker, Steven C.
Petrocelli, 1986 330p.
Practical Strategic Planning: A Guide & Manual for Line Managers
Anthony, William P.
Greenwood, 1985 217p.
Strategic Planning
Holloway, Clark
Nelson-Hall, 1986 382p.
Strategic Planning
Knutson, J.
AMACOM, 1987
Strategic Planning: Contemporary Viewpoints
Ensign, Marie; Adler, Laurie N.
The Dynamic Organization Series
ABC-Clio, 1985 231p.
Strategic Planning: Development & Implementation
Melcher; Kerzner, Harold
TAB Bks, 1988
** Strategic Planning: Selected Readings
Pfeiffer, J. William, Ed.
University Associates, 1986 525p. HD30.28.S7345
Strategic Planning: Threats & Opportunities for Planners
Bryson, John M.,Ed.; Einsweiler, Robert C., Ed.
Planners Press, 1988 300p.
Strategic Planning & Management: A Review of Recent Experiences
Hanna, Nagy
Working Paper,; No. 751
World Bank, 1985 lOOp.
Strategic Planning & Management Control Systems for Survival &
Success
Camillas, John C.
Lexington Books, 1986 272p.
Strategic Planning & Management Handbook
King, William R., Ed.; Cleland, David I., Ed.
j Professional Books Series
Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1986 644p.
Strategic Planning for Competitive Advantage
Fetters, Eben G.
Amererican ComVision Inc., 1989 102p.
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** Strategic Planning for Hunan Resources
Director, Steven M.
Studies in Productivity,; No. 42
Work in America, 1985 46p. HD30.28.D56
Strategic Planning for Public & Nonprofit Organizations: A Guide
to Strengthening & Sustaining Organizational Achievement
Bryson, John M.
Jossey-Bass, 1988 335p.
Strategic Planning in Energy & Natural Resources: Proceedings of
the 2nd Symposium in Analytic Techniques for Energy, Natural
Resources, & Environmental Planning, Philadelphia PA, 3-4 April,
1986
Lev, B., Ed.; Bloom, J.A., Ed.; Gleit, A.S., Ed.; Murphy, F.
H., Ed.; Shoemaker, C., Ed.
Studies in Management Science & Systems,; No. 15
Elsevier, 1987 340p.
The Strategic Planning Management Reader
Fahey, Liam
Prentice-Hall, 1989 448p.
The Strategic Planning System
Fantus, James E.
Concept Management, 1988 19Op.
Successful Strategic Planning: Case Studies
Steeples, Douglas W., Ed.
New Directions for Higher Education Series; No. 64
Jossey-Bass, 1988
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EPA HEADQUARTERS LIBRARY
MANAGEMENT COLLECTION
LIST OF MANAGEMENT BIBLIOGRAPHIES
1 . TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT
by Anne Twitchell, December 1989
EPA/IMSD-89-009
2 . LEADERSHIP: QUALITY MANAGEMENT FOR THE FUTURE
by Anne Twitchell, September 1989
EPA/IMSD-89-005
3 . COMMUNICATION SKILLS FOR EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT
by Anne Twitchell, June 1989
EPA/IMSD-89-003
4 . EFFECTIVE PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS
by Anne Twitchell, March 1989
EPA/IMSD-89-002
5. OFFICE OF THE FUTURE: THE MANAGER'S ROLE
by Anne Twitchell, December 1988
EPA/IMSD-88-013
6 . OFFICE OF THE FUTURE: THE CHANGING ROLE OF
SECRETARIES
by Mary Hoffman and Anne Twitchell, revised May
1989
7 . MANAGEMENT TRANSITION
by Mary Hoffman and Anne Twitchell, September
1988
EPA/IMSD-88-007
8 . MANAGING IN THE PUBLIC SECTOR
by Mary Hoffman, March 1988
EPA/IMSD-88-003
9 . RESISTANCE TO CHANGE
by Mary Hoffman, December 1987
EPA/IMSD-87-011
10 . INTRAPRENEURSHIP: THE EMERGING FORCE
by Mary Hoffman, September 1987
EPA/IMSD-87-009
11. SUPERVISORS AND HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
by Mary Hoffman, June 1987
EPA/IMSD-87-006
12. TECHNICAL EXPERT TURNED MANAGER .
/ by Mary Hoffman, March 1987
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