Draft
11/12/85
AMBIENT AQUATIC LIFE WATER QUALITY CRITERIA FOR
ZINC
NOTE: This draft contains only freshwater data. The saltwater data
will be incorporated later. The freshwater CCC is likely
to change when the saltwater data are incorporated.
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORIES
DULUTH, MINNESOTA
NARRAGANSETT, RHODE ISLAND
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NOTICES
This document has been reviewed by the Criteria and Standards Division,
Office of Water Regulations and Standards, U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, and approved for publication.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute
endorsement or recommendation for use.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service (NTIS), 5285 Port Royal Road. Springfield, VA 22161.
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FOREWORD
Section 304(a)(l) of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (P.L. 95-217)
requires the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency to
publish criteria for water quality accurately reflecting the latest
scientific knowledge on the kind and extent of all identifiable effects
on health and welfare that may be expected from the presence of pollutants
in any body of water, including ground water. This document is a revision
of proposed criteria based upon a consideration of comments received from
other Federal agencies, State agencies, special interest groups, and
individual scientists. The criteria contained in this document replace
any previously published EPA aquatic life criteria.
The term "water quality criteria" is used in two sections of the
Clean Water Act, section 304(a)(l) and section 303(c)(2). The term has a
different program impact in each section. In section 304, the term
represents a non-regulatory, scientific assessment of ecological effects.
The criteria presented in this publication are such scientific assessments.
If water quality criteria associated with specific stream uses are adopted
by a State as water quality standards under section 303, they become
enforceable maximum acceptable concentrations of a pollutant in ambient waters
within that State. The water quality criteria adopted in the State water
quality standards could have the same numerical values as the criteria
developed under section 304. However, in many situations States may want
to adjust water quality criteria developed under section 304 to reflect
local environmental conditions and human exposure patterns before incorporation
into water quality standards. It is not until their adoption as part of
the State water quality standards that the criteria become regulatory.
Guidelines to assist the States in the modification of criteria
presented in this document, in the development of water quality standards.
and in other water-related programs of this Agency, have been developed
by EPA.
Director
Office of Water Regulations and Standards
111
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Larry T. Brooke
Daniel J. Call
Judy L. Crane
(freshwater authors)
University of Wisconsin-Superior
Superior, Wisconsin
Jeff Hyland
(saltwater author)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Charles E. Stephan
(document coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Duluth, Minnesota
David J. Hansen
(saltwater coordinator)
Environmental Research Laboratory
Narragansett, Rhode Island
Clerical Support:
Terry L. Highland
Shelley A. Heintz
IV
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CONTENTS
Pace
Foreword iii
Acknowledgments iv
Tables vi
Introduction 1
Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Chronic Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
Bioaccuraulation
Other Data
Unused Data
Summary
National Criteria
References
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TABLES
1. Acute Toxicity of Zinc to Aquatic Animals
2. Chronic Toxicity of Zinc To Aquatic Animals
3. Ranked Genus Mean Acute Values with Species Mean Acute-Chronic
Ratios
4. Toxicity of Zinc to Aquatic Plants
5. Bioaccumulation of Zinc by Aquatic Organisms
6. Other Data on Effects of Zinc on Aquatic Organisms
VI
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Introduction*
Zinc is the fourth most widely used metal in the world (Cammarota, 1980)
Major uses of zinc are in galvanizing steel, production of alloys, and as
ingredients in rubber and paints. Because zinc(II) substitutes to some
extent for magnesium in the silicate minerals of igneous rocks, weathering
of zinc-containing bedrock gives rise to zinc in solution. Zinc always
has the oxidation state of +2 in aqueous solution. Zinc(II) is amphoteric,
dissolving in acids to form hydrated Zn(Il) cations and in strong bases
_ «
to form zincate anions, probably Zn(OH), . Compounds of zinc with the
common ligands of surface waters are soluble in neutral and acidic
solutions, so that zinc is readily transported in most natural waters and
is one of the most mobile of the heavy metals.
Most of the zinc introduced into the aquatic environment is partitioned
into the sediments by sorption onto hydrous iron and manganese oxides,
clay minerals, and organic materials. Precipitation of the sulfide is an
important control on the mobility of zinc in reducing environments, and
precipitation of the hydroxide, carbonate, or basic sulfate can occur
where zinc is present in high concentrations. Formation of complexes
with organic and inorganic ligands can increase the solubility of zinc
and probably increases the tendency for zinc to be adsorbed.
* An understanding of the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical National Water
Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms and Their Uses"
(Stephan et al. 1985), hereafter referred to as the Guidelines, is necessary
in order to understand the following text, tables, and calculations.
1
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The tendency of zinc to be sorbed is affected not only by the form
of the zinc and the nature and concentration of the sorbent but also pH
and salinity as well. In a study of heavy metal adsorption by two oxides
and two soils, zinc was completely removed from solution when pH exceeded
7: below pH 6, little or no zinc was sorbed. Addition of inorganic
complexing ligands enhanced the affinity for sorption (Huang, et al.
1977). Helz, et al. (1975) found that zinc is desorbed from sediments as
salinity increases. This phenomenon is exhibited by many of the other
metals as well and is apparently due to displacement of the sorbed zinc ions
by alkali and alkaline earth cations which are abundant in brackish and
saline waters.
Zinc is a required trace element in the metabolism of most organisms.
The uptake of zinc from the environment, either via ingestion or absorption,
must exceed some minimum rate in order for an organism to function
properly. Whether any waters are deficient in zinc content from the
standpoint of the existing biota is not clear.
Above some theoretical minimum concentration of zinc in water, there
exists a range of zinc concentrations which is readily tolerated through
each organism's capacity to regulate the uptake, internal distribution, .
and excretion of zinc. This range undoubtedly varies among individuals,
*
species, and larger phylogenetic groups. In addition, this ability, and
hence the tolerated range, probably varies with the range of zinc
concentrations to which the various populations have been historically
exposed and acclimated. Thus, biological variability in zinc tolerance
is probably the result of phylogenetic differences and historic exposure
patterns, both short-term and geologic in scale.
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Paramount to the question of zinc toxicity are the physical and
chemical forms of zinc, the toxicity of each form, and the degree of
interconversion to be expected among the various forms. All forms of
zinc are presumably nontoxic unless they can be sorbed or bound by
biological materials. Conversely, all forms are potentially toxic if
they can be sorbed or bound by biological tissues. Most likely, zinc
will not be sorbed or bound unless it is dissolved, but some dissolving
of zinc may reasonably be expected to occur in the alimentary canal
following ingestion of particulates containing undissolved zinc. Thus,
the toxicity of undissolved zinc to a particular organism probably depends
on feeding habits, with the result that plants and most fish are probably
relatively unaffected by suspended zinc, but many invertebrates could be
adversely affected by ingestion of sufficient quantities of particulates
containing zinc.
The complex array of data concerning the effects of zinc on aquatic
organisms is one result of the biological, chemical, physical and
toxicological properties of zinc. However, by evaluating the data on a
species-by-species basis and by considering several water quality
characteristics, the information can by simplified.
The toxicity of zinc, as well as other heavy metals, is apparently
influenced by a number of chemical factors including calcium, magnesium,
hardness, pH, and ionic strength. These factors appear to affect the
toxicity of zinc either by influencing the availability of zinc or by
inhibiting the sorption or binding of available zinc by biological tissues
In fresh water zinc appears to be less toxic at high hardness for a
variety of reasons, such as-
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1) The ions contributing to hardness, primarily calcium and magnesium,
are divalent and compete with zinc, which is also divalent, for sites of
uptake and binding in biological tissues;
2) Harder waters have higher ionic strengths due to the greater quantity
of charged ions (primarily mono- and divalent cations and anions) in
solution, and these ions electrostatically inhibit the ability of other
ions, such as zinc, to approach the sorption or binding sites of the
organisms. Thus zinc ions have lower activity in harder waters; and
3) Generally, harder waters have higher alkalinities and higher pHs.
Insoluble, and possible soluble, zinc carbonate and hydroxide compounds
can form which are not sorbed by many organisms. Changes in hardness,
pH, and alkalinity will cause corresponding changes in the toxicity of
the zinc in the water.
Hardness, on the other hand, may have little relationship to the
amount of zinc sorbed to or included in particulate material. Nevertheless.
hardness appears to be the single best water quality characteristic to
reflect the variation in zinc toxicity induced by differences in general
water chemistry.
However, water quality criteria for fresh water developed with
hardness as the sole physical-chemical variable may be lower than ambient
: - i •
total zinc concentrations in some surface waters of the United States.
This may result, in part, from the current inability to correlate
quantitatively the effects on zinc toxicity of physical-chemical factors
other than hardness and those factors such as ionic strength, pH, and
alkalinity which are qualitatively related to hardness. Alternatively,
where the concentration of zinc exceeds a criterion, the zinc may be
harming the biota, or the biota may have evolved as a zinc-resistant
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population. The actual situation must be evaluated based on the local
biological, chemical, and physical conditions.
Because of the variety of forms of zinc (Callahan et al. 1979; Hem
1972) and lack of definitive information about their relative toxicities.
no available analytical measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for zinc. Previous aquatic life criteria for zinc
(U.S. EPA 1980) were expressed in terms of total recoverable zinc (U.S.
EPA 1983a), but this measurement is probably too rigorous in some
situations. Acid-soluble zinc (operationally defined as the zinc that
passes through a 0.45 pirn membrane filter after the sample is acidified to
pH = 1.5 to 2.0 with nitric acid) is probably the best measurement at the
present for the following reasons:
1. This measurement is compatible with nearly all available data concerning
toxicity of zinc to, and bioaccumulation of zinc by, aquatic organisms.
No test results were rejected just because it was likely that they would
have been substantially different if they had been reported in terms
of acid-soluble zinc. For example, results reported in terms of dissolved
zinc would not have been used if the concentration of precipitated zinc
was substantial.
2. On samples of ambient water, measurement of acid-soluble zinc should
measure all forms of zinc that are toxic to aquatic life or can be
readily converted to toxic forms under natural conditions. In addition,
this measurement should not measure several forms, such as zinc that is
occluded in minerals, clays, and sand or is strongly sorbed to
particulate matter, that are not toxic and are not likely to become
toxic under natural conditions. Although this measurement (and many
others) will measure soluble, complexed forms of zinc, such as the
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EDTA complex of zinc, that probably have low toxicities to aquatic
life, concentrations of these forms probably are negligible in most
ambient water.
3. Although water quality criteria apply to ambient water, the measurement
used to express criteria is likely to be used to measure zinc in
aqueous effluents. Measurement of acid-soluble zinc should be applicable
to effluents because it will measure precipitates, such as carbonate and
hydroxide precipitates of zinc, that might exist in an .effluent and
dissolve when the effluent is diluted with receiving water. If desired,
dilution of effluent with receiving water before measurement of acid-
soluble zinc might be used to determine whether the receiving water can
decrease the concentration of acid-soluble zinc because of sorption.
4. The acid-soluble measurement should be useful for most metals, thus
minimizing the number of samples and procedures that are necessary.
5. The acid-soluble measurement does not require filtration at the time of
collection, as does the dissolved measurement.
6. The only treatment required at the time of collection is preservation
by acidification to pH = 1.5 to 2.0, similar to that required for the
total recoverable measurement.
7. Durations of 10 minutes to 24 hours between acidification and filtration
.*
probably will not affect the result substantially.
8. The carbonate system has a much higher buffer capacity from pH = 1.5
to 2.0 than it does from pH = 4 to 9 (Weber and Stumm 1963).
9. Differences in pH within the range of 1.5 to 2.0 probably will not
affect the result substantially.
10. The acid-soluble measurement does not require a digestion step, as
does the total recoverable measurement.
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11. After acidification and filtration of the sample to isolate the acid-
soluble zinc, the analysis can be performed using either atomic absorption
spectroscopy or ICP-atomic emission spectroscopy (U.S. EPA 1983a), as
with the total recoverable measurement.
Thus, expressing aquatic life criteria for zinc in terras of the acid-
soluble measurement has both toxicological and practical advantages. On
the other hand, because no measurement is known to be ideal for expressing
aquatic life criteria for zinc or for measuring zinc in ambient water or
aqueous effluents, measurement of both acid-soluble zinc and total
recoverable zinc in ambient water or effluent or both might be useful.
For example, there might be cause for concern if total recoverable zinc
is much above an applicable limit, even though acid-soluble zinc is below
the limit.
Unless otherwise noted, all concentrations reported herein are expected
to be essentially equivalent to acid-soluble zinc concentrations. All
concentrations are expressed as zinc, not as the chemical tested. The
criteria presented herein supersede previous aquatic life water quality
criteria for zinc (U.S. EPA 1976, 1980) because these new criteria were
deriving using improved procedures and additional information. Whenever
adequately justified, a national criterion may be replaced by a site-
*
specific criterion (U.S. EPA 1983b), which may include not only site-
specific criterion concentrations (U.S. EPA 1983c), but also site-specific
durations of averaging periods and site-specific frequencies of allowed
excursions (U.S. EPA 1985). The latest literature search for information
for this document was conducted in February, 1985; some newer information
was also used.
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Acute Toxicity to Aquatic Animals
The acute values for freshwater invertebrates ranged from 32 to
58,100 Mg/L (Table 1), and the acute values for fishes ranged from 84 to
40,900 Mg/L- Although very similar, the range for fishes is completely
within the range for invertebrates. These wide ranges are due in part to
hardness-related factors.
Different species exhibit different sensitivities to zinc, and many
other factors might affect the results of tests of the toxicity of zinc
to aquatic organisms. Criteria can quantitatively take into account such
a factor, however, only if enough data are available to show that the
factor similarly affects the results of tests with a variety of species.
Hardness is often thought of as having a major effect on the toxicity of
zinc, although the observed effect is probably due to one or more of a
number of usually interrelated ions, such as hydroxide, carbonate, calcium,
and magnesium. Hardness is used here as a surrogate for the ions which
affect the results of toxicity tests on zinc. An analysis of covariance
(Dixon and Brown 1979; Neter and Wasserman 1974) was performed using the
natural logarithm of the acute value as the dependent variable, species
as the treatment or grouping variable, and the natural logarithm of
hardness as the covariate or independent variable. This analysis of
coveriance model was fit to the data in Table 1 for the eight sets of
data (for individual species or particular ages of individual species)
for which acute values are available over a range of hardness such that
the highest hardness is at least three times the lowest and the highest
is at least 100 mg/L higher than the lowest. The slopes for all eight
sets of data are between 0.22 and 1.3 (see end of Table 1). Most of the
slopes are close to the slope of 1.0 which is expected on the basis that
8
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calcium, magnesium, carbonate, and zinc have a charge of two. An F-test
showed that, under the assumption of equality of slopes, the probability
of obtaining eight slopes as dissimilar as these is 0.73. This was
interpreted as indicating that it is reasonable to assume that the slopes
for these three species are the same.
The pooled slope of 0.8213 was then used with the data in Table 1 to
adjust the acute values to a hardness = 50 mg/L, where possible, and then
to calculate Species Mean Acute Values at hardness = 50 mg/L. Based on
the adjusted acute values, a cladoceran (Ceriodaphnia reticulata) and the
longfin dace (Agosia chrysogaster) were the most sensitive invertebrate
and fish species, with acute toxicities of 51 and 237 pg/L, respectively.
The three insect species that were tested were the most tolerant of
all freshwater organisms to zinc, while the three cladoceran species
tested were the most sensitive (Table 3). Eight of the ten species which
were most tolerant of zinc (Table 3) were tested in a series of experiments
reported by Rehwoldt et al. (1971, 1972, 1973) using Hudson River water.
It is not known whether the river water reduced zinc toxicity or if the
species were naturally tolerant. Rehwoldt et al. (1971, 1972) also tested
the striped bass (Morone saxatilis) in river water, and reported LC50s of-
6,700 and 6,800 pg/L. These were considerably greater than the LC50 of 100
:*
;jg/L reported by Hughes (1973) for both larvae and fingerlings. Genus
Mean Acute Values (Table 3) were then, calculated as geometric means of
the available Species Mean Acute Values. Acute values are available for
more than one species in each of four genera and the range of Species
Mean Acute Values within each genus is less than a factor of 4.8. The
most sensitive genus. Ceriodaphnia, is about 1,700 times more sensitive
than the most resistant genus, Argia. The freshwater Final Acute Value
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£ R3122J2 ;#g//!L was calculated at a hardness of 50 mg/L from the Genus Mean
Accuittffi 'Bafl-itMB in Table 3 using the procedure described in the Guidelines.
18n«as5n itttve i£r-e«hwi£er Criterion Maximum Concentration (in jJg/L) =
e((Q)..ffi22a:S![aaKGtv«rdhHss) ] +0 .814 1 ) .
to Aquatic Animals
naff tribe chronic toxicity tests conducted on zinc with freshwater
iLc TOg.an;ifim6 were in soft water ranging in hardness from 25 to 52
oHg//IL. Chapman -eft al . (Manuscript) studied the chronic toxicity of zinc
tz> JBajitfanoua inr»gTZB at three hardnesses (Table 2). They found that the
dfayrjanic -t'OKicatty of zinc decreased when hardness increased from 52 to 104
m 5,243 Mg/L. A caddisfly, Clistoronia magnifica,
>tihe most nesistant species tested showing no chronic effects at the
ttest .aotscentrat ion of 5,243 jJg/L (Nebeker et al. 1984). Flagfish
itfh'« .mostt 5s«rsitive freshwater species tested with a reported chronic
6..& ^ig//L (Spehar 1976a, b) .
FxLah 'weare =aiout as sensitive to chronic exposures of zinc as other
tcsit ifrrefihwaiier organisms . Chronic values for fish ranged from 36.4 to
SS54./7 .u£//JL ((THbila 2). All these tests were in soft water « 46 mg/L
lifflasJhiKR'jB.O . ;A ilfr-month test with fathead minnows in relatively hard water
((2(03 mjg.-AL rhairdmss) resulted in reduced fecundity at 180 Mg/L (Brungs
I9*®9:),. ComparB.ng this test with the fathead minnow test of Benoit and
EDr>]Lcomb.e (M/Tfe/) conducted at a hardness of 46 mg/L and a resultant chronic
10
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value of 106.3 yg/L, there appears to be a slight reduction in chronic
toxicity with increasing hardness.
Acute-chronic ratios were determined for seven species of freshwater
aquatic organisms. The ratios ranged from 0.2614 to 41.21 (Table 2) with
a geometric mean value of 2.633 (Table 3). The low ratio value of 0.2614
was determined for the swim-up alevin life-stage of the chinook salmon.
Apparently this is a sensitive life-stage for this species as earlier and
succeeding life-stages resulted in acute-chronic ratios ranging from 1.248
for the parr life-stage to > 1.781 for the alevin (Table 2). The three
acute-chronic ratios available for freshwater invertebrates were all
determined with Daphnia magna and range from 2.459 to 14.02.
The calculated Final Chronic Value for a hardness of 50 mg/L is
21.31 Mg/L- This value is less than any of the measured chronic values
and should protect all tested species of freshwater organisms. The resulting
equation is Final chronic Value (in |jg/L) = e[0.8213(ln hardness)-0.1541] .
Toxicity to Aquatic Plants
Toxicity tests on zinc have been conducted with 15 species of
freshwater plants. Plants were affected by zinc concentrations ranging
from 30 to > 200,000 pg/L (Table 4). Algae appear to be more sensitive
to zinc than vascular plants with Selenastrum capricornutum, the most
sensitive of the tested algal species.
Few data are available concerning the effect of hardness on toxicity
to plants. One study with the diatom, Navicula seminulum, (Academy of
Natural Sciences 1960) tested zinc toxicity at two hardnesses. At a
hardness of 58.46 mg/L, zinc was more toxic, on the average, than in tests
11
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at hardness = 174 mg/L. However, there was overlap in EC50s between the
hardnesses tested.
Bioaccumulation
Six species of freshwater organisms were exposed to zinc and had
tissue concentrations measured after sufficient time to achieve steady-state
(Table 5). Bioconcentration factors (BCF) ranged from a low value of 51
for the Atlantic salmon (Farmer et al. 1979) to a high of 1,130 for a
mayfly (Nehring 1976). One species of clam has been tested and had a
mean BCF of 100 in three tests (Graney et al. 1983). BCFs for fish were
generally higher than those for clams, with guppies having a mean BCF of
575 for six exposures (Pierson 1981) and flagfish 417 (Spehar et al.
1978).
Other Data
A wide range of effects and exoosure times is included in Table 6.
Growth of a green alga was inhibited in a 14-day exposure to 64 Mg/L
(Carton 1972). Another green alga species had an incipient inhibition of
1200 pg/L in a 96-h exposure to zinc (Bringmann and Kuhn 1959a, b). An
unidentified group of plankton had reduced primary productivity when
exposed to 15 (jg/L for 14 days (Marshall et al. 1983).
>
A number of tests studied the effect of water temperature on zinc
toxicity (Braginskiy and Shcherban 1978; Cairns et al. 1978; Pickering
and Henderson 1966). In all except tests with rainbow trout and golden
shiners, the organisms were more sensitive to zinc at higher temperatures.
A test was run to determine the effect of dissolved oxygen on zinc
toxicity to the bluegill (Pickering 1968). Zinc toxicity was enhanced
only at dissolved oxygen concentrations < 3.5 mg/L.
12
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Most insects were more resistant to zinc than the other freshwater
organisms tested. Mayflies, stoneflies, and a caddisfly had LC50s ranging
from 16,000 to 35,710 ug/L (Table 6). One midge (Chironomous sp.) had a
96-hr LC50 of 18,200 ug/L (Rehwoldt et al. 1973) whereas another (Tanytarsus
dissimilis) had a 10-day LC50 of 36.8 [jg/L (Anderson et al. 1980). The
T. dissimi1is value is a very low value compared to other insect values.
Many tests were run with rainbow trout of various ages. Generally,
LCSOs ranged from 2,000 to 5,000 pg/L. However, Carton (1972) obtained
an LC50 of 90 Mg/L-
The lowest effect value reported was a 7-day EC50 of 10 pg/L for the
embryos and larva of the narrow-mouthed toad (Birge 1978; Birge et al. 1979)
Unused Data
Some data on the effects of zinc on aquatic organisms were not used
because the studies were conducted with species that are not resident in
North America (e.g., Baudouin and Scoppa 1974; Bengtsson 1974; Khangarot
et al. 1982; Mathur et al. 1981; Saxena and Parashari 1983; Shehata and
Whitton 1981: Speranza et al. 1977). Babich and Stotzky (1985). Lim
(1972), Pagenkopf (1976), Phillips and Russo (1978), Rai et al. (1981),
Riordan (1976), Skidmore (1964), Skidmore and Firth (1983), Sprague et
al. (1964), Taylor et al. (1982), and Vernon (1954) only present data
that have been published elsewhere.
Data were not used if the organisms were exposed to zinc by injection
or gavage or in food (e.g., Arruda et al. 1983; Barash et al. 1982; Bell
et al. 1984; Cancalon 1982; Dallinger and Wieser 1984; Dixon and Compher
1977; Gatlin and Wilson 1983, 1984; Hibiya and Oguri 1961; Jeng and Sun
1981: Knox et al. 1984; Marafonte 1976; Ogino and Yang 1978, 1979; Patrick
13
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and Loutit 1978; Richardson et al. 1985; Saiki and Mori 1955; Satoh et
al. 1983a, b: Takeda and Shimma 1977: Vaughan et al. 1982).
Toxicity data were not used if exposure water contained EDTA, huraic
acid or other organic matter (e.g., Allen et al. 1980: Cairns and Dickson
1970; Gushing and Rose 1970; Fayed and Abd-El-Shafy 1985; Kuwabara 1985;
Peterson 1982: Ruthven and Cairns 1973; Say and Whitton 1977; Say et al.
1977: Zitko et al. 1973), or if the water was not adequately characterized
(e.g., Brkovic-Popovic and Popovic 1977 a, b).
Data were not used if zinc was a component of a mixture (e.g.,
Besser 1985; Biesinger et al. 1974; Birge and Black 1979; Birge et al.
1978; Borgmann 1980; Brown et al. 1969; Eaton 1973; Finlayson and Verrue
1980; Giesy et al. 1980: Henry and Atchison 1979: Hutchinson and Czyrska
1972; Hutchinson and Sprague 19??; Markarion et al. 1980; Muiier and
Payer 1980; Muska 1977: Patrick and Loutit 19??; Rock and McCarter 1984c;
Rogers and Beamish 1981; Wong et al. 1982, 1984: Wong et al. 1982; Wong
et al. 1984), effluent (e.g., Saunders and Sprague 1967; Rana and Kuraan
1975: Wang 1982), sediment or sludge (e.g., Lewis and Mclntosh 1984:
McMurty 1984; Wentsel et al. 1977; Wong and Kwan 1981: Wong and Kwan
1984: Wong et al. 1984). Results of some laboratory tests were not used
because the tests were conducted in distilled or deionized water without
>
addition of appropriate salts (e.g., Carter and Cameron 1973; Eddy and
Fraser 1982; Matthiessen and Brafield 1973; Porter and Hokanson 1976;
Taylor 1978; Vijayamadhavan and Iwai 1975; Wang 1959) or were,conducted
in chlorinated or "tap" water (e.g., Goodman 1951; Grande 1966; Haider
and Wunder 1983; Hughes and Adeney 1977; Jones 1935, 1938, 1939; Matthiessen
and Brafield 1977; Rahel 1981; Shcherban 1977; Skidmore 1970; Skidmore
and Tovell 1972) .
14
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Benson and Birge (1985), Berglind and Dave (1984), and Birge et al.
(1983) cultured organisms in one water and conducted tests in another.
Tests conducted with too few test organisms (e.g., Applegate et al. 1957;
Sprague 1964a; Tishinova 1977) were not used. High control mortalities
occurred in tests reported by Cairns and Scheier (1964) and Havas and
Hutchinson (1982) .
Test results were not used if they were only reported graphically
(Lloyd 1960), or as regression equations (Anderson and Weber 1975); or
if exposure concentrations were a factor of 10 or more apart (Biegert and
Valhovic 1980; Mills 1976; Sabodash 1974). A field toxicity study of
Davies and Woodling (1980) was not used due to the presence of additional
toxic chemicals.
Data were not used if Che reproduction of the test organisms could
be a potential source of error (Buikema et al. 1974a, b; 1977), if the
test organisms were stressed by disease or parasites (Boyce and Yaraada
1977; Guth et al. 1977; Sakanari et al. 1984). or if the test organisms
were not identified beyond common names (Greichus et al. 1978; Jennett et
al. 1981). Studies were not used if the test organisms had been pre-
exposed to zinc (e.g., Cairns 1972; Cairns et al. 1973; LeBlanc 1982) or-
if the test organisms were considered to be resistant to zinc (e.g., De
Filippis and Pallaghy 1976).
Tests were not used if there were no clearly defined endpoints that
were useful for deriving water quality criteria (e.g., Bachmann 1963;
Brafield and Matthiessen 1976; Cairns and Waller 1971; Cairns et al.
1973, 1975; Crandall and Goodnight 1962, 1963; Foster 1982a, b; Hughes
1975; Khangarot 1982; McLeay and Munro 1979: Parker et al. 1982; Rao and
Subramanian 1982; Ruthven and Cairns 1973: Say and Whitton 1983; Shcherban
15
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1977; Sparks et al. 1972; Thompson et al. 1983; Uviovo and Beatty 1979;
Van der Werff 1982; Waller and Cairns 19??; Wehr and Whitton 1983a, b;
Whitton et al. 1982: Wien^er and Giesy 1979) or if the reports did not
contain enough detail to allow interpretation of the results (e.g.,
Affleck 1952; Bates et al. 1981; Birge and Just 1973; Bradley and Sprague
19??; Brown 1968; Carpenter 1927; Dilling and Healy 1927; Knittel 1980;
Maas 1978; Muramoto 1980; Rao and Saxena 1981; Sicko-Goad and Lazinsky
1981; Starry et al. 1983).
In vitro studies or other studies using less than the intact organism
were not used (e.g., Adragna and Privitera 1978, 1979; Anderson et al.
1978; Birge and Just 1975, 1984; Brown 1976; Burton and Peterson 1979;
Cenini and Turner 1983; Killer and Perlmutter 1971; Hiltibran 1971; Kodama
et al. 1982; Nemesok et al. 1984; Rachlin and Perlmutter 1969; Watson and
Beamish 1981). Tests were not used if they were conducted in an
inappropriate medium (Stary and Kratzer^ 1982), or if the water hardness
was too variable within a toxicity test (e.g., Cairns et al. 1981; Nehring
and Goettl 1974).
Results of laboratory bioconcentration tests were not used if the
test was not flow-through or renewal (e.g., Dean 1974; Joyner 1961; Joyner
and Eisler 1961; Sklar 1980; Slater 1961) or if the exposure was too
short (e.g., Baudin 1983; Fleming and Richards 1982; Hughes and Flos
1978; Van Hoof and Van San 1981).
Reports of h^e concentrations of zinc in wild aquatic organisms
(e.g.. Abo-Rady 1979; Adams et al. 1980; Adams et al. 1981; Anderson
1977; Burrows and Whitton 1983; Holm 1980; Klaverkamp et al. 1983; Lowe
et al. 1985; Maas 1978; Morrison et al. 1985; Namminga and Wilhm 1977;
Pennington et al. 1982; Rehwoldt 1976; Rehwoldt et al. 1976; Stary et al.
16
-------
1982; lisa and Strange 1981; Tsui and McCart 1981; Vinikour e.t al. 1980;
Wachs 1982; Wiener and Giesy 1979) were not used to calculate bioaccumulatipn
factors due to an insufficient number of measurements of the concentration
in water or due to too great a range of the measured concentration in water.
Summary
Acute toxicity values are available for 32 genera of freshwater
animals. At a hardness of 50 mg/L, sensitivities range from 51 pg/L for
Ceriodaphnia to 86,870 jJg/L for Argia. Insects are the most resistant to
zinc, whereas cladocerans are the most sensitive. Data on seven species
indicate that acute toxicity decreases as hardness increases. Additional
data indicate that toxicity increases with increased temperatures.
Chronic toxicity data are available for eight freshwater species. The
most sensitive chronic value is for the cladoceran, Daphnia magna, at
46.73 tJg/L. The highest chronic value of > 5,243 was obtained with the
caddis fly. Clistoronia magnifica. Chronic values for six fish species
ranged from 36.4 ^ig/L for the flagfish, Jordanella floridae, to 854.7 jJg/L
for the brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis. Acute-chronic ratios ranged
from 0.8510 to 41.21, with a mean ratio of 2.633 for the five smallest ratios
«
The sensitivity range of freshwater plants to zinc is greater than
that for animals. Growth inhibition occurred at 30 pg/L in the green
alga, Selenastrum capricornutum. On the other hand, with several other
species of green algae, 4-day LC50s exceeded 200,000 ^ig/L. With the
exception of Selenastrum capricornutum, criteria that protect freshwater
animals would also protect plants. Zinc was found to bioaccumulate in
freshwater animal tissues from 51 to 1,130 times the concentration present
in the water.
17
-------
National Criteria
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, freshwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration
(in >Jg/L) of zinc does not exceed the numerical value given by
e(0.8213[ln(hardness)]-0.1541)jmore than once every three years on the
average and if the one-hour average concentration (in iig/L) does not
exceed the numerical value given bjXg(0.8213[ln(hardness)]+0.8141)jmore
than once every three years on the average. For example, at hardnesses
of 50, 100, and 200 mg/L as CaC03 the four-day average concentrations of
zinc are 21, 37, and 66 Mg/L, respectively, and the one-hour average
concentrations are 56, 99, and 175 ;Jg/L.
The procedures described in the "Guidelines for Deriving Numerical
National Water Quality Criteria for the Protection of Aquatic Organisms
and Their Uses" indicate that, except possibly where a locally important
species is very sensitive, saltwater aquatic organisms and their uses
should not be affected unacceptably if the four-day average concentration-of
zinc does not exceed xxx yg/L more than once every three years on the
• >
average and if the one-hour average concentration does not exceed yyy
ug/L more than once every three years on the average.
EPA believes that a measurement such as "acid-soluble" would provide
a more scientifically correct basis upon which to establish criteria for
metals. The criteria were developed on this basis. However, at this
time, no EPA approved methods for such a measurement are available to
implement the criteria through the regulatory programs of the Agency and
18
-------
the States. The Agency is considering development and approval of methods
for a measurement such as "acid-soluble." Until availale, however, EPA
recommends applying the criteria using the total recoverable method.
This has two impacts: (1) certain species of some metals cannot be measured
because the total recoverable method cannot distinguish between individual
oxidation states, and (2) these criteria may be overly protective when
based on the total recoverable method.
The allowed excursion frequency of three years is based on the
Agency's best scientific judgment of the average amount of time it will
take an aquatic ecosystem to recover from a pollution event in which
exposure to zinc exceeds the criterion. The resilience of ecosystems and
their ability to recover differ greatly, however, and site-specific
criteria may be established if adequate justification is provided.
The use of criteria in designing waste treatment facilities requires
selection of an appropriate wasteload allocation model. Dynamic models
are preferred for the application of these criteria. Limited data or
other factors may make their use impractical, in which case one must
rely on a steady-state model. The Agency recommends interim use of 1Q10
for Criterion Maximum Concentration (CMC) design flow and 7Q10 for the
Criterion Continuous Concentration (CCC) design flow in steady-state
• 't
models. These matters are discussed in more detail in the Technical
Support Document for Water Quality-Bas.ed Toxics Control (U.S. EPA 1985)
and the Design Flow Manual (U.S. EPA 1986).
19
-------
Table 1. Acute Toxlclty of Zinc to Aquatic Animals
Species
Tub 1 field worm,
Llmnodrllus hoffmelsterl
Worm,
Lumbrlculus varlegatus
Worm,
Nals sp.
Snal 1 (embryo) ,
Amnlcola sp.
Snail (adult),
Amnlcola sp.
Snail (adult),
Hellsoma campanu 1 atum
Snail (adult),
Hellsoma campanu 1 atum
Snail,
Physa heterostropha
Sna 1 1 ,
Physa heterostropha
Snail (adult),
Physa heterostropha
Snail (adult),
Physa heterostropha
Snail (young),
Physa heterostropha
Snail (young),
Physa heterostropha
Method*
S, U
S, U
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
S, U
Chemical
Zinc sulfate
Zinc chloride
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sul fate
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sul fate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOO
FRESHWATER
100
30
50
50
50
100
20
44.55
166.5
100
20
100
20
LC50
or EC50
(Mg/L)*«
SPECIES
>2,274
6,300
18,400tt
20,200tt
14,000n
1 ,273
1,273
1,800
6 ,200
3,184
1.114
1,400
(12.8 C)
437
(12.8 C)
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
9,584
18,400
20,200
14,000
720
2,702
1,979
2,308
1,802
2,364
792
927
Species Mean
Acute Value
dig/D"** Reference
Wurtz and Bridges
1961
9,584 Bailey and Liu 1980
18,400 Rehwoldt et al . 1973
Rehwoldt et al . 1973
16,817 Rehwoldt et al. 1973
Wurtz 1962
1,395 Wurtz 1962
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960; Cairns
and Scheler 19586
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960; Cairns
and Scheler 1958b
Wurtz and Bridges
1961; Wurtz 1962
Wurtz and Bridges
1961; Wurtz 1962
Wurtz 1962
1,558 Wurtz 1962
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Asiatic clam (10-21 mm),
Corblcula flumlnea
Cladoceran,
Cerlodaphnla retlculata
Cladoceran,
Cerlodaphnla retlculata
Cladoceran,
Cerlodaphnla retlculata
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulex
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulex
Method*
s,
S,
S.
S.
S.
s,
s.
F,
s.
s.
s,
s.
S,
s.
M
U
U
M
U
U
M
M
M
M
M
U
M
U
Chemical
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
sulfate
chloride
chloride
chloride'
chloride
sulfate
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
-
sul fate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO?)
64
45
45
45
45.3
45
130
54
105
196
45
45
45
LC50 Adjusted
or EC50 LC50 or EC50
6,040n
76
41
32
<71.95
100
280
798.9
334
525
655
68
500
107
4,932
83
45
35
108
305
364.5
314
285
213
74
545
117
Species Mean
Acute Value
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species Method* Chemical
Isopod (3-7 mm), F, M Zinc sulfate
Asel lus blcrenata .
Isopod, S, U Zinc sulfate
Asel lus communls
Isopod, S, U Zinc sulfate
Asel I us communls
Isopod (3-7 mm), F, M Zinc sulfate
Llrceus alabamae
Amphlpod, S, M - " '
Gammarus sp.
Damsel fly, S, U Zinc sulfate
Argla sp.
Damsel fly, S, M -
Unidentified sp.
Caddlsfly, S, M -
Unidentified sp.
American eel, S, M Zinc nitrate
Angul I la rostrata
Vr
American eel, S, M -
Angul I la rostrata
Coho salmon, F, M Zinc chloride
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Coho salmon (yearling), R, M Zinc chloride
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Sockeye salmon (parr), F, M Zinc chloride
Oncorhynchus nerka
Chinook salmon (alevln), F, M Zinc chloride
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (juvenile), F, M Zinc sulfate
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Hardness
(mg/L as
LC50
or EC50
220
100
20
152
50
20
50
50
53
55
25
94
22
23
21
20, no7
8,755
12,734
8.3751
8,100
40,930
26,200
58,100
14,600
14,500
905
4,600
749
>661
84
tt
tt
tt
tt
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
(n9/L)"»
5,956
4,955
27,027
3,360
8,100
86,870
26,200
58,100
13,918
13,408
1,599
2,739
1,470
171
Species Mean
Acute Value
5,956
11,572
3,360
8,100
86,870
26,200
58,100
13,661
2,093
1,470
Reference
Bosnak and Morgan
1981
Wurtz and Bridges
1961
Wurtz and Bridges
1961
Bosnak and Morgan
1981
Rehwoldt et al. 1973
Wurtz and Bridges
1961
Rehwoldt et al. 1973
Rehwoldt et al. 1973
Rehwoldt et al. 1971
Rehwoldt et al. 1972
Chapman and Stevens 1978
Lorz and McPherson
1976; 1977
Chapman 1975, 1978a
Chapman 1975, 1978b
Flnlayson and Verrue
1982
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Chinook salmon
(swim-up alevln),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Method* Chemical
F, M
Zinc chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC05)
23
LC50
or EC50
(nq/L)"»
97
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
Species Mean
Acute Value
183
Chinook salmon (parr),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (smolt),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Cutthroat trout
(finger! Ing),
Sal mo dark!
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (Juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (30.5 g) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (22.6 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Raln6ow trout (29.7 g) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (18.3 g) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (2.0 g) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (34.6 g) ,
F,
F,
R,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
* F,
F,
F,
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
chloride
chloride
sulfate
sul fate
sul fate
sulfate
sul fate
sulfate
sulfate
sulfate
sulfate
sul fate
23
23
_
504
330
25
30
30
30
312
312
23
463
701
90"
4,760
7,210
430
430
810
410
4,520
1,190
560
876
1,326
_
714
1,530
760
654
1,232
624
1,005
264
1,060
437
Reference
Chapman 1975, 19786
Chapman 1975, 19786
Chapman 1975, 19786
Rabe and Sapplngton
1970
Sol6e 1974
Slnley et al. 1974
Slnley et al. 1974
Goettl et al. 1974
Goettl et al. 1974
Goettl et al. 1974
Goettl et al. 1974, 1976
Goettl et al. 1974, 1976
Goettl et al. 1974, 1976
Sal mo galrdner I
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Rainbow trout (4,9 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (52.1 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (15.4 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (72 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (alevln),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout
(swim-up alevln),
Salmo galrdnerl .
Rainbow trout (parr),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (smolt),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (Juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
lethod* Chemical
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
R, U
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
ZJnc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
sul fate
sulfate
sul fate
sulfate
sulfate
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
sulfate
sulfate
sul fate
sulfate
sulfate
' Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCO,)
22
30
314
102
5
23
23
23
23
46.8
47.0
44.4
178
179
LC50
or EC50
(tig/L)**
240
830
7,210
98
280
815
93
136
:-651
370
517
756
2,510
2,960
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Spec1es
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (finger I Ing),
Salmo galrdnerl
Atlantic salmon (yearling),
Salmo salar
Atlantic salmon (parr),
Salmo salar
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
SalvelInus fontlnalIs
Brook trout (Juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Lonqfln dace (juvenile),
Agosla chrysogaster
Goldfish,
Carasslus auratus
Method* Chemical
Goldfish (1-2 g),
Carasslus auratus
Common carp (<20 cm),
Cyprlnus carplo
F, M
S, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
F, M
R, M
S, U
S, U
S, M
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc ..sulfate
*•
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc nitrate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC03)
170
14
14
14
46.8
47.0
44.4
178
179
170
217
50
20
53
LC50
or EC50
(Mq/L)««
1,910
560
420
740
1,550
2,120
2,420
6,140
6,980
Adjusted
LC50 or EC50
(pg/L)»«*
699
1,593
1,195
2,105
1,637
2,231
2,668
2,164
2,449
Species Mean
Acute Value
4,980 1,823
790ttt 237
7,500
6,440
7,800
tt
7,500
13,668
7,435
691
1,586
2,133
237
10,125
Reference
HoI combe and Andrew
1978
Spry and Wood 1984
Sprague and Ramsay
1965
Carson and Carson 1972
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Ho I combe and Andrew
1978
Lewis 1978
Cairns et al. 1970
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Rehwoldt et al. 1971
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Common carp,
Cyprlnus carplo
Common carp (2.1 g) ,
Cyprlnus carplo
Golden shiner,
Notemlqonus crysoleucas
Fathead minnow (fry),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (embryo),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Hardness LC50 Adjusted
(mg/L as or EC50 LC50 or EC50
Method* Chemical CaCOj) (ug/L)»* (Mg/L)*««
S, M - 55 7,800tf 7,213
R, U Zinc sulfate 19 3,120 6,907
S, U Zinc sulfate 50 6,000 6,000
F, M Zinc sulfate 174- 870
198
F, M Zinc sulfate 174- 1,835
198
S, U Zinc sulfate 20 960 2,038
S, U Zinc sulfate 20 780 1,655
S, U Zinc sulfate 360 33,400 6,601
F, M Zinc sulfate 63 12,500 10,339
'»••
F, M Zinc sulfate 54 13,800 12,955
F, M Zinc sulfate 97 18,500 10,735
F, M Zinc sulfate 103 25,000 13,809
F, M Zinc sulfate 212 29,000 8,854
F, M Zinc sulfate 208 35,500 11,010
Species Mean
Acute Value
dig/I-)"** Reference
Rehwoldt et al . 1972
Khangarot et al. 1983
7,182 Cairns et al. 1970
Pickering et al. 1965
Pickering et al . 1965
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Mount 1966
Mount 1966
Mount 1966
Mount 1966
Mount 1966
Mount 1966
Plmephales promelas
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Fathead minnow (1-2 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (44.6 mm),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (2-3 g) ,
Method*
F,
F.
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F,
F.
F,
F,
F,
s,
F,
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
U
M
Chemical
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zfnc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
sul fate
sulfate
sulfate
sul fate
su 1 f a te ,
sulfate
sulfate
sulfate
sul fate
sul fate
sulfate
sul fate
sulfate
sul fate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
54
63
100
99
186
195
54
49
98
102
193
216
166
203
LCSO
or EC50
dig/D**
13
6
12
12
19
13
4
5
8
9
8
15
7
8
,700
,200
,500
,500
,000
,600
,700
,100
,100
,900
,200
,500
,630
,400
Adjusted
LCSO or EC50
12,
5,
7,
7,
6,
4,
4,
5,
4,
5,
2,
4,
2,
2,
861
128
074
133
459
447
412
185
661
512
704
660
848
658
Species Mean
Acute Value
(Mg/L)»»«» Reference
Mount
Mount
- Mount
Mount
Moun t
Mount
Mount
Mount
Mount
Mount
Mount
Mount
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
1966
Rachlln am
1968
Brungs
196<
Plmephales promelas
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Fathead minnow (2-3 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (2-3 g),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (2-3 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (4 wks),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (1-2 g) ,
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (juvenile),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (adult),
Plmephales promelas
Fathead minnow (larva),
Plmephales promelas
Northern squawflsh
( juvenl te) ,
Ptychochel lus oreqonensls
Northern squawflsh
(juvenile),
Ptychochel lus oregonensls
Method*
F, M
S, U
S, U
F, M
S, M
F, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
F, M
F, M
Chemical
Z1nc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Zinc chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaC03)
203
203
203
46
45
220
103
(100)
254-271
(250)
45
20-30
20-30
LC50
or EC50
Uq/D"
10,000
12,000
13,000
600
3,100
2,610
6,090
7,450
396
3,498
3,693
Adjusted Species Mean
LC50 or EC50 Acute Value
(pgA.)"" (ng/L)"«"» Reference
3,164
3,797
4,113
643
3,380
773
3,364
-
432
6,181*"
6,526*"
Brungs 1969
Brungs 1969
Brungs 1969
Benolt and Holcombe 1978
Judy and Davles 1979
Broderlus and Smith
1979
Blrqe et al . 1983;
and Blrge 19B5
B1rge et al . 1983;
and Blrge 1985
4,239 Carlson and Roush
Andros and Garton
6,351 Andros and Garton
Benson
Benson
1985
1980
1980
White sucker (17.7 g), F, M
Catostomus commersonl
Zinc chloride
18
2,200
5,091
5,091 Duncan and Klaverkamp
1983
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Banded kllllflsh «20 cm),
Fundulus dlaphanus
Banded kllllflsh,
Fundulus dlaphanus
Flagflsh (juvenile),
Jordanella florldae
Guppy (6 mo),
Poecllla retlculata
Guppy,
PoeclI la retlculata
Guppy (fry),
PoecIlia retlculata
Guppy (adult male),
Poecllla retlculata
Guppy (adult female),
PoeclI la retlculata
Southern platyflsh
(20.8 mm),
X1phoph<">rus maculatus
White perch «20 cm),
Morone amerlcana
White perch,
Morone amerlcana
Striped bass (finger I Ing),
Morone saxatlI Is
Striped bass,
Morons saxatlI Is
Striped bass (larva),
Morone saxatlI Is
Method*
S, M
S, M
F, M
S, U
S, U
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, U
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, M
S, U
Chemical
Zinc nitrate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sulfate
Zinc sutfate
2lnc nitrate
Zinc nitrate
Zinc chloride
Hardness LC50 Adjusted
(mg/L as or EC50 LC50 or EC50
CaCOy) (ng/L)*» dig/D***
53 19,100tf
55 19,200ft
44 1,500
20 1,270
120 30,000
30 1,740
30 5,050
30 6,400
166 12,000
53 14,300tt
55 14,400n
53 6,700tf
55 6,800™
34.5 100
18,208
17,754
1,666
2,695
14,617
2,647
7,682
9,736
4,479
13,632
13,316
6,387
6,288
136
Species Mean
Acute Value
(pg/L)1"""
17,980
1,666
6,004
4,479
13,473
Reference
Rehwoldt et al. 1971
Rehwoldt et al. 1972
Spehar 1976a,b
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Cairns et al. 1970
Plerson 1981
Plerson 1981
Plerson 1981
Rachlln and Per Imutter
1968
Rehwoldt et al. 1971
Rehwoldt et al. 1972
Rehwoldt et at. 1971
Rehwoldt et al. 1972
Hughes 1973
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species
Striped bass (fIngerlIng),
Morone saxatllls
Striped bass (63 d),
Morone saxatIlls
Striped bass <63 d),
Morone saxat11 Is
Pumpklnsoed (<20 cm),
Lepomls qlbbosus
Pumpklnseed,
Lepomls qlbbosus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (2.5-3.9 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (0.96 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (2.80 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (54.26 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (3.5-3.9 g),
Lepomls macrochlrus
Method*
S, U
s.
s,
s.
s.
s,
s,
s,
s,
s,
F,
F,
F,
s.
U
U
M
M
M
M
M
M
U
M
M
M
U
Chemical
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
Zinc
chlor Ide
chloride
chloride
nitrate
-
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOO
34.5
40
285
53
55
45
45
174
174
44.3
44.55
44.55
44.55
44.55
LC50 Adjusted
or EC50 LC50 or EC50
(ng/L)** (iig/L)***
100
120
430
20,000"
20,100"
3.750""t
3,430"*"
12,390*""
12,120**"*
8,020
3,573
3,453
3,314
4,200
136
144
103
19,065
18,587
4,089
3,740
4,449
4,352
8,858
3,928
3,796
3,643
4,618
Species Mean
Acute Value
(uq/L)**** Reference
Hughes 1973
Palawskl et al. 191
471 Palawskl et al . 191
Rehwoldt et al. 19:
18,824 Rehwoldt et al. 19'
Cairns and Scheler
1957
Cairns and Scheler
1957
Cairns and Scheler
1957
Cairns and Scheler
1957
Cairns and Scheler
1958a; Academy of
• Natural Sciences 1?
Cairns and Scheler
1959
Cairns and Scheler
1959
Cairns and Scheler
1959
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960; Cairns
and Scheler 1968
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Species Method* Chemical
BluegJII (3.5-3.9 g) , S, U Zinc chloride
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) , S, U Zinc sulfate
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) , S, U Zinc sulfate
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueqlll (1-2 g) , S, U Zinc sulfate
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) , S, U . Zinc chloride
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) , S, U Zinc sulfate
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (1-2 g) , S, U
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (49 mm), F, M Zinc sulfate
Lepomls macrochlrus
Mozambique tllapla (18 g), S, U Zinc chloride
T1 lapla moss amb lea
Hardness LC50 Adjusted
(mg/L as or EC50 LC50 or EC50
CaCO,) (Hq/L)»« (uq/L>"»
166.5 12,900 4,803
20 5,460 11,588
20 4 ,,850 10,294
20 5,820 12,352
20 5,370 11,397
360 40,900 8,083
20 6,440 13,668
21.2- 3,200
59.2
115 1,600ft 807
Species Mean
Acute Value
(ng/L)««** Reference
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
Pickering and Henderson
1966
6,281 Thompson et al. 1980
807 Qureshl and Saksena
1980
* S = static, R = renewal, F = flow-through, M = measured, U = unmeasured.
** Results are expressed as zinc, not as the chemical.
*** Freshwater LCSOs and ECSOs were adjusted to hardness = 50 mg/L using pooled slope = 0.8131 (see text).
••»» Freshwater Species Mean Acute Values are calculated at a hardness of 50 mg/L.
* Average of values calculated using two different methods.
" In river water.
In stream water.
The midpoint (25 mg/L) of the hardness range provided was used to adjust the LC50 to a hardness of 50 mg/L.
^ttttCalculated by loglt analysis of the authors' data,
-------
Table 1. (Continued)
Results of Covarlance Analysis of Freshwater Acute Toxlclty versus Hardness
Species
Physa heterostropha
Daphnla magna
Rainbow trout
Brook trout
Fathead minnow
(juvenl le)
Fathead minnow
(adult)
Striped bass
Blueglll
All of above
n
2
7
23
6
30
' 3
4
17
92
Slope
0.9373
1.2549
0.7964
0.8179
1.0520
0.2234
0.6701
0.5694
0.8213*
95 J Confidence Limits Degrees of Freedom
0
5
21
4
28
1
2
15
83
* P = 0.73 for equality of slopes.
-------
Table 2. Chronic Toxlclty of Zinc to Aquatic Animals
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Caddlsfly,
Cllstoronla magnlflca
Chinook salmon,
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Brook trout,
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
Flagflsh,
Jordanella florldae
Guppy,
Poec Ilia r et 1 cu 1 ata
Test*
LC
LC
LC
LC
ELS
ELS
ELS
LC
LC
LC
LC
Chemical
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc ,
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as Limits
(CaC05) «§g/L)»»
FRESHWATER SPECIES
52 97-190
104 43-52
211 42-52
31 >5,243t
25 270-510
26 140-547
25 444-819
45.9 534-1 ,368
46 78-145
44 26-51
30 <173t1-
Chronic Value
(§g/L)**
135.8
47.29
46.73
>5,243
371.1
276.7
603
854.7
106.3
36.4
<173
Reference
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Chapman et al .
Manuscript
Nebeker et al .
Chapman 1975
1984
Slnley et al . 1974
Cairns et al . 1982
Hoi combe et al . 1979
Benolt and Hoi combe
1978
Spehar 1976a,
Plerson 1981
b
* LC = life-cycle or partial life-cycle; ELS = early life-stage.
** Results are expressed as zinc, not as the chemical.
* The highest tested concentration did not cause unacceptable effects.
** Unacceptable effects occurred at all concentrations tested.
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
Acute-Chron]c Rat!o
Hardness
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Chinook salmon (ale'vln), '
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Ch 1 nook sa 1 mon
(swim-up alevln),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (parr),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Chinook salmon (smolt),
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
Rainbow trout (juvenile),
Salmo galrdnerl
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Brook trout (Juvenile),
Salvellnus fontlnalls
Fathead minnow (juvenile),
(mg/L as
CaCOj)
52-54
104-105
196-211
23-25
23-25
23-25
23-25
25-26
45.9-46.8
45.9-47.0
44.4-45.9
46
Acute Value
(Mg/D
334
525
655
>661
97
463
701
430
1,550
2,120
2,420
600
Chronic Value
(pq/L)
135.8
47.29
46.73
371.1
371.1
371.1
371.1
276.7
854.7
854.7
854.7
106.3
Ratio
2.459
11.10
14.02
>1.781
0.2614
1.248
1.889
1.554
1.814
2.480
2.831
5.644
Plmephales promelas
-------
Table 2. (Continued)
Acute-Chronic Ratio
Species
Flagflsh,
Jordanella florldae
Guppy (fry) ,
Poecll la retlculata
Guppy (adult male),
Poecll la retlculata
Guppy (adult female),
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOO
44
30
30
30
Acute Value
(nq/LJ
1,500
1,740
5,050
6,400
Chronic Value
(pq/L)
36.4
<173
<173
<173
Ratio
41.21
>10.06
>29.19
>36.99
Poecllla retlculata
-------
Table 3. (Continued)
Rank*
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
Genus Mean
Acute Value
»«
8,100
7,182
6,351
6,004
5,956
5,091
4,932
4,479
4,239
3,360
2,133
1,666
1,558
1,395
Species
Amphlpod,
Gammarus sp.
Golden shiner,
Notemlponus crysoleucas
Northern squawflsh,
Ptychochel lus oreqonensls
Guppy,
Poecllls retlculata
1 sopod ,
Asel lus blcrenata
White sucker,
Catostomus commersont
Asiatic clam.
Cor bleu la flumlnea
Southern platyflsh,
Xlphophorus maculatus
Fathead minnow,
Plmephales promelas
1 sopod ,
Llrceus alabamae
BrooK trout,
Salvellnus fontl nails
Flagflsh,
Jordanel la f lorldae
Snail,
Physa heterostropha
Snail.
Species Mean
Acute Value
22.14f
5.644
2.335f
41.21
He I lsomj> campanulatum
-------
TabU 3. (Continued)
Rank*
6
5
4
3
2
1
Genus Mean
Acute Value
(wq/L)»« Species
1,104 Coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Sockeye salmon,
Oncorhynchus nerka
Chinook salmon,
Oncorhynchus tshawytscha
1,047 Rainbow trout,
Sal mo galr drier 1
Atlantic salmon,
Salmo salar
807 Mozambique tllapla,
T1 lap la mossamblca
237 Longfln dace,
Aqosla chrysogaster
229 Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulex
Cladoceran,
Daphnla tnagna
51 Cladoceran,
Cerlodaphnla retlculata
Species Mean
Acute Value
(na/L)"«
2,093
1,470
437
691
1,586
807
237
252
208
51
Species Mean
Acute-Chronic
Rat1o»««*
O.BSIO1"
1.554
-
7.260f
* Ranked from most resistant to most sensitive based on Genus Mean Acute Value.
** Freshwater Genus Mean Acute Values are at hardness * 50 mg/L.
*** From Table 1; freshwater values are at a hardness « 50 mg/L.
•••* From Table 2.
* Geometric mean of three values In Table 2.
tt
Geometric mean of values In Table 2.
-------
Table 5. (Continued)
fresh water
Final Acute Value = 112.2 wg/L (at hardness - 50 mg/L)
Criterion Maximum Concentration » (112.2 wg/L) 72= 56.10 gg/L (at hardness » 50
mg/L)
Pooled Slope = 0.8213 (see Table 1)
In (Criterion Maximum Intercept) =• In (56.10) - (slope x ln(50)l
= 4.027 - (0.6213 x 3.912) - 0.8141
Criterion Maximum Concentration = e(0«8213 11n(hardness)I + 0.8141)
Final Acute-Chronic Ratio - 2.633
Final Chronic Value - (56.10 Mg/L) / 2.633 - 21,31 wg/L (at hardness - 50 mg/L)
Final Chronic Intercept - e°'8141 / 2.633
» 2.257 / 2.633 « 0.8572
Natural logarithm of 0.8572 =» -0.1541
Chronic Slope - 0.8213
Final Chronic Value- e<0.8213 11 n( hardness) I -0.1541)
-------
Table 4. Toxlclty of Zinc to Plants
Species
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOxL (days) Effect
Result
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Blue-green alga,
Chroococcus par Is
Green alga,
Chlamydomonas varlabllls
Green alga,
Chlamydomonas sp.
Green alga,
Chlorella pyrenoldosa
Green alga,
Chlorella saccharophl la
Green alga,
Chlorel la sal Ina
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgar Is
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgar Is
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgar Is
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Green alga,
Selenastrum caprlcornutum
Green alga,
Selenastrum caprlcornutum
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
10
6
68 10
4
4
4
4
15
33
68 5
4
7
14
Reduced growth >400
30$ reduction In 503
division rate
Reduced growth 15,000
LC50 >200,000
EC50 7,100
LC50 >200,000
EC50 2,400
(growth)
EC50 11,990-23,980
(growth)
EC50 5,100
(cell division)
Reduced growth 20,000
LC50 >200,000
Incipient growth 30
Inhibition
EC95 40.4
(growth)
Les and Walker 1984
Bates et al . 1983
Cairns et al . 1978
Wong et al. 1979
Rachl In et al . 1982
Wong et al. 1979
Rachl In and Farran
1974
Ral et at. 1981
Rosko and Rachl In
1977
Cairns et al . 1978
Wong et al . 1979
Bartlett et al. 197-
Greene et al . 1975
-------
'able 4 (continued)
Species
Green alga,
Selenastrum caprlcornutum
Green alga,
Selenastrum caprlcornutum
Diatom,
CycIote11 a meneghInI ana
Diatom,
Navlcula Incerta
Diatom,
Navlcula semlnulum
Diatom,
Navlcula semlnulum
Diatom,
Navlcula semlnulum
Diatom,
Navlcula semlnulum
DI atom,
Navlcula semlnulum
Diatom,
Navlcula semlnulum
Diatom,
Nltzschla llnearls
Duckweed,
Lemna minor
Chemical
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOxL (days) Effect
Resu 1 t
Reference
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Su 1 fate
FRESHWATER SPECIES
«
*"
68
-
58.46
58.46
58.46
174
174
174
294.6
14
0.167
5
4
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
EC95
(growth)
50? reduction
In oxygen pro-
duction
Reduced
growth
EC50
EC 50
(growth)
EC50
(growth)
EC50
(growth)
EC50
(growth)
EC50
(growth)
EC50
(growth)
LC50
68.0
1,000
20,000
10,000
4,290
1,590
1,320
4,050
2,310
3,220
4,300
Greene et al . 1975
Hendrlcks 1978
Cairns et al. 1978
Rachlln et al. 198:
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences I960
Patrick et al. 196£
28 Phytotoxlclty 67,700
(50? damage)
Brown and Rattlgan
1979
-------
'able 4 (continued)
Species
Eurasian waterml Ifol 1 ,
Myrlophyllum splcatum
Macrophyte,
E lodea canadensls
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as
Duration
(days)
Result
Effect ($g/O*
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Zinc
Sulfate
_
32
28
EC50 21,600
(root weight)
Phytotoxlclty 22,500
(50% damage)
Stanley 1974
Brown and Ra
1979
-------
Table 5. Bloaccumulatton of Zinc by Aquatic Organisms
Hardness
Species
Asiatic clam,
(1-3 yrs).
Cor bleu la flumlnea
Asiatic clam,
(1-3 yrs),
Cor bleu la flumlnea
Astatic clam,
(1-3 yrs),
Corblcula flumlnea
Mayfly,
Ephemerel la grandla
Stonef ly,
Pteronarcys callfornlca
Atlantic salmon,
Salmo salar
Flagflsh,
Jordanella florldae
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata
Guopy,
Poec Ilia ret 1 cu 1 ata
Chemical
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Concentration (mg/L as
In water ($g/L)" CaCOjL
FRESHWATER SPECIES
218 58.3
433 58.3
835 58.3
30-70
30-70
12-24
139 45
173 30
328 30
607 30
Duration
(days)
28
28
' 28
14
14
80
100
134
134
134
Tissue
Soft
Tissue
Soft
Tissue
Soft
Tissue
Whole
body
Whole
body
Whole
body
Whole
body
Whole
body
Whole
body
Whole
body
BCF or
BAF»»
126.2f
71.6*
102.2*
1,130
106
51
417.3*
477.8
543.9
492.8
965.5
466.3
512.4
Reference
Graney et al.
Graney et al .
Graney et al .
Nehrlng 1976
Nehrlng 1976
Farmer et al .
Spehar et al .
Plerson 1981
Plerson 1981
Plerson 1981
1983
1983
1983
1979
1978
* Concentration of zinc, not the chemical.
** Bloconcentratlon factors (BCF) and bloaccumulatlon factors (BAF) are based on zinc,
not the chemical.
Factor was converted from dry weight to wet weight basis.
-------
Table 6. Other Data on Effects of Zinc on Aquatic Organisms
Hardness
Species
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgarls
Green alga,
Selenastrum caprlcornutum
Green alga,
Chlorel la vulgarls
Green alga,
Pedlastrum tetras
Green alga,
Scenedesmus quadrlcauda
Perlphyton,
Mixed species
Bacter 1 urn ,
Escherlchla col 1
Bacterium,
Escherlchla col 1
Protozoan ,
Mlcroregma heterostoma
Protozoan,
Parameclum caudatum
Euglena,
Euglena vlrldls
Chemical
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Phosphate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
(fflg/L as Duration
CaCOj) (days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
1 hr
14 days
3 wks
3 wks
96 hrs
3 wks*
30 mln
28 hrs
1.5 hrs
3 wks
Effect
33$ reduction
In survival
Inhibited growth
BCF=210
BCF=133
Incipient In-
hibition (river
water)
BAF=1.100-6,304
EC50 (Inhibition
of TDH activity)
Incipient
Inhibition
Incipient
Inhibition
Reduced vital Ity
BCF=144
Result
(ig/D*
100,000
64ig/L
1,066-1,400
(1,200)
653.7
1,400-2,300
330
2,500
Reference
Agrawal 1984
Carton 1972
Coleman et al
Coleman et al
Brlngtnann and
1959a, b
Johnson et al
Cencl et al .
Brlngmann and
1959a
Brlngmann and
1959b
Mills 1976
Coleman et al
. 1971
. 1971
Kuhn
. 1978
1985
Kuhn
Kuhn
. 1971
Plankton,
2 wks Reduced primary
productivity
15
Marshall et al. 1983
* This field study was conducted In two small lakes which were analyzed extensively for cadmium and zinc.
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCO^L (days)
Result
Effect
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Zooplankton,
Rotifer,
Phllodlna acutlcornls
Worm,
Aeolosoma headleyl
Tubl field worm,
Tublfex tublfex
Tublflcld worm,
Tublfex tublfex and
Llmnodrllus hoffmelsterl
Snail,
Gon 1 obas Is II vescens
Snail,
Nltocrls sp.
Snail,
Lymnaea emarglnata
Snail (adult),
Hellsoma campanulatum
Snail (adult),
Hellsoma campanulatum
Zinc - 3 wks
Chloride
Zinc 45 48 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc 45 48 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc 224 48 hrs
Chloride
Zinc - 24 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc 137-171 48 hrs
Sul fate
Zinc 45 48 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc - 137-171 48 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc 20 96 hrs
Sulfate
Zinc 100 96 hrs
Su 1 fate
Reduced crustacean 100
density and diversity
LC50(5C) 1,550
(IOC) 1,300
(15C) 780
(20C) 600
(25C) 500
LC50(5C) 18,000
(IOC) 17,600
(15C) 15,600
(20C) 15,000
(25C) 13,500
LC50 130,000
LC50 46,000
LC50 13,500
LC50(5C) 4,800
(IOC) 4,600
(15C) 2,800
(20C) 1 ,900
(25C) 1,650
UC50 4 , 1 50
LC50 875.5
(12. 8C)
LC50 3,047
(12. 8C)
Marshal 1 et al . 1981
Cairns et al . 1978
Cairns et al. 1978
Qureshl et al. 1980
Whltley 1968
Cairns et al . 1976
Cairns et al. 1978
Cairns et al . 1976
Wurtz 1962
Wurtz 1962
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCpj) (days)
Result
Effect
Reference
— -r - B - — _ 1 •• ll^^»»^ •! !• 11 1. • -!• — II.JIH 1 _»P«ta
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Cladoceran (adult),
Daphnla galeata mendotae
Cladoceran (young),
Daphnla galeata mendotae
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla maqna
Cladoceran (3-5 days),
Daphnla maqna
Chemical
Hardness
(uiQ/L as
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc ,
SuI fate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
2. ins
Duration
(days)
Result
Effect
FRESHWATER SPECIES
45.3
45.3
45.3
288
4.5
2 wks BCF=9,400 (15 ig Zn/L)
BCF=5,833 (30 $g Zn/L)
BCF=6,333 (60 ig Zn/L)
2 wks BCF=9,933 (15 $g Zn/L)
BCF=6,933 (30 Sg Zn/L)
16 hrs EC50
(ImmoblIIzatlon)
48 hrs EC50
(River water)
48 hrs EC50
(ImmoblIIzatlon)
(Fed)
21 days
21 days
24 hrs
72 hrs
EC50
( Immobl 1 Izatlon)
}6% reproductive
Impairment
EC50
(swimming)
LCSO(IOC)
(15C)
(25C)
(30C)
Reference
Marshal I et al. 1983
Marshall et al. 1983
<19,440 Anderson 1944
1,800 Brlngmann and Kuhn
1959a, b
280 Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
158 Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
70 Bleslnger and
Chrlstensen 1972
14,000 Brlngmann and Kuhn
1977
5,050 Braglnskly and
1,096 Shcherban 1978
565
14.0
f|e)(3i
t si,
•
1,100
'
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Cladoceran,
Daphnla magna
Cladoceran,
Daphnla pulex
Chemical
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as
CaCOjl
130-160
45
Duration
(days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
50-70 days
48 hrs
Effect
Reduced
longevity
LC50(5C)
(IOC)
(15C)
(25C)
Result
(*g/U* Reference
100 Winner 1981
1,600 Cairns et al. 1978
1,200
940
280
Cladoceran
Bosmlna longlrostrls
Cladoceran,
Eubosmlna coreqonl
Mayfly,
Cloeon dlpterum
Mayfly (naiad),
Ephemeral la grand Is
Mayfly,
Ephemerella subvarla
Stonefly (naiad),
Pteronarcys callfornlca
Stonefly,
Acroneurla lycorlas
Caddlsfly,
Hydropsyche bettenl
Midge,
Chlronomous sp.
2 wks BCF=11,930 (15 ig Zn/L)
BCF= 6,300 (30 5g Zn/L)
BCF= 5,183 (60 ig Zn/L)
2 wks BCF=10,870 (15 §g Zn/L)
ECF= 6,833 (30 *g Zn/L)
BCF= 3,867 (60 $g Zn/L)
Marshall et al. 1983
Marshall et al. 1983
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Su 1 fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
-
30-70
54
30-70
50
52
50
72
14
10
14
14
11
96
hrs
days
days
days
days
days
hrs
LC50UOC) 35,710 Braglnskly and
(15C) 6,920 Shcherban 1978
(25C) 2,846
(30C) 1,330
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
LC50
>9,200 Nehrlng
Warnlck
1969
>13,900 Nehrlng
32,000 Warnlck
1969
32,000 Warnlck
1969
18,200 Rehwoldt
1976
and Bel
1976
and Bel
and Bel
et al.
1
1
1
-------
Table 6 (continued)
SpecIes
Midge (embryo to 3rd Instar),
Tanytarsus dlsslmllls
Coho salmon (fry),
Oncorhynchus klsutch
Rainbow trout
(7.62 cm),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout
(7.62 cm),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fIngerlIng),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (3-4 mos),
Salmo galrdnerI
Rainbow trout (yearling),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
(46.7-125.5 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (13.7 g),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Chemical
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOm) (days)
Effect
Result
(Sg/D* Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
46.8
3-10
15-20
320
320
44
320
320
320
290
10 days
24 hrs
7 days
3 days
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
48 hrs
5 days
LC50
Decrease white
blood eel Is
LC50 (Fed)
LC50 (Fed)
LC50
LC50 (high
sod 1 urn ch 1 or 1 de
LC50 (low 0.0.)
LC50
LC50
LC50
36.8
500
560
3,500
3,860
910
2,400
2,460
5,000
4,600
Anderson et
McLeay 1975
Lloyd 1961
Lloyd 1961
Herbert and
1964
Herbert and
1964
Herbert and
1964
Herbert and
1964
Herbert and
1964
Ball 1967
at. 198(
Shurben
Shurben
Shurben
VanDyke
Wakeforc
290
13-15
100 days Damaged gills
800
10 mlns
Avoidance
5.6
Brown et al . 1968
Sprague 1968
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout (1 yr),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (100.9 g),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fry),
Sal mo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (embryo),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (fingerI Ing
to adult),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (200 mm),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (yearling),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout (2 mos),
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
(embryo, larva),
Salmo galrdnerl
Chemical
Zinc
SuI fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Phosphate
Sine
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
SuI fate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Acetate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
(days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
240
51
20
25
333
51-68
98
374
36
104
(92-110)
48 hrs
96 hrs
5 days
22 mos
48 hrs
10 days
Effect
LC50
Result
(ig/L)» Reference
4,000 Brown and Da I ton 1970
Tissue hypoxla 40,000 Burton et at. 1972
LC50
LC50
LC10
90
Decreased blood 1,430
P02 and pH
LC50
800
5.1-10.5 Increased lactic 15,340
hrs acid
85 days Inhibited growth 1,120
96 hrs LC50 550
24 hrs LC50(5C) 2,800
(15C) 1,560
(30C) 2,100
28 days EC50 (death and 1,060
deformity) (1,120)
Carton 1972
135 Sin ley et at. 1974
1,055 Slnley et at. 1974
Sellers et at. 1975
Goettl et al. 1976
Hod son 1976
Watson and McKeown
1976
Hale 1977
Cairns et al. 1978
Blrge 1978; Blrge et
al. 1978, 1980
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Rainbow trout,
(embryo, larva),
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout.
Sal mo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
(80-120 g),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout (50 q) ,
Salmo qalrdner 1
Rainbow trout,
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
( juvenl le) ,
Salmo galrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
( Juven lie),
Salmo qalrdnerl
Rainbow trout,
( f Ingerl Inqs),
Salmo galrdnerl
Atlantic salmon (parr),
Salmo salar
Atlantic salmon,
(7.38 g),
Salmo salar
Chemical
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc-
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOj)_ (days)
FRESHWATER SPECIES
102
(92-110)
112
18.7
6.0-6.5
14
18
14
28 days
40 mln
30 days
72 hrs
96 hrs
9 days
42 days
96 hrs
4 hrs
23-25 hrs
Effect
EC10 (death and
deformity)
94 Percent
avoidance
Increased gill
enzymes
LC50
Circulatory
vasoconstr let Ion
Hyperglycemla
i,
Damaged
Hepatocytes
LC50
EC50 (avoidance)
Median survival
time
Result
<*g/L)«
451
47
290
2,000
1,250
352
431.5
670
(pH=6.0)
49.88
954.4
Reference
Blrqe et al. 1980,
1981
Black and Blrge 1980
Watson and Beam! sh
1980
Loveqrove and Eddy
1982
Tuurala and Solvlo
1982
Waqner and McKeown
1982
Lei and 1983
Spry and Wood 1984
Spraque 1964
Zltko and Carson 1971
Atlantic salmon,
Salmo salar
14
96-182 hrs Incipient lethal 150-1,000 Zltko and Carson 1977
level
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species Chemical
Atlantic salmon. Zinc
(Juvenile), . Sulfate
Sal mo salar
Goldfish (Immature), Zinc
Carasslus auratus Sulfate
Goldfish, Zinc
(embryo, larva), . Chloride
Carasslus auratus
Goldfish, Zinc
Carasslus auratus Sulfate
Common carp (embryo), Zinc
Cyprlnus carplo Sulfate
Common carp (350-400 q), Zinc
Cyprlnus carplo Chloride
Common carp (2.1 g). Zinc
Cyprlnus carplo Sulfate
Golden shiner, Zinc
NotemIgenius crysoleucas Sulfate
Fathead minnow (1-2 g), Zinc
Plmephales promolas Sulfate
Fathead minnow (1-2 g), Zinc
Plmephales promelas Acetate
Fathead minnow. Zinc
Plmephales promelas Sulfate
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCOO (days)
Effect
Result
(ig/D* Reference
p> ' • •
FRESHWATER SPECIES
12.1-24.4 21 days
29 7 days
195 7 days
36 24 hrs
360
2 hrs
19 48 hrs
36 24 hrs
20 96 hrs
20 96 hrs
203 10 mos
LC50
Hlstologlcal
damage
EC50 (death and
deformity)
LC50(5C)
(15C)
(30C)
EC50 (hatch)
GOT, GPT and
LDH unaffected
LC50
LC50(5C)
(15C)
(30C)
LC50(5C)
(15C)
(25C)
LC50
EC83 (fecundity)
1,450
1,600
510
1,460
340
350
2,000
2,540
103,000
40,000
24,000
14,420
4,797
7,280
11,400
7,760
8,330
2,550
2,330
770
880
180
Farmer et al . 1979
Bromage and Fuchs
1976
Blrge 1978
Cairns et al . 1978
Kapur and Yadav 1982
Nemcsok and Boross
1982
Khangarot et al . 1984
Cairns et al. 1978
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Pickering and
Henderson 1966
Brungs 1969
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species
Chemical
Hardness
(mg/L as
Duration
(days)
Effect
Result
Reference
FRESHWATER SPECIES
Fathead minnow,
(adult),
Plmep hales promelas
Fathead minnow,
( larva),
Plmephales promelas
Channel catfish,
( f Inqer 1 Inq) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish,
(embryo, larva),
Ictalurus punctatus
Channel catfish,
( f Inqer 1 Ing) ,
Ictalurus punctatus
Guppy,
Poecllla retlculata
Guppy ( 184 mq) ,
Leblstes retlculatus
Guppy (fry),
Poecllla retlculata
Striped bass (embryo),
Morone saxatllls
Blueglll (2.5-3.9 g) ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Blueglll (3.5-3.9 g) ,
Lepomls macrochlrus
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc.
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Sulfate
Zinc
Chloride
Zinc
Chloride
103
254-271
392
206-236
90
313
260
260
30
137
44.3
44.55
166.5
96 hrs
96 hrs
40 hrs
5 days
14 days
96 hrs
48 hrs
167.5 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
96 hrs
LC50
(Fish from pond con-
taminated with heavy
metals)
LC50
(high total solids)
Decreased blood
osmolarlty
Increased
a 1 ban Ism
LC50 (hlqh
alkalinity)
LC50 (hlqh
sol Ids)
LC50
LC50
1,850
LC50 (periodic
low D.O.)
LC50
(30C)
6,140
5,960
<2,660
<2,930
12,000
8,200
54,950
75,000
1,450
4,900
3,500
12,500
Blrge et al. 1983
Carlson and Roush
1985
Lewis and Lewis 1971
Westerman and Blrge
1978
Reed et al. 1980
Khangarot 1981
Khangarot et al. 1981
Plerson 1981
O'Rear 1971
Cairns and Scheler
1958a; Academy of
Natural Sciences 1960
Academy of Natural
Sciences 1960
-------
Table 6 (continued)
Species Chemical
Largemouth bass. Zinc
(fInqerlIng), Sulfate
Mlcropterus sal mo Ides
Narrow-mouthed toad, Zinc
(embryo, larva). Chloride
Gastrophryne carolInensls
Marbled salamander, Zinc
(embryo, larva), Chloride
Ambystoma opacum
Hardness
(mg/L as Duration
CaCO.) (days)
195
93-105
Effect
Result
($g/L)« Reference
ft —————
FRESHWATER SPECIES
13 14 days
LC50 (high
alkal Inlty)
8,000 Reed et
7 days EC50 (death 10
and deformity)
8 days EC50 (death 2,380
and deformity)
Blrge 1978; Blrge et
al. 1979
Blrge et al. 1978
-------
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