SEPA
INDUSTRIAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
RESEARCH
LABORATORY
FGD
QUARTERLY
REPORT
VOL. 4 NO. 1
JULY 1980
RESEARCH TRIANGLE PARK, NC 27711
IN THIS ISSUE
This issue of the FGD Quarterly Report features an article on
the recent Fifth EPA-Industry Briefing on FGD Lime/Limestone
Wet Scrubbing. The article summarizes presentations given at the
conference concerning various aspects of EPA's ongoing research
and development program at the Tennessee Valley Authority's
Shawnee Steam Plant in Kentucky.
This issue also includes more information on the Sixth FGD
Symposium, to be held October 28-31 in Houston. The sym-
posium, sponsored by IERL-RTP, provides a forum for exchang-
ing information on commercial and developing FGD technology.
Early registration for the symposium is recommended.
Additional topics include a new technology assessment report
on FGD systems for industrial boiler applications, a report on
Phase II of a dual-alkali demonstration program, and highlights
of the Second Conference on Air Quality Management in the
Electric Power Industry.
The FGD Quarterly Report summarizes recent developments
in EPA-sponsored and conducted activities in flue gas desulfuriza-
tion (FGD). It is distributed by IERL-RTP without charge to
persons interested in FGD. Those wishing to initiate or cancel
their subscriptions to the FGD Quarterly Report may do so by
contacting the EPA Project Officer or Radian Project Director
named on page 11 of this issue. Any change of address should
also be reported.
EPA HOLDS FIFTH LIME/LIMESTONE
SCRUBBING INDUSTRY BRIEFING
Over 100 representatives of industry, academia, and govern-
ment gathered recently in Raleigh, North Carolina, for the Fifth
Industry Briefing on Lime/Limestone Wet Scrubbing. Sponsored
by EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory at
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (IERL-RTP), the
program focused mainly on EPA's R&D program at the Ten-
nessee Valley Authority's (TVA's) Shawnee Steam Plant near
Paducah, Kentucky. Several presentations at the Industry Brief-
ing reported recent results from studies at Shawnee and from
Shawnee-related programs. These papers are summarized below.
In his opening remarks to the assembled audience, M. A.
Maxwell, Chief of the Emissions/Effluent Technology Branch at
IERL-RTP, noted that as EPA's research effort at Shawnee enters
the 1980's, the program now spans three decades. Shawnee
results have played a major role in current understanding of
lime /limestone FGD. Maxwell added, "We have gone far beyond
what we initially expected to learn there."
SO2 Removal Efficiency Related to
Limestone Type and Grind
R. H. Borgwardt, of IERL-RTP, reported on recent limestone
type-and-grind tests at EPA's pilot plant at Research Triangle
Park. Previous studies have shown that SO, removal efficiency is
related to both the type and grind of limestone. This phenomenon
has been studied further in the pilot plant scrubber, which is a
single-loop turbulent contact absorber (TCA) similar to conven-
tional FGD systems now in operation. The TCA has been
operated with three types of high-calcium limestones: Stone
Man, Fredonia, and Georgia Marble. The Stone Man limestone is
of special interest because it is used at TVA's full-scale FGD
system at Widows Creek.
The pilot plant type-and-grind tests have been conducted in
preparation for more extensive study to begin next year at the
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
Shawnee Test Facility. Pilot plant test results thus far corroborate
earlier findings that both type and grind of limestone significantly
affect the SO, removal efficiency in the single-loop TCA.
Fredonia yielded the greatest SO, removal, followed by Stone
Man and then Georgia Marble. At a stoichiometric ratio of 1.5,
SO, removal efficiencies were 88, 74, and 70 percent, respec-
tively, for fine grinds of Fredonia, Stone Man, and Georgia
Marble. (Stoichiometric ratio is defined as moles CaCO,
fed/moles SO, absorbed.)
Test results also support a TV A economic study which
ranked fine grinds of limestone as more cost effective than coarse
grinds. To maintain a given SO, removal, the coarse grinds
required about 50 percent greater limestone feed rates than did
fine grinds. Thus, the higher capital investment and power
required for the grinding equipment used to produce smaller lime-
stone particles should be more than offset by the lower costs for
raw limestone makeup and waste disposal. The latter advantage
may be diminished, however, by an adverse effect of limestone
grind on waste product quality; the pilot plant tests averaged about
60 percent solids in filtered wastes obtained with coarse limestone
feeds, and 55 percent solids with fine-grind feeds.
Studies Confirm Advantages of Adipic Acid
Addition
A major goal of EPA's alkali wet scrubbing test program
over the past 17 months has been to evaluate the use of adipic
acid as a scrubber additive. Adipic acid has been shown to
improve SO, removal efficiency by buffering the pH in lime/lime-
stone scrubbers. EPA tests have focused on the capability of
adipic acid to enhance SO, removal and improve the reliability
and economics of lime/limestone wet scrubbing. These studies
have been underway both at lERL-RTPs pilot plant and at the
Shawnee Test Facility. Recent results from the Shawnee test
program were presented by Project Manager D. A. Burbank of
Bechtel National, Inc.
Both scrubber systems at Shawnee have been operated with
the adipic acid additive. One scrubber is a venturi followed by a
spray tower (V/ST), with a capacity of 38,320 Nm'/hr (23,950
scfm); the other is a turbulent contact absorber (TCA). with a
capacity of 32.848 Nm'/hr (20,530 scfm).
Test results show several benefits associated with the use of
adipic add as a scrubber additive. Adipic add does significantly
enhance SO, removal at an optimum concentration range of
700-1500 ppm. In addition, adipic add can be effectively used at
a relatively low scrubber inlet pH of around 5.2. This pH favors
higher limestone utilization which in turn reduces the quantity of
resultant waste solids and contributes to reliable scrubber opera-
tion.
Adipic add addition has several advantages when compared
to other scrubber additives, such as magnesium oxide (MgO).
Unlike MgO. its effectiveness is not altered by chlorides; thus
apidic add is espedally attractive for closed-liquor-loop opera-
tion. In addition, adipic add can be effectively used during opera-
tion with forced oxidation to yield a waste product with improved
dewatering properties. Finally, adipic add has lower projected
capital and operating costs than either MgO-promoted or
unenhanced lime or limestone processes, and it should promote
the use of limestone, a more economical and less energy-
intensive reagent than lime.
EPA is continuing to study adipic add addition during 1980.
Studies are planned to evaluate further the degradation phe-
nomenon, the effects of low pHon SO. removal, and economics.
EPA will also undertake adipic add addition in a full-scale power
plant scrubber to demonstrate its ability for improving the overall
performance of limestone FGD systems.
Computer Economics Program Is Expanded
The Shawnee lime/limestone computer economics program
now has several new capabilities, according to C. D. Stephenson of
TVA. The computer program, developed by TV A and Bechtel
National, Inc. for EPA. is based on actual data obtained at the
Shawnee Test Facility. It projects comparative investment and
revenue requirements for lime and limestone scrubbing systems and
estimates the relative economics of these systems for various
process design alternatives as well as for variations in the values of
independent design parameters. In addition to a turbulent contact
absorber, a venturi/spray tower and a spray tower have been
Incorporated as scrubbing options. The program has also been
expanded to include participate removal costs and the alternative of
using chemical additives such as adipic acid and magnesium oxide.
A new forced oxidation option is now also available. More
capabilities will be added later as additional test data from
Shawnee are generated.
TVA has loaded a version of the program onto the Control
Data Corporation's national time-sharing computer system. An
outside user can access the computer by means of an interactive
time-sharing terminal. TVA will also make specific computer runs
for those without computer facilities. In addition, a potential user
can request a tape copy of the program which TVA will provide
along with available documentation for running it. Requests should
be addressed to:
C. D. Stephenson or R. L. Torstrick
Emission Control Development Projects
Office of Power
Tennessee Valley Authority
Muscle Shoals, Alabama 35660
TVA has also prepared a users manual for the overall program
(EPA-600/7-79-210. see "FGD Reports and Abstracts").
Additional information on TVA's FGD design and cost studies
is available in the FGD Quarterly Report, Volume 3, Number 3.
Cocurrent Scrubbing: Efforts to Improve
System Reliability
TVA has been studying cocurrent scrubbing since 1976.
when it undertook a 1-year pilot test of the concept. Pilot test
results showed that cocurrent scrubbing merited further con-
sideration, and TVA subsequently designed and began operating
a 10-MW prototype cocurrent lime/limestone scrubber at the
Shawnee Test Facility. Funds for this initial phase of the TVA
prototype study were provided by the Electric Power Research
Institute (EPRI). TVA later assumed complete responsibility for
the program and initiated the second phase of the Shawnee
cocurrent scrubber test program.
In cocurrent scrubbing the flue gas is contacted by a cocur-
rent (as opposed to countercurrent) flow of scrubbing slurry. The
cocurrent scrubber's smaller physical size and particular equip-
ment configuration result in lower capital investment and
operating costs, making it an attractive alternative to the more
traditional countercurrent scrubber.
J. L. Henson of TVA described the highlights of both the
EPRI and TVA scrubber test programs. The goals of the EPRI
test program at Shawnee were to:
• Identify operating conditions that maximize SO! and
particulate removal from the flue gas.
• Demonstrate system reliability.
• Determine design parameters for scale-up to a commercial-
size unit.
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F6D QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
During the EPRI test program, the scrubber demonstrated an
SOt removal efficiency of greater than 90 percent and a particu-
late removal efficiency of approximately 99 percent. These results
were achieved while the scrubber operated at a superficial gas
velocity of 8.2 m/s (27 ft/a) with either a lime or limestone
absorbent. However, total system reliability was not demonstrated
at this scrubber gas velocity because solids were deposited in the
mist eliminator and reheater.
Recent TVA testing at Shawnee has focused on eliminating
the problem of solids deposition. The problem has been solved by
reducing the superficial gas velocity in the scrubber to 6.1 m/s
(20 ft/s). Operation at this lower velocity reduces the amount of
entrained slurry leaving the absorber and improves mist
eliminator efficiency.
Emphasis In the continuing TVA test program will be on
achieving reliable operation of the mist eliminator and reheater
when the scrubber gas velocity is 8.2 m/s (27 ft/s). Studies will
also concern the use of forced oxidation in the cocurrent scrubber
as a means of improving the dewaterlng properties of the waste
solids.
Widows Creek Project Demonstrates
Forced Oxidation in Full-Scale Limestone
FGD System
R. A. Runyan of TVA summarized the status of the forced
oxidation project which has been underway since early 1979 at
TVA's Widows Creek Facility. The general goals of the project
are to:
• Demonstrate forced oxidation as a viable alternative for the
disposal of FGD wastes.
• Acquire data to serve as a basis for designing and install-
ing additional forced oxidation FGD systems at Widows
Creek.
Forced oxidation of calcium sulfite (CaSO,) to calcium
sulfate (CaSO4) can significantly improve the dewatering prop-
erties of FGD wastes. This reduces the area required for disposal
sites and also improves site stability.
The Widows Creek forced oxidation FGD system has
achieved 95 to 99 percent oxidation of calcium sulfite to sulfate,
and this, in turn, has yielded a filter cake containing 80-85 per-
cent solids. The SOt removal efficiency was initially lower than
the 85 percent minimum required by the test plan; however, after
some scrubber modifications the system achieved 88 to 92
percent SOt removal. The air stoichiometry (ratio of O required
to SO, absorbed) at these higher removal efficiencies has been
1.8 to 2.0. while the limestone stoichiometry (ratio of CaCO,
required to SO, absorbed) has been 1.2 to 1.4
Combined Methods Improve Automatic
Control of FGD Systems
Results from studies conducted by the University of Cincin-
nati for EPA indicate that a combination of stoichiometrlc and
pH control is an effective method for controlling the limestone
feedrate to the redrculating slurry. Proper control of the lime-
stone feedrate is required to alleviate such major problems as
internal scaling and insufficient removal of SO,. This in turn can
increase system reliability and reduce operating costs.
P. Garrett of the University of Cincinnati described the three
limestone feedrate control methods that were assessed during the
study:
• Stoichiometric control (based on slurry material balance
measurements).
• Slurry pH control.
• Combined Stoichiometric and pH control.
Although Stoichiometric control and slurry pH control by them-
selves can improve system performance, there are deficiencies
associated with each individual method. However, both methods
may be applied simultaneously to control limestone feedrate and
thus minimize disorders in the redrculating slurry to a greater
extent than either method alone.
Mathematical process modeling and computer simulation
were used to study each automatic control method. Additional
experiments were conducted at the Shawnee Test Facility, where
the controls were tested on the TCA limestone scrubber. The
Shawnee tests confirmed that improved regulation of the lime-
stone slurry, even with major load disturbances, is achieved by
combined Stoichiometric and pH control.
Waste Disposal Studies Focus on Water
Quality and Land Reclamation
Chemical treatment of FGD wastes prior to disposal does
reduce the environmental threats posed by these materials,
according to J. Rossoff of the Aerospace Corporation. This con-
clusion is based on results from an ongoing 5-year study of
various methods of FGD waste disposal at the Shawnee Test
Facility. Both ponding and landfilling are being examined, with
particular attention to water quality and land reclamation.
Some major results from these efforts are that:
• Chemical treatment of FGD wastes before ponding
produces a structurally stable material and reduces con-
centrations of major species in the leachate (i.e., sulfates.
calcium salts, and chlorides) by about 50 percent. Chem-
ically treated wastes also show a reduced permeability co-
efficient (by at least one order of magnitude) compared to
untreated wastes, and are capable of shedding water to
prevent seepage.
• Underdraining untreated waste ponds can control seepage
while simultaneously dewatering the waste materials to
yield a structurally sound material; all seepage can be
recycled to the scrubber.
• The load-bearing strengths of gypsum filter cakes stacked
at surface sites may be vulnerable to the detrimental effects
of weathering, revetting, and reslurryuig, especially in the
case of small piles having large surface-to-volume ratios.
• Cost estimates for disposal (mid-1980 dollars) range from
0.65 to 1.25 mills/kWh ($5.90 to $11.85/ton of dry
material). Ponding on indigenous liners was the cheapest
method studied; chemical treatment was most expensive.
FGD wastes for this project are produced by each of two
scrubber systems in operation at the Shawnee Test Facility: a
turbulent contact absorber (TCA) and a venturi and spray tower
(VST). The waste materials produced by these FGD systems
include lime and limestone wastes, and wastes oxidized to
gypsum.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
SIXTH FGD SYMPOSIUM SCHEDULED FOR OCTOBER
EPA's Sixth FGD Symposium, scheduled for October 28-31,
1980 in Houston, Texas, will feature several new developments in
FGD technology. The symposium, sponsored by EPA/1ERL-RTP.
is the latest in an ongoing series of information exchanges on
FGD. Participants will include industry representatives, process
owners and operators, vendors, researchers, and government offi-
cials. Primary emphasis will be on recent technological and .
regulatory developments affecting the application of FGD to
utility and industrial boilers.
The symposium will be organized into several major sessions
in addition to a panel discussion. The introductory session will
include the keynote presentation, an energy control technologies
forecast, a discussion of the implications of acid rain for FGD,
and the economics of FGD. The FGD research and development
plans of the Department of Energy, the Electric Power Research
Institute, and the Tennessee Valley Authority will also be
featured.
The keynote speaker at the Sixth FGD Symposium will be
Congressman Robert Eckhardt of the 8th District of Texas. Con-
gressman Eckhardt has extensive experience in energy and envi-
ronmental legislation. He was actively involved in developing the
Clean Air Act Amendments, the Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) superfund legislation, and the Coal Slurry
Pipeline Bill.
The panel discussion will consider the impacts of recent
legislation and regulations. The panel, which was extremely
informative at the last FGD symposium, will be chaired by W. C.
Barber, Deputy Assistant Administrator for EPA's Office of Air
Quality Planning and Standards.
The remainder of the symposium will consist of four major
sessions:
• Utility Applications—pilot/prototype testing and full-scale
utility installations.
• By-Product Disposal/Utilization—full-scale field studies,
engineering cost estimates for RCRA compliance, alternate
disposal options, and ash utilization/procurement guide-
lines development.
• Dry Scrubbing—economics, utility applications, and pilot
plant and full-scale demonstration testing.
• Industrial Applications—review of industrial boiler FGD
technology, status of New Source Performance Standards
for industrial boilers, disposal of waste from sodium-based
FGD. and commercial operating experience.
For more information concerning the technical content of the
symposium, contact J. W. Jones, IERL-RTP, (919) 541-2489 or
(FTS) 629-2489. Advance registration forms and hotel reservation
information are available from Franklin A. Ayer, Research
Triangle Institute, P. O. Box 12194. Research Triangle Park,
North Carolina 27709; (919) 541-6000. Early registration is
recommended.
STUDY RELATES ADIPIC ACID DEGRADATION TO SULFITE OXIDATION
A recent study supports IERL-RTP and Shawnee field tests
which show that adipic acid added to an SO, wet scrubber is
consumed during the process. Adiplc Add Degradation
Mechanism In Aqueous FGD Systems (EPA-600/7-79-224), pre-
pared by Radian Corporation, concludes that the degradation rate
of the adipic acid depends, in part, on the degree of sulfite oxida-
tion occurring in the scrubber system.
When added to FGD systems, adipic acid buffers the scrub-
bing liquid and enhances liquid phase mass transfer. This, in
turn, improves both SO, removal and limestone utilization. How-
ever, in recent studies at IERL-RTP and Shawnee, substantial
losses of adipic acid have occurred in excess of those expected.
Unaccounted losses of up to 80 percent of the adipic acid
makeup were observed in the Shawnee venturi/spray tower
scrubber system.
The goal of this study was to verify the loss of adipic acid
during scrubbing and determine its cause. Samples were col-
lected from the Shawnee and RTP SO, wet scrubbers during
adipic acid tests to determine the concentrations of adipic add
and any degradation products. Laboratory bench-scale studies
were also conducted to determine the effect of operating variables
on adipic acid degradation.
The major conclusion of the study is that adipic acid decom-
position is related to sulfite oxidation. Thus, the loss of adipic
acid can theoretically be minimized by lowering the rate of sulfite
oxidation. The principal degradation mechanism is an oxidative
decarboxylation reaction yielding valeric acid, butyric acid,
glutaric add, and CO,. This reaction was reproduced in the
laboratory.
Since the quantities of products measured in the laboratory
tests accounted for only about 30 percent of the adipic add loss,
additional experiments were recommended (and are now under-
way) to refine the material balances.
For additional information contact the EPA/IERL-RTP
Project Officer R. H. Borgwardt. (919) 541-2336 or (FTS) 629-
2336. (See also the feature article and "FGD Reports and Ab-
stracts" in this issue.)
PHASE II OF DUAL-ALKALI DEMONSTRATION COMPLETED
A two-volume publication (executive summary and full
report), summarizing Phase II of EPA's full-scale dual-alkali
demonstration project, is now available. The dual-alkali process
developed by Combustion Equipment Associates, Inc. (CEA) and
Arthur D. Little, Inc. (ADL) is installed at Louisville Gas and
Electric Company's (LG&E's) Cane Run No. 6 Station. EPA has
selected this system as a demonstration plant for concentrated-
mode dual-alkali technology and is partidpating with LG&E in
the design, operation, testing, and reporting of the project.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
The work under the demonstration project is divided into four
phases:
• Phase I—preliminary design and cost estimate.
• Phase II—engineering design, construction, and
mechanical testing.
• Phase III—start-up and acceptance testing.
• Phase IV—a 1-year operating and test program.
Results from Phase I have been summarized previously (EPA-
600/7-78-010 and -OlOa, see the FGD Quarterly Report, Volume
2, Number 3). The Phase II report (EPA-600/7-79-221a and -b.
see "FGD Reports and Abstracts") describes final engineering
design, construction, and mechanical testing, as well as the
installed system capital costs shown below. These costs represent
as-incurred costs plus estimated costs for completion (construc-
tion of the waste disposal facilities is not complete). Costs for
spare parts are included in the material costs.
The dual-alkali system at Cane Run is designed to control
SO, emissions to less than 200 ppm (dry basis without additional
air dilution) when treating flue gas generated by burning coal
containing up to 5 percent sulfur. When coal containing greater
than 5 percent sulfur is fired, the system is designed to remove at
least 95 percent of the SO, in the inlet flue gas.
The purpose of the installation and operation of this demon-
stration system is to establish:
• Overall performance, including SO, removal, lime
utilization, sodium makeup, regeneration of spent liquor,
water balance, scaling and solids buildup problems,
materials of construction, waste cake properties, reliability,
and availability.
• Economics, including capital investment and operating
cost.
The demonstration is scheduled for a mid-1981 completion. For
additional information, contact the EPA/IERL-RTP Project Of-
ficer. Norman Kaplan, (919) 541-2556 or (FTS) 629-2556.
Capital Costs for LG&E's Cane Run No. 6
Dual-Alkali System
Subsystem
FGD
Lime Slurry
Feed
Waste Disposal
Material Costs
$10.256.000
800.000
1,959.000
Engineering and
Erection Costs
$6.207.000
416.000
959,000
Total
$16.463.000
1.216.000
2.918.000
$20.597.000
WASTE DISPOSAL STUDY EXAMINES LINER MATERIALS
FGD waste disposal areas are often lined with impervious
materials to prevent groundwater contamination by hazardous
leachates. However, little is known concerning the life expec-
tancies of such liners, especially when exposed to FGD waste
materials. In recognition of the need for such information, EPA's
Municipal Environmental Research Laboratory (MERL) and the
U. S. Army Engineers Waterways Experiment Station (WES) are
studying the compatibility of FGD wastes with selected liner
materials.
The first phase of the MERL/WES study has been com-
pleted, and the Interim report is now available (EPA-600/2-79-
136, see "FGD Reports and Abstracts"). The report. Flue Gas
Cleaning Sludge Leachate/Uner Compatibility Investigation:
Interim Report, describes the study approach and preliminary
conclusions based on a 12-month test period. During this time,
18 different liner materials were exposed to FGD wastes. Three
general types of liners were studied: admixed materials (the
addition of stabilizing chemicals to the disposal site soil), spray-
on materials, and membrane liners. Two FGD wastes were used,
one from an Eastern coal lime-scrubbed process, and the other
from an Eastern coal limestone-scrubbed process.
Preliminary results from these tests indicate that certain
admixed liner materials (Portland cement, cement plus lime, and
C400, a substance similar to cement) decrease soil permeability.
In addition, the unconfined compressive strengths of these ad-
mixed materials substantially increased during the course of the
12-month test period. The strengths in general almost doubled,
although the lime admix demonstrated a sixfold increase in un-
confined compressive strength.
The compatibility of the various wastes and liner materials
was studied in pressurized test cells simulating a 9-m (30-ft) deep
disposal area. Physical tests of the liners were conducted before
and after exposure to the FGD wastes. Chemical analyses of the
waste and waste liquor that passed through each test cell were
performed to determine the concentrations of heavy metals and
chlorides in the waste leachate.
These studies will be continued for an additional 12-month
exposure period. The final report will present the results of the
full 24-month test period, along with estimates of liner durability
and economics. For further information contact the EPA/MERL
Project Officer, R. E. Landreth. (513) 684-7871 or (FTS) 684-
7871.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
FGD PROCESS EVALUATED FOR INDUSTRIAL BOILER APPLICATION
A recent technology assessment report (TAR) on FGD con-
cludes that there is no single "best" FGD process for industrial
boiler application. The report. Technology Assessment Report for
Industrial Boiler Applications: Flue Cat Desutfurizotfon (EPA-
600/7-79-1781), is one in a series of technology assessments
sponsored by EPA/IERL-RTP. The series is designed to aid in
establishing the technological basis for the pending New Source
Performance Standards (NSPS) for industrial boilers.
The new FGD TAR is based on a comprehensive evaluation
of FGD processes in commercial use, under development, or dis-
continued. These processes were assessed on the basis of status
of development, capital and operating costs, energy require-
ments, environmental impacts, and performance and operating
data. From the initial list, five processes best suited to industrial
boilers were selected for further study: sodium throwaway,
lime/limestone, dual-alkali, spray drying/baghouse, and Wellman-
Lord.
The FGD TAR concludes that each of the five candidate
FGD processes examined has unique advantages and disad-
vantages. Thus, the selection of a "best" FGD system depends on
site-specific conditions. For example, the sodium throwaway
process yields an easily treated waste, has the lowest annual
costs, and uses the least amount of energy (8.8 MW [30 x 10*
Btu/hr] heat input) of those considered. Currently, this process is
now used in over 75 percent of U. S. industrial boiler FGD in-
stallations. However, there may be areas where the sodium
throwaway process cannot be used because of regulations on the
discharge of dissolved solids. In these instances, limestone or
dual alkali may be preferable.
Other reports in the technology assessment series concern:
• Population and characteristics of industrial/commercial
boilers (EPA-600/7-79-178a).
• Oil cleaning (EPA-600/7-79-178b).
• Coal cleaning and low sulfur coal (EPA-600/7-79-178c).
• Synthetic fuels (EPA-600/7-79-178d).
• Fluidized-bed combustion (EPA-600/7-79-178e).
• NO. combustion modification (EPA-600/7-79-178f).
- NO, flue gas treatment (EPA-600/7-79-178g).
• Particulate collection (EPA-600/7-79-178H).
The complete series will be integrated, along with other informa-
tion, in EPA's Industrial Boilers—Background Information for
Proposed Standards, to be issued by EPA's Office of Air Quality
Planning and Standards.
For more information on the FGD TAR. contact EPA/IERL-
RTP Project Officer J. E. Williams. (919) 541-2483 or (FTS) 629-
2483. (See also "FGD Reports and Abstracts" in this issue.)
FGD FEATURED AT AIR QUALITY MANAGEMENT CONFERENCE
Several FGD topics were highlighted at the Second Confer-
ence on Air Quality Management in the Electric Power Industry.
held January 22-25,1980. in Austin. Texas. The conference was
sponsored by the Electric Reliability Council of Texas and Radian
Corporation, and cosponsored by the Southwest Section of the
Air Pollution Control Association and the Texas Air Control
Board. Continuing Engineering Studies at the University of Texas
at Austin administered the meeting.
A session on the control of throwaway sulfur oxides included
discussions of problems encountered in nonregenerable scrubber
installations, a statistical evaluation of a continuous SOt removal
FGD data base, scrubbing additives, and operating experience
with die FMC Dual Alkali process.
SOt dry removal processes were also die subject of a con-
ference session. Papers covered topics such as a survey of dry
FGD in the U. S.. die development of dry FGD at Basin Electric
Cooperative, EPA's dry SOt control program, and a bench-scale
study of dry SOf removal wHh nahcolite and trona.
Other FGD-related sessions concerned regenerative SOt
controls and solid waste disposal. In addition, die conference
covered several other aspects of air quality management. These
Included coal cleaning, health effects, NO, control programs.
regulatory impacts, plant impacts, siting considerations, ad-
vanced combustion systems, coal liquefaction, and coal gasi-
fication.
The conference proceedings are available by contacting:
Continuing Engineering Studies
College of Engineering
Ernest Cockrell Hall 2.102
University of Texas at Austin
Austin. Texas 78712
(512) 471-3396
The cost per copy is $35.00; checks should be made payable
to die University of Texas at Austin.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
FGD REPORTS AND ABSTRACTS
This section of the FGD Quarterly Report contains abstracts
of recently completed reports relating to flue gas desulfurization.
Each listing includes date of the report. National Technical In-
formation Service (NTIS) accession number, and other identifying
numbers when available.
Requests for EPA reports should be directed to:
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Center for Environmental Research Information
Cincinnati. Ohio 45268
(513) 684-7562
Each report with an NTIS number can also be ordered from
NTIS. The cost of paper copies varies by page count ($4.00 mini-
mum); microfiche copies are $3. Payment must accompany
order. The address is:
National Technical Information Service
U. S. Department of Commerce
5285 Port Royal Road
Springfield, Virginia 22161
Survey of Flue Gas Desulfurization Systems: Cane
Run Station, Louisville Gas and Electric Co.
B. A. Laseke. Jr., PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio.
August 1979. EPA-600/7-79-199c. (NTIS No. PB 80-184385.)
EPA Project Officer: N. Kaplan, IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of a survey of operational flue gas desul-
furization (FGD) systems on coal-fired utility boilers in the U. S.
The FGD systems installed on Units 4. 5. and 6 at the Cane Run
Station are described in terms of design and performance. The
Cane Run No. 4 FGD system is a two-module (packed tower)
carbide lime scrubber, retrofitted on a 178 MW (net) coal-fired
boiler. The system, supplied by American Air Filter, commenced
initial operation in August 1976. The Cane Run No. 5 FGD
system is a two-module (spray tower) carbide lime scrubber,
retrofitted on a 183 MW (net) coal-fired boiler. The system, sup-
plied by Combustion Engineering, commenced initial operation in
December 1977. The Cane Run Unit 6 FGD system is a two-
module (tray tower) dual alkali (sodium carbonate/lime)
scrubber, retrofitted on a 278 MW (net) coal-fired boiler. The
system, supplied by A. D. Little/Combustion Equipment Asso-
ciates, commenced initial operation in December 1978.
Flue Gas Cleaning Sludge Leachate/Liner
Compatibility Investigation: Interim Report
C. Styron III and Z. Fry, Jr., U. S. Army Engineer Waterways
Experiment Station, Vlcksburg, Mississippi. August 1979.
EPA-600/2-79-136. (NTIS No. PB 80-100480.) EPA Project
Officer: R. Landreth, MERL.
This project was initiated to study the effects of two industrial
waste materials on 18 items used to contain these wastes.
Seventy-two test cells, 1 ft in diameter and 2 ft high, were fabri-
cated. Ten Hems were mixed with a clayey silt and compacted in
the bottom 6 in. of the test cell; six spray-on and two prefabri-
cated membrane items were placed over 6 in. of compacted soil.
Four gallons of sludge were added to each test cell and enough
tap water to bring the liquid to within 4 in. of the top of the test
cell. Each test cell was covered and pressurized to simulate 30 ft
of head.
This report lists and discusses the data following 12 months of
Inundation of each item with both sludges. Portland cement.
cement plus lime, and C400 when mixed with the soil resulted in
a significant reduction in permeability.
Adipic Acid Degradation Mechanism in Aqueous
FGD Systems
F. B. Meserole, D. L. Lewis, A. W. Nichols. Radian Corporation;
and G. Rochelle, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. September
1979. EPA-600/7-79-224. (NTIS No. PB 80-144595.) EPA
Project Officer: R. H. Borgwardt, IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of a field and laboratory study of the
adlpic add degradation mechanism in aqueous flue gas desul-
furization systems. (Adding adipic acid to limestone-based. SOt
wet scrubbers increases SOi removal and limestone utilization.
However, as much as 80% of the adipic acid added to some
systems is lost, supposedly through degradation.) The degrada-
tion is associated with the oxidation of sulfite, possibly through a
free radical mechanism. At least one mechanism is an oxidative
decarboxylation yielding valeric add, butyric add, glutaric add,
and COt. The quantities of products measured during laboratory
testing account for only approximately 30% of the adipic add
degraded.
Overview of Pollution from Combustion of Fossil
Fuels in Boilers of the United States
P. W. Spaite (Consultant) and T. W. Devitt. PEDCo Environ-
mental. Inc.. Cincinnati, Ohio. October 1979. EPA-600/7-79-
233. (NTIS No. PB 80-124969.) EPA Project Officer: C. J.
Chatlynne. IERL-RTP.
The report describes the fossil-fuel-fired boiler population of the
U. S. It presents data on the number and capacity of boilers for
categories most relevant to producing pollution. Information
presented includes: type of fuel burned (coal, residual oil, dis-
tillate oil, natural gas); usage sector (utility, industrial, commer-
dal); size category (less than 25 million Btu/hr, 25-250 million
Btu/hr, greater than 250 million Btu/hr); and heat transfer con-
figuration (water tube, fire tube, cast iron). Fuel consumption
data are presented for each type of fuel burned in each usage
sector. These data are used to estimate the amount of sulfur
oxide, nitrogen oxide, and paniculate air emissions produced by
boiler operation. Other air pollutants are discussed qualitatively.
Solid waste and water pollution from boiler operation is discussed
generally.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
Effects of Flue Gas Cleaning Waste on Groundwater
Quality and Soil Characteristics
U. S. Army Waterways Experiment Station (WES), Vicksburg,
Mississippi. August 1979. EPA-600/2-79-164. (NTIS No.
PB 80-118656.) EPA Project Officer: R. Landreth, MERL-Cinn.
Soil and water samples from several test borings and hydro-
logical data were collected and analyzed from three flue gas clean-
ing sludge disposal sites in order to assess the extent of migration
of pollutants into the local groundwater and the effects on sur-
rounding soils. Physical testing of soils indicated that two major
types of sites were included: one site was underlain by imper-
meable materials such as clay and shale; and two other sites were
underlain by relatively permeable silty sands and gravel with dis-
continuously distributed finer materials.
At the site underlain by impermeable substrata, no change in
permeability or other physical properties of the soils could be
related to the presence of the disposal site. At the two sites
underlain by permeable substrata, only at one could variations in
permeability, dry density, water content, and percent fines be
related to the presence of the disposal site. Irregular occurrences
of fine-grained materials (clays and silty sands) at the other site
obscured any variations in these parameters which might have
been caused by the disposal site.
Sludge/ash-derived constituents were found to have migrated out
of the immediate area of the pit or pond at all three disposal sites,
degrading the quality of the local groundwater.
Technology Assessment Report for Industrial Boiler
Applications: Rue Gas Desulfurization
J. C. Dickerman and K. L. Johnson, Radian Corporation, Austin,
Texas, November 1979. EPA-600/7-79-1781. (NTIS No.
PB 80-150873.) EPA Project Officer: J. E. Williams, IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of an assessment of the applicability of
flue gas desulfurization (FGD) technology to industrial boilers and
is one of a series to aid in determining the technological basis for
a New Source Performance Standard for Industrial Boilers. The
development status and performance of alternative FGD control
techniques were assessed and the cost, energy, and environ-
mental impacts of the most promising were identified. The study
concluded that there is no best FGD technology for application to
industrial boilers; each alternative has advantages and disad-
vantages which could make it best for a specific application. Cost
estimates of applying FGD processes indicated that the cost
effectiveness varies significantly depending on the fuel fired, boiler
size, and control level. However, boiler size is the most signifi-
cant factor affecting cost effectiveness: the economy of scale
causes control of large sources to be the most effective. The
energy requirement of applying FGD processes varied from about
0.5% to 6% of boiler capacity, excluding stack gas reheat. The
environmental impacts of each alternative were evaluated: each
could be applied in an environmentally acceptable manner under
existing regulations. The report does not consider combinations
of technology to remove all pollutants, and these findings have
not undergone detailed assessments for regulatory action.
Citrate Process Demonstration Plant Design
W. I. Nlssen and R. S. Madenburg, U.S. Bureau of Mines, Salt
Lake City. Utah, 1979. (NTIS No. PB 299 522.)
This Bureau of Mines report presents the design for a commer-
cial-sized flue gas desulfurization (FGD) demonstration plant that
uses the citrate process. The goal of the Bureau's citrate process
is to minimize the undesirable environmental impacts of indus-
trial plants emitting SOi-bearing gas. The FGD plant is located
at the George F. Weaton power plant, Monaca, PA. Construction
was completed in April 1979 and will be followed by preliminary
testing and a 1-year testing and evaluation program. Design
capacity of the FGD plant is 156,000 scfm of 0.2-volume-percent-
SOt flue gas yielding about 16 tons of sulfur per day. The plant is
intended to (1) clean fly ash, SO,, and Q, from the gas while
cooling the gas in a venturi scrubber, (2) absorb SOt from the
gas using 1,200 gpm of a countercurrent-flowing citric
add/sodium citrate/sodium thiosulfate solution, (3) react the
absorbed SO, in two 13,000-gal. stirred closed vessels with
added H,S, thus precipitating elemental sulfur and regenerating
the citrate solution for recycle, and (4) recover the sulfur from the
slurry by air flotation, followed by melting in a heat exchanger
and separation from the occluded citrate solution in a sulfur
decanter at 35 psi and 135*C.
Population and Characteristics of
Industrial/Commercial Boilers in the U. S.
T. DeVitt, P. Spaite, and L. Gibbs, PEDCo Environmental, Inc..
Cincinnati. Ohio, August 1979. EPA-600/7-79-178a. (NTIS No.
PB 80-150881.) EPA Project Officer: C. J. Chatlynne, IERL-RTP.
The report describes a study of boiler population and character-
istics, fuel consumption, emissions, and boiler costs that provides
a basis from which a broader study of overall environmental
impacts of non-utility boilers can be made. Boilers consume
about one-third of the fossil fuels burned in the U. S. Over 40%
of this is fired in industrial/commercial boilers; the rest, in utility
boilers. There are about 1.8 million industrial/commercial boilers
in the U. S. Only about 0.1% of these have a firing capacity
greater than 73.2 MW. These larger boilers, however, represent
17% of the total U. S. capacity. About 72% of the total boilers
are classified as commercial, used primarily for space heating.
The industrial boilers represent 69% of the total firing capacity
and are concentrated in four major industries: pulp and paper,
primary metals, chemicals, and minerals. Estimated uncontrolled
particulate matter emissions in 1§75 from industrial/commercial
boilers were about 2.5 Tg per year in addition to about 2.9 Tg per
year of SO, and 1.8 Tg per year of NO,. CO and HC emissions
are relatively minor. Using a 3.3% annual growth rate, the
emissions will more than double by the year 2000. Capital and
annuallzed operating costs were determined for 23 boiler/fuel
combinations representing a cross section of boiler population.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
The Use of pH and Chloride Electrodes for the
Automatic Control of Flue Gas Desulfurization
Systems
C. Ung, T. Acclani, and R. Maddalone, TRW Defense and Space
Systems Group, Redondo Beach, California, November 1979.
EPA-600/2-79-202. (NTIS No. PB 80-138464.) EPA Project
Officer: F. E. Briden. IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of a study to determine the applicability
of chloride and pH electrodes in automated control systems. It
included a survey of chloride and pH electrodes in different flue
gas desulfurization (FGD) systems and an evaluation of an indus-
trial pH electrode system. The survey showed that chloride ion
measurements were necessary only where high chloride values
correspond with FGD unit corrosion and when chloride values
were used as correction factors in pH calculations. Chloride ion
measurements are unnecessary for most of the surveyed com-
panies. All surveyed companies use pH measurements to control
scaling or to attain optimum performance in FGD units. The
most common pH electrode problem was residue buildup
(scaling) around the electrode, caused by the use of non-self-
cleaning (standard) pH electrodes. The performance of self-
cleaning and standard industrial pH electrodes was evaluated at
the EPA/TVA Shawnee FGD test facility. The electrodes were
tested during a 7-week period with varying durations of con-
tinuous operation. The tests showed that: the performance of self-
cleaning and standard electrodes was nearly identical, and the
benefits of a self-cleaning pH electrode can only be realized if
electrode scaling is a problem and if a long (2-week) continuous
period of pH electrode operation is maintained.
EPA Alkali Scrubbing Test Facility: Advanced
Program, Fourth Progress Report; Volume 1, Basic
Report: and Volume 2, Appendices
H. N. Head and S. Wang, Bechtel National, Inc., San Francisco
California, November 1979. EPA-600/7-79-224a and -b. (NTIS
Nos. PB 80-117906 and PB 80-117914.) EPA Project Officer:
J. E. Williams. IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of advanced testing (late-November
1976-June 1978) of 30,000-35.000 acfm (10 MW equivalent)
lime/limestone wet scrubbers for SOt and paniculate removal at
TVA's Shawnee power station. Forced oxidation with two
scrubber loops was developed on the venturi/spray tower system
with limestone, lime, and limestone/MgO slurries. Bleed stream
oxidation was successful only with limestone/MgO slurry. Forced
oxidation with a single scrubber loop was developed on the TCA
system with limestone slurry. Other test blocks on the TCA were
limestone wth low fly ash loadings, limestone type and grind,
automatic limestone feed control, limestone reliability, limestone
with Ceilcote egg-crate type packing, lime/MgO, and flue gas
characterization.
Demonstration of Wellman-Lord/Allied Chemical
FGD Technology: Demonstration Test First Year
Results
Shawnee Lime/Limestone Scrubbing Computerized
Design/Cost-Estimate Model Users Manual
C. D. Stephenson and R. L. Torstrick. Tennessee Valley
Authority, Muscle Shoals, Alabama, August 1979. EPA-600/
7-79-210. (NTIS No. PB 80-123037.) EPA Project Officer: J. E.
Williams. IERL-RTP.
The manual gives a general description of the Shawnee
lime/limestone scrubbing computerized design/cost-estimate
model and detailed procedures for using it. It describes all inputs
and outputs, along with available options. The model, based on
Shawnee Test Facility scrubbing data, includes a combination of
material balance models provided to TVA by Bechtel National,
Inc., and capital-investment/revenue requirement models
developed by TVA. The model provides an estimate of total
capital investment, first year operating revenue requirements, and
lifetime revenue requirements for a lime or limestone scrubbing
facility. Also included are a material balance, an equipment list,
and a breakdown of costs by processing areas. The model should
be used to project comparative economics of lime or limestone
flue gas desulfurization processes (on the same basis as the
model) or to evaluate system alternatives before developing a
detailed design. The model is not intended for use in projecting
the final system design.
R. C Adams, J. Cotter, and S. W. Mulligan. TRW. Inc., Durham,
North Carolina, September 1979. EPA-600/7-79-014b. (NTIS
No. unavailable.) EPA Project Officers: C. J. Chatlynne and N.
Kaplan, IERL-RTP.
The report gives results of the first year of a comprehensive test
program to demonstrate the capabilities of a full-scale plant using
the WeUman-Lord/AUied Chemical process for desulfurizing flue
gas. The FGD unit is retrofitted to Northern Indiana Public
Service Company's 115 MW coal-fired unit No. 11 at the Dean
H. Mitchell Station. During the demonstration, which began in
September 1977. operating experience was limited by boiler- and
FGD-related operating problems. The FGD plant had a 50%
reliability factor (hours operated/hours called upon to operate).
SOi removal efficiency averaged 89%. Economic performance
was distorted by considerable off-normal boiler operation (which
limited use of the FGD plant) and by partial operation of the
FGD plant during which operating costs were not substantially
less than costs during full operation. A major effect on boiler
operation from retrofit of the FGD plant was a boiler derating of
9% resulting from the consumption of steam by the FGD plant, a
value that will be reduced by design changes at future Wellman-
Lord installations. At least 1 year of additional testing will follow
completion of a number of design improvements that will
eliminate or minimize the problems that have limited FGD plant
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
Executive Summary for Full-Scale Dual-Alkali
Demonstration System at Louisville Gas and
Electric Co.—Final Design and System Cost
R. P. Van Ness, R. C. Somcrs, R. C. Weeks (LG&E); T. Frank.
G. J. Ramans (CEA); C. R. UMantia. R. R. Lunt. and J. A.
Valencia (ADL), Louisville Gas and Electric Company. Louisville.
Kentucky, September 1979. EPA-600/7-79-221a. (NTIS No. PB
80-146707.) EPA Project Officer N. Kaplan, IERL-RTP.
The report describes phase 2 of a four-phase demonstration pro-
gram involving the dual-alkali process for controlling SO2
emissions from Unit 6. a coal-fired boiler at Louisville Gas and
Electric Co.'s Cane Run Station. The process was developed by
Combustion Equipment Associates, Inc., and Arthur D. Uttle,
Inc. The program consists of four phases: (1) preliminary design
and cost estimation; (2) engineering design, construction, and
mechanical testing: (3) start-up and acceptance testing; and (4)
1-year operation and test programs. The report describes final
engineering design, construction and mechanical testing, and
installed system capital cost. Construction of the system was
completed in February 1979 and system startup was initiated in
March 1979. Total capital investment for the entire plant, in-
cluding waste disposal, is estimated to be $20.6 million (con-
struction of the waste disposal facilities Is not complete).
Full-Scale Dual-Alkali Demonstration System at
Louisville Gas and Electric Co.—Final Design and
System Cost
R. P. Van Ness. R. C. Somers. R. C. Weeks (LG&E): T. Frank.
G. J. Ramans (CEA); C. R. LaMantia, R. R. Lunt. and J. A.
Valencia (ADL), Louisville Gas and Electric Company. Louisville.
Kentucky. September 1979. EPA-600/7-79-221b. (NTIS No. PB
80-146715.) EPA Project Officer: N. Kaplan. IERL-RTP.
See EPA-600/7-79-221a for abstract.
Electric Utility Steam Generating Units—Flue Gas
Desulfurization Capabilities as of October 1978
Final Report
B. A. Laseke. Jr., M. T. Melia. M. T. Smith, and T. J. Roger,
PEDCo Environmental, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, January 1979.
EPA-450/3-79-001. (NTIS No. PB 298 509.) EPA Project Officer:
K. R. Woodard. OAQPS/ESED.
This study updates the previously published final report, "Flue
Gas Desuhurization System Capabilities for Coal-Fired Steam
Generators, Volume II," EPA-600/7-78-032b published in March
1978. This assessment was made by reviewing the changes and
developments in the technology since the preparation of the
March 1978 report. A substantial increase in the number and
capacity of operational FGD systems, plus the additional opera-
tional experience obtained by previously identified operational
systems, have resulted in a substantial increase in the amount of
design and performance information. Most notably, these include
dependability (availability, operability, reliability, and utilization)
data, removal efficiency data (sulfur dioxide and particulate),
operating problem and solution data, results from various
research, development, and demonstration programs, and
process and design innovations for new systems. Virtually all of
the FGD operating experience gained to date has been with the
wet-phase, nonregenerable, lime/limestone processes. As a direct
result of this previous experience, the systems committed for
operation within the next 3 to 5 years also show an over-
whelming preference for lime/limestone processes. Analysis of
the current status of the technology indicates that the design and
operating experience gained with the first and second generation
FGD systems has resulted in improved design and operation of
subsequent installations. Because FGD systems that are being
engineered and/or erected will incorporate many or all of these
design Innovations, even better performance can be expected
without substantial cost increase.
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FGD QUARTERLY REPORT
JULY 1980
EPA PROJECT OFFICERS FOR CURRENT FGD RD&D PROJECTS
Robert H. Borgwardt, MD-65
USEPA, IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2336
(FTS)629-2336
Ted G. Brna, MD-61
USEPA, IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2683
(FTS)629-2683
Julian W. Jones, MD-61
USEPA. IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2489
(FTS)629-2489
Norman Kaplan, MD-61
USEPA, IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2556
(FTS)629-2556
Robert E. Landreth
USEPA, MERL
26 West St. Claire St.
Cincinnati. OH 45268
Phone: (513)684-7871
(FTS)684-7871
J. David Mobley. MD-61
USEPA. IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2915
(FTS)629-2915
Michael C. Osbome, MD-62
USEPA. IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-3996
(FTS)629-3996
Wade H. Ponder. MD-62
USEPA. IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park. NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-3997
(FTS)629-3997
Michael H. Roulier
USEPA. MERL
26 West St. Claire St.
Cincinnati. OH 45268
Phone: (513)684-7871
(FTS)684-7871
Donald E. Sanning
USEPA, MERL
26 West St. Claire St.
Cincinnati, OH 45268
Phone: (513)684-7871
(FTS)684-7871
John E. Williams, MD-61
USEPA. IERL-RTP
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-2483
(FTS)629-2483
K. R. Woodard. MD-13
USEPA. OAQPS-ESED
Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
Phone: (919)541-5213
(FTS)629-5213
The FGD Quarterly Report is part of a comprehensive EPA Engineering Application/Information Transfer (EA/IT) Program on flue gas
desulfurization (FGD). The report is designed to meet four objectives: (1) to disseminate information concerning EPA sponsored and conducted
research, development, and demonstration (RD&D) activities in FGD; (2) to provide progress updates on selected ongoing contracts: (3) to
report final results of various FGD studies; and (4) to provide interested persons with sources of more detailed information on FGD. The EA/IT
Program is sponsored by EPA's Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina (IERL-RTP).
The FGD Quarterly Report is prepared by Radian Corporation under EPA Contract No. 68-02-3171. The EPA Project Officer is J. E. Williams
(address above). The Radian Project Director is Elizabeth D. Gibson; Suite 820, 40 Broad Street. Boston. MA 02109; (617) 482-5666. The
Radian Task Leader for preparation of this issue is Nancy S. Gates.
The Report is distributed, without charge, to persons interested in FGD. Those wishing to report address changes, or initiate or cancel their
free subscriptions to the FGD Quarterly Report may do so by contacting the EPA Project Officer or Radian Project Director named above.
The views expressed in the FGD Quarterly Report do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Mention of trade names or commercial products does not constitute an endorsement or recommendation for use by EPA.
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