WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
18050 DON 06/71
Stream Faunal Recovery
After Manganese Strip
Mine Reclamation
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY* RESEARCH AND MONITORING
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes
the results and progress in the control and abatement
of pollution in our Nation's waters. They provide a
central source of information on the research, develop-
ment, and demonstration activities in the Environmental
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Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research
Reports should be directed to the Head, Project Reports
System, Office of Research and Monitoring', Environmental
Protection Agency, Room 801, Washington, D.C. 20242.
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STREAM FAUNAL RECOVERY AFTER
MANGANESE STRIP MINE RECLAMATION
by
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Virginia Cooperative Fishery Unit
Bureau of Sport Fisheries
Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061
for the
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Project # 18050 DOH
Contract # WP-01530
June 1971
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 50 cents
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Water
Quality Office, EPA, and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents
necessarily reflect the views and policies of
the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products
constitute endorsement or recommendation for
use.
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ABSTRACT
Seasonal monitoring of certain chemical, physical, and biological
parameters of streams draining manganese strip mine spoils in three
stages of reclamation verifies that the community structure of fish
and benthic macroinvertebrates in these streams remains severely
depressed until complete reclamation of the spoils has been
accomplished. Six years after reclamation, only the faunal community
in the stream draining the fully reclaimed area has recovered.
Laboratory studies established the median tolerance limits of three
native species of fishes to silt in suspension and to manganese ions.
These studies suggest that the principal factor depressing the
faunal communities in partially reclaimed and unreclaimed streams is
the chronically high degree of turbidity and siltation. A comparison
of the growth of rainbow trout fingerlings in clear vs. turbid water
revealed a statistically significant slower growth in the tur.bid water,
further substantiating the assumption that siltation and turbidity
are limiting to those faunal communities.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of project number WP-01530 under
the partial sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental
Protection Agency.
iii
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CONTENTS
Section Pace
I Conclusions 1
II RecomraendaLions 3
III Introduction 5
IV Methods and Materials 9
V Results and Discussion 15
VI Acknowledgements 33
VII References 35
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FIGURES
PAGE
1 MAP OF STUDY AREA 6
2 PERCENTAGE OF THE SUBSTRATE OF RIFFLES
AND POOLS IN THE UPPER, MIDDLE, AND LOWER
SECTIONS OF THE STUDY STREAMS LESS THAN
0.841 MM IN DIAMETER AS MEASURED IN 1968,
1969, AND 1970 16
3 SOME WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS FOR TEN
SAMPLING PERIODS BETWEEN JULY, 1968, AND
JULY, 1970 18
4 MEDIAN TOLERANCE LIMITS OF TWO LIFE
HISTORY STAGES OF THREE FISH SPECIES TO
Mn(NO ) AND SILT 19
5 DENSITY AND DIVERSITY OF BOTTOM FAUNA 20
6 DENSITY AND DIVERSITY OF BOTTOM FAUNA 21
7 DENSITY AND DIVERSITY OF BOTTOM FAUNA 22
8 DENSITY AND DIVERSITY OF BOTTOM FAUNA 23
9 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 25
10 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 26
11 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 27
12 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 28
13 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 29
14 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 30
15 DENSITY (NUMBER PER FT2) OF SELECTED
ORDERS OF BOTTOM FAUNA 31
16 SPECIES ABUNDANCE OF FISHES COLLECTED
BETWEEN SEPTEMBER, 1968, AND JULY, 1970,
AS REPRESENTED BY MEAN VALUES FOR FIVE
COLLECTIONS 32
vi
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. Monitoring activities established that faunal communities in streams
draining partially reclaimed and unreclaimed manganese strip mine areas
remain chronically suppressed. Streams draining reclaimed areas support
more dense and diverse faunal communities, evidently as a result of lower
levels of turbidity and siltation.
2. Ninety-six hour TLm studies rule out the possibility that incident
levels of manganese in the study streams could be acutely toxic to the
resident species of fishes. A comparison of the growth and survival of
rainbow trout reared in clear and turbid waters indicated a statistically
significant slower growth rate in turbid water, suggesting the possibility
of other physiological effects of chronic exposure to high levels of silt
in suspension.
3. Unreclaimed and partially reclaimed streams had a higher percentage
of particles less than 0.841 mm in diameter than did the reclaimed stream
(Slemp Creek) and the unaffected stream (Hurricane Branch).
4. Reclaimed areas produce levels of manganese ions as high as occur in
unreclaimed areas, probably as a result of the leaching of ores brought
nearer the surface by the mining process.
5. Although all taxa of bottom fauna seem to be affected equally by the
high turbidities and siltation in unreclaimed and partially reclaimed
streams, the overall diversity is reduced because of the scarcity of cer-
tain orders.
6. Faunal recovery in the reclaimed stream (Slemp Creek) was evidently
complete six years after reclamation. Partial reclamation is ineffective
in bringing about faunal recovery or changing the turbidity and silt load
of affected waters.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
Effective reclamation of most types of surface mining spoils is predicated
on the control of a range of pollutants, the nature of which is determined
by the geology of the area and associated environmental conditions, and
any one of which may be limiting to the recovery of a stream's fauna.
The results of this investigation suggest a number of conditions to be
met for effective reclamation particularly of manganese strip mines, and
in general any surface mining which tends to increase the degree of
siltation and turbidity in receiving waters. The following recommenda-
tions relate to these findings and to areas of investigation which should
be pursued in greater depth.
1. Reclamation should be such that manganese ion concentrations in the
receiving streams are less than 7 mg/1, if acute toxicity to certain
species of fishes is to be avoided. Concentrations of other forms of
manganese such as is represented by Mn02 can be tolerated at much higher
levels.
2. Reclamation should reduce persistent turbidity levels to less than
75 Jackson turbidity units if a viable community of fish and macrobenthic
organisms is to be maintained.
3. In establishing policies of reclamation procedures, it should be
recognized that effective reclamation can be accomplished only through
reclamation of all the disturbed portions of a watershed.
4. In the area of toxicology, more emphasis should be given to the
study of the effects of chronic exposure to silt and heavy metals on
the reproduction, growth, and physiology of fishes.
5. On the basis of laboratory and field observations, the use of clay
silt to reduce the concentration of heavy metals in water appears pro-
mising and should be the object of further investigations.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
In recent years an upsurge of activity in the mining, road building, and
other industries has greatly increased the quantities of silt and heavy
metals entering aquatic environments. Boccardy and Spaulding (1968)
state that in eight Appalachian states 832,605 acres of land have been
disturbed by surface mining. This disturbance affects more than 5,000
miles of streams, and over 13,800 acres of impoundments. Current fossil
fuel demands coupled with increases in the efficiency of strip mining
operations serve to magnify the problem. Stricter legislation and in-
creasing awareness of the problem is resulting in better mining practices
and increased reclamation efforts, but little is known of the effective-
ness of various reclamation efforts or the rates at which aquatic bio-
logical communities recover once effective reclamation has been accom-
plished .
Manganese strip mining operations in southeastern Smyth County, Virginia,
during the mid 1950's have left several spoil areas that continue to con-
tribute silt and manganese ions to the South Fork Holston River. In that
area (Figure 1), 295 acres have been disturbed. The U. S. Forest Service
has purchased portions of this and adjoining lands and in 1959 began
reclamation efforts on Brushy Mountain, the watershed in which Slemp
Creek originates. This work was completed in 1960 and in 1966 reclamation
was completed on spoils areas of Bishop Branch owned by the Forest Service.
Because of a policy of the Forest Service their reclamation efforts are
limited to land which they own. Consequently, in 1966 when the Forest
Service completed reclamation efforts on the Slemp Creek and Bishop Branch
watersheds, 40 acres of spoil areas had been reclaimed. This included
all of the spoil areas on Slerap Creek, and part of the disturbed area on
the Bishop Branch watershed. Because of private ownership of the spoil
areas on Georges Branch and Slabtown Branch at that time, no reclamation
was attempted on those areas, resulting in a series of reclaimed, partial-
ly reclaimed, and unreclaimed tributaries of the South Fork" Holston.
Following a recent Forest Service purchase of spoil areas on Slabtown
Branch, reclamation is planned for the Spring of 1971.
Prior to the reclamation efforts of the Forest Service, extensive damage
to the property of local landowners as a result of flooding, deposition
of silt and rock debris, and the fouling of water supplies along the trib-
utaries was documented. Because of the extreme turbidity of the South
Fork Holston, Buller Fish Hatchery was rendered "907o unusable." Previously
clear waters of these tributaries and the South Fork Holston River were
described by personnel of the Forest Service as "extremely turbid and
heavily silted." These conditions persist in the partially reclaimed and
unreclaimed tributaries of the South Fork. Turbidity values in the un-
reclaimed streams commonly are between 40 and 200 Jackson Turbidity Units
and readings of 32,000 Jackson Turbidity Units (unpublished Forest Service
stream survey report) have been recorded. Manganese ions have been
measured in concentrations as high as 2.4 ppm.
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SOUTH FORK HOUSTON RIVER
UPPER DRAINAGE
ONE MILE
Figure 1. Map of Study Area
A Sugar Grove
• Buller Hatchery
^Tributary Stations
.':- Mined Areas
P: Pt. Reclaimed
R: Reclaimed
U: Unreclaimed
Tribs. Sampled
ST: Slabtown Br.
3: Bishop Br.
G: Georges Br.
S: Slemp Cr.
H: Hurricane Br.
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The purpose of this research was to evaluate the effect of manganese
strip mine reclamation on stream faunal recovery. This evaluation pro-
ceeded along the lines of chemical, physical, and biological monitoring
activities designed to assess stream faunal population differences through
time and under varying environmental conditions. Acute and chronic tox-
icity studies designed to determine whether the silt and manganese levels
in the affected streams were high enough to limit survival of two local
fish species were corollary aspects of the research.
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SECTION IV
METHODS AND MATERIALS
THE STUDY STREAMS
Slemp Creek
Slemp Creek originates on Brushy Mountain in the Jefferson National
Forest. The upper reaches of Slemp Creek drain National Forest land,
part of which is a reclaimed strip mine area, while the lower portion
drains private farm land. Slemp Creek is seldom turbid, and although
heavy deposits of sand and gravel occur in areas of low velocity, silta-
tion is negligible. Slemp Creek and two others form the headwaters of
the South Fork Holston River.
Bishop Branch
Bishop Branch originates on Brushy Mountain and joins the South Fork
about two miles downstream from the mouth of Slemp Creek. The upper por-
tion of Bishop Branch flows through a partially reclaimed manganese strip
mine area, while the lower portion flows through private farm land.
Bishop Branch is a narrox^ (seldom exceeding four feet in width), fast
flowing stream with few pools. In the slower portions, the bottom is
largely sand and silt, while in the faster portions, small boulders and
sand predominate. During low flow, about a 150-meter stretch of the
stream flows underground 0.25 mile above its mouth. Above the under-
ground section, the entire substratum is always covered with a fine layer
of silt.
Georges Branch
Georges Branch also originates on Brushy Mountain, with a ridge of land
forming a divide between the spoils of Bishop Branch and Georges Branch,
No reclamation has been undertaken on the spoils of Georges Branch. The
stream is always turbid and the entire substratum is covered with a fine
layer of silt.
Slabtown Branch
Slabtown Branch flows into the South Fork about two miles downstream from
Georges Branch and on the opposite side of the valley. One fork of the
upper portion drains on unreclaimed strip mine area; and although that
fork is intermittent during periods when it flows, it deposits enough
silt in the other portions of the stream to maintain a constantly high
turbidity.
Hurricane Branch
Hurricane Branch which originates in the Iron Mountains about eight miles
northeast of Sugar Grove serves as one of the control streams in the
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study. It is predominantly a long series of rapids with small pools. The
water is not turbid even at high flow, and the substrate is composed
largely of gravel and small boulders. Bedrock is encountered more fre-
quently in this stream than in the others of this study.
SELECTION OF A CONTROL STREAM
Control areas could not be established on the other streams described
here because as tributary streams they originate on or near the strip
mined areas, thus ruling out the possibility of using a portion of the
stream above the pollution source as a control area. The two remaining
alternatives were to compare the reclaimed stream with the unreclaimed
and partially reclaimed ones, or to compare the reclaimed, unreclaimed,
and partially reclaimed streams with a stream unaffected by strip mining
activity. Hurricane Branch is unaffected by strip mining, but its waters
are very soft (5-10 ppm) and have a low biological productivity. It was,
therefore, not directly comparable to the other streams. With these facts
in mind, it was decided that Slemp Creek should serve as the "control"
stream and that Hurricane Branch should serve to represent the physical
properties of a stream unaffected by strip mining.
STATION SELECTIONS
With the exception of Slabtown Branch, two stations were selected on each
of the study streams for sampling all parameters except substrate composi-
tion. Only one station was established on Slabtown Branch. The stations
were established on the upper and lower sections of the streams- and were
chosen on the basis of how well they represented other sections of the
streams. Each sampling area contained a riffle and a pool area. For the
substrate analysis, an additional station was established in the mid-
section of the stream.
MONITORING ACTIVITIES
In order to document the continuing damage to the ecology of the study
streams resulting from the influence of the unreclaimed strip mine areas
and to evaluate the degree of recovery of streams draining reclaimed strip
mine areas, the following parameters were sampled at approximately the
intervals indicated: Water chemistry (dissolved oxygen, pH, alkalinity,
total hardness, iron, and manganese) at two-month intervals; temperature
and volume of flow at two-month intervals and coinciding with the measure-
ments of water chemistry; fish and benthic macroinvertebrates quarterly;
and substrate composition yearly.
Alkalinity, total hardness, pH, and dissolved oxygen were measured using
the Hach Chemical Company's model AL-59 kit. The low-range tests of the
kit were used for alkalinity and total hardness. Samples were taken at
midstream and were analyzed on the site. The Hach Chemical Company's
1, 10 phenanthroline method for iron and the cold periodate method for
manganese were employed, using that Company's AL-59 kit. After July,
1969, the same reagents for iron and manganese were used, but the deter-
minations were made with a Bausch and Lomb Spectronic 20 colorimeter.
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Streambed Composition
With the aim of quantifying differences in the physical characteristics
of the various stream classes being studied, an analysis of the particle
sizes of the streambeds was undertaken. Of particular interest was the
percentage of the total substrate composed of finer particles such as
sand and silt which would be indicative of continuing erosional activities.
All the techniques proposed elsewhere for extracting samples of the stream-
bed were inappropriate for the streams in this study because of the pre-
ponderance of large rocks and boulders, so a different sampling device,
consisting of a saw-toothed, metal cylinder with handles, was designed
and constructed. Operation of the sampler required two men who rotated
it clockwise and counterclockwise about 30 in each direction, thus dril-
ling the S'aw-toothed edge of the apparatus down into the streambed.
After drilling the metal cylinder into the substrate, approximately four
liters of the bottom material were scooped out and placed in a plastic
bucket prior to separation into different particle size classes. Water
containing silt particles in suspension was then dipped out and set aside
in plastic buckets. Water was dipped from the scooped-out area until
"dry," or in cases where penetration of the sampling device was inadequate
to prevent seepage of water, until the water began to clear inside the
sampling area.
After collection of the sample, the bottom materials and the scooped-out
water were washed through a series of nine sieves (19, 12.7, 6.35, 3.36,
1.68, 0.841, 0.420, 0.210, and 0.105 mm openings) and their volume was
measured by a method of displacement (McNeil and Ahnell, 1964). Water
containing silt particles which passed through the finest sieve was
placed in a large settling funnel and allowed to stand for 30 minutes,
after which water containing most of the settleable solids was drawn off
the bottom into a bucket, and was then stored in a plastic one gallon jug
at least 24 hours prior to final measurement. At that time, the upper
one half of the plastic jug was carefully removed, the water was poured
off and the volume of the settled solids was measured. About 28 to 32
hours are required for the analysis of a series of 60 samples which is
the number required for duplicate samples taken from pool and riffle
areas on the upper, middle, and lower portions of the study streams.
Volume of Flow
Volume of flow was determined using the formula R = W D a V and the method
of Robins and Crawford (1954) where R is equal to the volume of flow in
cfs, W is average width, D is average depth in feet, V is the velocity in
feet per second, and a is a coefficient of roughness (0.8 for rough bot-
toms and 0,9 for smooth bottoms). This float method was found to be most
applicable to the study area because of the extreme shallowness of most
areas of the streams. Average width was determined from measurements
with a 50-foot steel tape at one-meter intervals. Depth measurements
were taken in the center of the stream and halfway between the center and
each bank, also at one-meter intervals. These readings were then averaged
to determine mean depth.
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Temperature
Air and water temperatures were taken after the method of Lagler (1956)
with a centigrade thermometer at all stations whenever chemical data and
fish and bottom fauna were collected.
Turbidity
For all samples after July, 1969, the procedure of the Hach Chemical
Company was used to determine turbidity in standard Jackson Units. Using
the Spectronic 20 colorimeter, percent transmittance was converted to
turbidity in standard Jackson Units by referring to a table made from
standard formazin solutions using a Jackson Candle Turbidimeter. Prior
to July, 1969, turbidity measurements utilized the Hach Chemical Company's
model AL-59 kit.
Fish Collections
Fish collections were made utilizing the model BP-IC backpack shocker
obtained from Coffelt Electronics Company, Denver, Colorado. A six-foot
whip electrode mounted on a single wooden pole was used. A switch on
the pole controlled the current. About 1.5 amps were produced on AC cur-
rent at an output of 325 volts.
At the time of each collection, a 150-foot section of stream at each
station was shocked and the fish were collected with a long handled nylon
dip net. The operation required a minimum of two men. In the case of
soft water, such as in Hurricane Branch, it was necessary to throw crushed
salt into the water upstream prior to shocking. The fish were released
after identification to avoid overexploitation of existing stocks in the
small streams.
Bottom Fauna Collections
Bottom fauna collections were made at approximately three-month intervals
throughout the study. An unmodified Surber square foot sampler was the
sampling device. Three samples were taken at every station each sampling
period. The samples were transferred from the Surber sampler to a white
enamel pan and separated from the accompanying debris at the sampling
site. The sorted organisms were then preserved in vials of 70 percent
ethanol. Identification was to order at the time of this report, but is
being carried to genus.
ACUTE TOXICITY STUDIES
The Test Fish
The rainbow trout sac-fry were obtained from the new Wytheville National
Fish Hatchery (Wytheville # 2) as eyed eggs and were hatched in aluminum
hatching troughs at the old Wytheville National Fish Hatchery (Wytheville
# 1) where the toxicity studies were run. Rainbow trout fingerlings
also were obtained from Wytheville # 2.
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The white sucker fry were obtained from Wisconsin's Department of Natural
Resources fish hatchery at Woodruff, Wisconsin, via air freight. The
fish were shipped in a sealed and oxygenated plastic bag containing about
20 liters of water. Transit time was about 13 hours. After transporting
the fry to the fisheries laboratory on campus, the fry were transferred
to plastic swimming pools filled with dechlorinated tap water. Total
hardness and pH (total hardness 45 ppm, pH 7.2) was nearly identical to
that of the Wisconsin hatchery.
The white sucker fingerlings were reared by transporting some of the
Wisconsin fry to a cement pond at Virginia's Buller Fish Hatchery in late
June, 1969. They were held there until the white sucker fingerling experi-
ment in August, 1970, at which time they weighed an average of 1.6 grams.
When an attempt to hatch blacknose dace fry and a subsequent attempt to
capture them in local streams failed, it was decided that juveniles and
adults would be the life history stages of this species used in the
toxicity experiments. The juveniles were captured in the headwaters of
Big Stony Creek in Giles County and were held in a plastic swimming pool
filled with dechlorinated tap water until they were used in the manganese
toxicity study of July, 1970. The blacknose dace adults were seined from
Meadowbrook Branch near Buller Hatchery in Smyth County.
The Bioassay Apparatus
The test containers for all the experiments were of a series of one gallon
glass jars filled with either two or three liters of water, depending upon
the weight of the fish and other experimental conditions. Fourteen-foot
aluminum hatching troughs filled with running water served to maintain a
relatively constant temperature. In all tests except the one with black-
nose dace juveniles, each jar was supplied with one of a series of air
stones connected to a small air compressor.
Water Quality
Three water qualities have been used in the toxicity experiments reported
here. They are Slemp Creek (total hardness 35-45 ppm, pH 7.2), Wytheville
# 2 spring water (total hardness 120 ppm, pH 7.5), and campus fisheries
laboratory tap water (total hardness 45 ppm, pH 7.6). Slemp Creek water
was used in the rainbow trout sac-fry experiments and the rainbow trout
fingerling study in which suspended silt was the toxicant. Wytheville
# 2 spring water was used to determine the tolerance of rainbow trout
fingerlings to Mn+^ ions. Fisheries laboratory tap water was used for
all the white sucker and blacknose dace experiments.
Toxicants
The three toxicants which have been used in these experiments are M^NO-j^,
Mn02, and suspended silt. The Mn(N03)2 was obtained as a 10,000 ppm atomic
absorption standard solution from the Fisher Scientific Company, and as
a 51.2 percent reagent grade solution from the same company. The atomic
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absorption standard solution was used for the rainbow trout sac-fry experi-
ment and the 51.2 percent solution was used for the other experiments.
A 10,000 ppm solution of Mn(N03>2 was always the strength of the solution
pipetted into the diluent water. After pipetting, the solutions were
stirred vigorously with a glass rod to insure thorough mixing before
introducing the fish into the test containers.
The silt used in this series of experiments was obtained from the bed of
a conical shaped depression located on the unreclaimed portion of the
Bishop Branch strip mine. It was air dried and ground in a mortar and
pestle prior to putting it into suspension. The silt was kept in sus-
pension by moderately violent aeration.
The MnC>2 was in a powder form and was obtained from the Fisher Scientific
Company.
Measurements to determine actual quantities of the various toxicants in
solution or suspension were usually taken 48 hours after beginning the
experiment. Materials in suspension were measured in terms of turbidity
units, and manganese was measured colorimetrically using Hach Chemical
Company's cold periodate oxidation method and a Spectronic 20 colorimeter.
CHRONIC EFFECTS OF SILT IN SUSPENSION
Facilities of the Buller Fish Hatchery near Marion, Virginia, were used
to compare the growth of rainbow trout and white sucker fingerlings in
clear versus turbid water. Two cement ponds 100 feet long, eight feet
wide, and three feet deep were each divided into six compartments by 1/4-
inch mesh screens. In the study conducted during the fall of 1969, water
was delivered to the two ponds from an adjacent earthen pond in an attempt
to avoid the occasional high turbidities of water coming directly from the
South Fork Holston. Turbidity was induced in one pond by having the in-
coming water flow across a basket of semi-dried clay silt. Each of the
ponds was stocked with three groups of fifty white sucker and rainbow
trout fingerlings. Individual lengths and mean weights were taken at the
beginning and end of the experiment.
Because of difficulties in maintaining a high turbidity in the turbid
pond and in an attempt to attain a better statistical design, a second
experiment was initiated in the fall of 1970. This time a circulating
pump maintained a stirring action inside a 55-gallon drum to which clay
silt was added daily. The amount of turbid water leaving the drum and
entering the test pond was controlled by the amount of influent water.
Since the suspected significant differences in length and weight changes
could not be validated statistically in the first experiment, fish were
tagged internally with a numbered, plastic tag in the second experiment
in an attempt to improve the experimental analysis. In this experiment
three groups of twenty-five rainbow trout and white suckers were stocked
in each of the ponds and fed daily for thirty days. To allow for mortality
and tag loss, twenty fish from each compartment were selected at random
for the statistical an^i.ysis.
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SECTION V
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
CHANGES IN STREAM SUBSTRATA ASSOCIATED WITH STRIP MINE RECLAMATION
Although no definitive values for degree of siltation prior to reclamation
of the streams draining strip mined areas are available, from the state-
ments of local residents it may be inferred that conditions in those
streams were similar to those existing in the presently unreclaimed
streams. Following this assumption, one can measure the effect of recla-
mation on stream substrata by comparing unreclaimed and partially re-
claimed streams (Georges, Slabtown, and Bishop Branch) with reclaimed
and unaffected streams (Slemp Creek and Hurricane Branch, respectively).
Substrate analysis to determine the percentage composition by particle
size of the different stream substrates was undertaken in the summers
of 1968, 1969, and 1970. In comparing the percentage of the stream sub-
strates composed of particles less than 0.841 mm in diameter (Figure 2),
several conclusions can be drawn. At first glance it would appear that
the only significant difference in percentage of particles less than
0.841 mm in diameter exists between Hurricane Branch and all the other
streams. It must be noted, however, that the upper portion of Slemp
Creek is in an area of atypically low gradient. If this is taken into
consideration, riffles of Slemp Creek, Hurricane Branch, and the lower
portion of Bishop Branch have a substratum with a smaller percentage
composed of particles less than 0.841 mm in diameter. The same relation-
ship holds true only for Slemp Creek and Hurricane Branch where compari-
sons with respect to this particle size class are made among pools of
the different streams. As was mentioned previously, a portion of Bishop
Branch flows underground and during this course drops a tremendous sedi-
ment load so that the only deposition which takes place in the lower por-
tion does so during periods of high flow and then is limited mainly to
areas of lesser gradient; the pools. Riffles in Slabtown and Georges
Branch had higher percentages of this size class of particles because
the streams are constantly turbid, and deposition can take place even at
low flow.
Since no substrate analyses were made prior to the summer of 1968, the
only statements that can be made about rate of change of these streams'
substratum following reclamation is that the percentage of finer sedi-
ments was comparably less after eight years. Novak's (1968) observations
suggest a similar situation in 1966. The portions of Bishop Branch above
the underground section demonstrate that partial reclamation is ineffec-
tive in reducing siltation.
CHANGES IN TURBIDITY AND WATER CHEMISTRY ASSOCIATED WITH STRIP MINE
RECLAMATION
The biological productivity of a stream is dependent upon a number of
factors, primary among which are the type of streambed of substrate, degree
15
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Riffles
upper pH I I middle
lower
68 69 70
Slemp
Figure 2.
68 69 70
Bishop
68 69 70
Georges
68 69 70
Slabtovn
68 69 70
Hurricane
Percentage of the substrate of riffles and pools in the
upper, middle, and lower sections of the study streams less
than O.Ohl mm. in diameter as measured in 1968, 1969, and
1970. No middle sample was taken in 1968. The particle size
less than 0.841 mm. represents a natural break in the sieving
series which is closely related to suspensoids which do not
settle out easily in active water.
16
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of turbidity, basic water chemistry (D.O., COj, pll, and total hardness),
and the absence of toxic materials. Upon analysis of the data in Figure
3, it. appears that the principal effect of reclamation of the watersheds
of an affected stream (Slcmp Creek) has been to dramatically reduce the
stream's turbidity. Relatively high manganese concentrations persist,
probably as a result of leaching of ores made more available to surface
runoff as a result of the mining processes. As in the case of siltation,
the high turbidity and manganese levels in the upper portion of Bishop
Branch suggest the futility of partial reclamation.
ACUTE AND CHRONIC TOXICITY OF STRIP MINE EFFLUENTS
In order to determine whether the levels of silt and manganese ions in
the study streams might be limiting to native species, a series of acute
toxicity studies subjecting fry and fingerlings of rainbow trout, black-
nose dace, and white suckers to MnCNOg^, silt, and Mn02 was conducted.
The data (Figure 4) negate the probability of acute toxicity resulting
from the ambient levels of manganese in the study streams, but the occa-
sional extreme turbidities experienced in Bishop, Georges and Slabtown
Branch alone or coupled with siltation during the larval stage of develop-
ment could be acutely lethal. Indeed, this acute lethality is strongly
suggested when it is recognized that the upper portion of Georges Branch,
the upper portion of Bishop Branch, and all of Slabtown Branch are prac-
tically or completely devoid of fish life, even though all conditions
excepting turbidity and siltation would appear amenable to supporting a
modest fish population.
Exposure of tagged rainbow trout and white sucker fingerlings to about 700
Jackson Turbidity Units of silt in suspension for a 30-day period produced
no higher mortalities than occurred in the clear water control groups,
but differences in mean length and weight increments were statistically
highly significant between the two groups of trout fingerlings. The mean
length increment was 25.7 mm in clear water and 19.0 mm in turbid water.
The mean weight increment was 51.1 grams in clear water, and 30.6 grams
in turbid water. No gross morphological differences were apparent, but
this data tends to substantiate the hypothesis that high turbidity is the
factor limiting fish populations in the unreclaimed streams.
Stream Faunal Recovery
Onemeans of assessing the impact of various pollutants in aquatic environ-
ments is through a study of the fish and bottom faunal communities of a
particular system. Figures 5-8 present good evidence of the continuing
damage to communities of bottom fauna resulting from unreclaimed strip
mine areas. They give equally good evidence that reclamation does in
fact make possible recovery in these communities.
Although considerable variation exists between stations on a given stream
and even between samples at a given station, certain trends can be de-
tected in the seven bottom fauna collections made between July, 1968, and
June, 1970. First, the number of organisms per square foot of sample
17
-------
0-100
•a
oi
g 90'
e 80
« 70
60-
c
a)
>>
T)
S-l
S-2
B-l
B-2
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Stations
G-2
ST
H-l
.9
c
.85
a
to
.5
IU
in
0)
o)
2
.38
J
..1
11-2
Figure 3. Some water quality parameters for ten sampling periods between July, 1968, and July, 1970.
Data represents mean values for the ten periods.
oo
-------
Rainbow
Dace
TO
60
50
c
•H CVJ
Sn 3
^ ^
3 s
S
VO
ON
30
20
10
15
H -plO
>-> rH
•H
C CO
§
ON
Sucker
fingerling
Rainbow
Dace
Sucker
Figure U. Median tolerance limits of two life history stages of
three fish species to Mn(NO-) and silt.
19
-------
July 8, 1968
x
4)
TS
c
HI
1?
•H
Bl
v
•a
c
V
•H
a
— Density this date
— Mean Density all dates
— Mean Order-Diversity all A dates
\
September 17, 1968
5-1 fi-2 B-l B-2 G-l 0-2
ST
H-l H-2
70
60
50
uo I
30
to
20 S
10
90
80
70
60
50
UO
30
20
10
Figure 5. Density and diversity of bottom fauna. Diversity
equals number of orders minus I/the natural log of the number
of organisms in that sample.
20
-------
•a
m -i
t* 1
>
•rt
Q
x
0)
•s
M 2
•p
•H
(0
November 2U, 1969
\
April 5, 1970
S-l S-2 B-l B-2 G-l G-2 ST H-l H-2
Figure 6. Density and diversity of bottom fauna.
60
50
30
z:
I
01
20 g
o
10
90
80
TO
60
50
Uo
30
20
10
21
-------
April 8, 1969
8
T)
ro
V
X
V
•d
c
CO
V.
V
August 15, 1969
S-l S-2 B-l B-2 G-l G-2 ST H-l H-2
Figure 7. Density and diversity of bottom fauna.
60
50
CO
30
20 w
c
V
Q
10
90
80
70
60
50
UO
30
20
10
22
-------
X
0)
•H
CO
•H
Q
June 25, 1970
S-l S-2 B-l B-2 G-l G-2 ST H-l H-2
TO
60
CM
50
30
20
10
CO
c
o>
Q
Figure 8. Density and diversity of bottom fauna.
-------
area is higher on Slcmp Creek and the lower portion of Bishop Branch than
on any of the other streams with the exception of the July, 1968, samples
on Slabtown Branch. That data was distorted by the presence of unusual
numbers of small mayflies of the baetidae family. Although one might sus-
pect that these data reflect the higher total hardnesses of Slemp Creek
and Bishop Branch, that doesn't appear reasonable when it is considered
that Slabtown Branch has a total hardness and alkalinity double that of
Slemp Creek. Secondly, there x^ould seem to be a significantly lower
diversity of bottom faunal organisms in the streams draining unreclaimed
areas than exists in Slemp Creek. This is not the usual case in instances
of pollution by inorganic sediments, but apparently the standing crop of
certain taxa in these streams is low enough that the pollution reduces
their numbers to non-significance or even extinction. This supposition
is given added weight when one traces the abundance of the relatively
rare orders Coleoptera and Amphipoda through Figures 9-15.
Although Novak (1968) made similar findings on density and diversity in
his study which began in 1966, the absence of bottom fauna samples prior
to reclamation in 1960 and between reclamation and 1966 makes it impos-
sible to speculate about the sequence of recovery in the bottom faunal
communities of Slemp Creek. The only conclusions to be drawn are that
recovery in Slemp Creek has occurred and appears to be complete. In
all probability, the lower portion of Bishop Branch has not experienced
recovery, because it was probably never seriously damaged.
The abundance and diversity of species of fish exhibit a pattern of
recovery and depression very similar to that of the bottom fauna, with
Slemp Creek and the lower station on Bishop Branch showing the greatest
abundance. As the species diversity of tributary streams of this type
is never great, recovery of the fish populations in Slemp Creek is prob-
ably complete (Figure 16). The slight recovery suggested by the collec-
tions on Georges Branch probably results from the vulnerability of the
lower section of the stream to invasion from the South Fork.
24
-------
7-8-68
20
0)
It
tl
§•10
o
41
rH
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20
a
gio
to
0)
O ~-
S-l
S-2
B-l
B-2
G-l
G-2
ST-2
H-l
Figure 9. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
25
-------
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9-17-68
S-l
S-2
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Figure 10. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
26
-------
20
a!
t,
9)
§• 10
o
30
V
10
2
S, 10
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£ 10
t>
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U-B-69
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Figure 11. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
27
-------
20
§• 10
o
4)
0'
UO
a) 30
2 20
o
o
I 10
at 20
Vi
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B-15-69
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2
Figure 12. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
28
-------
u
01
u
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at
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H_2l4_69
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S-2
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o
Figure 13. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
29
-------
30
20
v
o
o
4)
1*0
2 20
01
§•10
,20
10
2 10
!
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20
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d 20
3 10
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+j
in
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S-l
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Figure 15. Density (number per ft ) of selected orders of bottom fauna.
31
-------
Blacknose
Dace
Stone Roller
Sculpin
Rainbow
Trout
S-l
Brook
Trout
S-2
B-l
B-2
G-l
G-2
ST
II-l
H-2
Figure 16. Species abundance of fishes collected between September, 1968, and
July, 1970, as represented by mean values for five collections.
32
-------
SECTION VI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report is coautliored by:
Dr. K. B. Cumming, Unit Leader, Virginia Cooperative Fishery
Unit, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
and
D. M. Hill, Graduate Research Assistant, Virginia Cooperative
Fishery Unit, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University
Special thanks are due Mr. Dixie Schumate and Mr. Stuart Currin of the
Buller Fish Cultural Station and Mr. Dudley Korth of the Wytheville
National Fish Hatchery for making experimental facilities available.
Assistance in the field work was given by fellow graduate students
Terry Humphries, Charlie O'Rear, Al Smith, Paul Brady, John Roland,
Don Estes, Don Holmes, and Bill Wrenn, and undergraduates Craig Cooper
and Greg Allen.
The special assistance lent by Mr. Quentin Pickering as WQO, EPA project
officer in the preparation of this report is appreciated.
33
-------
SECTION VII
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, Twelfth edition (1965).
2. Boccardy, J.A., and Spaulding, W., Effects of Surface Mining on
Fish and Wildlife in Appalachia, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and
Wildlife Resource Publication 65 (1968).
3. Cairns, J., Jr., "Suspended Solids Standards for the Protection
of Aquatic Organisms," Purdue University Engineering Bulletin, No.
129, Part 1, pp 16-27 (1968).
4. Cooper, A.C., "A Study of the Horsefly River and the Effect of
Placer Mining Operations on Sockeye Spawning Grounds," International
Proceedings Salmon Fisheries Commission, published 1956:3, 58 pp
(1956).
5. Cordone, A.J., and Kelly, D.W., "The Influence of Inorganic Sediment
on the Aquatic Life of Streams," California Fish and Game, 47 (2):
189-228 (1961).
6. Hem, J.D., Study and Interpretation of the Chemical Characteristics
of Natural Water, Geological Survey Water-Supply Paper 1473 (1959).
7. Hynes, H.B.N., The Biology of Polluted Waters, Liverpool University
Press, Liverpool, 202 pp (1966).
8. Jones, J.R.E., Fish and River Pollution, Butterworth, Inc., Washington,
D.C. (1964).
9. McNeil, W.J., and Ahnell, W.H., "Success of Pink Spawning Related
to Size of Spawning Bed Materials," U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,
Special Scientific Report—Fisheries 469 (1964).
10. Novak, J.K., Food of "Cottus baileyi" in South Fork Holston River,
During the Summer of 1966, Masters thesis, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia (1968).
11. Robins, C.R., and Usinger, R.L., "Variability in the Macrofauna of a
Single Riffle in Prosser Creek, California, As Indicated by the
Surber Sampler," Hilgardia, 24(1):383-409 (1956).
12. Tarzwell, C.M., "Experimental Evidence on the Value of Trout Stream
Improvement in Michigan," Transactions of the American Fisheries
Society Vol. 66. pp 177-187 (1937).
13. Tebo, L.B., Jr., "Effects of Siltation, Resulting from Improper
Logging on the Bottom Fauna of a Small Trout Stream in the Southern
Appalachians," Progressive Fish Culturist, 17:64-70 (1955).
35
-------
14. Wilhm, J.L., "Comparison of Some Diversity Indices Applied to
Populations of Benthic Macroinvertebratcs in a Stream Receiving
Organic Wastes," Journal Water Pollution Control Federation
(October, 1967).
36
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•a 1 AcccHnioa Number
5
2
Subii-i t l'i<:kl&. Gfonji
05C
SELECTED WATER RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
Organization
VlVoiiTfa Prvltrt-o r>V>T-» 4 /•» T *-*<-*- -1 +-*»+- ^ ^n ,-1 C •*-.-> 4- « T !«.-:,,«— „ 4 j —
Virginia Cooperative Fishery Unit
STREAM FAUNAL RECOVERY AFTER MANGANESE STRIP MINE RECLAMATION
1 Q Authors)
Gumming, Kenneth B., and
Hill, Donley M.
16
21
Proioct Destination
EPA WQO Project No.
WP-01530
Note
22
Citation
Desc'riptors (Starred First)
*Faunal Recovery, *Manganese, Strip Mine Reclamation
25
Identifiers (Starred First)
*Stream Faunal Recovery, *Manganese Strip Mine Reclamation
27
Abstract
Seasonal monitoring of certain chemical, physical, and biological
parameters of streams draining manganese strip mine spoils in three stages
of reclamation verifies that the community structure of fish and benthic
macroinvertebrates in these streams remains severely depressed until
complete reclamation of the spoils has been accomplished. Six years after
reclamation, only the faunal community in the stream draining the fully
reclaimed area has recovered.
Laboratory studies established the median tolerance limits of three native
species of fishes to silt in suspension and to manganese ions. These studies
suggest that the principal factor depressing the faunal communities in partially
reclaimed and unreclaimed streams is the chronically high degree of turbidity
and siltation. A comparison of the growth of rainbow trout fingerlings in clear
vs. turbid water revealed a statistically significant slower growth in the
turbid water, further substantiating the assumption that siltation and
turbidity are limiting to those faunal communities.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of project number WP-01530 under
the partial sponsorship of the Water Quality Office, Environmental Protection
Agency.
(Hill-Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University)
Ahstrtirlot
Donley M. Hill
vm if..' (KfV. JULY I'-" "I
WRSU.
tnia Polytechnic Institute and State Univ., Blacksburg
SLIU) V«l I H COI'Y or DOCUMC.N I , TO: WAI 1.11 HI SO UK'J I-'. SCI I Ml I! 1C INI OK MA I 'OH ».' L N 7 .. r,
U.S. 1>L I'AHI ML.N1 OF Till. INTfUlOU
WASHING! ON. D.C. £0;?*}U
CPO: 15JVO - -U>7 -101
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