EPA 600/5-74-005
March 1974
Socioeconomic Environmental Studies Series
evelopment of Predictions o
uture Pollution Problems
I
55
O
UJ
O
Office of Research and Development
. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and
Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency, have
been grouped into five series. These five broad
categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental
technology. Elimination of traditional grouping
was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related
fields. The five series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
This report has been assigned to the SOCIOECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES series. This series
describes research on the socioeconomic impact of
environmental problems. This covers recycling and
other recovery operations with emphasis on
monetary incentives. The non-scientific realms of
legal systems, cultural values, and business
systems are also involved. Because of their
interdisciplinary scope, system evaluations and
environmental management reports are included in
this series.
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EPA-600/5-74-005
March 1974
DEVELOPMENT OF PREDICTIONS OF
FUTURE POLLUTION PROBLEMS
by
James E. Flinn and Robert S. Reimers
Contract No. 68-01-1837
(Program Element 1HA095)
Project Officer
James R. Hibbs
IMPLEMENTATION RESEARCH DIVISION
WASHINGTON ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH CENTER
Washington, D. C. 20460
Prepared for
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Washington, D. C. 20460
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $2.40
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EPA REVIEW NOTICE,
.1
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Research and
Development, EPA, and approved for publication. Approval does not
signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies
of the Environmental Protection Agency, nor does mention of tradenames
or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendations for use.
ii
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FORWARD
This report presents the results of an effort to identify
and project the magnitude of short- to intermediate- term
pollution problems. The research was undertaken at the
request of the then Deputy Administrator of the Environmental
Protection Agency, Mr. Robert Fri, for the purpose of aiding
Agency program planning. The work was performed by Battelle
Columbus Laboratories under contract from the Ecological
Studies and Technology Assessment Branch, Implementation
Research Division, Washington Environmental Research Center.
We wish to thank Drs. James R. Hibbs and Harold V. Kibby of
EPA for their outstanding efforts in this project and the
authors and the Battelle Columbus staff for t;heir cooperation
in meeting our requirements in a timely fashion.
Edwin B. Royce, Ph.D.
Chief, Ecological Studies and
Technology Assessment Branch
Alan P, Carlin, Ph.D.
Director, Implementation
Research Division
iii
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ABSTRACT
The report describes the results of a program to identify, rank
and project short- and intermediate-term future pollution problems.
Identification was accomplished using three independent search
approaches based on industrial production, environmental, and societal
trends and activity. Primary emphasis was placed on the environmental
trends as gleaned from EPA, Battelle, literature, and other sources. An
initial list of problems was compiled with specific stressors identified
with each.
Nine ranking factors were devised to select ten "most serious"
problems from the initial list. The factors included: persistence;
mobility/pervasiveness; environmental, technological, social, and political
complexity; physiological risk; research needs; and bulk or volume of the
pollutant. The ten problems selected by this method were further ranked
in order of relative importance. The ten selected problems in rank order
are as follows.
Impacts of New Energy Initiatives
Geophysical Modifications of the Earth
Trace Element (Metal) Contaminants
Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals
Emissions from New Automobile Fuels, Additives, and
Control Devices
Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids, and Solid Residues
Critical Radiation Problems
Fine Participates
Expanding Drinking Water Contamination
Irrigation (Impoundment) Practices.
Five to ten year projections were made of the ten problems which resulted.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract No.
68-01-1837 under the sponsorship of the Office of Research and Monitoring,
Environmental Protection Agency.
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CONTENTS
Section
I Conclusions
II Recommendations
III Introduction
IV Impacts of New Energy Initiatives
V Geophysical Modification of the Earth
VI Trace Elements (Metal) Contaminants
VII Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals
VIII Emissions from New Automotive Fuels, Additives,
and Control Devices
IX Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids, and
Solid Residues
X Critical Radiation Problems
XI Fine Particulates
XII Expanded Drinking Water Contamination
XIII Irrigation (Impoundment) Practices
XIV Acknowledgments
XV Appendices
A. Identification of Candidate Problems
B. Selection of Most Serious Problems
Page
1
4
5
9
21
32
45
53
66
76
94
107
116
132
A-l
B-l
vii
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FIGURES
Page
1 Pollution Chain Diagram for the Environmental Stressor Lead 34
2 Geographical Distribution of Pesticide-Caused Fish Kills
1963-1968 49
3 Threshold Levels Versus Time for Three Sensitive Structures 87
4 Irrigated Land in the United States 117
5 Time and Temperature Effects Upon Oxygen Content (SAG)
in Free-Flowing and Impounded Rivers 128
6 Salinity in Parts Per Thousand and Number of Fish Species
in the Laguna Tamaulipas, Mexico, During 1961 through 1965 129
7 Saturation Values of Dissolved Oxygen Versus Salinity 129
ix
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TABLES
No. Page
1 U.S. Energy Outlook, 1971 to 1985 11
2 Range of Oil Imports (Million bbl/day) 14
3 National Summary of Petroleum Tanker Traffic Density
Forecasts 14
4 Type of Material Discharged for 1971 (U.S. Coast Guard) 17
5 Annual Spill Volumes at Various Oil Import Levels (barrels) 17
6 Trace Element Concentrations (mg/1) in Smelter-Refinery
Effluents 35
7 Elemental Air Emissions from U.S. Production and Con-
sumption Operations—tons/year 37
8 Projected Air Emissions of Selected Elements 38
9 Heavy Metal Concentrations in Selected Sludge Samples
(ppm on dry basis) 40
10 Fish Kills Resulting from Pesticides 48
11 Annual Production of Air Pollution in Millions Tons/Year 54
12 Itemization of the Automobile Totals Including Quantities
Replaced and Net Additions from 1950 Extrapolated to
2000 55
13 A List and Prediction of Total Mileage, Gasoline Usage,
and Total Registered Automobiles from 1950 to 2000 57
14 Summary of Exhuast Emission Standards for Light-Duty
Vehicles 58
15 Relative Quantities of Potential Lead Substitutes 60
16 Aromatic Levels in Gasoline Resulting from Staged Lead
Removal 60
17 Total Quantity of Catalytic Converters Needed by Weight
and the Weight of Trace Metals Adsorbed 63
18 Average Sludge Quantities in Municipal Wastewater Treatment 68
19 Residential Microwave Oven Installations 78
xi
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TABLES
(Continued)
No.
20 Total Broadcast Stations in U.S. 81
21 Maximum Observed Power Density Levels in Four Biologically
Relevant Frequency Bands 84
22 Total Power Densities Over Radio and Television Bands
(for Site Number 1, Holy Cross Hospital) 84
23 Total Power Densities Over Entire Frequency Range for
Each of 10 Sites 85
24 Sources and Quantities of Mercury Emission 98
25 Sources and Quantities of Beryllium Emission 99
26 Sources and Quantities of Asbestos Emission 100
27 Sources and Quantities of Lead Emission 101
28 Sources and Quantities of Cadmium Emission 102
29 Sources and Quantities of POM Emission 103
30 Projections of Fine Particulate Emission from Industrial
Sources 105
31 Municipal Water Supply in the U.S. (1960-1980) 108
32 United States: Estimated Water Use, 1900-1975 118
33 Acres of Irrigated Land, Inputs and Outputs of Water and
Salt for Irrigated Land from 1957 to 1964 for Coachella
Valley, California 120
34 Salt Balance, Yakima Valley, Washington 121
35 Comparison of Irrigation Water and Drainage Water, Yakima
Valley, Washington 123
36 Incremental Salt Concentration Attributable to Specific
Sources, Colorado River at Hoover Dam 124
37 Probable Fate of Municipal and Industrial Pollutants after
Irrigation 125
xii
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TABLES
(Continued)
No. Page
38 Trace Element Tolerances for Irrigation Waters 126
A-l Preliminary List of Problems by Area and Title A-5
B-l Problem Statement Rankings B-5
B-2 List of Ranked Statements B-6
xiii
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions are presented under three headings as follows:
Identification, Ranking, and Projections.
Identification
The framework employed to screen candidate problems was generally
effective. The major barrier to completeness was the short time period
(5 weeks) allowable in this program for the search. Nevertheless, it was
quite possible to screen many more problems than actually were selected
for inclusion in the initial list.
Ranking
The nine ranking factors employed for selecting 10 most serious
problems proved to be useful tools. The major difficulty in applying
these to the candidate problems was their lack of preciseness relative
to necessarily broad problem statements. Nevertheless, it is felt that
these tools helped considerably to avoid totally subjective and biased
judgements.
Projections
Examination of the magnitude and effects of selected aspects
of the ten most serious problems identified has led to the following set
of conclusions.
(1) As a consequence of an expected near doubling of
energy demand within the next ten years, increased
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quantities of spilled oil from tanker ship operations
can be anticipated, especially in the period up to
1980.
(2) Adverse environmental, ecological, and socioeconomic
effects are a common consequence of many large-scale
engineering efforts aimed at extraction and transport
of minerals, fossil fuels, and natural resources.
Examples examined include coal mining, stream channel
modifications, and oil and gas pipeline construction.
More detailed knowledge of the effects are needed to
adequately evaluate alternative ways of providing
man's material and energy needs.
(3) Elucidation of sources, pathways, and health effects
associated with trace element contaminants from
production-consumption (principally metallurgical)
processes, municipal wastewater treatment and other
sources is a major near-term problem. A greater
knowledge of health effects will aid in selection of
acceptable control options.
(4) Sources, pathways and effects of toxic and hazardous
chemicals (primarily organics) require serious study.
Pesticides as a class are a particularly major problem
with complex social, economic, and political consequences.
Systematic methods of making before-the-fact screening
and selection of specific problem chemicals for health-
effects testing are needed.
(5) The secondary effects on the environment incurred through
technology changes necessary to meet legislated auto-
motive exhaust control deadlines require examination.
New fuel compositions and additives and the use of
catalysts for HC and CO control may bring new exhaust
pollutants to the foreground.
(6) Ultimate disposal practice with respect to (1) residues
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from pollution control systems and (2) polluting low
value, large volume solid and liquid residues from
established production sectors needs to be defined.
Acceptable options are quite limited in certain locations
(population centers, etc.).
(7) An increased exposure of the general population to radio
frequency radiation is apparent over the next 5 years
and beyond. Low-level (nonthermal) effects from
radiation sources for heating, detection, communications
and power transmission are not known.
(8) Research on improved control systems for removing fine
particulates from air (those that now evade capture by
currently used technology) is needed. Health effects
due to inhalation and trapping of same are felt to be
serious.
(9) A complete reassessment is needed of drinking water
standards, treatment technology, and supply in view of
the recognition that ever-increasing quantities of
toxic organic and inorganic pollutants are entering
water supply sources.
(10) Irrigation, as a practice to meet agricultural and
land development needs in arid regions of the U.S., has
been increasing at a rate of better than 2 billion
gal/day since 1960. The effects of this practice require
more study along with alternative measures for their
control or mitigation.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are made based on the work accom-
plished.
(1) A continuing systematic effort to identify serious
national, regional, or local pollution problems and
pollutants, including the possibility of developing
a formalized alerting network.
(2) Greater effort relative to such a continuing search
should be spent exploring industry and government
sources (other than EPA and Battelle) for candidate
problems.
(3) Continued development and refinement of screening and
ranking parameters which are essential for making
factual (as opposed to subjective) selections of most
serious problems.
(4) Development of a formalized panel of experts (of
various backgrounds and associations) to aid in
evaluating candidate problems.
(5) A possible conference on future environmental problems
open to professionals in all fields. Such problems
are likely being recognized now in connection with R&D
on environmental topics now being funded by EPA and other
agencies.
(6) Review of EPA budgeting priorities with respect to the
ten problem areas identified in this work.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
There is a need for early identification of environmental
problems so that resources for corrective and control measures can be
identified and developed before-the-fact. Indicators of such problems
do exist, although systematic application of them for this need has not
been attempted on any large scale by EPA.
This program was initiated as a preliminary effort to identify
short (5 year) and intermediate term (10 year) pollution problems (in
the U.S.) which would be useful for EPA program planning needs. The
general approach employed was to screen three broad categories of human
activity with the objective of identifying major future trends which
adversely impact on man or his environment. The three categories which
formed the starting point for study were:
(1) Sectors of Technical Production Activity
(2) Sectors of Environmental Concern
(3) Sectors of Societal Change and/or Trends.
These three sectors were screened over a several week period employing a
variety of methods such as (1) interviews with knowledgeable Battelle
and EPA resource personnel, (2) group discussions, and (3) literature
sources. The preliminary list of identified problems developed (given in
Appendix A) was screened to select ten for further analysis. Ranking
factors were defined (Appendix B) to aid in making the selection. These
were supplemented by the application of professional judgment and
discussion with EPA personnel acquainted with the program. The resulting
list of ten problems was examined in more detail to quantify, where
possible, likely environmental consequences over the next 5-year period.
Three of the 10 problems were selected, based on further ranking efforts,
for a similar 10-year analysis.
In the course of the work many problem areas were reviewed,
ranging over (1) specific compounds [e.g., hexachlorobenzene], (2) classes
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of substances [e.g., fluorocarbons], (3) processes [production, consumption,
disposal, etc.] yielding emissions to air, water, or land, (4) activities
[construction, aerial spraying, pollution control] with associated adverse
environmental effects, and (5) natural conditions which contribute to con-
tamination of the environment [volcanos, wind, solar radiation]. The
category screening approach was effective in the sense that (1) a framework
was provided wherein an essentially unlimited reservoir of potential problems
could be systematically rapidly sifted, (2) many significant problems were
identified, and (3) findings from the technical production and societal
change category searches tended to reinforce and substantiate those from
the environmental concern category.
Time limitations for compilation and ranking of the initial
list of candidate problems—about 5 weeks total—and the broad scope of
activity sectors from whence the candidates were derived, precluded more
than a cursory review of the three categories studied. Similar
considerations restricted the depth to which an identified problem
could be assessed during both the process of selecting the ten "most
serious" and the subsequent efforts at projection of magnitude and
effects for these. Consequently, the authors make no claim for complete-
ness. Some significant problems were missed, in fact, during preparation
of the initial candidate list. Those that did subsequently come to the
attention of the project staff could not retroactively be incorporated
into the selection process. The remaining program time and funds
necessarily had to be focused on developing information on the magnitude
and effects of the ten selected problems. It is further recognized that
too little effort has been spent on (1) interviews with persons outside
of EPA and Battelle, (2) examination of the social, political, and
economic aspects of identified problems, (3) in depth analysis of infor-
mation sources to ascertain if the data and trends were valid (for
example - is there a real energy crisis) and (4) imaginative conception
of solutions to the problems. Nevertheless, the resulting ten most
serious problems are felt to be significant problems of the near future and
of national importance.
It is evident that a continuing systematic effort at searching
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for problems is needed, and that such an effort could be conducted on an
international, national, regional, or local basis with considerable benefit
to EPA.
Projections of Magnitude and Effects
Sections IV through XIII which will follow are brief topical
reports on selected aspects of the ten problems identified—arranged in
the order of the final ranking.
It should be apparent from the titles that, in most instances,
the problems identified are quite broad in scope. This is a natural
consequence of aggregating related problems with the objective of
defining a problem of national as opposed to regional or local importance,
since EPA's overall budget priorities are surely assigned on that basis.
In attempting to project future magnitude and effects, one could not hope
to deal in any detail with all facets of such general problem areas.
Where necessary, some judgment was therefore applied to select one or at
the most two facets for more detailed examination. However, even this
proved difficult to do in some cases (e.g., trace element contaminants).
The factors used in deciding what facet to project included (1) whether
the facet in question was, in fact, a near- or short-term future problem
requiring a solution; (2) the extent to which the facet is or had been
examined already by current scientific, social, and political institutions
(e.g., radioactive substances associated with nuclear power have received
intensive scrutiny by the Atomic Energy Commission); and (3) whether it
merited attention as a national problem (a subjective judgment, obviously,
at this point in the program).
It is informative to examine the group of 10 problems in toto,
since there are some commonalities and interrelationships which in
themselves suggest areas where R&D priorities could be placed.
Section XII on drinking water contamination is a good case in
point. Virtually every one of the other nine problem areas impact on
man's need for and use of water for drinking purposes. This is because
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water perhaps more than air becomes a receptor for nearly all pollutants
to some degree. Likewise, though "trace element contaminants" (Section VI)
is defined as a distinct problem, pollution of the environment from auto-
mobiles, energy production, waste residues, pesticides, air emissions, etc.,
all contribute to it. Only a few of the problem pairs appear independent
of one another and with some detailed study a relationship could likely be
found. These include
(1) New Energy Initiatives and Irrigation Practices*
(2) Geophysical Modifications and Automobile Emissions
(3) Automobile Emissions and Radiation
(4) Automobile Emissions and Irrigation Practices.
One feature which is common to most, if not all, of these
problems is their multimedia nature. The transfer of pollutants from
one medium to another is now a well recognized phenomena. For specific
pollutants such as trace metals and other hazardous organic or inorganic
chemicals the extent to which this has occurred in the past is fairly
well documented. The adoption of pollution-control measures, resulting
from environmental legislation, is a contributor to intermedia transfer.
Study of the nature, extent and effects of intermedia pollutant transfers
could well be a high-priority area itself for environmental R&D.
The need for more information on sources, pathways and effects,
especially health effects, of stressors is an aspect common to several of
the problems identified. Similarly, the impact of specific stressors on
ecosystems, while recognized, needs clarification in order that tradeoffs
between man's material needs and environmental controls can be balanced.
* May be coupled in the future by the need for cooling water in power
plants located in arid regions.
8
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SECTION IV
IMPACTS OF NEW ENERGY INITIATIVES
Nature of Problem
Current concern exists over the possibility of shortages over
the next 5-10 years in energy resources. This concern is popularly referred
to as the "energy crisis". Whether the crisis is due to actual resource
limitations or the effects of institutional policies of the past (more
probable), one fact appears fairly certain, viz., the energy demand of the
U.S. is expected to nearly double between now and 1985. Meeting this
demand will require major technological efforts, all having significant
environmental impacts. The development of new energy technologies such
as coal gasification, coal liquefaction, oil shale and tar sand processes,
and nuclear reactors, are at an early stage. The impact of these will
likely not be fully felt until a time greater than 10 years in the future.
It is logical to examine these developments now with respect to likely
environmental effects and incorporate controls as the technology develops.
And, in fact, this is already being done as a consequence of increased
public awareness of environmental issues.
Of more importance are the short-term pollution problems that
will arise as a result of certain initiatives being instituted today in
anticipation of meeting actual energy and environmental needs within the
next ten-year period. These problems include: (1) oil spill incidents
from current and projected massive imports of foreign oil; (2) radioactive
emissions and waste disposal needs from increased numbers of nuclear power
installations; and (3) increasingly large volumes of solid residues from
coal cleaning—needed to help meet SO emission limitations on coal powered
A
electric plants. Of these three problems, only oil spill incidents will be
projected here. The problems of radiation effects and disposal of pollution
control residues from nuclear power production and coal cleaning are covered
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elsewhere. The environmental effects of coal gasification, oil shale, and
other emerging technologies lie farther into the future than this program
is aiming and it is assumed that their associated environmental consequences
will be dealt with as the technology develops.
Prelection
Energy Needs and Sources
U.S. energy needs in 1985 are expected to about double - from 68
(1)*
quadrillion Btu in 1970 to 125 quadrillion Btu in 1985. Four major sources
of energy are available: oil, gas, coal, and nuclear. Table 1» from
National Petroleum Council data, indicates the extent to which these four
sources are projected to share the market in 1985 compared to 1971. Note
that hydroelectric power, geothermal, oil shale, and coal liquids and
gases are expected to contribute only a few percent to 1985 needs.
Natural gas is already in short supply. With some imports and
production of synthetics the current level of gas availability can be
maintained. However, by 1985 natural gas will have only half of its current
share of the energy market. Imports of natural gas in 1972 totaled 1,032
(2)
billion cubic feet - a 1.04 percent increase over 1971.
Coal exists in abundant supply in the U.S. It is the major fuel
used for generating electric power. In 1972, electric utilities accounted
(2)
for 65.6 percent of all coal consumed. About half of the electric power
generated in the U.S. is based on coal. Even though a trend has existed
toward substitution of low-sulfur fuel oils for coal by utilities, the
demand for coal by utilities will increase significantly in the next 10
years due to a shortage of liquid fuels. Physical cleaning of coal to
reduce sulfur contents appears to be the only alternative currently to
avoid the higher economic cost of fuel oil.
* References appear at the end of each Section,
10
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TABLE 1. U.S. ENERGY OUTLOOK, 1971 TO 1985
(1)
Energy Source
Liquid Fuels
Coal
Natural Gas
Hydropower
Nuclear
Geo thermal
Synthetic Gas from Coal
Synthetic Liquids from Oil Shale
Synthetic Liquids from Coal
Percent of Total
Energy for 1971
44
18
33
4
less than 1
Negligible
0
0
0
Percent of Total
Energy for 1985
44
18
17
2.5
greater than 17
less than 0.5
0.75
0.2
0
Note: Data constrained by cost and projected current technology pace
considerations.
11
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According to the National Petroleum Council, meeting 1985 demands
for liquid fuels could require importation from foreign sources of up to 65
percent of U.S. oil needs and up to 28 percent of its natural gas. Actually,
in 1972, the U.S. imported a record 798.2 million barrels of crude oil, a
30.1 percent increase over 1971. In 1972 energy produced from imported fuels
(2)
accounted for 12.5 percent of the total U.S. energy consumption. The
time factor needed to stem this tide of imported fuels is unknown. Apparently
adequate reserves of recoverable oil and gas exist in the U.S., so that
given favorable economic incentives the industry output could be substantially
increased over its current level. Federal action in response to the projected
balance-of-payments deficit may alter the current situation. On the assump-
tion that the large import expectations will be achieved, it is possible to
project a significant and potentially serious impact due to oil spills from
tanker operations and accidents. Environmental impacts can also be expected
from the construction of superports for large oil tankers.
Nuclear power is expected to supply 17 percent of U.S. energy
needs in 1985. If reliable, this represents a substantial increase from
the present and suggests certain environmental consequences-thermal water
pollution, land disposal, or storage needs for high and low level radioactive
wastes and increased emissions of radioactive substances to air and water
media. Much study has already been given to these impacts by AEG and others
as a result of the Federal National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
requirements.
Any slippage of the projected nuclear power installation schedule
will have a significant effect on the other energy sources, e.g., greater
use of coal and oil in fossil fueled power plants constructed (in lieu
of nuclear) to meet the demand. The, projected nuclear capacity of 1985
(1 3)
amounts to 300 gigawatts of power. ' The same amount of power from
several fossil fuels would be as follows:
• 4.5 billion bbl/yr residual fuel oil
or • 1100 million tons/yr of coal
or • 76 trillion cu ft/yr of gas.
12
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Three Future Problems
From the foregoing discussion, three specific future pollution
problems can be identified:
(1) Large scale imports of petroleum and natural gas appear
to be a fair possibility. The quantities involved will
have environmental implication from the standpoint of
spills in U.S. coastal and inland areas, and from the need
to construct new facilities for large tankers.
(2) The growth of nuclear power, even if less than expected,
will introduce problems of radioactive emissions via
air and water routes, disposal of high and low level
radioactive waste to the land, and possibly thermal
water pollution effects.
(3) The need for coal resources to supply much of the 1985
energy demand is apparent, even with some switching by
utilities to residual fuel oil. Significant incremental
environmental effects are likely due to increased mining
and physical coal cleaning for sulfur reduction purposes.
Acid mine drainage and large volumes of coal residues
are to be expected.
Oil Spill Quantities and Effects
Table 2 shows the projected quantities of oil imports needed to
make up the U.S. energy deficit. The worst and best estimates developed
by the National Petroleum Council are given. The bulk of the needed imports
would come by tankers into U.S. ports. Considerable expansion of facilities
to handle the growing shipments is already underway. Environmental impact
studies of superports - facilities for docking and off-loading oil from
very large tanker fleets - are already underway.
13
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TABLE 2. RANGE OF OIL IMPORTS (Million bbI/day)
Case*
Best
Worst
1970
3.4
3.4
1975
7.2
9.7
1980
5.8
16.4
1985
3.6
19.2
Best case: Results from maximum effort to
develop domestic fuel sources.
Worst case: Results from continuation of
present trends in U.S. oil and gas drilling,
i.e., continued deterioration of U.S. energy
supply posture.
TABLE 3. RATIONAL SUMMARY OF PETROLEUM TANKER TRAFFIC DENSITY FORECASTS'1
(Tanker trips/year)
Region
Atlantic Coast
Gulf Coast
Great Lakes
Pacific Coast
Alaska
Hawaii
Total United States
Case A Case B
No Superport Operations Atlantic and Gulf Coast Superports
1975
9,170
3,687
580
1,765
485
142
15,829
1980
12,365
5,397
608
2,972
2,589
125-
24,056
1985
10,837
5,872
632
2,941
2,642
125
23,049
1975
9,170
3,687
580
1,765
485
142
15,829
1980
10,272
8,267
608
2,972
2,589
125
24,833
1985
8,496
6,565
632
2,941
2,642
125
21,401
* Petroleum includes crude petroleum, gasoline, distillate fuel oil, and residual
fuel oil.
14
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The increase in tanker traffic into and out of U.S. ports has
been recently estimated^ and projected (Table 3). For the two cases
shown - with and without superports - the peak year of 1980 shows upwards
of 25,000 foreign and domestic tanker movements into and out of U.S. ports
for the four commodities studied, a significant increase over 1975. The
Atlantic and Gulf Coast areas are the most affected.
Table 4 shows the number and volume of spills of oil and other
substances reported to the U.S. Coast Guard in 1971. The major percentage
of these spills are categorized as light, heavy, or other oil. The data
do not accurately define the types of oil. Most of this data probably
resulted from ship operations rather than accidents from grounding or
collision, since the 1967 Torrey Canyon incident alone, e.g., released
20,000,000 gallons of oil into the sea and another 20,000,000 gallons in
the ship was burned to prevent release.
The question of future spills, due to increased port traffic
density resulting from accelerated oil imports, has been addressed by the
Coast Guard in connection with recent proposed legislation on establishment
and regulation of deepwater port facilities. Several possibilities exist
for shipment modes into U.S. ports. These include:
(1) Shipment direct to U.S. ports via tankers in the
50,000-70,000 DWT* size (no superport)
(2) Delivery by supertankers (~250,000 DWT) to U.S. deep-
water ports located less than 50 miles offshore with
(a) transshipment by pipeline to shore facilities, or
(b) transshipment by smaller tankers to shore ports.
Another possibility is delivery in supertankers to non-U.S. Western Hemisphere
deepwater ports in the Caribbean or Canadian Maritime Provinces with trans-
shipment in small tankers to the U.S.—this is analogous to (1) above. The
projected spill probabilities depend upon the mode actually employed. In
fact, if mode 2a were employed a significant environmental impact from
* DWT - dead weight tons.
15
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dredging of the needed deepwater port and transfer pipelines would result
in lieu of fewer spill incidents. Complete transshipment from offshore
superports is also analogous to the first mode.
Methodology developed by the Coast Guard^ has been employed to
estimate annual incremental spill volumes in U.S. coastal areas as a function
of oil import level. Results are given in Table 5 for three levels of
daily oil imports. Using the worst case data of Table 2, and the data
trends of Table 5, approximately 800,000 bbl of oil would be spilled in
U.S. coastal and harbor zones within the next 10 year period (1973-1983)
due to the increased oil imports in the absence of superports. Insofar
that superports come into existence within this period, the amount would be
expected to decrease, unless all of the oil is transshipped from offshore
superports in tankers rather than by pipeline. The Coast Guard methodology
is based on statistical analysis of 10 years of past accidental spill incident
history (1960-1970)^ ^ as a function of spill volume.
Effects
Spills of oil cause a number of adverse effects in the environment
not all of which are well understood. Oil and toxic components of the oil
can be lethal to organisms or inhibit normal feeding or reproductive behavior
as can coating of water fowl with oil. The coating of rocks, beaches, marshes,
etc., can cause significant plant and organism mortality. Estuaries and
nearshore coastal wetlands are the most biologically productive areas of
the marine ecosystem and also the most sensitive to damage from oil spills.
Wave action causes some of the crude and residual oils to emulsify
with the water; the unemulsified fraction spreads to form a slick about 0.001
inch thick in about a day. If the slick is not recovered, it is lost by
dissolution and biodegradation. The thin slick on the surface does not
last more than a week, but water-in-oil emulsions persist for several months.
Most crude and residual oils contain surfactants which promote
the formation of a water-in-oil emulsion. These emulsions contain up to
80 percent water and because of the contained water are about the same
density as seawater. The emulsions persist for months. While the emulsions
16
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TABLE 4. TYPE OF MATERIAL DISCHARGED FOR 1971
(U.S. Coast Guard)
Light Oil (gasoline, light
fuel oil, kerosene, light
crude)
Heavy Oil (diesel oil, heating
oil, heavy fuel oil, heavy
crude, asphalt)
Lubricating Oil
Animal or Vegetable Oil
Waste Oil
Other Oil
Miscellaneous Materials (sewage,
refuse, dredge spoil, etc.)
Total
Number of
Incidents
4,320
1,603
168
39
930
462
1,214
8,736
Percent
of Total
49.5
18.4
1.9
0.4
10.6
5.3
13.9
100.0
Gallons
2,822,463
2,934,181
22,365
18,957
164,352
2,673,077
204,128
8,839,523
Percent
of Total
31.9
33.2
0.3
0.2
1.9
30.2
1.3
100.0
TABLE 5. ANNUAL SPILL VOLUMES AT VARIOUS OIL IMPORT LEVELS (barrels)
Import Level Case I Case II
(million bbl/day) No Superports Superports*
3
6
9
15,900
32,600
49,400
3,400
6,500
10^000
Average number of
bbl spilled per
million bbl/day
imported 5,400 1,100
* With transshipment by pipeline.
17
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are easy to pick up because they form thick ropes and do not disperse, the
volume collected is greatly increased over the volume of oil. The emulsions
are stiff and difficult to pump. Since they do not spread rapidly, they
can be picked up long after the spill. However, their stability makes them
a problem if they are not recovered. Most beach damage is caused by
persistent emulsions of this type.
The seriousness of local damage will vary greatly depending upon
where the spill occurs and will be reflected in the cost of cleanup and
reparation of damage to private property. Little is known about the long
term effects of oil in the marine environment. The most urgent immediate
concern is to prevent its reaching shorelines and beaches where localized
damage and costly cleanup can develop. In shallow-water enclosed lakes
and embayments, and especially in flooded marshes, the problems are more
serious. Slower tidal exchanges and smaller volumes of water tend to
prolong the ill effects and to intensify the pollution per unit of oil lost.
Cleanup procedures following accidental oil spills can be more
damaging to the environment than the oil pollution itself. Public
reaction when accidents happen, coupled with the need to protect life,
has precipitated the liberal use of dispersants and emulsifying chemicals
to hasten the dissipation of visible oil. For the following reasons, such
procedures utilizing currently available chemicals may be much more damaging
(7 8)
to the aquatic ecosystem than less toxic but unsightly oil. *
(1) Detergents or dispersant chemicals may cause the
oil to adsorb on mud and silt particles, which sink
to the substrate or float in the water column where
they are more available to filter feeders.
(2) Oil adsorbed on bottom particles appear to take
longer to degrade.
(3) The use of chemicals to disperse the oil involves
placing an additional load of foreign and undesirable
material in the aquatic ecosystem. Many of the dis-
persants tested proved to be far more toxic than oil.
(4) Dispersal of oil inhibits the proper mapping and study
of polluted areas.
18
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Control Options
Multi-agency programs (Coast Guard, Navy, EPA, NOAA, etc.) on
oil spill prevention, control, mitigation, and restoration are underway.
Oil spill cooperatives are being established by major oil companies and
regional authorities. Future control efforts should emphasize
(1) Reduction in spill volumes by preventing or minimizing
casualties from collisions, grounding, rammings, etc.,
in high traffic density areas and operational mishaps
from equipment failures, human error, and poor house-
keeping
(2) Research and development on oil spill effects, control
techniques and measures, spill identification measures,
arid spill data collection and analysis.
(3) The development of contingency plans and spill cleanup
systems for high density traffic areas.
19
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References
(1) National Petroleum Council, U.S. Energy Outlook - Report to NPC's
Committee on U.S. Energy Outlook (December, 1972).
(2) "1972 Energy Use Continued Upward", News Release, Bureau of Mines
(March 10, 1973).
(3) Davis, W. Kenneth, Environmental Challenges and Nuclear Fuels,
Chemical Engineering Progress, 69 (6), 48-53 (June, 1973).
(4) Battelle's Columbus Laboratories, "Support Systems to Deliver and
Maintain Oil Recovery Systems and Dispose of Recovered Oil" (June 8,
1973).
(5) Anonymous, "Polluting Incidents in and Around U.S. Waters, Calendar
Year 1971", U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. (1972).
(6) Keith, V. F., "An Analysis of Oil Outflows due to Tanker Accidents",
Proceedings of Joint Conference on Prevention and Control of Oil
Spills, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, D.C. (1972).
(7) Train, R. E., "Statement to House Committee on Public Works" (June 20,
1973).
(8) St. Amant, Lyle S., "The Petroleum Industry as It Affects Marine and
Estuarine Ecology", Trans., Society of Petroleum Engineers Meeting
(1971).
(9) St. Amant, Lyle, S., "Impacts of Oil on the Gulf Coast", Trans.,
North American Wildlife Conference (1971), to be published.
20
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SECTION V
GEOPHYSICAL MODIFICATION OF THE EARTH
Nature of the Problem
In attempting to supply a growing demand for both renewable and
nonrenewable natural resources, man resorts to a variety of technological
measures which often have serious and widescale effects on the environment.
Examples include (1) the use of underground nuclear explosions to release
natural gas supplies, (2) strip mining for coal and mineral ores,
(3) dredging to create deepwater ports for oil-bearing supertankers,
(4) stream channel modifications, (5) ocean floor mining, (6) oil and gas
pipeline construction, (7) silviculture practices, (8) deforestation and
(9) the construction of dams for flood control, irrigation, and power
production. In each case, major physical disturbances of the earth are
made frequently over large land areas. These disturbances often cause
such immediate and long lasting ecological and sometimes irreparable effects
as: mine drainage, erosion, release of toxic substances, unsightly and
nonproductive terrain, species eradication, etc. So long as man seeks
to upgrade his standard of living, the demand for materials and energy
will continue. In many areas of the U.S. this demand is in direct con-
flict with man's need for agricultural, recreational, industrial, and
other uses of land and water resources. The problem is to find ways of
providing these needs while at the same time minimizing the impact of the
technological activity involved.
While it is not possible in the context of this study to examine
in detail the magnitude and effects of the range of geophysical disturbances
noted, it is instructive to focus on several examples which constitute near
term problems from the standpoint of currently expanding activities. Thus
the major impacts of mining—primarily coal mining—channeling and pipeline
construction will be examined.
21
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Projection
Mining
In 1972, approximately 50 percent of the 625 million tons of
coal mined in the U.S. came from underground mines. A 5 percent growth
per annum is projected for this mode of coal recovery. Problems of health
and safety of workers (coal dust, air supply), getting coal to the surface,
and acid mine drainage are prevalent.
The recovery of coal by surface or strip mining continues to
grow. By 1965 an estimated 1.3 million acres of land in the U.S. had been
disturbed by strip mining, a figure suggestive of the magnitude of the
problem. A sharp jump in new acreage disturbed by strip mining occurred
between 1969-1970. The increase, amounting to 25,000 acres, equaled the
increase from the previous four years (1965-1969). In 1970, 100,000 acres
were strip mined. Montana, New Mexico, and Wyoming have important coal
reserves available by surface mining techniques. Strip mining of low
sulfur coal in the West is expected to increase sharply in the near future
to meet the growing energy needs of that part of the country. Attempts
are being made by some citizen groups to outlaw this production mode on
the basis of environmental factors—esthetics, ecological upsets due to
siltation of streams and acid drainage. There are currently no Federal
regulations for land restoration of strip mined land although hearings on
such legislation have been held. State regulations do exist. The
replacement of ground cover (top soil and replanting) does provide a
means of mine drainage co.ntrol. The economics of doing so have not encouraged
universal adoption of this practice.
(2)
In a recent study for EPA,' Battelle estimated the volume
of acid mine drainage produced in 1970 from bituminous coal mines of
the Appalachian mining region as 103.8 billion gallons. In that year,
294 million tons of bituminous coal were mined in the region. National
Petroleum Council predictions for coal demand indicate an increase of
(3)
70-100 percent in demand (worst and best case) for coal by 1983.
Assuming mining of bituminous coal in the Appalachian regions grows
22
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accordingly, the amount of acid mine drainage there would nearly double to
200 billion gallons in 10 years if no preventative measures are taken.
Another source has estimated 500 billion gallons of mine drainage in the
Appalachian region, containing 5-10 million tons of acid and polluting
(4)
over 10,000 miles of surface streams and 15,000 acres of impoundments.
When extended to all of the U.S and expanded to include strip mining as
well, the amount of acid mine drainage from these souces is indeed
enormous.
According to Reid and Streebin , although the complexities
involved with acid mine drainage are controversial, there is general agree-
ment as to the overall cause-effect relationship. The primary pollutants
found in coal mine drainage are sulfuric acid, iron, trace metals (such
as copper, cadmium, mercury, arsenic, lead, manganese, and zinc) and
sediment. The formation of acid mine drainage stems from water of surface
quality entering a mine and coming in contact with iron disulfide from
rock strata and coal seams. In the presence of oxygen, ferrous sulfate
and sulfuric acid form, lowering the pH; this allows other compounds
containing Al, Mg. Mn, and Ca to be dissolved. Further contact with
oxygen causes oxidation of ferrous to ferric sulfate and hydroxide, both
of which are soluble at the low pH (2-4). In some instances, the natural
ecology of the land will partially neutralize discharges within and
around mine sites. The acidic discharges make the water corrosive and
unfit for industrial use and recreation, contribute to destruction of
aquatic life in streams, react with alkaline substances in the earth
thus adding to the hardness of water, and are responsible for the depo-
sition of some precipitants which affect the esthetics of a watercourse.
One report indicated that, in 1967, over a million fish were killed in
the U.S. as a result of acid mine drainage.
Among the methods that have been or are being developed to alle-
viate the acid mine water pollution problem are: neutralization pro-
cesses, reverse osmosis, ion exchange treatment, deep well disposal, acid
formation inhibition by antibacterial action, and the electrolytic
oxidation of ferrous iron with recovery of hydrogen. Neutralization is
23
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the best known and the one which has the most actual practice. Reverse
osmosis has been extensively studied and appears to be a good candidate
for further development and demonstration. Disposal of the resulting
brine concentrate is a problem. Electrolytic oxidation of ferrous iron
with recovery of hydrogen has been studied by EPA for treatment of acid
mine waters. However, although the methods and technology have been
developed, meeting the financial burden will be the major hurdle in
alleviating mine water pollution in the future.
The treatment of acid mine water results in the addition of
dissolved solids to the water and the generation of a sludge for disposal,
CaSO, is formed during treatment with limestone. This material has some
water solubility (>2,000 ppm), a fact which restricts the way in which it
can be disposed. (See discussion in related problem on wastes from
pollution control activities.) Depending upon how the sludge is formed
and handled, very large volumes require disposal (approximately 16 Ibs/lb
of sulfur).
One possible alternative to the mining of coal underground
with its attendant worker health and safety problems is the process of
in situ underground gasification. However, even though the Bureau of
Mines may meet with initial success in developing this technology within
the next few years, this effort probably will not lead to any commercial
ventures until 1985.
Restoration of strip mined areas require grading, replacement
of top soil and reestablishment of vegetation. Restoration, widely
/•g\
practiced in other countries, can prevent much of the acid mine
drainage associated with strip mining in the U.S.
Channel Modification
(9)
A recently issued study prepared for the Council on Environ-
mental Quality analyzes the dimensions of environmental effects from
channel modifications underway and planned by the Corp of Engineers and
the Soil Conservation Service. This is another activity which falls
24
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under geophysical modifications since the areas affected are large and
the potential environmental effects of profound interest.
The length of watercourses channeled by these two agencies
by 1972 amounted to about 11,180 miles. By 1980, if projects started
and planned are accomplished, this will increase to 35,000 miles. Thus,
a study of the type conducted is timely with respect to the land area to
be affected in the near future.
The projects undertaken were for flood abatement, drainage of
wet land, erosion control associated with channelization programs, and
in rare instances related to water supply, water quality or recreation
needs.
It is not possible to summarize adequately within the scope
of this contract the complexity of effects associated with this type
of operation. Some of the aquatic and terrestial system effects con-
sidered were: wetland drainage, cutting off of oxbows and meanders;
clearing of flood plain hardwoods; water table and stream recharge;
downstream effects; erosion and sedimentation; and, channel maintenance.
The conclusions appear to be that while the purposes desired in initiating
a channeling project are generally achieved, there are potential impacts
which have far reaching implications on the ecology of the affected,
surrounding and downstream areas. Some of these include
(1) Reduction in wildlife habitats and food resources
through hardwood elimination
(2) Stream water quality impairment from water table
lowering
(3) Increased erosion (among most severe effect) and
sedimentation affecting turbidity, light penetration,
algal productivity and hence fragile food webs
(4) Enhanced downstream flooding.
Clear cutting of hardwood in connection with channelization has
the effect of increasing summer temperatures due to shade removal and
leads to a reduction in heat sensitive organisms. Other effects are the
removal of a prime habitat for swamp animals, migrating birds, and a
25
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source of leaves and other detritus upon which the productivity of the
local ecosystem organisms thrive.
Lowering of the water table by drainage of a swampy area will
reduce the water adsorptive capacities of the land and in turn the recharge'
of underground water supplies. The supply of groundwater to the
channeled stream is thus reduced, especially during drought periods, with
adverse effects on the local ecosystem. Reduced flow, increased temperature
and lowered oxygen levels in the stream contribute to species elimination.
Clear cutting of forests, the erosion of unstable berms or stream
bottoms resulting from channeling result in erosion and sediment transfer.
Inbalances in sediment and suspended solids levels contributes instabilities
to an aquatic ecosystem which adversely affect productivity and species
diversity. Increased turbidity reduces light penetration and hence the
depth to which photosynthesis can occur. The ecosystem productivity and
oxygen levels decrease along with the assimilation capacity of the stream.
Settling of suspended solids onto the rocks and gravel of the stream bed
destroys their roughness, buries sessile organisms and egg deposition
areas—in effect reducing stream bed habitat for aquatic organisms.
Flash flooding downstream can occur if these areas do not have
the capacity to contain water from the channelized areas which have a high
rate of runoff. These are only a few of the many ecosystem upsets resulting
from channelization of streams. Analysis of the benefits which offset
these effects is complex as both direct and indirect social, environmental,
and economic values and costs must be considered. When computed on a
dollar basis, benefits were found to outweigh the cost of such projects
by a factor of two.
Pipeline Construction
The development of superports to handle increased imports of
oil and the sale by the U.S. Department of the Interior of offshore oil
and gas leases are resulting in plans for the construction of major
pipelines for transport of these energy resources to inland locations.
26
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Both of these activities involve extensive dredging activities in coastal
areas. A recent study by the Offshore Pipeline Committee on the
environmental, ecological, and cultural effects of pipeline operations
in the Louisiana coastal marshes and estuaries details many of the effects
of such large scale engineering efforts. The findings are sufficiently
general to be applicable to developments in all marshland types.
The laying of pipelines from offshore wells in locales such as
Louisiana requires traversing many miles of marshes and bays or bayous
from the point at which the pipeline is brought ashore to that where
conventional pipe laying can be employed. The laying of pipe up to 4
feet in diameter in such areas requires the excavation of a ditch or
canal using one of several specialized techniques for wetland operation.
On relatively firm ground a ditch 4 to 6 feet deep and 8 to 10 feet wide
is dug by a dragline or clamshell. The spoil is usually returned to the
ditch after the pipe is laid, although because of subsidence and shrinkage
the volume is generally inadequate. In very wet areas, a flotation
method of pipeline laying commonly used requires a canal 40 to 50 feet
wide and 6 to 8 feet deep—sometimes with an additional trench in the
bottom another few feet deeper wherein the pipe is laid. The spoils
are piled back some distance from the canal to form a levee 3 to 5 feet
high and 50 to 85 feet wide. For this type operation the total marsh
area altered (canal plus levee) will range from 36-42 acres/mile.
Pipeline construction of this type is required in areas such
as Louisiana where the coastal marshlands and estuaries extend 20 to 40
miles inland from the Gulf of Mexico. The value of estuaries and marsh-
lands to the United States fisheries is reflected in the fact that two-
thirds (in value) of the commercial catch and nearly all of the sport
fish are composed of species which are dependent on the estuaries for
some part of their lives. Shellfish, i.e., oyster, crabs, and shrimp
are all dependent on the coastal estuaries. The environmental effects
of construction in these areas include erosion, release of toxic
substances, turbidity, salinity, and other ecosystem alterations involving
plant, animal, bird, and aquatic life.
27
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Turbidity. Coastal estuaries are frequently naturally relatively
turbid. However, light penetration through the whole water depth is an
important aspect of the productivity of the estuary so that prolonged
unnatural turbidity levels as may be generated by operations of floatation
dredge will lower or inhibit the high productivity.
Release of toxic sediments. Floatation dredge operation in
areas where industrial wastes may have been released or be present in
the sediments poses added problems. Certain locations within the
Delaware or Mobile Bay estuaries are example areas where this problem
may be encountered. Heavy metal sulfides can be dissolved from spoils
by H_SO, generated by the action of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria on
H2S which is prevalent in marshland ecology. Redistribution of heavy
metals such as lead, mercury, arsenic, and copper have been reported to
lead to eventual concentration in the tissues of oysters and bi-valve
mollusks.
Barriers to nutrient flushing. Much of the aquatic animal life
produced within or near the coastal estuaries depends on the spring tides
"flushing" small particles of organic matter and nutrients from the marshes
by alternate flooding and draining. Following fall dieback of the grasses,
etc., and the abrasive action of winter winds and storms, the high spring
tides serve to carry this rich food supply out into the water. The spoil
banks may form barriers to this flushing activity thus reducing the food
supply available to the deep water fishes.
Barriers to estuarine organisms. Just as the spring tides carry
nutrients out to sea, the same tides are ridden by juveniles of many
species to take advantage of the rich food supply available within the
estuaries. For most species, including the commercially important
shrimp species, the sea trout, Atlantic croaker, menhaden and many others,
this process is obligatory in their life cycle. Barriers to this action
as well as to intra-estuarine movements are frequently created by the
spoil banks.
28
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Changes in tidal flow patterns. Further stress to the balances
of the estuarine environment may result from the creation of a barrier to
the free exchange of water within the estuary. Areas of stagnation may
occur behind or between spoil banks where one or several of the physical
water quality measures may exceed ranges necessary to support life. Such
changes may occur to temperature, salinity, pH, ion concentration, etc.,
because of the barrier effect.
Canal erosion. The presence of new navigable channels within
the marsh encourages pleasure and sport boat craft to use the canals.
The narrow width coupled with high speed or simply powerful engine boating
leads to erosion of the banks by boat wakes. This condition varies
greatly in magnitude proportional to the erodability of the spoil banks.
Maximal examples, not uncommon in some Louisiana marshes, indicate
widening of the 40 to 50 foot canal to 200 to 300 feet within several
years. Thus, a massive, unnecessary and permanent loss of valuable marsh-
land. The use of gas pipeline canals for boating is normaly prevented
by plugging or bulk heading the completed canal. Natural water circulation
patterns can also contribute significant erosion over a period to years
to canals.
Marsh buggy operation. This stressor is not unique to pipeline
construction operations though pipelining requires preconstruction and
construction surveillance and the marsh buggy has shown to be the most
effective ground transportation in this environment. Due to delicate
surface balances of the marshes, one single passage by the tractor treads
of the marsh buggy permanently destroys by compaction the area on which
it passes. These tracts may be seen years and often decades after a
single passage. Under certain conditions, erosion forces may create
channels within these tracts further increasing the damage. In coastal
eastern Louisiana, one marsh buggy tract eroded to a 200 foot wide by
40 foot deep channel without benefit of a hurricane storm. While an
extreme case, it does indicate the magnitude which this damage can
achieve.
29
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Leaks and spills. Operation of mechanical equipment and use of
chemical adhesives and petroleum products during construction of pipelines
can lead to localized spills. These spills may occur within the marsh
where clean-up technology is only minimally effective.
During operation, pipelines are subject to leaks whether major
or minor. Because of the numerous channels within many estuaries, boat
traffic with its inherent hazards to submarine pipelines may be
considerable.
Control Options
The identifiable options for control of the environmental
impacts from large scale engineering efforts which result in substantive
modification to the earth environment include
(1) Continued research on the environmental, ecological,
economic, and social impact of such operations,
especially with respect to the magnitude and impor-
tance of specific effects
(2) Development of new techniques that will minimize or
eliminate identified adverse effects from large scale
construction and resource extraction efforts
(3) Passage of Federal legislation requiring the
restoration of affected area, e.g., strip mined
areas, and the use of techniques which minimize
the environmental and ecological consequences.
As a consequence of the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
the consequences of many large scale efforts like oil and gas pipeline
developments are receiving study before-the-fact. This in turn is stimu-
lating further research on apparent adverse effects, their relative
importance, and mitigation measures.
30
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References
(1) Environmental Quality - 1972, p 26, Council on Environmental Quality
(August, 1972).
(2) Battelle, "Environmental Considerations in Future Energy Growth—
Volume I", Report to EPA under Contract 68-01-0470 (April, 1973).
(3) National Petroleum Council, "U.S. Energy Outlook" (December, 1972).
(4) Hill, R., "Mine Drainage Treatment - State of the Art and Research
Needs", U.S. Department of the Interior, FWPCA, Mine Drainage Control
Activities, Cincinnati, Ohio (1968).
(5) Reid, G. W., and Streebin, L. E., "Evaluation of Waste Waters from
Petroleum and Coal Processing", EPA Ra-72-001 (December, 1972).
(6) Anonymous, "States Make Headway on Mine Drainage", Environmental Science
and Technology, .3 (12), 1237-1239 (December, 1969).
(7) Charmbury, H. B., "Developments in Mine Drainage Pollution Control",
Mining Congress Journal, 54- (1), 50-53 (January, 1968).
(8) Nephew, E. A., "Healing Wounds", Environment, 14 (1), 12-21
(January/February, 1972).
(9) "Report of Channel Modifications - Volume I", prepared for Arthur D.
Little, Inc., for Council on Environmental Quality (March, 1973).
(10) McGinnis, J. T., et al., "Environmental Aspects of Gas Pipeline
Operations in the Louisiana Coastal Marshes", Report to Offshore
Pipeline Committee by Battelle's Columbus Laboratories (December, 1972).
31
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SECTION VI
TRACE ELEMENTS (METAL) CONTAMINANTS
Nature of Problem
Toxic trace element contaminants (principally heavy metals),
as a class, have already been implicated as a particular segment of con-
cern in the spectrum of identified environmental pollutants. Two
specific substances, beryllium and mercury, have been officially declared
as hazardous air pollutants and national emission standards established.
Cadmium is on a proposed list. Others such as selenium, vanadium,
manganese, lead, etc., are under study.
The pathways by which trace element contaminants are distributed
to mail are complex and encompass essentially all media and their associ-
ated ecosystems. As with many pollutants where effects are manifest at
low concentration levels, control is difficult to exercise once the
metals are well dispersed along a pathway. The biological conversion to
even more toxic forms, e.g., organometallics, and accumulation in eco-
systems further complicates the problem. Interruption of such pathways
at key points through the application of control technology is a current
major U.S. effort. The sheer magnitude of the pathways and sources,
however, combined with a lack of information of the human health and bio-
sphere effects of trace contaminants deficiencies and overabundance
effects, underscores the future importance of this pollution problem.
Pro lection
Sources
Major studies have been and are being conducted by EPA and other
U.S. agencies on the sources of trace element emissions to the environment.
Emissions to the air have been emphasized, with quantitative estimates by
(12345)
industry category derived in several instances. » » » » ' Similar quan-
titative estimates of emissions to the water environment do not exist,
although metallic contaminants are a component of numerous industrial
32
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water discharges^ ' ' and have been characterized in studies of lake and
/ON
stream bottom sediments in the vicinity of industrial discharges .
Natural sources of trace elements in the U. S. have also been studied^
(9)
and levels in U. S. waters have been determined at selected locationsx .
Natural Sources. A 1970 survey by the U. S. Geological
Survey (USGS) of trace elements in watercourses in 50 states and
Puerto Rico covered As, Cd, Co, Pb, Hg, Cr(VI), and Zn. Watercourses
sampled were of three categories: (1) surface water for cities of
generally more than 100,000 population, (2) watercourses downstream
from major municipal and/or industrial complexes in each state, and
(3) USGS hydrologic bench-mark stations established for measuring
long-term trends in water quality. The survey showed that the elements
studies are widely distributed in low concentrations, as would be expected.
There was some evidence that the levels are related to man's activities
in certain instances, although the amounts generally did not exceed
current drinking-water standards. A recent analysis of the results of
this survey data on natural occurrence of Pb, Cd, As, and Hg led one
USGS spokesman to conclude that more than 90 percent of the Pb and Cd
and about 67 percent of the Hg in watercourses are a consequence of
man's industrial activities .
Industrial Sources. Industrial air and water emissions and
solid waste residues contribute significant quantities of metals to the
environment. The manner in which these are distributed is extremely
complex. Figure 1 illustrates the variety of pathways by which a single
element (lead) can impact on man, with emphasis on air emissions sources
Trace element contents of wastewater from lead-zinc processing
(smelters and refineries) were derived in a recent study (Table 6) .
While the levels are low, the quantities become significant when it is
realized that the 50 plant operations in the copper, zinc, and lead
industry segments surveyed discharged slightly over 56.5 billion gallons
of water in the 1970-71 period studied.
33
-------
1
lotion
Stressor
(effect)
i
i
1 Dose
i
1
Ingestbn
Cont
Neighborhood environment
Automotive
emissions
Lead
pesticides
Waste
disposal
Lead
reprocessing
Lead mining ,
smelting , irefirting
FIGURE 1. POLLUTION CHAIN DIAGRAM FOR THE ENVIRONMENTAL
STRESSOR LEAD
34
-------
TABLE 6. TRACE ELEMENT CONCENTRATIONS (mg/1) IN SMELTER-REFINERY EFFLUENTS
Lead Smelters. Refineries /v-.
ii
-------
Air emissions of 15 metals (dr elements such as arsenic and
boron generally associated with metallurgical ores) have been estimated
for a fair cross-section of commercial production-consumption sources^ .
Table 7 summarizes the approximate amounts dispersed from each source.
In total, nearly 264,000 tons/year are emitted. The bulk of the pro-
duction-related air emissions is derived from (1) primary and secondary
metals processing—lead, zinc, copper, iron and steel; (2) production
of inorganics--glass, chlorine; and (3) chemical manufacture--pesticides,
petroleum. Application and consumption of coal and oil, agricultural
pesticides, herbicides and fungicides, and paint produced the remaining
emissions.
Projections of the air emissions of various elements in Table 7
have been made and are shown in Table 8. These projections were derived
using: (1) Federal Reserve Board projections of Federal production
through 1985; (2) projections and information presented in U. S. Industrial
Outlook - 1973; and (3) figures presented in the Annual Survey of
Manufacturers 1970 and 1971. The levels shown assume no reductions in
pollution due to process changes or additional levels of pollution
control. Growth rates for major industry production or consumption source
categories for each element were determined, e.g., iron and steel or
powerplant boilers. These ranged from 2 to 10 percent, with most in the
2 to 6 percent annual range. Were it possible to apply 100 percent
control, these figures would become a measure of pollution control
residues available for disposal or recycle.
Sludges and solid residues (tailings) generated by industry
also constitute a source of trace element contaminants, unless adequate
storage or disposal is accomplished. The metal-finishing industry has
(18)-
been surveyed in a recent EPA study ' with respect to sludges from some
15-to-20-thousand facilities known to exist in the U.S. Data extrapolated
from questionnaires sent to members of the National Association of Metal
Finishers suggest that .annual sludge production ranges between 400,000
and 500,000 tons dry basis. These sludges contain potentially valuable
amounts of (1) base metals — of Cu, Ni, Cr, Zn, Cd, (2) precious metals —
36
-------
TABLE 7. ELEMENTAL AIR EMISSIONS FROM U. S.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION OPERATIONS--
TONS/YEAR
Element
Zn
Mn
V
Cu
Cr
Ba
B
Pb*
As
Ni
Cd
Se
Hg
Sb
Be
Production
118,000
16,700
500
12,100
4,200
7,500
3,900
8,100
5,400
900
2,900
300
150
250
10
180,910
Consumption
33,000
2,300
17,500
1,400
7,800
3,300
5,600
1,200
3,600
5,100
100
600
650
100
140
82,390
Total
151,000
19,000
18,000
13,500
12,000
10,800
9,500
9,300
9,000
6,000
3,000
900
800
350
150
263,300
Reference
(12)
(13)
(13)
(12)
(15)
(12)
(12)
(16)
(130
(14)
(14)
(12)
(13)
(17)
(13)
* Composited date for the 1969-1971 period.
37
-------
TABLE 8. PROJECTED AIR EMISSIONS OF SELECTED ELEMENTS
Element
Zn
Mn
V
Cu
Cr
Ba
B
pb**
As
Ni
Cd
Se
Hg
Sb
Be
Totals
Tons of
Base Year*
151,000
19,000
18,000
13,500
12,000
10,800
9,500
9,300
9,000
6,000
3,000
900
800
350
150
263,300
Pollutant
1978
216,700
25,840
37,240
20,680
14,980
17,290
14,000
11,840
12,750
10,940
4,090
1,240
1,160
460
200
389,410
1983
273,000
31,720
58,370
24,070
17,800
22,860
17,690
14,370
16,990
17,500
5,050
1,560
1,560
550
260
503,350
* Data for 1969-71 period (see Table 7 References)
** Excludes automotive sources.
38
-------
Ag, Rh, and Au and (3) other metals -- Fe, Al, Pb. Typically, concentra-
tions ranged from a few tenths of one percent up to 5 weight percent for a
single element. Disposal of such sludges in private and public landfills--
the principal method used--would likely result in some leaching to the
environment of toxic heavy metals.
Tailings from mineral and fossil-fuel mining constitute another
major source of trace element contamination due to water leaching and
airborne dusts. An estimated 1.6-billion tons of tailings per year were
(19)
generated in 1970 . And, with the continuing worldwide exponential
growth of demand for raw materials the waste production could double by
1980<20>.
There are other major sources of trace element contaminants to
air, water and land receptors, notably automotive exhaust (Pb), leaching
from municipal landfills, and more recently identified sources from in-
cineration and land disposal of sewage sludge from municipal wastewater
treatment. The concentration of heavy metals in such sewage sludges has
(21)
been well documentedv . Table 9 shows a few typical values of
selected elements. Finally, applications of agricultural chemicals to
millions of acres in the U. S. are a significant source of Hg, Cu,
Zn, Cd, Mn, and Cr.
Effects
It is beyond the scope of this report to detail all that is
known about the effects of trace metals on human health and the environ-
ment at large. Sufficient information on harmful levels of metal
pollutants is not yet available. It is known that levels of certain
trace elements are needed in the human diet, so that deficiencies as well
as excesses can be harmful. It is also known that well-publicized in-
stances of localized disasters and serious incidents (excessive occupational
exposure) have occurred wherein mercury, cadmium, beryllium, lead, etc.,
have been implicated because of accident, lack of foresight or lack or
environmental consciousness by those having control of the polluting
operation.
39
-------
TABLE 9. HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN SELECTED
SLUDGE SAMPLES (ppm on dry hasisK
Location
Zinc Copper Nickel Cadmium
Dayton, Ohio
8,390 6,020 <200
830
Monterey, California 3,400 720 220
<200
Tahoe, California
1,700 1,150 <400
40
Millcreek, Cincinnati 9,000 4,200 600
Ohio
<40
40
-------
Up to now, no mention has been made of the form of the trace
elements noted. Different forms have widely different toxicities, e.g.,
Cr(VI) versus the less toxic Cr(III) and methyl mercury versus totally
inorganic mercury forms. Transport along pathways in the environment is
hindered or enhanced depending on the particular chemical form. Uptake
by plants, accumulation in food chains, solubilization/precipitation in
water and evaporation from land are also dependent on the element form.
(22)
Some known effects for a few specific elements follow
Mercury. Accumulates in food webs and man. Methyl mercury is
preferentially retained in organs of high-lipid content, especially the
brain. In humans, mercury can affect the central nervous system, liver
and kidney. In biological systems, mercury compounds are mutagenic and
embryotoxic.
Lead. Despite intensive occupational, clinical and epidemi-
ological studies, it is uncertain whether current increased exposure by
man from air, food or soil sources of lead constitute a threat to health.
Poisoning of children from ingestion of lead-based paints is a fact,
however.
Cadmium. Itai-Itai disease in Japan from exposure to rice
irrigated with river water heavily contaminated by cadmium has been
(23)
documented . Cadmium accumulates in the renal cortex. Community and
occupational exposures have resulted in chronic renal diseases. Long-
term, low-level exposure effects on health are only speculative at present.
Manganese. Through a biologically essential trace element,
excessive occupational exposures to manganese in the mining and metal-
lurgical industries may be associated with increased frequency of lobar
pneumonia or alterations of neuronal mediators and severe extrapyramidal
disease. Disturbance in reproduction physiology is also an effect from
exposure to levels much higher than usually found in the ambient environment,
41
-------
Serious Consequences
There are two basic concerns with respect to trace elements
and human health. One is the possibility of overexposure of population
segments to relatively high levels of toxic forms due to pollution in-
cidents such as occurred with mercury in Japan (Minamata disaster).
The other is for effects due to low-level exposure over long periods;
genetic, mutagenic, teratogenicity, etc. Considering the number of sources,
pathways and quantities now emitted, both of these appear to be legitimate.
With respect to establishing control over the various emitting
sources (i.e., inputs to area sources) the next few years may be critical.
Control Options
Control of trace element contamination of the environment will
require as a minimum these actions.
(1) Increased knowledge of specific health effects, so that
the standards can be set at optimum and economically reasonable levels.
(2) Establishment of safe levels in occupational environments,
municipal water supplies, foods, drugs, and consumer products.
(3) Development of process, control, and monitoring technology
to achieve these standards.
(4) The setting of air- and water-quality standards for the
various elements related to point and area sources of environmental
contamination. This implies a need for identification of sources,
quantities, pollutant form, pathways, and effects for each substance.
EPA has the legislative mandate to accomplish Options (3) and
(4) and is, in fact, functioning in these areas. Increased effort to
insure resolution within the next decade of this widespread and complex
health-environment problem is essential.
42
-------
References
(1) W. E. Davis and Associates, "National Inventory of Sources and Emissions --
Cadmium, Nickel, Arsenic, Beryllium, Manganese, Mercury, Vanadium, Barium,
Copper, Selenium, and Zinc" (separate document on each substance - 1968-69).
(2) Litton Systems, Inc., "Preliminary Air Pollution Survey of: Arsenic,
Beryllium, Cadmium, Chromium, Manganese, Iron, Mercury, Nickel, Radio-
active Substances, Selenium^ Vanadium and Zinc" (separate document on
each substance - 1969).
(3) Midwest Research Institute,"Particulate Pollutant System Study, Vols I, II,
III" (1971).
(4) Battelle, Columbus Laboratories,"Control Techniques for Emissions Containing
Chromium, Manganese, Nickel, Vanadium, Copper, Arsenic, Cadmium, Selenium,
Zinc and Mercury" (1972).
(5) The Mitre Corporation, EPA Contract 68-01-0438 (under way).
(6) Battelle, Columbus Laboratories "Water Pollution Control in the Primary
Non-Ferrous Industry, Vols I & II", EPA Contract 14-12-870 (July, 1972).
(7) "Cycling and Control of Metals", proceedings of a conference sponsored by
EPA (Nerc-Cincinnati), NSF and Battelle1s Columbus Laboratories (February,
1973).
(8) Ruch, R. R., Kennedy, E. J. and Shimp, N. F., "Distribution of Arsenic
in Unconsolidated Sediments from Southern Lake Michigan", Illinois State
Geophysical Survey, Geological Notes No. 37 (September, 1970).
(9) Durum, W. H., Hem, J. D. and Heidel, S. G., "Reconnaissance of Selected
Minor Elements in Surface Waters of the United States, October 1970",
Geological Survey Circular 643, U.S. Department of the Interior (1971).
(10) Lutz, G., et al., "Technical, Intelligence, and Project Information
System for the Environmental Health Service, Vol III: Lead Model Case
Study", NTIS Report Pb 194 412 (1970).
(11) Communication from A. J. Goldberg (EPA). Internal report on "A Survey
of Emissions and Controls for Hazardous and Other Pollutants".
(12) Davis, W. E. and Associates, "National Inventory of Sources and Emissions:
Barium, Boron, Copper, Selenium and Zinc", Sections I-V (1969).
(13) Davis, W. E. and Associates, "National Inventory of Sources and Emissions:
Arsenic, Beryllium, Manganese, Mercury, and Vanadium", Sections I-V
(1968-1971).
(14) Davis, W. E. and Associates, "National Inventory of Sources and Emissions:
Cadmium, Nickel and Asbestos", Sections I-II (1968-1970).
43
-------
(15) Battelle-Columbus, "Control Techniques for Emissions Containing Chromium,
Manganese, Nickel, and Vanadium" (June 9, 1971).
(16) EPA, Office of Air Programs, "Control Techniques for Lead Emissions (no
date).
(17) "Mineral Pacts and Problems, 1970", U.S. Bureau of Mines (1970).
(18) Tripler, A. B., Jr., et at., "The Reclamation of Metal Values from Metal
Finishing Waste Treatment Sludges", Report to EPA's Office of Research
and Monitoring (1973).
(19) McVay, L. M., "Mining and Milling Waste Disposal Problems — Where Are
We Today?11, Proceedings of 2nd Mineral Waste Utilization Symposium,
U.S. Bureau of Mines and IIT Research Institute (March 18-19, 1970).
(20) "The Scramble for Resources", pp 56-63, Business Week (June 30, 1973).
(21) Young, D. R., et al., "Sources of Trace Metals from Highly-Urbanized
Southern California to the Adjacent Marine Ecosystem", pp 21-39,
Proceedings of a Conference on Cycling and Control of Metals, sponsored
by EPA, NSF and Battelle (February, 1973).
(22) World Health Organization, unpublished draft criteria concepts document.
(23) Friberg, L., et al., Cadmium in the Environment. A toxicological and
Epidemiclogical Approval", Chapter 8, Karolenska Institute, Stockholm,
Sweden (April, 1971).
44
-------
SECTION VII
PROLIFERATING HAZARDOUS AND TOXIC CHEMICALS
Nature of the Problem
Public attention has been focused often in recent years on
newly identified hazardous chemicals or classes thereof: diethyl-
stilbestrol, thalidomide, DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls, pesticides,
phthalic acid esters. What has been startling is that, before a warning
had issued, the environmental hazard had become so widespread as to seem-
ingly preclude any immediate or short-term remedy. Today's chemicals,
initially synthesized to meet the technical requirements of a new product,
frequently become widely proliferated among hundreds of products of un-
related uses. Thus, PCB's showed up in paints, carbonless carbon paper,
electrical transformers, coolants, etc. The manufacture, distribution,
consumption, and disposal of such products introduces the associated
chemicals into the environment along a variety of incredibly complex
pathways, many of which impact directly or indirectly on man. E.g., in
a study of street contaminants and their contribution to urban storm water
discharges, PCB's and seven pesticides were identified as significant
components.
Of all the chemical classes now in use, pesticides appear to
pose the most difficult pollution problem in the near future. Pesticides,
synthesized and applied for their lethality toward pests, are spread over
literally hundreds of millions of acres of the U.S. Many are resistant
to biodegradation, toxic to man and accumulate in plants and animals. The
effective control of this class of chemicals is fraught with social and
political consequences. The discussion to follow will thus emphasize
pesticides as an example of the near-term problem of proliferating hazard-
ous chemicals in the environment.
45
-------
Prolections
A recent study has analyzed in detail the manufacture of pesti-
cides in the U.S., using a broad definition of the term, viz., including
rodenticides, insecticides, larvacides, miticides, mollusicides, nemato-
cides, repellants, synergists, fumigants, fungicides, aligicides, herbicides,
(2)
defoliants, dessicants, plant growth stimulators and sterilants. ' 1971
production quantities were determined to be over 1.3 billion pounds. About
275 specific pesticides are of current commercial importance and perhaps
as many as 8000 individually formulated products are marketed for end use
applications. Projected 1975 quantities are only slightly higher than
1971, perhaps reflecting the current environmental concern and legislation.
There is little reason to believe 1978 will be greatly different. Regard-
less of the slow growth in usage, the widespread use and contamination of
the environment makes this a significant problem requiring near term action.
Sources
The major way in which pesticides get into the environment is
through application to crops by farming. The distribution to crops by
aerial dusting or spraying and direct application from the ground has
created a massive area source for pesticide evaporation, runoff or trans-
port by wind. The magnitude of this source is best visualized with
respect to 1964 U.S. Department of Commerce data on crops and acreage
treated as follows.
Crop Acres . U.S. Area
Corn 63,515,000 Midwest
Cotton 13,917,000 South, Southwest
Soybeans 30,352,000 Midwest,. East, Southeast
Alfalfa 28,211,000 West, Midwest, East
Tobacco 1,025,000 Southeast
46
-------
Crop dusting as a method of application is a big business. In
1972 agricultural crop-dusting aviators flew about 1.6 million hours, up
11 percent from 1971, covering a record 120 million acres. Justifica-
tion for this method includes factors like: faster application--one air-
man can cover 100 acres in an hour compared to a day for a ground rig;
heavy rains sometimes keep tractors out of fields; one-twentieth less fuel
is used in air application; soil compaction which hurts crops is avoided.
Unfortunately, this method has environmental hazards; some error with
respect to placement of the chemical is likely; drift of pesticides to
adjacent fields is troublesome; wildlife in the area can be affected; and
the question of human effects is always present.
In addition, pesticide usage in urban areas has grown rapidly.
The variety of product formulations available for application by the home
owner is large. Aerosol containers for this purpose alone amounted to 100
(2)
million units in 1970. Presumably, such uses contribute to the pesti-
cide concentrations observed in street solids from eight major cities in
the U.S. which were on the order of 0.00125 Ib/curb mile (including PCB
which was of higher concentration and the major constituent in most cases).
The specific pesticides identified were the more persistent ones such as the
chlorinated hydrocarbons (p,p-DDD, p,p-DDT and dieldrin) and organic phos-
phates (methyl parathion).
Point sources of pesticides derive from the manufacture, formula-
tion and distribution operations by industry. These emissions include
Manufacture - process water, air vents, solid waste to
landfills, byproduct disposal, equipment
cleaning
Formulation - handling, mixing, and packaging losses;
equipment cleaning
Distribution - handling, breakage, spillage, and transporta-
tion accidents.
A recent study of hazardous wastes by EPA pinpointed pesticide residues
and containers as a major problem in several of the EPA regions. Numerous
examples were identified of abandoned or improperly disposed of partially
filled drums, sacks, or other containers. Approximately 400 T/year of
(3)
such containers were identified in the study.
47
-------
Major spills from highway, rail, and river transport vehicles
have occurred wherein pesticides were involved. These have resulted in
massive fish kills in instances and contamination of water supplies. Some
94 separate spill incidents, all involving fish kills, resulted in the
1967-1969 period (data from Coast Guard and 3 states)^ . Other data pre-
ceding that period are shown in Table 10.
TABLE 10. FISH KILLS RESULTING FROM PESTICIDES
Year
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
Number of
Reports
60
93
74
51
43
51
Total Kill
Reported
401,415
191,167
770,557
217,406
329,130
325,194
Average Kill of
Incidents Reporting
Kill Totals
10,849
2,583
12,039
4,941
7,654
7,742
The distribution of these spills (Figure F-l) emphasizes the
widespread nature of the pesticide problem in the United States. ,
48
-------
FIGURE 2. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PESTICIDE-CAUSED FISH KILLS 1963-1968
(4)
-------
Effects
Pesticides can cause poisoning by ingestion, absorption through
skin, or inhalation. A recent Labor Department estimate is that 800 deaths
and 80,000 illnesses a year occur from pesticide exposure. However, the
death figure has been disputed as being a factor of 4 too high with most
deaths involving children under 5 years of age. ' Of all the pesticides,
the chlorinated hydrocarbon and organo-phosphorus insecticides are of major
concern due to their acute toxicity.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons are very persistent and their residues
in human fat tissues have been found all over the world. Organophosphates
on the other hand are more readily metabolized. This persistence of
chlorinated hydrocarbons was a key factor leading to the banning of DDT.
Evidence exists that the general world population now carries a body burden
of DDT. Serious human effects of DDT such as cancer or tumors from other
than direct exposure, i.e., from low levels induced in man from food, water,
and air sources, are not known.
As with humans, animals also store chlorinated hydrocarbon
residues in fat tissue. Accidental acute poisonings of commercial and
domestic animals have occurred, usually involving the more toxic organo-
phosphorus insecticides. Excretion of DDT in cows milk at the 3 ppm level
has led to its concentration in butter to 65 .ppm. Fish and birds are
inherently more sensitive to pesticides than mammals. The concentration
of DDT in fish and fowl via the food chain is a direct consequence of its
tendency for accumulate in fat.
Some transfer and accumulation of DDT and other insecticides
into plants has been noted, but this apparently does not result in a high
residue level.
The widespread presence of pesticides in air, water, and land
•
media is well known and documented, as is the fact that pesticides will
(7 8^
volatilize into the air from soil, water, and treated surfaces. ' ' It
is this widespread occurrence and buildup in human, animal, and environ-
mental media that makes the problem of pesticides and numerous other pro-
liferating hazardous and toxic substances a major problem for resolution in
the next decade.
50
-------
Control
Passage of the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act (1972) has made registration of manufacturing plants and chemicals
mandatory. This represents a first step toward control at the source.
Likewise, the establishment of the Office of Toxic Substances within EPA
and the passage of new (pending) legislation on controlling hazardous
chemicals will have an impact on the problem. These actions, however, are
causing the agricultural and research community to consider the use of
natural pest-control agents in lieu of or in conjunction with synthetics.
The consequences of this needs further study so that control, if needed,
can be exercised in the early stages of use.
The pending new legislation requires testing of new chemicals
being planned for production on a large scale. This raises the question
of a basis for making judgments regarding what chemicals (out of the
thousands entering the marketplace each year) should be tested and to what
extent. The costs for thorough testing of all chemicals could be pro-
hibitive using current animal test protocols. A methodology is needed for
screening before-the-fact large classes of chemicals, and to determine
priorities with respect to testing.
51
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F-8
References
(1) Sartor, J. D., and Boyd, G. B., "Water Pollution Aspects of Street
Surface Contaminants", 76-81, EPA-R2-72-081 (November, 1972).
(2) Lawless, E. W., et al., "The Pollution Potential in Pesticide
Manufacturing", EPA Technical Studies Report TS-00-72-04 (available
through NTIS as PB 213 782).
(3) "Program for the Management of Hazardous Wastes", Final draft report
by Battelle to EPA (March 1, 1973).
(4) Dawson, G. W., et al., "Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting
Substances".
(5) Wall Street Journal, p 22 (May 7, 1973).
(6) Chemical & Engineering News, p 2 (May 28, 1973).
(7) "Air Pollution Aspects of Pesticides", Litton Systems, Inc., NTIS
Report, PB 188 091 (September, 1969).
(8) "Technical, Intelligence and Project Information System for the
Environmental Health Service - Volume IV. Pesticide Model Case Study",
Battelle Final Report to HEW, Contract CPS-69-005 (June 29, 1970).
52
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SECTION VIII
EMISSIONS FROM NEW AUTOMOTIVE FUELS.
ADDITIVES, AND CONTROL DEVICES
Nature of the Problem
The automobile as a major source of air pollutants is currently
receiving national attention. Strict standards have been legislated on
automotive exhaust emissions and these are leading to significant
technological developments ranging over new engine design and modifications,
development of catalytic converters for exhaust treatment, formulation of
new fuels and additives to reduce levels of legislated emission components.
The adoption of certain of these technological alternatives has already
occurred and others will be introduced within the next 2 to 10 years. The
number of automobiles involved, their relationship to major population
centers and the complexity of the impacts that result from each technolo-
gical alternative suggests a need for careful evaluation before-the-fact
of the consequences which are likely to occur. Some indicators of
potential problems already exist.
Projection
Automobile Usage, Gasoline
Consumption and Standards
The automobile has been implicated for its role in air pollution,
particularly smog formation. Table 1 compiled in 1968 illustrates how
transportation sources, in general, compare to other sources of air
pollutants. These sources are the major contributor to air pollutants
in the United States.
Since 1960, new automobile purchases as a percent of registered
vehicles have been at a rate of 9 to 11 percent a year (Table 12). These
purchases have exceeded replacements by 2 to 4 percent per year, indicating
53
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TABLE 11. ANNUAL PRODUCTION OF AIR POLLUTION IN MILLIONS TONS/YEAR
(1)
Ui
Pollutant
CO
SO
X
NO
X
HC
Particulate
Total
Transportation
66.0
1.0
6.0
12.0
1.07
86.0
Manufacturing
and Process
Industry
2.0
9.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
23.0
Generation of
Electricity
1.0
12.0
3.0
<1.0
3.0
20.0
Space
Heating
2.0
3.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
8.0
Refuse
Disposal
1.0
<1.0
<1.0
1.0
1.0
<5.0
Totals
72.0
26.0
13.0
19.0
12.0
142.0
-------
TABLE 12. ITEMIZATION OF THE AUTOMOBILE TOTALS INCLUDING QUANTITIES REPLACED
AND NET ADDITIONS FROM 1950 EXTRAPOLATED TO 2000(2,3,4,5)
Year
1950
1955
1960
1966
1967
1968
1969
ul 1970
1971
1980
1990
2000
Total Registered
Autos
(Thousands)
40,334
52,092
62,258
80,106
82,367
85,793
89,156
90,978
92,799
120,000
170,000
244,000.
Net
Demand
(Thousands)
2,700
4,000
5,000
5,556
6,076
6,230
6,219
6,575
8,426
9,600
13,600
19,500
Replaced
Percent of Total
7
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
9
8
8
8
Total
Total
(Thousands)
6,500
7,700
7,000
9,028
8,337
9,565
9,582
8,397
10,247
14,000
19,700
28,800
Purchases
Percent of Total
16
15
11
11
10
11
11
9
11
12
12
12
Net
Total
(Thousands)
3,800
3,700
2,000
3,472
2,261
3,426
3,363
1,822
1,821
4,400
6,100
9,300
Additions
Percent of Total
9
7
3
4
3
4
4
2
2
4
4
4
-------
a significant growth in the numbers of autos on U.S. roads. At the
present rate, by the year 2000 the number of autos will about equal the
number of people in the U.S. (^250 million).
Gasoline consumption has on the average risen steadily for
automobiles since cars became available, with the rate of rise being
sharper since 1968. Were it not for the possibility of gasoline shortages,
and hence controls to restrict usage, total gasoline consumption by cars
in the U.S. would be 25 percent higher in 1980 than in 1972, based on a
greater number of cars (and mileage) and increased gasoline consumption
per car (Table 12).
The contribution of auto exhaust to smog in large cities has
been experimentally verified and, in fact, was apparent as early as the
late 1950's in the U.S. Public reaction to this problem led to the
enactment of emission standards for hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide begin-
ning in 1968 and nitrogen oxides beginning in 1972. The levels to be
achieved and effective dates are shown in Table 14^ . These standards
in turn have resulted in the rapid development of catalytic control devices
and other approaches for use in meeting the standards.
The plan is for emission-control devices or methods to function
within the limits prescribed in Table 14 up to 50,000 miles. EPA will
permit replacement of catalyst at 25,000 miles in devices based on this
control approach.
New Gasoline Formulations
Petroleum companies are already making nonleaded gasoline
available to the public. While lead has not been banned as an additive
(it has not been proven to be a major contributor to human blood level),
there are definite plans to phase lead out of gasoline although Congress
or EPA could change their minds on this. Rather, it is known that lead
will interfere with the effective operation of the catalytic control
devices being planned to meet near future standards. Removal of lead
requires the reformulation of gasolines to compensate for the resulting
octane rating and antiknock property reductions. These formula changes
include the adjustment of both inorganic and organic constituents. There
are currently some 300 fuel additives (not just for autos) in use and the
expectation is that the number will increase.
56
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TABLE 13. A LIST AND PREDICTION OF TOTAL MILEAGE, GASOLINE
USAGE, AND TOTAL REGISTERED AUTOMOBILES FROM
1950 to 2000(2»*)
Year
1950
1955
1960
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1975
1980
1985
1990
2000
Gallons /Mile
14.40
i 14.53
14.28
14.15
14.10
14.05
13.91
13.75
13.66
13.57
13.20
12.95
12.80
12.70
12.63
Gallons /Auto
626
664
661
656
666
669
682
700
722
746
758
773
782
788
792
Gallons
(millions)
25,238
33,548
41,169
50,275
53,312
55,110
58,524
62,448
65,697
69,213
72,700
92,800
117,000
134,000
193,500
Miles /Auto
9,015
9,359
9,446
9,286
9,384
9,399
9,488
9,633
9,877
10,121
10,000
10,000
10,000
10,000
9,840
Total Miles
(millions)
363,613
487,540
588,083
711,594
751,740
774,203
814,030
858,857
898,107
939,102
960,000
1,200,000
1,500,000
1,700,000
2,400,000
Total Reg. Autos
(thousands)
40,334
52,092
62,258'
76,634
80,106
82,367
85,793
89,156
90,978
92,799
96,000
120,000
150,000
170,000
244,000
-------
TABLE 14, SUMMARY OF EXHAUST EMISSION „,
STANDARDS FOR LIGHT-DUTY VEHICLES^ '
Year
1968-1969(a)
1970-1971(a)
1971 (Calif ornia)(a*
1972<2>
1972 (Calif ornia)(a)
1973-1974(b)
1975(c) (Interim)
1975 (Calif ornia)^
(Interim)
1976 (c) (Interim)
1977(C)
HC
3.4
2.2
2.2
3.4
1.5
3,4
1.5
0.9
0,41
0.41
gm/mile
CO
34
23
23
39
23
39
15
9
3.4
3.4
NO
X
--
--
4.0
—
3.0
3.0
3.1
2.0
2.0
0.4
(a) 7-Mode test procedure.
(b) CVS cold-start test procedure.
(c) CVS cold-start, hot-start test procedure.
58
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Inorganic Additives. The possible new inorganic additives,
conceived as replacements for lead include manganese, nickel, phosphorus
(already in use) and boron. Manganese and nickel are of interest because
they contribute antiknock properties. Phosphorus--a good corrosion
inhibitor--and boron result in more efficient fuel combustion. Maximum
limits for these elements and lead in gasoline have been proposed as
follows.(7'8)
Mn 0.1 g/gal
Pb 0.05 g/gal
B 0.01 g/gal
Ni 0.0075 g/gal
P 0.005 g/gal
Incorporation of any of these elements into gasoline at these levels would
result in the maximum total quantities shown in Table 15, through 1985.
The quantities shown are based on gasoline usage levels projected in Table
Not all these elements would be used in one formulation.
The implications of such additions need to be explored relative
to their (1) possible formation and emission of more toxic organometallics,
e.g., nickel carbonyl, (2) smog production and health effects, should they
be emitted with exhaust, (3) effects on operation of catalytic converters,
and (4) ultimate disposal or recycle with respect to final disposition of
spent catalytic converters. It would be foolhardy (and contrary to Clean
Air Acts) to solve a HC, CO or NO problem by mere replacement with a
H
technological alternative having similar or worse impact on the environment,
Organic Additives. Changes in the organic makeup of gasoline
are being considered to improve octane rating in compensation for lead
removal. There are three basic ways of changing the organic content of
gasoline to increase octane rating: (1) increase the branch-chained
alkanes content, (2) increase the content of olefins (unsaturated alkyl
organic hydrocarbons), and (3) increase the aromatic content of gasoline.
The addition of aromatics is the simpler approach and of the
three options is potentially the most harmful. Table 16 shows the manner
59
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TABLE 15. RELATIVE QUANTITIES OF POTENTIAL LEAD SUBSTITUTES
Year
1970
1975
1980
1985
Gasoline Consumption Inorganic Additives (10
10b Gallons/Year Mn Ni Pb Boron
65,697 14.5 1.09 7.25 1.45
72,700 16.0 1.20 8.00 1.60
92,800 20.4 1.53 10.2 2.04
117,000 25.8 1.93 12.9 2.58
TABLE 16. AROMATIC LEVELS IN GASOLINE RESULTING
FROM STAGED LEAD REMOVAL^9)
(percent)
Constituent 1972 1974 1976 1980 1985
Aromatics 21.1 21.9 24.8 27.0 33.0
Olefins 15.1 14.6 13.0 11.2 8.0
Saturates 63.8 64.1 62.2 61.8 59.0
Ibs/yr)
Phosphorus
0.73
0.80
1.02
1.29
60
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in which aromatic content would vary from current levels in gasoline if
(9)
an EPA proposed schedule of lead reductions were followed. The con-
tent would increase from about 22 to 33 percent between 1974 and 1985.
An increased aromatic component of gasoline has been directly associated
with an increase in emissions of polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PNA)
in exhaust. Current catalytic converter designs (platinum and noble metal
catalysts) remove between 50 to 70 percent of the PNA. The remainder
would contribute to exhaust emissions. It has also been suggested that
the partial oxidation of PNA by the catalysts may actually form a more toxic
/g\
carcinogen than PNA itself. Phenol emissions would also increase from
the added aromatic components. It, too, has carcinogenic activity,
especially with respect to skin and the lungs. Other reported increased
emissions would be benzene, aromatic aldehydes, and nitrogen oxides.
Catalytic Convertors
The incorporation of catalysts as a means of meeting standards
is planned by most American and foreign automobile manufacturers. As with
most pollution-control equipment, there is a potential disposal or recycle
problem and perhaps emissions associated with the devices themselves.
Catalytic converters which function to oxidize HC and CO pollu-
tants to harmless products (H_0, CO^) are of two basic groups: (1) the
platinum-coated aluminate and (2) the precious-metal-coated aluminate
(precious metals such as rare-earth oxides of manganese and cobalt ,
copper chromite , and calcium aluminate) . The platinum or precious
metals are coated on inert bases of alumina, aluminate, carborundum, and
silica , and these bases will be either in pellet form or solid maze
The quantity of Pt or precious metal oxides on the packing material is
approximately 0.5 and 10.0 percent, respectively.
One problem may be the future disposal or recycle of these
devices. With EPA's required durability of 25,000 miles for each catalytic
converter and an assumed annual travel of 10,000 miles per automobile, the
need for large-scale continuous disposal or recycle of catalytic converters
61
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will be reflected 2-to-3 years after their installation, i.e., 1977-1980
(depending on instigation of EPA emission standards in 1975 or 1976). In
Table 17, a crude estimate through 1985 has been made of the minimum
quantities of spent catalyst which will require treatment. To these
figures, one must add the contaminants which will be trapped with the
catalysts, i.e., inorganic and organic additive residues. These residues
may be such that controlled disposal will be required to prevent leaching
or air emissions into the environment. Recovery of the platinum or noble
metals (last two columns) may be attempted.
Preliminary work has been done on possible trace contaminant
emission problems of catalytic converters during operation of a vehicle.
From this recent work, converters have been shown to emit very fine par-
ticles. Concentrations of these metal-containing particulates (condensa-
tion nuclei) have been greater than 10 condensed nuclei per cubic
centimeter, and the major trace metal constituents of those fine particles
were basically Pt, Cu, Ni, or etc., depending on the type of catalysts
(14)
or fuel blends . This appears to represent a contribution to air of
fine particulates, which in itself is of current major concern.
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TABLE 17. TOTAL QUANTITY OF CATALYTIC CONVERTORS NEEDED BY
WEIGHT AND THE WEIGHT OF TRACE METALS ADSORBED
Year
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1985
Total Purchased Autos
10,500,000
10,980,000
11,610,000
12,100,000
13,250,000
14,000,000
18,000,000
Year Disposed
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1990
Weight of
Basic Catalyst
for Disposal, Ibs*
73,400,000
75,900,000
81,300,000
84,600,000
92,600,000
97,800,000
126,000,000
Catalyst Portion
(Pounds)
Platinum or
367,000
379,000
406,000
423,000
463,000
489,000
630,000
Precious Metals
7,340,000
7,590,000
8,100,000
8,460,000
9,260,000
9,780,000
12,600,000
* Assumed 7 Ib catalyst per device and a single device per car.
(15)
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References
(1) Crocker, B. B., and Schnelle, K. B., Introduction to Air Pollution
Control. AIChE Today Series, American Institute of Chemical Engineers,
New York (1970).
(2) Volpe, J. A., and Bartelsmeyer, R. R., Highway Statistics 1971, 27 of
Annual Series, U. S. Department of Transportation and Federal Highway
Commission, Washington, D.C. (1972).
(3) American Petroleum Institute, Petroleum Facts and Figures, New York
(1970.
(4) Landsberg, H. H., Fischman, L. I., and Fisher, J. L., "Resources in
America's Future - Patterns of Requirement and Availabilities 1960-
2000", The Johns Hopkins Press, p 132.
(5) Anon., "Population Estimates and Projections", U.S. Department of
Commerce, Social and Economic Statistics Administration, Bureau of
Census, Series P-25, No. 477 (March, 1972).
(6) Federal Register. _3J (126) (July 2, 1973).
(7) Rescorla, A. R., American Petroleum Institute, personal communication
(July, 1973).
(8) Desmond, E. A., "Methylcyclopentadienyl Manganese Tricarbonyl - An
Additive for Gasoline and Fuel Oils", personal communication (July 9,
1973).
(9) Blanchard, L. E., "Comments of Ethyl Corporation on EPA's Proposed
Lead Regulations", Ethyl Corporation (May 15, 1972).
(10) Mark, H. F., McKetta, J.J., and Othmer, D. F., Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia
of Chemical Technology. Second Edition, Vol 2, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York (1963).
(11) Voorhoeve, R.J.H., Remeika, J. P., Freeland, P. E., and Matthais, B. T.
"Rare Earth Oxides of Manganese and Cobalt Rival Platinum for the
Treatment of Carbon Monoxide in Auto Exhaust", Science, 177 (4046),
353-354 (July 28, 1972).
(12) Leak, R. J., Blandenburg, J. T., and Behrens, B. D., "Use of Alumina
Coated Filaments in Catalytic Matters Testing with Multicylinder Engine
and Vehicles", Environmental Science and Technology. 2 (10), 790-794
(October, 1968).
(13) Division of Emission Control Tech. Mobile Source Pollution Control
Program, "Automobile Emission Control the State of the Art as of
December, 1972", Report to EPA (February, 1973).
64
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(14) Balgord, W. D., "Fine Particles Produced from Automotive Emissions
Control Catalysts", Science. 180, 1168-1169 (June 15, 1973).
(15) Patterson, D. J., and Henein, N. A., Emissions for Combustion Engines
and Their Control, p 360, Ann Arbor Science Publishers, Inc., Ann
Arbor, Michigan (June 30, 1972).
65
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SECTION IX
DISPOSAL OF WASTE SLUDGES. LIQUIDS. AND SOLID RESIDUES
Nature of the Problem
Future problems related to the disposal of waste sludges, liquids,
and solid residues are a direct result of the relatively recent passage of
environmental legislation aimed at cleaning up the air, water, and land
environment. Two aspects are apparent: first, with the addition of pollution
control devices to air and water emission points of industrial, utility, and
municipal processes, large volumes of liquid and solid residues are or will
be generated. Much of the material collected has some potential value,
although it may be sometime before technology for recovery of the values
will become available with current institutional, economic, and political
constraints. Examples of these residues current and foreseen include
sulfate sludges from power plant SO scrubbing, sludges from increased appli-
X
cation of secondary treatment to municipal wastewater treatment plants,
inorganic dusts from add on particulate control devices required by industry
and utilities (fly ash, e.g.), and ultimate residues remaining from the
processing of industrial solid (frequently hazardous) wastes by contract
waste disposal firms. Second, large quantities of industrial, municipal,
and utility residues that were generated and routinely disposed of before
the advent of environmental quality control efforts, have come under
scrutiny with respect to their potential for polluting (trace metals, BOD,
toxicity, etc.) various media. Past practices of dumping into watercourses,
lagooning (near watercourses), burial in uncontrolled landfills, etc., can
no longer be employed. Affected are sludges from drinking water treatment,
dredgings, coal production residues, and slimes from metallurgical and
inorganic chemical production.
Because of these and other factors, the search for suitable
ultimate disposal routes has become a major preoccupation of the generators
of these wastes. However, the options for such disposal have diminished.
66
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Citizen's groups are active in campaigning against landfill sites, use of
quarries (near residential areas) for sludge disposal, and acres of unsightly
industrial residues. New restrictions on ocean disposal, lagoons, landfills,
and landspreading, land use, and deep well injection are or will be in existence
soon. Incineration is an alternative; however, emissions to the air are
under tight regulation and an ash is usually generated which requires disposal
too. Thus, there is a need for more research to identify and develop
acceptable ultimate disposal practices.
Projections
The magnitude and effects associated with this problem are best
illustrated by reference to a limited number of specific waste items
within the two categories of (1) new bulk residues directly resulting from
recent pollution control legislation and (2) residues from continuing past
practices which present acute disposal problems as a result of new environ-
mental concerns.
Pollution Control Residues
Sludge from SO Control. A large number of processes—perhaps
X
a hundred—have been proposed for the removal of sulfur oxides from stack
gases associated with combustion (primarily power plants) and industrial
processes (pyrometallurgical sulfide ore processing). About ten processes
have progressed to full scale demonstration programs or are in actual
commercial use in the U.S. Only one, limestone scrubbing, has been operated
successfully for an extended period on a coal-fired and an oil-fired power
plant. The known processes fall into one of two categories—throwaway and
recovery. With respect to power plants, throwaway processes, i.e., no
recovery of sulfur values or recycle of the scrubbing chemicals, are likely
to be applied first because of the reluctance of utilities to engage in
chemical recovery type operations. Limestone scrubbing is such a process
(throwaway). A recent EPA released report on SO removal indicates that
JL
until 1980, wet scrubbing systems will predominate, especially those
67
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incorporating lime and limestone. It is estimated that $8.2 billion will
be spent on such systems between 1975 and 1980 with 48 million tons/year
of CaSO, sludge being generated by 1980.
Sludge and Brines from Wastewater Treatment. The almost universal
adoption of secondary waste treatment by municipalities will increase the
amounts of sludges generated from this source. One source estimates a 60-70
(2)
percent increase in sludge volume generated between 1972 and 1980. The
quantities produced per million gallons of water treated for the commonly
applied activated sludge process and the emerging physical-chemical treat-
ment schemes are shown in Table 18. On a national basis, 23 billion
gallons/day of wastewater currently receives secondary treatment, resulting
in an estimated 7 million tons/year (dry solids) of sludge for disposal.
Thus by 1980, this amount should increase to 11 million tons/year.
TABLE 18. AVERAGE SLUDGE QUANTITIES IN MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Volume Dry Weight
Treatment Process (gal/MG) (Ib/MG)
Activated Sludge* 22,500 2250
Physical-Chemical**
Lime clarification 10,000 6500
Iron clarification 13,000 1740
Alum clarification — 1120
* Primary + waste activated.
** Pilot plant data only.
68
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Incineration of the sludge is one alternative. However, the
tendency for heavy metals to concentrate in municipal sewage sludge raises
the possibility of undesirable air emissions and/or an ash residue equivalent
(3)
to around 25 lb/100 Ib of dry sludge burned for controlled land disposal.
Tertiary treatment and phosphorus removal in secondary treatment,
when widely adopted (judged as unlikely within the next 5 years), will add
even greater volumes to this waste category. Brines from the application of
technologies such as reverse osmosis will require disposal by a route other
than direct return to a water supply source.
Flyash. The burning of fossil fuels generates an enormous quantity
of flyash for disposal. While this ash consists primarily of carbon,
silica, alumina, and iron oxide, more recent concern regarding coal as a
source of toxic trace elements (Hg, V, Se, Ba) may raise the question of
leaching of such elements from flyash disposal areas. A crude estimate of
the quantities can be based on emission factors compiled by EPA. In 1972,
electric utilities consumed 336 million tons of coal. At a 5-6 percent
per year annual rate of growth of coal consumption in this sector, consumption
in 1973 and 1978 will be about 354 and 438 million tons, respectively. Using
a conservative emission factor of 130 Ib flyash/ton coal (assumed 10 percent
ash) and 90 percent collection efficiency, the projected quantities of
flyash are
1973 - 20.6 million tons/year
1978 - 25.6 million tons/year.
An incident in 1967 involving flyash aptly demonstrates the dimensions of
the disposal problem. In June of that year, a dike, which contained an
alkaline waste lagoon for the Appalachian Power Company steam plant in
Carbo, Virginia, collapsed and released about 400 acre-feet of flyash
waste in the Clinch River. An estimated 200,000 fish were killed at Norris
Lake some 70 to 100 miles away and food organisms completely eliminated in
a 4-mile stretch of river below Carbo resulted.
Hazardous Waste Residues. In a recent study by the EPA's Office
of Solid Waste Management it was estimated that toxic chemical, biological,
69
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radioactive, flammable and explosive wastes are being generated at a rate
of about 10 million tons annually. Most of these wastes are in a liquid
form. A 5-10 percent annual growth rate is estimated as a result of
increasing production-consumption, collections of toxic substances, and
nuclear energy growth requirements.
Examples of the types and quantities of these hazardous wastes
(8)
are
Radioactive
High Level 2 x 105 ft3 (1980 est.)
Low Level 7 x 106 ft'3 (1980 est.)
Military Ordnance
A
Wastes from Deactivated Munitions 7 x 10 T (1972)
Chemically Contaminated 2 x 10 T (1972)
Pesticide
2
Contaminated Containers 4 x 10 T (1972).
Hazardous waste disposal on land is said to be increasing as a result of air
and water pollution controls which cspture them from other media and transfer
them to land. Denial of heretofore accepted methods of disposal such as
ocean dumping also has contributed to the quantities. The processing of
these wastes in private or public facilities for volume reduction, treatment
to render harmless, or resource recovery will generate a fair quantity of
residual solids or sludges requiring long time controlled ultimate disposal
most likely on land (perhaps 20-25 weight percent of the wastes to be
processed).
Other. Virtually every air, water, or solid waste stream emanating
from industrial processing will generate a residue after application of
control technology - not to mention nonregenerable residues associated
with the technology itself (sorbent materials, flocculants, etc.). E.g.,
elsewhere in this report are analysis of automotive catalytic devices
Indicate that aver 100 million pounds of spent contaminated catalyst will
be generated by 1978 for either disposal or recycle.
70
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Residues from Other Than Pollution Control Efforts
There are large volumes of residues which have historically been
produced and for the most part disposed of on the land. Such disposal may
be entirely appropriate as "best practice" in regions where land is available
and (for sludges, muds, etc.) a net evaporative capacity exists. Unfortunately,
too little attention has been paid to the selection of sites from the stand-
point of runoff control, location relative to watercourses, long term possi-
bilities for use of the land restoration of land cover, etc. Acceptable
practices need to be identified and developed.
Drinking Water Treatment. Drinking water treatment plants have
historically returned sludges precipitatated by alum and other coagulants,
solids from water softening plants, filter backwash waters, and other
(9)
residues to a nearby stream or lake. The discharge of such residues
has led to problems of "sludge banks" in the backwaters of slowly moving
streams, stream esthetic impairments due to turbidity and color change,
oxygen demand, and bacterial contamination, etc. Solids production from alum
coagulation is a function of raw water turbidity as the data below for
several plants show:
Dry Solids Produced*
Plant Turbidity Ib/million gal
A (New York, N.Y.) 5 84
B (Akron, Ohio) 12 143
C (Washington, D.C.) 49 455
D (Philadelphia, Pa.) '126 1100
One estimate of the annual quantities of sludge generated is 0.5 million
tons/year (dry basis). This estimate applies to residues from large
municipal plants treating surface water by coagulation and sedimentation,
serving perhaps 60 million people with 10 billion/day of water. A figure
of 300 Ib of dry solids generated per million gallons treated was assumed.
5 mg/1 of alum coagulant used in each case.
71
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Mineral Ore Tailings. Perhaps the largest source of waste residues
are those resulting from ore and coal mining activities in the U.S. Before
the advent of intensive environmental concern, it was acceptable practice to
accumulate the waste residues in lagoons, abandoned quarries, and in open
fields after extraction of the mineral of interest. Now the leaching from
such residues into watercourses of acids, BOD-contributing organics, toxic
metals, etc., and dust blown into the air have raised a serious problem
related to the disposal of such large quantities of materials in the future.
A few examples to illustrate the magnitude of the problem follow.
Coal. In 1969 over 435 million tons of raw bituminous coal were
processed in cleaning plants, a measure designed in part to remove pyritic
sulfur {up to 30 percent). This resulted in more than 100-million tons of
refuse. It also is estimated that more than a billion cubic yards of coal
mine wastes despoil the landscape in the anthracite region of Pennsylvania.
The refuse piles are a source of acid-mine drainage and frequently
spontaneously ignite and burn uncontrolled for long periods.
Copper. Mill waste from the processing of copper ore is a serious
problem. More than 98 percent of the ore must be disposed of after processing.
Copper mill tailings account for nearly 40 percent of the total mineral
(12)
waste problem, perhaps 460-million tons per year.
Phosphate Rock. Phosphate ores, the primary raw material for
phosphorus fertilizer is mined in Florida, North Carolina, Tennessee, Idaho,
and Montana. The handling, disposal, and reclamation of phosphate slimes
(colloidal clay wastes), generated in the flotation beneficiation process
used, is the biggest current problem of the industry. For every acre-foot
of ore matrix mined, 1.2 to 1.5 acre feet of slimes are produced. About
70-million tons per year are generated. The properties of these slimes
(20-25 percent solids after years of settling) make reclaiming of the land
(13)
whereon they are disposed of (basically a settling operation) difficult. '
72
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Iron Ore. Iron ore tailings are second only to copper in terms
of waste tonnages. An estimated 234-million tons are generated in the U.S.
yearly. Most iron is now obtained from taconites. Taconite rock has an
iron content of 25 to 35 percent. About 4 tons of waste are generated in
forming one ton of iron ore pellets. A potentially very serious environ-
mental problem arising from taconite tailings is being currently examined
by EPA's Office of Toxic Substances. In Minnesota, such tailings are
dumped at several locations into Lake Superior. Asbestos fibers apparently
emanating from these residues are contaminating lake water in the dumping
areas to the extent of 2.6 (10 ) fibers/liter. There is strong evidence
to the effect that such fibers when ingested can cause stomach or intestinal
(13,14)
cancer.
Other sources of tailings include the lead-zinc, alumina (red
muds), and nickel. In total an estimated 2-billion tons will be generated
by 1980 from all mineral and fossil-fuel mining sources.
Dredging. Data on the magnitude of this type activity were not
collected. However, one source, identified in connection with the concept
of superports for large oil importing tankers, estimated 321-million cubic
yards of dredge spoil would be generated in the construction of a channel
8 miles long, 90 feet deep, and 1000 feet wide for a single deepwater
port at Raritan Bay, New Jersey. It is known that large-scale dredging
efforts are a continuing activity in the U.S.
Effects
The foregoing examples of two waste categories, pollution-control
residues and industrial wastes with polluting potential, illustrate the
magnitude of the problem. The major effects noted are summarized below.
Land Use - excessive land requirements at a time
when land use is becoming a major issue
Esthetics - frequently nothing mote than huge unsightly
piles of rubbish (e.g., coal washing
residues) and colored streams from acid
drainage
73
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Pollution - air emissions (dusts, fires, etc.); water
emissions (leaching of acids, toxic sub-
stances, nutrients plus spills from
occasional storage lagoon breakages)
Ecology - long-term effects from destruction of
habitats, damage to aquatic and marine life
through increases in turbidity, salinity
and toxic substances.
It is evident that this area constitutes a major problem in the
near future, especially with respect to strategies for preventing or mini-
mizing such effects that result.
74
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References
(1) Chemical Engineering, 56-57, July 23, 1973.
(2) Balakrishnan, S.t et al., "State of the Art Review on Sludge Incin-
eration Practice", Water Pollution Control Series #17070 DIV (April, 1970)
(3) Sewage Sludge Incineration, Report by EPA Task Force, for Office of
Research and Monitoring, PB 211-323 (August 19, 1972).
(4) "Applications of New Concepts of Physical-Chemical Wastewater Treat-
ment", Proceedings of Conference Vanderbilt University, September 18-22,
1972.
(5) "1972 U.S. Energy Use Continued Upward", New Release, U.S. Bureau of
Mines (March 10, 1973).
(6) "Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors (Revised)", EPA Office
of Air Programs Publication No. AP-42 (February, 1972).
(7) Dawson, G. D., et al., "Control of Spillage of Hazardous Polluting
Substances", FWQA Report 15090 FOZ (November, 1970), p 41.
(8) "Program for the Management of Hazardous Wastes", Final Draft Report
to EPA by Battelle, March 1, 1973.
(9) Dean, J. B., "Disposal of Wastes from Filter Plants and Coagulation
Basins", J. AWWA 45 (11), 1229-1237 (1953).
(10) Water Quality and Treatment, Third Edition (AWWA), McGraw-Hill (1971),
p 641.
(11) "Methods and Costs of Coal Refuse Disposal and Reclamation", Bureau of
Mines Information Circular No. 8576 (1973).
(12) "Vegetation Tames Mine and Smelter Wastes", Envr. Sci. & Tech., .3
(8), (1967).
(13) "Mineral Waste Utilization", Proceedings of a Symposium March 27-28,
1968, Sponsored by U.S. Bureau of Mines and IIT Research Institute
(1968).
(14) Air/Water Pollution Report, 11 (31), 307 (July 30, 1973).
(15) Train, R., Statement to House Committee on Public Works, June 20, 1973.
75
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SECTION X
CRITICAL RADIATION PROBLEMS
Nature of the Problem
Exposure of man to radiation sources which are not of a natural
origin is increasing. The growth of nuclear power and electronic techno-
logy raises this issue as one which will have an impact within the 5-10
year period.
Radioactive releases from nuclear materials required for military
and peaceful uses have been widely recognized as a serious problem.
International nuclear test bans have been formulated to deal with the
former. Releases associated with nuclear power generation, while signi-
ficant, have received much study - to the extent that these sources,
quantities, and effects have been projected and assessed before the fact.
Less well studied are the radiation sources associated with
accelerating use of a whole spectrum of consumer, medical, industrial,
military and commercial devices and systems based on electronic technology.
Near term increases in the numbers of devices in use and in the power
output levels suggests a need to further evaluate the problem. Thermal
effects are largely known. Knowledge regarding the extent of nonthermal
biological effects does not exist.
This report focuses on electromagnetic radiation in the radio-
frequency range as an area within the general problem statement where
information is needed to keep pace with future technology trends.
>
Pro1ection
There is a constantly increasing number of electromagnetic sources
in this country in the radio-frequency range. [Radio frequency (RF) will
be defined very broadly as extending from the extremely-low frequencies
2 10
through the microwave range or from less than 10 to 10 Hz.] With
76
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increasing numbers of sources there is also increasing power outputs per
source at many frequencies from the proposed Navy Sanguine Communication
antenna at less than 100 Hz to radars at 10 Hz.
The effects of RF radiation on the environment are not adequately
known. Although much research has been conducted and much data compiled
since the mid 1950s, there is disagreement on the effects of RF radiation
on humans, animals, and other living organisms. It is agreed that above
certain power levels heat is produced which can damage living organisms
and below these power levels there are nonthermal effects which are less
well known. There is no information, however, on what are safe levels of
radiation and if the nonthermal effects are significant. This report will
not attempt to discuss in detail the many aspects of the effects of RF
Q234)
radiation. They are treated extensively in the literature * ' ' . This
report will, however, attempt to summarize information available on the
number of sources of RF radiation, their power levels, and their projected
growth; it will also summarize the present knowledge of the biological
effects on man and other animals. It will point out the presently accepted
safe radiation levels and how they compare with known actual radiation
levels from various sources.
RF Radiation Sources
In general RF radiation is used by man in four ways: (a) as a
heating source, (b) as a detection method (radar), (c) as a communication
method, and (d) as a power transmission method. The relative importance
of the hazards from RF radiation sources used in these ways is probably
in the order listed.
Heating Sources. Residential microwave ovens are probably the
current most important potential hazard source for the general population.
This is true because of the total number in use now and projected in the
future. They are becoming more popular as a food heating source each year,
Table 18 gives the number of units in use from before 1967 to the
present and the projected sales for the next 4 years. Although the power
77
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TABLE 19. RESIDENTIAL MICROWAVE OVEN INSTALLATIONS
Retail Sales Home Installation
pre-1967
1967
1968
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
10,000
5,000
20,000
30,000
50,000
120,000
250,000
375,000*
560,000*
840,000*
1,250,000*
1,750,000*
10,000
15,000
35,000
65,000
115,000
235,000
485,000
860,000
1,420,000
2,260,000
3,510,000
5,260,000
Percent Saturation**
—
—
—
—
0.2%
0.4%
0.7%
1.3%
2.2%
3.5%
5.4%
8.1%
* We consider these estimates to be conservative.
** It is important to note that the consumer microwave oven is not
sold as a replacement for a conventional range, and is, therefore,
not limited by replacement rates, nor by new home starts.
78
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level of residential microwave ovens is in general 600-800 W, much lower than
industrial heating units, there is a potential for 1.5 to 2 million people
being affecting by the present nearly 1/2 million installations. This is
projected to increase more than 10 to 1 in the next five years. Although
the power level is lower than industrial heating sources and the ovens can
be made completely safe with proper shielding and door interlocks, it is
estimated that perhaps 20,000 to 100,000 people could presently be affected
given only a few percent of defective units. This is in constrast to the
few thousand people that operate and come in contact with industrial heating
2
units. Leakage levels of up to 75 mW/cm have been measured at 5 cm from
defective ovens with the door closed. With the door open the level would be
2
200-700 mW/cm at a distance of about 30 cm.
The commercial microwave oven market is estimated to have about
125,000 units now in use. ' The sales for 1971 were estimated at 18,000
units and are growing at perhaps a 10 percent rate per year, meaning about
250,000 units in use by 1978. The power level of these units is somewhat
higher than residential ovens, about 1 to 2 kW. However with proper manu-
facture they should be as safe as the residential units.
Industrial microwave heating units have not had the growth
predicted in the early 1960s. This is primarily because initial cost has
been prohibitive. There are estimates that the industrial microwave
units in present use are less than 300 units with a potential risk of
exposing 3,000 persons. It is predicted that their use in industry
will grow slowly, probably only a few percent per year. In contrast to
microwave ovens, industrial heating units, have a much higher power output -
about 1 kW to more than 100 kW. They cover the frequency range from 10
9
to 2.45 (10 ) Hz and are more difficult to shield than ovens because many
are fed by conveyor belts. Therefore, although they do not affect as many
people as residential ovens, because they have much higher power levels
and are more difficult to shield, consideration should be given to safety
2
regulations for these radiation sources. Leakages of up to 200 mW/cm
have been measured from these sources. However, they can be made safe
with proper design.
79
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Medical diathermy equipment is another source of RF radiation
used for heating. Diathermy equipment operates in the UHF frequency range
(300 to 3000 MHz) and at power levels of 10s of watts. Diathermy equipment
is potentially hazardous if improperly used. Cases are on record in which
eyes were presumably damaged while irradiating the sinuses. The number of
units in use is not known but sales of 5.4 million have been reported for
1972 and 8.0 million predicted for 1976. Assuming a figure of $10,000 per
unit, over 500 would have been sold in 1972 with 700-800 estimated for 1976,
Therefore, there must be 10s of thousands in use at present.
Detection Sources. The major source of RF radiation from equipment
used primarily for detection is radars. Other sources of far less power
level and probably of little environmental significance are inspection
methods, moisture meters, and industrial monitoring devices. High powered
radars are used both by the military and commercial airports and aircraft.
There is a definite hazard from high powered radars within a distance that
is dependent upon the output power, the gain of the antenna and the wave-
length of the radiation. The power output of military radars vary from
that of about 300 kW average for the largest search radars such as BMEWS
anc TRADEX to a few watts average for tracking radars with short pulses.
The distance from the radar to a point in the center of the main beam of
the radar where the power density is below the standard safe level of 10 mW/
2*
cm is calculated to be 11,000 feet for Tradex and 7,600 feet for BMEWS.
For the AN/FPS 16, a missile tracking radar, this distance is about 1,300
feet. A 1969 report ' from the Pacific Missile Range at Point Mugu,
California, states that the AN/FPS 16 complex creates a hazard on the
ground or on the optical trackers platform only when the depression angle
of the antenna dish is greater than -3.5°. However, under normal operating
conditions the radar is never depressed below -1.7° and personnel on the
ground would not be in the center of the main beam. There are also high-
powered military radars in the HF frequency range which have been measured
to be safe beyond their enclosing fence.
* See subsequent section for discussion of establishment of standard safe
level.
. 80
-------
The number of radars in use, either military or commercial is
not known. Military data are always difficult to obtain and it is difficult
to distinguish between operating and proposed units. However, there appear
to be a decline in the sales of radar for this purpose. Estimates have been
made of $1 billion in radar sales in 1973 and $0.9 billion in sales for 1977.
This is probably caused by the reduction in defense spending.
Communication Sources. Radiation levels found in the vicinity of
high-powered broadcasting stations in most practical instances are considerably
lower than those usually associated with biologically hazardous fields.
However, very close to high-powered broadcasting antennas it is possible to
attain field strengths approaching the safe minimium.
The growth of radio broadcast stations appears to be nearly
linear. Table 20 shows the number of TV and radio broadcast stations in
the U.S.(8)
TABLE 20. TOTAL BROADCAST STATIONS IN U.S.
Year TV
1945 6 930
1950 97 2832
1958 421 3310
1960 562 4256
1965 674 5537
1971 892 6976
AM stations range in power from the Voice of America station of 500 kW to
some stations of only watts. Standard AM broadcast stations are limited to
50 kW. 131 AM stations in the U.S. operate with 50 kW power. FM stations
have effective radiated powers (antenna gain times transmitter power) of
up to 100 kW. 209 FM stations operate with 100 kW of power. TV stations
operate at up to 5 MW.
81
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A calculation of the field strength of a 50 kW AM station at 550
kHz using a simple monopole gives a field strength of about 10 V/m at 160
meters and about 0.1 V/m at 160 km. (200 V/m is the safe exposure level that
2
is comparable to the 10 mW/cm value given for microwaves.) These values
could be doubled if an antenna with a gain of 4 was used. The field
strength for FM and TV stations is higher than that from AM radio stations.
A field strength of about 75 V/m is attainable at 5 MW effective radiated
power at 160 meters. This value would be for a worst case in the main beam
of the antenna.
Other communication sources, such as used for support to industry
and transportation, have lower power and add to that of commercial broad-
(9)
casting. A recent survey discloses that the number of such sources is
nearly proportional to the population density. New York has a total of
2,129 communication devices—346 military, 477 other government, and 1306
non-government.
Microwave relay equipment represents another source of communication
radiation. These repeater systems are used for data transmission and other
communications. The total number of these stations is not known but the
predicted volume of sales for 1973 is $195 million. The projected sales for
1976 is $210 million. Apparently this area is not growing fast.
It is clear from the above data that the number of communication
transmitters will probably increase linearly for the next five years. However
it is probable that the power level per device will not Increase as commercial
broadcast stations are power limited and they are the highest-powered sources.
Power Transmission Sources. One possible use of microwave radiation
that may provide a pollution-free source in the future is that of transmission
of energy from space. If a solar cell array were placed in synchronous orbit,
the collected .energy could be transmitted to the earth via microwaves.
Calculations have been made for such a system on the basis of a 10 'watt
9 " '
source. For a frequency of .3(10 ) Hz this would require an orbiting solar
cell array of about 5 miles square, a transmitting antenna in space (23,000
miles from the earth) about 1 mile square, and receiving antenna on earth
82
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about 6 miles square. The power density at the ground above this antenna
2
would be only 25 mW/cm which may be essentially biologically harmless. It
would probably be fenced in to prevent exposure to humans as this level is
2
above the recommended safe level of 10 mW/cm . This method of transmitting
power received from the sun in space holds great promise for a pollution
free power source and is technically feasible although the cost would be
high. However, if it is eventually constructed radiation hazards must be
carefully evaluated.
Radiation Level Survey in Washington, D. C.
The results of a recently published survey of RF radiation in the
Washington, D. C., area are of particular importance to this report. During
the summer of 1969, the U.S. Public Health Service and White Electromagnetic
Inc., monitored radiation from 20 Hz to 10 GHz at 10 selected sites within
a 25 mile radius of Washington. The location was chosen with preference
given to high density population areas near high-powered electromagnetic
sources. A listing was obtained from the Electromagnetic Compatibility
Analysis Center of Annapolis, Maryland, of all emitters with an average output
above 10 W reported to be located within a 50 mile radius of the center of
Washington. There are 1430 communication sources and 99 radar sites. Power
outputs ranged from 0.1 kW to a 5 MW radar installation. More than 200
listings had power outputs of 10 kW and above. It should be emphasized that
these data include only unclassified sources. Tables 21, 22, and 23
summarize the data given in the report. Table 21 is the maximum power
density level observed in four biologically relevant frequency bands. Table
22 is the power density in the broadcast bands for site 1 which was highest
in these bands. Table 23 is the total power density over the entire
frequency band measured at the ten sites. These peak levels represent a
worst possible case. True average values of power densities would fall
below these peak values to a degree depending upon the source and its
modulation characteristics.
83
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TABLE 21. MAXIMUM OBSERVED POWER DENSITY LEVELS IN FOUR
BIOLOGICALLY RELEVANT FREQUENCY BANDS
Frequency
(MHz)
Site
Power Density2
exposure (mW/cm )
Less than 400
400- 1,000
1,000- 3,000
3,000-10,000
Holy Cross Hospital
Montgomery Mall
National Airport
National Airport
3.9 x 10
-4
1.1 x 10
-5
7.7 x 10
-3
1.4 x 10
-4
TABLE 22. TOTAL POWER DENSITIES OVER RADIO AND TELEVISION
BANDS (FOR SITE NUMBER 1, HOLY CROSS HOSPITAL)
Band
Radio - AM
Radio - FM
TV - VHF
TV - UHF
Frequency Total Power Density
(MHz) (mW/cm2)
535 KHz -
88 MHz -
54 MHz -
75.4 MHz -
174 MHz -
40 MHz -
1.605 MHz
108 MHz
73 MHz and
88 MHz and
216 MHz
890 MHz
3.5 x 10"4
4.3 x 10""5
3.9 x 10"7
3.9 x 10~9
84
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TABLE 23. TOTAL POWER DENSITIES OVER ENTIRE FREQUENCY
RANGE FOR EACH OF'10 SITES
Total Power Density
Site (mW/cm2)
-4
1. Holy Cross Hospital 3.9 x 10
2. Montgomery Mall Shopping /
Center 2.2 x 10
3. Cameron Station 3.2 x 10~
4. Andrews Air Force Base 2.2 x 10
5. Washington Mall 2.6 x 10~5
6. Brentwood Park 8.6 x 10~
7. Sibley Memorial Hospital 7.0 x 10~
8. Duval Senior High School 7.5 x 10~
_3
9. National Airport 7.9 x 10
-4
10. Darnestown, Maryland 2.5 x 10
85
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The conclusion from this survey is that the peak ambient radiation
originating from manmade RF sources at the 10 sites monitored approach a
-2 2
maximum of 10 mW/cm . This is stated to be accurate within + 10 dB. If
high powered pulsed radar signals are excludedifrom the totals, the maximum
-3 2
was stated to be more nearly 10 mW/cm . The average would fall even
lower. The average background therefore is at least 2 to 3 orders of
magnitude lower than any published U.S. recommendation for exposure to RF
radiation,
Effects of RF Radiation on Man
Thermal. It is difficult to summarize briefly the vast amount of
research on the biological effects of RF radiation on man and animals. The
early work was generally confined to the effects produced by heat in the
tissue. The history of concern for the effects of high-frequency microwave
or radar energy on the human body goes back even before the early days of
radar. Apparently, long-wave diathermy was being used as early as 1900. B;
1935, frequencies of 10 MHz were being used for diathermy. Between 1935 am
1950, there were tales of the sterilization and other serious effects of
radar, but nothing concrete was established. The heating effect of radar
energy was known. Technicians stood in the beam of radar to warm themselvei
in cold weather. The hand was held in front of waveguide outputs to see
whether the radar was operating.
Experiments with animals in the late 1940s established the fact
that microwave energy could be hazardous. In 1952, it was established that
2
exposure to energy levels of 100 mW/cm for an extended period could cause
damage to the eyes. According to the best evidence available, the most
important effect of microwave absorption is the conversion of the absorbed
energy into heat. Exposure of various species of animals to wholebody
2
microwave radiation at levels of 100 mW/cm or more is characterized by a
temperature rise which is a function of the thermal regulatory processes
and active adaptation of the animal. The end result is either reversible
or irreversible change depending on the conditions of the irradiation and
86
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the physiological state of the animal. Schwann, et al., has done extensive
research on the heating effects of RF radiation on the human body. His
main conclusions on the effects of various frequencies and the depths of
energy penetration can be summarized as follows:
(1) In a three-layer model of the human body at low frequencies
well below 1000 MHz and at high frequencies well above
3000 MHz, simple conditions exist. The percentage of
incident energy absorbed is nearly independent of skin
(2) In the range from 1000 to 3000 MHz, the skin and fat
layers contribute to the impedance, and the power
absorption may vary from 20 to 100 percent. At some
frequencies in this range, the fat layer may be one-
quarter wavelength in thickness and perform an impe-
dance-matching function.
(3) Heat development occurs predominantly in the deep
tissues below about 900 MHz and at the body surface
above 3000 MHz. In between is a transition range
where more difficult relationships apply.
To summarize the threshold levels for which irreversible damage
(3)
is done to several organisms by heating, Mumford presents the data of
Figure 3. These data show that the harmful power density is determine
both by amplitude and time of exposure. All authorities would not agree,
but these data probably represent a reasonable average.
CM
£ 1000
o
I
c
O
O
w
Q>
O
Q.
100
10
Eye
Whole body (human)
Test es (dog)
I minute
I hour I doy
10
10'
10^ 1C
Time,sec
10'
FIGURE 3. THRESHOLD LEVELS VERSUS TIME FOR
THREE SENSITIVE STRUCTURES
87
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Nonthermal. Much controversy has arisen concerning the relative
importance of thermal versus nonthermal effects of microwave radiation. Thermal
effects have been well demonstrated and documented, but the evidence for a
nonthermal effect is at best only suggestive. The evidence presented has
generally been in one of several areas: microscopic, biochemical, cataract
production, and neurological. Pearl-chain formation with blood cells and
bacteria is considered to be biologically insignificant.
The possibility that microwaves may interact with the central
nervous system (CNS) without significant heating has been suggested by several
(4)
Soviet investigators * . Although some Soviet investigators describe the
thermal nature of microwaves, the majority stress nonthermal or specific
microwave effects at the molecular and cellular level, in contrast to
studies performed in the United States that generally reflect the physio-
logical response of the organism to the thermal burden imposed by micro-
waves .
A considerable body of literature has grown in the USSR on
2
transient functional changes following low-dose 10-mW/cm microwave irradiation
studied by conditional response experimentation. The Soviets have strongly
and repeatedly stressed that the CNS must be considered as being moderately
or highly sensitive to radiation injuries. Their conceptual basis for this
view is largely centered about Pavlovian "nervism". Very briefly, this
theory may be interpreted to mean that the CNS exerts a controlling
influence over all types of reactions in the organism, including various
local tissue reactions. Nonnervous reactions are considered as only of
secondary importance because of the basic controlling role of the central
nervous system in the whole organism. Thus in considering microwave
pathogenesis, Soviet physiologists have persistently sought the CNS mechanism
that might be responsible for each microwave-induced phenomenon. Their
work in this area has been criticized because of limited statistical
analysis of data, inadequate controls, and lack of quantification of the
results. Conditional-response studies intrinsically do not lend them-
selves to objective interpretation.
There has alos been considerable investigation in the U.S. into
nonthermal effects and in recent years it is generally agreed that these
effects exist but it is not fully known how important they are.
88
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An important area of nonthermal concern is the research done
in the U.S. on project Sanguine. The question of whether large currents
flowing at extremely low frequencies (ELF) would have effects on life
(12)
has been extensively researched for project Sanguine. Project Sanguine
is a Navy program on development of a device for communicating radio
signals at ELF (in the neighborhood of 60 Hz) to submarines. .The currents
on some of the proposed antenna systems would be an order of magnitude than
those existing on high-voltage, electric power transmission lines.
Under the Sanguine program a series of laboratory studies of
animal behavior, animal physiology, animal fertility, cytogenetics, insect
mutagenics, and plant germination and early growth were performed at
field intensities several times that of the proposed Sanguine system. No
substantive evidence was found to indicate that electromagnetic energy
at the frequencies and field intensities associated with the Sanguine
concept will produce biologically significant reactions. Also, there is
no reason to predict that there will be any regularly occurring currents
of higher strength than the proposed Sanguine system for many years.
If a low level ELF mechanism were to exist, it would have to be
different from the microwave mechanism since biological material readily
absorbs short-wave energy and is generally transparent to long-wave energy.
To date, no such mechanisms have been described.
Radiation Standards
Because of the known harmful effects of microwave radiation,
various organizations began to establish safe levels for observance by
(3)
personnel in the vicinity of antennas. Mumford gives a history of the
development of safe levels, which eventually resulted in the establishment
in 1957 by the Bell Telephone Laboratories and Rome Air Development Center
2
of 10 mW/cm as the safe level over the entire microwave spectrum. In
1958, at the Second Tri-Service Conference on the Biological Effects of
Microwaves, it was reported that the Navy, the Army, and the General
2
Electric Company were considering 10 mW/cm as the upper limit for safe
exposure.
89
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(2)
Michaelson ' summarizes present safety standards for microwave
radiation in the U.S. Safety from this hazard is assumed by the proper
observance of the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) C95.1
2
Standard (1966) which specifies a maximum exposure level of 10 mW/cm
under normal environmental conditions averaged over any possible 0.1 hour.
This has been and continues to be the generally accepted safety standard in
the Western world for individuals in microwave radiation fields.
2
The ANSI C95.1 standard of 10 mW/cm is roughly a factor of ten
below thresholds of damage by thermal effects, assuming a long duration
2
of exposure—i.e., one quarter hour or more. The 10 mW/cm level is based
on thermal equilibrium conditions for whole-body radiation. Temperature
rise is determined primarily by the body's ability to dissipate heat; factors
affecting this would be significant in terms of the consequences of whole-
body irradiation. Heat dissipation capabilities are better for partial-
body radiation; higher levels of irradiation would therefore be acceptable.
2
This is the case in medial diathermy, where the levels may be at 100 mW/cm
or higher.
2
While the limit of 10 mW/cm served as a practical exposure level
in the military, in the U.S. for several years, it was felt that the duration
of exposure was important, and that higher levels could be tolerated for
shorter periods. Applying toxicological criteria (i.e., the duration of
exposure to a toxic agent multiplied by concentration of that agent during
exposure represents the hazard), new guidelines were developed and published
as an Army-Air Force Manual in 1965 (AFM 161-7, 1965). In this document
exposures of personnel within limited occupancy areas is permitted only
for the length of time given by the following equation:
Tp _ 6000
w
where Tp - permissible time of exposure in minutes during any
1-hour period.
2
w - power density in area to be occupied in mW/cm .
2
The equation is useful only for power densities up to 100 mW/cm , and because
exposures of less than 2 minutes are operationally Impractical, its use
2
for power densities above 55 mW/cm was not recommended.
90
-------
The Soviets have a much lower standard level of exposure. They
2
specify an allowable limit of 1 mW/cm for up to 15 minutes, a limit of
2 2
0.1 mW/cm for up to 2 hours, at a limit of 0.01 mW/cm for full days
exposure. These limits are not believed necessary by the majority of U.S.
authorities.
Consequences of RF Radiation Environment
It is evident from the present knowledge of the RF radiation environ-
ment that there are specific hazards that present current dangers and must be
controlled with safety devices and adequate education of source operators.
However, there appears to be no eminent danger that the eminent RF radiation
level in any part of the country will become so large that the general public
is in danger within the next five years. The greatest hazard, from the
standpoint of the total number of people exposed is the residential microwave
oven. There are strict, adequate, manufacturing standards for this device
in effect. Unfortunately, there is no method to warn the average housewife
of the danger or to show her how to discover if leakage occurs. High
powered radar and industrial microwave heat sources present real hazards to
a small number of persons. They can readily be protected by such means as
absorbing loads at exits, in the case of heating units, or protective fences
and shielding in the case of radar. Commercial broadcast stations are no
significant hazard now or in the next five years. To prevent the proliferation
of RF radiation from increasing in power and number without proper foresight
and preparation, there is need for further research in several areas. The
motto of the Sierra Club appears to be appropriate to this area: "not blind
opposition to progress but opposition to blind progress".
The areas suggested for further research and regulation are:
(1) Further investigation into nonthermal effects is needed,
both those produced by low power levels and nonthermal
effects produced by high power levels that also produce
heating.
(2) There are needed safety regulations for industrial
heating sources. No regulation comparable to those for
residential microwave ovens are in effect.
91
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(3) There is a definite need for an RF total-energy inte-
gration indicator analogous to the X-ray film badge.
Only power density levels can presently be measured
but the total time-power product cannot at present
be evaluated.
92
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References
(1) Michaelson, S. M., "Human Exposure to Nonionizing Radiant Energy-
Potential Hazards and Safety Standards", Proceedings of IEEE, 6£ (4),
389-421 (1972).
(2) Michaelson, S. M., "Biological Effects of Microwave Exposure—An
Overview", Journal of Microwave Power, 6. (3), 259-267 (1971).
(3) Mumford, W. W., "Some Technical Aspects of Microwave Radiation Hazards",
Proceedings of IEEE, 49 (2), 427-447 (1961).
(4) Influence of Microwave Radiation on the Organism of Man and Animals,
I. R. Petrov, Editor, translated from Russian, NASA Technical Translation
NASA TT F-708, February, 1972.
(5) McConnel, D. R., "The Impact of Microwaves on the Future of the Food
Industry: Domestic and Commercial Microwave Ovens", Journal of Microwave
Power, 8 (2), 125-127 (1973).
(6) Eure, J. A., et al., "Radiation Exposure for Industrial Microwave
Applications", American Journal of Public Health, 62^ (12), 1573-1577
(1972).
(7) Tapie, R. L., "A Study of Personnel Radiation Hazards Created by
Selected High Powered Radar Sets", Pacific Missile Range, PMR-TM-69-6,
October 23, 1969 (Unclassified).
(8) Tell, R. A., "Broadcast Radiation: How Safe is Safe?", IEEE Spectrum,
9. (8), 43-51 (1972).
(9) Lynn, J. F., "Man-Made Electromagnetic Noise in Southern California
and Southern Nevada", IEEE Transaction on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
14 (3), 92-96 (1972).
(10) Smith, S. W., and Brown, D. G., "Nonionizing Radiation Levels in the
Washington, D. C. Area", IEEE Transaction on Electromagnetic Compatibility,
15 (1), 2-6 (1973).
(11) Schwan, H. P., and Li, K., "Hazards Due to Total Body Irradation by
Radar (U)", Proc. IRE, 44 (11), 1572-1581 (1956).
(12) "Sanguine System Find Environmental Impact Statement for Validation and
Full Development, Technical Annexes, Data for Assessing the Environmental
Input of Sanguine", PB 199-732-F-2, Electronic Systems Command, Department
of the Navy (April, 1972).
93
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SECTION XI
FINE PARTICULATES
Nature of the Problem
Chemically active and inert fine particulates emitted to the
air constitute a potentially serious health hazard due to their reten-
tivity in the human respiratory tract. This problem ranks high in terms
of (a) direct health effects on man, (b) multiplicity of sources, (c)
the relative persistence and pervasiveness of fine particulates once
they are emitted, and (d) the difficulty of control before, and mitiga-
i
tion after, emission. Even with the best available control technology,
which will result in a significant reduction in total particulate emis-
sions, a major fine particle fraction will be emitted. The health hazard
can be quite out of proportion to the mass involved, whether the particu-
lates are chemically active or inert.
Pro lection
Fine particulate matter is defined for the purpose of this study
as a material that exists as solid or liquid in the size range of 0.01 to
2 microns in diameter. ' The lower size limit of 0.01 micron is based
upon considerations of potential adverse effects of particulates on human
health. The upper limit is based upon the fact that the collection
efficiency of present control equipment deteriorates significantly below
2 micron particle size.
Environmental Effects
»
A comprehensive review and assessment of various environmental
effects have been documented in an EPA report entitled "Air Quality
(2\
Criteria for Particulate Matter". ' The environmental effects described
include: (1) effects on health, (2) effects on visibility, (3) effects
on climate near the ground, (4) effects on vegetation, (5) effects on
materials, (6) effects on public concern, (7) suspended particulates as
94
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a source of odor, and (8) economic effects. The first two are probably
among the most serious effects and have been chosen for emphasis here
to illustrate the environmental effects of fine particulates.
Effects on Health. Certain particulate pollutants are in-
trinsically toxic due to their inherent chemical and/or physical
properties. Substances in this category include: mercury, beryllium,
asbestos, lead, and cadmium. The health hazards posed by these sub-
stances have been reported in a series of documents prepared for EPA by
the National Academy of Sciences and other documents, citing evidences
obtained from toxicological and epidemiological studies.
The health effects of mercury, beryllium, and asbestos are
(3)
documented in a report released by EPA as a background for establish-
ing national emission standards. Airborne mercury may be inhaled and
absorbed into the blood. Chronic exposure to mercury affects the central
nervous system, producing tremor and psychological disturbances. Other
symptoms include loss of appetite, loss of weight, and insomnia.
Two forms of lung disease have been known to have resulted
from exposure to beryllium. An acute pneumonitis has been observed in
workers who were occupationally exposed to beryllium. Berylliosis,
which is the chronic form, has been observed in individuals who have
never been occupationally exposed to beryllium.
Some 40 percent of workers heavily exposed to asbestos even-
(4)
tually die of diseases related to the exposure. The lungs of such
individuals develop fine scars, a condition commonly called asbestos is.
In addition, about 7 percent of workers directly exposed to asbestos
develop a rare, lethal form of cancer called mesothelioma on the surface
of the lungs or abdominal cavity. A still larger number (about 20 per-
cent) develop carcinoma of the lung.
Clinical lead poisoning produces severe abdominal cramps,
headaches, constipation, loss of appetite, fatigue, anemia, motor-nerve
paralysis, and encephalopathy. Information is lacking regarding
long-term on chronic effects of lead at environmental levels of exposure,
especially at levels that do not produce apparent clinical lead poisoning.
95
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Exposure to cadmium oxide fumes and dust has been known to
produce emphysema, bronchitis, and general lung damage. Chronic ex-
posure results in kidney damage, anemia, and liver disfunction. Cadmium
intake poses a particularly serious hazard because it accumulates in the
body.
Other substances considered to be potentially hazardous parti-
culate air pollutants include: nickel, vanadium, manganese, chromium,
zinc, copper, arsenic, and polycyclic organic matter (POM). Documents
concerning these substances are being prepared for EPA by the National
Academy of Sciences. The POM, of which benzo(a)pyrene is the prime ex-
ample, has attracted considerable concern due to its known effect on
laboratory animals as a carcinogen.
A wide variety of supposedly "inert" particulate materials are
pulmonary irritants which produce alterations in the mechanical behavior
of the lungs, the alteration being predominantly an increase in flow
(2)
resistance. The irritant potency is particularly severe with particles
below 1 micron size and high particle concentration.
Particulate pollutants also may act as a carrier of an adsorbed
toxic substance, which can produce a synergistic effect whereby the effect
(2)
of the adsorbed material is magnified. The prime example of this
effect is the interaction of particulate pollutants and sulfur oxides.
Preliminary results from EPA's Community Health and Environmental
Surveillance System (CHESS) study have indicated that a potential corre-
lation exists in air between sulfur oxides and fine sulfate particles,
and adverse health effects. It is possible to speculate that a similar
correlation exists between nitrogen oxides and fine nitrate particles.
Effects on Visibility. Fine particles suspended in the air can
cause reduction in the visibility. The effect is primarily due to the
scattering of light by particles in a relatively narrow size range be-
tween 0.1 and 1 micron. Reduced visibility can have serious implication
for aircraft operation. The visibility is inversely proportional to
(2\
particle concentration. ' The visibility in a rural area with a typical
96
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particle concentration of 30 micrograms/m is 25 miles. For common urban
3
concentrations of 100 and 200 micrograms/m , the visibility is reduced to
7.5 and 3.75 miles, respectively.
Sources of Selected Air Pollutants
Quantities of emissions by sources of selected hazardous
materials are listed in Tables 24 through 29. The hazardous pollutants
include mercury, beryllium, asbestos, lead, cadmium, and POM. The emis-
sion data are probably based on 1968-1970 period. The emission quantity
refers to the total emission. A significant portion of the total emis-
sion probably exists in the form of fine particulates.
The important sources of mercury are consumption of paint,
incinerators, and power plant boilers. These three sources contribute
66 percent of the total nationwide mercury emission.
The major source of beryllium emission is power plant boilers,
which contribute 70 percent of the total nationwide emission.
The great majority of asbestos emission orginates from mining
operations which contribute 82 percent of the total nationwide asbestos
emission. Important urban sources include asbestos products manufac-
turing and the wear of automobile brake linings.
The great majority of lead emission is from gasoline combustion,
which contributes 95 percent of the total nationwide lead emission. The
lead emission will be substantially reduced when the use of lead alkyl
compounds as a gasoline additive is discontinued. Other important sources
include secondary lead industry, gray iron foundries, and petroleum
refineries.
The important sources of cadmium emissions are primary copper
industry, primary zinc industry, and iron and steel industry. These
three sources contribute 89 percent of the total nationwide cadmium
emission.
The important sources of POM emissions are agricultural burning,
forest fires, open burning of solid wastes, incinerators, and coal refuse
97
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TABLE 24. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF MERCURY EMISSION
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Mercury Mining 3
Chlorine Fluxing, Non-Ferrous Metals 55
Secondary Mercury 11
Organic Chlorine Chemical Manufacturing 70
Paint, Varnish, Lacquer Production 1
Instrument Manufacture 3
Electrical Apparatus Manufacture 3
Dental Preparation Manufacture 1
Use of Pesticides, Herbicides, Fungicides 19
Use of Pharmaceuticals 3
Laboratory Use of Mercury 51
Consumption of Paint 215
Incinerators 135
Sewage and Sludge Burning 11
Power Plant Boilers 174
Industrial Boilers 33
Residential and Commercial Boilers 5
TOTAL 793
98
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TABLE 25. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF BERYLLIUM EMISSION^
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Gray Iron Foundry 4
Beryllium Alloys and Compounds Production 5
Power Plant Boilers 101
Industrial Boilers 25
Residential and Commercial Boilers 9
TOTAL 144
99
-------
TABLE 26. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF ASBESTOS EMISSION
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Asbestos Mining 5,610
Kraft Pulp Mill 15
Asbestos Products Manufacture 535
Use of Asbestos Construction Material 61
Spray on Steel Fire Proofing 15
Insulation Cement Application 25
(a)
Wear of Automobile Brake Linings 583
TOTAL 6,844
12
(a) BCL estimate, based on 1.07 x 10 vehicle miles traveled in 1969
in the United States, an average lifetime for brake linings at
27,500 miles, and asbestos emission1 at 0.03 Ib/set of brake
linings /7'
100
-------
TABLE 27- SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF LEAD EMISSION^
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Copper, Zinc, Lead Mining 345
Primary Copper 380
Primary Zinc 250
Primary Lead 714
Primary Nickel 246
Secondary Copper 520
Secondary Lead 2,020
Iron and Steel 150
Gray Iron Foundry 1,400
Petroleum Refining 1,250
Lead Alkyl Chemicals 810
Cd-Ni Battery Manufacturing 2
Incinerators 320
Power Plant Boilers 713
Industrial Boilers 141
Residential and Commercial Boilers 21
Gasoline Combustion 181,000
Gasoline Transfer 36
Lead Oxide Manufacturing 20
TOTAL 190,338
101
-------
TABLE 28. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF CADMIUM EMISSION^
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Primary Copper 652
Primary Zinc 1,040
Primary Lead 88
Secondary Copper 125
Iron and Steel 1,000
Non-Ferrous Alloys Production 3
Cadmium Paint Pigments Manufacture 11
Cadmium-Barium Plastics Stabilizers 3
Incinerators 95
TOTAL 3,017
102
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TABLE 29. SOURCES AND QUANTITIES OF POM EMISSION
Source Quantity, tons/yr
Iron and Steel 43,380
Asphalt Industry 26,030
Petroleum Refining 2,170
Incinerators 230,453
Open Burning 526,843
Agricultural Burning 2,161,142
Forest Fires 1,433,712
Urban Fires 6,060
Coal Refuse Burning 193,500
Power Plant Boilers 24,148
Industrial Boilers 39,700
Residential and Commercial Heating 109,966
TOTAL 4,797,104
103
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burning. These sources contribute 95 percent of the total nationwide POM
emission. The majority of the POM emission originates from nonindustrial
sources, such as agricultural burning, forest fires, and open burning of
solid wastes.
Projections of Fine Particulate Emissions
Projections of fine particulate emissions by quantities and
sources are given in Table 30 for the years 1975 and 1980. The data were
taken from the Midwest Research Institute study, ' in which the pro-
jections were made from 1968 as the base year. Two methods of projections
are used. Method I assumes that there will be no change in the net
control for each source, which would result in increases in emissions in
proportion to increases in production capacity. Method II assumes that
all sources will be controlled by 1980, and that increased utilization
of the most efficient control devices will continuously increase the
efficiency of control for fine particulates so that by the year 2000 the
control efficiency will reach the efficiency of baghouse control, which
is the best currently available method for fine particulates.
The projections indicate that the fine particulate emissions
from industrial sources through 1980 will remain at a significant level
even after the application of control to all such sources.
A substantial portion of fine particulate emissions originates
from nonindustrial sources, for which no practical control method is
available. These sources include mobile sources, such as automobile
exhausts and tire wear, forest fires, cigarette smoke, ocean salt spray,
and aerosol from spray cans. The emissions from these sources will con-
tinue to remain substantially at the existing levels through 1980. The
fine particulate emission from these sources, excluding forest fire, in
1968 is estimated at 2.46 x 10 tons/yr.
104
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TABLE 30. PROJECTIONS OF FINE PARTICULATE EMISSION
FROM INDUSTRIAL SOURCES(10)
£
Nationwide Emission, 10 tons/yr
Source
Stationary Combustion
Crushed Stone Industry
Iron and Steel Industry
Kraft Pulp Mills
Cement Plants
Hot Mix Asphalt Plants
Ferroalloy Electric Furnaces
Lime Plants
Coal Preparation Plants
Municipal Incinerators
Fertilizer Manufacturing Plants
Iron Foundries
TOTALS
Method
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
1975
1.351
0.994
1.389
1.186
0.570
0.392
0.405
0.327
0.227
6.164
0.205
0.158
0.166
0.074
0.134
0.094
0.086
0.061
0.051
0.037
0.016
0.012
0.015
0.015
4.61
3.51
1980
1.544
0.815
1.814
1.137
0.652
0.354
0.484
0.333
0.273
0.140
0.250
0.152
0.180
0.008
0.174
0.086
0.105
0.047
0.061
0.031
0.017
0.010
0.016
0.006
5.57
3.12
105
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REFERENCES
(1) Shannon, L. J., et al., "Particulate Pollutant System Study, Vol. II.
Fine Particle Emissions", Final Report prepared for Air Pollution
Control Office, Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No.
CPA 22-69-104, Midwest Research Institute, August 1 (1971).
(2) "Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter", U.S. Dept. HEW,
Public Health Service, Consumer Protection and Environmental Health
Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration Publication
No. AP-49, January (1969).
(3) "Background Information - Proposed National Emission Standards for
Hazardous Air Pollutants: Asbestos, Beryllium, Mercury", Office of
Air Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, Publication No.
APTD-0753, December (1971).
(4) Rail, D. P., National Institute of Environmental Sciences, National
Institutes of Health, HEW News Release, May 31 (1973).
(5) Engel, R. E., et al., "Environmental Lead and Public Health", Air
Pollution Control Office, Environmental Protection Agency, Publication
No. AP-90, March (1971).
(6) Goldberg, A. J., "A Survey of Emissions and Controls for Hazardous
and Other Pollutants", Air Pollution Technology Branch, Technology
Division, Office of Research and Monitoring, Environmental Protection
Agency, February 26 (1973).
(7) Crowder, J. U., and Wood, G. H., "Control Techniques for Asbestos Air
Pollutants", Environmental Protection Agency, Publication No. AP-113,
February (1973).
106
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SECTION XII
EXPANDED DRINKING WATER CONTAMINATION
Nature of the Problem
Drinking water for human needs, is derived from the same sources
that supply water needs for human enterprises - industry, power production,
irrigation and the like. These sources, unfortunately are also the re-
ceptors of pollutants from the same enterprises. Current USPHS drinking
water standards (1962) provide impurity limits for only a relatively few
pollutants under the classifications of bacteriological, physical, chemi-
cal and radioactive characteristics. Water meeting these standards is
generally accepted by the public as safe.
Several events of the past decade have raised new concerns about
the relative safety of drinking water. One is that methods of detecting
constituents in water have become more sophisticated permitting even lower
concentrations of contaminants to be recognizable. Another is the in-
creasing awareness of the extent to which the environment is polluted,
i.e., new recognition of the sources, amounts, pathways, and effects of
specific pollutants. Coupled with the latter is the realization that the
numbers of chemical entities synthesized, produced and utilized in the
U.S. has been increasing dramatically. Since these substances in most
cases eventually find their way into water supplies, a reexamination of
drinking water safety appears to be a necessity. The problem is inti-
mately tied to problems of trace metals, pesticides, fine particulates,
and longer term health effects of these.
Pro lection
Water Usage and Treatment
Table 31 shows the situation in the U.S. with respect to munici-
pal water supply. A projected increase between 1960 and 1980 of from 20
to 33.5 billion gallons per day will serve domestic, public, commercial and
107
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TABLE 31. MUNICIPAL WATER SUPPLY IN THE U.S. (1960-1980)
(Billion gallons per day)
Year
1960
1965
1980
Domestic*
8.6
10.2
14.4
Public*
3.0
3.6
5.0
Commercial*
3.8
4.5
6.4
Industrial*
4.6
5.4
7.7
Total
Municipal
20
23.7
33.5
* Based on estimated 43, 15, 19, and 23 percent of total municipal use
respectively for domestic, public, commercial, and industrial.
108
-------
industrial segments comprising municipal users. Municipal users in turn
represent about 8 percent of water usage for all purposes in the U.S.
Per capita water usage of municipal water has not changed drastically
since about 1955 and is in the range of 150-160 gallons per capita per
day.
Apparently not all of the municipal water volumes shown received
treatment, or at least not treatment to the same degree. Domestic and
public portions no doubt receive treatment according to drinking water
standards requirements. The commercial and industrial volumes may not
require this level of treatment depending upon the usage.
The percentage of the U.S0 population served by municipal water
(4)
supply systems has increased over the same time period as follows:
1960 75.2
1970 82.2
1980 90.7
This suggests two environmental factors: (1) there is still a significant
population fraction relying on untreated sources (wells, e.g.) which may
or may not have been exposed to the extensive range of pollutants known
to be released each year from production-consumption activities; and,
(2) the volumes of sludge from water treatment which require disposal
(and which in themselves constitute a. disposal problem) will continue to
rise through 1980. This quantity is in excess of one billion pounds a
year at present. Disposal of the latter into streams is no longer con-
sidered acceptable practice.
Contaminants
The number of different types of contaminants in water sources
from which drinking water is derived is large. The awareness of just how
large has been developing in the past decade as a consequence of (1)
studies of sources and pathways to the environment of emissions to the
air, water, and land from all of man's activities and natural phenomena
109
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(weathering of earth's crust, volcanoes, lightning-induced forest fires,
etc.) and (2) increasingly more sophisticated detection instrumentation.
The types of contaminants include organics, inorganics, biologicals,
radioactive elements, low taste and odor threshold compounds.
Organics. Microquantities of organic compounds have been
observed in sea water (nearly 500!)^ ' and in tap water^ , facts which
attest to the widespread contamination of the environment. Sources in-
clude effluents from chemical manufacture, treated municipal waste
waters containing refactory organics (non-biodegradable) - some of which
are known carcinogens like PCB's , accidental spills of oils and
chemicals, and agricultural runoff which contributes organic pesticides,
herbicides, fungicides and many other plant growth chemicals. USPHS
drinking water standards (1962) do not specify limits on organics (ottaer
than phenols, carbon chloroform extracts, and alkyl benzene sulfonate)
except to indicate that water "shall not contain impurities in concen-
trations which may be hazardous to the health of consumers". Recommended
changes to the 1962 standards do provide limits for a number of
(Q\
pesticides .
Organic residues in drinking water range at about the 10 ppm
level. Detection of specific compounds, however, is difficult as these
may be in the parts per billion or trillion range.
Inorganics. As with organics, there is no dearth of sources
of inorganic contaminants. Natural sources accrue from weathering and
leaching of constituents of the earth's crust. The mining and processing
of fossil fuels and sulfide mineral ores results in mine drainage leach-
ates (acids and heavy metals solubilized by the acid). Automotive exhaust,
air emissions, and landfill leachates are other sources.
Recently, very high concentrations of asbestos fibers, suspected
of causing stomach and intestinal cancer, were discovered in drinking
water supplies in Minnesota. Presumably the source is from taconite tail-
(9)
ings dumped into Lake Superior. Asbestos can also get into water from
asbestos-containing pipes for water transport and from natural rock
formations.
110
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Mercury sources in the Great Lakes from the chlor-alkali
industry are well documented, as is the conversion of mercury to its
(10)*
more toxic organometallic form - methyl mercury.
Nitrates in water are known to be a problem for infants and
may be out of control in rural areas due to fertilizer runoff.
USPHS drinking water standards cover a number of inorganic
elements (As, Ba, Cd, Cr, Cn, F; Pb, Se, Ag, Mn, Cu, Fe, SO,, Zn, Cl).
Organometallies are not covered.
Radioactivity. Radioactive substances from fallout associated
with nuclear testing has been of concern in the past. Tritium, radium,
and strontium are elements of i
exist only for the latter two.
and strontium are elements of current interest. USPHS standards
Taste and Odor. Somewhat related to the organics problem,
there are many compounds which find their way into water which have ex-
tremely low taste and odor thresholds, i.e., at very low concentrations
their presence can be detected. Control is difficult.
Biologicals. Between 1961 and 1970, there were 130 outbreaks
of diseases or chemical poisoning in the United States attributed to
contaminated drinking water; these outbreaks affected ~46,000 persons
(12)
and resulted in 20 deaths. These included 30 due to infectious
hepatitis, 39 attributed to gastroenteritis (of undetermined etiology),
23 from salmonella (14 by S. typhi), and 19 attributed to Shigella
(mostly S. Sonnei). At least 85 percent of all the outbreaks were due
to pathogenic microbes, and 62 percent and 23 percent was due respectively
to bacterial and viral diseases. While these cases were mainly due to
* A 1972 episode reported in this reference occurred in Iraq involving
contamination of water supplies by mercury-insecticide treated wheat.
It is said to have resulted in. death to thousands.
Ill
-------
negligence, there is also a problem that current technology does not pro-
vide complete removal or at least quick analysis of viruses or pathogenic
bacteria. Viruses and salmonella have been found to pass through con-
ventional waste treatment plants, and therefore, there microbes are
possible hazards to drinking water supplies.
The removal or disinfection of viruses has been an area of in-
terest in both water and waste treatment. The applications of flocculation
and coagulation, lime precipitation, and sand filtration will remove
approximately 80-94 percent/ ' 60-99 percent/ ' and 1-49 percent^15'
of the polioviruses, respectively. Conventional water treatment will
not completely remove viruses. Chlorine is effective at 9 mg/A if com-
bined residual chlorine is present for an exposed time of 30 minutes or
at 0.5 mg/jfc if combined residual chlorine is present for 7 hours.
With the use of sodium hypochlorite, Scarpino, et al, found that
OC1 at a pH of 6 was 130 times more effective on E. Coli than polio-
viruses, and at a pH of 10 was 50 times more effective on polioviruses
than E. Coli. Ozonation as a disinfectant requires 15 mg/j£ of ozone at
(18)
5 minutes exposure time to inhibit viral activity. It appears that
an economical and simple approach for pathogenic viral and bacterial
removal is achievable.
Control
One of the primary needs associated with control of drinking
water contaminants is the establishment of the levels that given sub-
stances will be acceptable in water. The expenditures of large sums of
money to bring contaminants down to levels that have no scientific basis
for their existence would not be wise.
Reuse of municipal wastewaters for drinking purposes in certain
water short locales is not too far in the future (5-10 years?). This
possibility alone requires that effort be initiated now to develop
112
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standards based on health effects data. Even if reuse in this way is
not widely practiced in the U.S., it is apparent that a form of reuse has
been in existence all along, i.e., by downstream withdrawal of water con-
tributed by an upstream user.
113
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REFERENCES
(1) Wollman, N. and Bonem, G. W., pp 19, 54, 181, The Outlook for Water.
The Johns Hopkins Press (1971).
(2) Todd, K. D., (editor) pp 220-222, The Water Encyclopedia. Water
Information Center (1970).
(3) Metcalf and Eddy, Inc., pp 25-26, Wastewater Engineering. McGraw
Hill (1972).
(4) "Regional Construction Requirements for Water and Wastewater
Facilities, 1955-1967-1980", U.S. Dept. of Commerce Publication
(1967).
(5) Daursma, E. K., "The Dissolved Organic Constituents of Sea Water",
Chemical Oceanography. Vol. II, edited by Riley and Skinner,
Academic Press (1965).
(6) Crossland, J. and Brodine, V. "Drinking Water", Environment, 15(3).
11-19 (1973).
(7) Choi, P.S.K., Nack, H., Flinn, J. E., "Distribution of Polychlorinated
Biphenyls in an Aerated Biological Oxidation Wastewater Treatment
System", Bull. Envr. Contamination and Toxicology (to be published).
(8) Water Quality and Treatment. American Water Works Association (3rd
Edition), p 47, McGraw-Hill (1971).
(9) Clean Air and Water News, 4(4), 307, Commerce Clearing House
(January 25, 1973).
(10) Reimers, R. S., "Sorption of Mercury on Synthetic and Natural Sediments",
PhD Dissertation, Vanderbilt University (August, 1973).
(11) Robeck, G.G., personal communication with project staff.
(12) Taylor, A. J., et al., "Outbreaks of Waterborne Diseases in the U.S.",
J. Infectious Diseases, 125. 329 (1'972).
(13) Thorup, R. T., Nixon, F. P., Wentworth, 0. F., and Sproul, 0. J.,
"Virus Removal by Coagulation with Polyelectrolytes", J. AWWA,(pp 97-101
(February, 1970).
114
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(14) Thayer, S. E. and Sproul, 0. J., "Virus Inactivation in Water-
Softening Precipitation Processes", J. AWWA, Vol. 58, pp 1063
(August, 1966).
(15) Robeck, G. G., Clarke, N. A., and Dostal, K. A., "Effectiveness
of Water Treatment Process in Virus Removal", J. AWWA, Vol. 54,
pp 1275 (October, 1962).
(16) Kelly, S. and Sunderson, W. W., "The Effect of Chlorine in Water
on Enteric Viruses", Amer. J. Public Health, Vol. 50, pp 14
(1960).
(17) Scarpino, et al., "Projects of the Municipal Technology Branch
through June, 1972", EPA, Washington, D.C., EPA-R-2-72-080
(September, 1972).
(18) Pavoni, J. L., et al., "Virus Removal From Wastewater Using Ozone",
Water and Sewage Works, Vol. 119(12), pp 59 (1972).
115
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SECTION XIII
IRRIGIATION (IMPOUNDMENT) PRACTICES
Nature of the Problem
With the current and projected population levels in the U.S. and
abroad, the most productive utilization of agricultural land is essential
to meet rising food demand. Irrigation of arid and semi-arid regions of the
U.S., to meet agricultural and land development needs, has grown the ten-
fold in the past 70-75 years.
Environmental impacts from irrigation accrue from the salt concen-
tration which naturally occurs as the pure water is extracted by plants and
evaporates to the air. Return of these saline waters to a receiving stream
or underground water supply provides a detrimental effect. Other impacts
result from the construction and operation of impoundments to provide
irrigation waters.
The sheer magnitude of this problem in terms of (1) acreage and
water quantities affected, (2) growth in the practice and (3) complexity
of the impacts raises this as a future problem of national importance.
Projection
The application of irrigation practices to arid lands has tended
to rise at a steady rate since 1940. From Figure 4, the land area being
irrigated has increased 100 percent from 1944 to 1970 and is forecasted to
increase about the same rate to 1980. Even though the percentage of
water utilized for irrigation has dropped from a high of 52 percent of the
total water usage in the United States in 1940 to a predicted low of 37
percent in 1975, the absolute magnitude of water needed for this purpose has
more than doubled in the same period (see Table 32). Irrigation as a
practice appears to have been increasing at the rate of 2.3 billion gallons
a day per year since 1960/2* Along with the steady increase in water
consumption for irrigation, the water needs in industry and power sectors
116
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45
08
0)
M
O
rt
m
C
o
•a
-------
TABLE 32. UNITED STATES: ESTIMATED WATER USE, 1900-1975
(Billions of Gallons; Daily Average)(2)
Irrigation
(Billions Gallons)
Year per day (% Total)
1900
1920
1940
1960
1965
H
£ 1970
1975
20.2
55.9
71.0
135.0
148.1
. 159.0
169.7
50
62
52
43
41
39
37
Power and Industry
(Billions Gallons)
per day (% Total)
15.0
28.0
51.2
149.5
181.9
210.8
246.4
37
30
38
48
51
52
54
Total (%>)
(Billions Gallons)
per day
40.2
92.3
135.4
312.5
359.5
404.5
453.1
*A11 other uses only constituted between 13 percent to 9 percent of all water used from 1900
to 1975. This constituted 5 billion gallons/day to 37 billion gallons per day.
-------
have increased at an even faster pace (Table 32) creating an even greater
demand for water. The practice of irrigation has caused, and could magnify,
four major environmental impacts:
(a) A lowering of irrigation water quality due to
salinity increases
(b) A decrease of river water quality due to lower
river flows
(c) A reduction of the abiotic and biotic quality of
estuaries due to decreased river flow.
Salinity and Irrigation Water Quality
Salinity constitutes the principal stressor contributing to water
quality impairment from irrigation. As the water demands for irrigation,
energy resource development, and industrial production grow, sources of
quality water will become scarce, particularly in certain water deficient
regions. In order to meet demand in the latter areas, either the application
of desalination technology to reduce salinity will be required or irrigation
water of lower quality will have to be used. The accumulation in salinity
in water returning from irrigated land has been shown to increase by a factor
of four just eight years between 1957 and 1965 as illustrated in Table 33,
and there does not appear to be any noticeable variation for the near
(2)
future. In 1957, the return irrigation waters had a factor of four lower
salt output than the input irrigation water itself. But, by 1963 and 1964
salt output of the return irrigation water was about the same as the input
irrigation water. However, since the quantity of return water (after losses)
is much less the salinity level is significantly greater than the input
water used for irrigation. Table 34 reflects a similar situation for the
chemical composition of the inflow and outflow salt content from irrigation
for the Yakima Valley.
The chemical constituents in the saline irrigation return flows
(unconsumed water) of Yakima Valley, Washington, have been examined by
Sylvester and Seabloom. They found higher levels of salinity and hardness
for underground return flow of irrigation waters, but lower coliforms,
119
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TABLE 33. ACRES OF IRRIGATED LAND, INPUTS AND OUTPUTS OF WATER AND SALT FOR
IRRIGATED LAND FROM 1957 to 1964 FOR COACHELLA VALLEY, CALIFORNIA^'
10
o
Inputs to Irrigated Lands
Year
1957
1959
1961
1963
1965
Irrigated Lands Water
(acres) (acre-ft)
57,329
55,527
53,990
57,773
59,870
299,590
358,641
366,315
370,014
341,165
Salt
(tons/acre-ft)
1.234
0.972
1.066
1.058
1.193
(tons)
370,000
349,000
390,000
391,000
407,000
Outputs from Irrigated Land
Water
(acre-ft)
32,578
47,188
75,597
110,627
124,128
Salt
(tons/acre-ft)
3.065
3.530
3.666
3.640
3.423
(tons)
100,000
167,000
277,000
402,000
425,000
-------
TABLE 34. SALT BALANCE, YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGTON^
Constituent
Cations:
Ca
Mg
Na
K
Anions:
HCO3
Cl
SO4
NO3
TOTALS
Inflow
tons
33,600
16,900
13,700
4,700
190,000
3,400
18,200
3,600
281, 100
Outflow
tons
73,000
33,400
60,500
7,800
430, 000
22, 000
65,000
16,300
708, 000
Net
tons
+ 39,400
+ 16,500
+ 46,800
+ 3, 100
+240, 000
+ 18,600
+ 46,800
+ 12,700
+426, 900
Ratio
0/1
2. 17
1.97
4.42
1.66
2.26
6.48
3.57
4.53
2.52
121
-------
temperatures, dissolved oxygen, pH, COD (chemical oxygen demand), and tur-
bidity as compared to surface return flow as illustrated in Table 35. in
all cases except the coliform counts (a measure of microbial activity) and
dissolved oxygen, all chemical parameters were observed to increase in
concentration after the application of water to irrigation lands.
Irrigation return flows are a source of contamination of reservoirs
from whence irrigation waters are derived. Table 36 illustrates this fact
for the Hoover Reservoir. Note that the major sources of salt build up in
the reservoir are natural sources, irrigation, and evaporation, respectively.
The dangers of toxic contaminants disrupting the natural ecosystem
are particularly acute in arid regions. Consequently, the fate of trace
contaminants becomes an important interest for ecologists and environmentalists,
Table 37 suggests probable sinks of various abiotic and biotic parameters
of pollution after irrigation.
Crops have tolerance limits with respect to soil water salinity.
These limits vary widely depending upon the crop. Barley, cotton, sugar
beets, and tomatoes can tolerate fairly high levels of salt (75,000 mg/1 TDS)
whereas citrus crops, berry plants, potatoes and corn have much lower
tolerance. A low chloride level in particular is necessary for the latter
crop group.
Toxic contaminant levels have been established for irrigation
waters and are shown in Table 38. The effect on crops and soils of
various types of irrigation water quality has and is going to play a major
role especially with respect to trace contaminants and salinity.
Reduced River Flow
With the growth in irrigation practice and associated impoundments
(and for that matter impoundments for hydroelectric power) the potential for
effects from reduced river flow will increase. The reduction of river flow
due to use of impoundments which supply water for irrigation has been
found to change the existing environmental conditions and can often be
shown to decreases the assimilative waste capacity of lower water basins.
The parameters involved are temperature, dissolved oxygen, microbial activity(
122
-------
TABLE 35. COMPARISON OF IRRIGATION WATER AND DRAINAGE WATER,
YAKIMA VALLEY, WASHINGTON
Constituent
Salinity (EC ymhos )
Temperature C
Oxygen, mg/1
PH
COD, mg/14
Hardness as CaCO,
Turbidity units
Total PO,, mg/1
Co li forms
per 100 ml
Applied Water
83.0
16.0
10.2
8.1
7.0
46.0
37.0
0.32
1,070.0
Underground^ Drains
420.0
13.3
6.8
7.7
9.0
186.0
12.0
0.86
103.0
Surface Drains
283.0
17.9
9.0
8.2
10.0
121.0
130.0
0.83
10,600.0
Average for 7 stations.
2
Average for 5 stations.
M
Electrical conductance in umhos per cm at 25 C.
4
Chemical oxygen demand.
123
-------
TABLE 36. INCREMENTAL SALT CONCENTRATION ATTRIBUTABLE TO SPECIFIC
SOURCES, COLORADO RIVER AT HOOVER DAM(?) (1942-1961
PERIOD OF RECORD ADJUSTED TO 1960 CONDITION)*
Total Dissolved Solids
Sources mg/1
Natural Sources
Diffuse sources 274
Point sources (mineral springs,
wells, etc.) 69
Irrigation 253
Municipal and Industrial Sources 10
Water Exports 22
Evaporation and Phreatophytes 97
TOTAL 725
* Based on data from: US6S Professional Paper 441, Water
Resources of the Upper Colorado River Basin, 1965; USDI,
Progress Report No. 3, Quality of Water, Colorado River
Basin, January, 1967; FWPCA records on open files.
124
-------
TABLE 37. PROBABLE FATE OF MUNICIPAL AND INDUSTRIAL
POLLUTANTS AFTER IRRIGATION^)
Pollutants of Municipal
and Industrial Origin
Probable Fate After Irrigation Use
Total dissolved solids
Sodium
Chlorides
Sulfates
Boron
Heavy metals
Phosphorus
Bacteria
Radioactivity
Pesticides and exotic
organic chemicals
Reappears in surface and subsurface
return flows in increased concen-
trations
Precipitated and fixed in soil;
some may persist in surface return
flow
Removed in soil; some may persist
in surface return flow
Removed in soil; taken up by crops;
some may persist in surface return
flow
Many removed in soil; will persist
in surface return flow; some may
possibly persist in subsurface
return flow
125
-------
TABLE 38. TRACE ELEMENT TOLERANCES FOR IRRIGATION WATERS
For Water Used
Continuously on all
Soils
Element mg/1
Aluminum
Arsenic
Beryllium
Boron
Cadmium
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Lead
Lithium
Manganese
Molybdenum
Nickel
Selenium
Vanadium
Zinc
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.75
0.005
5.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
5.0
2.0
0.005
0.5
0.05
10.0
5.0
For Short-Term Use
on Fine Textured
Soils Only
mg/1
20.0
10.0
1.0
2.0
0.05
20.0
10.0
5.0
20.0
5.0
20.0
0.05
2.0
0.05
10.0
10.0
126
-------
sedimentation, and trace contaminants. Two key parameters are temperature
and dissolved oxygen.
Following the construction of an impoundment, a change in average
river water temperature will occur. This change can have either a negative
or positive impact. Since impoundments are commonly stratified, the
temperature of the deep, cold, and relatively undisturbed bottom region
of the reservoir (hypolimnion) tends to be fairly cool when compared to
the surface, warm, and relatively disturbed region of a reservoir which is
exposed to ambient air (epilimnion). Under low flow conditions the stream
temperature will equilibrate rapidly with the ambient terrestial surroundings.
Also since the river turbulence will be diminished, less oxygen will be
absorbed. Consequently, the dissolved oxygen of the stream will be exhausted
more readily. Any influent organic wastes with its associated biological
oxygen demand will further reduce the ability of the river to reaerate
(8 9)
itself. These effects are illustrated in Figure 5. ' '
Other water quality parameters effected by decreased river flow
are decreases in nutrient levels due to sedimentation, increase in the
influences of runoff contaminants such as pesticides, herbicides, fungicides,
fertilizers (phosphates, nitrates, feedlot wastes, and mineral leaching),
and decreases in river water quality due to containing low dissolved oxygen
levels in the cooler inflow of hypolimnion waters. The reduced dilution
capacity due to low river flow can also result in salinity increases.
Downstream Estuary Impacts
Decreased freshwater inflows are known to have a most influential
impact on estuarine environments. The reduction of freshwater inflow will
increase the salinity intrusion, increase the sedimentation of river
suspended matter in its headwaters instead of in the estuary, decrease
the dissolved oxygen, decrease the specieis diversity of the fish, and
decrease the specific heat of the estuarine water due to increased
salinity. Because estuaries encompass large land areas, the combined
effects can be quite profound. Figures 6 and 7 show examples of the effects
of salinity increases on the number of fish species and dissolved oxygen
. - (11,12)
level. '
127
-------
Note; Normal River Conditions
© 5 C
A 15 C
0 25 C
35 C
—— Free flowing
— - Impounded
Flow - 7000 cfs
BOD =7.5 tng/1
-B- - 0
34567
Time, of flow from mill—days
FIGURE 5. TIME AND TEMPERATURE EFFECTS UPON OXYGEN CONTENT (SAG) IN FREE-FLOWING AND IMPOUNDED RIVERS
-------
300-
250
|
T 200
h;
? 150
to
100
50
Laguna Tamaulipas
Mexico
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
30
I
20 i/2
10
UJ
a
10 CL
10
FIGURE 6. SALINITY IN PARTS PER THOUSAND AND NUMBER OF FISH SPECIES
IN THE LAGUNA TAMAULIPAS, MEXICO, DURING 1961 THROUGH 1965
(10)
Laguna Tamaulipas
Mexico
•••..
^ ' .......... .25C
N^^-^
^
^
37c ~-
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200. 22O
SALINITY -(ppt)
FIGURE 7. SATURATION VALUES OF DISSOLVED OXYGEN VERSUS SALINITY.
129
-------
In the 1960s, Copeland reported on the effects of reduced fresh-
water flow in the fishing industry in south Texas. A 50 percent reduction in
commercial fishing occurred at Aransas and Corpus Christ! Bays, Copeland and
/I ON
Hoesev ' also noted the destruction of one of the largest oyster producing
industries in the world due to the reduced freshwater inflow into Calves ton
Bay. It was postulated that increased salinities which in turn triggered
increased temperature fluctuations initiated the loss.
130
-------
References
(1) Law, J. P., and Witherow, J. L., "Water Quality Management Problems
in Arid Regions", Water Pollution Control Research Series 13030 DYY
6/69 (October, 1970).
(2) McGauhey, P. H., Engineering Management of Water Quality. McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York (1968).
(3) Private communication from USDA.
(4) Smith, J. F., "Imperial Valley Salt Balance", Public Information Office,
Imperial Irrigation District, El Centro, California (1966).
(5) Sylvester, R. 0., and Seabloom, R. W., "Quality and Significance of
Irrigation Return Flow", J. Irrig. and Drain. Div. ASCE, 89 (IR3):
1-27 (September, 1963).
(6) Bernstein, L., "Quantitative Assessment of Irrigation Water Quality",
Water Quality Criteria. ASTM STP 416, Am. Soc. Testing Materials,
p 51 (1967).
(7) Federal Water Pollution Control Administration, "Cost of Clean Water",
Volume II, Detailed Analysis, USDI (1968).
(8) Krenkel, P. A., Eckenfelder, W. W., Gloyna, E. F., and Fruh, E. G.,
Stream Analysis and Thermal Pollution, Volume II, World Health
Organization, Regional Office for Europe, Copenhagen, Denmark, p 217
(June, 1968).
(9) Driver, E. E., and Krenkel, P. A., "The Effects of Modifications
of the Flow Regime on the Waste Assimilative Capacity of the Coosa
River", Technical Report No. 5, Sanitary and Water Resouces Engineering,
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
(1965).
(10) Copeland, B. J., "Effects of Decreased River Flow on Estuarine
Ecology", Journal Water Pollution Control Federation, ^8_ (11), 1831-1839
(November, 1966).
(11) Copeland, B. J., "Environmental Characteristics of Hypersaline Lagoons",
Contributions in Marine Science, 4., 208-218 (July, 1967).
(12) Copeland, B. J., and Jones, R. S., "Community Metabolism in Some
Hypersaline Waters", The Texas Journal of Science, 17 (2), 188-205
(June, 1965).
(13) Copeland, B. J., and Hoese, H. D., "Growth and Mortality of the
American Oyster, Crassostrea Virginica, in High Salinity Shallow
Bags in Central Texas", Publ. Institute of Marine Science, Texas
Vol. II, pp 149-158 (November, 1966).
131
-------
SECTION XIV
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The assistance of numerous individuals was received in compiling,
ranking, and developing background information on the problems identified.
At NERC-Cincinnati, Francis Middleton contributed his time along with
Norbert Schomaker, Robert Stenberg, Gordon Roebeck, Leland McCabe, Jerry
Stara, Clarence demons, Gerald Berg, Robert Bunch, Robert Dean, James
Symons, and Carl Brunner. At NERC-Research Triangle Park, John F. Finklea
cooperated in arranging interviews with John Smith, Gene Sawicki, John Moran,
Tony Cqlucci, Tom Houser, and Gene Tucker. Office of Research and Develop-
ment personnel who participated (or provided alternates) included Ken
Bridboard, Alphonse Forziatti, Paul Gerhardt, Dave Graham, Dick Harrington,
Don Holmes, Bill Lacy, Harry Landon, Robert Payne, Ed Royce, Herb Wiser,
Bill Upholt, Larry Plumlee, Ed Shuck, and Wayne Ott. Del Barth, Director
NERC-Las Vegas, and Farley Fisher, Larry Rosinski and Begina Carroll of
the Office of Toxic Substances also managed to find time to provide input.
Battelle participants included Bob Reimers, Ron Byrd, Howard
Reiquam, Art Levin, Dave Morrison, Ray Smithson, Byung Kim, Ed Stambaugh,
Charles Peet, Bill Sheppard, Tom Carroll, Gil Raines, Dave Stutz,
Gerry Nehman, Paul Lerro. Many others responded to requests for input
of ideas, thoughts, and evaluations.
132
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APPENDIX A
IDENTIFICATION OF CANDIDATE PROBLEMS
-------
APPENDIX A
IDENTIFICATION OF CANDIDATE PROBLEMS
Candidate future problems were developed using these steps:
(1) A preliminary listing of problem statements (this Appendix)
was developed by consolidating the results of three
independent searches of broad categories and specific
sectors of human activity
(2) Ranking factors were developed to aid in screening and
prioritizing the candidate problems.
(3) Ten "most serious" problems (or combinations) were
tentatively identified from the preliminary list through
application of the ranking procedure
(4) Revisions to the initial selection were made after con-
sultation with EPA and further study of the problem
definitions. These revisions resulted from combination,
readjustment of title, or expansion of the problem
definitions
(5) The initial ranking factors were refined, weighted by
a modified Delphi technique and reapplied to the final
version of the ten "most serious" problems to develop
a numerical ranking to the most serious" problem set.
Development, of Preliminary List
The methodology employed for developing future problem candi-
dates relied principally on the rapid screening of three broad categories
of human activity combined with a review of readily accessible literature.
Emphasis was placed on identifying and interviewing persons
knowledgeable in selected activity sectors of the three categories. The
sectors reviewed resulted from structuring of the three activity categories:
A-l
-------
(1) technical production; (2) environmental; and, (3) societal change
and/or trends. The search for problems was conducted independently in
each activity category.
Technical Production Activity
The sectors for review in this category were selected by .
reference to the Standard Industrial Classification Manual. Only broad
r & '. •-[
sectors (one or two digit SIC codes) could be dealt with in the time
allowed, e.g., agriculture, mining, construction, and selected manufacturing
areas. Source personnel for this search were drawn primarily from within
Battelle-Columbus--chiefly persons with wide experience in specific sectors.
Group meetings were held pertaining to each sector, e.g., agriculture,
selecting attendees so as to cover several facets of the activity.
Technology and marketing trends were reviewed and possible environmental
consequences were identified for consideration.
Environmental Activity
The idea of searching within this category was to take advantage
of the already well structured U.S. environmental effort and use the
existing base of information to project new problems. Among the sectors
reviewed within this activity category were: (1) environmental legis-
lation; (2) ongoing research in air, water, and land media; (3) health
effects and specific pollutants; (4) pollution control technology;
(5) monitoring and standards; and (6) transport processes.
Sources which were probed for information in these sectors
included:
(1) Selected Program Element Managers, Office of Research
and Development, EPA
(2) Deputy Director, Selected Laboratory Managers and
Branch Chiefs, NERC-Cincinnati
(3) Selected Laboratory Managers, Branch Chiefs and other
staff personnel, NERC-Research Triangle Park
A-2
-------
(4) Director and selected staff, NERC-Las Vegas
(5) Battelie-Columbus
(a) Selected staff in environmental sectors
(b) BCL staff at large through mechanism of seminar
and newsletter
(6) Literature (published and unpublished reports, surveys,
problem listings).
The constraint of time necessarily limited the search for problems to
primarily BCL and EPA sources.
Societal Changes/Trends
Within this category, specific sectors for searching were
initially delineated by means of internal discussions and reference to
the literature. These included:
Demographic International
Crime Technological
Medical Science Government
Education Urban
Social Labor.
Economics
For each sector, specific trends were identified, e.g., decreasing birth
rate, increase in crime, increased therapeutic and non-therapeutic drug
use. These trends were examined for possible sources of environmental
or pollution problems.
Problems versus Stressors
It was found useful as work under this contract proceeded to
differentiate between the terms "pollution problem" and "environmental
stressors". Originally (BCL proposal dated March 2, 1973) it was planned
to use these terms interchangeably and defined as "any general class or
specific substance, effect,.or condition which has an adverse impact
A-3
-------
on man or his environment". As the search progressed, however, it
became apparent that two kinds of problems were generally under discussion;
(1) specific pollutants (SO , asbestos, aeroallergens, freon, heat energy)
X
and (2) general pollution problems wherein more than one pollutant was.
involved. Thus, the term stressor was reserved for the more specific
pollutants or class of pollutant - chemical compound or element, biological
agent or physical substance - which are components of most problems.
Thus, for the initial list of 10 most serious problems, an analysis
revealed that the following stressors were frequent components.
Stressor
Heavy metals
Toxic organics
Fine particles
Inorganic salts
Mercurials
Arsenic and its compounds
Sulfate and nitrates
Toxic organometallics
Suspended solids
Taste and odor
Occurrence
Ten "most serious" Problems
9
9
8
7
7
7
7
7
6
6
The preliminary list of problem statement titles is given in
Table A-l, arranged in one of nine categories. The number preceding each
title corresponds to the numbered problem statement abstracts which follow
the table. The latter are slightly edited versions of the preliminary
listing originally submitted to EPA (May 15, 1973).
A-4
-------
TABLE A-l. PRELIMINARY LIST OF PROBLEMS BY AREA AND TITLE
• POLLUTION CONTROL RESIDUES
A-l* Disposal of Secondary Treatment Sludges
A-2 Sludges, Liquid, and Solid Residues from Pollution Control
A-3 Impacts from Flue Gas Treatment
A-16 Disposal of Waste Oils from Oil Spills and Other Sources
A-20 Crankcase Oil Recycling
(See also A-15, A-37, A-38, A-43)
• INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION-CONSUMPTION RESIDUES
A-5 Oil Well and Other Waste Brines
A-6 Coal Cleaning Residues
A-7 Waste Industrial Acids
A-25 Metallic Machining Sludges
(See also A-12, A-14, A-16, A-21, A-31, A-32, A-39)
• ENERGY SUPPLY
A-14 Electric Power Generation
A-l7 Bulk Shipment of Liquefied Gases
A-31 Oil Shale Production
A-35 Pipeline Construction
A-42 Geothermal Power
A-48 Underground Mining
A-49 Coal Gasification
A-50 Radioactive Wastes
(See also A-8, A-9, A-16, A-18)
• TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES
A-10 Toxic Substances in Recycled Animal Waste
A-23 Inorganic Toxic Contaminants
A-26 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Pesticides, Herbicides, and Fungicides
* This number refers to specific problem statements following table.
A-5
-------
TABLE A-l. PRELIMINARY LIST OF PROBLEMS BY AREA AND TITLE
(Continued)
A-28 Fluorinated Hydrocarbons
A-29 Carcinogens
A-30 Incineration of New Materials
A-37 New Landfill Technology
A-45 Urban Pesticide Use
A-46 Crop Dusting and Spraying
A-51 Plant and Animal Growth Promoters
A-55 Household Products
(See also A-43, A-44, A-47, A-50, A-56)
AIR POLLUTION
A-9 Fine Particulates in Air
A-ll Automotive Exhaust
A-12 Catalytic Converters for Autos
A-40 Spark Sources
A-47 Sulfur Dusts
A-34 Spray Irrigation Pathogens
A-39 Solvents from Coating and Dyeing Technology
A-53 Aeroallergens
A-56 Household Dusts
(See also A-30, A-46, A-22)
WATER POLLUTION
A-4 Effects from Dredging
A-8 Acid Mine Drainage
A-13 Nondegraded Organics from Secondary Treatment
A-15 Drinking Water Treatment
A-18 Bulk Shipment of Liquid Chemicals and Fuels
A-19 Spilled Petrochemicals
A-36 Deicing of Roadways
A-6
-------
TABLE A-l. PRELIMINARY LIST OF PROBLEMS BY AREA AND TITLE
(Continued)
A-43 Advanced Wastewater Treatment
A-44 Chlorine as a Disinfectant
A-52 Street Runoff
A-54 Rural Treatment Systems
(See also A-l, A-2, A-5, A-7, A-33, A-24)
t ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
A-24 Irrigation Practices
A-27 Natural Pest Control Agents
A-32 Silviculture Practices
A-33 Biological Pollution
A-38 Soil Sulfur Deficiency
(See also A-l, A-4, A-14, A-31, A-35, A-42)
• RADIATION AND SOUND
A-21 Noise
A-22 Microwave Radiation
A-41 UV Radiation
(See also A-15, A-42, A-50)
• SOCIAL
A-57 Economic Trends
A-58 Crime
A-59 Ascending Power Groups
A-60 Reversal of Core City Population Decline
A-61 Demography
A-62 Medicine Science
A-63 Government
A-64 Transportation
A-65 International
A-7
-------
A-l. DISPOSAL OF SECONDARY TREATMENT SLUDGES
With the advent of universal secondary treatment in the United
States, there is going to be the increased problem of disposal of the excess
secondary sludge both in terms of quantity and toxic contaminants.
Stressors
(1) Heavy metals
(2) Viruses and pathogenic bacteria
(3) Dissolved inorganic salts
Discussion
Many pathogens and viruses pass untouched through sewage treatment
plants. With the advent of the mercury scare, many governmental agencies
analyzed decayed secondary sludges for heavy metals and found surprisingly
high contents of mercury, cadmium, arsenic, etc. Utilization of this
secondary sludge as a fertilizer or disposal in a sanitary landfill requires
study with respect to toxic metals hazardous micro-organisms and inorganic
salts released to the natural environment.
The future addition of phosphorous removal by mineral addition
will result in a doubling of the sludge volume at a given treatment plant.
A-2. SLUDGES, LIQUID. AND SOLID RESIDUES FROM POLLUTION CONTROL
Soluble and insoluble organic and inorganic materials are being
generated at a rapidly increasing rate as a result of the implementation
of pollution control measures. Options for disposal of these residues are
being limited by environmental and land use restrictions. Disposal without
readmission of hazardous components of these residues to the environment
via air, water, soil media constitutes a serious immediate and future
problem.
A-8
-------
Stressors
(1) Fine particulates in air
(2) Toxic or hazardous organics and inorganics
(3) Contamination of water media.
Discussion
The implementation of pollution control to meet currrent and
anticipated environmental legislation with respect to air, water, and
land pollution is resulting in large quantities of sludges, liquids,
and solid wastes. These wastes contain large quantities of toxic or hazardous
substances usually in low concentration. Current disposal options can
result in re-admission of these substances to the environment. For example,
the disposal of sludges on land used for agricultural purposes can result
in the uptake of the heavy metals by plants. Upon being fed to cattle,
a route to man's source of food is established. Landfilling can result
in contamination of water courses as a result of leachate containing heavy
metals and soluble organic constituents. Currently, no disposal method
is without some environmental impact.
A-3. IMPACTS FROM FLUE GAS TREATMENT
The environmental consequences of the disposal of acid or alkali
wastes from flue-gas scrubbing (chiefly desulfurization) systems have not
yet been adequately defined.
Stressors
(1) Alkali wastes
(a) Calcium Sulfite
(b) Gypsum
A-9
-------
(c) Calcium Carbonate
(d) Calcium Hydroxide
t
(e) Mangeslum Sulfate
(f) Calcium and Magnesium Nitrate
(2) Sulfonic Acid, H2S03
(3) Metallic Oxides
(4) Trace Organics
Discussion
Lime, limestone or dolomite scrubbing are among the leading systems
which have been examined for power plant flue-gas-desulfurization. The
sulfur oxides removed are incorporated in a sludge containing a mixture of
the chemicals listed above. Land disposal of these can result in leaching
of alkali salts into ground water. If these wastes are dried, dusting is
a potential problem.
On scrubbing flue gas with water, an acidic solution containing
sulfonic acid is generated. Neutralization of this solution yields a
sludge for disposal.
A-4. EFFECTS FROM DREDGING
The dredging of spoil banks, sediments, and stabilized anaerobic
lagoon sludges can create immediate adverse effects and initiate long-range
chronic ecological upsets.
Stressors
(1) Trace metals
(2) Alkalinity and acidity
(3) Suspended matter
(4) Dissolved oxygen reduction
(5) Toxic organometallies.
A-10
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Discussion
Contact of air or dissolved oxygen with organic substances
stirred up by dredging of spoil banks, stabilized sediments, and
anaerobic sludges, creates an immediate ecological upset resulting
in the release of colloidal clay, humate, and highly charged sulfite
trace contaminant complexes. For example, dissolved oxygen can oxidize
sulfhydral groups significantly releasing heavy metals, which in turn
can be methylated to a toxic form. The quality of the waters in contact
with these solids will be significantly deteriorated with respect to
dissolved oxygen, redox- potential, alkalinity and acidity, and
suspended solids. With further dilution these waters will alter the
natural ecosystem through the released toxic metals.
A-5. OIL WELL AND OTHER WASTE BRINES
Salt brines generated from oil well drilling operations and
other sources pose an ultimate disposal problem.
Stressors
(1) Dissolved salts
(2) Hydrocarbons in water.
A-ll
-------
Discussion,
\
Domestic oil drilling as a remedy for U. S. energy needs will
increase. Geothermal energy extraction involves bringing large quantities
of salt water to the surface. Water desalination on a large scale is another
source. Waste brines are also generated in many other industrial activities.
Depending upon disposal mode, the brines pumped to the surface can increase
the salinity of surface streams or ground water (if deep well injected
in the wrong stratum). This is already a problem in producing areas,
e.g., Ohio.
Evaporation to dryness (which is costly) is a route, but the
resulting salt must be disposed of in a controlled manner.
A-6. COAL CLEANING RESIDUES
Solids rejected from mechanical coal-cleaning processes creates
both a solid waste disposal problem and cause water-pollution in the form
of acid-mine drainage.
Stressors
(1) Pyritic minerals
(2) Unsightly waste piles
(3) Acidity.
Discussion
Physical removal of pyritic sulfur from coals is the most technol-
ogically advanced method of reducing sulfur content of coals. In this method
of desulfurization, significant quantities of the minerals, including most
of the pyrites, as well as some coal is rejected. This material may constitute
from between 5 and 20 percent of the run of mine coal. Disposal of this
reject material presents a problem. It does not easily support plant growth,
A-12
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and when left exposed presents a source of acid-mine drainage. If the low-
grade coal present in this reject fraction is burned, a significant source
of sulfur dioxide is created because of the high sulfur content. Coal
cleaning is not only associated with the preparation of some steam coal
for shipment to electric utilizies, but is also a part of most coal
desulfurization and coal gasification processes.
A-7. WASTE INDUSTRIAL ACIDS
Industry generates large amounts of acid wastes. Disposal
is a problem especially when deep well and ocean disposal are restricted
by existing legislation.
Stressors
(1) Acids
(2) Heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Zn)
(3) Waste soluble sludges.
Discussion
Industrial processes such as TiCL production, chlorination of
hydrocarbons, pickling of steel, certain aromatic alkylations, and explosives
manufacture generate large amounts of byproduct acids, frequently as
aqueous solutions too dilute to be evaporated for acid recovery. In the
past, these wastes have been injected into deep wells or dumped at sea.
New regulations may halt this practice. Neutralization with lime or lime-
stone creates a sludge (CaSO,) and soluble salts (MgSO,, CaClg, MgCl^.
The soluble salts can contaminate ground and/or surface waters. Toxic
heavy metals in comtaminants of pickle liquores, electroplating wastes,
etc., are also well-known.
A-13
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A-8 . ACID MINE DRAINAGE
Mine drainage has been a major environmental stressor for the
last decade. Increasing demands for energy and natural mineral resources,
especially coal, acid mine drainage will remain a significant environmental
nuisance.
SStressors
(1) Acidity
(2) Toxic heavy metals such as As, Se, Cd, In, Th, Cu,
Zn, Fe, and Mn
(3) Reducing suspended solids (e.g., FeS and FeSO.)
(4) SO, and S , sulfate and sulfide.
Discussion
Mining wastes have a high content of mineral acids, and these
acids alone are a direct environmental hazard. Presently, million of
tons of acid mine water drain into the streams of the U. S., damaging
approximately thousands of miles of streams yearly. Mine leachates contain
toxic heavy metals such as Cd, Mn, As, and Th which have been observed to
accumulate in the stream biota or abiotic suspended matter. Chemical or
biological conversion to more toxic-forms, e.g., organometallics and
cycling or accumulation to specific trophic levels are possibilities.
Strongly reduced forms of these metals will reduce dissolved oxygen and
other oxidized elements. Suspended!solids containing FeS2 and FeSO^ are
in a highly reducing state. Sulfate levels of'2000 mg/1 in water will
progressively-weaken or kill cattle.
A-14
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A- 9. FINE PARTICULATES IN AIR
Chemically active and inert fines particulates emitted to the
air constitute a potentially serious health hazard due to their retentivity
in the human respiratory tract.
Stressors
(1) Asbestos
(2) Glass fibers
(3) Sulfates and nitrates
(4) Heavy metals (Se, Cd, Zn, Hg, Cu, As,
Pb, Ni, As, V, Mn, Cr, etc.)
(5) Organics (POM, benzo[ajpyrene, etc.)
Discussion
The degree of retention of fine particulates in the human
respiratory system has been demonstrated to be quite high below about
3 M-> reaching a peak at 1.0 M» The magnitude of the problem is expected
to become more apparent as particulate removal technology is applied
.to point sources. Few devices are 100 percent efficient so that some
escape of particulates at the lower end of the particle size spectrum
occurs. The hazard posed by trace toxic materials is fine particulate
form is disproportionate to the mass of particulates involved. Further-
more, the hazard exists for both inert and chemically active particles.
Asbestos. Chemically inert, asbestos is recognized not only
because of its small size, but because its high length-to-diameter ratio
increases its likelihood of being trapped in the lungs. The problem is
a particularly acute one in mining and product manufacturing activities
(home insulation), but extends to the general public as a result of its
use in and erosion from rubber tires.
Fiberglas. Like asbestos, this one is chemically inert,
irregular in shape and widely used in materials manufacture and construc-
tion (e.g., insulation in homes).
A-15
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Sulfate. Preliminary results from EPA's Community Health
Effects Surveillance System program (CHESS) have indicated that a
i
potential correlation exists in air between SO , and fine sulfate
x' :> ;,
particulates and adverse human health effects. The sulfate particulates
create health effects at levels an order of two in magnitude lower than
.- L : < 3: . '•: • . . •" -• •• •:•
SO- itself (i.e., 1-10 (J-g/m ). It is possible to speculate that a similar
correlation exists between NO and fine nitrate particulates. Combustion
x , ' , ,- •- -. ; •, •,:-.:-
and automotive sources of this stressor are widespread, but more concentra-
ted in population centers.
_ -- :< .-• -. - ; -,; ^
Heavy Metals. Control technology applied to particulate emissions
from primary and secondary ferrous and nonferrous industry processes is
not 100 percent efficient. It is known, e.g., that a substance like
selenium will actually become a more concentrated component of the fine
particles which elude collection by electrostatic precipitators and mechanical
baghouses employed by the lead-zinc ore processing industry. Heavy metals
are also emitted as part of coal burning power plant particulates and many
become important from the application of catalytic control devices to auto
exhaust systems (discussed under a separate problem area).
A-10. TOXIC SUBSTANCES IN RECYCLED ANIMAL WASTE
Recycling of animal wastes, i.e., refeeding back to the animal
is considered a possible method or reutilization of this type of waste.
However, there is a potential toxic substance build-up in the animal waste,
creating a threat to animals, the humans who consume the products, and the
ecology in general.
Stressors.
(1) Feed additivies (antibiotics, arsenicals,
i
nitrofurans, etc.)
(2) Heavy metals (copper)
*>-
(3) Pesticides and larvicides.
A-16
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Discussion
A sizeable fraction of the solid waste generated in the U. S.
is animal feed lot wastes (feces, urine, and others). Because these
wastes still contain high percents of nutrients that could be reutilized
by animals, closed systems for reprocessing these wastes back to animal
feed are being developed. However, toxic substances from feed additives
and animal pest control agents find their way into the waste and continual
recycling of the wastes through the animal and may build-up these substances
to toxic levels within the animal.
Weed additives consist of antibiotics, arsenicals, nitrofurans,
heavy metals, etc., which are growth promoters and disease preventers.
It has been speculated that certain antibiotics used in feed may cause
bacteria in animals to become resistant to the antibiotics. The same
bacteria transmitted to man could establish a resistant strain more difficult
to control with antibiotics.
Pesticides and larvicides are used in animal feed lots. Contact
of these with the wastes are another source of toxic contaminants.
A-11. AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST
With the removal of lead from gasolines, increasing attention
is being focused on other fuel additives such as manganese, and the changes
in exhaust composition, e.g., increases in polycylic organic materials,
(POM), e.g., benzo(a)pyrene. It is evident that resolution of new problems
will be needed in connection with such a major shift in technology in the
mid 1970's.
Stressors
(1) Polycyclic organic material (POM)
[e.g., benzo(a)pyrene J
(2) New fuel additives, e.g., manganese,
xylene, toluene, benzene
A-17
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(3) Catalytic converter emissions
(See problem statement A-12).
Discussion
Epidemiological studies indicate that air pollution may play a
role in lung cancer induction. Certain organic carcinogens, normally
present in polluted air, particularly benzo(a)pyrene, have been shown to
increase tumor incidence in experimental animals.
The major emission sources of organic carcinogens, particularly
of polycylic organic materials are motor vehicle exhaust, refuse burning,
industrial processes, heat-generation sources, such as burning coal, oil,
and gas. The removal of lead from gasoline appears to increase the POM
emissions from motor vehicle exhaust.
With respect to fuel additives, the several hundred now used is
expected to double or triple in number in the next 10 years. Little is
known about the health effects of fuel additives and how they alter motor
vehicle exhaust compositions. Alkyl amines used as substitutes for lead
alkyls can give rise to alkyl nitrosoamines.
Some fuels, to compensate for lead removal, apparently contain
a higher quantity of aromatic hydrocarbons such as xylene, benzene or
toluene. Consequently, for automobiles (without catalytic converter)
the aromatic content in exhausts can be expected to increase significantly.
Aromatics have been implicated as cancer causing agents, e.g., benzene and
leukenia.
Manganese based additives are high on the list as a lead replace-
ment. The implication of this substitution is not well understood.
A-12. CATALYTIC CONVERTORS FOR AUTOS
The auto industry is poised to equip millions of autos with
catalytic exhaust converters in the mid-19701s. Emissions caused by catalyst
failure, poisoning, and manufacture are not well understood.
A-18
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Stressors
(1) Metallic catalysts (Pt, Pd, Ru, Ni, etc.)
(2) Ammonia
(3) Toxic organics.
Discussions
As catalytic converters pass from the research phase into the
development phase, there is concern for such problems as (1) thermal failure
of the monolithic catalyst supports, (2) catalyst's life-even with unleaded
gasoline, (3) emissions of trace metals and fine catalyst particles, (4) com-
plete failure and dumping of the contents of converters onto roadways, and
(5) carcinogens from the use of fuel additives not designed for the particular
catalyst system employed. Industries manufacturing catalyst and converters
will contribute new pollutants to air, water, and land.
One speculation is that, as catalytic mufflers lose their efficiency,
significant levels of ammonia will be emitted in the auto exhaust. Reaction
of the ammonia with sulfur oxides or halogens in the atmosphere will create
additional visibility (particulate) problems or the ammonia will be oxidized
to nitric oxide.
A-13. NONDEGRADED ORGANICS FROM SECONDARY TREATMENT
With the advent of universal secondary waste treatment, an increase
in nonbiodegradable organics in the natural environment is expected. The
extent to which these are converted to toxic forms or accumulate in bays
and reservoirs is unknown.
Stressors
(1) Organometallic complexes
(2) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
A-19
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(3) Decomposed organics
(4) Trace organics.
Discussion
Relatively inert organics have been shown to complex with trace
metals. The stabilized metals are thus solubilized allowing them to be
cycled back into biota. Also, these trace organics can be chlorinated to
form toxic chlorinated hydrocarbons, decomposed to more toxic organic
constituents, reacted biologically to form more toxic organometallics, and
accumulated in the lakes, reservoirs, and bays to more hazardous concentra-
tions. Thus, while the emissions of inert trace organics might not have
direct effects on the environment, they could develop into hazardous
accumulations in nature.
A-14. ELECTRIC POWER GENERATION
Electric power requirements in the U. S. are expected to nearly
double in the next 10 years. Waste heat rejections to rivers, lakes,
estuaries, and oceans from cooling water discharge and air emissions are
a major concern from an environmental effects standpoint.
Stressors
(1) Waste heat
(2) Flue gas scrubbing wastes (See A-3)
(3) Radioactive wastes (See A-50).
*
Discussion
In 1980 the electric power industry (including nuclear) will use
about 44 percent of the total water withdrawal from fresh and saline water
sources in the U. S. This will be up from 33 percent in 1965. Consumptive
use of this water will be only 1 percent, the rest being returned at an
A-20
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elevated temperature to the environment. While no disasterous effects of
thermal discharges have occurred, recent studies have indicated some adverse
alterations of aquatic life near some power plants. However, in the future
years, as larger power plants become operational, accompanied by multiple
units at a single site, environmental management of heated effluents at these
sites will become more difficult.
The problems of flue gag scrubbing wastes from fossil fuel plants
and radioactive wastes from nuclear plant fuel reprocessing are discussed
in problem statements A~3 and A-50, respectively.
A-15. DRINKING WATER TREATMENT
The increased contamination of drinking water is fast becoming
a primary concern of the general population. With the growth of industry
to meet public material demands, conventional water treatment practices
must cope with new trace toxic chemical and biological substances.
Stressors
(1) Industrial organic compounds, e.g., polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons
(2) Industrial inorganic compounds, e.g., trace
metals and fine particulates
(3) Taste and odor from low threshold compounds
(4) Pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides such
as chlorinated hydrocarbons, mercurials, arsenic
herbicides, etc.
(5) Viruses and pathogenic bacteria
(6) Asbestos, glass fibers
(7) Radioactive substances (tritium, radium, strontium)
(8) Sludge from water treatment.
A-21
-------
Discussion
*
A variety of chemicals both organic and inorganic, e.g., pesticides,
herbicides and fungicides, find their way into the air, water, and land
environment and eventually into various water supplies. Many of these
substances are either relatively nonbiodegradable, such as the polychlorina-
ted biphenyls or are slowly converted to even more toxic substances. Many
of the toxic organics cannot be removed from water supplies by conventional
treatment methods.
Taste and odor are difficult to control in our drinking water.
The major difficulty is that the compounds producing the taste and odor
problem, though present in very low concentrations, have extremely low taste
and odor thresholds.
Present methods of water treatment do not remove adequately
pathogenic bacteria and viruses such as salmonella, hepatitus, and spinal
meningitis.
Inorganics include asbestos which has been implicated in intestinal
cancer due to ingestion. Asbestos gets into water from such sources as
asbestos-containing pipes for water transport, natural rock formations, and
industrial waste discharges. Lead, cadmium, and glass fibers are other
inorganics where more information is needed.
Disposal of large volumes of sludges from drinking water treatment
are part of the overall problem of waste residues from many sources. Toxic
components in these sludges need study.
Drinking water rates high as a future problem because (1) it is
a direct route to man of toxic substances, (2) it has not received the em-
phasis in past environmental R&D problems as has other areas, e.g., waste-
water treatment, and (3) the recycling of municipal wastewaters is being
seriously considered in certain water-short areas.
A-22
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A-16. DISPOSAL OF WASTE OILS FROM OIL SPILLS AND OTHER SOURCES
Waste oils or constituents from waste oils when emitted to the
environment constitute a potential health hazard to man and wildlife.
Stressors
(1) Heavy metals
(2) Organic (oily) compounds
(3) Gaseous materials
(4) Organic acids.
Discussion
Waste oils from industry are generated at an estimated annual
9
rate of 100 million gallons. In addition, 1.8 x 10 gallons are accumulated
annually as a result of oil spills. These oils are known to contain
quantities of toxic and potentially hazardous substances such as lead,
vanadium, chromium, zinc, sulfactants, and organic acids. Use of these
oils for dust and weed control, although presently acceptable, could result
in underground water and surface water pollution due to leaching of toxic
constituents. Landfill disposal can also result in contamination of water
supplies. Incineration is questioned because of unsatisfactory particulate
and gaseous emissions control.
A-17. BULK SHIPMENT OF LIQUEFIED GASES
The bulk ocean transport of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and
other liquefied gases is fast becoming a reality. Extrapolating from
past oil tanker spills (Torrey Canyon), it is obvious that a major spill
of this type commodity at sea or into a waterway can produce significant
environmental hazards.
A-23
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Stressors
(1) Liquid anhydrous ammonia
(2) Liquid natural gas
(3) Liquid hydrogen
(4) Liquid oxygen
Discussion
Using liquid anhydrous ammonia as an example, three principle
environmental hazards arising from a major spill of a liquefied gas can
be identified.
Explosion and Fire. This hazard would be an immediate one,
although the evidence is that ammonia is a hard gas to ignite. Given time,
dilution and dispersion would reduce the fire and explosion hazard to a
minimal level.
Atmospheric Pollution. This will undoubtedly be the most important
hazard associated with a large spill of ammonia, i.e., immediate high
concentrations of NHL toxic to humans. Once atmospheric dilution and dis-
persion have reduced the concentrations to below unsafe levels, the problem
is pretty well eliminated so that no long-term atmospheric pollution hazard
would persist.
Water Pollution. The major immediate hazard would be ammonia
concentrations toxic to marine life. There can be longer range deleterious
effect on the aquatic ecosystem.
A-18. BULK SHIPMENT OF LIQUID CHEMICALS AND FUELS
Large scale shipments of liquid chemicals or' fuels is known to
pose environmental hazards. New commodities for bulk shipment at sea, such
as methanol, pose vapor and water contamination threats that require
study.
A-24
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Stressors
(1) Methanol
(2) Other liquid fuels
(3) Petrochemicals (See A-19).
Discussion
"Methyl fuel", largely methyl alcohol, is being actively studied
as a boiler fuel. It is less costly to convert natural gas to methyl fuel
for transport in conventional tankers than to ship LNG if the source of gas
is more than 3500 miles from the point of use. In a spill methanol vapors
would be more toxic than gasoline. Completely soluble in water methyl fuel
would be toxic to marine organisms. Upon dilution below the toxic level,
it would still constitute a BOD burden.
A-19. SPILLED PETROCHEMICALS
Petrochemical products currently being transported via waterways
could represent a potential for substantial environmental damage if accidentally
or purposely released.
Stressor
(1) Crude oil, gasoline, naphtha, other refined petro-
chemical products.
Discussion
Barge transport of the above materials on the nation's navigable
rivers is increasing at a rapid rate. Along with the increase in traffic,
the physical size of the barges and the size of the tows are increasing
leading to decreased manuverability, a fact with enhances the potential
A-25
-------
for collisions, grounding, etc. Similar results will occur from the
increase in petroleum product shipments in supertankers and normal size
tankers. Operational spills, i.e., due to equipment failures, errors
will increase. The introduction of these wastes into sensitive marine,
estuarine, and freshwater environments can have serious detrimental effects
upon aquatic biota, not to mention explosion and fire hazards.
A-20. CRANKCASE OIL RECYCLING/DISPOSAL
Recycling of crankcase oil will generate heavy metal wastes.
Stressors
(1) Heavy metals (Zn, Pb, etc.)
(2) Acidic sludge
Discussion
Some proposed processes for reprocessing of used crankcase oil
for automotive use generate a waste fraction containing heavy metal salts
and acid sludges. If the used oil is disposed of by incineration, the metals
end up in the ash which will need disposed. Particulate emissions to the
air from incineration are a distir.ct possibility.
A-21. NOISE
Uncontrolled and inadequately controlled noise is becoming a
growing nuisance. Some evidence of health impairment exists. Identified
physiological and psychological effects include speech interference, hearing
impairment, sleep disturbance, and stress reactions.
Stressor
(1) Noise.
A-26
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Discussion
The noise level in major cities from cars, buses, trucks,
construction, etc., is, if anything, increasing. New mass transit systems
may add to the problem.
Factory noise, while now under OSHA standards, is a problem in
many industries. A trend towards even larger machines, especially agri-
cultural tractors, earth movers, cranes, planes, etc., continues.
Home appliances are particularly important sources of noise
not because of the decibel level (although high fidelity equipment is loud)
but because the noises are persistent. Studies suggest that prolonged
exposure may contribute to impairment of hearing.
Differences of 1000 in the exposure standards between various
countries emphasize the need for research to provide necessary data to
either accept to reject the nonthermal response concepts. Further
information is also needed on cumulative effects of repeated small doses,
delayed effects, damage which can be observed only with groups of persons
and may not occur until a certain latent period has elapsed, and genetic
effects.
A-22. MICROWAVE RADIATION
In recent years the number of sources of microwave radiation has
grown significantly—military and civil radar, TV transmitters, microwave
ovens, etc.,—will continue to grow in the future. Insufficient knowledge
exists with respect to human effects, especially nonthermal effects at low
radiation levels.
Stressors
(1) Microwave energy
A-27
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Discussion
Microwave radiation is emitted from a variety of electronic
devices including diathermy units, ovens, industrial processing equipment,
television transmitters, radio transmitters, and radar units. Effects may
be basically classified into predominantly thermal effects where the trans-
fer of energy to the system increases its energy only in a random manner,
and predominantly nonthermal effects characterize by specificity of the
affected target. Thermal effects occur largely in the skin, testicles, and
eyes with cataracis being the most common manifestation. Exposure at very
high levels is fatal due to myocardial necrosin and hemorrhages. There is
disagreement concerning nonthermal effects which may be produced at low
power densities and may affect the nervous system, auditory responses,
cardiovascular system and other behavioral patterns. There is a lack of
information on cumulative effects of repeated small doses, delayed and
genetic effects. Exposures involve the general public as well as occupational
groups in industry, medical areas, commerce, educational, and research
institutions.
A-23. INORGANIC TOXIC CONTAMINANTS
Widespread and increasing concentrations in the environment of
trace inorganic contaminants especially heavy metals from domestic,
industrial, and other wastes has only recently been fully recognized.
The need for control over point and area sources will be of major interest
in the coming decade.
Stressors
(1) Arsenic, As (5) Mercury, Hg
(2) Cadmium, Cd (6) Selenium, Se
(3) Chromium, Cr (7) Copper, Cu
(4) Cyanide, CN (8) Zinc, Zn.
A-28
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Discussion
The accumulation of toxic inorganic contaminants in the natural
aqueous environment has occurred due to population growth and its demand
on industry for materials. There is a need to know the hazard levels for
each component and its means of transport through our environment. Recent
incidents involving mercury has shown how near to their hazardous limits
some of these contaminants are in the environment. There must be a cogni-
zant model for the hydrodynamic, abiotic physical-chemical, and biotic
transport of these hazardous or probable hazardous trace contaminants so
that a reasonable and safe limit can be obtained. This is an all media
problem and widespread in the U.S.
A-24. IRRIGATION PRACTICES
Irrigation of arid lands leads to contamination of water supplies,
possible transfer of hazardous contaminants to the environment, a degradation
of the fertility of irrigated soils, and a deterioration of downstream rivers
and estuaries.
Stressors
(1) Salinity
(2) Dissolved oxygen reduction
(3) Toxic heavy metals
(4) Temperature elevation
(5) Pesticides.
Discussion
The direct stress caused by irrigation is the continuant rise of
the saline content of irrigation waters. The average salinity for the lower
Colorado River and the Hoover Dam is now between 750 to 850 mg/1. Natural,
irrigation, and miscellaneous saline sources have been found to contribute
A-29
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48 percent, 36 percent, and 16 percent, respectively, to the irrigation
salinity in the reservoir. Irrigation return flow brings with it nutrients,
pesticides, heavy metals, turbidity, and refractory organics, all of which
have an adverse effect on water quality.
To supply irrigation needs, the storage of large quantities of
waters becomes necessary and this storage is done by damming rivers which
flow through arid regions. The augmentation of these rivers has a great
impact on the downstream river environment. Since these arid ecosystems
are delicately balanced, augmented flow can lead to the destruction in time
of productive lands. Low flow will reduce the waste assimilative capacity,
and raise the temperature of the downstream river.
As the saline content of irrigation water rises, crops with a low
salt tolerance become affected.
A-25. METALLIC MACHINING SLUDGES
The disposal of industrial machining sludges, where metal recovery
is uneconomic, is a problem in certain industries especially those transi-
tioning to electrochemical machining.
Stressors
(1) Toxic inorganics
(2) Toxic organics
(3) Salinity.
Discussion
Electrochemical machining use is increasing rapidly. A high
saline solution is used resulting in sludges with saline contamination.
The metal materials will be much more highly dispersed as finer particles
in the machining sludge. Materials used in cutting tools are changing,
e.g., boron containing materials are replacing the older tungsten-carbide
for example. Many alloys contain vanadium, chromium, etc., and other
A-30
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toxic inorganics. Organic additives included in cutting lubricants and
coolants may be toxic requiring additional care in disposal of separated
liquids and sludges.
A-26. CHLORINATED HYDROCARBONS, PESTICIDES, HERBICIDES AND FUNGICIDES
Because of their persistence and toxicity chlorinated hydro-
carbon residues continue to be discovered in air, water, and land media.
Similar situations have been observed with arsenic herbicides, organic
mercurial fungicides and related substances.
Stressors
(1) DDT
(2) PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls)
(3) HCB (hexachlorobenzene)
(4) Dioxin
(5) Unknown trace organics (chlorinated or not)
(6) Mercurial and arsenical compounds.
Discussion
In the 1960's DDT was implicated as hazardous to the environ-
ment due to its persistence and toxicity. Stringent measures were under-
taken to contain this accumulative poison. In the early 1970's PCB and
degraded DDT were found to have far reaching effect on the environment
e.g., a reduction of the sea lion populations due to premature births.
More recently HCB, which has been used as a cattle growth simulator, has
been found to cause serious skin eruptions, liver degeneration, or fatal
illness in a couple of days for laboratory animals. It has been outlawed
for use by the FDA. A Swedish ornithologist has found a direct correlation
between the near extinction of many birds of prey and the utilization of the
A-31
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fungicide methylmercury chloride from 1940 to 1964. A vigorous study on
the use of arsenic containing herbicides has resulted in the banning of
their use by EPA. Dioxin, a contaminant of certain herbicide formulations
has also been implicated as a highly toxic substance. The problem of
buildup in toxic pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides will persist as
long as there is a demand for such agents in our natural environment by
man.
A-27. NATURAL PEST CONTROL AGENTS
The banning of DDT and the general concern about pesticides,
herbicides and insecticides is resulting in pest control programs
based on natural agents combined with synthetic chemical ones. The
consequences could be significant.
Stressors
(1) Genetic effects
(2) Species irradication
Discussion
The development of sex attractants, hormones, bacteria and viruses
for controlling plant and insect infestations is underway and intergrated
chemical/biological pest control programs are a reality. While there is
little evidence to support the notion, it appears desireable at this
relatively early stage to examine the consequences of such methods,
especially the ecological imbalances that could result, e.g., eradication
of desirable populations or adverse genetic changes in animals.
A-32
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A-28. FLUORINATED HYDROCARBONS
Increased exposure of humans to concentrations of fluorinated
hydrocarbons in the environment can be expected. Little is known about
the health effects. Fluoride emissions from manufacturing are well
known.
Stressors
(1) Freons
(2) Fluorine
(3) Fluorocarbons.
Discussion
Air conditioning of autos, homes, offices, plants, apartments,
and high-rise buildings is growing even in mild climate areas. Leakage
of freons in these closed systems may result in higher than normal human
exposure levels. Increased use of freon powered aerosol cans adds to
the concentration of these substances in closed environments. At the1
same time manufacture of these freons and products containing them may
result in emissions.
Fluoride emissions from phosphate mining and conversion to
fertilizers and acids, clay and glass products manufacture, and iron
and steel manufacture are known which contribute significant environmental
burdens over wide areas of the U.S. to all media.
A-29. CARCINOGENS
Emissions of carcinogens are not well defined as yet. However,
one apparent industrial source is the manufacture of synthetic organic
dyes and pigments, resins for water treatment, and many consumer products.
This and other sources raise the possibility of wider exposure of man to
carcinogenic chemicals.
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Stressors
(1) Industrial chemicals (e.g., those from synthetic
dye manufacture:
(a) Benzidine
(b) Beta-naphthylamine
(c) Bis-chloromethyl ether
(d) Dichlorobenzidine
(e) Beta-propiolactone
(2) Combustion and agricultural sources
(a) POM's
(b) Nitrates-nitrites-nitrosoamines
Discussion
The organic dye industry is a convenient example of a source of
carcinogens. Benzidine and beta-napthylamine are starting materials for
many synthetic dyes. Sales of benzidine and benzidine dyes total approxi-
mately $14 million a year. Dichlorobenzidine is used to prepare pigment
colors. These pigments, in turn, are widely used for inks in newspapers
and magazines.
Bischloromethyl ether is an unavoidable by-product in the
production of chloromethyl ether, in turn used to make resins for producing
high quality deionized water. The water is used for electrical generation
and electronics manufacture. Bischloromethyl ether can form spontaneously
in ordinary humid air whenever formaldehyde and HCL come together. The
latter two chemicals are used in the treatment of fabrics, manufacture
of flame proofing agents and manufacture of insecticides, herbicides,
dispersing agents, and water repellents.
Beta-propiolactone is used to sterilize tissue grafts and
vaccines and in producing acrylates.
Beta-naphthylamine has been reported in coal-tar products,
cigarette smoke condensate, and flue gases of industrial boilers.
From combustion sources come carcinogenic polycylic organic
materials (discussed elsewhere) and oxides of nitrogen. The latter can
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be converted to nitrates by the action of photochemical smog. Nitrates can
be converted into intrites by soil bacteria or intestinal flora. Reaction
of secondary amines with nitrites to form nitrosamines which are highly
carcinogenic can cause serious health effects. Besides combustion sources,
agricultural practices (fertilizer and feedlot runoff) contribute nitrates
to environment.
A-30. INCINERATION OF NEW MATERIALS
Incineration of new materials will introduce potentially hazardous
materials into air, water, and land media.
Stressors
(1) Antimony oxide/chloride
(2) Hydrogen chloride
(3) Hydrogen bromide
(4) Polynuclear aromatics
(5) Sulfur compounds
(6) Fluorocarbons
(7) Cyanides from nitrile-gassed plastics.
Discussion
The need for solid waste disposal is likely to lead to more
incineration than in the past [in lieu of landfill]. New materials of
construction, flameproof textiles and carpets, and maybe even plastic
paper will introduce new problems on top of those now encountered with
plastic packaging, old tires, and huge volumes of newsprint.
Antimony Oxide/Chloride. To make plastic materials of
construction nonflammable, antimony oxide is introduced as a filler,
with some source of chloride, which may be the plastic itself. On
burning the material evolves antimony chloride fumes which can
hydrolyze to antimony oxide and hydrochloric acid. Incineration of
those materials will eive rise either to antimony chloride in the
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flue gases or antimony oxide in the ash. The hazard due to the antimony
from this source needs to be investigated.
Hydrogen Chloride and Bromide. In addition to hydrolysis of
antimony chloride, the incineration of polyvinyl chloride, neoprene, Saran
wrap, and chlorinated paint solvents will generate hydrogen chloride,
which will leave in the flue gas. Hydrogen chloride is very corrosive to
metals and basic refractories and kills vegetation. Breathing of the
substance causes damage to lung and other tissues of the respiratory system.
(Certain chlorine containing plastics, such as PVC, must be incinerated at
elevated temperatures to get complete combustion. At lower temperatures,
they melt and coat the grates, causing a mechanical problem.)
Some paint and plastics contain organic bromine compounds instead
of chlorine compounds.
Polynuclear Aromatics. When organic aromatic polymers such
as polystyrene, styrene butadiene rubber, or ABS plastics are burned,
solid particles in the smoke are likely to contain polynuclear
aromatics, some of which, such as pyrene and dibenzanthracene, are
known carcinogens. Thus tires, some plastic packaging and paper, and
some plastic building material are a potential hazard. Proper removal
of particulate will reduce the problem to that of a solid waste
problem. (Roofing tar heated to the smoking point produces a similar
hazard, which is largely uncontrolled.)
Sulfur Compounds. Complete incineration of rubber tires
will convert the sulfur used for vulcanizing to S0_. Incomplete
combustion produces mercaptans, thioaldehydes and ketones and other
foul-smelling materials.
Fluorocarbons. The high temperature incineration of Teflon
and other polyfluorocarbons produces smaller fluorinated organics.
their fate in the flue gas is unknown. Hydrogen fluoride is also
formed, which is corrosive and toxic.
Nitrile Plastics* Nitrile plastic bottles being test
marketed by several soft drink firms have been cited as giving off
cyanide upon incineration. The potential market is 50 billion
bottles per year. Furthermore, such bottles are not readily biode-
gradable.
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A-31. OIL SHALE POLLUTION
Leaching of soluble salts and metals from spent oil shale.
Stressors
(1) Soluble salts
(2) Vanadium
(3) Shale residues (large volumes).
Discussion
Soluble salts of sodium and other elements are frequently present
in the oil shale. Spent oil shale expands 50 percent in volume during
processing and thus all of the spent rock cannot be put back into the mine.
Runoff from the spent shale piles will leach these salts and transport them
to nearby watercourses. Since the oil shale deposits are in the upper
Colorado River Basin, the salts will be added to a river already having salt
problems at its lower end.
Vanadium is a component of many shales. If not recovered during
shale processing its susceptability to leaching may be enhanced, depending
on the shale process employed.
A-32. SILVICULTURE PRACTICES
The forests of the United States have outputs other than wood,
and when manipulated can have unexpected and often significant detrimental
impacts upon other environmental components.
Stressors
(1) Erosion and sedimentation
(2) Slash disposal
(3) Storage and movement of physical and chemical materials
(4) Burning as a management technique
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Discussion
The pollution resulting from silvicultural practices is of a
complex non-point source nature being the result of activities taking
place over hundreds or even millions of acres. Furthermore, there are
no "black box" devices for use in controlling silvicultural-based problems.
The best control measures are generally preventive measures manifested
in the planning, scheduling, and actual conduct of the various silvicultural
activities. The highly diverse conditions of topography, climate, soil,
etc., which characterize the forested regions of the U. S. further
complicate the control of silvicultural pollution by limiting the forest
management and timber harvesting options available to the forester.
(1) Erosion and Sedimentation. These are naturally occurring
phenomena in all forest ecosystems, disturbed or undisturbed.
However, such operations as road construction and maintenance,
and certain logging techniques can significantly accelerate
the processes and lead to surface and/or mass erosion, and
downstream sediment damage. For instance, studies have
shown that logging operations alone increased sediment
production by a factor of about 0.6 over the natural
sedimentation rate. When the road construction and use
associated with the logging operation was considered,
sediment production increased about 750 times over the
natural rate for a six-year period following road con-
struction. The practice of clear cutting of forest has
been implicated as contributing to nutrient runoff.
(2) Slash Disposal. Presently, logging slash is most commonly
disposed of by either mechanical means or fire. Both
of these techniques have -environmental and/or technological
constraints which limit their use in the treatment of
logging slash. For instance, extremes of topographic
conditions can limit the use of mechanical devices.
Furthermore, heavy equipment can result in undesirable
soil compaction and a reduction in water infiltration
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rates. On the other hand, burning techniques (broadcast
burning, pile burning, etc.) can lead to air pollution
problems. As an example, the energy release rate from
most slash fires is too small to provide a plume rise
sufficient to minimize air pollution problems.
(3) Storage and Movement of Physical and Chemical Materials.
The storage, movement, and ultimate fate of physical
and chemical materials including excessive amounts of
naturally occurring organic matter, pesticides applied for
insect and disease control, chemical fertilizers, fire
retardants, etc., are complex processes in the forest
ecosystem. Their indiscriminate use can lead to unanticipated,
far-reaching effects both within and outside the forest
in which they were applied.
(4) Burning as a Management Technique. This management techni-
que has been a common silvicultural practice for many
years. It is used not only for slash disposal, as mentioned
above, but also as a prescribed method for reducing the
accumulation of forest residues and hence, the occurrence
of disasterous wildfires. Prescribed burning is also
an accepted method of site preparation in reforestation
efforts. The air pollution problems resulting from these
prescribed fires are much the same as those resulting from
slash burning.
A-33. BIOLOGICAL POLLUTION
In the 1960s, a classic example of biological pollution was
observed in the Great Lakes with the accidental introduction of the lamprey
which in effect destroyed a whole fishing industry. With increased techno-
logy and travel throughout the world, the possibility of similar happenings
is becoming more and more of a possibility.
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Stressors
(1) Viruses
(2) Bacteria
(3) Larger organisms.
Discussion
With the advent increased technology and travel, the possibilities
of the pollution of our natural ecosystems by foreign organisms is becoming
a reality. Recently, this type of pollution has occurred in the Great Lakes
with the lamprey, in Australia with the mongoose, and in the United States
with near extinction of the primary preditors causing high quantities of
deer and rabbits (which cause our farmers a great deal of trouble).
A-34. SPRAY IRRIGATION PATHOGENS
Spray irrigation of municipal waste treatment plant effluents.
Stressor
Human pathogens.
Discussion
Municipal wastewater creates serious pollution problems when
discharged directly into surface water. Diversion of wastewater to the
land should help to eliminate many of these problems and in some instances
might even provide secondary benefits such as increased recharge of
groundwater reservoirs, increased growth of vegetation, and amelioration
of barren unproductive land. The land disposal of these wastes through
such application methods as spray irrigation while increasing in popularity
can impose potentially adverse environmental effects. Of most concern
is airborne transmission of human pathogens contained in the mist and/or
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drift associated with spray application. Generally this drift would not
be noticeable at great distances from the application site. However, insects,
animals, etc., could come into contact with the contaminated drift deposited
on the surrounding land area. Furthermore, since these pathogens can survive
up to periods of several weeks depending upon existing conditions, the
potential for disease transmission exists.
A-35. PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION
Environmental effects of pipeline construction (canaling) and
operation in coastal marshes and estuaries.
Stressors
(1) Turbidity
(2) Release of toxic sediments
(3) Barriers to nutrient flushing
(4) Barriers to estuarine organisms
(5) Changes in tidal flow patterns
(6) Canal erosion
(7) Marsh buggy operation
(8) Leaks and spills.
Discussion
In order to meet our nation's energy needs, the President has
called for tripling the development of oil and gas leases in our offshore
waters. Offshore superport developments and new refining needs will call
for hundreds of thousands of new miles of pipeline in the near future.
When coastal areas are concerned, i.e., particularly our Gulf and South
Atlantic shores, frequently such construction requires rights-of-way
through coastal marshes or estuaries. At present, construction practices
in such areas call for the excavation by floatation dredge of a canal
approximately 40 to 50 feet in width with soil placement to either side to
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form a levee. Depending upon the quantity and stability of the soil, a
levee may be 3 to 5 feet high with a base width of 50 to 85 feet. The
canal allows access to a "lay barge" to place the pipeline in the bottom
of the canal. Backfilling of the canal is seldom practical or possible.
The environmental and ecological effects are extensive as the stressors
indicate. Their impacts have been well described in a recent study
[McGinnis, J. T., et al., "Environmental Aspects of Gas Pipeline Operations
in Louisiana Coastal Marshes", Report to Offshore Pipeline Committee by
Battelle's Columbus Laboratories (December, 1972)].
A-36. DEICING OF ROADWAYS
The ever-increasing use of deicing agents for removal of ice
and snow from U.S. highways and streets is causing a growing concern
over the environmental effects resulting from these practices.
Stressor
(1) Road deicing salt
(2) Chromates
(3) Cyanides
(4) Phosphates
Discussion
Road salts are usually applied at rates of 400 to 1,200 pounds
of salt per mile of highway per application. Over the winter season, many
roads and streets may receive more than 20 tons of deicers per lane mile.
Studies indicate that highway salts can cause injury and damage across a
wide environmental spectrum. Furthermore, it is believed that many of
these effects, although not yet evident in certain areas of the country,
may well appear in the near future. Effects of highway deicing appear
most significant in causing contamination and damage of groundwaters, public
water supplies, roadside wells, farm supply ponds, and roadside soils,
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vegetation and trees. Deicers also contribute to deterioration of highway
structures and pavements, and to accelerated corrosion of vehicles.
The special additives found in most road deicers cause considerable
concern because of their latent toxic properties and other potential side
effects. Significantly, little is known as to their fate and disposition,
and effects upon the environment. The complex cyanides used as anti-caking
agents and the chromate compounds used as corrosion inhibitors have been
found in public water supplies, groundwaters, and in storm and combined
sewer flows. Unusually small amounts of cyanide and chromium are sufficient
to cause rejection of public water supplies and cause death of fish and
associated aquatic organisms. The phosphate additives also used for
corrosion control may contribute significantly to nutrient enrichment in
lakes, ponds, and streams leading to algal blooms and noxious conditions.
In addition, materials storage sites are a frequent source of
salt pollution to ground and surface waters.
A-37. NEW LANDFILL TECHNOLOGY
The solid wastes deposited in sanitary landfills are subjected to
chemical and biological decomposition to produce certain gaseous products
and liquid leachates some of which can be potentially hazardous.
Stressors
(1) Methane
(2) Carbon dioxide
(3) Toxic leachates
(4) Disease carrying vectors (flies, fleas, mosquitos,
rodents, etc.)
Discussion
Land disposal of municipal, industrial, and pollution control
wastes is certain to increase. Techniques are still developing for this
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purpose, e.g., shredding and baling of municipal refuse, the use of liners
to prevent subsurface leaching, the use of daily temporary covers (organic
coatings) to reduce vector access, etc. Insufficient information exists
with respect to long-term leachate generation, runoff, etc. The disposal
of industrial residues (e.g., oil wastes, machining sludges, coolants, etc.)
in municipal landfills requires more definition with respect to effects.
In some instances, methane gas has moved from landfills and
accumulated in explosive concentrations in sewers and nearby buildings.
Also, gases from landfills have killed nearby vegetation, presumably by
excluding oxygen from the root zone. Carbon dioxide movement has resulted
in corrosion and chemical reaction in structural systems, and quality
changes in groundwaters.
A-38. SOIL SULFUR DEFICIENCY
Sulfur deficiency in certain agricultural areas will occur as a
consequence of SO control measures.
Stressor
(1) Sulfur deficiency
Discussion
Sulfur is one of the many micro-nutrients required for plant
growth. As a micro-nutrient, it is required in only very small concen-
trations and, therefore, could be toxic at appreciable concentration levels.
As many agricultural areas suffer from sulfur deficiency, a reduction in
the use of high-sulfur coal on the application of emissions controls in
these areas could further exaggerate this deficiency.
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A-39. SOLVENTS FROM COATING AND DYEING TECHNOLOGY
Various industrial coating processes generate solvents which
contribute to air pollution.
Stressor
(1) Volatile organic solvents
Discussion
The contribution of solvents from industrial printing, painting,
and coating have been recognized and regulation in some areas has been
instituted (Rule 66 in Los Angeles, Rule 3 in the San Francisco Bay area).
Fast drying inks for printing that use solvent will create the same problem
as solvent based paints. This will tend to be a "big city" problem.
The trend to solvent dyeing of textiles to avoid disposal problems
associated with aqueous dye systems may create problems in new areas of
the country, particularly the Southeast.
A-40. SPARK SOURCES
Emissions of ozone and nitrogen oxides occur when a spark or
corona discharge through air occurs.
Stressors
(1) Ozone
(2) Oxides of nitrogen
Discussion
Ozone and NO are among the culprits in the smog problem. In
addition to production in photochemical reactions, they are generated by
electric discharges from very high voltage AC powerlines, sparks from
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electric motors, Xerox machines, etc. If electric automobiles become
abundant, the sparks from motors may produce a measurable effect. Very
high voltage AC lines are already being built and local effects on
vegetation have been alleged by environmentalists.
A-41. UV RADIATION
The effects of solar radiation has been the main input for
both natural thermal pollution and photochemical smog, but with the
increased input of metals, fine particulates, and nonbiodegradable
organics into a homogenous mixture, the effects of short wave solar
radiation can be magnified.
Stressors
(1) UV radiation
(2) Fine particulates
(3) Trace nonbiodegradable organics
(4) Heavy metals
Discussion
It is a known fact that solar energy has been a major contributor
to photochemical smog and thermal pollution. Because short-wave radiation
increases the energy input for reaction (photochemistry), this radiation
can result in unstable reactions between heavy metals, nondiodegradable
organics, and fine particulates creating new hazardous, toxic, and nonbio-
degradable compounds.
Duirng the debate on the SST, it was pointed out that unburned
hydrocarbons at high altitude in contact with the ozone at that level
and intense UV irradiation would react rapidly. Ozone depletion could
allow UV to reach lower altitudes with effects on weather. The issue has
never been completely resolved, although plans for the SST were shelved.
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A-42. GEOTHERMAL POWER
Of the potential new energy sources, geothermal power is said
to be the most readily accessible with current technology. The environ-
mental impacts of this source have yet to be studied.
Stressors
(1) Salt brines
(2) Thermal effluents
(3) Air emissions (H S)
910 799
(4) Radioactive materials Pb and Ra
(5) Heavy metals (Hg, As, Se, Pb, etc.)
Discussion
Geothermal power has been touted as a possible pollution free
power source. However, in tapping the earth's inner core, the emission
of hazardous gaseous vapors and particulates is possible. These include
210 222
hydrogen sulfide, radioactive vapors of Pb and Ra , corrosive sili-
cates and carbonates, and heavy metal containing water such as Hg, As,
Se, and Pb. The deep groundwaters emitted from these ecological tappings
have a far higher total dissolved solids, but otherwise, they are similar
in quality to other saline groundwaters. Thus, they could contribute to
a deterioration of soil productivity.
The above discussed parameters all will have to be investigated
fully for their total environmental impact before this form of power is
ever utilized.
A-A3. ADVANCED WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Improved and new secondary treatment methods, and developing
tertiary treatment schemes, should be examined for their environmental
impacts. Larger quantities of sludges for disposal, the use of new
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coagulants, flocculants, etc., and the continuing problem of virus removal
are future problems.
Stressors
(1) Increased sludge volumes (see A-l)
(2) Coagulants, flocculants (e.g., polyelectrolytes)
(3) Pathogens
(4) Inorganic carbon
Discussion
The advent of physical-chemical, ozonation, pure oxygen, sonic,
and other wastewater treatment shcemes will introduce new problems. The
doubled (or better) quantities of sludge for disposal in the case of
phosphorus removal was noted in problem A-l. The introduction of new
coagulants, flocculants and treatment chemicals should be examined with
respect to their degradability, potentially toxic degradation products,
etc.
Virus and pathogen removal capabilities of new technology should
be examined. Ozonation will disinfect viruses; but the power costs are
high, and ozonation does not leave any residual disinfectant to combat
pathogenic bacteria which might leach into water supplies. Chlorination
inhibits virus activity but the dosage has to be increased ten fold,
introducing the possibility of forming toxic chlorinated organics (see
A-44). Heat treatment is effective, but the cost is also high and there
would not be any residual disinfectant.
Also, with the development of efficient biological waste treat-
ment systems, most of the organics will then be converted almost completely
to carbon dioxide, and inorganic carbon at high concentrations could
itself become a serious pollutant. In the early 1970's inorganic carbon
was found to be the limiting nutrient for some specific situations. The
emission of high concentrations of inorganic carbon will,adjust the pH of
the given water system to pH of 8.3, pH > 8.3, and pH around 6 depending
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on the spcies of the inorganic carbon. High concentrations of carbonate
or inorganic carbon will change the form and solubility of most common or
toxic metals found in water.
A-44. CHLORINE AS A DISINFECTANT
The best approach for municipal treatment plant effluents
disinfection has yet to be determined to compensate for the practice of
chlorination and its attendant problem of chlorinated hydrocarbon formation.
Stressors
(1) Chlorinated hydrocarbons (e.g., chloramine)
(2) Viruses
(3) Pathogens
Discussion
The problems of chlorination are basically twofold: (1) the
chlorine as now added does not attack viruses or many other pathogens,
and (2) there is evidence that effluents of secondary treatment contain
nondegradable organics which can be chlorinated to form toxic chlorinated
hydrocarbons, e.g., chloramine is formed from the reaction of chlorine with
ammonia. Even with these two drawbacks, chlorine and chloramines do kill
most microbes and do leave a residue to insure some safety beyond the
treatment plant boundaries, i.e., in the stream or water supply system.
In European and U.S. investigations, ozonation has been observed to
inhibit microbiological activity and does attack viruses; however, ozonation
has not been found economical due to the high power costs and no residual
ozone remains as a safety measure. Use of SO or 0_ has been investigated
as possible alternatives, but with present technology, neither process
shows any possibilities for utilization. Meanwhile the hazards of
chlorinated hydrocarbons remain.
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A-45. URBAN PESTICIDE USE
Contamination of urban air, water and land environments occurs
through home application of pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides.
Disposal of residues is uncontrolled.
Stressors
(1) Chlorinated hydrocarbons
(2) Organophosphates
Discussion
The application, by home gardeners of pesticides, herbicides,
and insecticides results in either direct inhalation of the toxic compounds
employed or drifting of them onto adjacent property. Disposal of residual
materials and containers is unregulated and may be (1) into garbage cans,
(2) storm sewer, (3) sanitary sewer, (4) vacant lot, or (5) nearby dump.
The number of different toxic compounds is large comprising primarily
chlorinated hydrocarbons (chlordane, PCB's, organophosphates, methyl
parathion, etc.). The existance of significant quantities of such
substances has been proven in a recent study by EPA of street runoff
contaminants •
A-46. CROP DUSTING AND SPRAYING
During the process of pesticide application by crop dusting or
spraying a significant amount of pesticides drift away with the wind. Also
a sizable fraction is lost by evaporation from the field after application.
Large quantities of residues and contaminated containers are frequently
inadequately disposed of.
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Stressors
(1) Toxic aerosols and dusts
(2) Pesticide, herbicide, insecticide residues
(3) Contaminated containers
Discussion
Though pesticide spraying may be localized, the problems
created by wind drift and evaporation may extend to many areas. Nearby
urban areas result in an inhalation hazard to the population. Contamination
of water supplies from runoff and rainfall is possible.
Large numbers of containers with residues require disposal.
Landfilling or simply burying in a hole somewhere are common routes for
this purpose. A survey of EPA regions as part of the National Disposal
Sites for Hazardous Wastes revealed this as a problem common to many
areas of the U. S.
A-47. SULFUR DUSTS
Flue gas desulfurization, sour-gas treatment, coal gasification,
and-refining of high sulfur crude oils may give rise to stocks of
elemental sulfur that may create a dust problem.
Stressor
(1) Sulfur dust
(2) Acidity from H2S04
Discussion
Sulfur removal techniques that give rise to elemental sulfur
may increase in importance. Large piles of unsalable sulfur may
accumulate at widely scattered points. Dust from operations, especially
loading and unloading, may create dust problems. (In Vancouver, B.C.,
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sulfur dust problems became so bad recently that loading of powdered sulfur
onto ships was forbidden.) The dust is not particularly toxic but can .
cause the same respiratory problems any dust does. On standing in contact
with soil and moisture, bacterial action generates sulfuric acid that
changes the pH of the soil.
A-48. UNDERGROUND MINING
There is growing recognition of water and air pollution problems
associated with underground mining and mineral processing.
Stressors
(1) Land subsidence
(2) Physical and chemical pollutants-acid mine drainage
(3) Mining radioactive ores.
Discussion
It has been estimated that unless adequate preventive measures
are taken about 2-1/2 million acres of underground mined land will subside
between now and the year 2000.
Physical and chemical pollutants drain from these underground
mines, especially the bituminous coal mines, polluting lakes and rivers.
Approximately 9000 miles of streams and 22,000 acres of lakes are said to
be so polluted. Most of these are from the mining and processing of bitu-
minous coal, and with the present and future energy demand the situation
will get worse.
Water pollution from the mining of radioactive ores can result
in leaching of radium 226 and thorium 230 into nearby watercourses.
A-49. COAL GASIFICATION
With the current oil and natural gas shortages, coal and shale
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resources as fossil fuel sources is becoming attractive. Coal gasification
is being considered as a source of methane. The input of possibly unique
pollutants into the environment must be considered at this early stage.
Stressors
(1) Gaseous SO or aqueous H SO.,
(2) Methane
(3) H2S
(4) Toxic organics such as oils, tars, and phenols
(5) Heavy metals
Discussion
Plants to produce gas from coal will be built to augment the
country's gas needs. Minimizing pollution from coal gasification plants
should be an objective of current development efforts. As currently con-
ceived, removal of air pollutants (fine participates, sulfur, and organics
such as oils, tars, and phenols) by scrubbing will translate the problem
to one of possible water pollution. The impact of this must be assessed.
Other residues from the process will be aqueous thermal discharges and
coal ash.
A-50. RADIOACTIVE WASTES
The ultimate disposal needs for high level (heat producing) and
low level radioactive wastes will increase significantly in the next
decade.
Stressors
(1) Long half life radioactive elements (Ra, U, Pu, Ce, Co, etc.)
(2) Tritium and Krypton-85
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Discussion
The development of the nuclear power industry is underway such
that increasing quantities of radioactive wastes requiring disposal can
be expected. The bulk of these wastes are generated in mining, conversion,
fuel fabrication, and fuel reprocessing.
Ultimate disposal of high level radioactive wastes has been
investigated for the past decade. Promising processes include (1) solidi-
fication, (2) the ORNL pot calcination process, (3) the Hanford spray-
calcination process, and (4) the Brookhaven National Laboratory phosphate
glass-fixation. Disposal in salt deposits is being considered, but there
are still questions to be solved such as the means of transferring the
wastes to the disposal sites and the numbers of salt deposits needed when
there are 100 times as many plants.
Low level wastes have been removed from the water using (1) a
scavenger precipitation ion-exchange process, and (2) a foam separation
process. Just what should be done with the precipitated sludge, ion-
exchange regenerate, and the separated foam has not been determined.
A-51. PLANT AND ANIMAL GROWTH PROMOTERS
Additives to soil and animal feeds for the purpose of stimulating
protein (food) production are growing in usage. Inadequate information
exists with respect to environmental consequences of these substances.
.Stressors
(1) Diethylstilbestrol
(2) Toxic organics
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Discussion
Widespread adoption of additives by the agricultural community
could lead to new difficult to control nonpoint source pollution. Diethyl
stilbestrol is an example. Another known substance (properitary) is &
highly toxic herbicide, which when applied in low concentration to plant
roots actually benefits plant protein growth.
A-52. STREET RUNOFF
Runoff from street surfaces has recently been shown to be similar
in many respects to sanitary sewage. Pesticides, PCB's, and heavy metals
(Zn, Pb) were significant contaminants along with BOD, nitrates and phos-
phates. As an area source control is difficult. More study is therefore
needed of this problem.
A-53. AEROALLERGENS
Respiratory ailments from aeroallergens are common. There
are both natural (ragweed) and man-made (construction activities)
sources of these agents. Control is a difficult proposition at best.
Some solutions like killing ragweed with herbicides have build-in
environmental problems.
A-54. RURAL TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Many rural communities lack sewer systems and have raw
sewage and septic tank drainage runoff problems. The financing costs
of adequate systems exceed the ability of the few residents to pay.
Economical package plant systems are needed.
A-55
-------
A-55. HOUSEHOLD PRODUCTS
There are many products used at home which contain toxic compo-
nents, e.g., hexachlorophene in soaps, talc in baby powders, waxes,
cleansers, solvents, drugs, paints, adhesives, pesticides, fertilizers,
and gasoline. Consumer practice in disposing of residues and containers
include: flushing in the commode, deposit on nearby lots, in garbage cans,
down storm sewers or on the grass. The impact of such practices is largely
unstudied.
A-56. HOUSEHOLD DUSTS
With centralized home heating and air conditioning becoming the
rule in urban areas, the question rises as to the buildup of toxic
substances within the closed home system. The amount of dust in home air
(where air cleaners are unused) is significant. The effects of inhaling
dusts from synthetic carpeting, draperies, clothing, sanding of drywall,
etc., or vapors from cooking, aerosol cans, solvents, in cleaners, are
largely unknown. Toxicological studies of such inhaled dusts are needed.
A-57. ECONOMIC TRENDS
Affluency will increase mobility and consumption of luxury
items. Shorter work week will increase leisure pursuits and more
recreational travel.
Increased shortages of resources will lead to the use of
lower grade ores or of natural or virgin resources with substitutes.
The former may require increased use of ore separation processes.
New foods and their production may increase organic loading
of some resources. Hormonal additives will continue to be used (e.g.,
nitrogen toxing wheat, replacements for DBS in meat).
There will be an increased concentration in space and time
of food production.
A-56
-------
Stressors
(1) Exotic metal alloys, plastics and fiberglass
(2) Waste streams from lower grade ores
(3) Food additives (i.e., honr.ones)
(4) New organic loading (e.g., from hydropinics or
aquaculture)
(5) Pesticides replacing DDT
A-58. CRIME
Increased energy consumption for security, i.e., increased
lighting, and increased energy consuming protective devices.
Development of new safety products which may have environ-
mental implications (i.e., new materials for locks, new detection devices
that are X-ray producing, or electromagnetic energy producing).
Increased probability of environmental disasters due to sabotage
(e.g., petrochemical spills, fires, explosions - nuclear).
Increased potential for technologically sensitive crimes as
technology becomes more sophisticated (e.g., upsetting electric, telephone,
and gas delivery systems).
Stressors
(1) Sabotage
(2) Petrochemical spills
(3) Nuclear explosions
(4) Fire
(5) New energy demands
A-59. ASCENDING POWER GROUPS
Pressure to clean up pollution in minority ghetto areas (e.g.,
solid waste disposal, air quality).
A-57
-------
Growing pressure to deal with occupational hazards. This applies
to particulates in the air, fumes (e.g., fumes in enclosed spaces such as
auto tunnels, painting parlors, ...).
Pollutants not now considered serious may be judged more serious
by society in the future. The most likely case to grow as a problem is
noise. A second general area is an upgrading of irritants to more serious
consideration.
Increased consideration of problems of the elderly. This implies
better recreation facilities for the elderly. It could mean better access
into wilderness areas and more sedentary activities in parks.
Stressors
(1) Solid wastes
(2) Noise
(3) Occupational hazards
(4) Irritants
A-60. REVERSAL OF CORE CITY POPULATION DECLINE
Pollution build-up in the stagnant air of the urban "heat islands".
Powerful air drafts causing a safety hazard to people on the
street below. Such intensive hot air drafts will have to be banned in the
cities of the future to prevent changes in microclimates.
Concentration of population in the urban core (more high rise
buildings) will result in a greater exposure of the population to air,
water, and noise pollution. This will create further opposition to
pollution in general in the urban core, and the case for "population dis-
persal" and "urban-rural balance" will be further strengthened. The
megalopolis will have to be broken up by large green buffers around
individual cities.
Stringent regulations will be imposed on the emission of
asbestos, beryllium, and arsenic which are highly toxic. Also, the
emissions of hydrochloric aicd and formaldehyde form strong carcinogens
A-58
-------
through synergism. These potential industrial pollutants will need immediate
control.
Stressors
(1) Toxic metals
(2) Asbestos
(3) Heat islands
(4) Carcinogens
(5) Wastes disposal in high rise buildings
A-61. DEMOGRAPHY
Elderly persons may be more senstive to some pollutants, particu-
larly air pollution. They may be less able to assimilate chemicals used in
foods which may cause metabolic problems. Also, there may be an increase
in environmental conditions as a cause of death because of the elimination
of other causes (e.g., cure heart attacks and more people die of lung cancer
caused by air pollution). This trend will increase the perceived seriousness
of pollution.
An increase in solid waste due to increased use of packaging
material to provide smaller unit of food.
Increased demand on natural resources by elder recreationists.
There may be an increased acceptance of managed recreation areas resulting
in less "true" wilderness.
Increased freedom of women to work out of the home. This
implies more conveniences at home, more money to spend on family consumption
and the use of more conveience foods.
Increased chemical and radiological treatment of diseases of
elderly. These treatments will cause emissions in hospitals and other
treatment centers.
Stressors
(1) Packaging materials
A-59
-------
(2) Exposure to radiation
(3) Greater land use demands
(4) Food additives
(5) Drugs (increased use)
A-62. MEDICINE SCIENCE
Persons with artificial organs may be more sensitive to certain
conditions of the environment. Controlled environments may be required
for some individuals: other may be able to function normally in our society.
However, pollution crises may be especially hazardous for those with
artificial parts. Consequently, mortality and morbidity associated with
pollution may increase.
The use of artificial organs and therapeutic drugs will increase
mortality.
Hospitals will become more concerned with maintaining a "pure"
in-house environment. This may be especially difficult for hospitals in
highly polluted environments (e.g., downtown of large cities). While this
problem may be particularly acute in hospitals it is pertinent to urban
buildings in general. For example, air quality measurements in the Empire
State Building have shown interior and exterior air to be essentially the
same during rush hour.
There will be an increase in drugs in human waste.
Stressors
(1) Nontherapeutic drug use
(2) Human stress
(3) Controlled environments
A-63. GOVERNMENT
Regional and national waste disposal systems will greatly reduce
pollution of air, water, and land in highly populated areas.
A-60
-------
New chemicals and methods will have to be developed to abate or
eliminate toxic materials from liquid waste to meet the "zero effluent
discharge" requirements in 1985. For instance, a recent "bio-carbon" treat-
ment process will remove certain toxic substances like copper, chromium,
zinc, etc., from the petroleum refinery wastewaters. Such treatment systems,
however, may raise the levels of salinity, total dissolved solids, etc.,
causing adverse water quality problems.
The energy recovery systems will help to ease the energy
situation partially.
The resource recycling will ease a similar "resource scarcity"
predicated by the National Comission on Materials Policy.
Increased local control on waste disposal as a result of
Revenue Sharing Programs will result in inadequate pollution control at
local levels. The industry will generate substitutes for banned products,
thus making the pollution control very complex and unmanageable for the
local officials.
Monitoring of earth resources (e.g., ERTS) may lead to invasion
of privacy as a social issue.
Stressors
(1) Pollutants from new waste treatment schemes
(2) Increased salinity
(3) Inadequate control of exotic new chemical at local level.
A-64. TRANSPORTATION
New mass transit forms (BART, e.g.) will require study for new
pollutant forms.
Fishing industry in Alaska (renewable resource) is concerned
that they will be sacrificed because of spills associated with oil
transport (nonrenewable resource) from Valdez by ship due to North Slope
development.
A-61
-------
Stressors
(1) Exhaust and other
(2) Oil spills
A-65. INTERNATIONAL
Dependency on friendly relations with Canada may effect policy
decisions with respect to:
a. Water supply
b. The industrial uses of common waterways
c. Feasibility and wisdom of oil pipelines from Alaska
through Canada.
Dependency on friendly relations with Mexico, Canada, France,
and Turkey effects current approahces to incoming narcotics traffic.
Military preparedness for major wars involves the United States
in further hardware production and basic physical sciences research.
Energy, consumption and further depletion of natural resources are tied to
military policies.
Foreign ownership of American property may impinge on our
freedom to enforce environmental legislation. Ownership of a sizable
minority of stock may insert interests not consistent with the best
interests of America.
Importation of Canadian waters to South California could be
ecologically unsound. Increased salinity of the soil will damage agri-
cultural productivity.
Prohibitions against disposal of nuclear and other industrial
wastes in the high seas. These prohibitions are resulting from various
international agreements. The result will be on shore disposal and
storage of these wastes.
Stressors
(1) Narcotics
A-62
-------
(2) Salinity
(3) Large volumes of waste
(4) Increase resource consumption.
A-63
-------
APPENDIX B
SELECTION OF MOST SERIOUS PROBLEMS
-------
APPENDIX B
SELECTION OF MOST SERIOUS PROBLEMS
Ranking Factors
Initially a set of eight parameters were developed, each with a
value scale of 1 to 5, for use in selecting and ranking the 10 most serious
problems based on the data base of 65 problem statements. These factors
and associated scales are described here.
Persistence. On the basis of physical and/or chemical
characteristics, the period during which a pollution problem might
remain one of concern. For example, a reactive air pollutant might
disappear as a problem within a few hours, whereas some radioactive
wastes will retain their hazardous nature for thousands of years.
1 5
I 1 1 1 1 1
days centuries
Mobility/Pervasiveness. Those problems which are highly
mobile or stem from sources or activities which occur everywhere lie
at a higher point on this scale than those which are isolated and/or
stationary.
1 5
1 1 1 1 1 1
local global
B-l
-------
Relative Environmental/Ecological Complexity. The scale of
this factor begins with a single environmental medium being involved
in a problem. As more media are impacted, and the ecological chains are
affected, the complexity increases.
1
1 1
single
medium
5
1 1 1 1
1 1 - 1 '1
multiple media
and food chain
Relative Social/Political Complexity. This factor reflects
the number and kinds of institutions involved in a problem. It is related
to factors (2) and (3) above, in that a widespread problem will cross
social and jurisdictional boundaries.
1 5
I 1 1—I I 1
single global involvement
individual or conflict
Relative Technological. Complexity. As the sophistication
of industrial production and associated side effects increases, both
the cost and difficulty of control also tend to increase. This factor
is intended to reflect that increasing complexity and the costs (including
energy costs) of control.
1 5
I 1 1 1 1 1
simple perpetual storage
screening of R-A wastes
Physiological Risk. Based upon epidemiological and/or toxi-
cological data, most stressors attributable to the pollution problems
which have been identified can be assigned a position on the subjective
risk scale.
1 5
I 1 1 1 1 1
nuisance lethal
B-2
-------
Bulk or Volume of Stressors^. Those stressors produced by
various pollution problems are sometimes described solely in terms of
bulk or volume. Clearly, this factor alone provides little information
about the relative severity of problems, although it is one factor
which must be considered.
1 5
I 1 1 1 1 1
trace enough to fill
quantities ocean depths
Research Needs. Several of the future problems with which
we are concerned are poorly defined at present. In some cases, there
may be circumstantial evidence of potential severity; in some cases,
there is nothing more than conjecture upon which to base concern. This
rating factor is intended to provide explicit allowance for those
areas of uncertainty when ranking the potential seriousness of future
problems.
1 5
I I I I I 1
minor details "Manhattan Project"
lacking level
Initial Ranking Method
In applying these factors to the 65 problem statements, a
team of four professionals, each broadly acquainted with environmental
issues, was assembled. The problem statements were quickly separated
into two classes by consensus of the team, viz.: (1) problems important
enough for detailed ranking using the ranking factors, and (2) relatively
unimportant as a single serious problem. (Note: the societal statements
were excluded on the basis of insufficient specificity for ranking
purposes.) On this basis 23 of the original set were selected for
detailed ranking. The values assigned to each parameter were totalled
for each problem statement. Each statement was ranked individually by
each team member. A score for each problem so ranked was computed as
follows:
B-3
-------
(1) Each person's ranked problems were ordered from
highest to lowest (see Columns 2 through 4 of Table
B-l).
(2) A numerical value equal to the order of ranking
was assigned to each problem statement for each
team member's rankings.
(3) Where two or more problems ranked equal, an
average value was computed, e.g., Problems A-23,
A-26, and A-50 for Team Member A each received a value
of 3 points since they were in the 2, 3, and 4 posi-
tions [(2+3+4) ; 3]
(4) The individual (team) values were totalled for the
4 team members to give an overall problem statement
score.
(5) The problem statements were reordered from low to
highest as shown in the second last column of
Table B-l.
(6) The problem statement rankings were then employed
to construct a tentative listing of 10 serious
problems.
Examination of the rankings (see listing Table B-2) permitted the
construction of a list of the 10 most serious problems. This was done
through (1) combination of related problem statements (e.g., numbers
A-11 Automotive Exhaust and A-12, Catalytic Converters for Autos which
ranked 7th and 5th respectively), (2) discussions with the Project Officer
(EPA) and (3) further review of all 65 problem statements.
Selected 10 Most Serious
Following are the ten most serious problems with a brief
discussion of the scope, and relationship to the problem statements
from whence they were derived.
B-4
-------
TABLE B-l. PROBLEM STATEMENT RANKINGS
Team Member
Order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
A
A- 9
A-23*
A-26*
A-50*
A- 4
A- 24
A- 1*
A- 2*
A-43*
A-15*
A-29
A- 3*
A-10*
A- 8+
A-12+
A-16+
A-37+
A- 6*
A-ll*
A-13*
A-22
A-21
A- 5
B
A-50
A- 9
A- 2*
A-23*
A-29*
A-12+
A-26+
A- 1*
A- 6*
A-ll*
A- 8+
A-13+
A-37+
A-24+
A-15+
A-16*
A- 3*
A- 4*
A-21*
A-43*
A- 5*
A-10
A-22
C
A-26
A-23*
A-50*
A-13*
A- 9+
A-11+
A-12+
A-15
A-43*
A- 4*
A-37*
A- 8+
A-29+
A-24
A- 2*
A-16*
A- 1+
A- 6+
A- 3*
A- 5*
A-22*
A-10
A-21
D
A- 9*
A-12*
A- 2+
A-11+
A-23
A- 1*
A- 8*
A-43*
A-10+
A-26+
A-15+
A- 3*
A- 6*
A-37+
A-50+
A- 4*
A-29*
A-24*
A-13
A-16
A-21
A- 5
A-22
Overall
Ranking
Order*
A- 9
A-23
A-26
A-50
A-12
A- 2
A-ll
A-15
A- 1
A-43
A-29
A- 8
A-24
A- 4
A-37
A-13
A- 6
A- 3
A-10
A-16
A- 5
A-21
A-22
Numerical
Score
10.5
15.0
20.5
21.5
29.5
31.5
37.5
39.5
42.0
44.0
44.5
48.0
50.0
50.5
52.5
54.0
58.0
63.5
66.5
69.5
83.5
84.5
87.0
*,+ These symbols indicate groupings of problems that ranked
numerically equal.
* See discussions of how order was numerically determined in
text of report.
B-5
-------
TABLE B-2. LIST OF RANKED STATEMENTS
Overall
Ranking Order
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Number
A- 9
A-23
A-26
A-50
A-12
A- 2
A-ll
A-15
A- 1
A-43
A- 29
A- 8
A- 24
A- 4
A^37
A-13
A- 6
A- 3
A-10
A-16
A- 5
A- 21
A-22
Title
Fine Participates in Air
Inorganic Toxic Contaminants
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Pesticides,
Herbicides, and Fungicides
Radioactive Wastes
Catalytic Converters for Autos
Sludges, Liquid, and Solid Residues from
Pollution Control
Automotive Exhaust
Drinking Water Treatment
Disposal of Secondary Treatment Sludges
Advanced Waste Water Treatment
Carcinogens
Acid Mine Drainage
Irrigation Practices
Effects from Dredging
New Landfill Technology
Nondegraded Organics from Secondary Treatment
Coal Cleaning Residues
Impacts from Flue Gas Treatment
Toxic Substances in Recycled Animal Waste
Disposal of Waste Oils from Oil Spills and
Other Sources
Oil Well and Other Waste Brines
Noise
Microwave Radiation
*,+ These symbols indicate groupings of problems that ranked numerically
equal.
* See discussions of how order was numerically determined in text of
report.
B-6
-------
Fine Particulates. This problem (see A-9) ranks high in
terms of (a) direct health effects on man, (b) a multiplicity of sources,
(c) the relative persistence and pervasiveness of fine particulates
once they are emitted, and (4) the difficulty of control before, and
mitigation after, emission. Even with the best available control
technology, which will result in a significant reduction in total
emissions, a major fine particle fraction will be emitted. The health
hazard can be quite out of proportion to the mass involved, whether
the particulates are chemically.active or inert.
Trace Element (Metal) Contaminants. This problem, discussed
explicitly in A-23, is an aspect of many of the problem statements
(see A-l, A-2, A-3, A-ll, etc.)* This is an all media problem which
can have severe consequences if uncontrolled. As with fine particulates,
control is difficult to exercise once the elements are well dispersed
along a pathway. Major sources of emissions are known and can be
expected to be brought under control, although trace elements are a
component of the fine particulate problem wherein even the best available
control apparently will not be adequate. Discrimination between accep-
table and hazardous levels in terms of human health or biosphere effects
needs to be developed through research. The biological conversion of
certain elements, notably metals, to even more toxic organic forms
further complicates the problem.
Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals. Public concern
over hazardous chemicals like DDT, hexachlorobenzene, dioxin, and
numerous other chemical substances which have crept into the environment
through technological advancement is at a high level. Recent newly
identified toxic contaminants in air, water, and solid waste effluents
from industrial, agricultural, and municipal sources suggests that the
magnitude of the problem is greater than expected. Urban pesticide
use and street runoff are now being recognized as problems along with
agricultural sources. Unless some means for the early detection, assess-
ment, warning, and application of corrective measures can be found,
such substances will continue to proliferate in the environment. (See
A-10, A-13, A-26, A-28, A-29, A-30, A-45, A-46, and A-54).
B-7
-------
Critical Radiation Problems. Although radioactive releases
from nuclear processes are widely recognized as a serious environmental
problem, they are only a part of the total radiation problem and are,
at current levels of release, less significant than other forms of elec-
tromagnetic radiation. Attention must also be focused upon radiation
from accelerating use of medical, dental, and industrial X-ray devices
(even though direct health effects are the responsibility of OSHA-HEW,
EPA does have an ancillary concern regarding environmental pollution),
lasers, television, radar, and all forms of microwave devices. Poten-
tially serious environmental hazards to physical and psychological
health are escalating as man exposes himself and his environment to
greater intensities of radiation over parts of the electromagnetic spec-
trum against which evolution has provided little defense. (See A-22, A-50,
A-51, A-85.)
Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids, and Solid Residues. Many
of the problem statements (A-l to A-7, A-37) bear on this general
problem which is in brief: what to do with the enormous volumes of
frequently contaminated and hazardous residues that will be generated
as a consequence of pollution control efforts. The options are diminish-
ing with respect to traditional disposal outlets; namely, ocean dumping,
deep-well injection, lagoons, open dumps, land spreading, etc. In the
short term (5-10 years) it seems apparent that the controlled land
disposal route will be attempted to a greater extent. Information needs
exist with respect to environmentally acceptable practice, especially
for hazardous wastes.
Emissions from New Autmotive Fuels, Additives, and Control
Devices. This is a major problem of the next 5 to 10 years during which
millions of autmobiles are slated to be serviced with new gasoline formu-
lations and blends, fitted with catalytic exhaust converters, and built
with new low-polluting engines (see A-ll, A-12). The removal of lead; the
substitution of manganese for lead; the several hundred new fuel addi-
tives; the manufacture, operation (especially under poisoned or aged
conditions), and disposal of heavy metal catalyst based convertors;
all have environmental consequences that will require more study. This
is a national problem and is very directly tied to human health.
B-8
-------
Expanding. Drinking Water Contamination. It is becoming
recognized that past methods of potable water treatment have been directed
at a relatively narrow group of contaminants, while at the same time the
number and type of substances entering water supply sources have been
increasing as a consequence of man's activities. The search for substances
with deleterious health effects in drinking water supplies is expected
to proceed with more intensity because, like food, water is a direct
and essential input to the human body. The candidate contaminants
include virtually every stressor discussed so far; i.e., heavy metals,
organics, biologicals, radioactive elements.
Geophysical Modification of the Earth. The key thrust of
this future pollution problem is detrimental effects arising from phys-
ical disturbances of the earth generated by man. These include acid
mine drainage, strip mining, dredging, siltation, erosion, disturbance
of surface cover, underground explosives, modification of stream channels,
diversion of water flows, and water impoundments. These gross inter-
ventions in the biosphere become more of a problem as man increases his
total output, processes more tons of material per unit of output,
uses lower grades of ore, and otherwise increases his throughput of
materials. As this throughput increases, the reduction in available
non-renewable resources reduces man's alternatives and also increases
risks of serious environmental upsets from modifications of ever
shrinking resources. Acceptable trade-offs between man's activities
and the environment have yet to be determined (see A-4, A-8, A-16,
A-17, A-18, A-19, A-20, A-35, A-42, A-48).
Irrigation (Impoundment) Practices. Large areas of the
U.S. employ irrigation practices to permit use of arid soils for
agricultural purposes. The buildup of salts, heavy metals, alkalis,
and acids in soil threatens water supplies of nearby communities and
with time decreases soil productivity. The use of impoundments to
collect water for irrigation purposes results in some severe environ-
mental imbalances. Control is difficult. The need for such practices
is directly related to U.S. food needs.
Impacts of New Energy Initiatives. The current concern over
energy sources and supply will result in many new initiatives within
B-9
-------
the next 5-10 years. The development of new energy extraction techno-
logies (coal gasification, liquefaction, geothermal, nuclear, solar
and MHD power; coal cleaning and desulfurization; oil shale and tar
sands processes) are in an early stage. Consequently, it is logical to
examine these developments now with respect to their eventual adverse
environmental impacts. These impacts include thermal discharges, radio-
active waste disposal, heavy metal and toxic organic emissions, increased
strip mining, ever greater volumes of coal residues, washes, ash and
acid mine drainage (see A-6, A-8, A-14, A-31, A-35, A-49, A-50).
Selection of 3 Most Serious Problems
The preceding identified problems were subjected to further
ranking based on (1) an additional ranking factor, (2) examination of
the relative weights to be assigned to each ranking factor, and (3)
study by a larger group of Battelle-Columbus .professionals.
Added Ranking Factor
One additional factor was added at this point, defined as
follows.
Number of People Affected. Although this factor might be
related to Mobility/Pervasiveness, it is intended to reflect the
typical location of the problems in question. For example, an urban-
oriented source obviously affects more people than does a remote mine
or other rural operation.
1
1 1 I 1
tens
5
1 1
millions
Weighting
No weighting of the initial eight ranking parameters was
employed in selecting the 10 most serious problems. Since it was felt
this could be a serious omission, weights were developed at this point
in the program as a preliminary to prioritizing the 10 problems.
B-10
-------
The method used for ranking the factors was the procedure of
paired comparisons. A panel was made up of 9 persons, in the physical,
life, and social sciences, all of whom are involved in environmental
research. Two iterations were used to approach a group consensus, with
the results of the first iteration being made available to the panel
prior to the second ranking. This system is known as the Delphi Technique.
The resulting factors and their relative weights are as follows:
Criteria Weight
Nature of the Substance (47)
1. Physiological risk (toxicity) 14
2. Persistence 13
3. Mobility/pervasiveness 11
4. Bulk or volume of substance 9
Nature of the Problem (53)
1. Number of people affected 12
2. Relative environmental/ecological
complexity 11
3. Relative technological complexity 10
4. Relative social/political complexity 10
5. Research needs __ 10
TOTAL 100
It is noted that one of the results of this exercise was the recognition
that the ranking factors could be divided into two groupings based upon
(1) the nature of the substance(s) and, (2) the nature of the problem.
Since the 10 problems are not limited to a single substance, the person
ranking must make a judgment based on his perception of the various
types of substances involved and their relative importance. Obviously,
such intangibilities tend to argue against the validity of the ranking
factors applied to what are essentially broad problem areas. Nevertheless,
it is felt this approach is one of the few attempts being made today to
avoid totally subjective (and unavoidably biased) priority setting.
B-ll
-------
Additional work on development of appropriate criteria for making selec-
tions among many alternative pollution problems is needed. Further
effort to refine the factors was not justifiable in this program.
Another outcome of this weighting effort was the recognition
that the weights did not vary appreciably over the nine factors. In
fact, it was felt that little merit in applying the weights would result
and, thus, the factors were given equal weight in prioritizing the 10
problems.
Priority Ranking of 10 Problems
Application of the expanded list of ranking factors to the
10 most serious problem areas was done utilizing a dozen Battelle-
Columbus professionals with the following result:
Ranking Problem
1 Impacts of New Energy Initiatives
2 Geophysical Modifications of the Earth
3 Trace Element (Metal) Contaminants
4 Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic
Chemicals
5 Emissions from New Automotive Fuels, Additives
and Control Devices
6,7 Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids and
Solid Residues
6,7 Critical Radiation Problems
8 Fine Particulates
9 Expanding Drinking Water Contamination
10 Irrigation (Impoundment) Practices
B-12 *U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1974 546-317/^93
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
/. Re port No.
c'i-S.'C/B 11 -'.
w
. Tnie Development of Predictions of Future
Pollution Problems
Authorfs)
James E. Flinn and Robert S. Reimers
0. Oreani-.ation
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
12. '
5. Report Date
Performing Organization
Report No.
•13- Type -f Repo<-t said
Period Covered
Environmental Protection Agency report number,
EPA-600/5-7 4-005. March 1974.
16. A but,.-id The report describes the results of a program to identify, rank and project
short- and intermediate-term future pollution problems.
Identification was accomplished using three independent search approaches
based on industrial production, environmental, and societal trends and activity. Primar
emphasis was placed on the environmental trends as gleaned from EPA, Battelle, Literatur
and other sources. An initial list of problems was compiled with specific stressors
identified with each.
Nine ranking factors were devised to select ten "most serious" problems fro a
the initial list. The factors included: persistence; mobility/pervasiveness; environ-
mental, technological, social, and political complexity; physiological risk; research
needs; and bulk or volume of the pollutant. The ten problems selected by this method
were further ranked in order of relative importance. The ten selected problems in rank
order are as follows:
1. impacts of New Energy Initiatives
2. Geophysical Modifications of the Earth
3. Trace Element (Metal) Contaminants
4. Proliferating Hazardous and Toxic Chemicals
7. Critical Radiation Problems
8. Fine Particulates
9. Expanding Drinking Water
Contamination
5. Emissions from New Automobile Fuels, Additives,
and Control Devices
6. Disposal of Waste Sludges, Liquids, and
10. Irrigation (Impoundment)Practi
:es
Solid Residues
Five to ten year projections were made of the ten problems which
resulted .
17a. Pollutants, Pollutant Identification, Air Pollution, Water Pollution,
Strip mines.
17b. Identifiers
Future Pollution Problems, Land Use, Mine Pollution, Toxic Chemicals, Fine
particulates, Radiation Problems.
17c. COWRRField & Group 05 B
18. Availability
"">'iV. " —*'•: ' & ''
*; /?. Security Class.
'(#$,• Security Class.
21,
Pxges
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 2O240
.1 butractor
ution
VVI^SIC
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