WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES • 16060 ERU 12/71
GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN
ARIZONA, CALIFORNIA,
NEVADA, AND UTAH
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
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WATER POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH SERIES
The Water Pollution Control Research Series describes the
results and progress in the control and abatement of pollution
in, our Nation's waters. They provide a central source of
information on the research, development, and demonstration
activities in the water research program of the Environmental
Protection Agency, through in-house research and grants and
contracts with Federal, state, and local agencies, research
institutions, and industrial organizations.
Inquiries pertaining to Water Pollution Control Research Reports
should be directed to the Chief, Publications Branch (Water),
Research Information Division, R&M, Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D. C. 20460
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GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN
ARIZONA, CALIFORNIA, NEVADA & UTAH
by
Dean K. Fuhriman and James R. Barton
FUHRIMAN, BARTON 6 ASSOCIATES
Provo, Utah 84601
for the
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND MONITORING
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
PROJECT #16060ERU
CONTRACT #14-12-919
Deceirtoer, 1971
For sale by the Superintendent ol D.(K}.uwettts,»XI-.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, B.C., 20402 - Price $2
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EPA Review Notice
This report has been reviewed by the Environmental
Protection Agency and approved for publication.
Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily
reflect the views and policies of the Environmental
Protection Agency, nor does mention of trade names or
commercial products constitute endorsement or recommen-
dation for use .
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ABSTRACT
An investigation to determine the ground water pollution problems
which exist in the states of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah
was conducted. Data were obtained through an extensive review of
the literature and through interviews with engineers, scientists and
governmental officials concerned with water pollution in the four
states of the project area.
Mineralization of ground water is the most prevalent factor in the
degradation of ground water quality in the project area. Large
quantities of ground water in each of the four states are undesirable
for many uses because of excessive mineralization. Much of the
mineralization of ground water is a result of natural processes.
Some is caused by man's activities—irrigation, oil field brine dis-
posal, and over-pumping of aquifers are conmon causes of mineraliza-
tion. Usually the degradation is caused by an excess of total
dissolved solids, but at some locations, specific toxic substances
(of natural origin) are also found in the ground water. Boron and
arsenic in toxic amounts have been found in ground water, especially
in Arizona and Southern California. Of the various forms of pollu-
tion of ground water caused by man's activities, nitrate is probably
most prevalent in the project area.
A listing of conditions causing ground water pollution in the pro-
ject area is included in the report.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of project no. 16060 ERU,
contract no. 14-12-919 under the sponsorship of the office of
Research and Monitoring, Environmental Protection Agency.
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CONTENTS
Section^
I Conclusions
II Recommendations 3
III Introduction 5
IV Description of Project Area 7
Physiography 7
Population 8
Climate 8
Geology 10
Surface Water Supplies 12
Ground Water Resources 12
V Ground Water Pollution Indicators 49
Arizona 52
Central Gila River and adjoining Mexican Drainage 52
Upper Gila River and adjoining Mexican Drainage 54
Lower Gila River Basin 54
Colorado River Basin 55
Little Colorado River Basin 55
California 56
North Coastal Basin 56
San Francisco Bay Basin 59
Central Coastal Basin 61
South Coastal Basin 63
San Joaquin Basin 66
Sacramento Basin 69
North Lahontan Basin 69
South Lahontan Basin 71
Colorado Desert Basin 73
Nevada 75
Humboldt Basin 78
Central Lahontan Basin 79
Tonopah Basin 80
Great Salt Lake Region 80
Lower Colorado River Basin 80
Snake River Basin 81
Utah 81
Upper Colorado River Bias in 82
Great Basin 82
Lower Colorado River Basin 84
VI Conditions Causing Ground Water Pollution 87
Natural Leaching 88
Irrigation Return Flow 88
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Sea Water Encroachment 89
Solid Wastes , 92
Disposal of Oil Field Brines and other Materials 94
Animal Wastes 95
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials 98
Water From Fault Zones and Volcanic Origin 99
Evapo-Transpiration of Native Vegetation 1°2
Injection Wells for Waste Disposal 103
Fertilizer Wells for Waste Disposal I04
Land Disposal of Wastes—Municipal and Industrial 105
Seepage of Polluted Surface Waters 1°6
Urban Runoff 106
Connate Water Withdrawal 1°7
Mining Activities 108
Aquifer Interchange 1°8
Mineralization From Soluble Aquifers 108
Crop Residues and Dead Animals 109
Pesticide Residues 110
Land Subsidence Effects on Water Quality 111
Other Causes 111
VII Research and Other Needs 113
Determination of Ground Water Development
Potential 113
Research on Ground Water Pollution Identification 113
Research and Investigation on Specific Pollution
Problems 114
Natural Leaching 114
Irrigation Return Flow 115
Sea Water Encroachment 115
Solid Wastes 116
Disposal of Oil Field Brines and Other
Materials 116
Animal Wastes 117
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials 117
Water From Fault Zones and Volcanic Origins 118
Evapo-Transpiration of Native Vegetation 118
Injection Wells for Waste Disposal 119
Fertilization of Agricultural Lands 119
Land Disposal of Wastes - Municipal and
Industrial 120
Seepage of Polluted Surface Waters 120
Urban Runoff 120
Connate Water Withdrawal 121
Mining Activities 121
Aquifer Interchange 121
Mineralization f»om Soluble Aquifers 122
Crop Residues and Dead Animals 122
Pesticide Residues 122
Land Subsidence Effects on Water Quality 123
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Sewer Leakage 123
Thermal Pollution 123
Radioactivity 123
Recreational Activity 123
VIII Acknowledgements 125
IX References Cited 127
X Glossary of Terms, Abbreviations and Symbols 149
XI Appendix A - Water Quality Standards 157
XII Bibliography 165
VI i
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FIGURES PAGE
1. Average Annual Precipitation in the Project Area 9
2 . Hydrologic Basin Boundaries in Arizona 1^
3. Hydrologic Basin Boundaries in California 24
4. Hydrologic Basin Boundaries in Nevada *3
5. Hydrologic Basin Boundaries in Utah 46
6. Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in Arizona 53
7. Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in California 57
8. Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in Nevada 76
9. Areas of Mineralized Ground Water in Utah 83
10. Areas of Sea Water Encroachment Along the California
Coast 91
viii
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TABLES PAGE
1. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the North Coastal Basin 26
2. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the San Francisco Basin 27
3. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the Central Coastal Basin 29
4. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the South Coastal Basins 31
5. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the San Joaquin Valley 32
6. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the Sacramento Basin 33
7. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the North Lahontan Basin 35
8. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the South Lahontan Basin 37
9. Principal Ground-Water Basins in the Colorado Desert Basin 39
10. Water Use in Utah in 1960 45
11. Saline or Alkaline Areas in Eighteen Western States 1960 51
12 . Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
North Coastal Basin 58
13. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
San Francisco Bay Basin 60
14. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
Central Coast Basin 62
15 . Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
South Coastal Basin 65
16. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
San Joaquin Basin 68
17. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
Sacramento Basin 70
18. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
North Lahontan Basin 72
19. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
South Lahontan Basin 72
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TABLES PAGE
20. Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations -
Colorado Desert Basin 74
A-l Surface Water Criteria for Public Water Supplies
A-2 Chemical Standards of Drinking Water
A-3 Guides to the Quality of Water for Livestock 162
A-4 Suggested Guidelines for Salinity in Irrigation Water
A-5 Trace Element Tolerances for Irrigated Water
A-6 Levels of Herbicides in Irrigation Water at Which Crop
Injury Has Been Observed
A-7 Preferred Limits for Several Criteria of Water for Use
in Industrial Processes
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SECTION I
CONCLUSIONS
1. The general public and many public officials have inadequate know-
ledge of the factors affecting the quality of ground water and the
limitations on ground water development.
2. All ground waters contain dissolved minerals. The natural
leaching of soil by percolating waters in arid regions often causes
natural accumulations of minerals which limit the usefulness of the
ground water. The use of water by native vegetation increases the
mineral content of the ground water. These and other natural pro-
cesses are a major factor in the pollution of ground water in trie
project area.
3. Throughout the project area, there exist many water-bearing forma-
tions at considerable depth below the ground surface which contain
minerals in high concentrations. Whenever these waters issue forth
through deep oil well drilling or natural springs (often "hot") , they
may represent an important source of ground water pollution.
4. It is impossible to adequately consider problems of ground water
quality without also considering ground water quantity. Water of
poor quality if in very limited supply may have little economic signif-
icance; and waters of good quality which are over-developed may bring
connate brine or sea water into the fresh water aquifer, or affect the
ground water in other ways .
5. There is an ever-in ere as ing demand for water in the project area.
Many of the ground water supplies have been developed beyond the "safe
yield" limits and this often results in increased mineralization. Much
of the water is also "re-used" several times with an accompanying de-
crease in quality. These trends will continue in the future with a
continued degradation of the ground water.
6. Irrigation of agricultural lands provides great benefit to the
economy and progress of the project area. This is not without "cost"
in water quality, since the leaching process which maintains a neces-
sary "salt balance" in the agricultural soil continually adds salt to
the irrigation return flow, and thus to the ground water supply. Min-
eralization of the ground water, both from irrigation and natural
sources is the greatest ground water quality problem in the project
area .
7. Nitrates in the ground water are at dangerously high levels at
many locations in the project area. The source of these nitrates is
usually not known, but most likely sources are (a) solid waste land
fills, (b) land disposal of various wastes, (c) fertilizer
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applications, or (d) sewage effluent which gets into the ground water,
8. Boron is found in natural ground water at many locations in Cali-
fornia, Arizona, and Nevada. It is a serious problem in some areas
since it is toxic in relatively low concentrations to many plants.
9. Excessive concentrations of fluorides are found in ground water
at a number of locations in the project area.
10. Iron, manganese and arsenic are present in ground water at a few
locations in the area studies . They are usually of natural origin .
11. Phenols, gasoline and similar products have been found in the
ground water at a few locations, and represent a constant hazard be-
cause of their widespread use . An underground gasoline leak in the
Los Angeles area caused great damage to ground water over a rather
large area. At latest report, the source had not been clearly deter-
mined even after exhaustive studies since the first detection in 1968.
12. Pesticides and bacterial pollution have not been known to travel
appreciable distances in ground water, and have not been reported as
representing a serious problem at any location in the study area.
13. Problems of ground water pollution vary greatly in magnitude and
extent. For example, mineralization is a broad general problem
throughout the entire arid region, whereas injection of a particular
pollutant at a given point is usually a localized problem. Establish-
ment of priorities for research or control measures should be care-
fully considered with this in mind.
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SECTION II
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Establish a national education and information program specifi-
cally oriented toward protection of ground water quality.
2. Update and extend the work of McGuinness, reported in USGS Water
Supply Paper No. 1800, in order that quantitative determinations of
ground water development potential may be available for the entire
U.S.
3. Conduct investigations, similar to those reported herein, to iden-
tify the ground water pollution problems in all of the remaining parts
of the U.S., with first efforts to be concentrated in the areas of
greatest ground water development and greatest pollution hazard.
4. Initiate expended research efforts aimed at the solution of
ground water pollution problems with emphasis on those problems most
likely to achieve the most immediate and important impact. For de-
tailed research recommendations, refer to Section VII herein.
5. In cooperation with the various states, develop and establish
quality control criteria and enforceable standards to protect ground
water quality throughout the U.S. In arid regions it is particularly
important that the natural mineralization processes be recognized if
the water resources are to be effectively used.
6. Recognizing the long-term disastrous results of accidental leak-
age such as the gasoline leak of 1968 in the Los Angeles area, the
appropriate public officials should take steps to establish detection
facilities and a disaster plan for use in the event of such a catas-
trophy at any location in the future.
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SECTION III
INTRODUCTION
Ground water is used as a water supply by about two-thirds of the peo-
ple in the United States . In many locations, ground water is the only
economical source of water. In spite of the fact that ground water is
used by many people, it is not well understood by the public, and the
pollution problems connected with ground water are not understood very
well at all. It is probable that many people cause pollution of ground
water unknowingly, and consider the quality of ground water as re-
sulting from natural causes. A considerable amount of ground water
pollution is the result of natural phenomena which have been taking
place over a long period of time. On the other hand, much pollution
of ground water is the result of careless or deliberate acts of man.
Generally the pollution of ground water takes place slowly because the
movement of the ground water is very slow and it often takes a long
time to distribute a pollutant throughout a large volume of ground
water. However, once the ground water is polluted it is difficult and
time consuming to remedy the situation. For this reason, it is gener-
ally wise to prevent pollution of ground water rather than to remove
it after it is already in the water. Recently a national magazine
devoted one issue to the problems of ground water pollution (1) and
evidence indicates that the ground water quality is deteriorating in
many areas. Ground water pollution is a problem of national concern,
and research and public action are needed to help preserve our ground
water resources .
Whatever the cause of pollution, the ground water resource may be
rendered unfit for use if corrective measures are not taken. Correc-
tive or remedial measures can only be effectively planned and evaluated
if knowledge is available delineating the extent and kind of pollution
which exists. This report is intended to provide such knowledge for
the Southwestern part of the United States—the states of Arizona,
California, Nevada and Utah. The report will also relate briefly to
potential problems, which could develop in the future, and with recom-
mendations for research related to the preventing or correcting of
ground water pollution.
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SECTION IV
DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT AREA
The project area includes the states of Arizona, California, Nevada
and Utah—the most arid part of the United States. Within the bound-
aries of the area are vast deserts, several large salt lakes, high
mountain ranges and productive agricultural areas. The project area
represents an area of 468,000 square miles, about 13% of the area of
the United States. It includes the roost populous state (California)
and one of the least populous (Nevada) . Ground water use in the pro-
ject area is about 40% of the total for the United States.
Physiography
The project area is characterized by a wide variation in physiographic
features. Dominating the area are several mountain ranges (including
the Sierra Nevada, The Wasatch, and The Uinta Mountains), a large
closed desert basin (known as the Great Salt Lake Basin), and the vast
Colorado Plateau.
Using the classification of Thomas (2) who divided the U.S. into ten
Ground Water Regions (consolidating the 21 Physiographic Regions of
Meinzer (3), and the 24 Physiographic Regions of Fenneman (4)), it is
seen that the study area includes areas classified in four of the
basic Ground Water Regions:
(1) The Alluvial Basins
(2) The Western Mountain Ranges
(3) The Colorado Plateau
(4) The Columbia Plateau
It is noteworthy that these regions do not have a single closed bound-
ary—especially is this true of the first two—but include areas at a
number of locations, as dictated by the occurrence of the physiographic
features which give them their name. Thus, the major mountain ranges
in the study area; The Sierra Nevada, and The Wasatch, are classified
as being in the Western Mountain Range Region. The extensive alluvial
deposits at the base of these mountain ranges are in the Alluvial
Basins Region . Actually, the Alluvial Basins Region includes the
Coastal Plains of California, the Central Valley of California, most
of the state of Nevada, all of the state of Utah west of the Wasatch
Range, the Colorado Desert area in Southeastern California, and the
Colorado Drainage (including the Gila River and its tributaries) in
Arizona. The Colorado Plateau Region includes a large area in North-
eastern Arizona and Southeastern Utah. Only a small part of the study
area is included in the Coluntoia Plateau—a small area of volcanic
deposits in Northeastern California. It is in the Alluvial Basins that
most of the ground water supplies are found.
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The physiographic features have a pronounced effect upon the quantity
and quality of ground water available. In the Alluvial Basins, the
recharge potential is often more important than the extent and charac-
ter of the alluvial deposit. Geologic conditions in the Western
Mountain Region and in the Colorado Plateau have a great effect on the
quality and quantity of ground water. For example, the escarpment
along the southern boundary of the Colorado Plateau is known as the
Mogollon Rim, and is the source of some rather large springs which
contribute a considerable flow of water (which is of poor quality) to
the Salt River, a tributary of the Gila River. At most locations in
the Colorado Plateau, the potential ground water development is very
limited, but at a few locations, because of faulting or other under-
ground conditions, fairly good supplies of ground water may be
developed.
Population
The study area includes several large urban areas with a high degree
of development, and a large demand for water. It also includes vast
unpopulated desert areas. The present population of the area is over
23 million people. The population by states is as follows:
1960 1970
Arizona
California
Nevada
Utah
1,302,161
15,717,204
285,278
890,627
1,752,122
19,715,490
481,893
1,051,810
Rapid growth has occurred in each of the states since 1960 as shown
by the above figures.
Climate
The climate of the project area is highly variable . Some of the moun-
tain areas of California and Utah have relatively high rainfall, and
at the higher elevations support alpine type of vegetation. In the
North Coastal Basin of California, an annual precipitation of over 80
inches occurs at several locations . For the most part, however, the
project area has an arid or semi-arid climate with very limited
precipitation. Large areas of all four states receive less than 10
inches of precipitation annually. The average annual precipitation
over the project area is shown in Figure 1. The sparse moisture con-
dition of much of the area not only has a great effect on the water
supplies and the ground water re-charge, but it also has a pronounced
effect upon the characteristics of the soil mantle throughout the pro-
ject area. In those areas where precipitation is high, the soluble
minerals are leached from the soil, whereas in areas of low precipita-
tion this has not occurred and ground waters are often salty—some-
times to the point of severely limiting their usefulness.
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AVERAGE. ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
IN THE PROJECT AREA
FIG. I
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The high simmer temperatures, especially in the desert regions where
natural drainage of the land is restricted, also has a detrimental
effect on ground water quality. The desert regions of the south half
of the project area experience temperatures above 100°F for a consid-
erable part of each year. The average July temperature at many
locations in Arizona and Southern California is over 90°F.
Geo logy
The significant geologic features of the project area from a ground
water point of view might be briefly described as: (1) The Colorado
Plateau, underlain with sedimentary rocks of variable characteristics
but with limited ground water potential. (2) Vast deposits of alluvium
along the Colorado River and its tributaries in Arizona and Southern
California; along the Sacramento, and San Joaquin Rivers at the base
of the Sierra Nevada Range; in the plains of the California Coastal
Basins; and throughout the Great Basin area, especially in the area of
the ancient Lake Bonneville. (3) Scattered formations of volcanic
lava flows and ash beds, usually not of much significance in the
ground water picture in the project area because of their erratic and
discontinuous character.
A brief discussion of the geologic features of the project area
follows below, particularly as related to the ground water potential
from a quality and quantity stand point. Most of the material is
digested from reports of the Water Resources Council (5, 6, 7, 8, 9,
10, 11, 12) the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (13, 14), and the O.S.
Geological Survey (15, 3), Thomas (2, 4), and Meinzer (3).
RECENT AND OLDER ALLUVIUM
Ground water occurs in geologic formations ranging from Precambrian to
Recent. Most of the important ground water developments throughout
the area of the project are in the alluvial deposits, many of which
are of relatively recent origin. Some older deposits underlie the
recent alluvium, particularly in the Colorado River delta along the
lower reaches of the river in Arizona and California.
Outside of The Lower Colorado River drainage, the project area con-
tains many different ground water basins. The basins are principally
valley areas, surrounded in whole or in part, and underlain at depth,
by virtually impermeable rock. The sedimentary fill of most ground-
water basins is alluvium, consisting of permeable alluvial-fan and
flood-plain deposits, and less permeable lake and swamp deposits.
Portions of many of the basins had at one time closed or restricted
drainage, and lakes or playas formed in the central parts of the
valleys. As a result, lakebed deposits, consisting of several hun-
dreds of feet of clay, silt, sand, marl, and evaporites, occur within
the older alluvium at many localities . it is sometimes difficult to
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differentiate between the older alluvium and the older indurated
sediments, and much of the material ascribed to the older alluvium,
beyond a depth of several hundred feet or below the lakebeds, may
actually be the older indurated sediments. The higher yielding
sands and gravels of the older alluvium are the principal sources of
taost of the ground water produced.
Beds of marine origin occur at shallow depths in some coastal basins,
and permeable Quaternary basalt is the principal aquifer in several
basins in the northeastern part of California. In some areas the
effective depth of the ground-water reservoir is limited by the pres-
ence of tightly packed sediment of very low permeability; in other
areas effective depth is limited by the presence of underlying saline
water.
OLDER INDURATED SEDIMENTS
For the purpose of this report, the older indurated sediments arbi-
trarily include all of the sedimentary formations which underlie the
older alluvium and rest upon the bedrock forming the floors and
marginal uplands of the basins in southwestern Arizona. These deposits
probably range in age from late Cretaceous to middle Tertiary, but may
also include isolated bodies of older sedimentary rocks.
Relatively few wells fully penetrate the older indurated sediments;
consequently, except in a few areas, very little is known about these
formations. Mast of the materials are probably similar lithologically
to the lower portions of the older alluvium, but are distinguished
from it by their greater degree of induration and by their faulted and
tilted structure.
VOLCANICS
Volcanic formations of diverse ages are common in the project area,
occurring principally as lava flows and associated ash beds . In some
locations, these accumulations may be several thousand feet thick.
Volcanic materials are often highly fractured or porous, thus pro-
viding permeable zones capable of storing and transmitting ground
water. As a rule, however, aquifers within volcanic formations are of
an erratic and discontinuous character. Occasionally, a shallow well
obtains water from highly fractured zones. Most wells, however, must
penetrate an entire sequence in order to collect enough water for local
use.
Available analyses indicate that water from volcanic formations is
generally low in dissolved solids and that it is of good to excellent
quality for most uses, but is usually limited in quantity to livestock
or domestic uses.
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PLATEAUSEDIMENTARY ROCKS
There are many permeable formations that serve as aquifers in the thick
sequence of sedimentary deposits underlying the Plateau region of
Arizona and Utah. These formations may be of great importance to a
given community or to a particular stock or mining enterprise because
in the broad expanse of area in the Colorado Plateau, water is ex-
tremely difficult to locate and develop. The total present and po-
tential development of water, quantitatively, in this area is quite
limited except in a few local situations.
Surface Water Supplies
It is not the purpose of this report to discuss the supplies of surface
streams in the project area. It is important, however, to state simply
that the ground water and surface waters are often closely related to
each other. Many streams are fed in part by springs from ground water.
Many ground water reservoirs are replenished by recharge from surface
waters. In some locations, a surface stream may disappear entirely
by infiltration into an alluvial deposit as the stream leaves the
mountain reaches of its channel and enters the valley. In some areas,
such as the Salt River Valley of Arizona, the quality of ground water
may at times be of such a poor quality it cannot be used unless it is
mixed with higher quality surface water.
In full utilization of our water resources, it will often be necessary
to consider both surface and underground supplies used in conjunction
with each other. For the'purpose of this report, dealing with ground
water pollution, the surface waters will not be considered further at
this time.
Ground Water Resources
The importance of ground water pollution bears a direct relationship
to the quantity of ground water available for development as well as
the quantity presently being used from ground water. Consequently,
in the paragraphs which follow, the ground water resources within the
project area will be considered in some detail. Each of the four
states will be discussed separately.
ARIZONA
The major ground water producing areas of Arizona are located in the
alluvial deposits which are associated with the river systems in the
Southwestern part of the state. The Northeastern two-fifths of the
state has limited ground water potential because of the geologic
conditions already described for the Colorado Plateau region. The
areas of heaviest use generally coincide with the areas of greatest
potential. As a matter of fact, considering Arizona as a whole, the
ground water withdrawals exceed the recharge throughout most of the
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state, and water levels are, therefore, declining.
The U.S. Geological Survey, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the
Arizona State Land Department have conducted detailed studies of
ground water supplies in Arizona. For the purpose of this report,
Arizona has been divided into five major hydrologic basins (Fig. 2) ,
and various reports from the many separate ground water basins are
grouped under these five basins herein. Some of the reports referred
to are rather old and some of the studies on which the reports are
based are more detailed than some of the others. For this reason,
much of the quantitative information relating to either quantity or
quality of water available is generalized. An attempt has been made
to update material from the older reports by referring to some of the
more recent ones such as those prepared by the U.S. Bureau of Reclama-
tion in 1965 (13), the Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee of the
Water Resources Council (9, 10), the Arizona State Land Department
(16, 17, 18, and others), and the U.S. Geological Survey (15 and
others). Figures on ground water use generally reflect conditions as
of about 1962, and it should be borne in mind that the rates of with-
drawal have probably in many instances increased during the period
since 1962, especially in view of the years of severe drouth which
have occurred in Arizona during this period.
The withdrawal of ground water varies from year to year, but it is
estimated that there are about 5.7 million acre-feet of water being
withdrawn annually from the ground water supplies of Arizona. Only
about 50,000 acre-feet (or about one per cent of the state total) is
taken annually from the Colorado Plateau and the transitional zone
bordering on the Colorado Plateau. As pointed out in the previous
sections of this report, the geologic formations in the Colorado Pla-
teau and adjoining transitional zones offer a very limited ground
water potential, and most of the wells which have been drilled have
limited capacity, usually producing relatively small flows. On the
other hand, the Alluvial Basins contain vast deposits of alluvial
material with high permeability and extensive water storage potential.
A brief discussion of the ground water supply potential for each of the
five major hydrologic basins of the state is summarized in the para-
graphs which follow.
Central Gila River and Adjoining Mexican Drainage
Of the five hydrologic basins in Arizona, this one contains the areas
of greatest development and use of ground water, as well as the areas
of greatest overdraft on the ground water with all of its attendant
water quality problems. Water supplies in each of the ground water
basins are discussed separately below.
Salt River Valley. The Salt River Valley contains the most concentrat-
ed agricultural and urban water-using area in Arizona. Surface and
ground water provide irrigation water for more than 500,000 acres of
land. It is a principal part of the largest area of ground water
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COLORADO RIVER
MAW STEM
CENTRAL G/U RIVER
AMD ADJOINING
MEXICAN
HYOKOU3&C BASIN BOUNDARIES'
/A/ ARIZONA
FIG.Z
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overdraft in Arizona. More than 2,500 wells pump water from the
ground water supply. The wells vary in depth from 300 feet to about
2,800 feet, and pump lifts range from about 200 feet to over 500 feet
(13, 19, 20, 21, 22). Both surface water and ground water are inade-
quate to meet the needs of the area served, and the ground water
levels are declining rapidly. Declines of ground water level were as
much as 150 feet in 1950-60 (15), resulting in an average decline in
some areas of 15 feet per year. Water importation is obviously
necessary, unless pumping of ground water is curtailed. The use from
ground water annually in the Salt River Valley was reported by USER
(13) as about 2,200,000 acre feet in 1962 but it has decreased since
that time. 3h 1968 it was reported as 1,264,000 acre feet (23). It
is used for irrigation and as a domestic supply for the Phoenix -
Tempe - Mssa metropolitan area.
Lower Santa Cruz Area. This area borders the Salt River Valley on the
South. It includes a large part of the Gila and Santa Cruz River
Plain above the confluence with the Salt River. The deep alluvial
deposits along the Gila and Santa Cruz Rivers provide a great ground
water producing and storage area. Hoxvever, in this basin, as in the
Salt River Valley, the ground water is heavily over-developed. The
annual use of ground water in this basin is about 1,150,000 acre feet.
The combined use from ground water in this area and the Salt River
Valley represents about 2/3 of the total ground water use of the State
of Arizona. As in the Salt River Valley, ground water withdrawals
greatly exceed recharge, and the vast underground water supply is
being depleted by "mining". Declines in the i^ater levels during the
1950-60 decade ranged from around 20 to more than 100 feet, with areas
of greatest decline in tile Southwestern part of the area, near Stan-
field; and areas of least decline along the Gila River.
Upper Santa Cruz Area. This area includes the upper Santa Cruz River
Basin in Pima and Santa Cruz Counties. The city of Tucson is located
in this area. Ground water is pumped heavily for irrigation in a strip
of land 1 to 2 miles wide along the Santa Cruz River north of Tucson,
and for municipal and industrial use in the vicinity of Tucson. Water
in this basin is taken from both the older and younger alluviums and,
in minor amounts, from the older indurated sediments. In some loca-
tions, rapidly lowering water levels have virtually exhausted the
usable ground water storage within the younger alluvium (13) . Total
estimated annual pumpage from this basin for all uses is about 210,000
acre-feet. Present withdrawals are greatly exceeding the available
recharge, and ground water levels are declining throughout most of the
basin. Wells are being drilled into the deeper sediments in search of
a water supply. Some wells as deep as 2,500 feet have been reported,
and considerable deep drilling is likely in the future . Studies of
artificial recharge of the aquifers are underway (24, 25) . Ground
water hydrology of the San Xavier Indian Reservation, Southwest of
Tucson is reported by Heindl and White (26, 27). Turner and others
(28, 29, 30) have reported on the ground water conditions in the Santa
Cruz Basin .
15
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Avra-Marana Area. This area, located northwest of Tucson, has had
extensive ground water development (31, 32) . The ground water is
produced primarily from sands and gravels in the older alluvium.
Water levels have been generally declining, with an average of about
1 to 2 feet per year in the southern part of the area, compared with
about 10 feet per year in the northern part, near Eloy. The ground
water withdrawal in this area is about 175,000 acre feet per year,
and the rate of withdrawal greatly exceeds the recharge .
Waterman Wash. Waterman Wash is a tributary of the Gila River,
joining the Gila downstream from the Santa Cruz River. It is an area
of relatively recent ground water development—which was in its early
stages in 1950. Wells into both the older and younger alluvium pump
large quantities of water for irrigation (19, 33, 34) .
The pumpage of ground water increased rapidly to about 65,000 acre
feet in 1961, then levelled off. In 1968 about 55,000 acre feet were
withdrawn from the basin. Ground water levels continued to decline at
about the same rate throughout the entire period 1956 to 1968, and it
is evident that withdrawals exceed the recharge.
Gila Bend - Rainbow Valley Area. The ground water developed in this
area is obtained mainly from the younger and older alluviums (35, 36) .
Some of the newer wells have been drilled into the older indurated
sediments. The ground water levels have been steadily declining for
a number of years, with wells near the river, where recharge occurs
most readily, showing the least decline . Total annual withdrawal
from the ground water in this area reached a peak of about 250,000
acre feet in 1960 and dropped to 150,000 in 1968. Ground water
withdrawals exceed the recharge.
Harguahala Plains. The Harquahala Plains lie along Centennial Wash,
which enters the Gila River from the north at Gillespie Dam. Develop-
ment of this area has been rather recent, having only begun in 1951.
By 1960, sixty irrigation wells were pumping a total of about 90,000
acre feet of water per year in some locations near the center of the
cultivated area (37) . The annual gross pumpage is now estimated at
about 175,000 acre feet per year, and the withdrawal greatly exceeds
the recharge, but there are probably several million acre feet of
ground water in storage (Metzger 38) .
McMullen Valley. The principal water bearing aquifer in this valley
is the older alluvium. Well depths range up to 2,000 feet. Land
development in this valley has increased greatly in recent years,
accompanied by increased ground water development (Kam 39 and Briggs
40). Prior to 1950 the ground water use in the basin was about
3,000 acre feet per year, whereas the use in 1968 was about 107,000
acre feet. Water levels have declined, and it is evident that with-
drawals of ground water are considerably in excess of the recharge.
16
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Papago Indian Reservation. The Papago Indian Reservation is largely
in Pima County, with small areas in Maricopa and Final Cbunties (41).
It contains about 4,300 square miles—a vast area including most of
the region between Tucson and Ajo, and south of Casa Grande all the
way to the international boundary with Mexico. The deep alluvial fill
in the valleys appears to be the main aquifer on the lands of the
reservation. The fill consists of silt, sand and gravel, with varying
amounts of clay, and varies in thickness from 350 feet to itore than
1,000 feet (42, 43, 44, 45) . The major water use on the reservation
has been near Chuichu (12 wells reported in 1961) and near Papago
Farms (7 wells reported in 1961) . Declining water levels in the area
of Chuichu, at the northeast corner of the reservation, has caused some
wells to fail, which reduced the land under cultivation. According
to the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, the declines were caused by heavy
pumping in the area just outside the reservation near Chuichu (13).
Ground water pumpage in the reservation area is estimated at about
10,000 acre feet per year. It is believed that there are a number of
other valleys within the reservation where ground water supplies can
be developed. The declining water levels near Chuichu reflect a local
condition and do not indicate that the potential water development of
the reservation has been exceeded.
Upper Gila River and Adjoining Mexican Drainage
This region covers a large area involving drainage into the Upper Gila
River and the Willcox Basin (a closed basin) and the Douglas Basin
which drains into Mexico. It also includes the transitional zone be-
tween the Mogollon Rim and the Salt River Valley.
San Pedro Basin. Both the younger and older alluvium are important
aquifers in the San Pedro Valley. The younger alluvium varies in
thickness up to 150 feet, and the older alluvium varies from a few
feet to over 1,500 feet thick. A few wells derive water from the
older sediments (46, 47, 48).
Water levels, especially in the younger alluvium, show considerable
fluctuation but no long term trends are discernible . The total
pumpage from the Basin in 1968 was estimated at 71,000 acre feet.
Available information indicates that the recharge is approximately
equal to th^withdrawal.
Araviapa Valley. This valley contains alluvial deposits containing a
fairly good water supply. Water is pumped to supplement stream diver-
sions, with the amount varying from year to year. Three thousand four
hundred acre feet were pumped in 1961.
San Simon Basin. The major aquifer of the San Simon Basin is the older
alluvium. A thick "blue clay*' divides the alluvial fill into an upper
unconfined layer and a lower confined portion. Sand and fine gravel
interbedded with thick lakebed deposits of silt and clay have been
17
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reported to a depth of 1,230 feet. These deposits are the major
source of the waters of this basin (49, 50, 51, 52, 53). Pressures in
the artesian aquifers have shown declines for many years, especially
since 1952. East of Bowie, the pressure head has declined more than
100 feet since 1915, while near San Simon the decline has exceeded 80
feet, with 70 feet of this occurring since 1954 . Annual pumpage by
1968 had exceeded 80,000 acre feet, and the accelerated rate of
decline of artesian pressures indicates that withdrawals greatly
exceed the basin recharge .
Duncan Basin. The Duncan Basin, in Arizona, is part of the Duncan -
Virden Valley, which extends into New Mexico. It is part of the upper
Gila River drainage basin . The major aquifer in the valley is the
younger alluvium which lies in the channel and flood plain of the
Gila River (54, 55) . Irrigation wells range to about 300 feet depth,
and the ground water table has been rising slightly since 1952 indi-
cating that the recharge exceeds the withdrawal. Withdrawal has
remained fairly constant for the ten years preceding 1969; and is
estimated at 25,000 acre feet annually.
Safford Valley. The Safford Valley, located along the Gila River, has
a major ground water aquifer located in the younger alluvium along the
river (56) . The younger alluvium, ranges in thickness from a few feet
along the periphery of the Gila River flood plain to about 110 feet
near Safford. The older alluvium underlies the channel and flood
plain deposits, and has much lower specific yield than the younger
deposits. Wells in the younger alluvium are quite shallow—up to 120
feet—but those in the older alluvium range from 200 to 1,700 feet
deep. Most of the wells in the older alluvium draw water from con-
fined aquifers (57, 58, 59) . Several deep wells, drilled into the
older sediments as deep as 3,500 feet, have encountered hot confined
waters .
Water levels fell in the area in the early 1950's to a low in 1957.
For the years following 1957 there has been a general rise in the
water levels, although there has been a decline in several of those
years.
The ground water in this basin is pumped as a supplemental supply to
the waters of the Gila River. The amount of withdrawal in years of
low river flow may be as high as 160,000 acre feet, but in years of
high river flow may be less than 100,000 acre feet. On the average,
the withdrawals do not exceed the recharge .
Verde Valley. The Verde Valley flows off the Colorado Plateau and
southward to the Salt River near Phoenix. The upper Verde Valley is
located between the Black Hills and the Mogollon Rim. The principal
aquifer within the valley is the Verde formation, which is commonly
under confined conditions. Most wells draw water from the permeable
limestones and sandstones of the formation. Some high capacity wells
18
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(up to about 2,000 gallons per minute) are prevalent in the valley.
Specific capacities of wells drawing water from the limestone are
generally low. More than 100 wells draw water from the Verde Forma-
tion. Further north, in the upper part of the drainage basin, near
Sedona, wells generally 200 to 600 feet deep obtain water from sand-
stone of the Supai Formation, which still further north underlies the
Coconino Sandstone (60) . It is estimated that the annual pumpage
from ground water in this valley is about 25,000 acre feet.
Chino Valley. Chino Valley, located about 20 miles north of Prescott,
contains an artesian basin about 3 miles wide and 7 miles long. The
main aquifer material consists of buried lava flows, volcanic ash and
cinders, interbedded with older alluvium. Lonesome Valley is included
in the area known as Chino Valley, though a ground water divide
separates the two valleys (61) . Groundwater in this area comes from
the older alluvium. A total of about 18,000 acre feet is pumped from
this valley annually, and the ground water level is declining
slightly, indicating that the withdrawals slightly exceed the recharge.
Big Chino Valley. Big Chino Valley extends a distance of 30 miles or
more to the northwest of Sullivan Lake and the town of Paulden. Ground
water used in the valley is withdrawn from an alluvial fill consisting
of lenticular silt and clay, sands and gravels, and frequently cemented
conglomerate beds, inter-bedded with lava flows. Pumpage is usually
about 20,000 acre feet per year (23) . The water level has not de-
clined over a period of years prior to 1969, and it appears that the
withdrawals do not exceed the re-charge.
Mile ox Basin. The Willcox Basin, located in Southeastern Arizona, has
no exterior drainage. The major aquifer in the area is the older
alluvium, in which both confined and unconfined waters occur (13, 62,
63). Thick clay sequences, containing gravel and sand lenses with
water under pressure, are common within the alluvium. Surface and
ground water move generally toward the Willcox Playa—the low area in
this topographically closed basin. Ground waters in the Playa area
are of poorer quality than those flowing toward the Playa. However,
cones of depression created by heavy pumping have intercepted much of
the groundwater which formerly flowed into the Willcox Playa, and
continued heavy punping will reverse the flow away from this area—
bringing the water of poorer quality into many wells. Pumpage in 1967
and 1968 was estimated at 290,000 acre feet annually. This exceeds
the annual recharge in the basin.
Douglas Basin. The Douglas Basin is the southern part of Sulphur
Spring Valley which includes the Willcox Basin on the north and extends
into Mexico on the south. In this basin, the major aquifer is the old-
er alluvium, which is known to be at least 1,000 feet thick (19, 64).
Depth to water in the basin was reported in 1962 to be generally less
than 100 feet (13) and the water levels are generally declining.
Gross pumpage has increased steadily. In 1957 the withdrawal from
19
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ground water was about 55,000 acre feet, and in 1969 about 120,000
(23) .
Lower Gila River Valley
Well ton -Mohawk Area. In the Well ton-Mo hawk area of the lower Gila
River, the ground water is primarily in the younger alluvium (65,
66) . Pumping of ground water for irrigation declined rapidly in the
early 1950 's and was replaced by surface water diverted from the
Colorado River to the Wellton-Mohawk Irrigation Project. By 1957
pumping of ground water had virtually ceased. Subsequent recharge by
return flows of Colorado River water caused water levels to rise to
within a few inches of the land surface necessitating extensive
drainage facilities. During 1962, sixty-one operating drainage wells
pumped about 208,000 acre feet of ground water, causing an average
decline of 2.7 feet in the water table. Pumping, for drainage purposes
only, is noxv continued on a regular basis. Pumping in 1968 was
220,000 acre feet.
Palomas Plain - Dendora Valley . This includes the area along the Gila
River drainage between the Gila Bend area downstream to the Wellton-
Mohawk area (19, 67, 68, 69, 70, 35) . This area has exhibited a
steady increase in the amount of ground water use since 1958—in-
creasing from about 30,000 acre feet in 1958 to about 125,000 acre
feet in 1968. As with other ground water areas along the Gila River,
this area has deep deposits of younger and older alluvium from which
water is produced. Some wells as deep as 1,000 feet have been
reported (13) . No specific information is available regarding recharge
and the balance between recharge and withdrawals . However, wells
reported in 1969 (23) did not indicate general water table declines,
and it is, therefore, not likely that the withdrawals have signifi-
cantly exceeded the re-charge if at all.
Ajo Area. No published reports or description of the ground water
potential are available for this area. According to the U.S. Bureau
of Reclamation, 10,000 acre feet of water was used in this area in
1961 for industrial, domestic, and municipal uses (13) .
Colorado River Drainage
Yuma Area . The Yuma Area includes South Gila Valley, Yuira Mesa, and
Yuira Valley . The ground water comes from the younger and older
alluvium. The ground water reservoir is reported to be wedge-shaped
(13), ranging in thickness from about 210 feet at Laguna Dam to about
3,400 feet near San Luis. The upper portion of this reservoir con-
sists of five deltaic deposits interbedded with coarse river channel
deposits, and is 120 to 400 feet thick. The prinary development of
ground water is in the South Gila Valley. Elsewhere, a limited amount
of ground water is pumped to supplement surface-water diversions from
the Colorado River. Part of the ground water is pumped in order to
20
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drain agricultural lands of the area. This problem has been accen-
tuated since the increase in irrigation of the lands of the Yuma Mesa
Project of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation. Ground water quality has
also improved. The imported Colorado River water on Yuma Mesa, has
been of higher quality than the existing ground water (see Brown and
others 71, also Jacob 72, 73) . The ground water levels have been
rising since 1948. Hie amount of water pumped from the ground water-
has also been rising steadily—from 22,000 acre feet in 1945 to nearly
270,000 acre feet in 1968.
Ranegrass Plain. The Ranegrass Plain is part of a broad alluvial low-
land interrupted by low mountains. The principal water bearing materi-
als are in the older alluviums (16, 74) . Ground water development in
this area began in about 1951, and within a few years, the annual
pumpage was about 20,000 a.cre feet. Water levels have declined
slightly in most years since about 1955, and. this general trend indi-
cates that the pumpage is exceeding the recharge. The difficulty of
locating good wells and the depth to ground water have presented more
extensive development. Annual pumpage in 1-968, up slightly from the
iranediately preceding years, was about 15,000 acre feet per year.
Bill Williams River Valley. The Bill Williams River drainage basin is
located west of Prescott and drains directly into the Colorado River.
According to Wolcott, Skibitzke and Halpenny (75) there is not much
potential for ground water development in this valley. Most of the
ground water is in the younger alluvium along the river, which has
liirdted storage capability—between 10,000 and 15,000 acre feet. Their
estimate of ground water use in 1951 was about 1,000 acre feet, but the
U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in 1965 estimated total use in this valley
of 10,000 acre feet per year (13) .
Other Areas . There are a number of other isolated areas in the Colora-
do River Drainage where ground water development has occurred. Among
these are three small valleys southwest of Prescott—Peoples Valley,
Date Creek Valley, and Skull Valley—, the Kingman area, Big Sandy
Valley southeast of Kingman, and the Chinle Valley in the north-
eastern part of tiie state . Total ground water use in these areas is
estimated at 30,000 to 35,000 acre feet, per year.
Little Colorado River Basin
This basin is sparsely populated. The communities of Flagstaff, Wins-
low, Holbrook and St. Johns are located in this basin. These communi-
ties and the agricultural areas near them use water from ground water
sources, usually as a supplement to the surface water supplies. The
principle aquifer in the basin is the Coconino sandstone, which is
largely developed in the Mo go lion slope country, south and west of the
Little Colorado River. Production of sufficient water for irrigation
purposes has been limited to areas in which the sandstone is highly
fractured and jointed. However, there are numerous low-production wells
21
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that provide water for stock and domestic use. More than one water-
bearing zone in the Coconino Sandstone has been recorded in some of
the well logs. Irrigation wells capable of pumping 500 to 2,000
gallons per minute are found in the vicinity of Hunt, St. Johns, and
Snowflake.
Ground water levels within the Coconino Sandstone have shown no sig-
nificant decline; however, in local areas of heavy pumping, a.few^
artesian wells have ceased to flow. No publisned estimate is available
of the amount of water used from the ground water in this basin, but
it is probably less than 20,000 acre feet per year.
CALIFORNIA
California uses more ground water than any other state of the nation .
Most of the areas of the state have been developed beyond the "safe
yield" of the ground water basins. However, the available ground-
water storage capacity in California is vast. Although the storage
capacity of all ground-water basins has not been determined in detail,
it has been established that a capacity of more than 1,000 million
acre-feet exists. Approximately 570 million acre-feet of that total
is in the San Joaquin Valley above a depth of 1,000 feet, or above
the base of those fresh-water-bearing sediments that do not reach a
depth of 1,000 feet. Another 150 million acre-feet of storage exists
in southern California—in the Mojave Pdver Basin, Coachella Valley,
and Los Angeles, San Bernardino, and riverside Counties .
Not all of the billion acre-feet of gross storage capacity is usable .
Usable storage capacity has been defined by Poland and others (76) in
part as, "that reservoir capacity that can be shown to be economically
capable of being dewatered during periods of deficient surface supply
and capable of being resaturated, either naturally or artifically,
during periods of excess surface supply. . ." To compute the total
usable storage required the evaluation of such elements as permeability,
econoraics of extraction and of recharge, and the suitability for use of
waters of various qualities. Available data are inadequate for such
an evaluation in much of the region, but it is currently estimated
that the usable storage capacity of the ground-water basins in Cali-
fornia totals more than 250 million acre-feet. These figures for gross
and usable storage capacity of the ground-water basins are strikingly
greater than the 77 million acre-feet of gross storage in surface res-
ervoirs that are planned for development by the year 2020, and the 50
million acre-feet of active surface storage that is planned for the
surface reservoirs of the future.
The proportion of usable storage that is presently occupied by ground
water varies areally. In northern California the annual draft on ground
water is replenished by recharge to the ground-water basins and a large
proportion of the storage capacity is filled. In many of the basins
in central and southern California, however, annual extractions exceed
22
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annual replenishment, and ground-water levels in a year of average
precipitation and pumpage continue to fall, in the San Joaquin-
Tulare Valley, for example, more than 70 million acre-feet of storage
capacity is presently unwatered. In general, however, throughout the
region a large proportion of the usable ground-water storage capacity
is still occupied by economically obtainable water, although much of
it is located in areas of little demand. Considered on the basis of
major hydro logic basins, it is possible to make the generalization that
all 'basins of the state are using ground water at a rate equal-to or
exceeding the "safe ground water yield" except the North Coastal
Basin. There an estimated 100,000 acre-feet of water annually are
still available for development. In all other basins of the state the
waters are being "mined,"—or the withdrawals exceed the recharge.
A brief discussion of ground water conditions in each basin is pre-
sented in the following paragraphs. The basins indicated are also the
Ground Water Sub-Regions of the U.S. Geological Survey (77) . Bound-
aries are indicated on Figure 3.
North Coastal Basin
Most usable ground water in this predominantly mountainous area occurs
in widely scattered alluvium filled valleys and coastal plains. The
alluvium consists generally of lenticular beds of unconsolidated to
semiconsolidated clay, silt, sand, and gravel of Cenozoic age. The
intervening mountainous areas are underlain by consolidated sedimen-
tary, igneous, and metamorphic rocks mainly of Mesozoic age or older.
These older rocks contain only small quantities of recoverable ground
water and, therefore, are not considered further as a major source of
ground water.
Thirteen valley-fill areas have been identified as significant sources
of ground water. The total area of all 13 valleys is about 1,300
square miles . The water-bearing deposits range in thickness from 50
to 15,000 feet. Depending on local conditions, recharge infiltrates
at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per day to more than 10 feet per day
in the upper part of alluvial fans, in stream channels, and in some
areas underlain by volcanic rocks. The maximum measured depth to
water in the water-bearing deposits is 185 feet. In several valleys
til ere are flowing wells .
Total storage capacity of the valleys for which determinations have
been made is nearly 1,000,000 acre-feet, of which about 700,000 acre-
feet is considered usable (78) . Limiting factors are the possibility
of sea-water intrusion and aquifer materials of low permeability.
Ground water temperature generally ranges from 50°F to 70°F, but
locally is as low as 43°F and as high as 178°F . Total ground water use
in this basin is estimated to be about 150,000 acre-feet per year.
This is about 100,000 acre-feet less than the safe yield of this
basin (5) . Some characteristics of the North Coastal Basin are given
23
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HYDROLO&IC SAS/H 60UUMRIES
IN CAUFORN/A
FI&. 3
24
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in Tab le 1.
San Francisco Bay Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous San Fran-
cisco Bay Basin occurs in small scattered alluvium-filled valleys
and in larger basins tributary to San Francisco Bay. The alluvium con-
sists generally of lenticular beds of unconsolidated to semiconsoli-
dated clay, silt, sand, and gravel of Cenozoic age. The intervening
mountainous areas are underlain by consolidated sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks mainly of Mssozoic age. These older rocks con-
tain only small quantities of recoverable ground water and, therefore,
are not considered further as a major source of ground water.
In the San Francisco Bay Basin, eighteen valley-fill areas have been
identified as significant sources of ground water. The total area
of the eighteen valleys is about 2,000 square miles. The water-
bearing deposits range in thickness from about 100 to 2,000 feet.
Depending on local conditions, recharge infiltrates at rates of less
than 1-1/2 feet per day to more than 10 feet per day in the upper part
of alluvial fans and in stream channels. The maximum measured depth
to water in the water-bearing deposits is 374 feet. In several valleys
there are flowing wells.
Total storage capacity of the 14 basins for which determinations have
been made is nearly 4,500,000 acre-feet. The usable storage capacity
of the five basins for which determinations have been made is nearly
1,200,000 acre-feet (79) . Limiting factors are salt-water intrusion,
aquifer materials of low permeability, and water of poor quality.
Ground-^water temperature generally ranges from 50°F to 75°F, but
locally is as high as 140°F.
Safe ground-water yield for the entire San Francisco Bay Basin is
estimated to be 300,000 acre-feet per year? an annual overdraft esti-
mated to be 70,000 acre-feet exists (5) . Some characteristics of the
San Francisco Bay Basin are given in Table 2.
Central Coastal Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous Central
Coastal Basin occurs in alluvium-filled valleys and coastal plains, and
in deeper aquifers of Quaternary and Tertiary age . The intervening
mountainous areas are underlain by consolidated sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks, mainly of Masozoic age. These older rocks con-
tain only small quantities of recoverable ground water and, therefore,
are not considered a major source of ground water.
In the Central Coastal Basin, 24 areas have been identified as signif-
icant sources of ground water. The total area of the 24 valley areas
is about 3,500 square miles. The water-bearing deposits range in
25
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Table 1 Principal ground-water basins in the North Coastal Basin (78)
to
Sub -Basin name
Smith River Plain
Klaraath River Valley
Butte Valley
Shasta Valley
Scott River Valley
Hayfork Valley
Hoopa Valley
Eureka Plain
Round Valley
Laytonville Valley
Little Lake Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
70
525
475
340
85
6
8
230
25
7
17
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
100,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
400,000
(a)
(a)
150,000
230,000
25 , 000
50,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(a ere -feet)
75,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
300 , 000
(a)
(a)
125,000
150,000
12,000
40,000
Range of
temperature
(°F)
53-67
43-178
(a)
57-81
44-65
58-63
(a)
52-62
57-62
60-70
57-67
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
33-175
82-833
109-1890
160-4870
29-417
194-2760
(a)
112-1090
116-392
66-472
70-522
(a) Not Determined.
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Table 2 Principal ground-water basins in the San Francisco Basin (79)
Sub-Basin
Potter Valley
Ukiah Valley
Sanel Valley
Alexander Valley
Santa Rosa Valley
Healdsburg Area
Petal uma Valley
Napa Valley
Sonoma Valley
Suisun -Fair field Valley
Clayton Valley
Ygnacio Valley
San Ramon Valley
Castro Valley
Santa Clara Valley
Livermore Valley
Sunol Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
13
65
10
35
150
30
127
230
150
259
30
32
31
4
584
170
20
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
10,000
35,000
20,000
50,000
1,000,000
70,000
208,000
300,000
180,000
226,000
180,000
200,000
(a)
(a)
1,580,000
400,000
(a)
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
40,000
80,000
50 , 000
(a)
(a)
783,000
200,000
(a)
Range of
temper attire
(°F)
64-66
55-60
(a)
63-64
60-89
66
63-64
52-110
64-140
52-61
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
65-74
64-67
(a)
Range of
dissolved
sol ids
(ppm)
140-1020
100-1030
143-327
220-1320
93-427
87-410
255-4300
118-11700
135-2800
155-5600
212-692
715-2330
(a)
(a)
203-3220
304-4814
(a)
(a) Not Determined.
-------
thickness from about 200 to 4,000 feet. Depending on local conditions,
recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per day to more
than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans and in stream
channels and at the outcrops of the deeper aquifers, The maximum
measured depth to water in the water-bearing deposits is 568 feet. In
several valleys there are flowing wells.
Total storage capacity of the 16 basins for which determinations have
been made is more than 20,000,000 acre-feet. The usable storage
capacity of the 18 basins for which determinations have been made is
more than 7,600,000 acre-feet? the limiting factors are sea-water
encroachment and high pumping life (80) . Ground-water temperature
generally ranges from 55° to 75°F.
Safe ground-water yield for the entire Central Coastal Basin is esti-
mated to be 900,000 acre-feet per year; an annual over-draft estimated
to be 70,000 acre-feet exists (5) . Some characteristics of the Cen-
tral Coastal Basin are given in Table 3.
South Coastal Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous South Coastal
Basin occurs in alluvium-filled valleys and coastal plains and in
deeper aquifers of Quaternary and Tertiary age. The intervening
mountainous areas are underlain by consolidated sedimentary, igneous,
and metamorphic rocks, mainly of Jfesozoic age. These older rocks con-
tain only small quantities of recoverable ground water and, therefore,
are not considered a major source of ground water.
In the South Coastal Basin, 44 areas have been identified as signifi-
cant sources of ground water. The total area of the 44 valley areas is
about 3,000 square miles. The water-bearing deposits range in thick-
ness from about 50 to 2,500 feet. Depending on local conditions, re-
charge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per day to more
than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans and in stream
channels and at the outcrops of the deeper aquifers . The maximum
measured depth to water in the water-bearing deposits is 799 feet. In
several valleys there are flowing wells (81) .
Water in storage (in 1965) in the basins for which determinations have
been made totals nearly 100,000,000 acre-feet. The usable storage
capacity was not determined for the largest basins but where determined,
is more than 800,000 acre-feet; the limiting factors are possible sea-
water intrusion, thin alluvial material, and locally, high pumping
lift. Ground water temperature ranges from about 55° to 90°F, but
locally is as high as 164°F (5) .
Safe ground-water field for the entire South Coastal Basin is estimated
to be 1.6 million acre-feet per year. There is no over-draft in the
basin as a whole; while over-draft occurs in local areas, it is
28
-------
Table 3 Principal ground-water basins in the Central Coastal Basin (80)
to
Sub-Basin name
Soquel-Aptos area
Pajaro Valley
Gilroy-Hollister Valley
Salinas Valley Pressure area
Salinas Valley eastside unit
Salinas Valley forebay and
Arroyo Seco cone
Upper Salinas Valley
Paso Robles
Cholame Valley
San Antonio River Valley
(Lockwood Valley)
Carrael Valley
Morro Bay Valley
San Luis Obispo Valley
Pismo Creek Valley
Arroyo Grande Valley
(Including Nipomo Mesa)
Santa Maria Valley
Cuyama Valley
San Antonio Creek Valley
Santa Ynez River Valley
Goleta Basin
Santa Barbara Basin
Carpinteria Basin
Carrizo Plain
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
100
142
348
192
132
305
82
907
22
93
12
17
15
12
45
206
229
86
206
16
15
12
269
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
Annual safe yield
932,000
(a)
690,000
2,380,000
(a)
6,800,000
(a)
1,000,000
(a)
112,200
67,000
30,000
380,000
2,000,000
2,100,000
1,200,000
2,000,000
180,000
(a)
140,000
400,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
21,000
800 , 000
(a)
412,000
900,000
(a)
1,700,000
(a)
500,000
(a)
14,700
10,000
5,000
140,000
1,000,000
400,000
300,000
1,000,000
17,000
281,000
19,000
100,000
Range of
temperature
(Op,
65-74
60-66
65-69
59-74
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
60-75
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
57-65
65-70
60-65
57-75
62-70
(a)
63-67
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
300-600
255-759
276-2560
251-3008
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
324 -767
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
234-3200
400-5000
306-3045
400-11000
738-1400
(a)
437-795
(a)
(a) Not Determined.
-------
compensated by artificial recharge in other areas. Some characteris-
tics of the South Coastal Basin are given in Table 4 .
San Joaquin Basin
Nearly all usable ground water in the San Joaguin Basin occurs in the
alluvium-filled San Joaquin Valley. The aquifer system throughout the
entire San Joaquin Valley is an integrated system.
•She San Joaquin Valley has a total area of core than 13,COO square
irj.les. Tne water-bearing deposits are as much as 3,500 feet thick.
Recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per day to about
3 feet per day over most of the valley floor and particularly on the
east periphery of the valley. The maximum measured depth to water in
the valley is 842 feet. The aquifer system of approximately 5,000
square miles in the west and central part of the basin is under arte-
sian pressure .
Total storage capacity of the San Joaquin Valley is 33 i-dllion acre-
feet. The usable storage capacity is 80 million acre-feet,- low
permeability in some areas is considered a limiting factor. Ground-
water temperature ranges from, about 45° to about 105 F (82) .
Safe ground water yield for the Basin is estimated to be 6,550,000
acre-feet per year. There is a great over-draft from this basin —
estimated to be 2,500,000 acre-feet annually (5) . See Table 5 for
details .
Sacramento Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous Sacramento
Basin occurs in alluvium-filled valleys and in volcanic rocks of
Quaternary and Tertiary age. In this sub-region 21 areas have been
identified as significant sources of ground water. The total area of
the 21 valley areas is about 6,150 square miles, 5,000 of which is
occupied by the Sacramento Valley. The water-bearing deposits range
in thickness from about 100 to 2,700 feet. Depending on local condi-
tions, recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per day to
more than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans and in
stream channels. The maximum measured depth to water is 306 feet. In
several valleys there are flowing wells .
Total storage capacity of the 17 basins for which determinations have
been made is nearly 55,000,000 acre-feet, of which more than 33,000,000
is in the Sacramento Valley. The usable storage capacity in the Sacra-
mento Valley is 22,000,000 acre-feet; the limiting factors are aquifer
materials of low permeability, water of inferior quality, and economic
considerations (83) . Ground-water temperature generally ranges from
55°F to 75 F as shown in Table 6 .
30
-------
Table 4 Principal ground-water basins in the South Coastal Basin (81)
Sub-Basin name
Ojai Valley
Ventura River Valley
Santa Clara River Valley and
Oxnard Plain
Acton Valley
Los Angeles -San Gabriel
River Hydrologic Unit
San Fernando Valley
San Gabriel Valley
Upper Santa Ana Valley
Orange County Coastal Plain
Cajalco Valley
Elsinore Valley
San Jacinto Valley
Bear Valley
San Juan Valley
San Mateo and San Onofre
Valley
Santa Margarita Valley
San Luis Rey Valley
Warner Valley
Escondido Valley
San Diego Coastal Drainage
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
13
12
460
13
505
205
202
653
357
2.5
10
246
37
13
6
82
37
44
16
78
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
76,000
20,000
15,600,000
40,000
29,360,000
3,400,000
10,440,000
16,660,000
15,800,000
(a)
27,000
6,110,000
65,700
655,000
20,500
525,000
240,000
550,000
24,000
310,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
26,000
5,000
(a)
16,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
22,350
8,000
20,500
525,000
50,000
55,000
12,000
98,800
Range of
temperature
(°F)
64-69
60-69
61-77
(a)
55-39
56-96
62-86
52-100
57-164
(a)
(a)
68-85
(a)
59-95
66-69
64-65
64-74
69-129
64-81
61-96
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
490-2189
327-3410
278-33488
324-584
144-34754
222-2128
107-1004
60-1900
138-36472
(a)
(a)
278-3914
(a)
285-3914
440-935
230-2200
83-14270
156-418
256-6934
164-22842
(a) Not Determined.
-------
Table 5 Principal ground-water basins in the San Joaquin Valley (82)
to
Basin name
San Joaquin Valley
Panoche Valley
Squaw Valley
Kern River Valley
Walker Basin Creek Valley
Gumming s Valley
Tehachapi Valley West
Castaic Lake Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
13,500
50
8
67
16
14
28
2
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -f e et)
93,000,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
80,000,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
temperature
(°F)
45-105
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
64-10,700
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a) Not Determined.
-------
Table 6 Principal ground-water basins in the Sacramento Basin (83)
Ul
Basin name
Goose Lake Valley
South Fork Pit River Valley
Jess Valley
Big Valley
Fall River Valley
Redding Basin
Lake Almanor Valley
Mountain Meadows Valley
Indian Valley
American Valley
Mohawk Valley
Sierra Valley
Upper Lake Valley
Scott Valley
Kalseyville Valley
High Valley
Burns Valley
Coyote Valley
Collayomi Valley
Sacramento Valley
Area of
Valley
floor
(sq mi)
75
93
9
103
100
513
7
10
20
7
8
137
15
4
31
3
2
6
7
5,000
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
1,000,000
7,500,000
(a)
3,750,000
1,000.000
(a)
45,000
(a)
100,000
50,000
90,000
7,500,000
10,000
5,000
105,000
9,000
4,000
27,000
29,000
33,570,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
5,000
4,500
60,000
900
1,400
7,000
7,000
22,000,000
Range of
temperature
<°F)
58-69
72
(a)
58
56-64
63-78
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
60-78
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
(a)
(a)
(a)
1,380
132
1,770
74-143
(a)
71-294
36-212
123-264
118-1390
76-407
(a)
165-617
161-650
126-397
109-239
-342
99-2790
(a) Not Determined.
-------
Safe ground-water yield for the entire Sacramento Basin is estimated
to be 1.6 million acre-feet per year; an annual overdraft estimated
to be 100,000 acre-feet exists (5) .
North Lahontan Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous North Lahon-
tan Basin occurs in scattered valleys filled with alluvium and material
of volcanic origin. The intervening mountainous areas are underlain by
igneous rocks of Mesozoic and Cenozoic age. Those rocks contain only
small' quantities of recoverable ground water and, therefore, are not
considered a major source of ground water.
In the North Lahontan Basin, eight valley-fill areas have been identi-
fied as significant sources of ground water. The total area of the
eight valleys is about 1,300 square miles. The water-tearing deposits
range in thickness from about 250 to 1,000 feet. Depending on local
conditions, recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per
day to more than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans and
in stream channels. The maximum measured depth to water in the water-
bearing deposits is 192 feet. In several valleys there are flowing
wells .
Total storage capacity of the seven basins for which determinations
have been made is nearly 23,000,000 acre-feet as given in Table 7. The
usable storage capacity has not been determined, but the limiting fac-
tor is poor water quality (84) . Ground-water temperature generally
ranges from 50° to 80°F, but has been observed locally as high as
1826F.
Safe ground water yield for the entire North Lahontan Basin is esti-
mated to be 60,000 acre-feet. There is no overdraft (5).
South Lahontan Basin
Most usable ground water in the predominantly mountainous South Lahon-
tan Basin occurs in scattered alluvium-filled valleys . The alluvium
consists generally of lenticular beds of unconsolidated to semicon-
solidated clay, silt, sand, and gravel of cenozoic age. The inter-
vening mountainous areas are underlain by consolidated sedimentary,
igneous, and metamorphic rocks, mainly of Mesozoic age or older. These
rocks contain only small quantities of recoverable ground water and,
therefore, are not considered a major source of ground water.
In the South Lahontan Basin, 50 valley-fill areas have been identified
as significant sources of ground water. The total area of the 50
valleys is more than 13,000 square miles. The water-bearing deposits
range in thickness from 30 to about 2,000 feet. Depending on local
conditions, recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per
day to more than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans
34
-------
Table 7 Principal ground-water basins in the North Lahontan Basin (84)
U1
Basin name
Surprise Valley
Madeline Plains
Willow Creek Valley
Honey Lake Valley
Tahoe Valley
Carson Valley
Topaz Valley
Bridgeport Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
350
270
20
490
21
20
36
100
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
4,000,000
2,000,000
(a)
16,000,000
84,000
100,000
340,000
280,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
temperature
C°F)
48-182
(a)
(a)
55-78
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
166-2000
(a)
(a)
170-1350
64-182
66-94
98-203
74-2030
(a) Not Determined.
-------
and in stream channels . The maximum measured depth to water in the
water-bearing deposits is more than 975 feet. In several valleys
there are flowing wells .
Total storage capacity of the 50 basins as shown in Table 8 is more
than 134,000,000 acre-feet. The usable storage capacity has been
determined only for Indian Wells Valley where it amounts to 720,000
acre-feet (85). Ground-water temperature generally ranges from 50
to 80°F, but has been observed locally as high as 137°P.
Safe ground-water yield for the entire South Lahontan Basin is esti-^
mated to be 300,000 acre-feet per year; an annual overdraft also esti-
mated to be 300,000 aere-feet exists (5).
Colorado Desert Basin
Most usable ground water in the Colorado Desert Basin occurs in
alluvium-filled valleys which occupy about half the basin. The
alluvium consists generally of lenticular beds of unconsolidated clay,
silt, sand, and gravel of Cenozoic age. The intervening mountainous
areas are underlain by consolidated sedimentary, igneous, and meta-
morphic rocks, mainly of Mesozoic age or older. These rocks contain
only small quantities of recoverable ground water and, therefore, are
not considered a major source of ground water.
In the Colorado Desert Basin, 45 valley-fill areas have been identi-
fied as significant sources of ground water. The total area of the
45 valleys is about 12,800 square miles. The water-bearing deposits
range in thickness from about 48 to 2,800 feet. Depending on local
conditions, recharge infiltrates at rates of less than 1-1/2 feet per
day to more than 10 feet per day in the upper part of alluvial fans
and in stream channels . The maximum measured depth to water in the
water-bearing deposits is 644 feet. In several valleys there are
flowing wells .
Water in storage (in 1965) in the 45 valleys totaled 158,000,000 acre-
feet and is given in more detail in Table 9 . The usable storage capa-
city has been determined only for Coachella Valley, where it amounts
to 3,600,000 acre-feet. Ground-water temperature generally ranges
from 60 to 90°F, but temperatures of more than 500°P have been ob-
served locally (36) . The dissolved-solids content of the water varies
greatly, depending on local conditions . Prior to importation of
Colorado River water, most water used in the Coachella Valley came
from ground water (87, 88) .
Safe ground-water yield for the entire Colorado Desert Basin is esti-
mated to be 100,000 acre-feet per year; an annual overdraft estimated
to be 200,000 acre-feet exists (5) .
36
-------
Table 8 Principal ground-water basins in the South Lahontan Basin (85)
Basin name
Mono Valley
Adobe Lake Valley
Long Valley
Owens Valley
Black Springs Valley
Fish Lake Valley
Deep Springs Valley
Eureka Valley
Saline Valley
Death Valley
Win gate Valley
Middle Amargosa Basin
Lower Kingston Valley
Upper Kingston Valley
RLggs Valley
Bad Pass Valley
Bicycle Valley
Avawatz Valley
Leach Valley
Pahrunj? Valley
Mesquite Valley
Ivanpah Valley
Kelso Valley
Broadwell Valley
Soda Lake Valley
Silver Lake Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
246
62
119
1,031
46
68
41
156
211
1,316
66
615
293
271
100
155
122
67
68
400
125
303
370
120
590
40
Total
storage
capacity
(a ere -feet)
3,400,000
320,000
160,000
12,000,000
230,000
320,000
740,000
2,070,000
2,430,000
11,200,000
870,000
6,800,000
3,390,000
2,130,000
1,190,000
870,000
1,710,000
580,000
650,000
690,000
580,000
3,090,000
5,350,000
1,220,000
9,300,000
380,000
Usable
s tor age
capacity
(acre-€eet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
temperature
(°F)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
69-104
(a)
(a)
(a)
70-?
(a)
(a)
76-?
(a)
(a)
70-?
66-70
68-?
(a)
73-?
56-83
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
60-2060
135-284
?-1500
100-400
(a)
220-365
? -200, 000
(a)
7-3760
300-10250
(a)
490-2300
5385-8540
344-1080
(a)
(a)
60S-?
(a)
(a)
176-841
300-5462
231-2228
272-570
470-1260
242-3350
1100-1740
-------
Table 8 con't. Principal ground-water basins in the South Lahontan Basin (85)
03
Basin name Area of
valley
floor
{sq mi)
Cronise Valley
Langford Valley
Coyote Lake Valley
Caves Canyon Valley
Troy Valley
Lower Mojave River Valley
Middle Mojave River Valley
Upper Mojave River Valley
El Mirage Valley
Antelope Valley
Tehachapi Valley East
Fremont Valley
Harper Valley
Golds tone Valley
Superior Valley
Cuddleback Valley
Pilot Knob Valley
Searles Valley
Salt Wells Valley
Indian Wells Valley
Coso Valley
Rose Valley
Darwin Valley
Panamint Valley
154
48
146
100
133
307
427
600
120
1615
22
331
514
27
172
130
204
251
34
519
52
61
70
365
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
1,000,000
760,000
1,470,000
1,150,000
2,170,000
5,100,000
5,420,000
8,540,000
1,760,000
5,400,000
138,000
4,800,000
6,460,000
210,000
1,750,000
1,380,000
2,460,000
2,140,000
320,000
5,120,000
390,000
820,000
„, 400,000
3,400,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
720,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
Range of dissolved
temperature solids
(°P) (ppm)
73-?
74-?
68-106
65-71
68-72
55-77
55-77
60-74
(a)
50-79
(a)
66-62
64-77
(a)
(a)
70-72
48-60
61-137
(a)
63-93
(a)
(a)
(a)
62-74
455-3130
472-634
312-2480
198-1270
278-3310
190-2340
145-3900
85-2760
320-14100
123-7700
338-567
349-28000
316-14700
? -1818
284-2260
375-4734
389-1510
11900-420000
? -22700
141-232000
(a)
350-1300
155-750
282-272000
(a) Not Determined.
-------
Table 9 Principal ground-water basins in the Colorado Desert Basin (86)
OJ
vo
Basin name
Lanfair Valley
Fenner Valley
Ward Valley
Rice Valley
Chuck walla Valley
Pinto Basin
Cadiz Valley
Bristol Valley
Dale Valley
Twentynine Palms-Deadman
Valley Area
La vie Valley
Means -Lucerne Valley Area
Moron go Valley
Coachella Valley
West. Salton Sea Valley
Coyote Creek -San Felipe
Valley Area
Coyote Wells Valley
Imperial Valley
Orocopia Valley
Chocolate Valley
East Salton Sea Valley
AHDS-Ogilby Valley
Yuma Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
275
720
774
297
872
306
428
710
262
660
36
570
14
692
286
500
103
1,869
139
120
453
441
168
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
3,000,000
5,600,000
8,700,000
2,280,000
9,100,000
230,000
4,300,000
7,000,000
2,000,000
4,900,000
270,000
4,600,000
100,000
39,000,000
(a)
6,800,000
1,700,000
14,700,000
1,500,000
1,000,000
360,000
5,800,000
4,600,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
3,600,000
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
teniperature
(°F)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
70-114
70-84
(a)
(a)
76-146
52-115
(a)
60-77
60-72
70-208
7-136
62-97
(a)
70-500
(a)
75-174
71-75
70-?
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
230-2,000
287 -872
394-21,600
661-2,690
274-12,300
123-827
615 -several
thousand
289-298,000
1,070-304,000
86-1,180
?-l,679
131-5,510
212-658
147-3,180
2,260-10,400
300-2,152
442-8,660
694-3,560
460-1,498
356-16,348
356-3,850
370-1,600
935-14,680
-------
Table 9 con't. Principal ground-water basins in the Colorado, Desert Basin (86)
Basin name
Arroyo Seco Valley
Palo Verde Valley and F&sa
Quien Sabe Point Valley
Calzona-Vidal Valley
Chemehuevis Valley
Needles Valley
Piute Valley
Area of
valley
floor
(sq mi)
427
476
39
314
440
136
273
Total
storage
capacity
(acre -feet)
7,000,000
11,800,000
230,000
3,100,000
4,700,000
1,100,000
2,400,000
Usable
storage
capacity
(a ere -feet)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
(a)
Range of
temperature
(°F)
72-84
70-?
(a)
73-90
70-?
(a)
(a)
Range of
dissolved
solids
(ppm)
330-1,692
856-11,000
(a)
450-1,060
351-1,094
831-1,600
(a)
(a) Not Determined.
-------
NEVADA
Nevada, with an area of approximately 70.7 million acres is the seventh
largest state. The average precipitation is less than any other state
and most of that occurs during the winter months. Only about 6% of the
land is under cultivation and the high altitude results in a wide daily
variation of temperatures.
In 1950, the water use in the state amounted to 1,600,000 acre-feet of
which 190,000 were from the ground-water. By 1956 the total water use
had risen to 2,300,000 acre-feet of which 530,000 acre-feet came from
the ground-water supply. The total average precipitation in the state
is 50 million acre-feet of which about 8% or 4 million acre-feet is
the average annual runoff. About half the runoff or 2 million acre-
feet end up recharging the ground-^water reservoirs of the state. By
1962 there were 5 valleys which were overdrawing their annual supply
and several others were using practically all of their annual supply.
As the demand for water becomes more acute, the ground-water basins of
the state will be required to supply more and more of the state "s water
needs. This is already evidenced by the increase from 190,000 acre-
feet per year in 1950 to 530,000 acre-feet per year in 1965. This
represents an increase of about 180% in fifteen years, or 12% increase
per year based on the 1950 figure.
There are a number of problems associated with developing the ground-
water in Nevada. The problems may be classified in a general way as
follows: (1) Natural supply and distribution. (2) Natural losses.
(3) Conservation and management. (4) Water quality, and (5) Legal.
The natural ground-water yield approaches about 2 million acre-feet.
In addition to the perennial yield there are 200 million acre-feet in
storage in the upper 100 feet of the saturation zone . One of the
problems in developing the stored ground-water, is the problem of
determining how far it is feasible to lower the ground-water table.
In some areas, the lowering of the ground-water would help control the
loss of water through phreatophytes . If the ground-water table is
lowered excessively, the pumping costs will rise thus increasing the
cost of water. Most of the water-bearing formations consist of fine
water-bearing materials and it is difficult to develop a well which
will produce large quantities of flow. The Sierra front and the
Humboldt River Basin have the best water supplies, while the southern
part of the state is very arid and already short of water in certain
areas .
There are approximately 3 million acres of phreatophytes in Nevada
which waste approximately 1-1/2 million acre-feet of water. This is
a substantial portion of the potential ground-water left to be develop-
ed in the state. In order to put this wasted water to beneficial
41
-------
use, methods will have to be found to salvage this water which is now
being lost to evapotranspiration. Eradication of phreatophytes also
poses the potential problem of increased erosion in some areas .
Many of the ground-water basins lie below closed basins with internal
drainage. The resulting accumulation of salts over large areas has
contributed to the mineralization of the ground-water underlying some
two million acres in the state. As a result of this mineralization,
development of ground-water may be severely restricted in many valleys
of the state.
The legal problems connected with ground-water development are numer-
ous and will continue to increase. The infringement of water rights
is already a problem in many areas . As the demand for water approaches
or exceeds the natural supply, the problem of preferential use among
dortestic, municipal, irrigation, and other uses will arise. Since
some ground^water basins are interconnected geologically and there is
flow between basins, there will be problems of water rights and water
management that will have to be solved. There are also a number of
ground-water basins which cross state boundaries, so as use of water
along boundaries increase, this problem will have to be resolved.
Nevada has been divided into 253 hydrographic areas which are essen-
tially valleys . Each valley is partly filled with alluvium which is
the principal storage reservoir for ground-water. These valleys have
become the basic social, economic and water development units in
Nevada. Most boundary lines of hydrographic ridges have been inter-
preted from the most detailed topographic maps available in 1967. The
size of the hydrographic areas range from 9 square miles to 2,182
square miles and the valley floor elevations range from 800 feet above
MSI, to 7,200 feet above mean sea level. There are 82 small hydrograph-
ic areas (1-200 square miles), 151 median sized areas (201-1,000
square miles) and 20 large areas (1,001-2,200 square miles) . These
hydrographic areas are grouped into 14 hydrographic areas . The large
scale unifying hydrographic features which were the general basis for
the areas fall into three broad categories: (1) drainage basins of
large regional streams, (2) drainage basins that have no large regional
streams, and (3) groups of mostly topographically closed valleys. The
areas vary in size from 106 square miles to 46,783 square miles. The
above areas have been combined into six hyclrologic basins as shown on
Figure 4.
Humboldt Basin
The average annual precipitation for this basin is 10 inches with an
estimated average runoff of 850,000 acre-feet. Most of the valleys
in this basin are underlain by alluvial deposits which act as under-
ground reservoirs, that are recharged by water seeping down from the
surface. The natural recharge in this region is estimated at 480,000
acre-feet. Based on the 1965 use level, there is still about 390,000
42
-------
HYOROL06IC BASIH BOUNDARIES
IN NEVADA
5 10 2O 3p MILES
PI&4-
43
-------
acre feet of ground water which could be developed annually. In addi-
tion to the natural ground water supply, water could be mined from the
upper 100 feet of the ground water reservoir. It is estimated that
over a 50 year period, this basin could produce an annual ground-water
supply of 870,000 acre feet from the upper 100 feet of the storage
reservoir. These figures indicate that there are over 1,000,000 acre
feet of water annually available for future development.
Central Lahontan Basin
The Central Lahontan Basin might be considered an arid region with an
average precipitation of only 8.4 inches. The average annual runoff
of 110,000 acre feet is lower than any other area in Nevada. The
average annual recharge to the ground water of 104,000 acre feet is
about the same as the surface runoff. As of 1965 about half of the
annual yield was already being used and so the potential of a stable
ground water supply is not very large. The upper 100 feet of the
ground water reservoir could be depleted at an average rate of about
320,000 acre feet per year for a 50 year period, but this would have
to be temporary and the annual cost of extraction would slowly rise as
a result of the falling water table.
Tonopah Basin
The average precipitation in this basin is about 9.5 inches per year.
The estimated runoff is on 290,000 acre feet and the annual average
recharge to the ground water is 680,000 acre feet. The annual use in
1965 was about 200,000 acre feet frora the ground water leaving a future
development potential of about 480,000 acre feet. Using an arbitrary
50 year period, the one-tins ground-water storage could be depleted at
an annual rate of 1,000,000 acre feet. This means that an additional
ground-water supply of about 1,500,000 acre-feet could be developed
in this basin .
Lower Colorado River Basin
In 1965, the ground-water puirpage in this part of Nevada was about
115,000 acre feet. However, the water is being pumped at a rate in
excess of the replenishment rate so that the water table is falling.
It is estimated that the ground water storage to a depth of 1200 feet
is 190 million acre feet so that the storage reserve is fairly large .
The water supply development in this area is from the ground water and
until there are new sources of water found, it seems that the one-
time ground water storage reservoir will continue to be the main source
of water in this area.
Great Salt Lake and Snake River Basins
Both of these basins are small and are low population regions so that
the ground water supply in these two areas is not considered to be very
44
-------
important at the present time, within the state of Nevada.
UTAH
Utah has an area of 84,916 square miles and an average precipitation of
11.5 inches. The precipitation varies from 5 inches or less in the
driest parts of the Great Basin to over 60 inches on some of the high-
est peaks of the Wasatch Mountains. The average annual runoff is 0.25
inches or less in the driest parts to about 20 inches or inore in the
highest mountains . Irrigation is the major water user in the state and
Table 10 shows the various uses of water in the year 1960.
Table 10 Water Use in Utah in 1960
Surface Water Ground Water Total
Use
Public
Rural
Acre -feet
per year
130,000
9,700
Mgd
120
8.7
Acre -feet
per year
110,000
12,000
Mgd
100
11
Acre -feet
per year
240,000
22,000
Mgd
220
20
Industrial:
Total 250,000 230 65,000 58 320,000 290
Public-utility
fuel-electric
power 35,000 77 — — 86,000 77
Irrigation 3,400,000 3,000 350,000 310 3,800,000 3,300
TOTAL 3,800,000 3,400 540,000 480 4,300,000 3,900
Of the 1,165,000 irrigated acres of land in 19^0, le^s than half had ^i
adequate water supply. However, since the average annual runoff is 8.2
rail lion acre feet per year (15) , there is still room for developnent in
Utah. In addition to the surface water supply, there are still many
areas where the ground water has not been fully developed so Utah has
a reasonable growth potential as far as her available ground water
supply is concerned. This potential is reflected by the fact that in
1970 the use of ground water rose to a total of 680,000 acre feet from
a total of 481 producing wells (89) . This represents an increase .
The hydrologic basin boundaries are shown on Figure 5. About half the
state (the western part), lies in the Great Basin which is a closed
basin and is rrenerally arid or semiarid as far as precipitation is
concerned. The eastern half of the state lies principally in the
Colorado River drainage basin. The Wasatch Range and the High Plateaus
of Utah form a belt of high land running down through the state basical-
ly separating the Great Basin and the Colorado River Basin . A very
45
-------
UPPER COUOKADO
RIVER
HYDROLOGC BAS/N &01/WARI&S
IN UTAH
O I^K 30 M
FlQ.S
46
-------
srrall area in the northwest corner of the state drains into the Snake
River Basin .
The principal supplies of ground water are found in the alluvial fill
of the valleys of the Great Basin and in alluvium along a few streams
in the Colorado Plateaus . Ground water is also found in the sedimen-
tary strata of the bedrock on the flanks of the Uinta Mountains in the
southeastern part of the Colorado Plateaus and in scattered areas
throughout the state .
Small quantities of ground water can be obtained from wells throughout
much of Utah, but large supplies that are of suitable chemical quality
for irrigation, public supply or industrial use, generally can be ob-
tained only in specific areas . Only a few wells outside of these areas
yield large supplies of water of good chemical quality.
Less than 2 percent of the wells in Utah obtain water from consolidated
rocks. The consolidated rocks that yield the most water are lava flows
such as basalt, which contains openings enlarged by solution; and sand-
stone, which contains interconnected openings between the grains that
form the rock . Most of the wells that tap consolidated rocks are in
the eastern and southern parts of the state, in areas where water
supplies cannot be readily obtained from unconsolidated rocks .
tore than 98 percent of the wells in Utah draw water from unconsolidat-
ed rocks. These rocks may consist of boulders, gravel, sand, silt, or
clay, or a mixture of some or all of these sizes. Wells obtain the
largest yields from the coarser materials that are sorted into deposits
of equal grain size. Most wells that tap unconsolidated rocks are in
large intermountain basins, which have been partly filled with debris
from the adjacent mountains.
Upper Colorado River Basin
The rocks of the Upper Colorado Basin which is located in Utah consist
of eight major geologic groups (11) based on general hydrologic proper-
ties, tost of the Colorado Plateau is made up of outcrops of shale,
siltstone, fine grained sandstone, igneous and metamorphic rocks and
these formations do not make good aquifers which produce large capacity
wells . Only about 4% of the area is covered, with exposed deposits of
unconsolidated materials and volcanic rock. It is this relatively
small area which has the potential of producing good wells. The ground
water storage in the upper 100 feet of aquifer is estimated at about
45 million acre feet with only 7 million acre feet in the area of high
permeability. No good estimate is available on the potential perennial
yield of the Utah part of the Upper Colorado River Basin .
About 40 to 45 thousand acre feet of water are withdrawn from the
ground water each year in this area. The principle uses are for irri-
gation, public supplies, domestic and stock use, and industrial use.
47
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Great Basin
This basin covers most of the western section of the state of Utah.
tost of this basin is covered with unconsolidated deposits of alluvial
fill which is often very thick and highly porous, The rest of the
area consists of various types of consolidated rocks which generally
have a low porosity .
No estimates are available for the perennial yield of this area but
some work has been done on evaluating the water in storage in the
Great Basin. In the upper 100 feet of the ground-water reservoirs in
the Utah part of the Great Basin, there is 71,900,000 acre feet of
water stored (7) . For development purposes, this would permit mining
the water at an annual rate of 1.4 million acre feet per year for 50
years .
The 1965 ground water withdrawal in the Great Basin of Utah was about
600,000 acre feet. The yield of an average well was about 1,000
g.p.m., although the flows varied from 10 to 8,600 g.pjn. Large capa-
city pumped wells account for the major part of the withdrawals . It
seems that there is a great potential for the development of ground
water in Utah, especially in the Great Salt Lake area of the Great
Basin .
Lower Colorado River Basin
Only a small part of the Lower Colorado River Basin is in Utah and that
is the Virgin River drainage basin . Only small amounts of ground
water are used in this area and the amount available for future devel-
opment is extremely limited. The ground water table is deeper than 500
feet in about 80% of the area and only about 5% in the valley of the
Virgin River is less than 200 feet from the surface of the ground.
Snake River Basin
Only a very small area in Utah lies in the Snake River Basin. Little
or no data are available for this area, but the area is so small that
it is believed that there are no significant ground-water supplies or
pollution problems in this area.
48
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SECTION V
GROUND WATER POLLUTION INDICATORS
Ground water is one of the most widely distributed resources of man and
one of the most important. It is subject to natural and man-made pol-
lution and since it is so valuable to man's existence, everything pos-
sible should be done to preserve this resource. In order to evaluate
the ground water pollution problem, one must have some understanding of
the indicators which reflect a condition of pollution. In addition to
a knowledge of the indicators, it is necessary to understand something
about the critical concentrations of a given indicator which will begin
to make the water unfit for certain beneficial uses. It is also impor-
tant to know something about the processes which result in the pollu-
tion of the ground water by the various indicators.
Ground water pollution is generally determined by the presence of some
or many of the following indicators:
1. Chemical indicators -Total dissolved solids, chlorides,
sulphates, calcium, manganese, fluorides, sodium, iron, boron,
nitrates, phosphates, and others.
2. Biological indicators - Coliform organisms, biochemical
oxygen demand, viruses, bacteria, and etc.
3. Industrial indicators - pesticides, herbicides, acids,
arsenic, heavy metals, detergents, phenols, gasoline, and
many others .
The above list is only a partial one but it does demonstrate the exten-
siveness and the complexity of the ground-water pollution problem. It
should also be pointed out here that many of the pollution indicators
are principally a result of man's living habits and his activities,
while many of the same indicators get into the ground water through
natural processes not affected much by man and his activities.
A pollutant may be undesirable because of it*s toxicity—such as
arsenic for humans and animals, boron for agricultural crops—or be-
cause of a specific undesirable characteristic related to a specific
use—such as "hardness" in boiler waters or the laundry industry, it
may be undesirable because of a specific pollutant, as mentioned above,
or because of the combined effect of a number of pollutants, such as
the effect of total dissolved solids in agricultural and other uses.
A pollutant may be objectionable in relation to one specific use yet
not for others. Undetected pollutants may be present in any water,
since waters are usually monitored and tested only for known or
suspected pollutants .
49
-------
In the region under study much of the area is arid or semiarid and the
soils are relatively high in many minerals, especially the chlorides,
sulphates and carbonates of potassium, calcium, magnesium, and sodium.
The soils are neutral or alkaline in reaction . During the weathering
process large amounts of soluble salts may result from the parent rocks
Arid climates involve both low rainfall and humidity. When the rain-
fall does come, evaporation is rapid and there is little leaching of
the soil. As a result, the arid soils remain richer in many of the
mineral constituents than do soils in humid regions where leaching is
a regular process (15) .
Arid soils are also characterized by an accumulation of calcium car-
bonate at some point in the soil profile. This zone of accumulation
of calcium carbonate is closely related to rainfall, both total amount
and seasonal distribution. At some locations, the calcium carbonate
accumulations become solidified causing hard layers which may limit
root penetration and impede drainage. Salt accumulation is more severe
in the lower-lying areas of drainage basins because more water is
generally evaporated from the lower areas . The higher concentrations
of salts in the arid soils tend to increase the potential of the
mineral pollution of the ground water which lies below.
The process of mineral accumulation in the soil is known as mineraliza-
tion. It is usually associated with restricted drainage.
Sodium salts generally predominate in the early stages of mineraliza-
tion. Calcium carbonate and calcium sulfate are less soluble so they
accumulate more slowly . Alkalization takes place when the sodium ions
replace the cations previously adsorbed on the soil particles. As the
percentage of exchangeable sodium is increased, the soil becomes more
alkaline in reaction. Salinization deals mainly with, the total
dissolved salts while alkalinization principally involves the amount
of exchangeable sodium present.
In the western states there are many areas where salts have accumulated
in the soils so that large areas have become saline or alkaline in
nature. When excessive rains or irrigation applications cause water
to flow down through those soils to the ground water basin below, some
of these high concentrations of salts are leached out and. carried into
the ground water reservoir. Table 11 lists the extent of this type of
problem in eighteen states, and the four states included in the study
of this report are underlined.
Various standards of water quality are used depending upon the use of
the water. Standards for irrigation, domestic and a number of indus-
trial uses have been formulated by various agencies (90, 91} . Details
of some of the standards applicable to various uses are presented in
the Appendix of this report.
50
-------
Table 11 Saline or alkaline areas in eighteen western states 1960 (90)
State
Arizona
California
Colorado
Hawaii
Idaho
Kansas
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Mexico
North Dakota
Oklahoma
Oregon
South Dakota
Texas
Utah
Washington
Wyoming
Total
Irrigable
acreage
1,565,000
11,500,000
2,911.532
117,418
1,880,063
421,545
1,242,728
1,218,385
1,121,916
850 ,000
2,636,500
826,650
1,490,394
1,697,974
2,198,950
1,390,222
2,221,484
1,261,132
Salt-free
Acres
1,166,170
7,755,049
1,829,704
71,863
1,627,118
319,215
1,045,057
928,385
646,316
659,000
1,819,870
632,900
1,387,033
501,708
1,923,096
877,440
1,955,230
981,429
%
74.5
67.4
65.1
61.2
86.5
75.7
84.1
76.2
57.6
77.5
69.0
76.6
93.1
29.5
87.5
61.1
88.0
77.8
Saline or alkaline
Acres
398,830
3,744,951
931,828
45,550
252,945
1 02 , 330
197,671
290,000
475,600
191,000
816,630
193,750
103,361
1,196,266
275,854
512,782
266,254
279,703
%
25.5
32.6
34.9
38.8
13.5
24.3
15.9
23.8
42.4
22.5
31.0
23.4
6.9
70.5
12.5
36.9
12.0
22.2
TOTAL
36,451,893
26,126,588
71 .6
10,325,305
28.4
-------
The information presented in the paragraphs which follow represents a
summary of measured pollution indicators for which data are available
to us . It 's presentation here does not imply any level of statistical
significance nor any degree of adequacy of the data in a quantitative
sense. Rather, it is intended to give a general indication of the
pollutants which have been detected and measured within the study area,
Arizona
There are many measured indications of ground water pollution through-
out the entire state of Arizona. The most common of the measured indi-
cators, (mineralization of the ground water) is found in all of the
.waters of the state. The type of mineral, the amount, and the time
distribution vary considerably. There is often considerable variation
in the amount of mineralization in waters from different depths . Dis-
tribution of high concentrations of total dissolved solids in the
ground waters of Arizona is shown in Figure 6. This figure indicates
that there are a number of areas in Arizona where the mineralization
os tiie ground water exceeds 1000 mg/1.
I
Hardness of water is a problem in many areas in Arizona. Fluorides in
excessive amounts are also found in many Arizona ground waters . Ex-
cessive hardness and. fluorides become a problem when the water is to
be used for drinking water.
A discussion of measured indicators of pollution in each of the hydro-
logic basins of Arizona is presented in the paragraphs belc;vT.
CENTRAL GTIA RIVER AND ADJOINING MEXICAN DRAINAGE
Mineralization
The ground waters of this basin are among the most heavily used in t/.'i
whole project area. TLie Salt River Valley is one of the major nydro-
logic units in this basin and its nane is the result of the character
of the water and soil. Most of the ground water basins in this
drainage area are over-developed and yield water which is highly
mineralized (17, 19, 92, 21). Serious problems were recognized more
than twenty years ago by McDonald (20) . Measurements of total dis-
solved soilds show many wells yielding water in excess of 3000 p.p.m.
The salt content of ground waters is generally quite variable; with
wells at the center of heavy water using areas often showing highest
concentrations of salts, and those near the outer edge maintaining good
quality. Range of total dissolved solids varies from about 200 (not
many wells are this low in TD3) to above 7000 p.p.m., and are very
commonly between about 700 and 2000 p.p.m. The deeper aquifers usually
yield water of higher quality than the shallow ones. Ground water
levels are declining and the concentration of total dissolved solids is
generally increasing throughout the basin. At many locations, the
sodium content of the water is high.
52
-------
0 5 ^&> 3OfHl*S
AREAS OF MINERAUZ£D
WATER
FIG. 6
53
-------
Fluoride
This basin has a fluoride problem, at many locations throughout the
basin. The problem appears to be greatest in the south portions of the
basin, with a measurement of 9 p.p.m. being reported on the Papago
Indian Reservation by Heindl (93) . Concentrations in excess of 1.5
p.p.m. are found at many locations throughout the basin. As indicated
by the drinking water standards in Table A-2 these concentrations are
very hi gh.
Boron
Boron does not seem to be a great problem in this basin. Concentra-
tions up to about one part per million have been noted in the southern
part of the area.
Nitrate
Nitrate concentrations in excess of 100 p.p.m. are common in the Salt
River Valley, especially in the Phoenix metropolitan area; and in the
Upper Santa Cruz area near Tucson (94, 24, 27, 21).
Heavy Metals
Some indications of heavy metals in the ground water have been noted
in the area of Phoenix and Tucson—zinc, chromium, and cadmium—but
the problem has apparently been solved.
UPPER GILA RIVER AND ADJOINING MEXICAN DRAINAGE
Mineral!zation
Mineralization of ground water in this basin is somewhat variable,
being high in the San Pedro, Willcox, and Safford sub-basins? and
generally not so high in the others, many of which are not over-
developed from a ground water point of view.
Fluorides
Fluorides in ground water are above the recommended limit for domestic
water in many parts of this basin .
LOWER GILA RIVER BASIN
Min era! iz ati on
Ground waters in this basin are very highly mineralized. In the Well-
ton-Mohawk area, ground waters are pumped for drainage purposes only,
and total dissolved solids run as high as 18,000 p.p.m. In the Palo-
mas Plain, concentrations as high as 5000 p.p.m. have been measured.
54
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Most waters have high sodium content.
Fluoride
Fluoride concentrations in excess of the recommended limit are found
at many locations .
Boron
Excessive concentrations of boron are found in this basin, especially
in the Dateland area.
Lithium
Several samples of water in the Dateland-Hyder area contained excessive
lithium, according to Weist (70).
COLORADO RIVER BASIN
Most of the ground water potential in this basin is located along the
lower main stem of the river, in the alluvial material. This basin, as
arbitrarily designated for this report also includes some lands of the
Colorado Plateau in northern Arizona, and considerable desert area
which drains into the Colorado River. Because of these wide differ-
ences in the area included in this basin, the quality of ground water
also varies considerably.
Mineralization
Although there are many wells in the Yuma area which yield good quality
water, there are also many which have total dissolved solids content
from 1000 to 5000 p.p.m. In the Ranegrass Plain, the waters generally
have fairly high total dissolved solids—up to about 4000 p.p.m. In
the Big Sandy Valley (95) the waters are generally of good quality,
but some of the shallow waters are quite saline. Water in the King-
man area is generally good, with maximum TDS of 750 having been
me as ure d.
Fluoride
High concentrations of fluoride have been noted in the Ranegrass Plain
and Big Sandy Valley.
LITTLE COLORADO RIVER BASIN
Mineralization
The waters of this basin come mainly from the sandstone between the
Itogollon Rim and the Little Colorado River. These waters are of good
quality near the Mogollon Rira but increase in salinty as they move
55
-------
toward the river. At some locations the total dissolved solids are as
high as 70-0 p.p.m., and the water must be diluted with river water
before it can be used for irrigation.
California
There is considerable variation in ground water quality in the state of
California. Quality deterioration through the accumulation of salts of
various kinds must rank as the most important of all of the pollution
factors. Many other indicators of pollution have been noted at various
locations throughout the state. Distribution of high concentrations of
total dissolved solids in the ground waters of California is shown in
Figure 7. A detailed discussion of each of the nine hydrologic basins
of the state follows. Data and general information in this portion of
the report are taken mainly from reports of the Water Resources Coun-
cil, the U.S. Geological Survey, and various reports of the California
Department of Water Resources (5, 6, 77, 96) and others specifically
cited in the following paragraphs.
NOR1H COASTAL BASIN
This basin is the only portion of the entire area covered by this re-
port which does not have an arid climate . The climatic effects on
natural mineral accumulations in the ground water described above are
evident here, and the extent of mineralization is limited in most
parts of this basin. The basin is sparsely populated, and the man-
made pollution is also quite limited.
Mineralization
The mean annual precipitation in most parts of this basin is more than
40 inches. The soils of the basin have, therefore, been subjected to
leaching action over a long period and much natural-occurring salt
has been washed from them. Where natural drainage exists, the ground
waters are of generally high quality. Even in this basin some miner-
als are present in excessive amounts at some locations . At several
locations along the coast (near Eureka) ground water pumpage has
caused sea water intrusion into the fresh water aquifers . in the
northeastern part of this basin near the Oregon border, the climate
is arid and ground water deterioration exists in several small areas
in the Klamath River drainage . There are scattered locations of ex-
cessive total dissolved solids, boron, iron, and manganese. Limited
measured data are available»• Summaries of some measured data are
presented in Table 12 . Ground water mineralization in selected areas
is discussed below.
In Scott River Valley, the ground water is generally magnesium or
calcium bicarbonate in type, moderately to very hard, meets chemical
standards for drinking water and is generally suitable for irrigation .
56
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AREAS OF MtNEMUZEO
&ROUHO WATER IN CM-WRHIA
F16.7
57
-------
in
ao
Table 12 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - North Coastal Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. H, M, and L
refer to high, mean, and low values from original report. The number of tests
used in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
•total
Dissolved
Solids ,
Chlorides,
mg/1
Sulfates,
mg/1
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
Boron,
mg/1
Sodium
%
mg/1
Soott River Valley
Eureka Plain
Eel River Valley
Smith River Plain
Mad River Valley
H
263
516
2756
161
418
M
262
140
572
140
219
L
261
93
194
114
70
H
3
112
1170
33
92
M L
2 1
22 13
184 8
24 8
18 11
H
14
6
79
4
21
M
9
4
28
1
1
L
5
o'
20
0
0
H
268
196
1102
122
249
M
217
84
306
60
130
L
22
39
149
23
21
H M
0.1 0
1.5 0
0.1 0
0.0 0
0.5 0
L
.1 0.1
.0 0.0
.1 0.0
.0 0.0
.0 0.0
H
4
75
41
42
78
M L
4 4
40 24
25 9
28 12
33 10
Round Valley
(Upper Eel River)
333 191 140
41 12 6 2
306 135 113
0.1 0.0 0.0 29 27 21
-------
In the Eureka Plain, the ground water is bicarbonate in type with
magnesium the predominant cation . The water is moderately hard and
generally of good chemical quality suitable for most beneficial uses.
In a few wells, the boron content is sufficiently high that the water
is unsuitable for irrigation of most crops .
In the Eel River Valley, ground water is generally magnesium-sodium
bicarbonate in type, of good chemical quality suitable for most uses.
Higher mineral content is found near the Eel River estuary. Ground
water in the Mad River Valley is moderately to very hard, and high
chloride and total dissolved solids content along the coast gives
evidence of sea water intrusion.
In Shasta River Valley and some of the upstream closed basins show
total dissolved solids at some locations so high as to render the water
unsuitable for various uses.
Iron
In the Smith River Plain, iron concentrations in excess of 0.3 mg/1 (the
limit for drinking water recommended by the U.S. Public Health Service)
are found throughout the area. In the Mad Fiver Valley, a high total
iron concentration occurs throughout the valley. In Round Valley, the
high iron concentrations render untreated water objectionable for
domestic use.
SAN FRANCISCO BAY BASIN
This basin is a fast growing metropolitan area which has experienced
intensive ground water development. Ground water is used for municipal,
industrial and agricultural purposes. In areas immediately bordering
the Bay, extremely high salt concentrations are found. The major
metropolitan areas now import their water from great distances—mostly
from the Sacramento, Mokelumne and Tuolumne River Basins. Much of the
imported water is used to re-charge the aquifers being used as a
ground water supply in the San Francisco Bay Basin, in an effort to
"repel" the sea water intrusion which appears to be the major cause of
the high salinity.
Mineralization
A summary of available 1965 measurements of mineral pollutants in ground
water in a number of the sub-basins draining into San Francisco Bay is
shown in Table 13.
The mineral quality of the native ground water of this basin is
generally fairly good, except in areas where the ground water has been
degraded by salt water intrusions. The water in this basin is quite
variable in hardness,, being soft in some locations and very hard in
others .
59
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o
Table 13 Summary of Minerals in Groxind Water at Selected Locations - San Francisco Bay Basin
Adapted fror* Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. H, K, cuid L refer
to high, mean, and low values from original report. The number of tests used in
calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
Chlorides,
mg/1
Sulf ates,
mg/1
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
Boron,
mg/1
Sodium
%
mg/1
Ukiah Valley
Santa Rose
East Bay
South Bay
Livermore Valley
Petaluma Valley
Napa Valley
Sonoma Valley
Suisun-Fairfield
Valley
H
1230
560
4100
1750
4700
19760
1340
660
2560
M
207
244
550
336
554
2384
510
300
970
L
137
151
274
226
368
127
90
270
250
H
513
124
1480
698
2130
10014
610
129
943
K
7
20
88
25
88
152
89
43
132
L
4
5
12
6
30
18
4
17
26
H
55
60
452
162
434
1066
—
48
—
M
6
5
52
45
56
32
-
6
-
L
0
0
15
9
13
3
-
5
-
H
277
294
2100
778
983
8820
—
149
377
M
132
112
275
242
356
380
121
54
3191
L
76
40
18
96
93
35
1
17
98
H
63
0.5
4.8
2.4
62
2.0
11
4.8
18
H
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.6
0.3
0.1
0.9
1 .2
-U
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.3
H K
86 23
63 31
91 31
59 22
90 26
83 61
92 74
79 45
L
12
19
12
12
14
27
24
34
-------
In the Livermore Valley the ground water at some locations has become
so highly mineralized that the state has established controls on saline
discharges. A water softener business has moved out of the valley be-
cause it can no longer dispose of the regeneration water in the valley.
Hone-regenerated units are also being phased out (97) . This is the
result of the fact that there is no ground water leaving tie valley
at any time and wastes such as these degrade the ground waters, al-
ready high in total dissolved solids, even further.
Extremely high concentrations of dissolved solids have been recorded
in Pataluma Valley, undoubtedly caused by sea water intrusions.
Nitrates
Excessive concentrations of nitrate have been measured in the Liver-
more Valley according to Dirker (97) . Some wells in the Santa Clara
Valley also indicate nitrate content in excess of 45 p.p.m. (S8) . It
is presumed that other ground waters in this area also contain high
concentrations of nitrate, especially since there are extensive urban
areas and sewage and refuse disposal areas in this region, but no
records of such concentrations are available to us.
CENTRAL COASTAL BASIN
Surface drainage of this basin is quite limted. Because of the
limited elevation of the mountains of these drainages, many of the
surface streams are intermittent. None are snow-fed, and water
supplies are very limited much of the time . As a result, the ground
water supplies are generally preferred both for municipal and agricul-
tural purposes . The ground water has been severely over-developed,
as was pointed out in the previous chapter, and much of the surface
water is used to re-charge the ground water aquifers. Several reser-
voirs on the surface streams of the basin function primarily for flood
control and for temporary storage of waters which are used to replenish
the ground water supplies. Approximately 90% of the water needs of
this basin are met by ground water. Quality of the water varies
greatly.
Mineralization
High concentrations of salt have shown up in a number of walls particu-
larly in the Santa Ynez River Valley and in the inland Carrizo Area
in the southern part of the basin. A summary of 1965 observations of
some mineral constituents in the ground water is shown in Table 14 .
In the Pajaro River sub-basin (99) there are many instances of wells
showing chlorides in excess of 5000 p.p.m. The sane is true for some
of the J coastal areas in San Luis Obispo County, with total dissolved
solids also proportionately high (100, 101) . Investigations in the
Santa Maria River Valley (102, 103), in the Upper Salinas Basin (104) ,
61
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Table 14 Surairary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - Central Coastal Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6) , data as of 1965. H, K, and L
refer to high, irean, and low values from original report, The number of tests
used in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location Total
Dissolved
solids,
Chlorides,
ng/1
Sulfates,
rag/1
Total
Hardness ,
mg/1
Boron ,
rag/1
Sodium
%
mg/1
H
Pajaro Valley* 1310
Gilroy-flol lister
Basin 1480
San Luis Obispo
en Kydrologic Unit 3024
Carrizo Hydro -
logic Unit 10460
Santa Karia-Cuyarra
Hydro logic Unit 5088
San Antonio Hydro -
logic Unit 4070
Salinas Valley 3134
Carmel Valley 729
Paso Robles Basin 3280
Santa Ynez Hydro -
logic Unit 21300
Santa Barbara Hy-
clrologic Unit 2487
M
380
770
688
1011
1506
693
550
462
555
1035
645
L
194
250
92
418
250
385
222
252
241
288
380
H
526
381
1039
1525
374
1170
890
159
890
11550
797
M
46
88
91
73
42
110
89
67
65
201
70
L
13
15
14
31
7
63
12
26
12
9
11
H
185
463
545
5264
2956
1022
1276
131
1276
1653
720
M
77
239
110
395
650
136
133
103
131
262
170
L
5
170
3
63
8
11
2
68
7
0
0
H
764
1030
1151
3150
2656
1330
1483
425
1483
4766
1119
M
238
540
405
423
922
293
324
273
279
527
363
L
68
95
35
143
15
189
70
146
70
224
161
H
1.5
18
0.64
16.5
2.5
3.2
2 .5
0.1
2.5
2.3
7.7
M
0.1
0.8
0.08
0.85
0,23
0.13
0.2
C.I
0.3
C . 36
0.21
L
0
0
0
0.1
0
0.02
0
0
•-\
w
0.02
0.01
H
38
68
69
88
i*6
58
59
40
39
78
30
K L
27 20
34 14
28 6
50 25
19 14
34 29
35 18
31 26
32 7
28 4
30 17
* Does not include analyses of saitples taken from wells in the areas of sea water intrusion, which
show chloride content of several wells above 5000 p.p.m.
-------
the Carinel River Basin (105) , and in the Lompoc Basin (106) all report
mineralization and other water qtiality problems.
Nitrates
Some excessive nitrates have been measured at many locations in this
basin. More than 230 samples from about 100 different wells have
shown nitrate concentrations in excess of 45 p.pan. (107) . Much of
the nitrate moves with the soil moisture to the ground water as
reported by Stout, et al (108) .
Boron
Boron is not a great problem in this basin, with anounts toxic to
agricultural plants only showing in a limited number of wells.
Fluoride
Very few samples of ground water indicate fluoride concentrations
in excess of the minimum recommended values.
Other Pollutants
Ground water in the San Lorenzo River Watershed has been reported
(109) to have a high iron content, This basin has a considerable
amount of oil production. The activities associated with drilling
and production of oil entail the handling of brines and waste oil.
Undoubtedly there are instances of pollution from these sources, but
the regulatory agencies maintain careful monitoring of these activities
ilo published reports of measured pollutants from these sources are
available to us .
SOUTH COASTAL BASIN
The ground water in this basin is subject to heavy use and re-use.
This basin includes the Los Angeles and San Diego metropolitan areas.
The area is heavily dependent upon ground water supplies to supplement
the imported water . Water is imported fron the Colorado River and the
Owens Valley (in the South Lahontan Basin) . When the California
Aqueduct is completed, water will also be imported from the Sacramento
Basin.
Mineralization
The accumulation of dissolved minerals in the ground water is one of
the greatest problems of this basin. This basin is already subjected
to nore water quality management than any other part of the project
area. Ground water replenishment has been practiced in this basin for
many years, and at the present there are several fresh water "barriers"
created by injection underground of water, relatively free of dissolved
63
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minerals, to serve as a barrier against sea water intrusion. Much of
the water used for the barrier is storm drainage or domestic, indus-
trial or agricultural waste water which has already been through the
use cycle one or more times and may, itself, have a relatively high
salt content. This exemplifies the problem which faces much of this
basin, since the ground water is progressively accumulating more and
more dissolved minerals. Mineral quality is quite variable throughout
this basin. Near the ocean, many wells contain extremely high concen-
trations of dissolved solids, especially chlorides. A summary of
minerals at selected locations as of 1965 is shown in Table 15 . Many
waters are extremely hard, as will be seen from the table . It should
be noted that the information in the table represents measurements
from many locations and is the result of an extensive monitoring system,
This basin has probably been studied more thoroughly than any other
part of the project area. Problems of mineralization are very critical
in this Lasin. See (110) (111) .
In the Santa Ana River Basin, the salt balance problems have been
investigated quite thoroughly (112, 113, 114, 115) . The limited ground
water resources of the coastal plain south of the Santa Ana River Basin
have been overdeveloped in several areas and the water quality has
declined in a number of locations (116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122,
123, 124, 125, 12S). Severe deterioration of water in Ventura County
was evident as early as 1956 (127) .
Boron
Excessive concentrations of boron exist at a number of locations
throughout this basin . In some areas a nigh boron content is found
near the coast, whereas in others, it is found in the inland valleys.
It is a special problem in the Riverside-San Bernardino area. This
area has in the past been a heavy producer of citrus fruit. Citrus
is very sensitive to boron--sorne agricultural experts indicate that
concentrations of 0.5 p.p.m. are toxic to some citrus varieties. Boron
concentrations are increasing in the Riverside and other areas (128),
and citrus production has decreased in recent years, partly due to
the boron content of the water. Concentrations in excess of 0.5 p .p .m.
exist at many localities.
Nitrates
Throughout this basin there are scattered instances of excessive nitro-
gen in ground water. Quite a number of samples indicate nitrates in
excess of 45 p.p.m. However, it is not believed to be a general prob-
lem, in any of the sub-basins, but rather a localised problem associated
with a particular well at a particular time . In some areas of heavily
fertilized agricultural land, as for example on some Riverside citrus
land, quite high nitrates have been found moving into the ground water
(129) .
64
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Ul
Table 15 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - South Coastal Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. H, M, and L
refer to high, mean, and low values from original report. The number of tests
used in calculation of the mean is not available .
Location
Mission Basin
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
mg/1
H M L
13930 1740 709
Chlorides,
mg/1
H ML
6560 500 192
Sulf ates,
mgA
H M L
894 300 99
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
H M L
2532 883 366
Boron ,
mg/1
H M L
0.80 0.17 0
Sodium
%
H M L
75 38 a
San Disguito
Valley
Tia Juana Valley
Oxnard Plain Area
West Coast Basin
East Coastal
Plain
Main San Gabriel
Valley
Chino Basin
Perris Valley
27402 1956 271 13634 684 80 2536 419 25 9165 725 72 12.70 0.48 0.10 83 51 2
4680 2912 1099 1849 1012 346 944 348 186 1770 978 254 0.71 0.46 0.19 75 56 45
33180 1050 289 15927 100 21 4538 381 33 8670 591 39 7.90 0.68 0.10 82 30 4
41397 620 176 22800 560 15 3280 290 0 8482 697 9 3.30 0.15 0.05 97 60 4
41800 395 160 22270 60 10 2849 67 0 8792 228 14 7.20 0.07 0.02 94 37 17
1140 319 161 138 20 4 317 38
1417 287 132 153 10 2 468 26
11620 752 249 5960 259 49 643 38
7 718 238 121
5 835 208 13
5 4228 254 34
0.55 0.06 0 44 15 7
1.35 0.03 0 89 19 7
7.90 0.57 0.05 93 51 32
-------
Fluorides
Fluoride concentrations in excess of one part per million have been
found at a few scattered locations throughout this basin . Fluoride
in ground water is not a Eiajor problem in this basin.
Gasoline
In September, 1968, gasoline was detected in at well at Forest Lawn
Memorial Gardens in Los Angeles . Drilling and other tests conf irmed
that the gasoline pollution area was quite widespread and threatened
many wells in the area (130) . Details of investigation into the
causes, and of the remedial action taken is given in the next section
of this report.
Others
There are undoubtedly other pollutants in ground water of this basin .
The waters of this basin are heavily used and re-used with much water
being injected underground to increase the ground water supply, thder
these conditions, the addition of pollutants is quite possible.
However, no reports of other pollutants are available to us. Minerali-
zation is a great problem, and far over-shadows the others .
SAM JOAQUIN BASIN
This is a large basin with an arid climate. The southern portion of
the basin—the Tulare sub-basin—has very limited drainage to the.-north
in most years. As a result, the mineralization of the ground is in-
creasing with time. Imported water from the Feather River project,
being of higher quality, may decrease the rate of degradation. Pre-
sent and future expected drainage from the valley floor lands under
irrigation is and will be of such poor quality that the water resource
plans for the valley include a "master drain" to convey the drainage
water from the valley, thus limiting the flow of drainage waters into
the San Joaquin River. Ground waters of this basin show considerable
fluctuation in quality, with the poorer quality resulting during times
of drouth when the quantity of water is decreased.
Mineralization
The total dissolved solids in the ground water exceed the maximum per-
missible limits for many uses at various times at many locations
throughout this large valley. Extreme hardness is a problem at many
locations . High chlorides and total dissolved solids have been noted
in the oil field areas north of Bakersfield near the Kem River. Ex-
cessive sodium content of the ground water is a problem in some areas .
When the sodium is in exchangeable form it often presents a particular
problem in irrigation and drainage of agricultural lands as described
previously. A summary of limited information on tine minerals in
66
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this basin as of 1965 is shown in Table 16 .
It may be noted from the tabulated data that water in the Salt Slough-
Los Banos Creek area has a rather high total dissolved solids content.
Saline water from wells in the Stockton area was reported in 1955
(131) . ^
Deep in the alluvium of the San Joaquin Valley there are bodies of
highly saline old marine waters, referred to by some as connate waters.
Not many wells go into this salty water, but the U.S. Geological Survey
is preparing a report outlining the base of the fresh water in the
valley. This report is expected to be available late in 1971 or early
in 1972.
Boron
Boron is a problem at many locations in the San Joaquin Valley. Drain-
age water from the agricultural lands in the west side of the valley
often contain as much as 10 to 15 p.p.m. of boron. There is also a
boron problem on the east side of the valley near Bakersfield. The
boron problem is usually greatest in waters derived from or associated
with the coastal range of mountains (132) .
Nitrates
The San Joaquin Valley is heavily fertilized. It is a rich agricul-
tural area, but the drainage waters, especially on the west side of
the valley, are highly mineralized and often contain high boron as
mentioned above. These waters also contain high nitrate concentra-
tions . Most of these pollutants percolate with the water into the
deeper ground water aquifers of the valley, and thus have considerable
effect on the water quality. According to Pratt (129), the nitrogen
is not tied up in the soil (by nitrification) except in the surface
organic layer. The nitrates move into the ground water along with
other dissolved constituents. Heavy nitrate concentrations have
shown up in the area around Fresno. Done en (133) reported on presence
and movement of nitrates into the ground waters . High nitrate con-
centrations have been reported in the Fresno area (134, 135) and in
the Delano area (136) .
Arsenic
In a relatively small area west of Fresno, arsenic has been found in
the ground water in an amount up to ten times the limit recommended by
the U.S. Public Health Service. Lofgren (137) believes that the
arsenic in this area was forced out of deep clays compressed by the
action of land subsidence in this particular area. A considerable
subsidence problem does exist at this location. lofgren has been
involved in studies of the land subsidence here for many years .
67
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Table IS Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - San Joaquin Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. K, M, and
L refer to high, mean and low values from original report. The number of tests
used in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
San Joaquin County
Crows Landing -Newman
Area
§ Gustine Area
Salt Slough -Los Banos
Creek Area
Los Banos Area
DDS Palos Area
Fire La ugh Area
San Joaquin Basin
Tulare Basin
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
mg/1
H M L
3840 548 170
877 -
533 -
- 1268 -
498 -
801 -
368 -
6400 282 45
6450 713 148
Ch lor ides,
mg/1
H ML
1640 58 3
73 -
55 -
- 425 -
97 -
- 355 -
91 _
3730 35 1
3490 71 8
Sulfates,
mg/1
H ML
435 28 1
- 283 -
- 101 -
- 457 -
85 -
73 -
53 -
542 11 0
1620 133 2
Total Boron, Sodium
Hardness, mg/1 %
mg/1
H ML HMLHML
1430 110 47 2.1 0.5 0' 88 43 18
-0.5- -35-
- - - - 0.4, - -41 -
-2.4- -78-
- 0.38 - - 49 -
----- 0.33 - - 55 -
- 0.15 - - 67 -
3900 115 7 2.6 0.0 0.0 95 38 4
3190 220 6 17.0 0.4 0.0 S3 48 6
-------
Other Pollutants
In tne San Joaquin Valley there are extensive agricultural enterprises .
Many of tae crops are heavily dusted or sprayed with various pesti-
cides . One big problem associated with dusting and spraying is tne
disposal of the pesticide containers . This causes a potential hazard
because of the concentrated materials used and if containers are not
carefully disposed of, the pesticide residue is sometimes a serious
problem, according to Cornahan (138) . Some sewage spraying in the
Hokelunr.e River drainage by small connunities poses a potential problem
which is not serious (139) .
SACRAMENTO BASIL!
Ground water in this basin is generally of excellent quality and suit-
able for most uses. This basin is a heavy water producing area, pro-
viding a great excess of water that is wasted in the San Francisco Bay.
Most areas have ample water supplies for the present and future, and
the waters have not been degraded by extensive over-use as has been
the case in many areas. However, the total use of ground water in this
basin does exceed the "safe yield*', and there are areas of local short-
ages and diminishing water quality.
Mineralization
Tne dissolved solids content of the waters of this basin generally is
less than 500 p.p.m., but there are locations where total salts nave
been recorded at over 2700 p.p.m. The predominant water type is cal-
cium bicarbonate, but sodium and i?agnesiura are present in significant
quantities at some locations . A summary of rdnersls in the ground
water at selected locations as of 1965 is given in Table 17.
Boron
Boron is moderately high in sore areas in this basin. Measurements as
high as 13 p .p .m. have been recorded. This is many tir-ies more tnan the
toxic limit for most plants .
nitrates
There are no serious nitrate problems in this basin, according to
Carnahan (138) . Localized problems may exist at some locations, de-
pending on sewage and solid waste disposal practices and other condi-
tions .
NORTH LAHONTM 3 AS IK
Ground water in this basin is not developed extensively. The basin it-
self is small, as already previously described. Only three ground
water sub-basics are recognised (1) Surprise Valley (near Cedarville in
59
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Table 17 Summary of Ilinerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - Sacramento Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. H, M, and
L refer to high, mean and low values from original report. The number of
tests used in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
Reddin g Bas in
Alturas Basin
Tehama County
Gl enn Co un ty
Sierra Valley
Butte County
Colusa County
S utter County
Yuba County
Placer County
Yolo County
Sacramento County
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
H
2070
584
343
610
1390
1610
877
2790
952
300
1920
997
mg/1
M L
129 41
178 98
193 107
298 107
182 118
260 108
328 148
447 99
205 168
204 118
490 245
204 137
Chlorides,
rag/1
H
908
-
-
118
349
269
132
1370
325
56
607
435
M L
3 8
- -
5 -
30 6
23 0
10 2
45 8
17 3
15 6
16 5
21 7
12 1
Sul fates,
mg/1
H
_
-
-
-
383
696
101
262
57
-
458
26
M L
_
311 -
16 -
59 -
4 0
4 0
12 0
18 0
7 0
_
43 0
2 0
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
H M
118 71
515 68
272 116
348 198
466 66
357 153
367 183
841 234
365 89
208 34
1260 274
344 98
L
16
7
62
113
13
55
57
69
11
39
43
47
Boron ,
mg/1
H . . M ...
13.0 -
-
0.4 0.2
-
5.8 0
5.3 0
0.5 0.2
0.9 0.1
0.5 0
-
5 .4 0.9
2.0 0
_Ji_
0.3
-
0
-
0
0
0
0
0
-
0.1
0
Sodiun
%
H M T.
_ _ _
9 _
_ _ _
91 46 11
90 17 11
80 38 18
81 23 9
63 29 13
_ _ _
81 34 12
_ _ _
-------
the extreme northeastern corner of California) (2) Honey Lake Valley
(near S us anvil le) and (3) Bridgeport Valley (near Bridgeport) .
Min e ral iz ati on
Ground water in this basin is of generally good quality. The water
contains excessive sodium at a number of locations . Water ranges from
soft to very hard depending on location. A nmber of mineralized hot
springs exist in the Bridgeport area. Summary of a limited number of
measurements of mineral quality are given in Table IS.
Boron
Boron in excess of 2 p.p.m. occurs at a number of locations in all
three ground water areas.
Fluoride
Fluoride in excess of the U.S. Public Health Service recommended Unit
is found at a number of locations in this basin.
Nitrates
Nitrates in excess of 45 p.p.m. are found in some wells in Honey Lake
Valley.
Arsenic
Increasing arsenic concentrations have been found, in a number of wells
(6) . State and County Health Departments have conducted a survey to
determine the extent of arsenic degradation.
SOUTH LAHCHTAN BASIN
•This basin is relatively small, but highly arid. In a, general sense
the ground water of this basin is good, but there are many wells which
exhibit poor quality characteristics.
Mineralization
The mineral quality of ground waters in this basin is quite variable.
A total of 120 wells in the Antelope Valley Hydrologic Thit and 79
wells in the Mojave Hydrologic Chit were sampled in 1965. A summary of
the results of mineral analysis of these samples is shown in Table 19.
Most wells have water of reasonably good quality, but a number have
undesirable characteristics (140, 141) . Near the town of Boron, the
quality is poor with total dissolved solids in excess of the limit for
drinking water. Sodium concentrations are also excessive in a number
of wells .
71
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Table 18 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - North Lahontan Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965. H, M, and L
refer to high, mean and low values from original report. The number of tests
used in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
Surprise Valley
Honey Lake
Bridgeport
Valley
Valley
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
mg/1
H M L
2000 200 90
1350 219 170
2030 250 74
Chlorides,
mg/1
H M
403 4
520 11
129 15
L
0
3
0
Sulfates,
mg/1
H M
564 6
418 7
- 235
L
1
0
—
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
H M
816 90
1480 65
311 154
L
10
11
36
Boron ,
mg/1
H M L
5.4 0.1 0.0
3.6 0.3 0.0
- 0.3 -
Sodium
%
H M
82 31
90 41
- 42
L
21
1
""
to
Table 19 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - South Lahontan Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6), data as of 1965 . H, M, and L
refer to high, mean and low values from original report. The number of tests used
in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location
Total
Dissolved
Solids,
mg/1
H ML
Chlorides,
mg/1
H M L
Sulfates,
mg/1
H ML
Total
Hardness,
mg/1
""'
H ML
Boron
mg/1
H M
Sodium
%
L H M L
Antelope Hydrologic
Unit
Mojave Hydrologic
Unit
2100 273 124 960 20 4 480 60 7 454 120 17 10.80 0.14 0 94 46 4
2266 414 22 555 46 1 731 110 0 744 159 8 5.50 0.19 0 96 47 6
-------
• I
Boron
A number of wells in the basin have boron concentrations above 2 p.p.m
including most of the wells in the vicinity of the town of Boron.
Fluoride
Fluoride in excess of the limit for drinking water is found in a number
of wells in the basin.
Arseni c
Excessive amounts of arsenic have been reported in some wells. In the
North Muroc basin, wells along the north edge of the basin penetrate
aquifers in which naturally-occurring arsenic if found. The U.S.
Public Health Service has a recommended upper limit of 0.01 mg/1 of
arsenic in public water supplies and a maximum allowable of 0.05 mg/1.
In the vicinity of Edward's Air Force Base a detailed study of arsenic
content of waters in this area (142) showed that from 32 samples of
surface drainage water, all except two exceeded 0.1 mg/1, with the
highest concentration being 20 mg/1 and many over 1.0 mg/1. Wells in
the area have a high potential hazard related to the arsenic.
Other Pollutants
In June, 1970, a detailed study of ground water quality in the vicinity
of Barstow was completed (143, 87}. This study indicated that a number
of wells were polluted with detergents, phenols, hexavalent chrome,
phosphate and ammonia nitrogen showing up in a number of samples taken.
COLORADO DESERT BASIN
This basin includes three ground water sub-basins. The most signifi-
cant is the Coachella Valley (known as Whitewater Hydrologic Unit), the
Dale Hydrologic Unit (the vicinity of the community of Twentynine Pains),
and the Lucerne Valley, just east of Victorville—most of the develop-
ment is in the Coachella Valley.
Mineralization
A summary of sampling in 1965 for mineral quality of the ground water
is shown in Table 20. Water in the Coachella Valley is quite good
quality, but in the Lucerne Valley (a "sink" area) three wells of 22
sampled showed a highly mineralized sodium chloride water. Other wells
in the valley are generally suitable for irrigation and drinking water.
Water in the Dale Unit is generally good, but two wells indicated high
mineralization, and also a high sodium content.
73
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Table 20 Summary of Minerals in Ground Water at Selected Locations - Colorado Desert Basin
Adapted from Water Resources Council Report (6) , data as of 1965. II, M, and L
refer to high, mean and low values from original report. The number of tests used
in calculation of the mean is not available.
Location Total Chlorides, Sulfates, Total Boron, Sodium
Dissolved rng/1 rag/1 Hardness, mg/1 %
Solids, rog/1
mg/1
_ H ML H M L H M I. H MT. u M L H tL L
Lucerne Hydrologic
Unit 10140 637 231 4850 79 5 66 34 9 1365 259 21 14.28 0.08 0.02 95 33 13
Dale Hydrologic
,j Unit 1490 360 155 235 30 9 595 82 6 185 48 38 2.16 0.17 0.07 92 68 61
*>
Taitewater Hy-iro-
logic tJhit 1030 420 101 143 22 6 524 132 9 477 164 IS 1.54 0.08 0 87 47 11
-------
Boron
In the Lucerne Valley and the Dale area several wells yielded water
with boron in excess of 2 parts per million .
Fluoride
In the Dale area, one well had excessive fluoride.
Nevada
The principal problem with ground water pollution in Nevada is minerali-
zation of the ground water. Many of the ground water basins are closed
basins so that evaporation tends to cause soluble salts to accumulate
at the ground surface where recharge waters carry the dissolved salts
into the groundwater reservoir. The ground water extracted near the
center of the closed basins is often rather highly mineralized. The
total area underlain by ground water exceeding 1000 mg/1 of dissolved
salts is shown in Figure 8. This area very likely exceeds 2 million
acres having a specific yield or a drainable volume of 15%. The total
volume of mineralized water, exceeding 1000 mg/1 of dissolved solids
in the first 100 feet of the ground water reservoir is a total of 300
million acre feet of water in the state of Nevada (15) .
Nevada can conveniently be divided into six hydrologic basins (Figure
4) which are as follows: (1) Humboldt (29,900 sq. mi.) which covers
the northern part of the state, had a population of 27,600 in 1965.
(2) Central Lahontan (9,800 sq. mi.) which covers the Truckee River
Basin and the West Central section of the state, had a. population of
166,400 in 1965. (3) Tonopah (44,300 sq. mi.) which covers the central
and the south central portion of the state, had 8,300 people in 1965.
(4) Nevada has a portion of the Lower Colorado River (17,100 sq. mi.)
in the southeast corner of the state. Part of the Great Salt Lake
Basin (4,200 sq. mi.) and the Snake River Basin (5,100 sq. mi.) are in
Nevada. These basins are shown on Figure 4.
Most of the 253 ground water basins are small closed valleys in alluvi-
al deposits in the valley. The ground water quality in these valleys
range from fresh to very saline as explained at the beginning of the
section on mineralization. There are only two places in the state
where the total dissolved solids in the ground water exceed 10,000
mg/1, and these are small point sources in the Tonopah Basin in Soda
Spring Valley and Clayton Valley a few miles south and east of Walker
Lake. One spring runs about 15,000 rag/1 and the otner is almost
30,000 mg/1 but both are just seepage flows that probably do not have
a significant effect on the local ground water.
In some areas the amount of total dissolved solids may not be the
limiting pollutant for water use. There may be excessive quantities
75
-------
OS 1^0 30
AREAS OF MIUEKAUZ££>
GKOUNPIUKTER
76
-------
of a single element or compound which may be the limiting factor for
water use. For example, such elements or compounds as boron, fluoride,
manganese, iron, sulfate, nitrate, chloride, and others are sometimes
toxic at very small concentrations so a critical amount of any one of
these may be a limiting factor on the use of the water. There are
several local areas in the region where the presence of one of these
toxic elements or compounds is the limiting factor on the use and
development of the ground-^water supply .
The suitability of water for irrigation may be evaluated on the basis
of salinity hazard, sodium (alkali) hazard, and the concentration of
bicarbonate, boron, and other ions. The salinity hazard depends on
the total dissolved solids and is normally measured in terras of elec-
trical conductivity with units of micromhos per centimeter. Nearly
all irrigation waters, which can be usad for any length of time, have
conductivity values of less than 2250 micromhos per centimeter. The
sodium (alkali) hazard is expressed by the sodium-absorption ratio
(SAR) and it represents the relationship between the cations of sodium
and the cations of calcium and magnesium. If the proportion of sodium
among the cations is high, the alkali hazard is high but if calcium
and magnesium predominate, the alkali hazard is low. M SAR in excess
of 10 will generally represent a sodium hazard, in fine grained soils .
In the case of the bicarbonate ion, the measure of a hazardous level
of concentration is given by the residual sodium carbonate (RSC).
ESC = (CO-- -f- HCOj) - (Ca++ + Kg"1"1") in which concen-
.trations are ex-
pressed as equiva-
lents per million .
If the residual sodium carbonate (RSC) is greater than 2.5 epm (equiva-
lents per million), the water is not suitable for irrigation. Most
natural waters contain boron and, boron is essential to the growth of
all plants but the quantity required is very small. In general,
boron in excess of 3 mg/1 (milligrams per liter) is injurious to most
crops, and much smaller amounts may be toxic to certain crops.
There are two areas of high population concentration in Nevada, the
Reno-Carson City area and the Las Vegas area. Municipal wastes are
used to charge the ground water in the Las Vegas area but there are no
indications in either of the areas of ooliform pollution of the ground
water. There have not been any organic pollution problems in the
ground water so far in the state although there are some potential
problems in the highly populated, areas .
Nevada is not a very highly industrialized state but there is some
industry and it makes a major contribution to the economy of the state .
Thero have been no indications so far that there is any problem, with
pollution of ground water from industrial wastes. Neither pesticides
77
-------
nor commercial fertilisers have been a problem anywhere in the state.
The atomic testing in Nevada has been dona in the Tonopah Basin which
is very sparsely populated. Ho indicators of nuclear pollution have
been measured in the ground water in that part of the state so it is
felt that so far the atomic testing has not created any ground water
pollution problems.
In summary, there are many areas in Nevada where the ground-water is
not very satisfactory for domestic use or for irrigation. The limiting
condition may be one or a combination of the factors discussed in the
previous paragraphs so that in order to develop the ground-water
supplies in many valleys of Nevada, solutions must first be found to
the numerous problems of mineralization. With this general summary of
the mineralization problems in Nevada, the following sections will
give a more detailed description of the mineralization problems as
they exist in each of the six hydrologic basins in Nevada.
HUMBOLDT BASIN
Ground water in the principal aquifers in most basins in the Humboldt
basin is fresh and in many places contains less than 500 mg/1 of
dissolved solids . Notable exceptions are the Smoke CreeJc, Desert
Creek, and Black Rock Deserts in the lower Quinn River basin and the
Lovelock area in the lower Humboldt River basin, where water from most
aquifers is saline. In these areas, the dissolved-solids content of
the water ranges from about 1,000 mg/1 near the margins of the valleys
to more than 3,000 mg/1 in the central portions . Stagnation in sedi-
mentary deposits containing large amounts of soluble salts is the
principal reason for the high mineral content of the ground water, but
evapotranspiration and recycling of irrigation water also raise the
mineral content of the water in stallow aquifers . The waters are
mostly sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride in type and locally con-
tain moderate to large amounts of fluoride and boron among the minor
constituents . Fresh ground water probably occurs at the very edges
of the desert areas near the mouths of some of the larger streams .
The principal aquifers in several other valleys in the Humboldt basin
contain saline water, at least locally. For example, two wells in the
northern part of Pine Valley produced water containing nearly 4,000
mg/1 of dissolved solids from depths of about 400 feet. There appears
to have been no outlet from Pine Valley during the Tertiary Epoch and
the sediments tapped by the wells apparently contain soluble salts.
Similar conditions may also exist in Huntington Valley, although water
from two wells in the valley is fresh. In the southern part of Duck
Lake Valley near the south ends of the Kings River and Quinn River
valleys, and the north end of Grass Valley, some aquifers locally con-
tain slightly saline water. Although the ground water in Desert and
Silver State Valleys is fresh, the dissolved-sol ids content of the
water in most places apparently exceeds 500 mg/1; near the lower ends
78
-------
of the valley, it may exceed 1,000 rag/1 in some aquifers. Also, the
boron and fluoride content of ground water from several sources in
Desert Valley is relatively high.
Another area of high mineralization is located in San Emidio and the
Smoke Creek Deserts (144) . These areas are located just north of
Pyramid Lake. Of twelve wells tested in this area in 1966, most of the
samples indicated high salinity and alkalinity hazards . The results
varied over a rather wide range but it appears that much of the ground
water in this area is of poor quality for agricultural purposes, in
summary, the San Emidio Valley, the Smoke Creek Valley, the Lower
Humboldt River Valley, and Pine Valley probably contain over 90% of
the slightly saline (1000 to 3000 mg/1) and moderately saline (3000 to
10,000 mg/1) ground water in the Humboldt Basin. In turn, this region
contains in the upper 100 feet of the ground-water reservoir about
25% to 30% of the mineralized ground water supply in the state. This
is approximately 3 or 9 million acre feet of ground water with a
dissolved salt content exceeding 1000 mg/1.
CENTRAL L AH ONTAN BASIN
Most of the saline ground water in this basin is found in the Carson
Sink area. The dissolved-so lids content of the water in this area
ranges from 1000 mg/1 to well over 3000 mg/1 including large amounts of
sodium, chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate and relatively large con-
centrations of the toxic ions such as boron, fluoride, and arsenic.
The Walker Lake area has ground water exceeding 1000 mg/1 of dissolved
solids in many parts of the Walker Paver Valley but most of the ground
water in that valley is classified as fresh water. The mineralized
watar generally comes from the shallow wells and the deeper aquifers
contain good water.
There is also another area of saline ground water located due east of
Pyramid Lake about 10 miles or so. The salt concentrations in this
area run from 1000 to above 3000 mg/1 and the area involved is around
30,000 acres.
These three areas of Carson Sink, Walker Lake, and east of Pyramid Lake
contain about 50% to 60% of all the mineralized ground water (> 1000
mg/1) in the entire state of Nevada. There are in this region about
1,^200,000 acres of land underlain by ground water with dissolved salt
concentrations exceeding 1000 mg/1.
In order to develop the ground water potential of this subregion, re-
search will be required to find users who can tolerate high salt con-
centrations or to develop an economical means of treating the water.
The western side of this '
-------
at restricted locations in the region. Eagle and Washoe Valleys
generally contain ground water with less than 500 mg/1 of dissolved
solids in the ground water .
TONOPAH BASIN
Ground water in principal aquifers in most valleys in the Tonopah
Basin is fresh, and in many valleys, the water contains less than 500
mg/1 of dissolved solids. In the Clayton-Fish Lake Valley areas south
of Tonopah, much of the ground water is moderately to very saline as
is most of the water in the lower part of the Amargosa Desert.
Jiany of the valleys in the Tonopah Basin are topographically closed,
and therefore, water in the shallow aquifers beneath the mudflats or
playas at the lower ends of these valleys probably is saline . Deeper
aquifers in the lower parts of most of these topographically closed
valleys, however, probably contain fresh water. One known exception
is in the lower parts of Steptoe Valley, where the deeper fill deposits
may contain large amounts of soluble salts .
Ground water in the northeastern part of the Tonopah Basin, where car-
bonate rocks predominate, is generally of a calcium magnesium bicar-
bonate type. In the southern and southwestern parts of the basin,
where tuffaceous volcanic rocks predominate, the water is mostly sodium
bicarbonate, sodium chloride, or mixed type.
The ground water in many of the valleys in the southern part of the
Tonopah Basin contains relatively large concentrations of fluoride,
which apparently are derived from the volcanic rocks in this part of
the region. Relatively large concentrations (one to 13 mg/1) of
fluoride occur in parts of the Amargosa Desert, the Sarcobatus Flat-
Oasis Valley areas, Gabbs Valley, and Pish Lake Valley.
GREAT SALT LAKE BASIN
Only a small part of this basin lies in Nevada and most of the ground
water is fresh. There are some small areas just north of Wendover,
Utah, where the salt concentrations exceed 1000 ng/1. The area is
located on the western edge of the Great Salt Lake Desert in a very
sparsely populated region .
LOWER COLORADO RIVER BASIN
The major part of the ground water in this area has less than 1000 mg/1
so that it is classified as fresh water. There are a few thousand
acres north of Lake Mead that are underlain by mineralized waters
ranging from 1000 to 3000 mg/1. Some of these ground waters are saline
because the natural aquifers contain large amounts of soluble salts.
The ground water table averaged a decrease in elevation of 10 feet per
year from 1960 to 1965 in the Las Vegas area. The water is being mined
80
-------
but the degeneration of ground water quality is not yet very severe in
this bas in.
SNAKE _SIVEP_BAS IN
Tnis area in Nevada is very sparsely populated and the average elevation
is over 5000 feet above mean sea level. Cenozoic volcanic and sedimen-
tary rocks occupy about 85% of the total area. Most of the rocks have
a rather limited capacity to transmit water. In the upper 100 feet of
saturated rock, the ground water storage exceeds 15 million acre feet.
Much of tiie water, however, could, not be recovered economically and in
areas it may not be chemically suited for many uses. Although the
water quality data for this area are very limited most of the well
samples available indicate that the water is generally within the
following ranges (145) :
Salinity Hazard - low to medium
Sodium Absorption Ratio - 0.1 to 2.0 with most samples below 1.0.
Sodium Hazard -- All samples low.
Total Dissolved Solids - 45 to 205 ro.g/1.
The toxic ion concentrations are also very low so that most of the
ground water in this area appears to be of relatively high quality for
most uses.
Utah
Ihe ground water in Utah is generally of fairly hioh quality and in
many areas it has not been used, very extensively. Legal restraints in
the past have made it difficult to develop the ground water resources
in Utah, t*itil 1959, Utah Courts generally held that the owner of a
discharging well was liable for damages resulting in serious reduction
of water level, artesian head, or discharge in wells with earlier
water rights. Tha effect of this policy was to limit the development
of the ground-water resources. In 1969, however, the Utah Supreme
Court reversed a lover court decision in the following way:
"there has come to be recognized what may be referred to as
the 'rule of reasonableness1 in the allocation of rights in
the use of underground water. This involves an analysis of
the total situation: the quantity of water available, the
average annual recharge in the basin, the existing rights
and their priorities. All users are required where necessary
to employ reasonable and efficient means in taking their own
waters in relation to others to the end that wastage of
water is avoided and that the greatest amount of available
water is put to beneficial use."
81
-------
In a specific reference to the maintenance of natural
artesian pressure, the court also stated: "We perceive no-
thing in our statutory law *** which compels a conclusion
that owners of rights to use underground water have any
absolute right to pressure." (146)
This decision should help open up the development of ground water in
Utah. The optimum development of the total water resources can occur
only under unified or correlated management between surface and ground-
water supplies.
In developing Utah ground-water resources, the principal water quality
problem is the mineralization of the ground water. The mineralization
problem is rather extensive (Figure 9), but it is not as severe as in
other states of this region because the poor quality water underlies
desert or mountainous areas where the population is very low.
The mineralization of ground water in Utah is generally the result of
the following factors: (1) Solution from natural rocks, (2) Highly
mineralized waters leaking into aquifers from fault zones, (3) Agri-
cultural waste waters including irrigation return flows, (4) Evapo-
transpiration, and, (5) a few other miscellaneous processes. The
ground water quality in the areas of high use is generally very good.
The large area west of Salt Lake City of poor quality shown on Figure
9 is a desert area of the state where there is little or no popula-
tion . The other area of poor ground water quality is on the Colorado
Plateau where the ground water supply is very limited.
UPPER COLORADO RIVER BASIN
Most of the ground water in this basin has a total dissolved solids
concentration of less than 1000 mg/1. However, there are extensive
areas in the Price, San Rafael and the Dirty Devil River basins where
the total dissolved solids in the ground water exceeds 1000 mg/1.
Most of the low quality ground water is found in Emery and Grand
counties of Utah. One rather extensive area of poor ground-water
quality is also found in Uintah County as shown in Figure 9.
Except for the Dirty Devil River basin, the sodium-adsorption ratio is
between 5 and 10 for all of the above areas of high total dissolved
solids.
The present use of ground water in this region is very small and the
present effects of pollution are minor. However, the ground-water
does represent an important future resource and much needs to be
learned about this resource before it can be developed and managed
wisely.
GREAT BASIN
Most of this area is underlain by deep deposits of porous alluvial fill
82
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AREAS 0F fMNERAUZZP
W UTKH
to a 30 MILES
FIG. 9
83
-------
which contains large quantities of fresh ground water. In the Bear
River Basin in the north end of the Great Basin, the major part of the
ground water contains less than 1000 mg/1 total solids. In the upper
part of the Bear River basin the ground water is of the calcium mag-
nesium bicarbonate type, whereas most of the ground water in the lower
basin is of the sodium chloride or sodium bicarbonate type.
There are a few local areas in the Bear River basin where the ground
water is slightly or moderately saline. -The main factors affecting
the poor quality in some of these areas are probably the following:
stagnation of water in fine grained deposits containing soluble salts,
evapotranspiration, recharge with saline irrigation return flow and
lateral movement of water into aquifers from areas of large thermal
springs .
Nearly all of the ground water in the mountain valley east of Great
Salt Lake and Utah Lake is fresh. Most principal aquifers to the
east of Great Salt Lake and the Tooele and Jordan valleys contain
fresh water. The ground water basin west of Great Salt Lake is highly
mineralized with salt concentrations exceeding 3000 mg/1 in many parts
of this area. The ground water basin along the borders of the north
end of Great Salt Lake is also highly mineralized. The lower end of
the Sevier River basin contains large areas underlain by ground water
of poor quality (1000 mg/1 or more) . This area of the Great Salt
Lake Desert and the Sevier Desert covers an area of roughly 5 million
acres and most of the ground water exceeds total dissolved salt con-
centrations of 1000 mg/1 . It is estimated that over 2 million of
those 5 million acres are underlain by ground water exceeding salt
concentrations of 3000 mg/1 . The ground water in most of this area
has a high sodium content with sodium adsorption ratios exceeding 10.
This means that much of the ground water in the area west of the
Great Salt Lake is of questionable quality for most irrigation uses.
Not many ions, which are often considered to be toxic, have been
identified in this area. However, in the upper and middle Sevier
River basin, the fluoride content exceeds three milligrams per liter
and is as high as six mg/1. These relatively large concentrations of
fluoride are probably derived from rocks of volcanic origin which
underlie much of this basin .
LOWER COLORADO RIVER BASIN
This area in Utah covers about 3000 sq. miles. The ground water in
the area is almost all high quality with a salt content of less than
1000 mg/1 . There are no significant pollution problems in the ground
water in this area.
In summary of the mineralization problems in Utah, there are large
areas in the state where the ground water has a salt concentration of
over 1000 mg/1. Most of these problem conditions exist in areas of
very low rainfall, limited population, and limited quantities of
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ground water. ' If this water is ever to be used for beneficial pur-
poses, economical means of desalinization will have to be developed.
Many of the water quality problems are located in areas where the land
is not very suitable for growing things and so it is likely that any
development in many of these places might have to be for industrial
purposes. In connection with the mineralization problem, most of the
dissolved solids consist of the following ions or groups of ions
(calcium, magnesiim, sodium plus potassium, chloride, bicarbonate and
sulfate) . In the areas surrounding the Great Salt Lake and especially
on the west side of the lake, there are many areas where the ground
water is saline. All the valleys that drain directly into Great Salt
Lake and the Great Salt Lake Desert contain saline ground water at
their lower ends. In a number of these valleys the total dissolved
solids increase markedly with depth. For example, in Sink Valley on
the edge of the Great Salt Lake Desert, the ground water has a con-
centration of total dissolved solids of about 3600 mg/1 at a depth of
225 feet. This increases to 49,000 mg/1 at a depth of 675 feet. The
west side of Great Salt Lake and most of the Great Salt Lake Dasert
have ground water which exceeds 3000 mg/1. This area is probably the
only area in the state which has large quantities of poor quality
ground water. The toxic ions such as boron, fluoride, heavy metals,
and others are not known to be a problem anywhere in the ground water
of the state. Pesticides are not known to be a problem and neither
are the nitrates and phosphates. Although BOD and coliform organisms
are potential problems in a number of places, these pollutants are
filtered out rather effectively as the water passes through the soil.
Therefore, organic and biological pollutants are not known to be a
serious problem anywhere in the ground waters of Utah. If they are
problems, there have not been adequate measurements made to determine
their extent.
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SECTION VI
CONDITIONS CAUSING GROUND WATER POLLUTION
In the previous section, the measured indicators of ground water pollu-
tion were discussed, and the indicators found in each of the sub-
basins of the project area were summarized. No attempt was made to
signify the cause of the pollution, but only to register the fact that
some degree of pollution does exist.
During the course of the investigation being reported herein, many
existing and potential causes of pollution of the ground water were
made known to us. Often water of poor quality is caused by several
factors—even a combination of a number of physical conditions. Indeed,
in many instances, an existent pollution condition may have several
contributing sources. In this section, various conditions, circum-
stances or activities which have had a known or suspected polluting
effect on ground waters are listed. The following list is a fairly
good summary of most of the conditions which cause pollution of ground
water. They are listed approximately in the order of their signifi-
cance as causes of ground-water pollution in the project area:
1. Natural leaching
2. Irrigation return flow
3. Sea water encroachment
4. Solid wastes
5. Disposal of oil field brines and other materials
6 . Animal wastes
7. Accidental spills of hazardous materials
8. Water from fault zones and volcanic origin
9. Evapo-transpiration of native vegetation
10. Injection wells for waste disposal
11. Fertilization of agricultural lands
12. Land disposal of wastes—municipal and industrial
13. Seepage of polluted surface waters
14. Urban runoff
15. Connate water withdrawal
16. Mining activities
17. Aquifer interchange
18. Mineralization from soluble aquifers
19. Crop residues and dead animals
20. Pesticide residues
21. Land subsidence effects on water quality
22. Other causes
Each of the above processes is a potential cause of ground water pollu-
tion in the four states of the project area. In many instances it is
difficult or impossible to positively identify a given act or set of
acts or circumstances as the cause of a given known pollution. Never-
theless, the following discussion of each of the causes listed above
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is presented to assist in the development of a better -understanding of
the factors which cause pollution of ground water. In most instances
we also list the location or locations where these actions or condi-
tions are known or suspected to have a polluting effect on the ground
water.
Natural Leaching
Throughout the project area, irost of the ground and surface waters
contain some natural dissolved salts. These dissolved salts have their
origin in the soils and rocks of the watershed areas. The presence of
these minerals in the soil and rocks is directly related to the cli-
mate as has already been explained. The natural accumulation of these
minerals is greatest in the areas of low precipitation, and especially
those areas where natural drainage is restricted. Precipitation per-
colating through the salt laden soils, and rocks takes some of the salt
into solution and carries it into the ground water. In areas where the
ground water is near the land surface; evaporation and transpiration
of the ground water, which leaves the salt on the surface, further con-
centrates the salt in the waters which are left behind.
Natural leaching may also take place within a water bearing aquifer.
Often the water, as it moves through an aquifer, dissolves soluble
minerals from the aquifer material itself or from its confining forma-
tions. Natural leaching causes degradation of the ground water in all
parts of the study area. It is most intensified in the areas of lowest
precipitation where the soil contains high concentrations of dissolved
minerals—especially the desert portions of the project area where
natural drainage is restricted and heavy accumulations of salt are
fornd in the soil. In the Great Salt Lake Desert, for example, waters
percolating through the salty soil have resulted in ground waters high
in salts . In the mountainous portions of the study area the greater
quantities of precipitation leach salts out of the soil, but in smaller
quantities. The greater quantities of precipitation also tend to
dilute the salty waters so that the salt content in many locations near
the mountains is not excessive.
The usual ground water pollution problems related to natural leaching
involve the more common salts found in soil and water, especially in
the arid regions. There are locations, however, where a particularly
toxic element occurs naturally and gets into the ground water. Exam-
ples are the boron at many locations in the project area, and the
arsenic in Kern County, California (138, 142) .
Irrigation Return Flow
In the arid west where irrigation is necessary for growing crops, the
salt content of the ground water has been increased by irrigation prac-
tices. Much of the water applied to the soil is evaporated by the sun
thus leaving the dissolved minerals on or near the surface of the land.
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Unless excess water is applied to the land, these minerals will accumu-
late in the soil and will inhibit the growth of plants. For this rea-
son, irrigated lands must be flushed out occassionally by excessive
applications of water to the land. This is usually automatically ac-
complished in normal irrigation practice because of the difficulty of
distributing the irrigation water at an efficiency of greater than
about 50%, (unless the irrigation water is applied by sprinkling —
Israelsen and co-workers found an average of 38% efficiency on selected
Utah farms (147)) . The surplus irrigation water applied seeps into
the soil and often passes down into the ground-water reservoir. It
leaches the accumulated salts out of the soil and carries them into the
ground water, thereby building up the salt concentration in the ground
water. In addition to the natural salts in the soil, there are often
nitrate and phosphate fertilizers applied to the soil so that some of
these substances are also carried into the ground water. Nitrates,
especially, become a problem in some areas. It should be noted that a
large part of the irrigation return flow finds its way into the ground
water. Irrigation return flow has many pollutional effects on ground
water. For a comprehensive treatise on this subject the reader is
referred to the work of the Utah State University Foundation (90) .
Many engineers and scientists have reported research and observations
related to this subject—Scofield (148) , Wilcox and Resch (149) ,
Fuhriman (150, Thorne and Peterson (151), Reeve and Fireman (152),
Bouwer (153) , Israelsen and Hansen (154) , Bower et al (155) , and others.
Undoubtedly a large portion of the minerals pollution found in the
ground waters of the project area is caused by irrigation return flow.
Degradation of ground water on a broad scale is evident in the drainage
waters of the San Joaquin Basin in California where a proposal has been
made to construct a fresh water canal from the Sacramento River to
bring dilution water to the San Joaquin Basin as a means of diminishing
the effect of the degraded drainage water collected in the San Joaquin
River (156) .
Sea Water Encroachment
In California, there are 262 ground water basins which contain water
bearing deposits open to the ocean or to saline inland bays (157) . In
many of these basins over-development of ground water at a number of
locations in California has caused the sea water to encroach into the
fresh water areas. These conditions usually have developed in the
alluvial plain of various rivers draining into the ocean, especially
when intensive development of the ground water supplies has occurred.
The Water Resources Council (6) reports that areas of sea water intru-
sion have developed in the flood plains of the Eel, Mad, and Russian
Rivers north of San Francisco; throughout the San Francisco Bay area,
in the Salinas River flood plain bordering Monterrey Bay, and in all
heavily developed coastal areas along the California Coastline—San
Luis Obispo, Santa Barbara, Ventura, Oxnard, Los Angeles, Long Beach,
Santa Ana, Oceanside, LaJolla, and San Diego. There have been instances
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of sea water encroachment into the rich Sacramento Delta, partly from
surface streams and partly from ground water. Begulations governing
the control of the Sacramento River include the provision that about
4000 second feet of water must flow continuously from the Sacramento
River Channel into the upper reaches of San Francisco Bay to assist in
repelling the salt water. Extensive studies have been conducted re-
lated to the problem of sea water encroachment. The California Depart-
ment of Water Resources (157) reports that the most serious intrusion
has occurred in the following areas (Figure 10) .
1. The West Coast Basin of Los Angeles County
2. The East Coastal Plain Pressure Area of Orange County
3. Petaluma Valley in Sonoma County
4. Napa-Sonoma Valley in Napa and Sonoma County
5. Santa Clara Valley in the San Francisco Bay area
6. Pajaro Valley in Monterey and Santa Cruz Counties
7. Salinas Valley area in Monterey County
8. Oxnard Plain Basin in Ventura County
9. Mission Basin in San Diego County
There are detailed studies in a number of the areas of most serious
encroachment (158, 159, 160) as well as some laboratory and theoretical
analyses of the problem and possible counter-measures (161) . Various
water using agencies in California have established programs to re-
verse the movement of sea water encroachment. For example, in the Los
Angeles area, three "barriers" have been developed against the sea
water encroachment. The barrier is established by injecting non-saline
water at a line of injection wells whose axis roughly parallels the
ocean source. The theory of the barrier is that by injecting the
water, the hydraulic gradient is reversed, so that flow is toward the
sea water source instead of away from it. At some locations saline
water is also pumped from the seaward side of the barrier to assist in
developing the seaward gradient. Alves and Hunt (162) in the 5th
Annual Report of the Alamitos Barrier Project, reported the completion
of additional injection wells but a landward movement of salt water
still existed despite injection of 5530 acre feet of fresh water and
extraction of 1823 acre feet of salty water seaward of the barrier.
Mcllwain, Pitts, and Evans (163) reported on the West Coast Barrier,
located near the coast between Torrance and El Segundo for the period
1967-69. Severty-seven thousand acre feet of filtered Colorado River
water was injected in the barrier area. Injection at this barrier
began in 1953. Effectiveness varies with depth and location, but
generally, the pumpage on the landward side of the barrier has resulted
in an increase in the landward gradient. However, chloride ion concen-
trations at certain points show a decrease and indicate that no intru-
sion is occurring in the northern half of the Barrier in deeper
aquifer. In the southern half of the Barrier, there are evidences of
continued intrusion in the deeper (San Pedro) aquifer. There were also
signs of over-injection in the shallow sand aquifer. In the intermedi-
ate (Silverado) aquifer there were signs of general improvement.
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OF KHOWN OK
SUSKCTBO SSWW7E*
AKSAS OF SEA-WATEK ENCROACHMENT
ALONG THE. CAUfVKNlA COAST
FIG. 10
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Problems of "clogging" of injection wells are considered to be serious
and have required considerable expenditure of funds to "re-develop" the
wells—a process similar to development by bailing, cleaning, and
surging. The causes and cures of clogging are not definitely known,
but it has been learned that filtration of water is usually necessary
before injection (164) . Bookman and Edmiston (165, 166) report on
general problems of management of the ground water in the Los Angeles
Area, including the extensive replenishment program.
The third barrier, known as the Dominguez Gap Barrier, has only recent-
ly been established to control sea water intrusion in the San Pedro
Bay area, between the Alamitos and West Coast Barrier. The Dominguez
Gap Barrier was scheduled to begin operation in 1971, and the effect
of this barrier is not known at the time of this writing.
In addition to the barrier projects, it should be noted that water has
been added to the ground water by "spreading" for many years in Cali-
fornia, Michelson (167), reported that spreading began in 1896 on
Santiago Creek and in 1900 on the Santa Ana River. Volk (168) re-
ported that up to 1933 a total of $227,000 had been expended on the
Santa Ana River spreading ground and that 266,784 acre feet of water
had been spread. Land (169) reported on various methods of getting
water into the ground, and Freeman (170) , Mackel (171) , Sonderegger
(172), and Hill and Whitman (173) all reported on various practices
and operational problems in the water spreading program at various
locations in California. These early programs were intended to pro-
vide underground storage for water. Only after the over-pumping of
more recent times have the "water barrier" methods been used to pre-
vent intrusion of sea water in coastal areas .
In the Salt Lake Valley of Utah, the Great Salt Lake, (with a salt
content of over 200,000 mg/1) is underlain by relatively impermeable
lakebed deposits. According to Marsell (174) these deposits form an
effective barrier against the movement of these highly saline waters
into any of the important ground water aquifers . There is some local
opinion linking the lake to some of the saline ground water in the
valley, but the authors do not believe that this is very likely. The
possibility does exist, however, that the hydrostatic pressures from
the mountain-fed fresh water aquifers act as a shield to keep the salt
waters from entering the fresh water aquifers in appreciable amounts
if any aquifer connections to the Great Salt Lake should exist. Ground
waters west of the lake are more highly mineralized than those on the
east, which are also nearer to the pressurized mountain sources. It
may be that these saline waters west of the lake involve encroachment
of highly mineralized water from this large inland sea.
Solid Wastes
In the past, solid wastes were disposed of by burning or surface
dumping but these procedures have been replaced by sanitary landfill
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operations . The solid wastes are dumped into an excavated area and
then covered over. Normally the wastes are deposited above the ground-
water table and precautions are taken to seal off the wastes from the
ground water. This procedure generally prevents the leaching of
pollutants from the solid wastes and carrying them on into the ground
water. However, the potential for pollution is always present.
When water seeps down through a refuse dump, the leaching process often
produces an increase in some of the following pollutants or conditions:
hardness, total dissolved solids, calcium, magnesium, B.O.D., acidity,
alkalinity (175) . The gases of CO2 and CH4 are also often generated.
As the leachates filter into the earth below the waste material -they
undergo a purification so that if the ground water is far enough away
from the waste material, the pollution potential is significantly de-
creased.
The landfill operations in Arizona are not causing ground water pollu-
tion problems of any known significance. Generally the water table is
deep and the rainfall is small so the effect of landfills is not a
problem in this state. Nevada's situation is very similar to that of
Arizona and refuse disposal by landfill is not a recognized problem.
Only 67 of the 712 dumps in California are classified as sanitary
landfills while 125 are considered to be modified sanitary landfills.
However, these are the larger dumps and they handle 90% of the solid
wastes of the state. At 33 dump sites there is direct discharge to
surface waters . Eighty-one sites in the state are apparently close to
or in contact with the local ground water. There are 207 of the sites
with inadequate control of surface drainage (6) . It is likely that
some of these conditions are resulting in some ground water pollution
problems, at least the pollution potential is there.
In California, standards have been set for landfill operations. The
standards are simple and easy to work with and so they are listed here:
Classes of Dumps
1. A dump in an area where there can be no leaching either to
the surface or to the ground water. This class dump will
take any type of refuse including highly toxic materials.
2. A dump where the natural conditions are such that the area
can be made to prevent direct runoff to streams or leaching
into the ground water. This type of dump can handle all
refuse except highly toxic wastes.
3. A dump where the site cannot be protected from either the
ground water or the surface water. Refuse in this type of
dump is limited to non-toxic, non putrescible materials
such as building material wastes, old concrete slabs,
asphalt paving debris, and etc.
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There are a few areas in California where sanitary landfills are pro-
bably a threat to the ground water quality (138) . The alluvial sedi-
ments of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin Valleys make these areas a
little vulnerable to landfills. The extent of the pollution of ground
water is not very well known but it is considered to be a. potential
hazard. Some areas have required some type of seal to separate the
waste disposal area from the ground water.
One of the problems of landfills is the generation of the gases CO2
and CH4. The gases disperse into the soil and if they get to the
ground'water, the CO- might increase the corrosive ability of the water
by increasing its acxdity. If the pH of the water is near neutral and
calcium or magnesium are present, bicarbonates may be formed to in-
crease the temporary hardness of the water. The 014 is light and would
normally rise so that it generally will not have any deleterious effect
on the ground water. Often chlorides will be leached out of the
landfill dumps and carried into the ground water. In California, sani-
tary landfills are generally not known to be polluting the ground
water on a significant scale, although they still pose a pollution po-
tential .
In Utah, most of the solid wastes are being put in landfill dumps.
However, there are some areas which have not been very well designed.
The dumps for Provo, Salt Lake City, and Logan are in the lowlands
where the ground water table is fairly high. These three refuse dumps
handle the solid wastes for over 250,000 people. It is likely that at
certain times of the year, the ground water is actually near the refuse
disposal area. The nearness of the solid wastes to the ground water
means that the potential for ground water pollution in these areas is
very large. However, no information is available on the influence
these dumps are having on the ground water quality in those areas. In
other parts of the state, the refuse dumps are generally in areas
where the water table is low and the wastes are isolated from the
ground water. Many of the areas are still surface dumps that might
pose problems of surface water pollution but not ground water pollution.
Disposal of Oil Field Brines and Other Materials
The production of crude oil is always accompanied by waste water pro-
duction. The waste water produced is usually a highly saline brine.
Disposal of the brine is usually handled by one of three methods:
1. Re-injection underground
2. Discharge to the ocean
3. Discharge to a sump for percolation or evaporation
Each of these methods of disposal has a potential for water pollution.
In addition to the problem of disposal of brine, there is also a pro-
blem with some waste oil mixed with the waste water. Recommended
practice includes careful skimming of the waste to remove the oil
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before disposal of the water.
In disposing of the water by injection, extreme care must be exercised
to prevent the brine from getting into a fresh water aquifer. Disposal
to the ocean presents little hazard to the ground water supply as long
as the disposal pipe is maintained in good order. Disposal from a
sump by percolation should only be used if-precautions are taken to
prevent the percolating brine from entering into the ground water
supply. Collins (176) enumerates a number of ways in which oil field
practices can cause pollution. In addition to brine and waste oil
disposal problems, he cites pollution hazards associated with the
common oil field practice of using acid to increase the formation per-
meability. Aside from the pollution by the acid itself, the practice
also often corrodes the casing causing inter-exchange between aquifers.
There is extensive oil and gas production at many locations within the
project area. Wherever oil production takes place there is a constant
danger of ground water pollution. However, officials in the areas of
greatest oil and gas development, (128, 138, 177, 178, 179, 180) indi-
cate that the industry is being inspected and no known problems of
ground water pollution exist related to disposal of oil field wastes.
The authors believe it is quite possible that undetected ground water
pollution is occurring in oil fields within the project area.
Animal Wastes
During the past two decades, the increase in demand for beef and poultry
has resulted in a trend for confined feeding of livestock and concen-
trated production of poultry. The nunber of cattle on feed for
slaughter in 1967 was 11 million head, an increase of 120% in the past
15 years. In the major poultry producing regions, 50% to 80% of the
laying hens and most of the broilers are raised in confinement. In
California there was an 87% increase in cattle marketings between 1957
and 1963. Virtually all that growth was associated with an increased
number of feedlots handling 10,000 head or more. This trend is con-
tinuing at the present and is expected to continue in the future (181).
Livestock on American farms produce about 2 billion tons of manure each
year. This tremendous production of animal wastes has resulted in a
large waste disposal problem. The animal waste problem has already
resulted in the pollution of many surface water supplies and it has
contaminated some ground water supplies. Studies have shown that the
movement of pollutants down through the soil from unpaved feedlots is
minimal. (182) . Nitrates moved the most rapidly through the soil pro-
file. However, these tests were limited in scope and feedlots on a
more porous soil might cause serious pollution problems to the ground
water below. Barnyards and feedlots have been cited as sources of
excessive nitrate-nitrogen in shallow wells in Nebraska and Illinois
(181) .
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Sometimes the animal wastes are spread out on the land as a means of
disposal. The amount of waste material that the land can handle with-
out causing a ground water pollution problem has not been determined
yet. to estimate has been made that there are about 17.3 billion
pounds of nitrogen produced in a year by the farm animals such as hogs,
cattle, and chickens. The disposal problem connected with these wastes
is a large one and such large waste production produces a high poten-
tial for the pollution of the ground water supplies.
Contaminants attenuate to harmless or innocuous levels at certain
distances from a waste site by mechanisms of decay, sorption, and
dillution (152) .
Some agricultural wastes decay or degrade more rapidly than others
depending on the presence or absence of oxygen, other wastes, or other
materials while other wastes persist indefinitely. The survival of
bacteria and viruses is not well known, but the survival of many is
thought to be relatively short away from their nourishing environment.
In general, biological contaminants decay more rapidly in contact with
air.
Some pollutants such as phosphates move slowly or scarcely at all be-
cause they are sorbed by or react chemically with the earth materials.
Because of ion exchange or some other mechanism, clays tend to retain
many contaminants better than do sands.
Dilution is another process which tends to disperse the contaminants.
This process is inadequate, however, under many conditions.
Nitrates and biological contamination are in general the most adverse
pollutants of animal wastes . Nitrates in excess of 45 mg/1 have been
known to cause methemoglobinemia in babies (blue babies) and they are
often toxic to livestock, Shortly after cattle and sheep drank high
nitrate water, 3100 ewes and 300 cows experienced abortions in one
operation reported by Wadleigh (183). In one study of the nitrate
content in 6000 rural water supplies in Missouri, Smith (184) con-
cluded that infiltrates from feed lots were the main source of nitrates
in the ground water.
A review of biological contamination of ground water by Mailman and
Mark (185) cites a number of examples in which bacteria and viruses
have moved from several inches up to 800 feet. Eliassen and others
(186) mde calculations to determine the bacterial movement in a large
number of soils.
Animal wastes sometimes produce other adverse effects on ground water.
These may be caused by organic compounds requiring oxygen for degrada-
tion; from materials that cause color, taste, and odor problems; from
feed additives, cleaning materials and pest control chemicals which in
addition to being pollutants, may affect the attenuation of other
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materials; from addition of salts; from changes in the pfi of the ground
water; and from, plugging of the aquifer.
ARIZONA
The livestock in Arizona were estimated as 683,000 cattle, 46,000 hogs,
and 1,100,000 chickens in 1967. The animal wastes from these sources
were estimated to have produced 149,000 tons of B.O.D., 48,500 tons of
nitrogen, and 15,000 tons of phosphorous. Most of the livestock in the
state are scattered out on the range so only those animals concentrated
in feed lots or poultry ranches were considered as potential pollution
problems. In 1967 the state had 112 cattle feed lots of the following
sizes: 72 lots with 500 to 2,999 animals, 28 lots with 3,000 to 9,999
animals and 12 lots with 10,000 to 50,000 animals. In that same year
the poultry ranches were 84 poultry ranches with 50 ranches of 300 to
4,999 chickens, 21 ranches of 5,000 to 29,999 chickens, and 13 ranches
of 30,000 to 100,000 chickens. The hog feed lots numbered 32 with 15
lots of 200 to 499 hogs, 8 lots of 500 to 999 hogs and 9 lots of 1,000
to 10,000 hogs (10) .
\
Nationally the major cause of pollution from feed lots is stream runoff
from the lots. Because of low annual precipitation in Arizona, the
surface runoff is small and the seepage water is also low. The soil
removes most of the oxygen demanding wastes and the soluble phosphates
are absorbed by the soil. Some of the nitrogen in the form of soluble
nitrates might leach down to the ground water. The overall effect will
depend principally on the nature and the permeability of the subsoil
and the depth to the water table.
Although animal wastes are a potential source of ground water pollu-
tion in Arizona, they are not the cause of any known major pollution
problems at the present time.
CALIFORNIA
In 1968, the beef cattle plus the dairy cattle numbered almost
1,900,000 head. Although most of the cattle were fed on the open
range, there were 453 feed lots in operation. The poultry population
was about 260 million and many of those were concentrated in over
4,000 poultry ranches. The hog population was about 150,000 head. The
estimated wastes per year resulting from the confined animals totaled
the following (6) :
Solid Wastes 23,000,000 tons/yr.
BOD 810,000 tons/yr.
Nitrogen 220,000 tons/yr.
Phosphorous 44,000 tons/yr.
Most of these wastes are spread back on the land for agricultural pur-
poses and these wastes seldom cause any pollution problem in the ground
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water. Prom this study, it also appears that in the immediate vicinity
of the feed lots there are no known ground water pollution problems .
It is still true that all feed lots pose a pollution potential and so
areas near large feed lots should be monitored occasionally to make
sure that the ground water is not being polluted.
NEVADA
In 1965, Nevada had a little over 500,000 head of cattle (8). About
20% of these cattle were being fed in feed lots. The other livestock
included 5,000 hogs, 33,000 chickens and 200,000 sheep. The wastes
from the feed lots were as follows:
24,000 tons of BOD
8,300 tons of Nitrogen
2,600 tons of phosphorous
Most of the animals were out on the land but these wastes from the feed
lots were also put back on the land. There is no indication in Nevada
that animal wastes are creating a ground water pollution problem. With
the low average rainfall in Nevada of about 9 inches, the ground water
pollution potential from animal wastes is not very high.
UTAH
The 1965 livestock population of Utah was estimated at the following
figures (12)"
Cattle 800,000
Hogs 40,000
Chickens 1,100,000
Sheep 900,000
The animal wastes from the livestock in confinement average 54,000
tons of BOD, 16,000 tons of nitrogen, and 5,400 tons of phosphorous.
In Utah there seem to be a number of places where animal wastes create
a surface water pollution problem, but they do not seem to be any more
than just a potential pollution threat to the ground water.
In summary, the animal waste problem has not been studied extensively
in the area of this present inventory, and so it is not generally rec-
ognized as an active source of ground water pollution. Probably less
than 20% of the cattle in this area are confined in feed lots, but
feed lots are increasing in number and the animal wastes may become a
significant source of ground water pollution in the years ahead.
Accidental Spills of Hazardous Materials
Accidental spills of liquid wastes, toxic liquids, gasoline, or oil
sometimes pose a serious pollution hazard. Generally the spillages
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result in surface water or air pollution but occasionally the ground
water is affected. One such occurrence (cited in Section V), was
first noticed in southern California in September of 1968 (130) . Gaso-
line was noticed in a water well near the city of Glendale. The source
of the gasoline was unknown but an oil company transmission line was
suspected. The pipeline and many gasoline storage tanks were carefully
tested and all were reported tight except for a few very minor leaks
in the tanks which were repaired. These small leaks were not the
source of the gasoline pollution which was quite wide spread. No leaks
were found in the area where the main problem existed but a leak was
found in a gasoline transmission line about 2 miles from the polluted
area. This line was drained and removed from service, but the main
source of pollution was not clearly determined. About 30 wells for
observation, containment, and removal were drilled around the problem
area and the polluted water was pumped out. There were two principal
removal sites and two plants were set up to separate the gasoline from
the water. By April, 1970, the gasoline in the water at the two remov-
al sites had dropped to almost nothing. Efforts to contain the pollu-
tion and extract it as rapidly as possible continued. Monitoring of
the area seemed to indicate that the main problem of the spill had
been controlled.
This spill of gasoline into the ground water in southern California
was an unusual example of a source of ground water pollution. However,
when accidents of this nature do happen, the results can often be very
damaging. The Water Quality Act of 1970 required the establishment
of a national contingency plan for the accidental spills of hazardous
materials. The national plan also calls for regional plans which have
not yet been completed. Warning and monitoring systems should be
established and methods should be researched for containing and cleaning
up accidental spills of hazardous materials.
Water From Fault Zones and Volcanic Origin
Most ground water which emerges as mineralized springs is deep-seated
water as opposed to "shallow" ground water moving through materials
closer to the earth's surface under ordinary hydrostatic pressures.
Deep-seated waters have a complex origin, that is, they may include
water derived by absorption from the land surface, water trapped in
sedimentary rocks at the time of their origin, and water expelled
from igneous rocks during crystallization. Milligan, Marsell, and
Bagley (187) state the following in relation to the origin of these
waters:
"It is believed that the movement of these deep-
seated waters is not due to hydrostatic head, or in
other words, these waters are not connected with over-
lying and connecting bodies of water. The flow of these
deep-*eated waters is believed due to thermal and pressure
gradients operative deep within the earth. A spring with
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constant flow not subject to seasonal changes and with
a high temperature probably has a deep-seated origin.
Further evidence as to the deep-seated origin of mineral-
ized spring water is the presence of important faults or
other structures along which water could rise."
These deep-seated waters usually come forth as fault springs, volcanic
springs or fissure springs. Most of the mineral and thermal springs
of the project area originate from deep-seated waters .
•Throughout the study area there are many mineral springs . Many of them
may also be classed as thermal springs since the temperature of the
water is higher than the normal ground water of the area. In fact,
most of the significant mineral springs of southwestern U.S. are of the
"thermal" category. Milligan, Marsell and Bagley (187) made a detailed
study of mineralized springs in Utah. They determined that almost all
of the mineralized springs in Utah have elevated temperatures and also
are closely associated with zones of geologic faulting. Mundorff (188)
in studies of thermal springs in Utah, arrived basically at the same
conclusion. In Arizona, Peth (189, 190) reports on a number of miner-
al springs which originate in the Mogollon Rim in Central and East
Central Arizona. These springs discharge large quantities of dissolved
minerals into the Salt River continuously.
Waring (191) and Stearns, Stearns, and Waring (192) have reported on
thermal springs in the U.S., and also in other parts of the world.
They indicate that most thermal springs also contain a high concentra-
tion of minerals. Waring (191) reports over 200 thermal springs in
California, about 200 in Nevada, 65 in Utah and 21 in Arizona. The
majority of them are associated with geologic fault zones or volcanic
origins. In a limited number of locations the waters are of surface
origin having been heated by a volcanic source but not originating
there. White (193) reported on studies relating thermal springs and
volcanic activity. A discussion of the occurrence of thermal and
mineral springs at various locations in the project area is presented
in the following paragraphst
ARIZONA
The central and southern parts of the state of Arizona are occupied by
mountains composed of Crystalline rocks and folded and faulted ancient
marine strata. In many areas these older rocks are covered by Tertiary
volcanics which provides a source of heat for a number of the thermal
springs of the state. The faulting along the Mogollon Rim has also
provided an escape route for much underground water along the fault
surface as has already been mentioned. Three main springs in this
area, flowing 900 to 1100 gallons per minute each, deposit over 200
tons of dissolved solids into the Salt River daily. In the Grand
Canyon of the Colorado, the Lava Warm spring erupts near Lava Falls
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Rapids. In this area there is a spring flow of 6700 gallons per
minute. Akers (194) reports on water from fault zones in the Flagstaff
area.
CM.IFORMIA
The volcanic activity in California'has been responsible for many
thermal springs. Mt. Shasta is the most prominent of the lava masses.
In the extreme northeastern part of the state near Lake City, White
(195) reported on violent mud-volcano eruptions at Lake City Hot
Springs. The Clear Lake basin in the coastal mountains northeast of
San Francisco contains many hot springs, including "The Geysers" and
others. Many of the springs in this area contain high sulfur content
(196, 197) and in some springs a considerable amount of nitrate is
found (198) . In northeastern part of the state, a number of springs
rise from fault zones in Surprise Valley. Further south in Honey Lake
Valley, springs with temperatures near the boiling point are found.
Along the Sierra Nevada range of mountains considerable faulting has
occurred in southern portions in the granite or gneiss formations and
a number of springs issue forth there. In the Coastal Range, in
addition to "The Geysers" already mentioned, there are a number of
warm mineralized springs originating in fault zones or from volcanic
rocks. A number of extremely warm springs issue forth from the San
Bernardino and San Jacinto mountains, especially in the areas of
geologic faulting which is extensive.
Probably the most famous fault in California is the San Andreas Fault
which extends from Tomales Bay, north of San Francisco, more than 600
miles -southward into the Salton Sea basin. No well-known thermal
springs issue forth, but it does include a number of mineral springs
which are of local importance. The same is true for the California
desert area, but a number of resorts use water from mineral thermal
springs—both in the desert and other areas of the state.
In terns of total flow, the Paso de Robles thermal spring is the largest
in the state, with a flow of 1700 gallons per minute and a temperature
of 105° F.
NEVADA
Most.of Nevada is a region of detached mountains separated by desert
valleys. Many of the mountains are composed of granite and ancient
metamorphic and sedimentary rock; others are composed chiefly of lava.
The structure includes much complex folding, but in many places it is
dominated by block faulting. Thermal mineralized springs are scattered
throughout the state and most are closely related to faults. In north-
eastern Nevada, several hot springs issue from limestone and shale
mountain areas. Near the northwest border, a number of springs 1Ssue
from intrusive granite. Numerous warm and hot springs rise from lava
hills along the western side of Black Rock Desert west of Winnemucca
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and also further south in the area of Pyramid Lake.
The valley of the Humboldt River east of Winnemucca is bordered by
hills of lava which yield a nunLex of mineralized warm springs. South
of the Humboldt River Valley a number of boiling springs issue from
faulted strata. These springs deposit considerable calcium carbonate.
Boiling springs also issue from several lava areas south of this valley.
A few miles southeast of Reno, the Steamboat Springs rise with water
near boiling temperature which contains high concentrations of silica
and sulfide minerals. In the central part of Nevada, the Big Smoky
contains many hot springs, and similar conditions exist in Diamond,
Steptoe and White Pine Valleys nearby. In southern Nevada several
wide flat valleys contain warm mineral springs under artesian pressure .
UTAH
Most of the mineral and thermal springs of Utah occur in the fault
zones along the Wasatch mountain range, extending north and south
throughout the whole of the state . A number occur in the Great Salt
Lake Desert lands of western Utah—Locomotive Springs along the Hansel
Valley fault in northwestern Utah, Promontory Point Hot Spring on the
east side of Promontory Point, Blue Spring hear Howell, Grantsville
Warm Springs near Grantsville, Big Spring near Timpie at the north-
western tip of the Stansbury mountains, Deseret Springs in Skull
Valley, Fish Springs near Callao, and the Gandy Warm Spring near Gandy .
The mineralized springs in Utah have a pronounced effect in degeneration
of the quality of surface streams at a number of locations throughout
the state .
Evapo-Transpiration of Native Vegetation
In the preceding paragraphs the effect of irrigation on the pollution
of ground water has been discussed. The process by which the water
remaining in the soil increases in mineralization is exactly the same
for native vegetation as for irrigated crops. Only the source of the
water applied is different, since with native vegetation the source
must be either soil moisture applied as rainfall, or the ground water .
Use of direct rainfall by vegetation does not have an appreciable ad-
verse effect on ground water quality because the rain water is of good
quality. On the other hand, ground water containing dissolved minerals
is subjected to a concentrating action as the vegetation utilizes some
of the water leaving the salt behind in solution. For many types of
vegetation the effect is minimal, but in the case of water-loving vege-
tation called phreatophytes, the gross effect on the loss of the water
resource and on the increase in the mineral content of the ground water
is very great. In several parts of the project area, large areas of
the native phreatophytes are considered to be a serious problem.
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Fletcher and Elmendorf (199) estimate a total area of eleven million
acres of phreatophytes in the fourteen western states with the follow-
ing estimates for the four states of this report:
Area of Annual Water
Phre atophyte s us e
state (Acres) (Acre-feet)
Arizona 405,000 1,280,000
California 317,000 1,150,000
Nevada 2,801,000 1,500,000
Utah 1,200,000 1,500,000
TOTAL 4,723,000 5,430,000
Detailed investigations have been conducted on the characteristics of
phreatophytes. Robinson (200) discussed 74 different species in de-
tail. Studies of the water using characteristics and water quality
effects of phreatophytes have been reported by Robinson (201, 202), by
Muckel and Blaney (203, 204), by Shamberger (205), by Gatewood and
others (206), by Lewis (207, 208) by Bowie and Kam (209), Hendricks
and others (210) and by Turner and Skibitzke (211) . These reports
include work in all of the project area. All of these reports empha-
size the fact that the phreatophyte effect upon ground water quality
is considerable.
Injection Wells for Waste Disposal
Injection wells are sometimes used in connection with ground water
replenishment programs and have already been discussed in an earlier
sub-section. In the oil industry, brines are often re-injected under-
ground as a means of disposal and also as a secondary oil recovery
operation. This has also been discussed in a previous sub-section.
Occasionally, industries or others have used shallow injection wells
to dispose of liquid wastes. For example, Follett (94) reported that
various electronic industries near Phoenix and Tucson, Arizona, have
in the past, disposed of metal plating wastes by injection wells.
Follett reported that heavy metals, primarily chromium, showed up in
the ground waters of the areas involved but this method of waste dis-
posal has now been stopped. Deep injection wells have been considered
for disposal of radio-active wastes (212, 213) . An analysis of relative
cost of disposal by injection for municipal wastes, failed to consider
the pollutional aspects of such practices (214) .
In 1967, it was estimated (215) that there were 40,000 salt brine
disposal wells in U.S. and 110 injection wells to dispose of pther
wastes. The number in the project area is not known. Smith (216)
stated that most disposal wells are successful and that only a few give
the method a bad name . Sheldrick (217) indicated that earthquakes in
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the Denver area were likely caused by injection at the Rocky Mountain
Arsenal. Piper (218) pointed to the need for better information and
better controls on injection. He also indicated that the maintenance
of a given pressure condition is simplified if wastes withdrawn (such
as brines in oil well development) are re-injected into the same aqui-
fer. On the other hand, many of the deep aquifers contain large
volumes of gas which can be compressed; and under these conditions, in-
jection of large volumes of liquid does not cause a serious problem
from a volume of pressures standpoint. Wesner and Baier (219) dis-
cussed injection of reclaimed wastewater underground. It is the belief
of the writers that deep-well injection involves many potential pollu-
tion hazards . It is not possible to generalize in a discussion of pro-
blems related to deep-well injection because of the great variation in
geologic conditions at various locations .
Fertilization of Agricultural Lands
The problem of irrigation return flow in water quality control and the
need to maintain a "salt balance" in arid region soils has already
been discussed. The principles which are operative in relation to the
salt balance also impose another water pollution potential on the
agricultural operation. As fertilizers and water are applied to the
soil, part of the fertilizer will be leached on through the soil in
the drainage water. This is especially true of nitrates. Pratt (129),
Doneen (132, 133) and Jopling (220) all indicate that part of the ni-
trates in solution in irrigation water are carried on through the
rooting zone of the plants into the drainage channel or the ground
water. Phosphate fertilizers do not becone a problem in this regard
because they are adsorbed on the soil particles and become "tied up"
in the soil. Stout and others (108) traced the movement of nitrogenous
matter from the ground surface ,to the water table. Robbins and Kriz
(221) discussed the general problem of , fertilizers in causing ground
water pollution. They report a number of research reports which point
out the potential hazard of over-fertilization in ground water pollu-
tion. However, they point out that the extent of fertilizer use will
likely increase in the U.S. in the future. It should be pointed out
that the plants use a part of the nitrogen in solution, but a portion
usually remains with the percolating water to become a ground water
pollutant. Nitrogen is the only fertilizer element that has been
found to be a problem related to ground water pollution. This is a
potential problem throughout the study area but has only been identi-
fied as an actual source of pollution in a few areas. It certainly is
the cause of nitrate pollution of ground waters at some locations and
is likely an important factor in many others . As noted in the previous
chapter, there are many locations in the study area where nitrates are
dangerously high. Fertilizers undoubtedly contribute to the hazard in
many of them.
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Land Disposal of Wastes-Municipal and Industrial
Land disposal of wastes is practiced at many locations throughout the
U.S. Since agricultural wastes are being discussed in other sections
of this report, this section deals only with the land disposal of
municipal and industrial wastes.
MUNICIPAL WASTES
There are a number of municipalities which dispose of sewage wastes by
spreading on the land. If this practice is controlled carefully and if
a large enough area is used for disposal, it is not likely to cause
ground water pollution. Undoubtedly there are many locations where
this is done in a safe and satisfactory manner. It is also likely that
there are a number of examples of this method of disposal where pollu-
tion caused by this method of disposal has gone undetected. In the
course of the investigation leading to this report, ground water pollu-
tion problems in the vicinity of a number of municipal sewage treatment
facilities suggest this as a source of pollution.
At Tucson, Arizona, a project to reclaim waste water involves land
spreading of sewage for irrigation purposes (24) . In the early stages
of this project, considerable nitrate was getting into the ground water.
At Phoenix, Arizona, Bouwer (222, 223, 224) reported on the results of
research on land spreading of municipal sewage plant effluent. His
results indicate limited travel of the various pollution parameters,
McMichael and McKee (225) reported on similar studies in the Los Angeles
area at Whittier Narrows. Their work was oriented toward the degree of
treatment of municipal sewage effluent prior to its application to
water spreading grounds used to replenish the ground water supplies.
Surface disposal of sewage effluent in the Fresno metropolitan area is
reported to have degraded the quality of ground water in the area of
the sewage treatment plant (134) , In San Bernardino and Riverside
Counties of California, studies were reported in 1965 (226) relating
to the dispersion and persistence of synthetic detergents in ground
water—again relating to the spreading of sewage effluent for the re-
plenishment of ground water supplies.
INDUSTRIAL WASTES
Land disposal is a common method of handling of many industrial wastes .
Throughout the four states of this study, there are many locations where
industrial wastes are disposed of in this manner. As is the case with
many waste disposal practices, pollution may occur and yet remain un-
detected. Cne example of industrial waste land disposal becoming a
problem has been reported in the vicinity of Hollister, California, in
the Pajaro River Basin (99) . Two canneries disposed of wastes from
their canning operation in stream terrace deposits and alluvium. In
addition to food products residue, their waste water also contained
caustic soda used as a peeler for apricots and tomatoes , Most of their
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waste water reached the ground water body.
Seepage of Polluted Surface Waters
In many instances, careless practices related to control of wastes
result in surface streams becoming polluted. Often this water finds
its way into the ground water. Several examples of this type of
pollution have been observed in the study area.
In the Vernon district of the Los Angeles metropolitan area, ground
water pollution from industrial waste discharge into Compton Creek
was reported by Zielbauer (227) in 1947. High concentrations of
total dissolved solids as well as sulfates, chlorides and phenols were
reported.
In the area of Barstow, California, the Mojave River channel is a dry
bed most of the time—except during infrequent periods of storm run-
off . Both municipal and industrial waste disposal into the river
channel created a serious ground water pollution problem. A series of
reports in 1960 {228), 1966 (229) and 1970 (143) indicate that phenols,
detergents, chrome, and MBAS (methylene Blue Active Substances) were
present in nearby wells. Objectionable tastes and odors were also
found in the area ground water, variously characterized as "chemical",
"medicinal", "sulfide", "musty" and sewage". The study in 1960 indi-
cated that phenol and chrome wastes came from the railroad shops,
resulting from large quantities of diesel oil (24,000 gallons per
month) and cooling system drainage (containing hexavalent chrome as a
corrosion inhibitor) being wasted to the river channel. A large part
of the detergent was believed to have come from the railroad laundry,
which had operated between 1949 and 1959 when it was closed by the
company. Most of the sewage was believed to have come from the Bar-
stow City sewage plant which was re-de signed and rebuilt in 1953 and
again in 1968. The railroad company domestic sewage was treated
separately until 1968 when it was included in the city plant. The
underground flow in the Mojave River Basin was estimated by the U.S.
Geological Survey (230, 231) at about one million gallons per day. The
California Department of Public Health estimated the velocity at one
mile in five years (229) . One surprising result of the studies in the
Barstow related to the persistence and spreading of the degenerated
water after extensive corrective measures were taken.
Both the railroad company and the City made extensive improvements to
eliminate the sources of pollution between 1960 and 1970, yet the 1970
report (143) indicated additional expansion of the degraded water and
its advancement to wells where it had not appeared previously.
Urban Runoff
Urban storm water disposal is often accomplished by spreading in areas
of high infiltrations. Abandoned gravel pits and old stream channels
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are examples of areas utilized for this purpose. This practice is
often encouraged in arid regions as a means of replenishment of the
ground water supply. These practices are used at many locations
throughout the project area, and they represent a potential ground
water pollution hazard. No specific reported instances of pollution
of ground water by this means are available to us, but the potential
certainly exists.
It is common practice in areas of freezing weather to scatter salt on
icy roads to melt ice and snow as a traffic safety measure . In urban
areas, the runoff from this melting ice and snow is collected in the
storm sewer and conducted to some disposal location. Often the dis-
posal is underground. The resultant increase in total dissolved
solids in the ground water may be a problem. This is particularly
true in arid regions, where dissolved minerals in many waters are
already near the critical level.
Considerable urban development is occurring in mountain areas away
from the traditional urban areas . Sewage disposal in these areas is
often into septic tanks, with a resultant detrimental effect on ground
water quality areas. No actual measurements of such pollution are
available to us, but a number of such areas are known to exist at
several locations in the project area. These areas should not be con-
fused with recreational home developments which are used only season-
ally.
Connate Water Withdrawal
Brines are often found in the sedimentary deposits of the earth 's
crust. Many brine deposits are connate—that is, water trapped in the
sediments as they were being deposited. They often occur in places
where no oil or gas fields are present. The entrapment of the brine
may in some instances have been brought about by an overlying body of
water or a water bearing aquifer with interconnections to the aquifer
containing the brine . As the less saline water is pumped from the
overlying aquifer, the salty brines may be withdrawn in much the same
manner as sea water intrudes into a fresh water aquifer. Such with-
drawal is always the result of over-pumping of the existing water
supply.
In the study area, there are no known locations of connate water with-
drawal except in connection with oil well development, which wxll be
discussed in the next section of this chapter. However, the potential
for such withdrawal is present wherever brine deposits underlie the
better quality waters. Some connate water withdrawal has been indi-
cated by high salinity in some heavily-pumped wells of the San Joaquin
Valley (138).
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Mining Activitie s
Most mining activities encounter ground water, and disposal of the
drainage water from the mine workings is often one of the troublesome
problems of the whole operation. Ordinary excavation procedures do
not usually have any direct adverse effect on the quality of the
drainage water except for the causing of some turbidity. However, in
coal mine workings, the mining usually exposes pyritic material which,
upon contact with percolating water and the oxygen in the mine shaft,
forms sulfuric acid. However, in most arid regions, the soils and
natural waters are alkaline; and thus tend to neutralize the acid.
For this reason, acid mine drainage is not as serious a problem in the
project area as it would be in other parts of the country. No indica-
tion of any problem has been given by any federal, state or local
officials in any of the states of the study area.
Drainage of waters from copper deposits often contain considerable
metallic copper, and ground waters in the vicinity of copper deposits
s&uch as occur in Arizona and Utah should be carefully checked if this
is a potential problem. However, drainage waters are often "processed"
to salvage the copper present.
Many natural minerals which can cause serious ground water pollution
occur in the project area. One would naturally expect that ground
water in the vicinity of these natural deposits could be contaminated.
Aquifer Interchange
The exchange of ground water from one aquifer to another represents
an important potential source of ground water pollution. It is known
that quality of ground water varies considerably from one aquifer to
another. One aquifer may contain a source of pollution which another
does not. Common well drilling practices may permit the movement of
water from a polluted aquifer into another which is relatively free
os pollution. There may be aquifer connections at springs or geologic
fault zones. Measured information is not available to indicate the
degree to which an interchange of water between aquifers actually
occurs, and it is not possible to state locations at which such a
problem may occur. Investigations in the San Joaquin Valley of Cali-
fornia (232) indicate the possibility of interchange between aquifers
since wells drilled through shallow brackishwaters are frequently
gravel-packed and perforated in all water producing zones. It should
be recognized as a potential problem that could exist in the project
area.
Mineralization From Soluble Aquifers
The effect on ground water quality of flow of water through aquifers
containing soluble minerals is difficult to measure. Nevertheless, it
is a significant factor in the quality of ground water. In Nevada and
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Utah many of the ground water basins are closed basins with alluvial
fill in the valley. The natural recharge water flows from the outer
edges of the valley toward the center of the valley and in the process
minerals are dissolved into the ground water. Therefore, the ground
water near the center of the closed valleys generally has a high con-
tent of total dissolved solids . Normally, impermeable rocks exist be-
tween basins so most ground water reservoirs consist of the internal
drainage within the basin. Under these conditions, the quality of the
ground water is good near the recharge areas at the edge of the valley
and becomes progressively poorer quality toward the center of the
closed valley. Evaporation of accumulated surface water at the low
point in the closed basin results in the accumulation of salts at the
surface and these salts are often carried to the ground water reser-
voir by recharge water seeping from the surface to the ground water
reservoir. This process also tends to pollute the ground water near
the center of the valley more severely than at the valley edges.
Since the best quality ground water is around the periphery of a
closed valley, most of the wells for developing the use of the ground
water, are drilled near the outer edges of the valleys. If the water
pumped per year is more than the natural recharge, the ground water
table begins to go down. If this trend continues, the water table
at the edge of the valley is lower than at the center of the valley
and there is a reversal of the flow of the ground water. The water
toward the center of the valley begins to flow toward the outer edge
of the valley. Since the water from the central part of the valley
is generally more highly mineralized than the water in the natural re-
charge area, the quality of the water in the well begins to decrease.
Therefore, development of the ground water use is the cause in some
areas of a deterioration of the ground water quality. A number of
investigators have found a general degradation of water as it moves
through an aquifer in a direction away from the point of recharge. In
the Santa Ana area (128), and the San Joaquin area (138) of California
and in a number of other regions of the project area, the ground water
has been shown to become degraded as the water moves through the
ground water aquifers .
Crop Residues and Dead Animals
Crop residues include that portion of the plant that is left in the
processing shed after the harvest. For every pound of food that gets
to the store to be sold, between 2 and 5 pounds of residues are left
in the field and the packing shed. In a few specific cases, crop
residues might become a ground water pollution problem. In general,
however, crop residues are not a pollutant to the ground water. In
fact, residues are not generally a very serious pollutant to agncul-
tural waste waters (233) .
Dead animals do not ordinarily have any serious effect on ground water
Larger farm animals are usually disposed of by the rendering
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and animal by-products processor. The dead sheep or wildlife on the
range are usually disposed of quickly by other forms of wildlife.
According to Hart (233) and Rabbins and Kriz (221) the disposal of
dead poultry is often done in such a manner that it creates a serious
ground water pollution hazard.
Poultry producers are handling ever-increasing numbers of fowl in their
operations. Flocks of 100,000 are common. A loss of one per cent per
month from a 100,000 fowl flock will average 35 dead fowl per day.
Many producers dispose of the dead birds by burial in a large trench
or in a septic tank. With percolating waters in the vicinity of such
a mass of decaying organic matter, the pollution potential is consider-
able . No actual reported instance of such pollution in the project
area is known, but there are many poultry producers in the area so
the potential does exist.
Pesticide Residues
The term "Pesticide" covers any material used to control, destroy or
mitigate pests; and includes insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,
nematocides, rodenticides, bactericides, growth regulators and de-
foliants. Whenever these materials may be found in the ground water,
the consequences can be serious. Rotbins and Kriz (221) point out
that there is insufficient information available on many facets of the
problem. For example, the movement of various pesticides from the
surface of the land through the soil to the ground water cannot be
verified in many cases. More information is needed to know which of
the various pesticides may be degraded by interaction with the soil.
The fate of pesticides once they have entered waste waters is a sub-
ject of much speculation. According to Westlake (234), many disappear
quite rapidly—through adsorption by plants, adsorption on clay parti-
cles, chemical decomposition, and action of micro-organisms. Organo-
phosphorus compounds, as a rule are relatively short-lived in water
courses or soils. Organochlorine compounds may persist for long
periods of time in water sources, but often are not moved through the
soil, but are decomposed in the soil.
Scalf and his colleagues (235) studied movement of DDT and nitrates in
a ground water recharge experiment in Texas and found that the nitrates
moved readily with the recharge water but that essentially all of the
DDT was adsorbed on the sand particles of the aquifer. The solubility
of the pesticide seems to have a significant effect upon the movement
through the soil. In studies in the San Joaquin Valley (236) using
Lindane and DDT the .investigators found that the pesticide DDT being
of low solubility did not move through the soil into the ground water
in significant amounts, whereas Lindane, of higher solubility did move
into the ground water in significant amounts. They also pointed out
that more chlorinated hydrocarbons are removed through decomposition
in the soil than through leaching.
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Pollution by pesticides must be listed as an important potential
hazard throughout the project area. However, in all of the litera-
ture studied and the many interviews conducted in compiling data for
this report, no evidence was reported of any measured pollution from
pesticides.
Land Subsidence Effects on Water Quality
In a previous section we referred briefly to a problem of arsenic
pollution of ground water in the San Joaquin Valley of California.
Lofgren (137) has expressed the opinion that the arsenic may have been
the result of land subsidence, which is extensive in the area where
arsenic is found. His theory is that the arsenic has adhered to clay
particles, and as the pressure is increased in the soil due to the
subsidence of the land, the arsenic goes into solution. There is a
considerable area in California subject to land subsidence, but no
other relationship between subsidence and water quality has been
suggested at any other location. Miller, Green and Davis (237) report
subsidence in excess of 20 feet at some locations in western San Joaquin
Valley of California.
Other Causes
SEWER LEAKAGE
Many sewer systems are constructed with poor joints with the result
that leakage from the sewer may result in areas where the sewer line is
above the ground water table. This represents a potential threat of
contamination of ground water. Recent pipe laying practices often re-
quire the use of rubber gaskets at the joints with a greatly diminished
pollution potential.
THERMAL POLLUTION
It is well known that ground water temperatures at some locations in
the country have increased with time. Many industries dispose of
heated wastes to the ground water. No specific instances of such
thermal pollution problems are known in the project area, but undoubt-
edly there are some locations where this problem exists. A rise in
ground water temperature can have a serious detrimental effect on many
users.
RADIOACTIVITY
in the Milling process of uranium ore, there are tailings left which
might have a pollution potential for radioactivity of 1
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in tailing piles that have some radio-active materials. Although they
are not known to be an active source of ground water pollution, they
would appear to be a possible source .
Natural radioactivity occurs to some extent in all ground water, as a
result of decay products of uranium, thorium, or radium which occur
in natural formations. No instances of a detrimental amount of radio-
activity are known to exist in the project area.
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITY
The project area includes large areas of public and private land which
are used much of the time for recreational purposes. There has been
a great increase in recreational use of lands in recent years. Camp-
ing, hiking, motorcycling, horseback riding, fishing, boating, skiing,
snowmobiling, and hunting are all examples of recreational uses of
land and water within the project area. These uses have had a great
impact upon the surface water quality and to a lesser degree upon
ground water quality. Use of this type will likely increase greatly
in the future and the net effect on ground water quality may be con-
siderable .
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SECTION VII
RESEARCH AND OTHER NEEDS
There is a vast amount of written material bearing on the subject of
the ground water supply and the pollution thereof. The many refer-
ences in the bibliography of this report attest to that fact. On the
other hand, almost no research has been devoted to the solution of
the problems related to ground water pollution.
It will be noted that many of the "research needs" listed involve
investigative evaluations or studies of an applied nature. The authors
believe that there is a great need to bridge the gap between fundamen-
tal or basic knowledge and the practical application of knowledge to
every day problems. This is especially true in the field of ground
water pollution, where the variables are many, and where the greatest
promise for useful research appears to lie in the "applied" area.
Determination of Ground Water Development Potential
It is the belief of the authors that many ground water quality pro-
blems are inseparably connected to water quantity problems. Over-
development of a given ground water aquifer often results in a deteri-
oration of the water quality—sometimes dramatically as is the case
when sea water or connate brine comes into an over-developed well.
There is surprisingly little quantitative information available
which will enable the water resources engineer to define the quantita-
tive limits of ground water development. There are few locations
where these limits have been defined. They are sorely needed by
engineers and water administrative officials wherever ground water is
used. McGuinness (15) made a great contribution in summarizing the
best estimates available of ground water development potentials. His
estimates were based on geologic and other limited information with
no claim to accuracy sufficient to define development limits. He
stated "Existing knowledge is grossly inadequate to form a basis for
effective development and management of the ground water reservoirs."
Techniques for evaluation of pumping and recovery data are available,
which will permit determination of the quantity of available ground
water supplies. This should be done for all ground water basins where
appreciable development exists or is contemplated.
Research on Ground Water Pollution identification
This report is based upon a thorough review of the literature and
personal interviews with various officials having knowledge of ground
water pollution problems existing in the study area. Through these
sources, many ground water pollution problems have been identified and
reported. We believe that this identification is a necessary first
step in solving ground water pollution problems. It is our conviction
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that similar reports should be prepared for other parts of the country.
Aside from the inventory value, such reports can serve as a basis for
research projects to attack the problems of ground water pollution in
the respective areas of the country. We recommend that such studies
be conducted throughout the United States.
Besearch and Investigation on Specific
Pollution Problems
In the previous section, the existing ground water pollution problems
were listed and classified according to the various causes of pollu-
tion . Listed below are recommended research ideas aimed at solutions
of some of the problems listed. The list is not intended to be all-
inclusive, but to serve as a guide for research which the authors feel
can be productive in solving ground water pollution problems in the
states of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah. The suggestions are
classified according to the "causes" listed in the previous section and
are presented in the same order as previously. No attempt has been
made to establish priorities of suggested research, since great differ-
ences exist in the magnitude of the problem. Availability of funds
and research capability must have a great influence on the kind, amount
and rate of any research undertaken.
NATURAL IEACHING
Since this is a natural process, it is the result of many long term,
complex interactions between water and the earth mantle. Improvement
programs must either protect the water nearer the source, short circuit
the natural processes, or de-mineralize the water. The following re-
search ideas are suggested:
1. In areas of extremely short supply of water, study the
feasibility of demineralization of part of a given water
supply so that demineralized water may be mixed with raw
water to obtain acceptable water.
2. At locations where surface water supplies are available
and where satisfactory geologic conditions exist, inves-
tigate the feasibility of water spreading in re-charge
areas to dilute natural mineralization as well as in-
creasing ground water supplies.
3. Study long term records of salinity in ground water to
investigate changes in natural salinity with time.
These studies would answer such questions as "Does a
long-term leaching process decrease the minerals in the
leaching areas, thus diminishing the mineral content
increase in total quantity and/or in percentage in years
of high water supply?"
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IRRIGATION RETURN FLOW
The Utah State Research Foundation, in their comprehensive report pre-
viously cited (90), made many excellent recommendations for research
on the subject of irrigation return flow. The authors generally con-
cur in their reconroendations, many of which relate to ground water
pollution. The following suggested research topics include a number
of ideas from their report:
1. Conduct studies under a variety of soil mineralization
and irrigation water quality conditions to determine
inter-relationships between salt balance, efficiency of
irrigation, and mineral changes in water as it moves
into and through the soil.
2. Conduct investigations to evaluate in large scale irri-
gation projects, the increases in salinity of irrigation
return flow in order to develop techniques for the pre-
diction of such mineralization increases in new irriga-
tion projects.
3. Conduct basic studies of the precipitation and exchange
reactions which occur as water moves through mineralized
soil.
4. Conduct basic studies related to adsorption of phosphates,
heavy metals, and various agricultural chemicals which
may be carried into the soil with irrigation water.
5. Investigation of effects of temperature of irrigation
water on the pollutional aspects of the resulting return
flow and its effect on the ground water.
SEA WATER ENCROACHMENT
Most of the work which has been done to fight sea water encroachment
has been of an emergency nature—with procedures and practices being
developed in the field to control pollution already existent. The
following are suggested research ideas:
1. Evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of existing
fresh water "barriers" established near the California
coast to prevent salt water encroachment from the ocean.
Do present barriers use more fresh water than necessary?
2. Study ocean-bordering aquifers to determine storage and
useable available water so that over-development can be
avoided before salt water encroaches into the fresh water
aquifers.
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3. In areas where geologic conditions are favorable,
investigate the feasibility of utilizing a physical
barrier such as a grout curtain to prevent encroach-
ment .
4. Investigate mineralization and geologic conditions
near highly-mineralized inland seas such as the Great
Salt Lake in Utah and Mono Lake or the Salton Sea in
California to determine whether the lake water is
polluting the ground water.
SOLID WASTES
Disposal of solid wastes is a problem throughout the U .S. The develop-
ment of methods and techniques for handling the large volume of solid
wastes will require ingenuity and wisdom. Ground water pollution is
only a small part of the problem. Legislation and regulatory control
are needed in all states. This is especially true in relation to toxic
wastes and containers used for highly concentrated materials which may
be toxic. The following are suggested research ideas:
1. Evaluation of ground water pollution resulting from
various kinds of solid waste disposal areas.
2. Development of special techniques for handling highly
toxic waste materials to prevent ground water pollution.
3. Development of uniform requirements for management and
operation of solid waste disposal areas .
DISPOSAL OF OIL FIELD BRINES AND OTHER MATERIALS
There is a great ground water pollution hazard in the disposal of
brines and other waste materials in the oil and gas fields . Rigid
inspection and control of disposal techniques is essential on a uni-
form basis . New legislation will probably be required to insure the
kind of control necessary to protect the ground water resources . It
is recommended that costs of inspection and control be assessed as a
cost against the drilling operation. Suggested research ideas are as
follows:
1. Conduct detailed geologic and geophysical investigation
in existing and potential oil and gas fields to evaluate
potential disposal hazards by re-injection or other
methods.
2. Develop inspection procedures which will insure absolute
control of ground water quality in drill fields .
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3. Investigate the ground water pollution hazards in
the use of acids to increase aquifer permeability,
including the fate of the acid and possible aquifer
interconnections brought about by acid corrosion
of the well casing.
ANIMAL WASTE
The concentration of large numbers of animals in a small space has been
a recent development in the beef, pork and poultry industries. Pollu-
tion of ground water caused by animal waste has been discussed in pre-
vious sections. There is considerable reason for concern over ground
water pollution related to animal waste disposal. There is a need for
design standards and management procedures to cjuide the industry and
the regulatory agencies. Research ideas are as follows:
1. Investigate the effect of various feed lot and
poultry management practices on ground water quality.
Investigations should include various site conditions
and various methods of handling the waste, such as
spreading on the land, treatment by aeration or
other means, incineration, etc.
2. Develop guide lines for the construction, operation
and management of feed lots in order to help solve
the animal waste problems and protect ground water
quality.
3. Assist the states in preparation, adoption and enforce-
ment of standards to protect ground water quality,
4. Evaluate management practices, related to scheduled
inundation of disposal of high-nitrate effluent as
reported by Bouwer (223) .
5. Investigate the effects on ground water pollution of
land disposal by the spreading of large amounts of
decomposable organic material on the land surface.
Studies should include the movement through the soil
of such substances as phosphates, nitrogenous compounds
and pesticides and the survival and movement of viruses,
pathogenic bacteria, nematodes and other such organisms.
ACCI CENTAL SPILLS OF HAZARDOUS MATE RIALS
Accidental spills of hazardous materials represent a constant threat
to gro^d"wa?er quality. There is urgent need for the development of
detection and control procedures as well as a 'faster" plan to be
rtSowea^irie event of such accidental spills. New legislation may
be needed to implement such procedures. Prevention, detection and
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correction measures are needed and therefore, applied research should
be directed at developing these measures.
WATER FROM FAULT ZONES AND VOLCANIC ORIGINS
In the project area there are many thermal and mineralized springs
which represent important sources of pollution at particular locations
Although these sources are of natural origin, some research will be
helpful in solving the problems:
1. Investigate the geology of the polluting springs to
determine direction of water flow, source of flow,
and localized conditions which may make plugging or
sealing of the spring possible.
2 . Evaluate hydraulic conditions at polluting springs to
determine whether diversion or isolation by increasing
the overflow "pressure head" may be effective in stopping
tlie spring flow.
3. Extensive work has been done on locating the springs
with highly mineralized water in the various states of
the region. Research is needed to determine the extent
of any pollution to the ground water which these springs
might be causing. Then ways should be sought to elimi-
nate that source of pollution .
EVAPO-TRANSPIRATION OF NATIVE VEGETATION
The prospect of salvaging valuable water now being wasted by compara-
tively useless vegetation, while at the same time decreasing the
accompanying mineralization of the water supply, has provided an
attractive goal for many engineers and scientists. Various programs of
vegetation eradication have been attempted with very limited success.
The growth usually returns within a short period of time . Erosion
resulting during the eradication period has created serious soil loss
problems in the eradication areas and sedimentation problems in the
nearby stream channels. Nevertheless, the authors believe that re-
search along the following lines could be fruitful:
1. Development and evaluation of replacement vegetation
having lower water use characteristics than the water-
loving phreatophytes.
2. Investigation of the possibilities of leveling areas of
phreatophyte growth and utilizing the areas for agricul-
tural production. Such a program should involve consid-
eration of subsidization because of the intermittent
flooding, poor soil conditions and low yield potential.
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INJECTION WELLS FOR WASTE DISPOSAL
The use of injection wells to dispose of wastes is a rap idly -growing
practice in the U.S. Much of this use in uncontrolled and done with-
out any public record or knowledge. Pollution possibilities from
these practices are staggering. It is likely that legislation is
needed to establish control procedures.
Research ideas which may be helpful ares
1. Conduct a detailed investigation to determine, in each
of the states, deep well injection policies, controls,
practices and existing injection programs (including
volume and quality of all injection material) .
2. Conduct geological and geophysical investigations at
existing and potential injection sites to evaluate
possible aquifer interconnections, hydrostatic pres-
sure and storage capabilities—such investigations to
serve as a basis for establishing policies for the
use of injection wells as a means of waste disposal.
3. Encourage states to develop means of prohibiting deep
well injection where it will decrease the ground water
quality.
4. Develop guide lines for controlling the use of injec-
tion wells for waste disposal.
5. Make a study of several injection well operations under
various aquifer conditions to determine whether or not
the ground water is being polluted by the disposal of
various waste materials.
FERTILIZATION OF AGRICULTURAL LANDS
There are many elements necessary for plant growth. In addition to the
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen taken from air and water, the plants re-
quire nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, calcium, magnesium, iron^
manganese, Zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum and a number of other minor
elements. Some of these elements are required in only minute amounts
and are usually present naturally to most soils, but three--nitrogen,
potassium, and phosphorus-are usually added in great amounts, ^search
to date has indicated that nitrates go into solution as water is added
to the soil, and often move through the soil into the ground water.
Phosphates appear to be adsorbed on the soil particles, and do not move
into the ground water. Potassium is not known to cause any Problem.
More research is needed, and the following ideas are suggested:
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1. Investigate the movement through the soil and the
fate of various fertilizer additives—nitrogen, phos-
phorous, potassium, or others that could cause a ground
water pollution problem.
2. Evaluate various fertilizer application and management
practices especially to include the time of fertilizer
application as related to the time of heaviest water
application in order to minimize leaching away of
fertilizer elements.
3. Investigate relative ground water pollution under programs
utilizing slow-release fertilizers now available or others
that may be developed.
LAND DISPOSAL OF WASIES - MUNICIPAL OR INDUSTRIAL
Many municipal and industrial wastes are disposed of by spreading on
the ground surface—in both liquid and solid form. Procedures govern-
ing such spreading and research to evaluate pollution hazards are
needed. Research suggestions are as follows:
1. Evaluate ground water pollution potential of land dis-
posal practices, especially including the ultimate fate
of toxic materials or any potential pollutant which may
be involved.
2. Develop guide lines defining characteristics of good land
disposal sites .
3. Develop management practices which may permit land dis-
posal of certain wastes, including "rest" periods for
disposal areas and cultivation practices in disposal
areas .
SEEPAGE OF POLLU'EED SURFACE WATERS
Whenever polluted surface waters seep into the ground they constitute
a potential ground water pollution hazard. Needs in this category are
essentially preventive—prevention of the pollution of surface waters,
or management of them to prevent infiltration.
URBAN RUNOFF
Storm drainage from urban areas inevitably picks up various pollutants.
Degradable organic pollutants or bacteria are not usually a problem to
the ground water since they are not usually transmitted through the
soil mantle. Toxic materials and phenols could be a problem. Salt
used to melt roadway ice and snow in winter constitutes a serious poten-
tial problem—especially in arid regions where mineralization is a
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primary cause of water quality degradation. Research ideas are as
follows:
1. Study the winter urban runoff, in areas where salt is
used on roadways, to evaluate mineralization of the
groundwater by such practices.
2. Develop guide lines relating to treatment of urban
waste waters which may be used for ground water replen-
ishment .
3. Evaluate the extent of ground water pollution from urban
developments in mountain areas.
CONNATE WATER WITHDRAWAL
Connate water withdrawal may result when a fresh ground water aquifer
is over-developed. Efforts to prevent ground water pollution by this
means should concentrate on a determination of aquifer development
limits. Research along these lines is suggested:
1. Study all producing ground water aquifers to determine
storage and useable available water so that the develop-
ment limits may be determined before over-development
occurs.
MINING ACTIVITIES
Mast mining activities intercept ground water . In most mines the water
quality is probably not affected appreciably. However, in mines where
pyritic formations are exposed to air and water, sulfuric acid drainage
may result. Research and investigation suggestions are as follows:
1. Investigate the characteristics of drainage from mines
wherever it exists in appreciable amounts.
2. Evaluate ground water pollution potential of the mine
drainage to determine whether treatment of the drainage
water is necessary before it is permitted to mix with
natural waters.
3 Evaluate mining practices to determine methods which
might be utilized to control natural drainage from the
mine after it becomes inactive.
AQUIFER INTERCHANGE
interchange of ground water from one aquifer to another is usually the
rlsult S Improper drilling practices. Control of drilling practices
S all state? should include provisions to prohibit promiscuous
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perforation of well casings at many different aquifers in the same
well which so often occurs. Suggestions for research are as follows:
1. Develop policies and procedures which will result in
well drilling methods that will help assure that there
is neither a planned nor an inadvertent interchange of
waters between different aquifers.
2. Develop procedures by which evaluation of intermixing
of aquifers in existing wells can be made, followed by
selective sealing of some aquifers or complete sealing
of the entire well if necessary to protect water quality.
This would be especially important for abandoned wells.
MINERALIZATION FROM SOLUBLE AQUIFERS
Since this is primarily a natural process, it is not likely that
corrective or preventative measures can be taken. As competition for
water increases polluted waters from these sources may need to be
made useable by some demineralization process.
CROP RESIDUES AND DEAD ANIMALS
Crop residues and dead animals constitute a potential source of ground
water pollution, particularly from nitrates resulting from the decompo-
sition of organic matter. Research ideas are as follows:
1. Study actual ground water pollution adjacent to areas of
dead animal or concentrated crop residue disposal to
determine pollution potential from such sources.
2. Evaluate methods of disposal of dead animals, such as
poultry, so that ground water quality may be protected.
Methods of disposal may include (a) grinding and disposal
with manure (b) grinding and utilization as animal feed,
and (c) incineration.
3. Develop regulatory controls, especially for disposal of
dead animals by burial underground, so that ground water
quality may be protected.
PESTICIDE RESIDUES
Continued developments in the various pesticides results in rapid
changes in the water quality effects. Pesticides of today are in great
variety and application compared with those of even a few years ago.
The future will likely bring even greater changes. Research ideas are
as follows:
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1. Continued investigation of new and existing varieties
of pesticides to determine their ultimate fate in the
ground and particularly their effect on ground water
quality.
2. Development of pesticides—insecticides, herbicides,
and soil fumigants which will not be environmental
pollutants .
LAND SUBSIDENCE EFFECTS OF VRTER QUALITY
In Section VI, it was reported that land subsidence may be a possible
cause of the occurrence of arsenic in the ground water. Research should
be conducted in the areas of land subsidence to determine whether such
a relationship does exist or not.
SEWER LEAKAGE
Many old sewer systems, constructed before the development of satisfac-
tory joint systems, represent potential sources of ground water con-
tamination . Biological contamination has not been known to move any
great distance underground, and pollution of this type would, therefore,
usually be a localized problem. Investigation and evaluation of sus-
pected sewers may be worthwhile in some instances but future control
should likely relate to the use of leak-proof jointing systems. No
particular research effort is indicated.
THERMAL POLLUTION
Cooling processes related to electrical energy generation or any indus-
trial plant may have an appreciable effect on ground water temperatures.
Any operation which has this potential should be carefully evaluated to
determine present and long-range effects on ground water quality. Re-
search is also needed to evaluate the effects of elevated ground water
temperatures on the degradation of various waste products which may
exist underground. Such degradation could have the effect of releasing
toxic substances to the ground water.
RADIOACTIVITY
Radioactivity, whether resulting from natural deposits, from mining or
ore processing, or from disposal of radioactive wastes is a potential
water pollution danger. Prevention at the source, rather than correc-
tive research, would be the most desirable control.
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITY
Recreational activities are resulting in serious pollution of surface
waters, and there is potential hazard to ground waters in affected areas
Programs to protect surface waters will probably correct any ground
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water problems, and research aimed particularly at ground water quali-
ty is not required at this time. Monitoring of water quality in areas
of potential problem should be carried out.
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SECTION VIII
ACKNOWLE DGEMENTS
Many agencies and individuals have given assistance in the compilation
of reports, publications, and personal interviews which were used as a
basis for this report. During the data-gathering phase many hundreds
of reports were reviewed and many public officials were interviewed in
the four states included in the project area.
Among the federal agencies, the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation have provided much valuable information. The
Regional Offices of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation in Salt Lake City,
Boulder City and Sacramento have provided many reports containing
valuable information. The District offices of the U.S. Geological Sur-
vey in Salt Lake City, Carson City, Palo Alto and Tucson have provided
a great number of reports, many of which are "open-file" unpublished
reports, which have been of great assistance in the project.
The various state Water Quality Control offices have been very coopera-
tive and helpful to us. Many County and District officers have pro-
vided information which has been invaluable in the writing of this
report.
Nearly one hundred individuals, staff members of the agencies mentioned
above have provided cooperative assistance and reference material. Be-
cause of the great number, no attempt is made here to give individual
credit, but their cooperation is gratefully acknowledged.
The authors are members of the faculty of the Department of Civil
Engineering at Brigham Young University as well as officers of Fuhriman,
Barton and Associates, Incorporated; the Contracting Company. Apprecia-
tion is expressed to colleagues at Brigham Young University for help-
fulness and cooperation.
The support of the project by the Water Quality office, Environmental
Protection agency, Les McMillion, Bruce Maxwell, and Jack Keeley, Pro-
ject officer—all of the Technical Staff at the Robert S . Kerr Water
Research Laboratory of Ada, Oklahoma--are gratefully acknowledged.
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SECTION IX
REFERENCES CITED
1. Editors of Water Well Journal, "Ground Water Pollution--the Author-
itative Primer," Water Well Journal, vol. 24, No. 7, pp 31-67
(July, 1870).
2. Thomas, H. E., "Ground Water Regions of the United States—their
Storage Facilities," In U.S. 83rd Congress, House Interior and
Insular Affairs Committee—The Physical and Economic Foundation of
Natural Resources, vol. 3 (1952) .
3. Me Inzer, 0. E., "The Occurrence of Ground Water in the United
States, with a Discussion of Principles," U.S. Geological Survey,
Water Supply Paper 489 (1923) .
4. Thomas, H. E., "The Conservation of Ground Water," McGraw Hill Book
Co. (1951).
5. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, California Region—Appendix V,
Water Resources," Preliminary Field Draft (November, 1970).
6. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, California Region--Appendix XV,
Water Quality, Pollution and Health Factors," Preliminary Field
Draft (November, 1970) .
7. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Great Basin Region—Appendix V,
Water Resources," Preliminary Field Draft (November, 1970).
8. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Great Basin Region—Appendix XV,
Water Quality, Pollution Control and Health Factors," Preliminary
Field Draft (January, 1971) .
9. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Lower Colorado Region—Appendix V -
Water Resources," Preliminary Field Draft (November, 1970).
10. Pacific Southwest Inter-Agency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Lower Colorado Region—Appendix XV -
Water Quality, Pollution and Health Factors," Preliminary Field
Draft (November, 1970) .
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11. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Upper Colorado Region—Appendix V,
Water Resources," Preliminary Field Draft (November, 1970).
12. Pacific Southwest Interagency Committee, Water Resources Council,
"Comprehensive Framework Study, Upper Colorado Region—Appendix
XV, Water Quality, Pollution Control and Health Factors," Pre-
liminary Field Draft (November, 1970) .
13. USER, "Report on Cooperative Water Resource Inventory - Arizona,
Volume I - Arizona," (1965) .
14. USER, "Report on Cooperative Water Resource Inventory, Volume II,
Hydrologic Study Area, Arizona," (1965) .
15. McGuinness, C. L., "The Role of Ground Water in the National
Water Situation," USGS Water Supply Paper 1800 (1963) .
16. Briggs, P. C., "Ground-Water Conditions in the Ranegrass Plain,
Yuma County, Arizona," Water Resources Report No, 41, Arizona
State Land Department (September, 1969) .
17. Arteaga, F. E., White, N. D., Cooley, M. E., and Sutheimer, A. F.,
"Ground Water in Paradise Valley, Karicopa County, Arizona, "
Water Resources Report No. 35, Arizona State Land Department (1968)
18. Stulick, R. S., and Moosburner, Otto, "Hydrologic conditions in
the Gila Bend Basin, Maricopa County, Arizona," Water Resources
Report No. 39, Arizona State Land Department (March, 1969) .
19. Halpenny, L. C., and others, "Ground Water in the Gila River Basin
and adjacent areas, Arizona—A Summary," USGS open file report
(October, 1952) .
20. McDonald, H. R., Wolcott, H. N., and Hem, J. D., "Geology and
Groundwater Resources of the Salt River Valley area, Maricopa and
Final Counties, Arizona," USGS open file report (February 4, 1947) .
21. Kara, William, Schumann, H. H., Kister, L. R., and Arteaga, F. E.,
"Basic Ground Water Data for western Salt River Valley, Maricopa,
Co; Arizona," Water Resources Report No. 27, Arizona State Land
Department (1966) .
22. Skibitzke, H. E., Bennett, R. R., DaCosta, J. A., Lewis, D. D.,
and Haddock, Thomas, Jr., "Symposium on History of Development of
Water Supply iu an arid area in Southwestern U.S., Salt River
Valley, Arizona," International Association of Scientific Hydrolo-
gy, Publication 57, pp 706-742.
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23. Babcock, H. M., "Annual Report on Ground Water in Arizona, Spring
1968 to Spring 1969," Water Resources Report No. 42, Arizona
State Land Department (1969) .
24. Davis, Gordon E., and Stafford, JohnF., "First Annual Report,
Tucson Wastewater Reclamation Project, " Planning and Research
Section, Water and Sewers Department, City of Tucson (1966) .
25. Rillito Creek Hydrologic Research Committee of The University of
Arizona and the U.S. Geological Survey, Capturing Additional Water
in the Tucson Area," USGS open file report (1959) .
26. Heindl, L. A., "Ground -Water Shadows and Buried Topography, San
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27. Heindl, L. A., and White, N. D., "Hydrologic and Drill-Hole Data,
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28. Turner, S. F., "Ground Water in the Tucson Quadrangle, Arizona,"
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29. Turner, S. F., and others, "Ground Water Resources of the Santa
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30. Turner, S. F., and others, "Further Investigations of the ground
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31. Andrews, D. A., "Ground water in Avra-Altar Valley, Arizona," USGS
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32. White, N. D., Matlock, W. G., and Schwalen, H. C., "An appraisal
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33. White, N. D., "Ground Water Conditions in the Rainbow Valley and
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34. Denis, E. E., "Ground Water Conditions in the Waternan Wash area,
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35. Johnson, P. W., and Cahill, J. M., "Ground Water
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129
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36. Heindl, L. A., and Armstrong, C. A., "Geology and Ground-Water
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37. Stulik, R. S., "Effects of Ground-Water Withdrawal, 1954-63 in the
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38. Metzger, D. G., "Geology and Ground Water Resources of the Harqua-
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39. Kara, William, "Geology and ground water resources of the McMullin
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40. Briggs, P. C., "Ground-Water conditions in McMullen Valley, Mari-
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41. Bryan, Kirk, "Routes to Desert Watering Places in the Papago
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42. Bryan, Kirk, "The Papago Country, Arizona, A Geolographic, Geologic
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43. Skibitzke, H. E., and Yost, C. B., Jr., "Location of Sites for
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44. Yost, C. B., Jr., "Geophysical and Geological Reconnaissance to
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45. Coates, D. R., "Memorandum on Ground Water Investigations in the
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46. Bryan, Kirk, Smith, G. E. P., and Waring, G. A., "Geology and
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47. Brown, S. G., "Possibilities for Future Water Resources Develop-
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130
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48. Brown, S. G., Davisdon, E. S., Kister, L. R., and Thomsen, B. W.,
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49. Halpenny, Leonard C., and Cushman, EDbertL., "Ground Water Re-
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50. Cushman, R. L., and Jones, R. S., "Geology and ground-water re-
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54. Morrison, R. B., and Babcock, H. M., "Duncan-Virden Valley, Green-
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55. Halpenny, L. C., Babcock, H. M., Morrison, R. B., and Hem, J. D.,
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56. Cushman, R. L., and Halpenny, L. C., "Effect of Western Drought on
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58. Morrison, R. B., McDonald, H. R., and Stuart, W. T., "Records of
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131
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59. Turner, S. F., and others, "Ground Water Resources and Problems
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63. Jones, R. S., and Cushman, R. L., "Geology and Ground Water Re-
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64. Coates, D. R,, and Cushman, R. L., "Geology and Ground-Water Re-
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65. Babcock, H. M., Brown, S. C., and Hem, J. D,, "Geology and
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66. Babcock, H. M., and Sourdry, A, M., "Records of Wells, Well Logs,
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68. Cahill, J. M., and Wolcott, H. N., "Further investigations of the
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132
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71. Brown, Russell H., Harshbarger, John w., and Thomas, Harold E
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74. Metzger, D. G., "Geology and Ground-Water Resources of the northern
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75. Wolcott, H. N., Skibitzke, H. E., and Halpenny, L. C., "Water re-
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76. Poland, J. F., Davis, G. H., Olmstead, F. H., and Kunkel, Fred,
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77. Bader, J. S., "Summary of Ground-Water Data as of 1967—Cali-
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78. Bader, J. S., "Ground-Water Data as of 1967, North Coastal Sub-
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79. Bader, J. S., "Ground-Water Data as of 1967—San Francisco Bay
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80. Bader, J. S., "Ground-Water Data as of 1967—Central Coastal Sub-
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84. Bader, J. S., "Ground-water Data as of 1967, North Lahontan Sub-
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87. Bechtel Corporation, "Comprehensive Water Resources Management
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88. Pillsbury, Arthur F., "Observations on Use of Irrigation Water in
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89. Cordova, R. M., and others, "Developing a State Water Plan Ground-
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90. Utah state University Foundation, "Characteristics and Pollution
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92. Kister, L. R., and Hardt, W. F., "Salinity of the Ground Water in
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105. California Department of Water Resources, "Carmel River Basin
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106 California Department of Water Resources, "Investigation of Waste
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135
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108. Stout, Perry R., Burau, Richard G., and Allardice, William R.,
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109. California Department of Water Resources, "San Lorenzo River
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110. Bookman and Edmonston, Consulting Civil Engineers, "Activities of
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112. Water Resources Engineers, Inc., "An Investigation of Salt
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136
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123. California Department of Water Resources, "Ground Water Quality
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132. Doneen, L, D., "Factors Contributing to the Quality of Agricul-
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142. Lahontan Regional (California) Water Quality Control Board,
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138
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144. Clancy, P. A., and Rush, F. E., "water Resources Appraisal of
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146, Hely, A. G., and others, "Water Resources of Salt Lake County,
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159. California Department of Water Resources, "Sea Water Intrusion,
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179 Central Coastal (California) Regional Water Quality Control
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183. Wadleigh, C. H., "Wastes in relation to agriculture and fores-
try," U.S.D.A. Misc. Publication No. 1065 (1968).
184. Smith, G. E., "Many gremlins . . . not just one contribute to
nitrate buildup," Fertilizer Solutions (May-June, 1966).
185. Mailman, W. L., and Mack, W. N., "Biological comtamination of
ground water," P.H.S. lech. Report No. W61-5, pp 35-43 (1961) .
186. Eliassen, R., Kruger, P., and Drewry, W., "Studies on the move-
ment of viruses in ground water," Annual Report Commission on
Environment Hygiene, Stanford University (1965).
187. Milligan, James H., Marsell, Ray E., and Bagley, Jay M., "Miner-
alized Springs in Utah and Their Effect on Manageable Water
Supplies," Report WG23-6, Utah Water Research Laboratory, Utah
State University, Logan, Utah (Septentoer, 1966) .
188. Mundorff, J. C., "Major Thermal Springs of Utah," Water Resources
Bulletin 13, Utah Geological and Mineralogical Survey (September,
1970) .
189. Feth, J. H., "Preliminary reports of Investigations of springs in
the Mogollon Rim Region, Arizona, with sections on Base Flow of
Streams by N. D. White and Quality of Water by J. D. Hem," USGS
open file report (June, 1954) .
190. Feth, J. H., and Hem, J. D., "Reconnaissance of Head-Water
Springs in the Gila River Drainage Basin, Arizona," USGS Water
Supply Paper 1619-H (1963) .
191. Waring, G. A., "Thermal Springs of the United States and other
countries of the world—summary," USGS Professional Paper 492
(1965) .
192. Stearns, H. T., Stearns, N. D., and Waring, G. A., "Thermal Springs
in the United States, " USGS WSP 679-B, pp 59-206 (1937) .
193. White, D. E., "Summary of studies of Thermal Waters and Volcanic
Emanations of the Pacific Region 1920-61 (in MacDonald, G. A.,
Geology and solid earth geophysics of the Pacific Basin), " Pacific
Sci. Cong., 10th, Honolulu, pp 161-169 (1963) .
194. Akers, J. P., "The Relation of Faulting to the Occurrence of
Ground Water in the Flagstaff Area, Arizona," USGS Professional
Paper 450, article 39, pp 97-100 (1962) .
142
-------
195. White, D. E., 'Violent mud-volcano eruption of Lake City Hot
Springs, northeastern California," Geol. Soc. America Bulletin,
vol. 66, no. 9, pp 1109-1130 (1955).
196. Schoen, Robert, and Erlich, G. G., "Bacterial Origin of Sulfuric
Acid in Sulfurous Hot Springs," 23rd International Geological
Congress, Prague, Cechoslovokia, Proceedings, pp 171-178 (1968).
197. Roberson, C. E., and White, D. i., "sulphur bank, California, a
major Hot-Spring quicksilver deposit," Geol. Soc. America Spec.
Paper (Buddington Volume), pp 397-428 (1962).
198. Roberson, C. E., and Whitehead, H. C., "Ammoniated thermal waters
of Lake and Colusa Counties, California," USGS WSP 1535-A, pp Al-
All (1961) .
199. Fletcher, Herbert C., and Elmendorf, Harold B., "Phreatophytes—
A Serious Problem in the West, " in Yearbook of Agriculture 1955,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, pp 423-429.
200. Robinson, T. W., "Phreatophytes," USGS Water Supply Paper 1423
(1958).
201. Robinson, T. W., "Phreatophytes and Their Relation to Water in
Western United States, " American Geophysical Union Transactions,
vol. 33, no. 1, pp 57-61 (1952) .
202. Robinson, T. W., "Evapotranspiration by Woody Phreatophytes in
the Humboldt River Valley near Winnemucca, Nevada," USGS Profes-
sional Paper 491-D (1970).
203. Muckel, D. C., "Water Losses in Santa Ana River Canyon below Prado
Dam, California," U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conserva-
tion Service, Division of Irrigation and Water Conservation (1946).
204. Muckel, D. C., and Blaney, H. F., "Utilization of the waters of
the Lower San Luis Rey Valley, San Diego County, California,"
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service (1945) .
205. shamberger, Hugh A., "A Proposed 10-Year cooperative water Re-
sources Program between The State of Nevada and the U.S. Geologi-
cal Survey, " Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Re-
sources, Water Resources information Series, Report No. 4
(October, 1962) .
206. Gatewood, J. S., Robinson, T. W., Colby, B. R., Hem, J. D., and
Halpenny, L. C., "Use of Water by Bottom-Land Vegetation in Lower
Safford Valley, Arizona," USGS Water Supply Paper 1103 (1950) .
143
-------
207. Lewis, D. D., "Cottonw&od Wash Project, Water Use by Channel
Vegetation," Arizona State Land Department, Proceedings 3rd
Annual Watershed Symposium, pp 100-110 (1959).
208. Lewis, D. D., "Effects of Controlling Riparian Vegetation,"
Arizona State Land Department, Proceedings 5th Annual Watershed
Symposium, pp 27-32 (1961).
209. Bowie, J. E., and Kam, William, "Use of Water by Riparian Vegeta-
tion, Cot ton wood Wash, Arizona—A Surtmary, " USGS open-file re-
port (1965) .
210. Hendricks, E. L., Kam, William, and Bowie, J. E., "Progress Report
on Use of Water by Riparian Vegetation, Cottonwood Wash, Arizona,"
USGS Circular No. 434 (1960) .
211. Turner, S. P., and Skibitzke, H. E., "Use of water by Phreato-
phytes in 2000 foot Channel Between Granite Reef and Gillespie
Dams, Maricopa County, Arizona," American Geophysical Union
Transactions, vol. 33, part 1, pp 66-72 (1952) .
212. Kaufman, W. J., Orcutt, R. G., and Klein, G., "Underground Move-
ment of Radioactive Wastes," Progress Report NO. 1, U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission, AECU-3115 (1955) .
213. de Laguna, W., and Blomeke, J. O., "The Disposal of Power Reactor
Waste into Deep Wells,*' Atomic Energy Commission Report ORNL-CF-
57-6-23, U.S. AEd Office of Technical Information (June, 1957).
214. Koenig, Louis, "Ultimate Disposal of Advanced Treatment Wastes,
part 1, Injection. Part 2, Placement in Underground Cavities.
Part 3, Spreading," U.S. Public Health Service Publication NO.
99-WP-10 (1964) .
215. Environmental Science and Technology Staff, "Deep Well Injection
is Effective for Waste Disposal," Environmental Science and
Tech., vol. 2, p 406 (1968) .
216. Smith, W. W., "Well, Well," Chemical Eng., vol. 76, part 7, p 7
(1969) .
217. Sheldrick, G, M., "Deep well Disposal: Are Safeguards Being
Ignored?" Chem. Eng., vol. 76, part 7, p 74 (1969).
218. Piper, Arthur M., "Disposal of Liquid Wastes by Injection Under-
ground—Neither Myth nor Millennium," USGS Circular No. 631
(1969) .
144
-------
219. Wesner, G. M and Baier, D. c., "Injection of Reclaimed Waste-
water into Confined Aquifer," Journal American Water Works
Association, vol. 62, p 203 (1970) .
220. Jopling, William, "Effects of Agricultural Wastes on Domestic
Water Supplies-A Sanitary Engineering Viewpoint, " in "Agricul-
tural Waste Waters, a Sumposium," Report No, 10 of Water Re-
sources Center, University of California, edited by L. D. Doneen,
pp 144-150 (1966).
221. Robbins, J. W. D., and Kriz, G. J., "Relation of Agriculture to
Ground Water Pollution: A Review, » Transactions of American
Association of Agricultural Engineers, vol. 12, pp 397 (1969) .
222. Bouwer, Herman, "Putting Waste Water to Beneficial Use—The
Flushing Meadows Project," Proceedings 12th Arizona Watershed
Symposium, pp 25-30 (1968) .
223. Bouwer, Herman, "Returning Wastes to the Land, A New Role for
Agriculture," Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, vol. 23,
pp 164-169 (1968) .
224. Bouwer, Herman, "Ground Water Recharge Design for Renovating
Waste Water, " Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division,
American Society of Civil Engineers, vol. 96, no. SA1, Proceedings
Paper 7096, pp 59-74 (February, 1970).
225. McMichael, Francis Clay, and McKee, Jack Edward, "Wastewater Re-
clamation at Whittier Narrows," Final Research report by
W. M. Keck Laboratory of California Institute of Technology,
Published as Publication No . 33, State Water Quality Control
Board (1966).
226. California Department of Water Resources, "Disperson and Persis-
tence of Synthetic Detergents in Ground Water, San Bernardino and
Riverside Counties, " State Water Quality Control Board, Publica-
tion No . 30 (1965) .
227. Zielbauer, Edward J., "Pollution of Ground Water Resulting from
Industrial Waste Discharged into Compton Creek," Report of Los
Angeles County Flood Control District (July, 1947).
228. California Department of Public Health and California Department
of Water Resources, "Ground Water Quality Studies in Mojave River
Valley in the vicinity of Barstow, San Bernardino County," A
report to the Lahontan Regional Water Pollution Control Board
(June, 1960) .
145
-------
229. California Department of Public Health, "Barstow Ground Water
Study, October 1966," memorandum report of December, 1966, from
the Bureau of Sanitary Engineering to the Lahontan Regional
Water Quality Control Board (1966).
230. Koehler, J. H., and Banta, R. L., "Water Resources at Marine
Corps Supply Center, Barstow, California, for the 1967 Fiscal
Year," USGS open file report (1969) .
231. Koehler, J. H., "Water Resources at Marine Corps Supply Center,
Barstow, California, for the 1968 Fiscal Year," USGS open file
report (1969) .
232. California Department of Water Resources, "San Joaquin County,
Ground Water Investigation," Bulletin No. 146 (July, 1967) .
233. Hart, S. A., "Agricultural Wastes and the Waste Water Problem,"
AGRICULTURAL WASTE WATERS, A Sumposium, edited by L. D. Doneen,
Report No. 10, University of California, Davis, California,
pp 14-16 (1966).
234. Westlake, W. E., "Pesticides as contaminants of Agricultural
Waste Waters," in AGRICULTURAL WASTE WATERS, A Sumposium, edited
by L. D. Doneen, Report No. 10, University of California,
Davis, California, pp 90-93 (1966) .
235. Scalf, M. R., Dunlap, W. J., McMillion, L. G., and Keeley, J. W.,
"Movement of DDT and Nitrates during Ground Water Recharge, "
Water Resources Research, vol. 5, pp 1041-1052 (October, 1969).
236. California Department of Water Resources, "The Fate of Pesticides
Applied to Irrigated Agricultural Land," Bulletin No. 174-1
(May, 1968).
237. Miller, R. E., Green, J. H., and Davis, G. H., "Geology of the
Compacting Deposits in the Los Banos-Kettleman City Subsidence
Area, California," USGS Professional Paper No. 497-E (1971) .
238. National Technical Advisory Committee, FWPCA, "Water Quality
Criteria," U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
(1968) .
239. McGauhey, P. H., "Engineering Management of Water Quality,"
McGraw-Hill Book Conpany, New York (1968) .
240. Economic Research Service, "Major Uses of Land and Water in the
Lhited States," Agricultural Economic Report No. 13, Economic
Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture (July, 1962) .
146
-------
241. American Society for Testing Materials, "First National Meeting
on Water Quality Criteria," ASTM Publication No. 4-6 (1966).
147
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SECTION X
GLOSSARY OF TERMS, ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
Advanced Waste Treatment - In sewage, the additional treatment of
effluent beyond that of secondary treatment, in order to obtain a very
high quality of effluent. Usually includes nutrient removal.
Alkali zation - The process by which exchangeable sodium accumulated on
the soil colloids and the soil becomes more alkaline in reaction.
Aquifer - A geologic formation which contains water and has the capa-
bility of transmitting it from one point to another in quantity to
permit economic development.
Artificial Recharge - The addition of water to the ground-water reser-
voir by activities of man, such as irrigation or induced infiltration
from streams, wells, or spreading basins.
Beneficial Use of Water - The use of water for any purpose from which
benefits are derived, such as domestic, irrigation, or industrial
supply, power development, or recreation.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D.) - The quantity of oxygen utilized
primarily in the biochemical oxidation of organic matter in a
specified time and at a specified temperature. The time and temperature
are usually five days and 20°C.
Brackish Water - Water containing dissolved minerals in excess of
acceptable normal municipal, domestic, and irrigation standards, but
less than that of sea water .
Cenozoic Age - Division of geological history from the beginning of the
Tertiary (first period in the Cenozoic Era) to the present.
cfs - Abbreviation for cubic feet per second.
Chemical Water Quality - Reflects the spectrum and level of concentra-
tion of dissolved chemicals in a water supply.
Closed Basin - A basin is considered closed with respect to surface
flow if its'topography prevents the occurrence of vxsxble ^tflow It
is closed hydrologica-ly if neither surface nor underground outflow can
occur.
Confined Aquifer - An aquifer which is bounded above and below by forma-
tions of impermeable or relatively impermeable material.
149
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Concentration - The quantity of dissolved materials in a unit volume
or weight of water. In this report concentration is expressed in
milligrams per liter, parts per million, equivalents per million,
specific electrical conductance in micromhos per cm, and tons per acre
foot.
Connate Water - Sea water held in the interstices of sedimentary depos-
its and sealed in by the deposition of overlying beds.
Conservative Constituents - Materials carried in the hydrologic system
which, on a class basis, do not interact with the chemical, physical,
or biological elements of the environment to a significant extent.
This classification includes broad groups of materials such as total
dissolved solids because net conservatism is maintained even though
such interactions as ion exchange take place with the group.
Consumptive Use (Water) - The sum of the quantity of water used by
vegetative growth in transpiration or building of plant tissue and the
quantity evaporated from adjacent soil or plant surfaces in a given
specified time. Also referred to as Evapotranspiration.
Deep Percolation - In a geologic sense, the percolation downward of
water by leakage through the geologic formation. In hydrology, it is
the percolation downward of water past the lower limit of the root
zone.
Degradable - Capable of being decomposed, deteriorated, or decayed into
simpler forms with characteristics different from the original. Also
referred to as biodegradable.
Degradation of Water Quality - Decrease in water quality due to in-
creased concentration of any substance classified as a pollutant.
De mineralization - The process of removing the mineral salts from
water.
Depletion (Ground-Water) - The withdrawal of water from a ground-water
source at a rate greater than its rate of replenishment, usually over
an extended period of several years.
Dissolved Oxygen - The amount of free (not chemically combined) oxygen
in water. Usually expressed in milligrams per liter.
Dissolved Solids - Chemicals in true solution.
Drawdown - The magnitude of lowering of the surface of a body of water
or of its piezometric surface as a result of withdrawal or the release
of water therefrom.
150
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Effluent Stream - A stream which intersects the water table and re-
ceives flow from ground water.
Eutrophi cation - The process of overfertilization of a body of water
by nutrients which produces more organic matter than the self -purifica-
tion processes can overcome .
Evapotr an sp ir ation - See Consumptive Use .
Flood Plain - Land bordering a stream and which receives overbank flow.
Fluvial Sediment - River or stream sediment deposits.
Geomgrphic Province - A region in which the majority of land features
have a degree of similarity as to its origin and development.
Ground Water - Underground water that is in the zone of saturation .
Ground Water Basin - A ground water reservoir together with all the
overlying land surface and the underlying aquifers that contribute water
to the reservoir. In some cases, the boundaries of successively deeper
aquifers may differ in a way that creates difficulty in defining the
limits of the basin .
Ground Water Mining - See Depletion (Ground Water) .
Ground Water Overdraft - See Overdraft.
Ground Water Recharge - Inflow to a ground water reservoir.
Ground Water Reservoir - An aquifer or aquifer system in which ground
water is stored. The water may be placed in the aquifer by artificial
or natural means .
Ground Water Storage Capacity - The reservoir space contained in a given
volume of deposits. Under optimum conditions of use, the usable ground
water storage capacity volume of water that can be alternately extracted
and replaced in the deposit, within specified economic limitations.
Hydrographic Study Area - An area of hydrological and climatological
similarity so subdivided for study purposes.
Hydrologic Budget - An accounting of all inflow to, outflow from, and
changes in storage within a hydrologic unit such as a drainage basin,
soil zone, aquifer, lake, or project area.
cesses as Pecipitation, interception, runoff, infiltration,
tion, storage, evaporation, and transpiration.
151
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Igneous Rock - Rock formed by volcanic action or great heat.
Infiltration - The process whereby water passes through an interface,
such as from air to soil or between two soil horizons.
Land Subsidence - The lowering of the natural land surface in response
to: earth movements; lowering of fluid pressure; removal of underlying
supporting material by mining or solution of solids, either artifically
or from natural causes; compaction due to wetting (Hydrocompaction);
oxidation of organic matter in soils; or added load on the land surface.
Mesophyte - A plant that grows under medium or usual conditions of
atmospheric moisture supply as distinguished from one which grows under
dry or desert conditions (xerophytes) or very wet conditions (hydro-
phytes) . See Phreatophy te .
Mesozoic Age - The geological era after the Paleozoic and before the
Cenozoic eras.
Metamorphic Rock - Rock formed by a change in structure due to pressure,
heat, chemical action, etc.
mg/1 - Abbreviation for milligrams per liter.
Milligrams Per Liter - The weight in milligrams of any substance con-
tained in one liter of liquid. Approximately equivalent to parts per
million.
Mineralization - The process of accumulation of mineral elements and/or
compounds in soil or water. See also Salinization.
Mining of Ground Water - See Depletion (Ground Water) .
Nutrients - Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements essen-
tial for plant growth. (These may have an adverse effect on water
quality) .
Overdraft - The amount by which pumpage of ground water exceeds the
safe yield of the ground water aquifer or basin.
Parts Per Million (ppm) - Parts by weight in a million weight units .
Approximately equivalent to milligrams per liter.
Perched Ground Water - Ground water supported by a zone of material of
low permeability and located above an underlying main body of ground
water with which it is not hydrostatically connected.
Percolation - The movement of water within a porous medium such as soil.
152
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Perennial Yield (Ground Water) - The amount of usable water of a
ground water reservoir that can be withdrawn and consulted economically
each year for an indefinite period of time, it cannot exceed the natur-
al recharge to that ground water reservoir.
Permeability - The property of a material which permits appreciable
movement of water through it when actuated by hydrostatic pressure of
the magnitude normally encountered in natural subsurface water.
Pesticides - Chemical compounds used for the control of undesirable
plants, animals, or insects. The term includes insecticides, weed
killers, rodent poisons, nematode poisons, fungicides, and growth regu-
lators .
pH (Hydrogen Ion Concentration) - Measure of acidity or alkalinity of
water. Distilled water, which is neutral, has a pH value of 7; values
above 7 indicate the pressure of alkalies, while those below 7 indicate
acids .
Phreatophyte - A plant that habitually obtains its water supply from
the zone of saturation, either directly or through the capillary fringe.
See Mesophyte .
PI ay as - Flat floored bottom of an undrained desert basin.
Pollutants - Substances that may become dissolved, suspended, absorbed,
or otherwise contained in water, that impair its usefulness.
Pollution - The presence of any substance (organic, inorganic, biologi-
cal , thermal , or radiological) in water at intensity levels which tend
to impair, degrade, or adversely affect its quality or usefulness for
a specific purpose.
Primary Treatment - In sewage, the removal from sewage of larger solids
by screening, and of more finely divided solids by sedimentation.
Recharge - See Ground Water Recharge.
Recharge Basin - A basin provided to increase infiltration for the pur-
pose of replenishing ground water supply.
Return Flow - That part of a diverted flow which is not consumptively
used and which returns to a source of supply (surface or underground) .
Safe Ground-Water Yield - The annual pumpage that can be •"t**"* with
out permanent change xn ground water storage, or without short-term
changes in storage .
Saline Water - Water containing dissolved salts. See also Brackish
Water.
153
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Salinity - Salt content concentration of dissolved mineral salts in
water or soil.
Salinization - The process of accumulation of soluble salts in soil or
water. See also Mine raliz ation .
Salt Balance - A condition in which specific or total dissolved solids
rsrooved from a specified field, stratigraphic zone, political area, or
drainage basin equals the comparable dissolved solids added to that lo-
cation from all outside sources during a specified period of time.
Salt Water Barrier - A physical facility or method of operation de-
signed to prevent the intrusion of salt water into a body of fresh
water. In underground water management a barrier may be created by
injection of relatively fresh water to create a hydraulic barrier
against salt water intrusion.
Salt Water Intrusion - The invasion of a body of fresh water by salt
water. It can occur either in surface or ground water bodies.
Secondary Treatment - In sewage, the further purification of the
effluent from primary treatment by trickling filters, activated
sludge units, oxidation ponds, or other means.
Seepage - The gradual movement of a fluid into, through, or out of a
porous medium.
Sewage Plant Effluent - The outflow from a sewage treatment plant.
Suspended Solids - Solids which are not in true solution and which
can be removed by filtration.
Sustained Yield - Achievement and maintenance, in perpetuity, of a
high-level annual or regular periodic output or harvest of the various
renewable land and water resources.
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) - The total dissolved solids in water,
usually expressed in milligrams per liter (mg/1) or parts per million
(ppm) .
Toxicity - The state or degree of being poisonous .
Turbidity - Level of concentration of suspended particulate matter
which can be removed through filtration.
USBR - Abbreviation of United States Bureau of Reclamation, Department
of Interior.
154
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- Abbreviation of United States Geological Survey, Department of
Interior.
USGS - WSP - Abbreviation for United States Geological Survey, Water
Supply Paper.
Waste Water Reclamation - The process of treating salvaged water from
municipal, industrial, or agricultural waste water sources for bene-
ficial uses, whether by means or special facilities or through natural
processes.
Water Desalination - The removal of dissolved salts from a saline water
supply.
Water Quality - A term used to describe the chemical, physical, and
biological characteristics of water, usually in respect to its suit-
ability for a particular purpose.
Water Right - A legally protected right to take possession of water
occurring in a water supply and to divert that water and put it to
beneficial use.
Water Table - The upper supply of a zone of saturation, except where
that surface is confined by an impermeable body.
155
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SECTION XI
APPENDIX A
WATER QUALITY STANDARDS
The extent of unde sir ability of a given level of pollution in water is
dependent upon the use or intended use of the water . Standards of
quality of water used for domestic water supply have been established
by the National Technical Advisory Committee on Water Quality Criteria
(238), and the U.S. Public Health Service (91) . Tables A-l and A-2,
presented herein, are taken from their reports.
Various agencies have set standards of quality for waters used for
other purposes. Table A-3 gives standards foj: livestock watering as
reported by McGauhey (239) . Tables A-4» A-5 and A-6 present irrigation
water quality standards as suggested by the Economic Research Service
(240) . Table A-7 gives standards for water used in various industrial
processes as reported by the American Society for Testing Materials
(241) .
157
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Table A-l. Surface Water Criteria for Public Water Supplies (238)
Constituent or Characteristic Permissible3
Criteria
Desirable*
Criteria
Physical;
Color (color units)
Microbiological;
Caliform organisms
Fecal coliforms
Inorganic Chemicals;
Ammonia
Arsenic
Barium
Boron
Cadmium
Chloride
Chromium, hexavalent
Copper
Dissolved Oxygen
Iron (filterable)
Lead
Manganese (filterable)
Nitrates plus nitrites
pH (range)
Selenium
Silver
Sulfate
Total dissolved solids,
(filterable residue)
Uranyl ion
Zinc
75
10,000/100 mlc
2,000/100 mlc
(mg/1)
0.5 (as N)
0.05
1.0
1.0
0.01
250
0.05
1.0
4 (monthly mean)
3 (indiv. sample)
0.3
0.05
0.05
10 (as N)
6.0 to 8.5
0.01
0.05
250
500
5
5
< 10
< 100/100 mlc
< 20/100 mlc
(mg/1)
< 0.01
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
< 25
Absent
Virtually Absent
Near Saturation
Virtually Absent
Absent
Absent
Virtually Absent
Variable
Absent
Absent
<50
< 200
Absent
Virtually Absent
aPermissible criteria—Those characteristics and concentrations of sub-
stances in raw surface waters which will allow the production of a safe,
clear, potable, aesthetically pleasing, and acceptable public water
supply which meets the limits of Drinking Water Standards after treat-
ment .
^Desirable criteria—Those characteristics and concentrations of sub-
stances in the raw surface waters which represent high-quality water in
all respects for use as public water supplies. Water meeting these
criteria can be treated in the defined plants with greater factors of
safety or at less cost than is possible with waters meeting permissible
criteria.
158
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Table A-l (cont'd) Surface Water Criteria for Public Water Supplies{238)
— .
Constituent or Characteristic Permissible3
Criteria
Desirable4
Criteria
Organic Chemicals; (mg/1)
Carbon chloroform extract(CCE) 0 .15
Cyanide 0.20
Methylene blue active
substnaces 0.5
Oil and Grease
Pesticides:
Aldrin
Chlordane
DDT
Dieldrin
Endrin
Heptachlor
Heptachlor epoxide
Lindane
Mathoxychlor
Organic phosphates plus
Carbamates
Toxaphene
Herbicides:
2, 4-D plus 2, 4, 5-T
Virtually Absent
0.017
0.003
0.042
0.017
0.001
0.018
0.018
0.056
0.035
0.005
(mg/1)
<0.04
Absent
Virtually Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
Absent
plus 2, 4, 5-TP
Phenols
Radioactivity ;
Gross beta
Radium-226
Strontium-90
0.1
0.001
(pc/1)
1,000
3
10
Absent
Absent
(pc/1)
<100
<1
<2
aSee Previous page
^See Previous page
cMicrobiological limits are monthly arithmetic averages based upon an
adequate number of samples. Total coliform limit may be relaxed if
fecal concentration does not exceed the specified limit.
Expressed as parathibn in cholinesterase inhibition. It may be nec-
esSrJ to resort to even lower concentrations for some compounds or
mixtures.
159
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Table A-2. Chemical Standards of Drinking Water (91) .
Category A — Maximum allowable concentrations where other more suitable
Supplies are, or can be made available:
Substance Concentration
in mg/1
Alkyl Benzene Sulfonate (ABS) 0 .5
Arsenic (As) 0.01
Chloride
-------
Table A-3. Guides to the Quality of Water for Livestock (239)
Quality Factor
mg/1
Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)C
Cadmium
Calcium
Magnesium
Sodium
Arsenic
Bicarbonate
Chloride
Fluoride
Nitrate as NO3
Nitrite
Sulfate
Range of pH
Thre sholda
Concentration
2500
5
500
250
1000
1
500
1500
1
200
none
500
6 .0 to 8 .5
Limiting*3
Concentration
5000
1000
500
2000
-
500
3000
6
400
none
1000
5.6 to 9.
0
aThreshold values represent concentrations at which poultry or sensitive
animals might show slight effects from prolonged use of water. Lower
concentrations are of little or no concern.
limiting concentrations based on interim criteris, South Africa studies.
Animals in lacatation or production might show definite adverse reaction,
CTotal magnesium compounds plus sodium sulfate should not exceed 50 per
cent of the total dissolved solids.
Table A-4 . Suggested guidelines for Salinity in Irrigation Water (240)
Crop Response TDS in ECa
mg/1
Water for which no detrimental
effects will usually be noticed less than 500 less than 0.75
Water which can have detrimental
effects on sensitive crops 500-1000 0.75-1.50
Water that may have adverse effects
on many crops and requiring careful OQ , ,50_3 .00
management practices xuuu "uuu
Water that can be used for salt-
tolerant plants on permeable soils
with careful management practices 2000-5000 3.00 7'b°
Electrical Conductivity expressed in millimhos per centimeter
161
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Table A-5. Trace Element Tolerances for Irrigation Water (240)
Element For Water Used For Short-term Use
Continuously on on Fine Textured
All Soils Soils Only
zng/1 mg/1
Aluminum 1.0 20.0
Arsenic 1.0 10.0
Beryllium 0.5 1.0
Boron 0.75 2.0
Cadmium 0.005 0.05
Chromium 5.0 20.0
Cobalt 0.2 10.0
Copper 0.2 5.0
Lead 5.0 20.0
Lithium 5.0 5.0
Manganese 2.0 20.0
Molybdenum 0.005 0.05
Nickel 0.5 2.0
Selenium 0.05 0.05
Vanadium 10.0 10.0
Zinc 5 .0 10.0
162
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Table A-6. Levels of Herbicides in Irrigation Water at Which Crop In-
jury Has Been Observed. (240)
Herbicide
Crop ajury Threshold in Irrigation
Water, expressed in mg/1
Acrolein
Aromatic Solvents
(Xylene)
Copper Sulfate
Amitrole-T
Dalapon
Dequat
Endothall Na and K
salts
Dimethy lamin es
2, 4-D
Dichlobenil
Fenac
Picloram
Flood or Furrow: beans - 60, corn-60, cotton-
80, soybeans-20, sugar beets-60.
Sprinkler: corn-60, soybeans-15, sugar beets-15.
Alfalfa >1600, beans-1200, carrots-1600, corn-
3000, cotton-1600, grain sorghum >800, oats-2400,
potatoes-1300, wheat >1200.
Apparently, above concentrations used for weed
control.
Beets (rutabaga) >3.5, corn >3.5.
Beets >7.0, corn <0.35
Beans-5.0, corn 125 .0 .
Corn-25, field beans <1 .0, alfalfa >10.0.
Corn >25, soybeans >25, sugar beets-25.
Field Beans >3.5 <10, grape s-0 .7-1.5, sugar
beets-3.5.
Alfalfa-10, corn >10, soybeans-1.0, sugar beets-
1.0-10.
Alfalfa-1.0, corn-10, soybeans-0.1, sugar beets-
0.1-10.
Corn >10, field beans-0.1, sugar beets <1.0.
Note- Where the symbol " >" is used, the concentrations in water cause
To injury^ CL are for furrow irrigation unless otherwise
specified.
163
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Table A-7. Preferred limits for Several Criteria of Water for Use in
Industrial Processes (241) .
Process
Turbidity
Max.
ppra
Min.
Max.
TDS
Max.
mg/1
Aluminum (hydrate Wash)
Baking 10
Boiler Feed;
0 to 150 psi 80 8.0
150 to 250 psi 40 8.4
250 to 400 psi 5 9.0
400 to 1000 psi 2 9.6
Over 1000 psi
Brewing 10 6.5 7.0
Carbonated beverages 2
Confectionery 7.0
Dairy
Electroplating and finishing, rinse
Fermentation low
Food Canning and Freezing 10 7.5
Food Processing, general 10
Ice Manufacturing
Laundering 6.0 6.8
Oil Well Flooding 7.0
Photographic process low
Pulp and Paper;
Groundwood paper 50
Soda and Sulfate pulp 25
Kraft paper, bleached 40
Kraft paper, unbleached 100
Fine paper 10
Sugar Manufacture
Tanning Operations 20 6.0 8.0
Textile Manufacture 0.3
low
3000
1500
2500
50
0.
1500
100
500
low
850
170 to 1300
500
250
300
500
200
low
Note: The values in this table are taken from summaries in the compre-
hensive review by McKee and Wolf, cited in the ASTM report (241) , and
are presented here only as a general guide . They should be used only
after study of the original references cited in the ASTM report.
164
-------
SECTION XII
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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165
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166
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167
-------
Bader, J. s., "Water-level records for wells in California, 1961-65,"
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in California, 1965-68," USGS open-file report (1969).
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168
-------
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the Tracy-Dos Palos area, San Joaquin Valley, California," USGS open-
file report (1969) .
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Travertine -Depositing Creek in an arid climate," New York, Pergamon
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Bechtel Corporation, "Comprehensive Water Resources Management Plan,"
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_ _. ,_ i-nata for springs in the Northern Coast Ranges
169
-------
Berkstresser, C. F., Jr., "Rapid field filtration of water samples,"
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170
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Bookman and Edmonston, Consulting Civil Engineers, "Activities of
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171
-------
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172
-------
Bryan, K., "Ground-water for irrigation in the Sacramento Valley «
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Bryan, K., "Geology and ground-water resources of Sacramento Valley
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Bryan, K., "The Papago Country, Arizona, A Geolographic, Geologic and
Hydrologic Reconnaissance with a guide to Desert Watering Places,"
USGS WSP 499 (1925) .
Bryan, K., and Taylor, O. G., "Water supply for Mariposa Grove, Yose-
mite National Park (California)," USGS open-file report (1922) .
Bryan, K., Smith, G. E. P., and Waring, G. A., "Geology and water re-
sources of the San Pedro Valley, Arizona, " USGS open-file report (1934) .
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near-surface subsidence in western Fresno County, California (abs.),"
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fornia (abs.)," Geological Society America Bulletin, vol. 71, No. 12,
part 2 (1960).
Bull, W. B., "Types of deposition on alluvial fans in western Fresno
County, California (abs.)," Geological Society America Bulletin,
vol. 71, No. 12, part 2, p 2052 (1960) .
Bull, W. B., "Causes and mechanics of near-surface subsidence in western
Fresno County, California," USGS Professional Paper 424-B, pp B182-
B189 (1961) .
Bull, W. B., "Tectonic significance of alluvial-fan geomorphology in
western Fresno County, California (abs.),» American Association of
Petroleum Geologists, Pacific Petroleum Geologist, vol. 15, No. 12
(1961) .
Bull W B "Tectonic significance of radial profiles of alluvial fans
£ weste^'FreLo County,"califomia, " USGS Professional Paper 424-
B182-184 (1961) .
173
-------
Bull, W. B., "Erosion of the Arroyo Ciervo Drainage Basin in western
Fresno County, California (abs.)," Journal Geophys. Research, vol. 67,
No. 4, p 1630 (1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Land subsidence due to artesian-head decline, 1943-59,
Los Banos-Kettleman City area, California," USGS open-file map (1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Minimum elevation of the Piezometric surface of the Lower
Water-bearing Zone as of 1960, Los Banos-Kettleman City area, Cali-
fornia," USGS open-file map (1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Relation of textural (CM) patterns to depositional en-
vironment of alluvial-fan deposits," Journal Sed. Petrology, vol. 32,
No. 2, pp 211-216 (1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Relations of alluvial-fan size and slope to drainage-
basin size and lithology in western Fresno County, California," USGS
Professional Paper 450-B, pp B51-B53 (1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Tectonic history as related to terraces and alluvial-
fan segments in western Fresno County, California (abs.) ," Geological
Society America Cordilleran Sec. Meeting Program (April, 1962) .
Bull, W. B., "Alluvial-fan deposition in western Fresno County, Cali-
fornia," Journal of Geology, vol. 71, pp 243-251 (1963) .
Bull, W. B., "Alluvial fans and near-surface subsidence in western Fres-
no County, California," USGS Professional Paper 437-A, pp Al-rA71 (1964) .
Bull, W. B., "Geomorphology of segmented alluvial fans in western Fresno
County, California," USGS Professional Paper 352-E, pp E89HE129 (1964) .
Bull, W. B., "History and causes of channel trenching in western Fresno
County, California," American Journal of Science, vol. 262, pp 249-258
(1964) .
Bull, W. B., "Particle-size analysis of sand containing friable frag-
ments, " America Society Testing materials, materials research and
standards, vol. 4, No. 8, pp 407-410 (1964) .
Bull, W. B., "Land subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area,
California, 1922-32 to 1963," USGS open-file map (1965) .
Bull, W. B., "Land subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area,
California, 1955-63," USGS open-file map (1965).
Bull, W. B., "Land subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area,
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174
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Bull W. B., "The alluvial fans of western Fresno County, California,"
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Bull, W. B., "Subsidence due to artesian-head decline in the LOS Banos-
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Bull, W. B., "Prehistoric near-surface subsidence cracks in western
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Bull, W. B., "Aquifer system compaction and expansion due to water-
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Bull, W. B., "Land subsidence in the Los Banos-Kettleman City area,
California, 1920-28 to 1966," USGS open-file map (1968) .
Burnham, W. L., "Reverse-Circulation drilling, an improved tool for
production wells and exploratory holes," USGS open-file report (1963).
Burnham, W. L., and Dutcher, L. C., "Geology and ground-water hydrology
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ground-water outflow," USGS open-file report (1960) .
Burnham, W. L., Kunkel, F., Hofmann, W., and Peterson, W. C., "Hydro-
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1539-0 (1963) .
Burtman, L., "A Preliminary Study to Determine Water Quality Objectives
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175
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Cahill, 3. M., and Wolcott, H. N., "Further Investigations of the ground
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California Central Coastal Regional Water Quality Control Board, "Water
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Waters," staff report (June, 1968) .
California Central Coastal Regional Water Quality Control Board, "Water
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Ground Waters," Staff report (December, 1968) .
California Central Coastal Regional Water Quality Control Board, "Water
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California Department of Public Health and California Department of
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California Department of Water Resources, "San Luis Obispo County
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California Department of Water Resources, "San Joaquin County Investi-
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California Department of Water Resources, "Investigation of Monitoring
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California Department of Water Resources, "Oil Field Waste Water Dis-
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California Department of Water Resources, "West Walker River Investiga-
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176
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California Department of Water Resources, "San Joaquin Valley Drainage
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California Department of Water Resources, "Fresno-Clovia Metropolitan
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California Department of Water Resources, "Arroyo Grande Oil Field
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California Department of Water Resources, "Dispersion and Persistence
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California Department of Water Resources, "Clear Lake: Water Quality
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California Department of Water Resources, "San Lorenzo River Watershed;
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California Department of Water Resources, "San Joaquin County Ground
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California Department of Water Resources, "Monterey County Water
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California Department of Water Resources, "Ground Water and Waste Water
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to the Lahontan Regional Water Quality Control Board (March, 1968).
California Department of Water Resources, "Russian River Watershed:
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California Department of Water Resources, "Santa Clara River Valley
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California Department of Water Resources, "The Fate of Pesticides
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California Departnent of Water Resources, "Special investigation -
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177
-------
California Department of Water Resources, "San Joaquin Valley Drainage
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California Department of Water Resources, "Investigation of Waste Dis-
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California Department of Water Resources, "Field Evaluation of Anaerobic
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California Department of Water Resources, "Water Quality Conditions of
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California Department of Water Resources, "Lower San Joaquin River:
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California Department of Water Resources, "Carmel River Basin Water
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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178
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
"Fourth Report on Ground Water Quality Conditions in Mission Basin, San
Luis Rey River Valley, " memorandum report (September 24, 1963) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
"Fifth Report on Ground Water Quality Conditions in Mission Basin, San
Luis Rey River Valley," memorandum report (January 22, 1964) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
"San Juan Creek Ground Water Study," memorandum report (September 3,
1964) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
"Ground Water Quality Survey of Lower Otay River Valley, " memorandum
report (June 8, 1964) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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(September 1, 1965) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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(October, 1965).
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
"Investigation of Effects of Hollister Industrial Waste upon Underlying
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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1968) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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report (July 29, 1968) .
California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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179
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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California Department of Water Resources, Division of Resources Planning,
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report to the Central Coastal Region Water Quality Control Board
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California State Water Pollution Control Board, "Effects of Refuse
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Callahan, J. T., Kam, W., and Akers, J. P., "The occurrence of Ground
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Cardwell, G. T., "Data for wells and streams in the Russian and Upper
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Carpenter, C. H., and Young, R. A., "Ground-water data, central Sevier
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Carpenter, C. H., Robinson, G. B., Jr., and Bjorklund, L. J., "Ground-
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180
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Carpenter, E., "Ground water in Boxelder and Tooele Counties, Utah
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Carpenter, E., "Ground water in southeastern Nevada," USGS WSP 365
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Central Coastal Regional Water Quality Control Board, "Waste Water
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Central Pacific Basins, Comprehensive Water Pollution Control Project,
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Central Valley (California) Regional Water Pollution Control Board,
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Central Valley (California) Regional Water Pollution Control Board,
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Central Valley (California) Regional Water Pollution Control Board,
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Central Valley (California) Water Pollution Control Board, "Pollution
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Clark W O , "Ground-water resources of the Niles Cone and adjacent
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Clark WO., "Ground water for irrigation in the Morgan Hill area,
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181
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Clark, W. 0., "Report on a supplementary ground-water supply for the
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Coates, D. R., "Memorandum of Geology of Ground Water in the Organ Pipe
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Coates, D. R., "Memorandum on ground water Investigations in the Sells
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Coates, D. R., "Memorandum on the geology and ground-water resources
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Coehn, P., "Relation of surface water to ground water in the Humboldt
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182
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Cohen, P., 'Stratigraphy and origin of Lake Lahontan deposits of the
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Cohen, P., "A brief Appraisal of Ground Water Resources of the Grass
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Cohen, P., "An evaluation of uranium as a tool for studying the hydro-
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Cohen, P., and Everett, D. E., "A Brief Appraisal of the Ground Water
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183
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Cooley, M, E., and others, "Geofaydrologic data in the Navajo and Hopi
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Cooley, M. E., Harshbarger, J. W., Akers, J. P., and Hardt, W. F., "Re-
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Cooley, M. E., Harshbarger, J. W., Akers, J. P., and Hardt, W. F.,
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Cordova, R. M., "Hydrogeologic reconnaissance of part of the head-
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Cordova, R. M., "Ground-water conditions in southern Utah Valley and
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Cordova, R. M., and Subitzky, s., "Ground water in northern Utah Valley,
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184
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Crawford, c. B., Jr., Page, R. w., and Leblanc, R. A., "Data for wells
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Croft, M. G., "Results of drilling test well 27N/1E-16R1 near Furnace
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Croft, M. G., "Availability of selected electric and (or) detailed
lithologic logs for the ground-water reservoir in the southern part of
the San Joaquin Valley, California," USGS Basic-Data Comp. (1965) .
Croft, M. G., "Basic Data for three lacustrine clay deposits in the
southern part of San Joaquin Valley, California," USGS Basic-Data Comp.
(1967) .
Croft, M. G., "Geology and radiocarbon ages of late pleistocene lacus-
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USGS Professional Paper 600-B, pp B151-B156 (1968).
Croft, M. G., "Subsurface geology of the late Tertiary and Quaternary
water-bearing deposits of the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley,
California," USGS open-file report (1969) .
Croft, M. G., and Gordon, G. V., "Geology, hydrology, and quality of
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Cushmn, R. L., and Jones, R. S., "Geology and ground water resources of
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Dale, R. H., and Rantz, S. E., "Hydrologic reconnaissance of Point Reyes
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185
-------
Dale, R. H., French, J. J., and Gordon, G. V., "Ground-water geology
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Dale, R. H., French, J, J., and Wilson, H. D., Jr., "Hie story of
ground water in the San Joaguin Valley, California," USGS Circular 459
(1964) .
Dale, R. H., Gordon, G. V., and French, J. J., "Data for wells, springs,
and streams in the Kern River Fan area, Kern County, California," USGS
open-file report (1962) .
Dale, R. H., Wahl, K. D., and others, "Effects of waste water disposal,
Fruitvale Oil Field, Kern County (California)," California Department
of Water Resources report (1961) .
Darton, N. H., "Preliminary list of deep borings in the Uhitcd States,"
USGS WSP 149 (1905) .
Davidson, E. S., "Facies Distribution and Hydrology of Intermontane
Basin Fill, Safford Basin, Arizona," USGS Professional Paper 424,
Article 204, pp 151-153 (1961) .
Davis, G. E., and Stafford, J. F., "First annual report, Tucson Waste-
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Sewers Department, City of Tucson (1966).
Davis, G. E., Hardt, W. F., Thompson, L. K., and Cooley, M. E., "Geo-
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Arizona State Land Department, Water Resources Report 12-A (1963) .
Davis, G. H., "Reconnaissance investigation of ground-water supply for
Dora Bells Campground, Shaver Lake, California, " USGS open-file re-
port (1958) .
Davis, G. H., "Formation of ridges through differential subsidence of
Pestlands of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California," USGS Pro-
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Davis, G. H., and Olmsted, F. H., "Geologic features and ground-water
storage capacity of the Sutter-Yuba area, California," California
Water Resources Board Bulletin No. 6, Appendix B, pp 89-104 (1952).
Davis, G. H., and Poland, J. F., "Ground-water conditions in the Men-
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186
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Davis, G. H., Lofgren, B. E., and Mack, S., "Use of ground-water reser-
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213
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222
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223
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224
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225
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226
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227
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228
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229
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230
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231
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232
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233
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234
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235
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246
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247
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248
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249 *u.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 191Z 484-486/Z80 1-3
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SELECTED WATER
RESOURCES ABSTRACTS
INPUT TRANSACTION FORM
GROUND WATER POLLUTION IN ARIZONA, CALIFORNIA, NEVADA
& UTAH,
Fuhriman, Dean K., and Barton, James R.
Fuhriman, Barton & Associates
Provo, Utah
12, Sponsoring Or%aniza*:*>n
W
S. Rr ..TtD. ,'
6.
S. P<--*formr-"Or&a- ' atioa
EPA 16060 ERU
Contract 14-12-919
13. Type . ' ZepL :id
Period Covered
Water Pollution Control Research Series 16060 ERU 12/71. 10 fig, 27 tab, 241 ref,
An investigation to determine the ground water pollution problems which
exist in the states of Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah was conducted.
Data were obtained through an extensive review of the literature and through
interviews with engineers, scientists, and governmental officials concerned
with water pollution in the four states of the project area.
Mineralization of ground water is the most prevalent factor in the degradation
of ground water quality in the project area. Large quantities of ground water in
each of the four states are undesirable for many uses because of excessive
mineralization. Much of the mineralization of ground water is a result of
natural processes. Some is caused by man's activities—irrigation, oil field
brine disposal, and over-pumping of aquifers are common causes of mineralization.
Usually the degradation is caused by an excess of total dissolved solids, but
at some locations, specific toxic substances are also found in the ground water.
Of the various forms of pollution of ground water caused by man's activities,
nitrate is probably most prevalent in the project area.
A listing of conditions causing ground water pollution in the project area is
included in the report.
17a. Descriptor-,
*Groundwater, *water pollution, groundwater basins, water resources, salinity
17b. Identifiers
*Southwest United States, Arizona, California, Nevada, Utah
05B
19. Sf "iirity C .iss.
(Report)
20. Securny Class.
21. K^.of
Pages
Send To:
WATER RESOURCES SCIENTIFIC INFORMATION CENTER
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR
WASHINGTON. D. C. 2O24O
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