xvEPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Region V
230 South Dearborn
Chicago, Illinois 60604
anber 1979
Environmental Draft
Impact Statement
Alternative Waste
Treatment Systems
For Rural Lake Projects
Case Study Number 4
Steuben Lakes Regional
Waste District
Steuben County, Indiana
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VOLUME I
DRAFT ENVIRCNMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
WASTEWATBR TREATMENT SYSTEMS FOR RURAL LAKE PROJECTS
CASE STUDY No. 4: STEUBEN LAKES REGIONAL WASTE DISTRICT
STEUBEN COUNTY, INDIANA
Prepared by the
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
REGION V, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS
AND
WAPORA, INCORPORATED
WASHINGTON, D.C.
Approved by:
n McCuire
ional Administrator
Noveinber 1979
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DRAFT ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT
STEUBEN LAKES STUDY AREA
STEUBEN COUNTY, INDIANA
Prepared by
US Environmental Protection Agency, Region V
Comments concerning this document are invited and should be received by
January 28, 1980 .
For further information, contact
Ms. Kathleen Schaub, Project Monitor
230 South Dearborn Street
Chicago, Illinois 60609
312/353-2157
Abstract
A 201 Facilities Plan was prepared for the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste
District in 1975. The Facilities Plan concluded that extensive sewering
would be required to correct malfunctioning on-site wastewater disposal sys-
tems and to protect the water quality of the District's lakes.
Concern about the high proposed costs, of the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action prompted re-examination of the Study Area and led to preparaton of
this EIS. This EIS concludes that complete abandonment of on-site systems is
unjustified. Alternatives to the Facilities Plan Proposed Action have there-
fore been presented, one of which is recommended by this Agency.
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LIST OF PREPARERS
This Environmental Impact Statement was prepared by WAPORA, Inc. under
the guidance of Kathleen Schaub, EPA Region V Project Officer. Key personnel
for WAPORA included:
WAPORA, Inc.
6900 Wisconsin Avenue
Chevy Chase, MD 20015
Ulric Gibson, Ph.D. - Project Manager
Wu-Seng Lung, P.E. - Water Quality Modeler
Gerald Peters - Project Director
Michael Goldman, P.E. - Project Engineer
In addition, several subcontractors and others assisted in preparation
of this document. These, along with their areas of expertise, are listed
below:
Aerial Survey
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center
Vint Hill Farms Station
Warrenton, Virginia
Barry Evans
Engineering
Arthur Beard Engineers
6900 Wisconsin Avenue
Chevy Chase, Maryland
David Wohlscheid, P.E.
David Stuart
Financial
A. T. Kearney Associates
699 Prince Street
Alexandria, Virginia
Charles Saunders
Septic Leachate Analysis
K-V Associates
Falmouth, Massachusetts
William Kerfoot, Ph.D.
Groundwater Quality Survey
Tri-State University
Engineering and Research Center'
Peter Hippensteel, Ph.D.
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SUMMARY
CONCLUSIONS
The vast majority of the Study Area's on-site systems are operating
satisfactorily- Only 65 septic tank leachate plumes have been found
entering the lakes. These plumes, associated mainly with rapidly per-
meable soils and cut and fill canal regions of uncertain soil types,
represent less than 2% of the 3500 lakeshore homes. Surface malfunc-
tions have been much fewer with only four being located. The Steuben
County Health Department's dye-test program for locating and correcting
surface malfunctions has apparently been very effective.
On-site systems do not appear to contribute significantly to the
degradation of surface or ground waters in the Study Area. Estimated
septic tank contributions to total nutrient (phosphorus) loadings are
less than 7% in all Study Area lakes, except for Lake Gage (10%) and
Jimmerson Lake (21%). These estimates have been based on the assumption
used in the National Eutrophication Survey (NES) that nutrients from all
septic tanks within 300 feet of lakeshores enter the lakes rather than
the very small number of plumes identified. The estimates are, there-
fore, likely to be conservatively high. The acidic leachate from the
extensive bogs around Marsh Lake, non-point and stream source plumes
have been identified as the major sources of phosphorus to the lakes.
Removal of the current septic tank nutrient loadings would not change
the trophic status of the lakes significantly. Both the bacterial and
chemical quality of groundwater throughout the Study Area have been
found to be of a very high standard and insignificantly affected by
human wastes.
Future development in the Steuben Lakes Study Area is primarily a
function of how many new lots can be developed and the density of future
development. Alternatives that rely on continued use of on-site systems
would restrict both the number of new lots and their density as compared
to extensive sewering around the lake. One effect of these limitations
would be to preserve the present character of the community.
There are large differences in the present worth and user costs
among the alternatives. Both costs increase in direct proportion to the
extent of new centralized sewers provided. In the more expensive alter-
natives, high local user charges would result in substantial displace-
ment pressure for the permanent population and pressure for conversion
of seasonal residences to permanent use. Proportionate improvements in
water quality would not occur.
The recommended action in this EIS is the Limited Action Alterna-
tive (see Figure IV-16). The alternative would provide:
• Site specific environmental and engineering analysis of
existing on-site systems throughout uie Proposed Service Area;
• Repair and renovation of on-site systems as needed;
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FIGURE IV-16 STEUBEN LAKES: LIMITED ACTION ALTERNATIVE
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e Management of the on-site systems by a Small Waste Flows
District; and
• Continued monitoring of surface water quality (previously
undertaken by the Steuben County Health Department) as well as
groundwater quality.
Small waste flow or cluster systems will be included should the site-
specific analyses of on-site systems and cost comparisons of local
alternatives indicate their need and cost-effectiveness.
The present worth of the recommended action is approximately $8.3
million or 36% of that of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action ($23.2
million). The local capital costs of the recommended action are $177,100
or approximately-1% of the $17.1 million for the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action. The comparable annual user charges are $50 and $450 per household,
respectively.
The recommended action would provide a satisfactory solution to the
minimal problems of the Study Area. It would be cost-effective and
result in no significant adverse impacts upon the environment or the
residents of the Study Area.
If the recommended action were accepted by the applicant and the
State and local jurisdictions, it would be equivalent to a revised
Facilities Plan Proposed Action. A small waste flows district would
need to be established for the operation and management of the proposed
on-site and cluster systems. The Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District
(SLRWD) may be modified as legally necessary to function as the small
waste flows district. As part of the Step I process, the applicant
would need to:
•' Certify that the project will be constructed and an operation
and maintenance program established to meet local, State, and
Federal requirements including those protecting present or
potential underground potable water sources.
• Obtain assurance (such as an easement or covenant) of un-
limited access to each individual system at all reasonable
times for such purposes as inspection, monitoring, construc-
tion, maintenance, operation, rehabilitation, and replacement.
An option would satisfy this requirement if it could be exer-
cised no later than the initiation of construction.
• Establish a comprehensive program for regulation and inspec-
tion of individual systems before EPA approves the plans and
specifications. Planning for this comprehensive program would
be completed as part of the facilities plan. The program
would include, as a minimum, periodic testing of water from
existing potable water wells in the area. Where a substantial
number of on-site systems exist, appropriate additional moni-
toring of the aquifer(s) would be provided.
iii
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Following completion of these steps, the Applicant could proceed
with Step II design of facilities for the small waste flows district.
HISTORY
The Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District, established on February
18, 1976, completed a Facilities Plan for disposal of the Study Area's
wastewater in August 1975. The Facilities Plan proposed a centralized
collection and treatment system with effluent disposal by spray irriga-
tion as its solution to the following problems it cited:
• Most of the existing septic tank/soil absorption systems
(ST/SASs) are very old and were constructed when few rules
governed their installation. Also very little inspection of
the construction of these systems was undertaken.
• Some ST/SASs in low-lying areas are located below the highest
groundwater table. Effluents from such systems reach the
lakes during periods of high precipitation.
• Some lots are too narrow (40-foot frontage) to permit adequate
separation of ST/SASs from shallow wells.
• Several areas of lake pollution from ST/SASs have been identi-
fied by dye tests conducted by the Steuben County Health
Department. Many other ST/SAS sources of pollution have not
been detected by such tests.
• Many of the older ST/SASs which cannot meet current standards
continue to be used.
ISSUES OF THIS EIS
The US Environmental Protection Agency's review of the Facilities
Plan led to the Agency's issuing of a Notice of Intent on July 20, 1977
to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement. The issues set forth in
that Notice are as follows:
1. "Cost-Effectiveness. The cost and benefits of a regional
sewage system should be compared with those of subregional
systems serving existing high development density area, with
advanced on-site treatment for low development density area."
The basic premise of the Facilities Plan is that sewage from
all sources within the Study Area should be collected and
treated in one regional system. The resulting total capital
cost (excluding connection costs) of the Facilities Plan Pro-
posed Action is approximately $3800 per residence. This very
high cost may be substantially reduced by an approach that
uses subregional systems in high density areas such as the
lakeshores of Crooked Lake and parts of Lake James and
Jimmerson Lake in combination with decentralized systems for
the lower density rural/semi-rural areas.
iv
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2. "Treatment Processes. Treatment process methods for regional
and subregional plants should be compared."
The analysis of regional and subregional solutions should
include a more comprehensive study of a wider variety of waste
treatment processes. Package plants of various types ought to
be considered for small flows generated in subregional areas.
Land application by both the slow rate and rapid infiltration
methods should be examined. Alternative and innovative tech-
nologies should be considered wherever soils and other condi-
tions make them feasible.
3. "Sizing. The cost-effective capacity of regional and sub-
regional plants should be examined and compared."
Population projections and per capita wastewater flow rates
need to be checked to ensure that the design capacities of
regional and subregional plants are cost-effective as defined
in the Rules and Regulations of the US EPA Construction Grants
Program. The use of per capita flows of 100 gpcd for both
permanent and seasonal residents was not justified in the
Facilities Plan. As a result, residents might be required to
pay for substantially larger systems than are needed.
4. "Secondary Impact. The induced growth that may result from a
regional system compared with a corresponding subregional
system, must be evaluated with respect to impacts on water
quality, wetlands, and community services."
The availability of sewers in a regional system such as pro-
posed in the Facilities Plan is often the source of signifi-
cant induced growth in a community. Such growth could lead to
the contamination of surface and ground waters, pressures for
the development of wetlands, and increased demand for infra-
structural services. A trend towards the development of
wetlands is already visible on Snow Lake, Lake James,
Jimmerson Lake and Crooked Lake. It is therefore important
that regional and subregional systems be compared for their
potential to create secondary impacts associated with induced
growth.
5. "Primary Impacts. Those impacts resulting directly from
project construction and operation need to be further eval-
uated."
Steep slopes exist in many parts of the Proposed Service area,
particularly in the east. Construction of sewers and treat-
ment plants may cause substantial erosion of these slopes with
consequent deterioration of water quality. The Facilities
Plan has also failed to discuss the impacts of construction on
nearby tamarack bogs which are indicated to be the habitats of
two orchids on the Federal list of threatened species
(Plantanthera flava and Plantanthera leucophaea). Primary
impacts such as these need to be further evaluated.
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6. "Socioeconomic Impacts. The impact of the high local project
costs, estimated at over $2,000 per existing residence, on
area residents, and its possible role in forcing a shift from
seasonal to permanent residence must be addressed."
Capital costs of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action have been
estimated at the very high level of $3800 per residence.
Since it is also likely that a substantial portion of the
costs may be ineligible for Federal funding, local costs may
be very high. Such high local costs may result in both a
shift from seasonal to permanent residence and the displace-
ment of low, moderate or fixed income families. The potential
for such impacts needs to be addressed.
Subsequent project studies to resolve these issues uncovered additional
concerns requiring resolution or mitigative measures. These included:
1. The large non-point source phosphorus plume originating in
Marsh Lake and extending through the two Otter Lakes, Snow
Lake, and Lake James.
2. The ongoing destruction of wetlands within the Study Area and
its relationship to secondary impacts. Linked with this is
the role of cut-and-fill techniques in creating shoreline
channels that tend to become sinks for septic tank effluent
leachate.
3. Location of numerous non-point sources, notably literally
dozens of unofficial dumps or landfill areas.
4. Management requirements for operation of an On-Site Wastewater
Management District (OSWMD).
ENVIRONMENT
Soils
Suitable soils for on-site and cluster systems exist in residential
sections throughout the Study Area (see Figure II-6). Among these are
the Boyer Loamy Sand, the Fox Sandy Loam, the Oshtemo Loamy Sand, and
the Riddles Sandy Loam. Based on the results of the groundwater quality
survey (Tri-State University 1979), the area's soils have been effec-
tively treating wastewaters from on-site systems. The characteristics
of the Oshtemo soils also make them suitable for land application by
both spray irrigation and rapid infiltration.
Surface Water Resources
Crooked Creek dominates surface water drainage in the Study Area
(see Figure II-8). One branch of the creek flows south from Michigan
through Big Otter Lake, Snow Lake, Lake James and then northwest through
Jimmerson Lake. Connecting streams also drain Seven Sisters Lakes,
Marsh Lake, Green Lake and Little Otter Lake through this system.
vi
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sx \ -^
UNSUITABLE SOILS FOR
SEPTIC TANK
SYSTEMS
r? ,.;•.;>;
\ I Source: By letter, Arthur
_"° ' ^ M..~»__ C*_.f1 /^
Mumraa, Soil Con-
servation Service,
USDA, 21 Dec. 1977
FIGURE II-6 STEUBEN LAKES: SOILS MAP
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H-
H-
-ccr^u—•—-j :\>~ Y*"""---1.-
.^crSSr?' V-X-H'^c;
LF.GF.NI1
• STREAM FLOW GAGF
I -« FLOW DIRECTION
'*T .- » "I WETLAND?
NEW LAKES, WNPS OR
OTHFR WATER BOPTFS
NOT ON ORIGINAL
S HASE MAP
(F,riC I 070)
fs - ClUUC FI'FT TF.R SFCONP
~«..1 cfs \.^.
Sinner: HSCS I PfcO: FPH". l<>7
l''IC|lltr. I I It STKIIl'.KN I.AKI'.S: SUKI-'ACF. l-'A'I'l'.K IIV nKHI.IK
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Another branch also flows in a north-westerly direction through Crooked
Lake, Lake Gage and Lime Lake to the Pigeon River. The Pigeon River
flows into the St. Joseph River which discharges into Lake Michigan near
Benton Harbor. The area's lakes are very scenic and attract many sea-
sonal recreational users.
Nutrient budgets have been prepared for each of the major lakes
based upon data from the EPA National Eutrophication Survey (NES) 1976,
and the Steuben County Health Department 1973 to 1977. In all cases,
tributary inflow, precipitation and run-off from non-point sources
accounted for most of the total nutrient (phosphorus) loadings (see
Figure II-9). Septic tank contributions to the total loading were
generally less than 7%, except in Lake Gage (10%) and Jimmerson Lake
(21%). These estimates of septic tank contributions were based on NES
assumptions and considered conservatively high.
The trophic status of the lakes as determined by Dillon's model
(Dillon 1975) is presented in Figure 11-10. The findings are in general
agreement with the State of Indiana's classification of the lakes
(Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board 1978-79 305(b) Report). Marsh
Lake, Little Otter Lake, Big Otter Lake, Snow Lake and Lake James are
eutrophic, while Jimmerson Lake, Crooked Lake, Lake Gage and Lime Lake
are mesotrophic.
A "Septic Snooper" survey of the lakes (Kerfoot 1979) located only
65 septic leachate groundwater plumes and four stream source plumes
entering the lakes (see Figure 11-19). This very small number of
groundwater plumes is an indication that the NES based nutrient loading
of the lakes (all residences within 300 feet of lakeshore assumed
contributory) is very conservatively high.
The frequency of the plumes was directly related to the soils
classification. The majority of the plumes, 41 of 69, was associated
with moderately rapid and rapidly permeable soils, or occurred in cut
and fill canal regions of uncertain soil types.
A large stream source plume, principally of bog-like organic com-
position, as distinct from wastewater effluent, was found entering
Little Otter Lake via the connecting stream from Marsh Lake. This plume
became progressively less concentrated as it flowed through Little Otter
Lake, Big Otter Lake, the lower half of Snow Lake, finally becoming
dissipated in the middle basin of Lake James (see Figure 11-20). Asso-
ciated with this plume was a noticeably high level of total phosphorus
ranging from 0.096 mg/1 at the entrance to Little Otter Lake to 0.011 at
the discharge from Lake James to Jimmerson Lake. Old sediment dsposits
in Marsh Lake from effluent discharges of the Fremont sewage treatment
plant (east of Marsh Lake) were indicated as the likely source of the
high phosphorus concentrations. While the plant no longer discharges
phosphorus to Marsh Lake, the acidic leachate from the extensive bogs
around Marsh Lake is thought to release phosphorus from its carbonate
binding in the Marsh Lake sediments. Further studies were recommended
to confirm this theory. This and the other stream source plumes were
identified as the major sources of phosphorus to the lakes surveyed.
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3,000 r
LEGEND
POINT SOURCE
NON-POINT SOURCE (TRIBUTARIES)
NON-POINT SOURCE (IMMEDIATE
DRAINAGE)
PRECIPITATION
SEPTIC TANKS
MARSH
LAKE
SNOW
LAKE
LAKE
JAMES
LITTLE
OTTER
LAKE
FIGURE II-9 COMPARISON OF PHOSPHORUS LOADINGS BY SOURCE
CONTRIBUTIONS FOR THE STEUBEN LAKES STUDY AREA
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1.0 C"
EUTROPHIC
CM
E
O.I
0.01
1 1 I i TTI
MARSH LAKE
O
0SNOW
LAKE
BIG OTTER
LAKE
O
LAKE JAMES
O CROOKED LAKE
O JIMMERSON
LAKE
LO 10.0
MEAN DEPTH(METERS)
L=AREAL PHOSPHORUS INPUT (g/m2/yr)
R=PHOSPHORUS RETENTION COEFFICIENT
P= HYDRAULIC FLUSHING RATE (yr"1)
100.0
FIGURE U.-10 TROPHIC CONDITIONS OF MARSH LAKE,
SNOW LAKE, BIG OTTER LAKES LAKE JAMES,
LAKE GAGE, CROOKED LAKE, JIMMERSON LAKE,
AND LIME LAKE (1973-1974)
XI
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X
H'
H-
LEGEND
ERUPTING PLUME
DORMANT PLUME
STREAM SOURCE PLUME
ICE COVER
Source: Kerfoot 1979
FIGURE 11-19 STEUBEN LAKES: SEPTIC LEACHATE PLUME LOCATIONS
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X
H-
H-
H-
EMONT EFFLUENT
10%
400 500
WAVELENGTH (nm)
POKAGON STATE PARK I
LEGEND
PLUME PATH
," &i£ BACKGROUND WATER
Source: Kerfoot 1979
FIGURE II-20 STEUBEN LAKES: LARGE BOG-LIKE PLUME PATH
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The bacteriological survey of the lakes revealed very few locations
with fecal contamination shown by the presence of fecal coliforms. The
recommended limit of 200 fecal coliform organisms/100 ml was only ex-
ceeded at three locations: the storm drain outlet on the western shore
of Lake Charles, the stream entering Big Otter Lake in the northeast,
and a point on the north shore of the third basin of Crooked Lake. Four
other elevated concentrations (^100 organisms/100 ml) were found in
canals on the eastern shore of Crooked Lake and on the stream linking
Crooked Lake and Lake Gage. Appendix C-7 contains the Kerfoot study.
A supplementary leachate survey of Crooked Lake and Jimmerson Lake
began in August, 1979. Thus far the survey has shown plume concentra-
tions comparable to or lower than those in the late 1978 survey. Plumes
were concentrated around the identified channel areas. Substantial
algal blooms were noted on Jimmerson Lake- A'complete report on this
study will be initiated in the Final EIS.
Groundwater Resources
Sand and gravel units within the 250 to 350 feet thick unconsoli-
dated glacial drifts constitute the major groundwater sources in the
Study Area. Water is generally plentiful and of good quality, although
hard. With few exceptions, water table levels are more than 20 feet
below ground surface.
A ground water quality survey (Tri-State University Engineering and
Research Center 1979) of 101 wells throughout the Study Area (Figure
11-21) showed a high standard of bacteriological and chemical quality,
seemingly insignificantly affected by more than 50 years of ST/SAS use.
Only two samples were positive for both total and fecal coliforms —
indicative of animal wastes contamination. The fecal strep counts in
these two samples were very small (8, 3 per 100 ml) and the fecal coli-
form counts even smaller (1, 1 per 100 ml) indicating a possibly non-
human source- Nitrate-nitrogen levels were in all cases well below the
permissible 10 mg/1 of US EPA's Interim Primary Drinking Water
Standards. The maximum nitrate level was 2.6 mg/1. Appendix C-9
contains the report of this study.
Malfunctioning Septic Tanks
The Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC), using
a remote sensing technique and ground inspection, located only four
surface failures of ST/SASs throughout the Study Area (EPIC 1979). The
EPIC study also provided other pertinent environmental, geographic, and
hydrologic data.
Population and Land Use
More than 75% of the total summer population (22,400) in 1976 was
seasonal. The permanent population was approximately 5,400. The annual
rate of growth of the permanent population has increased from 2.4%
between 1940 and 1970 to 3.8% between 1970 and 1975. This reflects
national trends of more rapid growth in recreational areas. Based on
the projections of the Indiana University Bureau of Business Research,
xiv
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89 88 91
LEGEND
• SAMPLED WELLS
Source: Tri-State Unlver
sity 1979
FIGURE 11-21 STEUBEN LAKES: LOCATION OF SAMPLED WELLS
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the Study Area's permanent population is projected to increase by 81.6%,
and the seasonal population by 23% by the year 2000. Income levels are
moderate in the Study Area, the mean family income in 1970 being about
10% below Indiana and National levels. Approximately 20% of the Study
Area's population is 55 years and older — a significant retirement and
near retirement group.
Existing land use is shown in Figure 11-15. The Pokagon State Park
and nature preserves, the Steuben County Park, and the St. James Golf
Course are the main recreational land use areas. Public and commercial
access to the lakes are provided by 23 boat launches. Commercial activ-
ity is found along State Route 127 and County Route 200 W. No indus-
trial areas exist or are planned. Most of the Study Area is in low
density land uses such as agriculture, wetlands, and open space.
ALTERNATIVES
Aimed at addressing the EIS issues and questions concerning the
eligibility of new sewers for Federal funding, 7 new alternatives were
evaluated along with the Facilities Plan Proposed Action. To make it
comparable with the new alternatives, the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action was modified by the use of the same design flows and unit costs
applied in those alternatives. The new alternatives incorporated
alternative collection systems (pressure sewers), treatment techniques
(land application, individual and multifamily septic systems (cluster
systems), and water conservation, (see Table IV-1).
Limited Action Alternative
On-site systems throughout the Study Area would be repaired and
rehabilitated on the basis of findings of site specific environmental
and engineering surveys. Cluster systems would be used where deemed
necessary and cost-effective. A Small Waste Flows District would be
established to manage the systems.
EIS Alternative 1
Wastes from Snow Lake would be collected and treated by rapid
infiltration at a site northeast of the lake. Wastes from the lakeshore
areas of Crooked Lake, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, Lake Gage, Lake
Sylvan and Lime Lake would be similarly collected and treated by rapid
infiltration at a site north of Bell Lake. Recovery wells at both land
application sites would recover 75% of the renovated effluent and dis-
charge it to Crooked Creek. Cluster and on-site systems would serve the
remainder of the Proposed Service Area (see Figure IV-4).
EIS Alternative 2
This alternative differs from EIS Alternative 1 only by the use of
on-site and cluster systems for lakeshore areas of Lake Gage, Lime Lake,
Lake Sylvan, Snow Lake and a portion of western Jimmerson Lake (see
Figure IV-6).
xvi
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LEGEND
H-
H-
RESIDENTIAL
MOBILE HOME PARK
GENERAL BUSINESS AMD COMMERCIAL
PARK OR RECREATIONAL
AGRICULTURAL OR OPEN
* BOAT LAUNCHES
?000 1OOO
Source: Srhellie Assoc. INC.
196R; EPIC 1979
11-15 STEIIBEN LAKES: EXISTING LAND VSK
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Table IV-]
ALTERNATIVES - SUMMARY OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
Alternative
Facilities
Plan
Proposed
Act ion
Limited
Action
E1S
Alternative
1
Centralized
Treatment
Aerated lagoon/land application
system serving entire Proposed
Service Area
No
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
Treatment Plant
Siting
Millgrove Township
Sections 23 4 24
No
Effluent Disposal
Land application by spray
irrigation with recovery
of renovated wastewater
and discharge to Crooked
Creek
No
On-Lot &
Cluster Systems
No
Repair and replacement of on-site systems
throughout the Proposed Service Area
Alternative
Collection Method
Use of pressure sewer/septic
tank effluent pumping (STEP)
system in steep lakeshore
areas
No
EIS
Alternative
2
Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimnierson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores, and
portion of West Shore
Lake Gage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Snow Lake
Oxidation ditch/land application
system serving:
Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Millgrove Township
Section 25
b.
Jamestown Township
Section 22
Millgrove Township
Section 25
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
b. Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
Land application by rapid
infiltration with recovery
of renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell Lake
Ditch
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
tank effluent pumping (STEP)
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection system
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Table IV-1 (Continued)
Alternative
E1S
Alternative
3
Centralized
Treatment
Contact stabilization/mixed
media filtration plant serving:
Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
.1 i minor so L\ Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Treatment Plant
Siting
Jamestown Township
Section 29
Effluent Disposal
Discharge to Crooked Creek
On-Lot &
Cluster Systems
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
Alternative
Collection Method
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
a . Jimmurson Lake--port ion of
West Shore
Lake Gage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Snow Lake
b.
Mil1 grove Township
Section 25
Jamestown Township
Section 22
Land application by
rapid infi11 ration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
E1S
Alternative
4
ELS
Alternative
5
Contact stabilization/mixed
media filtration plant serving:
Croo' ed Lake—First 6. Second
Basins
Lake Jj«ies--Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimmersoi! Lake—Lower East,
Southea^ t Shores
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
a. Lake James—Middle & Lower
Hasina
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores and
portion of West Shore
Lake Gage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Jamestown Township
Section 29
Discharge to Crooked Creek
Millgrove Township
Section 25
b. Pleasant Township
Section 19
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Cheeseboro Lake
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of proposed Service Area
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
-------
Table 1V-1 (Concluded)
Alternative
E1S
Alternative
5 (Cont'd.)
EIS
Alternative
6
Central ized
Treatment
c. Snow Lake
Contact stabilization/mixed
media filtration plant serving:
Trea t men t P Ian t On-Lo t &
Siting Effluent Disposal Cluster Systems
c. Jamestown Township c. Land application by
Section 22 rapid infiltration
with recovery of
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
On-lot and cluster systems serving.
remainder of Proposed Service Area
Alternative
Collection Method
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
Basins
Jiiiimerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
a. Jamestown Township a. Discharge to Crooked
Section 29 Creek
collection systems
b. Pleasant Township
Section 9
b. Discharge to Crooked
Lake
-------
LAND APPLICATION
RAPID -->._..
INFILTRATION^
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-S1TE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
FIGURE IV-4 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE 1
-------
£=^*fe3RS '
F\ \ e s,-i
v?g
LAND APPLICATION
L„ RAPID INFILTRATIOIlx;x
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
• ' / /S^<- ^V—
••..1 /CftS^«5»^SS\W
l-ICURE I-V-6 -STEUBKN I^KES: E1S ALTERNATIVE 2
-------
EIS Alternative 3
This alternative only differs from EIS Alternative 1 by providing
conventional contact stabilization treatment and a discharge to Crooked
Creek for wastes from Crooked Lake, Lake James and Jimmerson (see Figure
IV-9).
EIS Alternative 4
This alternative is similar to EIS Alternative 3, except that
bn-site and cluster systems would serve those areas designated for
central collection followed by rapid infiltration (see Figure IV-11).
EIS Alternative 5
This alternative varies EIS Alternative 1 by providing a separate
collection and treatment (rapid infiltration) system for Crooked Lake.
The new rapid infiltration site for this lake area is northeast of
Cheesboro Lake (see Figure IV-13).
EIS Alternative 6
This alternative is similar to EIS Alternative 4 except that sepa-
rate systems would serve the major collection areas around Crooked Lake,
and those around Lake James and Jimmerson Lake (see Figure IV-15),
Costs
Project costs of all alternatives are summarized in Table IV-2.
Based on total present worth, the Limited Action alternative is the
cost-effective solution. Generally the costs increase with the extent
of sewering provided in the alternatives. Thus, the more decentralized
alternatives EIS Alternatives 2 and 4 are less costly (present worth)
than the EIS Alternatives 1, 3 and 5 which are in turn less costly than
the totally sewered Facilities Plan Proposed Action. The exception to
this rule is EIS Alternative 6 which is marginally more costly than EIS
Alternative 1 despite the greater extent of sewering in the latter. The
service of the major sewered areas in EIS Alternative 6 by two systems
instead of one is probably the source of the higher costs.
•Implementation
Implementation of the recommended Limited Action Alternative would
require the establishment of a Small Waste Flows District. The func-
tions of such a district are discussed in Chapter III.
Indiana presently has no legislation which explicitly authorizes
governmental entities to manage wastewater facilities other than those
connected to conventional collection systems. However, statutes in
Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin have been interpreted as providing
counties, townships, villages, cities, and special purpose districts
with sufficient powers to manage decentralized facilities (Otis and
Stewart 1976). It is thought likely that the enabling legislation for
the establishment of the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District, also
xxiii
-------
APPLICATION
RAPID
INFILTRATION
— LAND v
•?""> APPLICATION.
RAPID '*
INFILTRATION
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT'
PLANT
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
•A^'\ ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
KIUUKK IV-9 STKUBEN LAKES: E1S ALTERNA'I'IVE
-------
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
PLANT
*
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
FIGUKK IV-I1 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE
-------
RAPID INFILTRATION
LAND APPLICATION
RAPID
INFILTRATION
_- ^*-'Y :~1^==
r^rJ "^ rf , -
LAND
APPLICATION
IV-13 STF.UBF.N I.AKRR:
AI.TKRNATIVK
V) RAPID INFILTRATION
-------
H-
WASTEWATER
»TREATMENT
PLANT '
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
-— V«\-^~ j=-—*-c=r^-'r i Hjt^ii.10 , ^
15 STEUBliN LAKKS: EIS ALTERNATIVE 6
-------
Table IV-2
COST-EFFECTIVE ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES
FACILITIES PLAN
PROPOSED ACTION EIS 1 EIS 2 EIS 3 EIS 4 EIS 5 EIS 6
LIMITED
ACTION
Present Project Cost
(x$l,000)
20,839.8
17,640.2 17,620.3 18,058.3 17,571.7 18.210.3 17,801.6 1,967.
H-
H-
Future Project Construction Costs
(x$1.000/yr)
125.6
185.1
212.8 185.1 212.8 185.1
212.6
4,751.1
(1990)
Total Present Worth
(x$l,000)
23,166.8 19,874.4 18,951.4 21,212.4 19,663.1 20,485.3 19,999.4 8,268.7
Average Annual Equivalent Costs
(x$l,000)
2,124.4
1,822.5 1,737.8 1,945.2 1,803.1 - 1,878.5 1,833.9
758.2
-------
provides this authority (by telephone, Mr. Joseph Karen, Indiana Stream
Pollution Control Board, September 25, 1978).
California and Illinois, to resolve interagency conflicts or to
authorize access to private properties for inspection and maintenance of
wastewater facilities, have passed legislation specifically intended to
facilitate management of decentralized facilities. These laws are
summarized in Appendix J-2.
IMPACTS OF THE ALTERNATIVES
Five major categories of impacts were relevant in the selection of
an alternative. These categories included: surface water; groundwater;
environmentally sensitive areas; population and land use; and socio-
economics.
Surface Water
Implementation of the No Action Alternative would result in in-
creased phosphorus loadings of up to 24% in the lakes. The Limited
Action, all EIS Alternatives and the Facilities Plan Proposed Action
would generally cause relatively small impacts on phosphorus loading,
None of these impacts is expected to be large enough to significantly
alter the trophic status of any of the lakes. Predicted changes in
phosphorus loadings are listed in Table V-l.
Groundwater
No significant primary or secondary impacts on groundwater quantity
would result from implementation of any of the alternatives because of
the relatively small quantities of water involved. Impacts on groundT
water quality are also expected to be insignificant in all cases based
on the effective treatment provided by soils for more than 50 years.
Environmentally Sensitive Areas
No significant impacts are expected from any of the alternatives,
on floodplains, prime agricultural lands and unique natural areas.
Minor to moderate impacts on steep slopes by the Facilities Plan Pro-
posed Action, and the EIS Alternatives 1 to 6 may be controlled by
enforcement of a strengthened zoning ordinance. The present inade-
quately controlled channelling and filling of lakeshore wetlands may
continue at essentially the same level under all alternatives unless,
appropriate legislation is implemented and enforced. While the No
Action and Limited Action Alternatives would involve no Federal aid to
future residential development of, filled wetlands, the sewered alterna-
tives could easily provide service to such areas from Federally funded
facilities. Federal funding of the sewered alternatives may be in
violation of Presidential Executive Order 11990 which specifically
limits participation in projects directly or indirectly resulting in the
destruction of wetlands.
xxix
-------
TABLE V-l
Comparison of Phosphorus Leading of Alternatives
In The Year 2000 With The Average Present Conditions
Lake
Crooked
Gage
Lime
Little Otter
Big Otter
Snow*
James
Jimmerson
9%
5%
24%
^
<1"
17%
1%
2%
No
Action
increase
increase
increase
increase
increase
decrease
increase
increase
Limited
Action
1% increase
<1% increase
2% increase
No change
No change
17% decrease
No change
No change
Facility Plan
Proposed Action
7% decrease
10% decrease
3% decrease
27, decrease
4% decrease
20% decrease
5% decrease
21% decrease
EIS
1, 3, 5
7% decrease
10% decrease
3% decrease
No change
No change
20% decrease
'5% decrease
3% decrease
EIS
2, 4, 6
7% decrease
5% increase
3% decrease
No change
No change
17% decrease
5% decrease
3% decrease
*Decrease of 17% in all alternatives due to the Pokagon State Park's
tertiary treatment plant which became operational in May 1979.
-------
Population and Land Use
It is estimated that the Facilities Plan Proposed Action and EIS
Alternatives 1 to 6 would all permit a 9% increase in population above
the standard population projections because of the planned sewering in
them. No induced growth would be expected from the Limited Action and
No Action Alternatives.
All alternatives would result in the conversion of relatively
insignificant area of land to residential uses — the No Action or
Limited Action Alternatives in 600 acres, and each of the sewered and
partially sewered alternatives in 420 acres of conversion. Agricul-
tural, forests and cleared lands would be the sources of these con-
versions. No wetlands would be converted.
Economic Impacts
Annual user charges (see Table V-4) are much higher for the sewered
and partially sewered alternatives ($250 to $450) than for the Limited
Action Alternative ($50). The Facilities Plan Proposed Action and the
more centralized EIS Alternatives 1, 3 and 5 would place the highest
financial burdens and displacement pressures on householders (see Table
V-6). The more decentralized EIS Alternatives 2, 4 and 6 would result
in intermediary levels of impacts. The Limited Action Alternative would
be a financial burden to only 2 to 5% of the householders with displacer
ment pressures on less than 2 percent.
xxxi
-------
Table V-4
ANNUAL USER CHARGES
ALTERNATIVE ANNUAL USER CHARGE
Facilities Plan Proposed Action $450
EIS Alternative #1 $320
ETS Alternative //2 $230
EIS Alternative #3 $340
T ,
EIS Alternative //4 $240
EIS Alternative #5 $340
EIS Alternative #6 $250
Limited Action Alternative $ ^Q
xxxii
-------
Table V-6
FINANCIAL BURDEN AND DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE
ALTERNATIVE
DISPLACEMENT
PRESSURE
FINANCIAL
BURDEN
CAN
AFFORD
Facilities Plan
Proposed Action
10-20%
40-50%
50-60%
EIS Alternative //I
10-20%
20-30%
EIS AJternative #2
EIS Altf-rnativi- //3
EIS Alternative #4
EIS Alternative #5
EIS Alternative //6
5-10%
10-20%
5-10%
10-20%
5-10%
20-30%
30-40%
20-30%
30-40%
20-30%
70-80%
60-70%
70-80%
60-70%
70-80%
Limited Action
Alternative
2-5%
95-98%
xxxiii
-------
CONTENTS
Summary • *•
List of Tables '. . . . xlii
List of Figures xliii
Symbols and Abbreviations xlv
I. INTRODUCTION 1
A. Background 1
1. Location • 1
2. History of the Construction Grant Application . 1
3. Facilities Plan 6
a. Existing Wastewater Treatment
Facilities 6
b. Existing Problems 8
c. Facilities Plan's Alternatives and
Proposed Action 8
Design Parameters 8
Alternatives 10
Facilities Plan Proposed Action 11
B. Issues of This EIS 11
1. Cost Effectiveness 11
2. Treatment Processes 11
3. Sizing 16
4. Secondary Impacts 16
5. Primary Impacts 16
6. Socioeconomic Impacts 16
C. National Perspective on the Rural Sewering
Problem 17
1. Socioeconomics 17
2. Secondary Impacts 20
3. The Need for Management of Decentralized
Alternative Systems 20
4. Relationship to Other EIS's Prepared by
US EPA Region V 21
D. Purpose and Approach of the EIS and Criteria
for Evaluation of Alternatives 22
1. Purpose 22
2. Approach 23
xxxiv
-------
a. Review of Available Data 23
b. Documentation of Need for Action 23
c. Segment Analysis . 24
d. Review of Wastewater Design Flows .... 24
e. Development of Alternatives ....'... 24
f. Estimation of Costs of Alternatives ... 24
g. Evaluation of Alternatives 25
3. Major Criteria for Evaluation of
Alternatives 25
a. Cost 25
b. Significant Environmental and
Socioeconomic Impacts .... 25
c. Reliability 26
d. Flexibility 26
4. Public Participation 26
a. Public Information and Participation
Meeting 26
b. Newspaper Articles 27
c. Steuben County Lakes Council
Magazine 27
d. EIS Newsletter 27
e. Workshop and Citizens Advisory
Committee 27
II. ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 29
Introduction 29
A. Physical Setting 29
1. Physiography 29
2. Geology 30
3. Soils 35
a. General 35
b. Suitability for Septic Tank
Absorption Fields . 35
c. Suitability for Land Application 37
d. Prime Agricultural Lands. ... 40
4. Atmosphere 40
a. Climate 40
b. Noise 44
c. Odors 44
d. Air Quality 45
B. Water Resources 45
1. Surface Water 45
xxxv
-------
D.
2.
3.
4.
a. Surface Water Hydrology
b. Surface Water Quality ....
c. Surface Water Use and
Classification
Groundwater Resources
a. Groundwater Hydrology
b. Groundwater Quality
c. Groundwater Use
Water Quality Management
a. Clean Water Act
b. Federal Agency Responsibilities
for Study Area Waters
c. State Responsibilities in the Steuben
Lakes Study Area
d. Local Responsibilities
Flood Hazard Areas
Biotic Resources
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Aquatic Biology
a. Aquatic Vegetation
b. Fishes. ....
Shoreline Algae and Aquatic Weed Growth. . . .
Wetlands
a. Overview
b. Study Area
Terrestrial Biology
Threatened and Endangered Species
a. Mammals
b. Birds
c. Plants
d. Other
Population and Socioeconomics
1.
Population
a. Introduction
b. Existing Population ....
c. Population Projections. . . .
45
51
55
55
55
56
56
58
58
59
61
63
63
65
65
65
66
69
71
71
72
73
73
73
74
74
75
75
75
75
75
78
XXXVI
-------
Page
2. Characteristics of the Population 80
a. Permanent Population , $0
b. Seasonal Population 83
3. Housing 83
4. Land Use 84
a. Existing Land Use , . 84
b. Future Land Use 87
c. Growth Management 8,9
5. Fiscal Characteristics • 92
6.. Historical and Archaeological Resources. ... 93
E- Existing Systems and Need for Action 93
1. .Types of Systems 93
2. Status of Systems 93
3. Special Studies 98
a. "Investigation of Septic Leachate
Discharges into Steuben Lakes,
Indiana" (William Kerfoot 1979) . . , . r 98
b. "Environmental Analysis and Resource
Inventory for Steuben Lakes, Indiana"
(EPIC 1979) 104
c. "Investigation of Well Water Quality
Within the Steuben County Regional Waste
District" (Tri-State University
Engineering and Research Center 1979) . . 10$
4. Need for Action 108
a. Public Health Problems 108
b. Water Quality Problems 109
c. Other Problems 109
d. Conclusions , . . 109
III. DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES Ill
A. Introduction Ill
1. General Approach Ill
2. Comparability of Alternatives: Design
Population 112
3. Comparability of Alternatives: Flow and
: Waste Load Projections 112
xxxvli
-------
Page
B. Components and Options .............. , 115
1. Flow and Waste Reduction ........... 115
a. Residential Flow Reduction Devices. . . . 115
b. Indiana Ban on Phosphorus ........ 118
2. Collection ..................
3. Wastewater Treatment ............. 121
a. Centralized Treatment—Discharge to
Surface Water .............. 121
b. Centralized Treatment—Land' Disposal. . , 123
c. Decentralized Treatment and Disposal. . . 125
4. Effluent Disposal ............... 127
a. Reuse .................. 127
b. Discharge to Surface Waters ....... 127
c. Land Application. ... ..... .... 128
5. Sludge Handling and Disposal ......... 128
C. Flexibility of Components .... ..... , . . . 129
1. Transmission and Conveyance .......... 129
2. Conventional Wastewater Treatment ....... 129
a'i Oxidation Ditch ............. 130
b. Contact Stabilization .......... 130
3'. On-Site Septic Systems ............ 130
4. Land Application ............... 131
D. Reliability of Components ............. 132
1. Sewers .................... 132
2. Centralized Treatment ............. 133
3. On-Site Treatment ............... 134
4. Cluster Systems ................ 134
E. Implementation ................ , 135
1. Centralized Districts ....... ,...,. 135
a. Authority ......... , ...... 135
b. , a Managing Agency ............ ; 135
c. Financing ............ r 135
d. User Charges ..... . ..... .... 136
xxxviii
-------
Page
2. Small Waste Flows Districts 137
a. Authority 137
b. Management 137
c. Financing , , 141
d. User Charges 141
IV. ALTERNATIVES 143
A. Approach 147
B. Alternatives 143
1. No Action 143
2. Facilities Plan Proposed Action 147
3. EIS Alternative 1 }47
4. EIS Alternative 2 150
5. EIS Alternative 3 150
6. EIS Alternative 4 150
7. EIS Alternative 5 159
8. EIS Alternative 6 159
9. Limited Action 159
C. Flexibility of Alternatives 166
1. Facilities Plan Proposed Action. , 166
2. EIS Alternative 1 166
3. EIS Alternative 2 166
4. EIS Alternative 3 166
5. EIS Alternative 4 167
6. EIS Alternative 5 167
7. EIS Alternative 6 167
8. Limited Action 167
D. Costs of Alternatives f . . . . 167
V. IMPACTS 171
A. Impacts on Surface Water Quality 171
1. Primary Impacts 171
a. Analysis of Eutrophication Potential, . . 171
b. Bacterial Contamination 173
c. Non-Point Source Loads 174
2. Secondary Impacts. 174
B. Groundwater Impacts 174
1. Groundwater Quantity Impacts , . .. . 174
2. Groundwater Quality Impacts 175
3. Mitigative Measures 178
xxxix
-------
D.
Population and Land Use
1. Introduction
2. Population
3. Land Use
4. Changes in Community Composition and
Character
Encroachment on Environmentally Sensitive Areas . .
1. Floodplains
a. Primary Impacts '
b. Secondary Impacts
c. Mitigative Measures
2. Steep Slopes
a. Primary Impacts
b. Secondary Impacts .
c. Mitigative Measures ..,...,.,..
3. Wetlands , . .
a. Primary Impacts
b. Secondary i Impacts
c. Mitigative Measures
4. Prime Agricultural Lands , , . ,
a. Primary Impacts
b. Secondary Impacts .....
c. Mitigative Measures ...
5. Unique Natural Areas .
a. Primary Impacts
b. Secondary Impacts ...
c. Mitigative Measures
Economic Impacts
1 . Introduction
2. User Charges ,
a. Eligibility
b. Calculation of User Charges . .
Page
178
178
180
181
182
'1
182
182
182
183
183
183
183
183
183
184
184
184
184
184
184
185
185
185
185
185
185
186
186
186
186
188
Local Cost Burden.
190
xl
-------
Page
a. Significant Financial Burden 190
b. Displacement Pressure 190
c. Conversion Pressure 192
4. Mitigative Measures 192
F. Narrative Matrix, 193
VI. SELECTION OF THE RECOMMENDED ACTION 197
A. Introduction. 197
B. Selection of Recommended Alternative 197
1. Selection Procedure 197
2. Conclusions 201
C. Recommended Alternative 202
1. Description. 202
2. Implementation , . 202
a. Replacement of Septic Tanks and
Soil Absorption Systems 202
b. Completion of Step 1 (Facilities
Planning) Requirements for the Small
Waste Flows District 204
c. Scope of Step 2 for the Small Waste
Flows District 204
d. Compliance With State and Local
Standards in the Small Waste Flows
District 204
e. Ownership of On-Site Systems Serving
Seasonal Residences ........... 205
VII. ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE RECOMMENDED ACTION. . 207
A. Unavoidable Adverse Impacts 207
B. Incompatibility with State and Local Codes .... 207
C. Relationship Between Short-Term Use and Long-
Term Productivity 207
1. Short-Term Use of the Study Area 207
2. Impacts on Long-Term Productivity. ...... 208
a. Commitment of Non-Renewable
Resources 208
b. Limitations on Beneficial Use of the
Environment ....... 208
icli
-------
D. Irreversible and Irretrievable Commitment
of Resources 208
GLOSSARY 209
REFERENCES 225
xlii
-------
Tables
T-l Facilities Plan-Present Worth Values for Treatment
Alternatives 12
II-.I Interpretation of Soil Physical and Hydraulic Properties
to be Considered in the Development of Land Applica-
tion Systems 39
IT-2 Prime Agricultural Lands of Steuben County 41
II-3 Climatological Summaries for the Steuben Lakes Regional
Waste District A3
II-4 Air Quality Summaries for Locations in Indiana 46
II-5 Physical Characteristics of Marsh Lake, Little Otter
Lake, Big Otter Lake, Snow Lake, Lake James,
Jimmerson Lake, Crooked Lake, Lake Gage, Lime Lake . F 48
II-6 Water Budgets for Marsh Lake, Crooked Lake, and
Lake James 50
II-7 Permanent and Seasonal Population in the Proposed
Service Area, 1976 77
II-8 Estimated Population of the Steuben Proposed Service
Area, 1975, and Projected Population, 2000 79
II-9 Per Capita Income, 1969 and 1974 81
11-10 Employment by Industry, 1970 82
11-11 ' .Existing and Projected Dwelling Units Within the
Proposed Service Area, 1975 and 2000 85
11-12 Residential Development Restrictions 90
11-13 Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District Average Lot Sizes , 95
11-14 Housing Densities and Lot Sizes in Study Area 99
11-15. Steuben Lakes: Distribution of Leachate Plumes 102
III-l Estimated Savings With Flow Reduction Devices 116
III-2 Effect of Phosphorus Ban Upon Wastewater Treatment . . . 119
III-3 Small Waste Flow Management Functions by Operational
Component and by Basic and Supplemental Usage 139
IV-1 Alternatives — Summary of Major Components 144
IV-2 Cost-Effective Analysis of Alternatives 169
V-l Comparison of Phosphorus Loading of Alternatives in
the Year 200 with the Average Present Conditions .... 172
V-2 Steuben Lakes Wastewater Recharge to Groundwater in
Year 2000 176
V-3 Effluent Quality Comparison for Land Treatment and
AWT, Systems * 179
V-4 ,. Annual User Charges 187
V-5 Local Share of Capital Costs 189
V-6 Financial Burden and Displacement Pressure 191
VI-1 * Alternative Selection Matrix 198
xliii
-------
Figures
Page
1-1 Location of Steuben Lakes Study Area , 2
1-2 Steuben Lakes: Study Area 3
1-3 Steuben Lakes: Proposed Service Area ..... 4
1-4 Steuben Lakes: Existing Wastewater Treatment Facilities . 7
1-5 Steuben Lakes: Facilities Plan Proposed Action 9
1-6 Monthly Cost of Gravity Sewers 19
II-l Steuben Lakes: Topography 31
11-2 Steuben Lakes: Contour Lines Showing the Thickness of
the Glacial Drift 32
II-3 Steuben Lakes: Unconsolidated Surficial Deposits 33
II-4. Steuben Lakes: Bedrock Geology 34
II-5 Steuben Lakes: Bedrock Topography . 36
II-6 Steuben Lakes: Soils Map 38
II-7 Steuben Lakes: Prime Agricultural Soils 42
II-8 Steuben Lakes: Surface Water Hydrology . . 47
II-9 Comparison of Phosphorus Loadings by Source Contributions
for the Steuben Lakes Study Area • . 52
11-10 Trophic Conditions of Marsh Lake, Snow Lake, Big Otter
Lake, Lake James, Lake Gage, Crooked Lake, Jimmerson
Lake, and Lime Lake (1973-1974) 54
11-11 Elevations of the Top of Aquifers 57
11-12 Steuben Lakes: Flood Hazard Areas 64
11-13 Steuben Lakes: Aquatic Vegetation T 67
11-14 Steuben Lakes: Group Segments of the Proposed Service
Area 76
11-15 Steuben Lakes: Existing Land Use 86
11-16 Steuben Lakes: Future Land Use , . . . . 88
11-17 Steuben Lakes: Subdivisions 96
11-18 Steuben Lakes: Malfunctioning Septic Tank Systems .... 97
11-19 Steuben Lakes: Septic Leachate Plume Locations ...... 101
11-20 Large Bog-like Plume Path Through the Steuben Lakes .... 103
11-21 Steuben Lakes: Location of Sampled Wells 106
III-l Typical Pump Installations for Pressure Sewer 122
III-2 Spray Irrigation 124
III-3 Rapid Infiltration 124
IV-1 Facilities Plan Proposed Action Treatment Processes .... 148
IV-2 Steuben Lakes: Facilities Plan Proposed Action 149
IV-3 EIS Alternative 1 Treatment Process 151
IV-4 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 1 152
IV-5 EIS Alternative 2 Treatment Processes 153
IV-6 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 2 154
IV-7 EIS Alternative 3 Treatment Processes-Surface Discharge . . 155
IV-8 EIS Alternative 3 Treatment Processes-Land Application . . 156
IV-9 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 3 ; 157
IV-10 EIS Alternative 4 Treatment Processes 158
IV-11 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 4 160
IV-12 EIS Alternative 5 Treatment Processes 161
xliv
-------
IV-13 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 5 162
IV-14 EIS Alternative 6 Treatment Processes 163
IV-15 Steuben Lakes: EIS Alternative 6 164
IV-16 Limited Action Alternative , 165
VI-1 Steuben Lakes: Recommended Alternative ... 203
xlv
-------
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
P
y
v
a
An asterisk following a word indicates that the term is
defined in the Glossary at the end of this report. Used
at the first appearance of the term in this EIS,
less than
greater than
Rho
Mu, micro
Nu
Sigma
TECHNICAL ABBREVIATIONS
AWT
BOD
cCs
DO
ft2
fps
g/m /yr
GP
gpcd
gpm
I/I
kg/yr
kg/cap/yr
kg/mile
Ib /cap /day
mgd
mg/1
ml
msl
MPN
N
NO -N
NFS
advanced wastewater treatment
biochemical oxygen demand
cubic feet per second
dissolved oxygen
square foot
feet per second
grams per square meter per year
grinder pump
gallons per capita per day
gallons per minute
infiltration/inflow
kilograms per year
kilograms per capita per year
kilograms per mile
pounds per capita per day
million gallons per day
milligrams per litre
millilitre
mean sea level—implies above msl unless otherwise indicated
most probable number
nitrogen
ammonia nitrogen
nitrate nitrogen
non-point source
xlvi
-------
O&M
P
pH
P°4
ppm
psi
RBC
SS
STEP
STP
ST/SAS
TKN
TP-P
yg/i
EPAECO
operation and maintenance
phosphorus, or "as phosphorus"
measure of acidity or basicity; <7 is acidic; >7 is basic
phosphate
parts per million
pounds per square inch
rotating biological contactor
suspended solids
septic tank effluent pumping
sewage treatment plant
septic tank/soil absorption system
total Kjeldahl nitrogen
total phosphorus as phosphorus
micrograms per liter
name of a mathematical model
CFR
DNR
EIS
EPA
EPIC
HUD
ISPCB
NOAA
NES
NPDES
SCUD
SCS
SFMH
SLRWD
STORKT
US DA
US OS
NON-TECHNICAL ABBREVIATIONS
Code of Federal Regulation.';
Indiana Department of Natural Resources
Environmental Impact Statement
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (of EPA)
United States Department of Housing and Urban Development
Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, United
States Department of Commerce
National Eutrophication Survey
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
Steuben County Health Department
Soil Conservation Service, United States Department ol
Agriculture
State Fish Management Headquarters, Indiana Department of
Natural Resources
Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District
STOrage and RETreival (data base system of EPA)
United States Department of Agriculture
United States Geological Survey, Department of the Interior
xlvii
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
1. LOCATION
The subject of this Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) is Federal
funding of the Facilities Plan for wastewater disposal submitted by the
Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District Board. This funding would take
place under Section 201 of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of
1972, P.L. 92-500 as amended by the Clean Water Act of 1977, P.L.
95-217. A preliminary environmental review of the Facilities Plan by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) Region V
in'dicated the possibility of significant environmental impacts and- led
to the Agency's determination that an EIS is warranted. Section I.B
discusses the environmental issues raised in the US EPA's Notice of
Intent to prepare an EIS.
The EIS Study Area includes the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste
District and some areas northeast and south of that District as shown in
Figure 1-1. It covers 38 square miles, including parts of Millgrove,
Jamestown, Jackson and Pleasant Townships (see Figure 1-2). Study Area
development is largely lake-oriented and residential surrounding the
five major lakes—Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, Snow Lake, Crooked Lake,
Lake Gage--as well as the smaller Lime Lake, Lake Syl-van, Big Otter
Lake and Little Otter Lake. These residential areas constitute the
Facilities Plan Proposed Service Area (see Figure 1-3). There are
several other small lakes in the Study Area—Marsh Lake, Green Lake,
Seven Sisters Lakes, Failing Lake and Lake Charles in the northeast,
Bell Lake and Sally Owen Lake in the northwest, and Round Lake and Grass
Lake in the southwest. No cities, towns or incorporated areas lie
within the Study Area.
2. HISTORY OF THE CONSTRUCTION GRANT APPLICATION
The following is a list of significant events associated with
wastewater management in the Study Area and this Environmental Impact
Statement.
September 7, 1965 Steuben County Board of Commissioners estab-
lishes the Steuben County Planning Commission
by Ordinance No. 524.
July 17, 1973 State of Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board
adopts Regulation SPC IR-3 establishing water
quality standards for all waters of the State.
-------
INDIANA
STUDY
AREA
BOUNDARY
HH STEUBEN LAKES
REGIONAL WASTEWATER
DISTRICT BOUNDARY
STEUBEN COUNTY
( LOCATION OK STLUU'.N LAKKS STl'DY AUKA
-------
FIGURE 1-2 STEUBEN LAKES: STUDY AREA
LEGEND
Source: USCS 1960
-------
Pokaqon Stata Park
WasUwqter Treqtment Plant
for the Holiday inn and Faucher Motel
LEGEND
PROPOSED SERVICE AREA
FIGURE 1-3 STEUBEN LAKES; PROPOSED SERVICE AREA
-------
February 18, 1975
June 23, 1975
August 1, 1975
December 22, 1975
February 5, 1976
July 9, 1976
August 27, 1976
September 2, 1976
July 20, 1977
October 1, 1977
December 13, 1977
May 26, 1978
July 21, 1978
State of Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board
establishes the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste
District (SLRWD) in response to the request of
the Steuben County Lakes Council.
Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board issues
Final NPDES Permit No. In. 0030309 to the
Indiana Department of Natural Resources with
respect to the wastewater treatment facility at
the Pokagon State Park.
SLRWD files application with the Indiana Stream
Pollution Control Board (ISPCB) for Step I
Grant for development of wastewater disposal
facilities plan.
Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board
certifies application to US EPA Region V for
Step I Grant.
US EPA grant funds to the SLRWD for development
of the facilities plan.
Indiana Stream Pollution Contol Board issues
NPDES Permit No. In. 0053261 to the Steuben
Lakes Regional Waste District to install a
sewer system throughout the district with
effluent discharge to Crooked Creek.
"Facilities Plan for Wastewater Collection and
Treatment: Steuben Lakes Regional Waste
District" completed for the District Board of
Trustees by Mick, Rowland & Associates, Inc.
The SLRWD Board of Trustees holds a Public
Hearing on the Facilities Plan.
Notice of Intent to prepare an EIS by US EPA
Region V.
WAPORA, Inc. commences work on the EIS.
First EIS Public Information and Participation
Meeting held by US EPA Region V.
US EPA Region V issues EIS Newsletter citing
the alternatives for Steuben Lakes wastewater
collection and treatment.
US EPA Region V organizes a Citizens Advisory
Committee and holds a workshop on the alter-
natives developed for the EIS.
-------
April 23, 1979 US EPA Region V issues EIS Newsletter citing
the special studies undertaken in the Study
Area.
3. FACILITIES PLAN
Discussion in this section is limited entirely to summarizing the
main features of the "Facilities Plan for Wastewater Collection and
Treatment" (August 1976) prepared for the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste
District (SLRWD) by Mick, Rowland and Associates, Inc. Please note that
the conclusions reached in the Facilities Plan and summarized in this
Section are not necessarily those reached in the EIS.
a. Existing Wastewater Treatment Facilities
On-site waste disposal systems serve the Study Area with the excep-
tion of two collection and treatment systems, one serving the Pokagon
State Park and the other serving the Holiday Inn and Faucher's Motel.
On-Site Systems. Nearly all residences within the Study Area are
served by septic tank/soil absorption systems* (ST/SASs). There are
also some summer (seasonally used) cottages served by outhouses. The
Facilities Plan states that many problems have arisen from the use of
these on-site systems. Section I.A.S.b summarizes these problems.
Pokagon State Park Facilities. The Pokagon State Park on the
northeastern shore of Lake James is served by an 80,000 gallons per day
(gpd) extended aeration* sewage treatment plant and a 7-day terminal
lagoon.* Effluent from the lagoon is discharged to Lake James via Snow
Lake and the marsh area (see Figure 1-4). The Indiana Department of
Natural Resources owns and operates these facilities.
The Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board's final NPDES Permit No.
In. 0030309 (see Appendix C-5) of June 23, 1975 requires the Indiana
Department of Natural Resources to provide flow measurement, advanced
waste treatment and phosphorus removal prior to discharging to Snow Lake
by May 31, 1977.
[EIS note: A tertiary treatment plant complying with the permit
was completed and placed in operation during May 1979 (by telephone,
Carl North, In. DNR, May 7, 1979). Hence no further consideration has
been given to the Park's facilities in this EIS.]
Holiday Inn/Faucher's Motel Facilities. The Holiday Inn and
Faucher's Motel, on Interstate Highway 69 east of Lake James, jointly
use a 30,000 gpd activated sludge* package treatment plant for waste-
water disposal. After being fined for polluting Lake Charles with the
plant's effluent, the motels introduced a land application system (spray
distribution) in 1975 using a site southeast of 1-69. Winter flow
storage has been provided with overflows being discharged to a large
leach bed. [EIS note: This system has been functioning without major
*See glossary.
-------
Pokagon State Park
ter Treatment Rant
Wastewater Treatment Plant
for the Holiday Inn and
Faucher Motel
2000 «000
FIGURE 1-4 STEUBEN LAKES: EXISTING WASTEWATER TREATMENT FACILITIES
-------
problems (by telephone, John Satrom, Indiana Stream Pollution Control
Board, November 9, 1978) and has been given no further consideration in
this EIS.]
b. Existing Problems
The Facilities Plan cites the following problems of existing septic
tank/soil absorption systems in the Study Area:
• Most of the systems are very old, constructed when few rules
governed their installation. Also very little inspection of
the construction of these systems was undertaken.
• Some low-lying ST/SASs are below the seasonal high groundwater
table. Effluents from such systems' reach the lakes during
periods of high precipitation.
• Some lots are too narrow (40-foot frontage) for adequate
separation of ST/SASs from shallow wells.
• Several areas of lake pollution from ST/SASs have been identi-
fied by dye tests conducted by the Steuben County Health
Department. Many other ST/SAS sources of pollution have not
been detected by such tests.
• Many of the older ST/SASs still in use cannot meet current
standards.
An analysis of these and other related problems, using the findings
of several special studies, is presented in Section II.E of this EIS.
c. Facilities Plan's Alternatives and Proposed Action
The Facilities Plan considered 18 alternative solutions to the
Study Area's wastewater disposal problem, all based on some form of
centralized collection and treatment. All alternatives provided for
service throughout the Study Area including the Holiday Inn, Faucher's
Motel and the Pokagon State Park. The layout of the sewerage system for
the Facilities Plan's Proposed Action, shown in Figure 1-5, is common to
all 18 alternatives.
Design Parameters
The following is a summary of the main design parameters of the
Facilities Plan.
Design Period: The twenty year period 1976-1996.
Population Projection: The Study Area's population was considered
in 3 main categories, viz., year-round (permanent); summer (seasonal)
week-day; and summer weekend and holidays. The following design popu-
lations were used:
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WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANT
a
SPRAY IRRIGATION SITE
POKAGON STATE PARK
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
FIGURE 1-5 STEUBEN LAKES: FACILITIES PLAN PROPOSED ACTION
-------
1976 1996
Year Around 4,767 8,058
Summer Week-day 11,208 13,979
Weekend & Holidays 20,268 25,123
The projections were based on US Census data for Steuben County and
represented growth rates over the design period of 32% for off-lake
areas and 23% for lakeshore areas.
Waste Flows were based on the following parameters:
Permanent Residences - 3 persons each at 100 gallons per
capita per day (gpcd)
Seasonal Residences - 3 persons each on week days at 100 gpcd
3 additional persons each on weekends
at 70 gpcd
' The design flows thus obtained were as follows:
Flow (gpd)
Winter 650,000
Summer Midweek 1,518,000
Summer Weekends 2,398,000
Equalized Summer* 2,000,000
Alternatives
Sewer system alternatives considered in the Facilities Plan were:
(1) conventional gravity system with lift stations, (2) low-pressure
sewers with grinder pumps, (3) vacuum sewers, and (4) a combination of
systems (1) and (2) above. Alternative (4), combined gravity and
low-pressure sewers, was selected as the most viable.
Secondary treatment* alternatives considered were (1) oxidation
ditches, (2) aerated lagoons, (3) attached growth biological discs
combined with high rate activated sludge processing, and (4) contact
stabilization operated as conventional activated sludge processing
during winter months. Associated with each of these alternatives was
preliminary treatment consisting of screening or comminution, grit
removal and aerated flow equalization as well as chemical phosphorous*
precipitation and effluent chlorination.
Advanced waste treatment* alternatives considered were (1) land
application by spray irrigation with subsurface collector drains, (2)
mixed-media filtration, (3) land application by spray irrigation
preceded by lagooning for secondary flow equalization, and (4) a com-
bination of (1) and (2) using mixed-media filtration for winter flows
and land application for incremental summer flows.
10
-------
Sludge disposal alternatives were mainly (1) aerobic digestion/
land application, and (2) anaerobic digestion/land application with
options of dewatering the stabilized sludge prior to land application
either by air drying or mechanically, or of providing no dewatering.
These functional alternatives were variously combined into the 18
complete system alternatives listed in Table 1-1 (with comparative total
present worth values). Based on an evaluation of cost-effectiveness,
environmental effects, energy use, reliability, public acceptability,
and implementation considerations, alternative "R" was selected as the
Facilities Plan's Proposed Action.
Facilities Plan Proposed Action
The Facilities Plan's Proposed Action consists of an aerated lagoon
system with settling tanks and chemical precipitation of phosphorus.
The lagoons would also provide summer flow equalization.* The lagoon
effluent would be disposed by spray irrigation on agricultural lands
followed by underground drainage collection and discharge to Crooked
Creek. Sludge would be treated by aerobic digestion and air drying
prior to disposal on farmlands.
The total project cost (in 1976 dollars) was estimated at 14.5
million dollars of which the cost of sewers accounted for $10.8 million
or 75%. To convert these costs to 1978 dollars, they should be multi-
plied by 1.13 in accordance with the US EPA Sewage Treatment Plant (STP)
Index.
B. ISSUES OF THIS EIS
The US Environmental Protection Agency's review of the Facilities
Plan led to the Agency's issuing of a Notice of Intent on July 20, 1977
to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement. The issues set forth in
that Notice are as follows:
1. "Cost-Effectiveness. The cost and benefits of a regional
sewage system should be compared with those of subregional
systems serving existing high development density area, with
advanced on-site treatment for low development density area."
The basic premise of the Facilities Plan is that sewage from
all sources within the Study Area should be collected and
treated in one regional system. The resulting total capital
cost (excluding connection costs) of the Facility Plan Pro-
posed Action is approximately $3800 per residence. This very
high cost may be substantially reduced by an approach that
uses subregional systems in high density areas such as the
lakeshores of Crooked Lake and parts of Lake James and
Jimmerson Lake in combination with decentralized systems for
the lower density rural/semi-rural areas.
2. "Treatment Processes. Treatment process methods for regional
and subregional plants should be compared."
11
-------
Table 1-1
FACILITIES PLAN - PRESENT WORTH VALUES3 (1976)b FOR TREATMENT ALTERNATIVES
Alternative
Secondary Treatment Advanced Treatment
Sludge Disposal
Total PWV
Oxidation
Ditch
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $3,256,000 + PWV = $1,569,000 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100 Option "1" = $5,255,700
Oxidation
Ditch
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $3,256,000 + PWV = $1,569,600 +
Anaerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $1,231,000
= $6,056,600
Oxidation
Ditch
PWV = $3,256,000 +
Mixed Media Filtration
for Advanced Waste
Treatment
PWV = $1,117,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100
$4,803,700
Oxidation
Ditch
PWV = $3,256,000 +
Mixed Media Filtration &
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $2,219,700 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100 Option. "I1
= $5,905,800
Aerated Lagoons
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $3,597,800 + PWV = $1,816,000 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 422,000 Option "1" = $5,835,800
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Alternatives
FACILITIES PLAN-PRESENT WORTH VALUES (Continued)
Secondary Treatment Advanced Treatment Sludge Disposal
Total PWV
Aerated Lagoons
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $3,597,800 + PWV = $1,816,000 +
Anaerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $1,231,000
= $6,644,800
Aerated Lagoons
PWV ^ $3,597,800 +
Mixed Media Filtration
for Advanced Waste
Treatment
PWV = $1,117,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100
$5,145,500
H
Aerated Lagoons
PWV = $3,597,800 +
Mixed Media Filtration
and Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $2,219,700 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100 Option "1"= $6,247,600
Attached Growth System Land Application for
Followed by Conventional Advanced Waste Treatment
Activated Sludge Process
PWV = $4,672,400 + PWV = $1,569,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 624,400
= $6,866,400
Attached Growth System Land Application for
Followed by Conventional Advanced Waste Treatment
Activated Sludge Process
PWV = $4,672,400 + PWV = $1,569,600 +
Anaerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $1,231,000
$7,473,000
K
Attached Growth System Mixed Media Filtration for
Followed by Conventional Advanced Waste Treatment '
Activated Sludge Process
PWV = $4,672,400 + PWV « $1,117,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 675,800
= $6,465,800
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FACILITIES PLAN - PRESENT WORTH VALUES (Continued)
Alternatives
Secondary Treatment
Advanced Treatment
Sludge Disposal
Total PWV
Attached Growth System
Followed by Conventional
Activated Sludge Process
PWV = $4,672,400 +
Mixed Media Filtration
and Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $2,219,700 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 675,800
$7,567,900
M
Contact Stabilization
Process
PWV = $3,993,200 +
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $1,569,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 675,800
$6,238,600
Contact Stabilization
Process
PWV = $3,993,200 +
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $1,569,600 +
Anaerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $1,231,000
= $6,793,800
Contact Stabilization
Process
PWV = $3,993,200 +
Mixed Media Filtration Aerobic Digestion
for Advanced Waste Treatment Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $1,117,600 + PWV = $ 675,800
$5,786,600
Contact Stabilization
Process
PWV = $3,993,200 +
Mixed Media Filtration and
Land Application for
Advanced Waste Treatment
PWV = $2,219,700 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 675,800
= $6,888,700
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FACILITIES PLAN - PRESENT WORTH VALUES (Continued)
Alternatives
Secondary Treatment
Advanced Treatment
Sludge Disposal Total PWV
Oxidation
Ditch
PWV = $3,256,000 +
Land Application
PWV = $1,569,600 +
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 430,100
$5,255,700
Aerated Lagoon & Land
Application
PWV = $4,329,500
Aerobic Digestion
Followed by Land
Application
PWV = $ 422,000 = $4,751,500
(Option "1")
a. These do not include PWVs of the collection system nor the primary treatment
and are therefore not total PWVs.
b. To convert to 1978 Dollars (used in Chapter III), multiply by 1.13, the change in the STP Index.
c. Selected Plan
-------
The analysis of regional and subregional solutions should
include a more comprehensive study of a wider variety of waste
treatment processes. Package plants of various types ought to
be considered for small flows generated in subregional areas.
Land application by both the slow rate and rapid infiltration
methods should be examined. Alternative and innovative tech-
nologies should be considered wherever soils and other
conditions make them feasible.
3. "Sizing. The cost-effective capacity of regional and sub-
regional plants should be examined and compared."
Population projections and per capita wastewater flow rates
need to be checked to ensure that the design capacities of
regional and subregional plants are cost-effective as defined
in the Rules and Regulations of the US EPA Construction Grants
Program. The use of per capita flows of 100 gpcd for both
permanent and seasonal residents was not justified in the
Facilities Plan. As a result, residents might be required to
pay for substantially larger systems than are needed.
4. "Secondary Impact. The induced growth that may result from a
regional system compared with a corresponding subregional
system, must be evaluated with respect to impacts on water
quality, wetlands, and community services."
The availability of sewers in a regional system such as pro-
posed in the Facilities Plan is often the source of signifi-
cant induced growth in a community. Such growth could lead to
the contamination of surface and ground waters, pressures for
the development of wetlands, and increased demand for infra-
structural services. A trend towards the development of
wetlands is already visible on Snow Lake, Lake James,
Jimmerson Lake and Crooked Lake. It is therefore important
that regional and subregional systems be compared for their
potential to create secondary impacts associated with induced
growth.
5. "Primary Impacts. Those impacts resulting directly from
project construction and operation need to be further
evaluated."
Steep slopes exist in many parts of the Proposed Service Area,
particularly in the east. Construction of sewers and treat-
ment plants may cause substantial erosion of these slopes with
consequent deterioration of water quality. The Facilities
Plan has also failed to discuss the impacts of construction on
nearby tamarack bogs which are indicated to be the habitats of
two orchids on the Federal list of threatened species
(Platanthera flava and Plantanthera leucophaea). Primary
impacts such as these need to be further evaluated.
6. "Socioeconomic Impacts. The impact of the high local project
costs, estimated at over $2,000 per existing residence, on
area residents, and its possible role in forcing a shift from
seasonal to permanent residence must be addressed.
16
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Capital costs of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action have been
estimated at the very high level of $3800 per residence.
Since it is also likely that a substantial portion of the
costs may be ineligible for Federal funding, local costs may
be very high. Such high local costs may result in both a
shift from seasonal to permanent residence and the displace-
ment of low, moderate or fixed income families. The potential
for such impacts needs to be addressed.
Subsequent project studies to resolve these issues uncovered additional
concerns requiring resolution or mitigative measures. These included:
1. The large non-point source phosphorus plume originating in
Marsh Lake and extending through the two Otter Lakes, Snow
Lake, and Lake James.
2. The ongoing destruction of wetlands within the Study Area and
its relationship to secondary impacts. Linked with this is
the role of cut-and-fill techniques in creating shoreline
channels that tend to become sinks for septic tank effluent
leachate.
3. Location of numerous non-point sources, notably literally
dozens of unofficial dumps or landfill areas.
4. Management requirements for operation of an On-Site Wastewater
Management District (OSWMD).
C. NATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE RURAL SEWERING PROBLEM
The EIS issues discussed above are not unique to the proposed plan
for wastewater management in Steuben Lakes Study Area. They are typical
of concerns raised by a large number of wastewater projects for rural
and developing communities that have been submitted to US EPA for
funding. The scope of the problem has grown in the last few years as
controversy has mounted over the high costs and possible impacts of
providing conventional sewerage facilities to small communities across
the country-
1. SOCIOECONOMICS
To assess the cost burden that many proposed wastewater collection
projects would impose on small communities and the reasons for it, US
EPA studied over 250 facilities plans from 49 states for pending
projects for communities under 50,000 population (Dearth 1977). US EPA
found that, even with substantial State and Federal construction grants,
the costs of conventional sewering are sometimes beyond the means of
families in rural and semi-rural areas. This was particularly true when
the new facilities proposed would result in annual user charges of more
than $200 per household.
The Federal government has developed criteria to identify high-cost
wastewater facilities projects (The White House Rural Development
17
-------
Initiatives 1978). Projects place a financial burden on rural community
users when annual user charges (debt service plus operation and main-
tenance) would exceed:
• 1.5% of median household incomes less than $6,000;
• 2.0% of median household incomes between $6,000 and $10,000;
or
• 2.5% of median household incomes over $10,000.
Annual user charges exceeding these criteria would materially affect the
households' standard of living. Federal agencies involved in funding
wastewater facilities will work with the community to lower project
costs through change in the project's scope or design. If the project's
scope or design is not changed, the agencies will work with the com-
munity until that community is clearly aware of the financial impacts of
undertaking the high-cost project.
The collection system is chiefly responsible for the high costs of
conventional sewerage facilities for small communities. Typically, 80%
or more of the total capital cost for newly serviced rural areas is
spent for collection systems. Figure 1-6 indicates that costs per
residence for gravity sewers increase exponentially as population
density decreases. Primary factors contributing to this relationship
were:
• greater length of sewer pipe per dwelling in lower-density
areas;
• more problems with grade, resulting in more lift stations or
excessively deep sewers;
» regulations or criteria setting eight inches as the smallest
allowable sewer pipe diameter; and
• inability of small communities to spread capital costs among
larger populations sewered previously.
In addition to the comparatively high costs of sewers, facilities
were sometimes found to be more expensive than necessary due to:
o Oversophistication in design, with accompanying high chemical
usage, large energy requirements, and costly maintenance and
operator expense, when simpler methods would do.
• Use of expensive construction materials such as non-locally
produced brick and block and terrazzo when a steel prefab and
concrete would do.
• Abandonment of existing treatment works without economic
justification.
18
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FIGURE 1-6
40
COST («/month)= 43e -°-l(P/o)
30
o
J=20
-------
2. SECONDARY IMPACTS
Installation of centralized collection and treatment systems in
previously unsewered areas can dramatically affect development and,
thus, the economy, demography and environment of rural communities.
These effects may be desirable, or they may substantially offset com-
munity objectives for water resource improvement, land use planning and
environmental protection.
In broad terms, community potential for recreational, residential,
industrial, commercial or institutional development is determined by
economic factors such as land availability, capital, skilled manpower
and natural resources. However, fulfillment of this potential can be
limited by the lack of facilities or services called infrastructural
elements, such as water supply, sewerage, electric power distribution
and transportation. If a missing element of infrastructure is provided,
it'may induce development of one type or another depending upon prevail-
ing local economic factors. Such development is termed "induced
growth".
Induced growth is usually unplanned and may conflict with existing
or planned development. The effects of such conflicts and incompati-
bility are also termed secondary impacts, as the impact of induced
growth on existing water resources, land use, air quality, cultural
resources, aesthetic features and environmentally sensitive areas.
Secondary impacts of new wastewater facilities can be beneficial.
For example, diversification of the local employment base may be
possible only when sufficient wastewater collection and treatment
capacity is provided for commercial or industrial development. On the
other hand, new commercial or industrial development sometimes may not
be compatible with existing recreational or agricultural interests.
Residential development accompanying expansion of the employment base
may take place on prime agricultural land, steep slopes or wetlands, or
may otherwise infringe on valued natural features.
3. THE NEED FOR MANAGEMENT OF DECENTRALIZED ALTERNATIVE
SYSTEMS
One alternative to expensive centralized sewer systems in rural
areas is a decentralized wastewater management system. Both engineering
and management are integral parts of such a system, and "decentralized
alternatives," as used in this EIS, incorporates both engineering and
management elements.
Briefly, the engineering element consists of the use of existing
and new on-site systems, rehabilitation or replacement of those systems
where necessary, and construction of small-scale off-site systems where
existing on-site systems are not acceptable.
The management element consists of continuing supervision for the
systems' installation, maintenance and rehabilitation and of appropriate
monitoring of the systems' environmental impacts.
20
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While other factors such as soil characteristics, groundwater
hydrology and lot configurations are highly important, adequate man-
agement may be critical to the success of decentralized alternatives in
many communities. Similarly, lack of adequate management undoubtably
contributed to past failures of many on-site wastewater facilities, and,
therefore, the lack of trust in them by local public health officials
and consulting engineers.
Historically, State and local health officials were not empowered
even to regulate installation of on-site systems until after World War
II. They usually acted in only an advisory capacity. As the conse-
quences of unregulated use of the septic tank-soil absorption systems
became apparent in the 1950's and 1960's, health officials were granted
new authority. Presently most health officials have authority for per-
mitting and inspecting or denying new installations, and they can
require renovation and replacement of on-site systems. However, their
role in the operation and maintenance of on-site systems remains largely
advisory. There is seldom either a budget or the authority to inspect
or monitor a system.
In the 1970's, the Congress recognized the need for continuing
supervision and monitoring of on-site systems, as in the 1977 Clean
Water Act. Now, US EPA regulations implementing the Act require that,
before a construction grant for on-site systems may be made, the appli-
cant must meet a number of requirements:
• Certify that it will be responsible for properly installing,
operating and maintaining the funded systems;
« Establish a comprehensive program for regulation and inspec-
tion of on-site systems that will include periodic testing of
existing potable water wells and, where a substantial number
of on-site systems exists, more extensive monitoring of
aquifers;
• Obtain assurance of unlimited access to each individual system
at all reasonable times for inspection, monitoring, construc-
tion, maintenance, operation, rehabilitation and replacement.
In some cases, implementation of these requirements by munici-
palities may be hindered by lack of State enabling legislation for small
waste flows management districts and by lack of adequately trained man-
power. The municipality may have no control over the former and be at a
disadvantage because of the latter. Section III.D discusses other
implementation factors over which municipalities should have control.
4. RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER EISs PREPARED BY US EPA REGION V
US EPA Region V is preparing six other Environmental Impact State-
ments, similar in scope and in conditions to this one. Facilities
planning areas generally share the following characteristics (Sutfin
1977):
21
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* Lakeshore development in rural areas;
• Relatively low population densities;
• Substantial proportions of seasonal residents generating
sewage perhaps 1/3 of the year;
• High costs for their proposed plant sizes and populations
served;
• The proposed actions include constructing sewers completely
around lakes that are only partially developed.
The degrees to which these characteristics are evident in the seveji
Study Areas vary, thus providing a range of conditions to be evaluated.
The six other facilities planning areas for which individual EIS's are
being prepared are:
Crystal Lake, Benzie County, Michigan
Green Lake, Kandiyohi County, Minnesota
Salem Township, Kenosha County, Wisconsin
Crooked/Pickerel Lakes, Ernmett County, Michigan
Otter Tail Lake, Otter Tail County, Minnesota
Nettle Lake, Williams County, Ohio.
In addition to the seven individual EIS's a generic EIS will be
prepared synthesizing findings and processes developed in the individual
projects. On the basis of findings and planning methodologies developed
during the individual EIS's, a systematic approach to planning rural
lake sewerage facilities will be developed. The generic EIS is intended
to serve as a guide to wastewater facilities planning for rural lake
communities. Specific goals of the generic EIS will be to:
• Suggest working criteria for recognition of problematic
sewering projects;
• Recommend specific, low-cost treatment alternatives to be
examined;
• Recommend items of information to be included in future
facilities plans for rural lake areas;
• Develop a comprehensive overview of the process of rural
lakeshore development and the impacts of sewering on it.
D. PURPOSE AND APPROACH OF THE EIS AND CRITERIA FOR
EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES
1. PURPOSE
This EIS documents US EPA's review and analysis of the application
for EPA Step 2 funding of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action. Based
22
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upon this review, the Agency will take one of several actions:
• Approve the grant application, possibly with recommendations
for design changes and/or measures to mitigate impacts of the
Facilities Plan Proposed Action;
• With the applicant's and State's concurrence, approve Step 2
funding for an alternative to the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action;
• Return the application with recommendations for additional
Step 1 analysis; or
• Reject the grant application.
The review and analysis focused on the issues identified in Section
I.E. and were conducted with an awareness of the more general considera-
tions of rural sewering problems discussed in Section I.C. Major
emphasis has been placed on developing and evaluating alternative waste-
water management approaches to be compared with the Facilities Plan
Proposed Action.
2. APPROACH
The review and analysis reported in this EIS included, a series of
tasks, undertaken in approximately the following sequence:
a. Review of Available Data
Facilities Plan data and other sources were reviewed for appli-
cability in development and/or evaluation of the Proposed Action and of
the new EIS alternatives. The EIS bibliography lists these sources.
b. Documentation of Need for Action
The need for action had not been clearly established in the Facil-
ities Plan. The effects of the existing systems on surface waters,
groundwater and public health had not been clearly documented. Because
determination of eligibility for Federal funding of a substantial por-
tion of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action will be based on the
documentation of these effects, several supplemental studies were con-
ducted:
• an aerial survey of septic tank system malfunctions using
low-altitude color and infrared photography by US EPA's
Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC);
e an environmental analysis and resource inventory of the Study
Area using low-altitude color and infrared photography by
EPIC;
23
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• estimation of the existing nutrient budget and empirical
modeling of the eutrophication status of the lakes of the
Proposed Service Area;
• a "Septic Snooper"* survey to locate and sample septic tank
leachate plumes entering the lakes of the Proposed Service
Area from nearby on-site systems; and
« a groundwater quality survey by Tri-State University.
The results of these needs documentation studies were not available
for consideration during the initial development of EIS Alternatives.
The results of each study have required continuing modification of the
alternatives as initially designed and have been the basis for necessary
refinements in the determination of the eligibility of sewers for
Federal funding.
c.' Segment Analysis
As a basis for revised population projections and "for development
of alternatives, the Proposed Service Area was divided into a number of
segments. The number of dwellings in each segment was counted from
black and white aerial photographs. Available information on soils,
depth of groundwater, water quality problems, environmentally sensitive
areas and land use capabilities was tabulated for each segment and the
tabulations used to make preliminary estimates of the need for off-site
wastewater disposal.
d. Review of Wastewater Design Flows
Available population projections were revised on, the basis of the
segment house counts. New US EPA guidelines for estimating design
wastewater flows were then used to revise the wastewater flow projec-
tions for the year 2000.
e. Development of Alternatives
First, technologies that might potentially reduce project costs or
minimize adverse impacts while still solving existing problems were
examined. Four categories of alternative technologies -- flow reduc-
tion, low-cost sewers, decentralization, and land application — were
considered according to their functions in a wastewater management
system (collection, treatment, etc.). Next, several specific areawide
alternatives were developed, combining the alternative technologies into
complete wastewater management systems that would serve the Proposed
Service Area. Chapter III describes the technologies reviewed. Chapter
IV presents the areawide alternatives.
f. Estimation pf Costs of Alternatives
To assure cost comparability between the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action and the EIS alternatives, all alternatives were designed to serve
a fixe
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g. Evaluation of Alternatives
The new alternatives were developed with a knowledge of the local
environmental setting and with the understanding that they will be
evaluated under criteria from several disciplines. Section I.D.3 below
lists the general criteria for evaluating both the Facilities Plan
Proposed Action and the EIS alternatives.
3. MAJOR CRITERIA FOR EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES
While the high cost of sewering rural communities is a primary
reason to examine alternative approaches to wastewater management, cost
is not the only criterion. Evaluation of trade-offs between cost and
significant impacts is also essential. The various criteria are dis-
cussed below.
a.' Cost
With some exceptions for innovative technologies, US EPA construc-
tion grant regulations allow funding of only the most cost-effective
alternative. In accordance with those regulations, cost-effectiveness
has been measured here by the net present worth of capital costs for
facilities needed immediately, capital costs for facilities required
during the 20-year planning period, operation and maintenance costs for
all wastewater facilities and the salvage value of facilities expected
to be in service at the end of the planning period. The interest rate
used for discounting future costs to present worth is that established
by the Water Resources Council at 6 5/8% for 1978. The differentiation
between public and private costs is not a consideration of the cost-
effectiveness analysis.
The sewer district recovers operation, maintenance and local debt
retirement costs through periodic sewage bills or residential user
charges. The local economic impact of new wastewater facilities would
be felt largely through those user charges. Residential user charges
included only publicly financed costs. Salvage value was not factored
into residential user charges. No assumptions were made about frontage
fees or hook-up charges that might be levied by the sewer district.
Some homeowners might incur costs that they would have to pay
directly to contractors. Installation of gravity house sewers on
private land, and renovation or replacement of privately owned on-lot
systems for seasonally occupied dwellings are not eligible for Federal
funding and are seldom financed by municipalities. These private costs
are identified for each alternative.
b. Significant Environmental and Socioeconomic Impacts
The system selected for the Proposed Service Area will impact on
environmental and socioeconomic resources within the Study Area. After
a comprehensive review of possible impacts of the Facilities Plan
Proposed Action and the new alternatives, several types of impacts were
determined to warrant in-depth evaluation and discussion in this EIS.
They are:
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• Surface Water Quality Impacts,
• Groundwater Impacts,
• Population and Land Use Impacts, including Infringement on
Environmentally Sensitive Areas, and
• Economic Impacts.
c. Reliability
Reliability criteria for the alternatives include both ability to
remedy existing water quality problems and prospects of protecting water
quality in the future. The first criterion was applied in the analysis
of surface and groundwater impacts of the alternatives presented in
Chapter V. That analysis assumed that the collection, treatment and
disposal units of each alternative would operate effectively as
de'signed. The second criterion recognizes that all structural,
mechanical and electrical facilities are subject to failure . Types of
possible failure and appropriate remedies and preventive measures were
reviewed for selected components of the alternatives.
d. Flexibility
The ability of an alternative to accomodate increasing wastewater
flows from future development is referred to here as its flexibility.
To demonstrate the relative levels of investment for different alter-
natives, all were designed and costed to provide service for the same
population -- the design year population projected in Chapter II.
However, factors such as the amount of land developable using on-lot
systems or its ability to increase the capacity of a treatment plant
might significantly affect future Study Area development. Chapter III
discusses the ability of the alternatives to accoraodate increased waste-
water flows. Chapter V predicts the effects of the alternatives' flexi-
bility on population growth.
4. PUBLIC PARTICIPATION
EPA Region V has invited the public to share in the decision-making
process. Through a variety of measures the Agency has sought views and
comments of the public, has taken the public's expressed preferences
into account, and has endeavored to keep the public continually informed
of developments throughout the preparation of this EIS. These measures
are summarized below.
a. Public Information and Participation Meeting
The public was invited by notice of November 28, 1977 to a Public
Information and Participation Meeting on December 13, 1977 at 7:30 pm in
the Auditorium of Best Hall, Tri-State University, Angola (see copy of
Notice in Appendix A-l). At this meeting, members of the staff of
WAPORA Inc., consultants to EPA on the project, were introduced and it
was announced that preparation of an EIS had commenced in October 1977.
The Facilities Plan and the EIS process were explained. A long question
26
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and answer discussion period served to air the public opinions (both
pros and cons) on the Facilities Plan Proposed Action and on the related
environmental issues. All attendees provided information on themselves
and other interested citizens from which an EIS Mailing List was pre-
pared.
b. Newspaper Articles
Newspaper articles dating back to the year 1974 (see Appendix A-2)
furnished important public input to the EIS preparation process. Topi-
cal articles from the "Steuben Republican" and the "Fort Wayne News
-Sentinel" provided comment as well as information on major issues.
c. Steuben County Lakes Council Magazine
"Soundings," the official magazine of the Steuben County Lakes
Council, has been a most important source of public input (see Appendix
A-'3). The Council is comprised of all of the Lake Associations within
the Study Area and was instrumental in the establishment of the Steuben
Lakes Regional Waste District. The semi-annually published "Soundings"
carries direct comment on the project by the Council as well as by each
of the Lake Associations. It informs readers of progress and develop-
ments in the preparation of the EIS and explains many of the issues.
d. EIS Newsletter
US EPA Region V has published and distributed the "EIS Newsletter"
to keep the public informed on the status of the EIS. The first issue
dated May 26, 1978 cited the EIS alternatives slated for discussion at a
July 21, 1978 Workshop. Subsequent issues reported the results of
special studies (EPIC Aerial Survey; "Septic Snooper" Survey; Ground-
water Quality Survey, etc.) undertaken to provide additional information
with which to define the need for action. The third issue of the News-
letter dated April 23, 1979 also provided information to the public on
the availability of the Draft EIS. Copies of all issues of the EIS
Newsletter are included in Appendix A-4.
e. Workshop and Citizens Advisory Committee
A Citizens Advisory Committee (CAC), organized by US EPA Region V,
held its first meeting in conjunction with the Workshop on the EIS
Alternatives on July 21, 1978 (see letter of invitation to committee
members and Workshop Agenda in Appendix A-5). Following a discussion of
the goals and functions of the CAC, the Committee elected its officers
with Dr. Pete Hippensteel of Tri-State University as its Chairman.
Presentation of the EIS alternatives by the staff of WAPORA, Inc. led to
a lengthy discussion of the alternatives. The CAC agreed to hold sub-
sequent meetings to formulate its comments on the alternatives.
Appendix A-6 contains a summary of the CAC's findings dated September
28, 1978, as submitted to the US EPA. Those findings have been fully
considered in the preparation of this Draft EIS. A public hearing will
be held during the Draft EIS comment period.
27
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28
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CHAPTER II
ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING
INTRODUCTION
The landscape of the Study Area exhibits a complex mixture of
glacial landforms. Almost level glaciated plains, steep-sided hilly
moraines, irregularly shaped valleys, numerous lakes and wetlands
combine in an exceptionally scenic manner.
Foremost among the Study Area's scenic attractions are its
lakes—many steeply banked and variable in color from a pale transparent
green to a dark, opaque olive. The highland forested areas of oaks,
hickory, beech and other hardwoods considerably enhance the scenic value
of' steep escarpments that appear along many of the lakes.
Recreation is a prime economic activity in the Study Area.
Fishing, boating, swimming, sailing and water skiing are popular on the
major lakes. Many species of game fish abound, including trout, rock
bass and walleye. The State Fish Management Headquarters (SFMH) main-
tains a monitoring and stocking program on the major lakes.
The Study Area's recreational attractions have led to predominantly
seasonal development of the lakeshore area. The Pokagon State Park on
Lake James (see Figure 1-2) has preserved some of the scenic vistas and
wilderness areas for the enjoyment of both the year-round resident and
the casual visitor.
The lakeshore residential development ranges from densely populated
trailer parks to very expensive dwellings costing hundreds of thousands
of dollars. Off-lake development is more sparse and rural in nature.
Evaluation of the courses of action open to the US EPA must start
from an analysis of the existing situation. This Chapter offers an
inventory of the baseline conditions, divided into such categories as
soils, surface water, groundwater, and biology. Social and economic
aspects of the human environment are discussed, as is the functioning of
the existing wastewater disposal systems.
Available data proved inadequate to define problems related to the
existing wastewater disposal systems and the need for action. The
results of special studies undertaken to fill these data gaps are also
reported in this Chapter.
A. PHYSICAL SETTING
1. PHYSIOGRAPHY
Study Area topography varies from the level areas of the southeast
to the very rugged relief characteristic of the eastern side of Lake
James. Lakes and wetlands predominate throughout the Study Area.
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Lakes, wetlands, and rolling hills characterize the northwest of
the Study Area (Jamestown Township). Steep slopes are found on hills
adjacent to the western shore of Snow Lake and the eastern shore of Lake
James. Pokagon State Park is characterized by hills and ridges. Hells
Point, the highest point in the Study Area (at 1,123 feet above Mean Sea
Level (MSL)) is in this park. Between Snow and Big Otter Lakes, and
others east of S.R. 127, are wetlands, some already Nature Preserves.
Pleasant Township forms the southeast section of the Study Area.
Surface features vary from level farmland in the east portion to rugged
steep hills in the west section. Hills west of Crooked Lake usually
exceed 1,100 feet MSL, compared with the shoreline at approximately
1,000 feet MSL.
Jackson Township, southwest of the Study Area, is characterized by
hilly areas and wetlands. Low-lying small lakes and wetland areas
bordered on the east and west by steep slopes lie between Grass Lake and
Round Lake. The long north-south axis of this area is 4.5 miles long.
Depressions abound throughout this portion.
The entire Study Area lies in the Fawn River Drainage Basin.
Drainage is northwesterly toward Crooked Creek. Crooked Creek empties
into the Pigeon River, which flows into the St. Joseph River (in
Michigan), finally discharging into Lake Michigan.
Figure II-l shows topographic relief of the Study Area and iden-
tifies hilly areas with slopes over 12%, often sensitive to residential
development with on-site waste disposal systems.
2. GEOLOGY
Wisconsin glaciation of the Pleistocene Era produced the existing
surficial geology of the Study Area. Bedrock is overlain by 250 to 350
feet of unconsolidated glacial deposits (see Figure II-2). End moraines
make-up the glacial drift deposits of the southeastern Study Area.
Gravel and sand, deposited mainly in mounds (kames) or in long, narrow
ridges (eskers) in the ice-melt streams at the bottom of the glaciers,
are found around the lakes to the east and southwest of Lake James.
Valley train and outwash plain deposits of mostly sand and gravel are
found in the northern portion of the area. Northeast of Lake James are
large ground and end moraine till deposits. Sediments like peat and
muck are found around many of the lakes. Figure II-3 shows the extent
of these deposits.
The bedrock immediately underly the glacial deposits is cold-water
shale of the Mississippian Period. Figure II-4 shows how this pre-
dominantly grey shale, 850 to 950 feet thick, is successively underlain
by Sunbury and Ellsworth shales of the Mississipian and Devonian
Periods, the Traverse and Detroit River limestone and dolomite forma-
tions of the Devonian Period, the Salina Limestone and dolomite
formation of the Silurian Period, and the Wabash formation of the
30
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SLOPES GREATER T11AN 12%
Source: USCS 1960
FIGURE II-l STEUBEN LAKES: TOPOGRAPHY
-------
FIGURE II-2 STEUBEN LAKES: CONTOUR LINES
SHOWING THE THICKNESS OF THE GLACIAL DRIFT
STEUBEN COUNTY
12 1386° 14
Source: Illinois Geological Survey
Report of Progress 7, 1955
APPROXIMATE OUTLINE OF STEUBEN
LAKES STUDY AREA
CONTOUR LINES (Solid lines in-
dicate where control is abun-
dant; dashed lines where con-
trol is sparse. Contour in-
terval is 50 feet.)
32
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LEGEND
| MUCK, PEAT, AND MARL
SAND AND SOME GRAVEL
GRAVEL, SAND, AND SILT
( | GRAVEL, SAND, AND SOME SILT
I TILL
Source: Johnson and Keller
1972
FIGURE II-3 STEUBKN LAKES: UNCON80LIDATED SUUFK'JAl. DEPOSITS
-------
FIGURE II-A STEUBEN LAKES: BEDROCK GEOLOGY
gll
STEUBEN LAKES ^''f
AREA
FEET
1500
1000
IN in
-1000
-1500
-2000
Source: Johnson and Keller 1972
M1SSISSIPIAN
DEVONIAN AND
MISSISSIPIAN
DEVONIAN
SILURIAN
LEGEND
MARSHALL SANDSTONE (Varicolored micaceous sandstone)
COLDWATER SHALE (Mostly gray shale. Cuyahoga Form-
ation in Ohio)
SUNBURY AND ELLSWORTH SHALES (Green shale with black
shale in upper and lower parts. Includes Berea
Sandstone and Bedford Shale in Ohio)
ANTRIM SHALE (Black shale and gray shale and limestone
in lower part. Ohio Shale and upper part of Tra-
verse Group in Ohio.)
TRAVERSE AND DETROIT RIVER FORMATIONS (Mostly lime-
stone and dolomite. Major part of Traverse Grou]
and Dundee Limestone and Detroit River Group in
Ohio.)
SALINA FORMATION (Limestone and dolomite. Salina
Group in Ohio)
WABASH FORMATION (Dolomite, cherty limestone, and sow
shale.)
34
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Silurian Period. Figure II-5 shows that the surface elevations of the
coldwater shale range from 700 to 750 feet above mean sea level in the
Study Area.
3. SOILS
a. General
Study Area soils are typical of those formed in glacial drift
deposits. They are loamy (composed of clay, silt and sand) and highly
variable in nature, ranging from the poorly drained silty and clayey
loams to the well drained loamy sands and excessively well drained
gravelly sandy loams.
b. Suitability for Septic Tank Absorption Fields
Three main factors determine site suitability for on-site disposal
systems under Indiana State Board of Health Regulation H.S.E. 25 and the
Steuben County Health Department Ordinance No. 500. These are:
• A minimum soil percolation rate or permeability of 1 inch per
hour.
• High seasonal water table and severe wetness. The seasonal
water table depth must exceed 5 feet. The area must not
display seasonal wetness, ponding of water or periodic
flooding during any part of the year.
• Land slopes less than 12%.
Percolation rates the Study Area are fixed by the clay (and silt)
content of the loamy soils. Clayey soil materials do not easily trans-
mit water, being very fine and flat and lacking enough continuous pores.
Percolation rates in clay soils are usually so low that these soils are
termed impermeable. Clays mixed with the otherwise permeable sands and
gravels tend to fill the openings between these latter granular mater-
ials, thus restricting flow through them. Therefore, the more clay in
the loam, the lower its percolation rate. The diverse percolation rates
in the Study Area vary with soil clay content.
High water table and severe wetness have been grouped together
because of their inter-relationship in the Study Area. Available
information indicates that aquifer depth (water table and artesian)
generally exceeds 20 feet throughout the Study Area (see Section B.2.a).
However, high water tables may be found in clay soils with permeabil-
ities so low that water is trapped in them, or as perched water tables
in thin permeable soils over impermeable clays and clayey materials.
Where these occur in low areas and depressions, soils exhibit severe
wetness, ponding of water and periodic flooding making them unsuitable
for on-site disposal systems.
The steepness of land slopes is another important factor because of
its adverse effects on the depths of sewers, direction and rate of
surface drainage, erosion and sedimentation control, and the method of
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FIGURE II-5 STEUBEN LAKES: BEDROCK TOPOGRAPHY
STEUBEN COUNTY
12 13 85° 14
Source: Burger, et.al. 1966
APPROXIMATE. OUTLINE OF STEUBEN
LAKES STUDY AREA
Note: Surface elevations
range from 900-1,050 ft.msl.
36
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draining basement fixtures. The steeper the slope the greater the
depths to which sewers must be placed, and the higher the construction
costs. Steep slopes produce high surface drainage rates with corre-
spondingly low infiltration of precipitation. This reduced infiltration
provides less water to dilute waste effluents applied to the land.
Increased surface drainage and run-off associated with steep slopes
increases the potential for soil erosion and thus the need for sedi-
mentation control. Also increased will be the potential for wastewater
effluents to emerge at land surface within too close to absorption
fields for adequate treatment. The combination of adverse effects
precludes location of absorption fields on slopes exceeding of 12%. The
US Public Health Bulletin No. 526 suggests plans for absorption fields
on slopes up to 12%.
Taking all of the above factors into consideration and the Soil
Conservation Service's (SCS) soils interpretation data, the soils map of
Figure II-6 shows areas exhibiting severe limitations for on-site waste
disposal systems. Figure II-1 shows those areas limited solely by
slopes exceeding 12%.
All areas other than the shaded ones of Figure II-6 can accept
on-site disposal systems. Such areas exist throughout the Study Area
close enough to residential development to permit the use of cluster or
on-site systems. The soils in these areas are mainly the Boyer Loamy
Sand, the Fox Sandy Loam, the Oshtemo Loamy Sand, and the Riddles Sandy
Loam.
In the south of the Steuben Lakes Study Area, well-drained Fox and
Boyer soils predominate. These loamy soils are underlain by course
sands and gravel, and have slight to moderate limitations for septic
tank absorptions fields, but severe limitations for shallow excavation
because of caving. The Fox series exceeds the Boyer series for clay
content, with a permeability of 0.6 to 2.0 inches per hour in the top 34
inches of soil, as compared to the Boyer range of 6.0 to 20 in the top
18 inches of soil and 2.0 to 6 inches per hour to the depth of 34
inches. Fox soils are also common in the western part of the Study Area
in the region near Lake Gage and Lime Lake.
The Riddles series and Oshtemo series appear throughout the Steuben
Lakes Study Area. Though the Oshtemo series is coarser than the Riddles
and is underlain by coarse sand and gravel instead of loam, as is the
Riddles series, both are well-drained sandy loams. The Riddles perme-
ability series ranges from 0.6 to 6 inches per hour, while the Oshtemo
series ranges from 2 to 20 inches per hour (SCS 1978).
c. Suitability for Land Application
Table II-1 (EPA 1977) summarizes the physical and hydraulic proper-
ties of soils required for effective land treatment of wastewaters by
overland flow (OF), slow rate (SR) or spray irrigation, and rapid infil-
tration (RI). The EIS alternatives include land application by both
spray irrigation and rapid infiltration. The sites selected in all
cases contain Oshtemo soils.
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LJ
OO
UNSUITABLE SOILS FOR
SEPTIC TANK
SYSTEMS
Source; By letter, Arthur
Mumma, Soil Con-
servation Service,
0 USDA, 21 Dec. 1977
FIGURE H-6 STEUBEN LAKES: SOILS MAP
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Table II-l
INTERPRETATION OF SOIL PHYSICAL AND HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES TO BE
CONSIDERED IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF LAND APPLICATION SYSTEMS3
DEPTH OF SOIL PROFILE (ft.)
< 1-2
> 2-5
5-10
Suitable for OFD
Suitable for SR and OF
Suitable for all processes
TEXTURE AND STRUCTURE
Fine texture, poor structure
Fine texture, well-structured
Coarse texture, well-structured
Suitable for OF
Suitable for SR and possibly OF
Suitable for SR and RI
INFILTRATION RATE (in./hr.)
0.2-6
2.0
0.2
Suitable for SR
Suitable for RI
Suitable for OF
SUBSURFACE PERMEABILITY
Exceeds or equals infiltration rate
Less than infiltration rate
Infiltration rate limiting
May limit application rate
a Including overland flow (OF), slow rate or spray irrigation (SR), and
rapid infiltration (RI) systems.
Suitable soil depth must be available for shaping of overland flow
slopes. Slow rate process using a grass crop may also be suitable.
1 ft. = 0.305 m
1 in. = 2.54 cm
Source: U.S.-EPA (1977), Process Design Manual for Land Treatment of
Municipal Wastewater.
39
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The Soil Conservation Service's (SCS) interpretation of the Oshtemo
series soils indicate that:
• Depth of soil profile to water table exceeds 6 feet;
• The soils are coarse, well textured loamy and sandy glacio-
fluvial deposits over coarse sand and fine gravel;
• The limiting infiltration rate in the soil profile ranges from
2.0 to 6.0 inches/hour;
• Subsurface permeability exceeds 20 inches/hour and does not
limit the application rate.
Comparison of these properties with those listed in Table II-l
indicates that the soils of the Oshtemo series are suitable for land
application by both spray irrigation and rapid infiltration.
d. Prime Agricultural Lands
Table II-2 soil types in Steuben County classified as prime agri-
cultural lands by the Soil Conservation Service, US Department of
Agriculture. Those in the Study Area are shown shaded in Figure II-7.
These lands are distributed throughout the area with the major locations
southwest of, and between Crooked Lake, and Jimmerson Lake and Lake
James They are generally away from the densely developed lakeshore
areas.
4. ATMOSPHERE
a. Climate
The Study Area climate is a humid continental type characterized by
warm summers and cold winters. Lake Michigan definitely effects the
area's weather and climate. Prevailing east and northeast winds moder-
ate the temperature, resulting in warmer winter temperatures and cooler
summer temperatures than further inland. Annual precipitation is fairly
moderate, usually exceeding 35 inches. Climatological data (temperature
and precipitation) are collected in Angola, approximately 5 miles south-
east of the Study Area. This information is presented in Table II-3.
Temperature. The average annual temperature of the Study Area is
48.7°F. The warmest month is July, with an average temperature of
72.4°F. Summer temperatures of 90°F or above are common during July and
August. However, because temperatures are strongly influenced by Lake
Michigan, they very seldom exceeds 95°F. The coolest month is January,
with an average temperature of 23.4°F. Minimum temperatures of 20°F or
below are common in winter. The growing season is approximately 160
days.
Precipitation. The average annual precipitation is 35.50 inches.
The wettest month is April when an average of 3.99 inches of precipita-
tion is recorded. The driest month is February when the monthly average
40
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Table II-2
PRIME AGRICULTURE LANDS OF STEUBEN COUNTY
jymbol
Ad
BaA
BtA
Bz
CrA
Dr
FoA
FoB2
HaA .
Hw
MbA
MbB2
Me
Md
MhB2
Mn
MoB2
Pa
Pe
RaB2
Rb
RxA
RxB2
Se
Sh
Td
Wa
WcA
Wh
Wt
Description
Adrian muck
Blount silt loam, 0 to 3% slopes
Bretns fine sand, 0 to 2% slopes
Brookston loam
Crosier loam, 0 to 3% slopes
Del Rey silt loam, 0 to 3% slopes
Fox sandy loam, 0 to 2% slopes
Fox sandy loam, 2 to 6% slopes, eroded
Haskins loam, 0 to 3% slopes
Houghton muck
Martinsville loam, 0 to 2% slopes
Martinsville loam, 2 to 6% slopes, eroded
Martisco muck
Maumee loamy fine sand
Miami loam, 2 to 6% slopes, eroded
Milford silty clay loam
Morley silt loam, 2 to 6% slopes, eroded
Palms muck
Pewamo silty clay loam
Rawson loam, 2 to 6% slopes, eroded
Rensselaer loam
0 to 2% slopes
2 to
Riddles sandy loam
Riddles sandy loam
Sebewa loam
Shoals silt loam
Tedrow loamy sand
Wallkill silt loam
Warsaw sandy loam, 0 to 2% slopes
Washtenaw silt loam
Whitaker loam
slopes, eroded
41
-------
PRIME AGRICULTURAL
SOILS
Source: By letter, Arthur
MuBiaia, Soil Con-
servation Service,
USDA, 14 July 1978
FIGURE II-7 STEUBEN LAKES: PRIME AGRICULTURAL SOILS
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Table II-3
CLIMATOLOGICAL SUMMARIES FOR THE STEUBEN LAKES REGIONAL WASTE DISTRICT
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
Angola
Mean Temperature 23.4 25.2 34.3 47.6 58.4 68.5 72.4 70.9 63.6 53.0 39.1 27.4 48.7
(degree Farenhelt)
Precipitation normals 2.02 1.85 2.72 3.99 3.61 3.76 3.40 3.28 2.98 2.87 2.80 2.22 35.50
(inches)
Wind Direction west- — south- south- south-
northwest west west west
Wind Speed (mph) 10 66654236 6
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, NOAA 1970; U.S. Geological Survey 1970.
-------
precipitation is 1.85 inches. During summer, precipitation occurs
primarily as scattered showers and thunderstorms. The average annual
snowfall is approximately 32 inches, with 1 inch or more of snowfall
occurring at least on 30 days. Mean annual relative humidity is 70% and
the mean annual dew point temperature is 37°F (US Geological Survey
1970).
Wind Direction and Speed. On an annual basis, wind speeds in the
Study Area average 6 miles per hour (mph). The windiest months are
January and February when the average speed is 10.0 mph. The least
windy month is July when the average wind speed is 2.0 mph (USGS 1970).
During January, February, and March, the prevailing winds are from
the west-northwest; during the remainder of the year, prevailing winds
are from the southwest. Table II-3 contains• climatological summaries
for the Study Area.
Catastrophic Meteorological Events. On the average, 40 days of
thunderstorms occur during the year in the Study Area. The season is
May through August, although a few may occur during other months.
The Study Area is outside the principal tornado zone of the United
States. Therefore, it is not considered a high occurrence area for
tornados.
Maximum expected winds are the strongest sustained one-minute wind
speeds expected within a certain recurrence interval, at a standard
height of 30 feet above the ground. In the Study Area, maximum winds of
80 mph occur at mean intervals of 50 years (US Environmental Data
Service 1968).
b. Noise
Excessive noise may adversely affect people living near its source.
Therefore, wastewater facilities must be designed and operated so that
noise levels would not irritate nearby inhabitants or harm plant
workers. Other than of highway or road noises and motorboat noises, the
Study Area has no known intensive noise sources.
c. Odors
Organic material containing sulfur and/or nitrogen, in the absence
of oxygen, undergoes incomplete oxidation, resulting in the emissions of
smelly by-products. The degree of tolerance to bad-smelling gases is
subjective, depending on the person exposed to the odor and the concen-
tration and intensity of the odor. Odors coming from domestic waste are
particularly objectionable to most people. For this reason, wastewater.
treatment works must be carefully located, designed, and operated!
It is assumed that no objectionable odors of long duration are
present in the Study Area. This assumption is primarily based on the
fact that, to date, no letters or other forms of complaint from local
residents have been reported.
44
-------
d. Air Quality
The Air Pollution Control Board of Indiana samples and analyzes
procedures for air pollutants in accordance with EPA regulations (Title
40 CFR, Part 50) (Indiana Air Pollution Control Board 1969). The Board
has established air quality basins and priority ratings within the
State, as well as primary and secondary standards. Appendix B contains
these standards.
Steuben County has "Basin Priority B" for total suspended particu-
lates, indicating that the ambient air concentration of particulates
equals, or exceeds the secondary air quality standard, but not the
primary standard. Table II-4 displays the total suspended particulate
readings in or near the Study Area. Both primary and secondary stan-
dards for particulates were exceeded in 1976 and in the first months of
1977. Neither the primary nor the secondary standards for sulfur
dioxide were violated in 1976 or 1977.
Steuben County has a "Basin Priority C" rating for SC>2, CO, Oa, and
NC>2, which means that the ambient air concentration for these pollutants
is less than the secondary standards as specified in Regulation APC 14.
B. WATER RESOURCES
1. SURFACE WATER
a. Surface Water Hydrology
The major surface water features located in the Study Area are Snow
Lake, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, Crooked Lake, Lake Gage, Lime Lake,
Lake Syl-van, Lake Charles, Marsh Lake, Little Otter Lake, Big Otter
Lake, and Crooked Creek. There are two general drainage basins within
the Study Area. Surface water drainage in the watershed is dominated by
Crooked Creek which flows south from Michigan through Snow Lake, the
upper and middle basins of Lake James, and northwest through Jimmerson
Lake. Another branch also flows in a northwesterly direction through
Crooked Lake, Lake Gage and Lime Lake until it reaches the Pigeon River.
The Pigeon River is a tributary to the St. Joseph River which in turn
discharges to Lake Michigan near Benton Harbor. Follette Creek origi-
nates in the northeast corner of the Study Area and flows northwesterly
through Marsh Lake, Little Otter Lake and Big Otter Lake before emptying
into Snow Lake. Thus, discharges from Marsh Lake can reach beyond
Jimmerson Lake. Figure II-8 shows the surface water systems of the
Study Area.
Surface water hydrology can pinpoint the nature of Study Area lakes
and streams. Drainage basin size, tributary flows, lake volume, hydrau-
lic retention time and precipitation directly influence the quantity and
quality of surface water resources. Table II-5 presents the physical
characteristics of the lakes. Additional discussions follows in the
next few paragraphs.
45
-------
II-4
AIR QUALITY SUMMARIES FOR LOCATIONS IN INDIANA (ug/m)
Total Susp. Particulates
Sulfur Oxides (as SO,
Nitrogen Dioxide (NO,,)
Site
Ft . Wayne
Pokagon
Ft . Wayne
Pokagon
Year
1976
1976
1977
1977
No. of
Obs.
58
17
58
23
26
Geom.
Mean
64
47
83a
50
1st
Max
191b
92
262a
167b
178b
2nd
Max
156b
83
209b
156b
171b
No. of
Obs.
47
15
43
18
Arith.
Mean
25
17
31
1st
Max
95
70
71
121
2nd No. of Arith.
Max Obs. Mean
85 38
62 7
56 43 14
88
1st
Max
66
58
33
2nd
Max
65
55
33
Exceeds primary standards
Exceeds secondary standards
Source: Indiana State Board of Health, Air Quality Summaries, 1966 and 1967.
-------
:s 'cp* *•*-•««• - - ~ .* ••
^> '" -*" %- *
LEGEND
• STREAM FLOW GAGE
FLOW DIRECTION
^'v'*! WETLANDS
NEW LAKES, PONDS OR
OTHER WATER BODIES
NOT ON ORIGINAL
USCS BASE MAP
(EPIC 1979)
cfa - CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
rce: USGS 1960; EPIC 1979
FIGURE ll-fi STEUBEN LAKES: SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY
-------
Table II- 5
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OP MARSH LAKE, LITTLE OTTER LAKE, BIG OTTER LAKE, SNOW LAKE,
LAKE JAMES, JIMMERSON LAKE, CROOKED LAKE, LAKE GAGE, AND LIME LAKE
MARSH LITTLE OTTER BIG OTTER SNOW LAKE JIMMERSON CROOKED LAKE LIME
JAMES LAKE LAKE GAGE LAKE
104.1 119.7 133.6 27.6 44.8 45.3
1.7 4.2 1.1 3.3 1.3 0.22
5.8 7.3 4.4 6.1 9.2 2.4
26.2 17.7 23.5 21.3 7.9
1.1 0.57 0.24 0.17 0.20
0.48 1.1 0.61 0.24 0.20 0.21
30.5 3.6 19.8 12.0 0.53
2.1 0.85 0.18 2.6 1.9 0.081
Retention Time (yrs)
Information compiled from the following sources:
Ecol Sciences, Inc. 1976. Environmental Assessment for the Steuben Lakes Regional Sewer District Facility
Plan.
USGS. 1974. Water Resources Data for Indiana.
EPA. 1976. National Eutrophication Survey Reports on Marsh Lake, Lake James, and Crooked Lake.
PARAMETER
Drainage Basin Area
(Square Kilometers)
Lake Surface Area
(Square Kilometers)
Lake Mean Depth
(Meters)
Maximum Depth
•> (Meters)
Inflow
Outflow
(m^/sec)
Lake Volume
(106 m3)
Mean Hydraulic
LAKE
38.3
0.23
6.1
11.6
0.36
0.36
1.4
0.12
LAKE
40.7
0.14
6.7
11.3
0.19
0.19
12.4
2.1
LAKE
55.2
0.28
7.9
11.6
0.19
0.19
16.8
2.8
LAKE
104.
1.
5.
25.
0.4
0.4
31.
2.
-------
Size of Drainage Basins. The drainage basin sizes range from 1.0
to 51.6 square miles. The larger ones act as significant catchments of
precipitation which reaches the lakes as runoff. Ratios of drainage
basin-to-lake surface area ratios range from a low of 2:1 (Crooked
Lake - Basin #2) to a maximum of 296:1 (Little Otter Lake). The high
ratios exhibited by Little Otter Lake, Lime Lake and Big Otter Lake
suggest a relatively greater impact from non-point source runoff
reaching these lakes.
Tributary Flow. There are several tributaries in the Study Area
(see FigureII-8). In addition to Crooked Creek and Follette Creek,
other streams include Lake Charles Creek, Glen Eden Stream and Lagoona
Park Ditch all tributary to the Lower Basin of Lake James; and
Palfreyman Ditch, Carpenter Ditch and Captain Cabin Creek, all inflows
to the first Basin of Crooked Lake. Stream flow data are limited since
there is only one gaging station now monitoring stream flow in the Study
Area. The US Geological Survey (USGS) has maintained a continuously
recording stream flow gage at Panama, the outlet of Lake Gage, since
1969. The average discharge of Crooked Creek at this station from 1969
to 1976 was 7.19 cubic feet per second (cfs). Monitoring records indi-
cate that flows as high as 26 cfs occur during and after spring thaw in
March, April and May. Flows as low as 0.50 cfs have been recorded in
August (USGS 1975, 1976).
Limited historical flow data is available for the Nevada Mills
gaging station on Crooked Creek below the outfall of Jimmerson Lake.
The 7-day, 10-year low flow record at this station was 1.0 to 2.5 cfs;
the maximum was 222 cfs (Ecol Sciences 1976). Stream discharge
monitoring there has now ceased (by telephone, Don Hoggavan, USGS, 29
September 1978).
Lake Hydraulic Retention Time. Assuming complete mixing, the
retention time of a lake is the time required for natural processes to
replace the entire volume of its water. For most of the lakes in the
Study Area, less than 2 years is required for one complete change of
lake water. Lime Lake has the shortest time of only 29 days, while Big
Otter Lake, with 2.8 years, represents the other extreme. Individual
lake basins, for example, the Lower Basin of Lake James, have substan-
tially longer retention times.
Precipitation. The average Study Area precipitation from 1973-1974
was reported as 43.9 inches (111.6 cm) by US EPA's National Eutrophi-
cation Survey (NES) study. This is somewhat higher than the long-term
annual average of 35.5 inches (91.3 cm) (NES 1976).
Hydraulic Budget. A generalized hydraulic budget for a lake in-
cludes the hydraulic inputs such as tributary inflow, precipitation and
groundwater and the outputs such as tributary outflow, evaporation and
groundwater. Table II-6 summarizes the hydraulic budgets of some Study
Area Lakes. Evaporation was calculated as the difference between the
total input and total output for each lake. Most of the information
presented is derived from US EPA's NES studies (1976).
49
-------
Table II-6
WATER BUDGETS FOR MARSH LAKE, CROOKED LAKE, AND LAKE JAMES
(1973-74) IN 106 M3/YR — FROM EPA NES (1976)
Marsh Lake
Tributaries
Immediate Drainage
Precipitation
Freemont STP
Total 11.9
2. Outputs
Outlet 11.4
Evaporation 0.5
Total 11.9
Crooked Lake
1. Inputs^
Tributaries 5.6
Immediate Drainage 1.8
Precipitation 3.6
Total 11.0
2. Outputs
Outlet (Al) 9.1
Evaporation 1.9
Total 11.0
Lake James
Tributaries 33.3
Immediate Drainage 2.2
Precipitation 4. 7
Total 40.2
2. Outputs
Outlet 36.9
Evaporation 3.3
Total 40.2
50
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b. Surface Water Quality
Most information presented in this section comes from studies
conducted on Crooked Lake, Lake James and Marsh Lake by the US EPA
National Eutrophication Survey in 1973 and 1974 and studies for
Jimmerson Lake, Lake Gage, Snow Lake, Crooked Lake, and Lake James by
the Steuben County Health Department (SCHD). The Health Department's
data are not as extensive as US EPA's, and the detection limits of their
instrumentation are rather high, making the interpretation of the data
more difficult.
The available data appear in the following order: nutrient budget,
open water quality, phosphorus loading-trophic condition relationships,
and bacteriological quality. The discussion is intended to put the
surface water quality into perspective by independently presenting the
nutrient budget and lake water quality, and linking them by using the
phosphorus loading-trophic condition relationships. Finally, the prob-
lems of bacterial contamination are discussed.
Nutrient Budget. Nutrient budgets for Crooked Lake, Lake James,
and Marsh Lake were derived from the US EPA National Eutrophication
Survey data collected in 1973 and 1974. This data base is the most
extensive for nutrient budget analysis. Wherever the US EPA surveys
were not available, the data collected and analyzed by the Steuben
County Health Department were used. Because of the limited extent of
the data base, only phosphorus loadings were established for such lakes
as Lake Gage, Jimmerson Lake and Snow Lake. Finally, the simple nu-
trient export model developed by Omernik (1977) was used to derive
approximate phosphorus loadings from the watershed runoff for Big Otter
Lake, Little Otter Lake and Lime Lake. Phosphorus contributions from
such sources as precipitation and septic tank leachates for the last
three lakes were estimated following US EPA's guidelines (US EPA 1972).
For those lakes lacking measured nutrient outputs, a theoretical reten-
tion rate developed by Kirchner and Dillon (1975) was derived. Appendix
C-l presents the nutrient budgets by lake and source. Figure II-9 shows
the total phosphorus inputs for all the lakes by major sources. In all
lakes tributary inflow contributes the greatest amount of nutrients,
followed by precipitation and runoff from the immediate drainage area.
Septic tank systems only supply a small portion of the total nutrient
load into the lakes--
-------
3,000 r-
LEGEND
POINT SOURCE
NON-POINT SOURCE (TRIBUTARIES)
l NON-POINT SOURCE (IMMEDIATE
DRAINAGE)
PRECIPITATION
SEPTIC TANKS
0
MARSH
LAKE
SNOW
LAKE
LAKE
JAMES
LITTLE
OTTER
LAKE
FIGURE 11-9 COMPARISON OF PHOSPHORUS LOADINGS BY SOURCE
CONTRIBUTIONS FOR THE STEUBEN LAKES STUDY AREA
-------
dissolved oxygen saturation level, and conductivity) as plotted over the
period 1973 to 1977. These graphs are to assist in understanding the
open water conditions of the lakes.
This analysis suggest no definite trend in water quality oh these
lakes during those 5 years. Water quality variations over this period
do not exceed annual fluctuations, inherent in the system. The water
quality conditions seem to have remained relatively steady during the
last few years t
Most of the lakes have moderate levels of phbsphorUs! arid chldro-
phyll a. Based on the values of these used by US EPA for trophic
classification, the lakes can be considered as1 currently ttiesotrophic or
eutrophic. The Secchi disc depth readings are between 2 ffl to 4 to or
within the range of mesotrophic lakes; high Secchi disk readings show
good water transparency in a healthy, fresh lake. Dissolved oxygen in
these lakes is usually depleted in the brittoitt waters during the summer
months, one sign of poor water quality.
Survey data indicate that Crooked Lake and Lake James are meso-
trophic while Marsh Lake is eutrophic based on the classification scheme
developed by EPA(NES 1976). Note that in Marsh Lake the 0ecctii depth
was only 1.22 m, total phosphorus concentration was over than b.045 mg
P/l, and chlorophyll a level varies froril 19". 4 (Jg/1 tb 50.6 jjg/l during
the 1973 growing season suggesting a highly eiitrophic condition.
Phosphorus Loading-Trophic Condition Relationships. This section
examines relationships between p'hbsphofils inputs and tilfe resulting water
quality. Such relationships are needed to predict results of phosphorus
loadings in the various wastewater management alternatives. App'endix
C-3 presents a detailed description of the procedures required to
examine these relationships using Dillon's model (1975). Only the main
points of the results are included ih ttii^
Figure 11-10 shows the trophic conditions of the following lakes:
Lake James, Crooked Lake and Marsh Lake based on the 1973-1974 data by
US EPA; Lake Gage, Snow Lake and Jimmerson Lake based on 1977 data col-
lected by the Health Department; and Lime Lake, Big Otter Lake and
Little Otter Lake estimated by the Omernik model and reflecting 1975
conditions. Dillon's model describes Crooked Lake, Jimmerson Lake, Lake
Gage and Lime Lake as mesotrophic, and Lake James, Big Otter Lake, Snow
Lake and Marsh Lake as eutrophic. Little Otter Lake is classified as
hypereutrophic . These results are consistent with the water quality
data in the previous section except Lake JaMeS. The* differing conclu-
sions on the trophic status of Lake James are due to the use of two
different classification schemes. In fact, Lake James in on the lower
edge of eutrophic lakes and close to mesotrophic lakes (Figure 11-10).
Marsh Lake's phosphorus loading is even higher than the eutrophic load-
ing associated with its physical and morphological characteristics.
Bacterial Contamination. Low levels of fecal coliform bacteria
have been reported by the Steuben County Health Department for the five
monitored Study Area lakes. The 225 samples taken by the Health Depart-
ment from lake and nearshore sites (1973-1977) indicated that less than
1 fecal coliform colony/100 ml was detected. However, canals and
inflowing steams and ditches tend to support higher densities of
bacterial organisms. There the tributary sampling data (1973-1977)
318 D10 53
-------
i.o L7
04
E
O.I
0.01
EUTROPHIC
I 1 I I I I I
MARSH LAkE
O
«SNOW
BIS OTTER
LAKE
o
LAkE JAMES
O
"^ SAGE
O CROOKED LAKE
oJIMMERSON
LAkE
LO 10.0
MEAN DEPTH (METERS)
LsAREAL PHOSPHORUS INPUT (g/m2/yr)
R=PHOSPHORUS RETENTION COEFFICIENT
P- HYDRAULIC FLUSHING RATE (yr"1}
100.0
FIGURE n-IO TROPHIC CONDITIONS OF MARSH LAKE,
SNOW LAKE, BIG OTTER LAKE, LAKE JAMES,
LAKE GAGE, CROOKED LAKE, JIMMERSON LAKE,
AND LIME LAKE (1973-1974)
54
-------
indicates counts from 7 to 238 fecal coliforms colonies/ 100 ml. The
tributaries to Crooked Lake seem to be the most contaminated, with
values exceeding the Indiana water quality standard. Possible causes of
high bacterial concentrations include animal wastes, agricultural runoff
and malfunctioning septic tanks.
c. Surface Water Use and Classification
Surface water in the Study Area is Used primarily for recreation.
Fishing, boating, and wildlife observation are among the opportunities
offered by Study Area lakes. Area surface waters also assimilate waste-
water effluent. The Pokagon State Park maintains a wastewater treatment
facility discharging to Snow Lake. Some of the surface waters also sup-
port various fisheries. Lake waters are not used for domestic water
supplies (Reussow and Rohne 1975).
The Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board (ISPCB 1977) has estab-
lished water quality standards for all waters within Indiana. The lakes
of the Study Area must meet standards for "whole body contact" recrea-
tion, while the streams must meet those for "partial body contact"
recreation. Appendix C-4 contains the complete set of standards for
surface water uses within the Study Area.
2. GROUNDWATER RESOURCES
a. Groundwater Hydrology
Sand and gravel units within the 250 to 350 feet thick uncon-
solidated glacial drift constitute the major groundwater sources in the
Study Area. The aquifers are mostly discontinuous types characteristic
of glacial deposits. Aquifers in the liibre extensive, well sorted
materials of the outwash plains will be bettet than in the small valley
trains. The ground and end till moraines will be relatively poor
aquifers. Very few wells reached the bedrock shales, normally very poor
aquifers.
Drillers' well logs (50) supplied by the Indiana Department of
Natural Resources have indicated the presence of thick clay layers, out-
cropping in many areas interspersed with sand and gravel deposits (see
Appendix C-5). These clay layers create confining (artesian) condi-
tions, the limits of which are Unknown. The situation is essentially
one in which artesian conditions a'ild w'a'ter ta'ble (uricdnfined) conditions
can be expected at unidentified intervals.
Precipitation averages 35.5 inches annually, with 26 inches being
accounted for by evapotranspiration. Average annual runoff for the area
is 9.5 inches, with approximately 80% being derived from groundwater
seepage into streams.
Recharge of the aquifers by precipitation occurs through the uncon-
fined sections. The extent of this recharge in the Study Area is
unknown. Reussow and Rohne (1975) have estimated that an average of
2,020 million gallons per day from precipitation replenish the ground
and surface water supplies of the St. Joseph River Basin. Their
55
-------
estimate of storage within basin aquifers is 5,000,000 million gallons
of fresh water.
The elevation of the top of the aquifers above mean sea level
throughout most of the area is 920 to 940 feet, but approaches 940 to
960 feet in the Snow Lake area and 908 to 1,000 feet just south of
Crooked Lake (see Figure 11-11). These levels refer to the top of the
saturated zone, i.e., the water table where the aquifer is unconfined,
or the lower surface of the confining bed, where the aquifer is of the
confined or artesian type (Reussow and Ratine 1975).
Ground surface elevations in the developed areas around the lakes
are generally 1,000 to 1,050 feet above mean sea level in Snow Lake,
Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, and Crooked Lake areas falling to 960 to
1,000 feet in the Lake Gage and Nevada Mills ' areas of the northwest.
A water table well at the junction of County Roads 300 West and 300
North, midway between Lake James and Crooked Lake, showed highest and
lowest water levels of 60.30 feet and 62.05 feet, respectively, below
land surface datum (1,065 above mean sea level) during 1976 (USGS 1976).
The well logs of earlier refererice indicate that water levels in areas
of water table conditions are generally more than 20 feet below ground
surface, with but few exceptions.
Well capacities in the Jimmerson-Lake JameS area average less than
10 gallons per minute per foot, while dh average of 11 to 20 gallons per
minute per foot of drawdown is found in the remainder of the Study Area.
The minimum available drawdown in the area ranges from 51 to 60 feet.
b. Groundwater Quality
Groundwater throughout the St. Joseph River Basin is of the calcium
magnesium bicarbonate type, very hard with high iron content exceeding
the US Public Health Service (1962) recommended limit. Otherwise, the
water is of good chemical quality for most uses. In the city of Angola,
to the south of the Study Area, the iron content is 1.0 mg/1 and the
hardness 430 mg/1 at a depth of 100 feet (Ressow and Rohne 1975).
c. Groundwater Use
Groundwater sources provide essentially all of the domestic water
supplies of the Sttldy Area1. Present grtiilttd'vJa'tet use within the Study
Area of the order of one million gallons per day (1 mgd) should double
by the year 2000.
Reussow and Rohne (1975) have estimated that all but 10 mgd of the
74 mgd of water used in the St. Joseph River Basin in which the Study
Area is located) is groundwater. This is a mere 10% of the groundwater
discharged to streams throughout the basin and is likely to increase to
about 20% of that amount by the year 2020. With an estimated storage of
5,000,000 gallons of water within the aquifers of the basin, Reussow and
Rohne (1975) have concluded that enough groundwater exists to supply all
the foreseeable demands. Groundwater usage in the • Study Area is
negligible compared with the available resources; future demands should
pose no problems.
56
-------
srn JOSEPH
RIVER BASIN
35* S!udy
Arec
LOCATION OF ST. JOSEPH a
RIVER BASIN
0
Source: Reussow
and Rohne 1975
FIGURE 11-11 ELEVATIONS OF THE
TOP OF AQUIFERS
57
LEGEND
780-900 FEET ABOVE
MEAN SEA LEVEL
(Range of ele-
vation of top
of aquifer)
900-1040 FEET ABOVE
MEAN SEA LEVEL
(Range of ele-
vation of top
of aquifer)
40% OF TEE WELLS
ARE COMPLETED
IN AN AQUIFER
MORE THAN 6C
FEET DEEPER
THAN THE INDI-
CATED TOP OF
THE PRINCIPAL
AQUIFER
STEUBEN LAKES
STUDY AREA
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3. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT
Water resource management, is a complex of marly elements, in which
the Federal, State and local governments all have an interest. To name
just a few of these elements -- irrigation, municipal water supply,
maintenance of navigable waters and protection of the productivity of
the soil -- illustrates the broad rahge of activities under this
heading. Among the most important, however, is preservation or
restoration of US water quality. the Clean Water Act arid Its l'J77
amendments outline a framework for comprefieris ive water quality man-
agement which applied to groundwater as well as to surface waters.
a. Clean Water Act
Water quality is the responsibility of the United States Environ-
mental Protection Agency (US EPA) in coordination with the appropriate
State agency, in this case the Indiana Stream Pollution Control Hoard
(ISPCB). However, the Clean Water Act instructed all Federal agencies
to safeguard water quality standards in carrying out their respective
missions. As the lead agency, US EPA coordinates the national effort,
sets standards, and reviews reports of other Agencies. Certain other
agencies share in the water pollution control effort: for example,
Federal cost-sharing is authorized in agricultural projects designed to
improve water quality by controlling farm runoff. In some cases, e.g.,
the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), these added responsibilities may
coincide with programs to reduce soil erosion.
In delineating the responsibilities of the various levels of
government for water quality, Congress recognized the rights of the
States with regard to their waters. It authbriked fiihdirig for develop-
ment of State plans for pollution control and State water quality
standards (which may be more restrictive than Federal standards), and
for research. If a State meets certain criteria, it is certified by US
EPA as the entity responsible for administration of the activity in
question. The US EPA may deny certification, and in all cases it
retains power of enforcement of established standards, State or Federal.
(The State of Indiana has been granted certification by EPA.)
Among the goals and deadlines set in the Clean Water Act are these:
"it is the national goal thdt the discharge of pollutants
into the navigable waters be eliminated by 1985...
"an interim goal of water quality which provided for the
protection and propagation of fish, shellfish, and wild-
life and provides for recreation in and on the water [is
to] be achieved by July 1, 1983".
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This legislation requires publicly owned treatment works dis-
charging effluent to surface waters to least provide secondary treat-
ment, i.e., biological oxidation of organic wastes. Municipalities must
provide the "best practicable technology" by 1983 and localities must
address both the control of all major sources of stream pollution (in-
cluding combined sewer overflows and agricultural, street and other
surface runoff) and the cost-effectiveness of various control measures.
The use of unconventional technologies must also be considered.
The key provisions on water quality planning stipulate that to
receive aid a State must provide a continuing planning process. Part of
Section 208 of the Clean Water Act requires the States to inventory all
the sources of pollution of surface and ground waters both point* and
non-point"", and to establish priorities for the correction of substan-
tial water quality problems within a given area. The 208 plans are
intended to provide an areawide and, taken together, a statewide
framework for the more local decisions on treatment facilities. The
water quality management plan (Section 208 plan) including the Steuben
Lakes area is being prepared by the State of Indiana.
Section 201 of the Act (under which the Steuben Lakes Regional
District applied for funds) authorizes US EPA to make grants to
localities to improve or construct facilities for treating existing
water quality problems. US EPA determines whether an Environmental
Impact Statement is required on a proposed project (see Section I.E.),
and even where the State has been certified and assumes responsibility
for water quality, US EPA retains authority to approve or reject appli-
cations for construction funds for treatment facilities.
Local political jurisdictions, traditionally responsible for
meeting the wastewater treatment needs of the community, now have the
benefit of Federal and State assistance in meeting water quality stan-
dards and goals.
b. Federal Agency Responsibilities for Study Area Waters
US EPA
Administers the Clean Water Act
Sets Federal water quality standards
US EPA Region V
Administers the grant program described above for the Great
Lakes Region.
Provides partial funding for preparation of the Steuben Lakes
Area Facilities Plan.
US Army Corps of Engineers
Grants or denies permits for dredging, filling and
construction activities in navigable waters, their 100-year
floodplains and adjacent wetlands.
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US Department of Agriculture
Under the Rural Clean Water Program provides cost sharing for
soil conservation practices to improve water quality. (This
program will probably be assigned to SCS; however, it has not
yet been funded.)
Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
Assists farmers and other land users control wind and water
erosion, to sustain the soil resource base and reduce deposi-
tion of soil and related pollutants in the water system.
Conducts soil surveys. Drew up guidelines for inventorying
prime or unique agricultural lands.
Gathers information at the state or county level as part of
program of study and research to determine new methods of
eliminating pollutants from agricultural sources.
In the Study Area, has completed but not yet published the
soil survey of Steuben County, and has identified prime agri^
cultural land.
Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)
Carries out the Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP), which
provides cost-sharing funds to help farmers install conserva-
tion programs. By mandate of Congress, all ACP projects for
1978 and 1979 are for erosion control, geared toward water
quality (by telephone, Mr. Ralph Wade, ASCS, Indianapolis, 27
June 1979).
Farmers Home Administration
Provides grants and loans to small rural communities to build
or improve drinking water and waste treatment facilities.
US Department of Interior
Fish and Wildlife Service
Provides technical assistance in development of 208 plans.
US Geological Survey
Monitors surface and ground water hydrology at several
stations in the Study Area (see Section II.B.I.a).
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c. State Responsibilities in the Steuben Lakes Study Area
Pertinent Indiana Laws
Stream Pollution Control Law (Chapter 214, Acts of 1943,
amended by Chapter 132, Acts of 1945, and amended by
Chapter 64, Acts of 1957). Created the Indiana Stream
Pollution Control Board and empowered it to protect the
quality of State waters froiii dischargers and to determine what
qualities or properties Of bodies of Water shall indicate a
polluted condition of fetich waters.
Phosphate Detergent Law (Indiana Code 1971, 13-1-5.5;
Public Law 174, Laws of 1971, amended Public Law 97,
Laws of 1972, and Public Law 117, Laws of 1973). Established
prohibitions on the sale and use of certain detergents.
Confined Feeding Control Law. Authorizes ISPCB to regulate
runoff from feedlots If (a~) the feedlot handles more than a
certain number of livestock or (b) the runoff constitutes a
water quality probleiri.
Indiana Flood Control Act (1C 13-2-22-1). Purposes are to
limit flooding through coordination of flood control works and
to keep floodways clear through supervision of any stream
alteration and regulation of construction within floodways.
Floodplain Management Act (1C 13-2-22.5). Amended the Flood
Control Act. Establishes minimum standards for delineation
and regulation of flood hazard areas within the State and
provides means by which local Units of government can regulate
activities affecting such areas within their jurisdictions.
Applies to floodplains of all streams and lakes.
Indiana has a series of laws authorizing the Department of Natural
Resources, or the Natural Resources Commission overseeing it, to protect
and maintain the levels of State lakes. The levels are set by the
courts, and under 1C 13-2-12 are controlled by DNR. 1C 13-2-11 and 1C
13-2-14 require DNR approval for any action affecting the shoreline of a
public freshwater lake or affecting the level of a lake. There is no
Indiana erosion or sedimentation control law or program and no State law
dealing specifically With! wetlstidS.
State Agencies
Indiana State Board of Health
The Stream Pollution Control Board (ISPCB) is responsible for
statewide planning for the control of water pollution. Sets
criteria for designated beneficial uses of the waters. Estab-
lishes and has injunctive powers to enforce maintenance of
surface water quality standards for the State. Conducts 208
planning. Regulates land disposal of wastewater. Has
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authority to issue permits to discharge pollutants into sur-
face waters under the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES). Appendix C-6 contains details of the permits
granted to the P6kagon State Park and the Holiday Inn. Under
NPDES, sets minimum requirements on all facilities that dis-
pose of wastewater to the land.
The Division of Water Pollution Cbtittrol is the support staff
for the ISPCB. It classifies lakes for beneficial uses
according to water quality. It approves community wastewater
treatment and disposal systems, reviewing the facility plan-
ning process, the design phase, and implementation.
On 21 June 1979 this Division submitted to EPA Region V the
"Water Quality Management Plan for the Non-Designated Areas of
the State," the 208 plan covering all non-designated areas of
Indiana, including the Steuben Lakes area. This plan is
subject to review and copies are not yet available.
The Division of Sanitary Engineering reviews and approves
plans for wastewater treatment and disposal by private sys-
tems, for example, campgrottrids.
Department of Natural Resources (IDNR)
Under the laws mentioned above, the Water Division of IDNR,
through a permit system and injunctive powers> regulates all
construction or excavation within the floodway or any Stream,
lake or waterway, and through a permit system regulates any
activities (e.g., drainage or construction) that would affect
the shoreline or a lake, or natural Idke levels as set by the
courts. INDR controls the levels of lakes, supervises the
alteration of any stream, and controls reservoirs. Any activ-
ities by the Corps of Engineers would be coordinated through
the Department.
Although the State can acquire wetlands by purchase, IDNR has
authority over activities in wetlands only when an activity
would affect lake levels.
IDNR maintains recreation areas, administers the Federal Land
and Water Conservation Fund program within the state, and is
responsible for the preservation of fish, other aquatic life
and wildlife.
Governor's Water Resources Study Commission
The Commission has been studying problems with the poten-
tiality for affecting water use over the next 20 years.
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d. Local Responsibilities
Steuben County Health Department
Has authority to regulate individual residential on-site waste
disposal systems, under State minimum requirements. Has
monitored water quality of the major lakes in the Study Area.
Michigan Area Council of Governments (MAGOG)
Samples waters in the St. Joseph River Basin to obtain water
quality baseline data for 208 planning.
Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District
Was established to construct, operate and maintain a sewerage
system in the Study Area.
Under the Floodplain Management Act, local units of government
are responsible for delineating flood hazard areas within
their jurisdiction and regulating activities within those
areas (see Section II.B.4)
Agricultural Stabilization Conservation County Committee (ASC)
Accepts, on behalf of USDA, applications for assistance under
the ACP and makes recommendations on priority among individual
landowners.
4. FLOOD HAZARD AREAS
The Steuben Lakes Study Area includes a number of zones designated
as special flood hazard areas by the US Department of Housing and Urban
Development, Flood Insurance Program (HUD 1975, 1976). Flood hazard
areas are those that have a one percent chance of flooding to the boun-
dary in any given year. Flood hazard zones in the Proposed Service Area
include the shores of all the lakes -- Lake Gage, Lime Lake, Crooked
Lake, Jimmerson Lake, Lake James, Snow Lake, and Otter Lake -- as well
as many of the connecting streams and influent creeks (see Figure
11-12).
The Nevada Mills Dam is in the northwest quadrant of the Study
Area, downstream of Jimmerson Lake. The dam was not constructed for
flood control purposes but to maintain Jimmerson Lake at its legal water
level of 964.66 feet msl set by the Steuben County Circuit Court on July
3, 1947 (by letter, Robert Glazier, Indiana DM, 19 July 1978).
Flooding is not a serious problem in the Study Area. Minor floods
sometimes occur in the spring due to snow melt and heavy seasonal rains.
The relatively small watershed, high banks along streams, and large lake
outlets help to minimize flooding within the Study Area (by telephone,
Kent Allwood, Steuben County Surveyor, 24 March 1978).
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Sources: HUU 1977; USGij
, 1975
I'ICUKE II--12 , STEUBEN LAKES: FLOOD HAZARD AUKAS
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The approved Steuben County Master Plan (Schellie Associates, Inc.
1970) specifies that only fences, docks, or boathouses can be built
within 15 feet of the meander, or high water line, of any stream or lake
in the county. Land use is also restricted in these areas to agricul-
ture, forestry, public utilities and recreation. These uses must be in
accord with the Indiana Drainage Code, Chapter 305 (October 1965), and
users also must obtain an improvement location permit. The Indiana
Natural Resources Commission has yet to approve any Flood Plain zoning
ordinances in Steuben County pursuant to the provisions of the Flood
Plain Management Act (FPM-1) and the Flood Control Act (IC13-2-22) (by
letter, Robert Glazier, 19 July 1978).
C. glOTIC RESOURCES
1, AQUATIC BIOLOGY
Aquatic habitats in the Study Area include streams and lakes. The
flora in the streams of the area consist primarily of suspended and
attached algal communities and relatively small numbers' of rooted aqua-
tic and semi-aquatic vascular (i.e., flowering) plants. The flora of
the area lakes consist of vascular plants and planktonic" algae, as well
as benthic* algae in the photosynthetic* zone. The fauna of the streams
and lakes consist of aquatic insects, crustaceans, nematodes, both sus-
pended and benthic macroscopic and microscopic invertebrates, and var-
ious amphibians, reptiles, and fishes (EcolSciences, Inc., undated).
The lakes of the Study Area were sampled by the State of Indiana
Department of Natural Resources, Fish Management Headquarters (SFMH) in
1972, 1975, and 1976. To ascertain the quality of the fisheries, fish
were classified according to number taken and weight. Appendix D-l
contains lists of the fishes found in the lakes of the Study Area.
Species of aquatic vegetation were also identified in these samplings
and are listed in Appendix D-2.
a. Aquatic Vegetation
Aquatic vegetation is vital to the life of the Study Area lakes.
Free-floating and filamentous* algae provide food for small animals,
which in turn are eaten by larger animals, including fish. Vascular
plants provide food, surfaces for egg attachment, and shelter for an
array of aquatic animals. Diversity, however, is a key factor. The
abundance and diversity of algae and rooted aquatic plants depend on
water quality, wave action and bottom type, among other things, and in
general a high diversity (of species) indicates good water quality.
The SFMH samplings in 1972, 1975 and 1976 found that the aquatic
vegetation of Snow Lake was dominated by water milfoil. There was a
profusion of vascular plants*, and the SFMH stated that control measures
would be required in channels to expedite boat traffic. Water milfoil
can indicate moderate to poor water quality (Lind and Cottam 1969).
This is consistent with lake water quality modeling.
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The aquatic vegetation of Jimmerson Lake was dominated by water
milfoil and Richardson's pondweed. Channels and shallow areas were
reported to be choked with vegetation—an indication of moderately poor
water quality. This too is consistent with available modeling.
The aquatic vegetation of Basins 1 and 2 of Crooked Lake has been
undergoing periodic nuisance growths. In Basin 1, water milfoil was the
dominant vascular plant, and control of this species was recommended for
large isolated areas along the shores. In Basin 2, water milfoil and
Illinois pondweed were dominant and control was recommended for isolated
patches. In Basin 3, water milfoil was again dominant, but was con-
sidered of neither nuisance proportions nor detrimental to the fishery
(EcolSciences, Inc. undated).
Aquatic vegetation was not considered by the SFMH to be a problem
in Lake James. Both vascular plants and, to a limited extent, algae
were observed. The dominant vascular plant was bladderwort.
The Wisconsin studies by Lind and Cottam (1969) and Bumby (1977)
showed many of the trends that have also been observed in the lakes of
the Study Area, where water milfoil sometimes plugs channels. Water
milfoil is a relatively insignificant (3 to 5%) component of the flora
of Midwest glacial lakes except in those judged to be eutrophic, or
becoming so (Lind and Cottam 1969). No quantitative sampling has been
done in Study Area lakes, but available information (see Appendix D-2)
coupled with the reports of nuisance growth of aquatic vegetation (des-
cribed above) indicates that the Steuben Lakes are approaching (or have
reached) a low level of species diversity and dominance by a single
species just as Lake Mendota did. The principal areas of aquatic
vegetation are shown in Figure 11-13.
b. Fishes
Study Area lakes, with a range of bottom types, sizes, and connect-
ing streams, provide the variety of breeding conditions that favors the
maintenance of a diversity of fishes. In the SFMH June 9-13, 1975
sampling of Snow Lake, 720 fish, representing 21 species, were
collected. Bluegill sunfish, yellow perch, rock bass, yellow bullhead,
warmouth, longnose gar, bowfin, and brown bullhead were the most common.
Of the 10 game fish species p»esent, a large percentage was of harvest-
able size. Condition factors and growth rates of these fish were above
average for the state, and the rock bass population was judged to be one
of the largest in northern Indiana. The SFMH recommended that walleye
fry be stocked during alternate years, beginning in 1976. Because of
its small size, Snow Lake normally would not have been considered for a
walleye stocking program. However, Snow Lake is connected to Lake
James, and, because it does contain a large suitable forage base
(EcolSciences, Inc.), walleyes will probably feed there.
Jimmerson Lake, sampled by the SFMH June 16-19, 1975, yielded. 526
fishes of 18 species. Bluegill sunfish, yellow bullhead, and brown
bullhead dominated the fishery in both number and weight. Nine game
species were taken, a large percentage of which were harvestable indi-
viduals, and the sport fishery was reported to be in good condition
(EcolSciences, Inc.).
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A.C-4 •««'" TA.B.C
POKAGOH STATE PAHK I
LEGEND
# ALGAE
B EMERGENT VEGETATION
C SUBMERGENT VEGETATION
0 WATERWAYS WITH HEAVY
CONCENTRATION OF
ALGAE
ZOQO 4000
Source: EPIC 1979
FIGURE II-13 STEUBEN LAKES: AQUATIC VEGETATION
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The SFMH survey of Crooked Lake, conducted 17-21 July 1972, was
performed at tV request of area residents who were dissatisfied with
the sport fishery. A total of 741 fishes was collected, representing 22
species. The bluegill sunfish was most abundant, making up 58.2% of the
total, with yellow bullhead second. Growth rates and size ranges of
both species were average for the area. Largemouth bass, yellow perch,
and red-ear sunfish populations were also reported to Be in satisfactory
condition. Less abundant game fish included smallmouth bass, black
crappie, both black and brown bullheads, and rock bass (EcolSciences,
Inc.).
The SFMH sampled Lake James June 2-5, 1975 collecting 574 fish
representing 20 species. By number, the dominant species were bluegill
sunfish, yellow perch, rock bass, and yellow bullhead. The dominant
species by weight were yellow bullhead, bluegill sunfish, longnose gar,
yellow perch, brown bullhead, bowfin, northern pike, and black crappie.
The SFMH classified the fishery as excellent, with many desirable game
species, including a large percentage of harvestable size. The State
recommended that Lake James be stocked with walleye fry on alternate
years beginning in 1976 (EcolSciences, Inc.), but according to
Mr. William James, Chief of Indiana DNR Fish Division, none will be
planted at least until 1980 (by telephone, 14 March 1979).
The SFMH considered Lake Gage to be one of the best lakes in the
Study Area in terms of fish composition and general water quality.
Composition of fish species found in that lake in an April 1976 sampling
was significantly different from the other lakes of the Study Area.
Gar, found in other lakes, were not reported in Lake Gage. Furthermore,
the presence of brook trout, and rainbow trout indicated that Lake Gage
has good water quality capable of supporting the environmentally sen-
sitive cold-water species as well as warm-water species. In contrast,
Crooked Lake, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, and Snow Lake are of poorer
water quality and can support only warm-water species. Lake James was
reported to have a large Cisco population in 1972, but by 1975, it was
listed along with Jimmerson Lake and Snow Lake as having only small
populations, probably because of intermittent stress by poor water
quality (EcolSciences, Inc.).
According to Mr. William James (by telephone, 14 March 1979), the
lakes of the Study Area formerly had another top predator, the northern
pike, Esox lucius. This valued game fish, which may have attained
weights of 20 pounds or more, was lost because of the loss of seasonally
flooded wetlands, its spawning habitat. Mr. James reported that the
northern pike has been lost or is rapidly declining in numbers in most
of Indiana's lakes, a situation that is not likely to be remedied by the
slow rate (200 acres per year) at which Indiana DNR is purchasing appro-
priate wetlands. The decline of northern pike populations is part of
the rationale for considering the introduction of the walleye
(.Stizostedion vitreum), a valued native fish but formerly of limited
distribution in Indiana. At present (1979), the Division of Fishes is
building the stock of breeding walleye to furnish the fry for such lakes
as Lake James and to a number of new reservoirs in the state. The
proper range of pH values is critical to the survival of walleyes; given
the needed pH, they will breed in those lakes with the proper mix of
lake bottom types, oxygen levels, and water temperatures.
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Marsh Lake, the source of the phosphorus plume that extends through
Jimmerson Lake and plays a major role in nutrient loads to the two Otter
Lakes and Snow Lake, is the only major area habitat for the northern
pike. Indeed concern about disturbances of pike-producing wetland is
one of the major objections the State of Indiana offers to rehabili-
tation of Marsh Lake under Section 314 of the Clean Water Act.
The large family of valued game fish (centrarchids)* including
bass, bluegills, and related fishes, breed in shallow waters with a
range of bottom types. Their larvae, produced in large numbers, become
a component of the forage or food of larger fish shortly after they
hatch. The introduction of the walleye and/or the resurgence of
northern pike populations, will probably improve the centrarchid fishery
by the greater growth rates that will result from fewer individuals of
the prey (centrarchid) species.
The remaining fishes, mainly bullheads, gars, and minnows, do not,
for the most part, require special conditions for successful breeding.
2. SHORELINE ALGAE AND AQUATIC WEED GROWTH
As reported above in Section Il.C.l.b, localized growths of both
algae and aquatic vascular plants occur in the coves and channelways of
some Study Area lakes. For example, the July 1972 sampling of Crooked
Lake by the SFMH found nuisance growth, predominantly of water milfoil
in Basin I, and of water milfoil and Illinois pondweed in Basin II. Key
findings in other studies include the conclusion of US EPA's National
Eutrophicaton Survey (NES) that Crooked Lake, Marsh Lake and Lake James
are probably phosphorus-limited (US EPA Region V Working Papers Nos. 325,
331, and 333). That is, the potential for vegetational growth in these
lakes depends only on the levels of available phosphorus. However, of
these three, only Marsh Lake had high algal cell counts (26,937 cells/ml
in May 1973 sample and 11,475 cells/ml in the October 1973 sample.
Levels of chlorophyll a for these samples were 33.4 and 50.6 M8/l>
respectively, consistent with the high cell counts in the samples.)
The State of Indiana, in accordance with the "Clean Lakes" provi-
sions of the Clean Water Act of 1977 (Section 314(2) (1) of Public Law
95-217), is classifying publicly-owned freshwater lakes and impoundments
into four trophic classes.
Class I lakes have the highest water quality, are the least eutro-
phic, and do not require chemical control programs. They rarely have
extensive populations of weeds or algae, and normal lake uses are im-
paired only under unusual environmental conditions. In Indiana's
1978-79 305 (b) Report (Indiana Stream Pollution Control Board 1979) 286
lakes were analyzed. The five large and recreationally valuable lakes
in the Study Area were ranked in Class I:
Lake Gage Mesotrophic
#31 Lake James Mesoeutrophic
#46 Snow Lake Eutrophic
#51 Crooked Lake Mesoeutrophic
#58 Jimmerson Lake Eutrophic
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Class III lakes always, in the absence of a chemical control pro-
gram, have extensive algae/weed problems that frequently impair one or
more lake us£3, and they are of low water quality. Three small lakes in
the Study Area (Marsh Lake, Big Otter Lake, and Little Otter Lake) were
placed in this category.
Results of the ISPCB classification, which was based on measure-
ments of a number of parameters for each lake, reinforces the infor-
mation that there generally is a gradient within the Study Area of
improving water quality from east to west. At least part of the heavy
nutrient loading for the small Class III lakes is related to drainage
received from the extensive wetlands, although effluent received from
the wastewater treatment plants of the Village of Fremont and the nearby
toll road have undoubtedly contributed as well. (Fremont has been
upgrading its wastewater treatment facility, having received, according
to ISPCB (1979) nearly $900,000 in current State and Federal Step 3
grants.) Another indication of the heavy nutrient loading to Marsh Lake
is 'the littoral (shallow) zone, which is filled entirely by Potamogeton
crispus, the curly-leafed pondweed (by telephone, Mr. Rick Peterson,
District Biologist, 8 June 1979). P. crispus may be of particular
significance in judging the quality of lake waters because it often
appears in polluted water (Fassett I960) and in water that has been
enriched by city wastes (McCombie and Wile 1971).
Although growth of vegetation is usually proportionate to the con-
centration of nutrients, a continual input of nutrients is not neces-
sarily required to maintain such growth. Depending on its size and
shape, a lake can act as a receptacle for nutrients, and the recycling
of nutrients within it may produce vegetational blooms for a period of
years, even without any substantial additional inflow from contributing
sources. This means that eliminating sources of nutrients (pollution) by
upgrading a treatment facility may not produce benefits immediately.
Nevertheless, water quality would, predictably, improve steadily from
year to year.
Other important factors affecting the rate of frequency of vegeta-
tional blooms in lakes include temperature, sunlight, shape and size of
the lake, type of bottom, slope of the drainage basin, rate of flow
through the lake and ambient water quality (Mackenthun 1974). The
marl*-producing features of the Steuben Lakes may enhance their capacity
to hold and cycle nutrients. Specifically, the high concentration of
calcium carbonate in these lake waters precipitates nutrients, eliminat-
ing them as stimulants to the growth of vegetation. Consequently, it
may not be possible to predict an increased rate of growth in vegetation
in a lake, or of its progression to the eutrophic state, should nutrient
loadings increase. At some (threshold) point, the chemical composition
of a marl lake may change. At such time, vegetation growing under
conditions of available phosphorus and nitrogen nutrients will ulti-
mately outstrip the oxygen level in the water, and the vegetation, fish
and other aquatic life will die and putrefy.
From the above review it follows that removal of septic tanks and
substitution of a centralized wastewater treatment system would provide
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no guarantee against the occurrence of that noxious vegetative growths
in the Steuben Lakes. Cycling of nutrients now present within each lake
may continue to produce annual vegetative blooms even without new input
of nutrients, although in time such blooms would diminish in severity or
frequency. Furthermore, other sources of nutrients in the Study Area,
such as runoff from croplands, might easily sustain plant growth despite
the sewering of all lakeshores. Further detailed 'investigations of
nutrient sources in adjacent areas, as well as alternative methods for
their control, seem to be justified. These investigations should ad-
dress:
Agricultural runoff,
Lawn fertilization,
Stormwater runoff,
Unidentified nutrient sources, and
Sediment characteristics.
3. WETLANDS
a. Overview
Wetlands are those areas that are inundated by surface or ground
water with a frequency sufficient to support only vegetation that re-
quires or tolerates saturated soil conditions. In their pristine state,
they are unsuitable for agricultural or urban purposes, and include
marshes, swamps, bogs, and similar areas. Their abundant vegetation,
highly organic deposits, and periodic lack of oxygen are exactly those
conditions which are considered undesirable in lakes and streams. Yet,
wetlands serve important purposes in the ecological cycle:
• as purifiers nearby surface water bodies by entrapping sedi-
ments and concentrating nutrients which have been washed off
the landscape;
« as storage areas for storm and flood waters. They absorb the
impact of flooding, thereby reducing erosion of adjacent land;
• as prime natural recharge areas, where surface and groundwater
are directly connected;
• as habitat for a wide diversity of wildlife, where biological
functions such as nesting, breeding, and feeding can occur;
and
• as areas productive of plant and animal biomass at all trophic
levels. Except for the comparably productive tropical rain-
forest, no other terrestrial habitat is as rich in usable
plant and animal material.
Wetlands are sensitive to environmental changes such as the raising
or lowering of the water table, whether natural or by damming or ditch-
ing activities, and to [the] changes in the quality of water that might
occur when a lake becomes eutrophic. High nutrient levels can alter the
productivity and composition of the wetland community, diminishing the
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wetland*s value to wildlife in the process. Consequently, good water
quality contributes to both healthy wetlands and wildlife populations.
b. Study Area
The many wetlands in the Study Area usually adjoin [the] streams
and lakes (see Figure II-8). Most Study Area wetlands are either mar-
shes dominated by cattails (Typha sp.) or are forested. Marsh vege-
tation is primarily broad and narrow leaf cattail, bulrush, bluejoint
grass, canary reed grass, and bottom-bush. Although red maple, box
elder, and American elm dominate, alders, willows, and similar shrubby
species are also frequently present in the forested wetlands. In the
marshes, the rich organic soil produces a large biomass of vegetation
and consequently supports a highly diverse community of plant and
detritus* feeders. This community potentially represents a considerable
resource to wildlife, providing both fish spawning areas and habitat for
a wide variety of birds and mammals.
Many of the low-lying lake shorelines in the Study Area have large
wetland areas. One such area along the western shoreline of the Third
Basin of Crooked Lake (see Figure II-8) contains large patches of cat-
tails and alder and willow thickets. Such waterfowl as mallards, Canada
geese, and American coot and such wading birds as blue heron have been
observed here. These birds use wetlands and the adjacent open water as
a place to nest and/or feed. Wetlands such as these can also be expec-
ted to abound with muskrats and meadow voles, both primary food for a
number of predators such as owls, raccoons, and foxes.
Along the banks of the northern section of Jimmerson Lake is a
large cattail wetland with considerable standing water (see Figure
II-8). Red-winged blackbirds have been observed in this area. Patches
of cattail marshes and shrubby areas are also found along the shores of
Lake James and Snow Lake. Snow Lake has several cattail islands which
are ideal nesting grounds for many kinds of birds and waterfowl. Numer-
ous ducks have been observed in these wetlands, indicating that some
breeding activity may be occurring. Extensive wetland areas are asso-
ciated with the stream connecting Little Otter Lake and Snow Lake, and
with Big Otter Lake. Tamarack bogs are also part of the wetlands in the
Study Area, especially in the low-lying area around Marsh Lake, and in
the Beachwood Nature Preserve south of Little Otter Lake. Common to
boggy areas are tamarack, pussy willow, white pine, dwarf birch, red
osier, and trembling aspen (EcolSciences, Inc. undated). Depending on
the size and species of trees some of the forested wetlands undoubtedly
are nesting habitat for raccoons, wood ducks, woodpeckers and many
amphibians and reptiles.
There is currently no law specifically to regulate development in
wetlands in the State of Indiana. However, according to the State code
sections 13-2-11, 13-2-14 and 13-2-22 concerning lakes and streams, any
wetland associated with a natural lake or stream, which is within the
shoreline of the lake when the lake is at a normal level, or within the
floodplain of a stream, cannot be developed (by telephone, Mr. Robert
Glacier, Indiana DNR, 10 October 1978). Extensive complaints and recent
lawsuits by Study Area residents raise doubt whether the existing State
72
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code can adequately protect local wetlands. Sporadic development of
lakeshore wetland areas continues despite the efforts of the lakes
council to stop it. Such development usually involves the placement of
fill. Where septic tank/soil absorbtion systems are utilized for waste-
water treatment the result is rapid infiltration of effluent through
porous fill material into the lakes.
4. TERRESTRIAL BIOLOGY
The original primary forests of northeastern Indiana were dominated
by oak-hickory and beech-maple associations. Repeated clearings for
cropland and lumbering have eliminated this primary forest; however,
considerable secondary forest, primarily oak-hickory, has occupied much
of the land which has remained uncultivated. The upland forest areas,
such as the northwest shore of Lake James and west of Lake Gage, are the
least disturbed. In these areas, red oak, black oak, and white oak are
the dominant species, but tulip trees, shagbark hickory, shellbark
hickory, pignut hickory, ironwood, sassafras, and sugar maple are also
present (EcolSciences, Inc. undated). Appendix D-3 contains a list of
the terrestrial vegetation of the Study Area.
Many parts of the stream and lake borders in the Study Area have
been developed for their recreational and aesthetic values, although
undisturbed vegetation exists where steep slopes or seasonal wetness has
inhibited development. Trees present in these areas include weeping
willow, black willow, silver maple, red elm, trembling aspen, green ash,
and swamp white oak.
Wildlife in the area provides recreational opportunities for the
hunter, sightseer and naturalist. Upland forest areas support a large
diversity of animal species, including white-tailed deer, mink, oppos-
sum, raccoon, skunk, woodchuck, red squirrel, fox squirrel and eastern
chipmunk. Animals found in lower lying lake areas are similar to those
found in the upland areas, with the possible addition of muskrat and
beaver. Appendixes D-4, D-5 and D-6 contain lists of the mammals,
birds, reptiles and amphibians of northeastern Indiana.
5. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES
a. Mammals
Of the mammals believed to occur in Steuben County (see Appendix
D-4), only the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) is considered by the US Fish
and Wildlife Service to be Threatened or Endangered (44 F.R., 17 January
1979). In the northern two-thirds of Indiana, the Indiana bat is a
summer resident only. Information on summer breeding activity of
Indiana bats is restricted to the study of Humphrey, Richter and Cope
(1977), conducted in 1974 and 1975 near Webster, Wayne County in east-
central Indiana. The colony, discovered by accident and consisting of
females and their young, alternatively used as a roosting place the
loose bark of a living shagbark hickory tree and of a dead bitternut
hickory tree. Feeding flights were made well above ground level and
73
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primarily along the riparian forest of nearby streams. Humphrey and his
colleagues studied the rate at which nursery bark was lost from weather-
ing and concluded that any given roost is habitable only for a short
time, perhaps 6 to 8 years. Consequently, Indiana bats probably need to
move the nursery roost every few years.
Although the summer range of Indiana bats is reasonably well known,
there is no other specific information that may be used to predict the
possible occurrence of Indiana bats in the Steuben Lakes Study Area.
Certainly Steuben County is well within the summer range of the species,
and it is possible that one or more nursery colonies may occur there.
However, owing to the small number of Indiana bats in the United States,
and in view of the large amount of summer habitat that is available to
them along the floodplains in the eastern US, the probability that the
bats use any specific, small segment of floodplain forest is low. Even
if Indiana bats were to nest along Crooked Creek or in similar riparian
habitat in the Study Area, the small nursery colony would not be elimi-
nated by construction activity. It might be displaced, however, to
suitable trees nearby. The potential for any impact of construction on
this species would be reduced substantially if forested sections were to
be cleared between 15 October and 15 April. Apparently females return
to the vicinity where they were raised, and occasionally may have to
change to a new tree when they select a nursery site about May 1. The
possibility of destroying nursery colonies of Indiana bats is greatest
from May through July, the period of late pregnancy, birth of the young,
and the period before the young can fly.
The Study Area is within the range of the badger, Taxidea taxus,
which is considered by the State of Indiana to be endangered. Badgers
have been sighted in numerous locations in the county (by telephone, Mr.
Alger Vanhoey, NE District Wildlife Biologist, Indiana DNR, 20 September
1978). However, because the best habitat -- large grassy fields — is
uncommon in the Study Area, the badger is unlikely to be numerous there.
b. Birds
The bald eagle, (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), a Threatened species,
and the Endangered peregrine falcon, (Falco peregrinus), have both been
frequently sighted in the Study Area, especially in the region of
Pokagon State Park. It is thought that these birds are either visitors
to the area or are migrating and are not nesting in the area (by tele-
phone, Mr. Alger Vanhoey, NE District Wildlife Biologist, Indiana DNR,
20 September 1978). The osprey, (Pandion haliaetus carolinensis), which
has an "undetermined status", has also been occasionally seen in the
Study Area.
c. Plants
Two plant species, considered endangered in the State of Indiana, the
pale green orchid (Platanthera flava) and the prairie orchid
(Platanthera leucophaea), are believed to occur within the Study Area.
(The Facilities Plan failed to mention the source of this information.)
The tamarack bog required by both exists in the Study Area. Several of
the wetlands areas with suitable orchid habitat are owned by the State,
74
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including the Potawatomi Nature Preserve in Pokagon State Park and the
Beachwood Nature Preserve, south of Little Otter Lake (see Figure II-8).
Other bog habitats that may be present in the area have not yet been
identified (by telephone, Dr. James Keith, Division of Nature Preserves,
Indiana DNR, 10 October 1978). However, because some unprotected habi-
tats might be disrupted by the placement of a sewer, measures to mini-
mize the adverse effects of construction should be adopted. There is no
evidence, however, of either orchid species actually growing in the
Study Area.
d. Other
No Federally protected species of amphibian, reptile, or inver-
tebrate animal is known to exist within the Study Area.
D. POPULATION AND SOCIOECONOMICS
1. POPULATION
a. Introduction
This population information on the Study Area comes from published
data, primary field data, and house counts using aerial photographs.
Published information from the US Census and other sources is available
for Steuben County and for minor civil divisions (villages, cities, and
townships) within the county. The Study Area includes portions of
Jackson, Jamestown, Millgrove, and Pleasant Townships. It is not possi-
ble to break down published data on socioeconomic characteristics of the
population below the township level in order to describe population
characteristics of portions of townships included in the Study Area.
Consequently, published socioeconomic data are presented for each of the
townships partially within the Study Area. These townships are referred
to collectively as the Socioeconomic Study Area.
Dwelling unit counts and population estimates made for the Proposed
Service Area were based on aerial photographs. For this study, the
Proposed Service Area was divided into the thirteen subareas presented
in Figure 11-14. Field study data presented in the Facilities Plan
(Mick, Rowland & Associates, Inc. 1976) have been used to estimate
occupancy rates and the numbers of seasonal and permanent dewllings.
Appendix E-l explains the methodology used to determine population
projections.
b. Existing Population
The 1976 permanent population of the Proposed Service Area was
approximately 5,400, the seasonal population approximately 17,000,
giving a total summer population of approximately 22,400, over 75% of
which was seasonal (see Table II-7). The largest concentrations of
seasonal population were in the Lake Gage, Jimmerson Lake, Lake James,
and Crooked Lake (Main) subareas, each of which had more than 2,000
seasonal residents. Four subareas (NW Study Area and Crooked Lake East,
South, and North) had no seasonal population. Variations in the pro-
75
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LEGEND
PROPOSED SERVICE AREA
14 j GROUP SEGMENT
\
ZOOO 4OOO
FIGURE II-1V STEUBEN IAKES: GROUP SEGMENTS OF THE
PROPOSED SERVICE AREA
-------
Table II-7
PERMANENT AND SEASONAL POPULATION
IN THE PROPOSED SERVICE AREA, 1976
POPULATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
SUB AREA
Lake Gage
Lime Lake
Lake Syl-Van
NW Study Area
Jimmeson Lake
Lake James
Snow Lake
Otter Tail Lake
Crooked Lake (East)
Crooked Lake (South)
Crooked Lake (North)
Crooked Lake (3rd Basin)
Crooked Lake (Main)
TOTAL
Off Lake
On Lake
TOTAL
2,148
234
90
648
5,064
5,091
1,806
753
879
384
120
1,185
4,038
22,440
2,586
19,584
PERMANENT
309
33
18
648
753
981
261
141
879
384
120
333
579
5,439
2,586
2,853
SEASONAL
1,839
201
72
0
4,311
4,110
1,545
612
0
0
0
852
3,459
17,001
0
17,001
SEASONAL
86
86
80
0
85
81
86
81
0
0
0
72
86
76
0
87
See Figure 11-14
77
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portions of the seasonal population indicate considerable diversity in
the Proposed Service Area. No specific data on permanent or seasonal
population are available for the Proposed Service Area prior to 1975.
Historical data are available for permanent population in the Socio-
economic Study Area. These data show that the permanent population grew
from 2,679 in 1940 to 5,453 in 1970, a rate of 2.4% per year. From 1970
to 1975, permanent population grew from 5,453 to 6,614, a rate of 3.8%
per year. The increased growth rate in the Study Area since 1970 paral-
lels national trends of more rapid growth in recreational areas.
c. Population Projections
Permanent, seasonal, and total summer populations were projected
for the year 2000 for the Proposed Service Area and each of the 13
subareas (see Table II-8). The projections of permanent population have
been developed in accordance with projections of population growth for
the four townships of the Study Area by the Indiana University Bureau of
Business Research. The rate of growth of permanent population in the
Proposed Service Area was assumed to be the same as that projected for
the four townships. On this basis, the permanent population was pro-
jected to increase from 5,439 in 1975 to 9,877 in 2000, equivalent to
81.6%.
Seasonal population within the Proposed Service Area is projected
to grow by 23% from 17,001 in 1975 to 20,910 in 2000. This rate of
increase was projected in the Facilities Plan.
Total in-summer, permanent, and seasonal populations have been
calculated separately for on-lake and off-lake segments. For off-lake
areas it was assumed that all persons are permanent residents and thus
that permanent and in-summer populations are equal. For on-lake areas,
the in-summer population was calculated on the basis of the permanent to
seasonal population ratio determined through field investigations re-
ported in the Facilities Plan. The ratio of summer to permanent popu-
lation in on-lake segments was assumed to remain constant between 1975
and 2000.
Total in-summer population in the Proposed Service Area is pro-
jected to be 30,787 in the year 2000, rising 37% over the estimated 1975
population. The average annual growth rate for this 25 year period is
1.3% per year, slightly higher than the rate projected by the Facilities
Plan.
These projected rates of population growth, while relatively rapid,
are consistent not only with local but also with national trends. The
rate of permanent population growth forecast for 1975 to 2000 is some-
what above the 1940 to 1970 rate, but below the 1970 to 1975 rate.
The population projections presented herein reflect general national
trends in migration, age structure, income and birth rates. Since 1970,
migration has been predominantly frora metropolitan to nonmetropolitan
areas, especially to areas with high recreation potential. This trend
has tended to increase growth in the Service Area above that expected
from pre-1970 trends and has been augmented by growth of retirement age
78
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Table II-8
ESTIMATED POPULATION OF THE STEUBEN PROPOSED SERVICE- AREA, 1975,
AND PROJECTED POPULATION, 2000
VD
SUBAREA
Lake Gage
Lime Lake
Lake Syl-Van
NW Study Area
Jimmerson Lake
Lake James
Snow Lake
Otter Tail Lake
Crooked Lake (East)
Crooked Lake (South)
Crooked Lake (North)
Crooked Lake (3rd Basin)
Crooked Lake (Main)
TOTAL
Off Lake
On Lake
PERMANENT
309
33
18
648
753
981
261
141
879
384
120
333
579
5,439
2,586
2,853
1975
SEASONAL
1,839
201
72
0
4,311
4,110
1,545
612
0
0
0
852
3,459
17,001
0
17,001
TOTAL
2,148
234
90
648
5,064
5,091
1,806
753
879
384
120
1,185
4,038
22,440
2,586
19,854
PERMANENT
380
41
30
1,596
963
1,565
321
221
2,165
946
295
642
712
9,877
6,368
3,509
2000
SEASONAL
2,262
247
88
0
5,302
5,055
1,900
754
0
0
0
1,048
4,254
20,910
0
20,910
TOTAL
2,642
288
118
1,596
6,265
6,620
2,221
975
2,165
946
295
1,690
4,966
30,787
6,368
24,416
-------
population. Many former seasonal residents have retired to become
permanent residents. Higher income levels have contributed to the
growth of seasonal population by increasing the number of persons who
can afford seasonal and second homes. The growth of permanent popu-
lation has been reduced somewhat by lower birth rates since 1960.
Changes in these general trends during the planning period would alter
population levels from those projected.
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POPULATION
a. Permanent Population
This section presents information on the income levels, poverty,
elderly population, and employment characteristics of the Study Area.
These characteristics are useful in analyzing 'the financial impacts of
the various wastewater treatment alternatives.
Income levels in the Steuben Lakes Socioeconomic Study Area are
moderate. The mean family income in 1970 was $9,932, about 10% below
Indiana and National levels. In 1970, 51.9% of family incomes were
under $10,000, 44.6% from $10,000 to $25,000, and only 3.5% over $25,000.
More detailed information on 1970 family income is provided in Appendix
E-2. Per capita income in Study Area townships ranged from $3,666 to
$5,975 in 1974. Both 1974 per capita income and growth of per capita
income from 1969 to 1974 approximate levels for the State of Indiana
(see Table II-9). Highest income levels are in Jamestown Township,
while lowest income levels are found in Millgrove Township. In 1970,
the most recent year for which family data are available, 220 families
or 7.8% of all Study Area families received incomes below the federally
established poverty level. Also, 27.1% of all persons 65 years of age
and over were below the poverty level. This disproportionate amount of
poverty level families among the elderly includes a large number of
persons living on fixed incomes from pensions and disability payments.
Payment of sewer assessments is likely to be difficult if not impossible
for poverty level persons. Appendix E-2 provides more detailed infor-
mation on income levels.
The Study Area contains a significant retirement and near retire-
ment population. Persons 65 years of age and over constituted 11.2% of
total Study Area population while persons 55 years of age and over
constituted 19.8% of the Study Area's population. The proportion of
persons 55 years of age and over varied from 9.1% in Jackson Township^to
31.2% in Jamestown Township. (See Appendix E-3 for detailed information
on population 55 years of age and over.) Sewer service assessments are
likely to represent a severe burden on retired persons or persons near-
ing retirement. A total of 2,149 persons in the Study Area fell into
this age group in 1970.
Employment in the Study Area in 1970 was greatly dependent on
manufacturing and retail trade (see Table 11-10). Many Study Area
residents work in nearby urban centers which are easily accessible via
1-80 (the Indiana Tollway) and 1-69. The nearest Standard Metropolitan
Statistical Area is Fort Wayne, IN. A significant proportion (11.4%) of
Study Area employment was in "Other Industries," which include agricul-
ture.
80
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Table II-9
PER CAPITA INCOME, 1969 and 1974
Percent Change
State of Indiana
Steuben County
Jackson Township
Jamestown Township
Millgrove Township
a
Pleasant Township
1969
$3,070
2,883
2,885
3,473
2,475
3,157
1974
$4,458
4,300
4,016
5,975
3,666
4,592
(1969-1974)
45.2
49.2
39.2
72.0
48.1
45.5
Note:
Figures include town of Angola which is not in the Study Area'.
Source: U.S. Census, Population Estimates and Projections (Series P-25),
May 1977.
81
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Table 11-10
EMPLOYMENT BY INDUSTRY, 1970
Construction
Manufacturing
Transportation
Communications,
Utilities
Trade
Finance, Insurance,
Business, Repair
Other Services3
Educational Services
Public Administration
Other Industries
TOTAL
State
of Indiana
Number
107,349
723,205
64,847
52,881
385,652
125,645
159,501
156,551
75,433
164,299
2,016,365
Percent
5.3
35.9
3.2
2.7
19.1
6.2
7.9
7.8
3.7
8.1
Steuben County
Number
426
2,301
233
203
1,643
325
385
798
183
1,137
7,634
Percent
5.6
30.1
3.1
2.6
21.5
4.3
5.0
10.5
2.4
14.9
100.0
Study Area
Number
199
1,223
134
151
997
186
295
543
118
495
4,341
Percent
4.6
28.2
3.1
3.5
22.9
4.3
6.8
12.5
2.7
U.4
100.0
Notes: Other services include hospitals; health services, welfare,
religious and non-profit membership organizations.
Other industries include agriculture; mining; private house-
holds; other personal services; and entertainment and
recreation services.
Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Fifth County Summary Data, 1970.
U.S. Bureau of the Census, General Social and Economic
Characteristics, Indiana, 1970.
82
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Tourism played a significant role in the county's economy in 1972.
A comparison of selected services receipts for the county and the State
indicated that tourist services accounted for more than 77% of all
service receipts in Steuben County, but only 33% of all receipts in
Indiana. In particular, hotels had a major impact on the local economy
with sales receipts amounting to 63.4% of the county's service-related
sales. Retail trade statistics provide another indication of the pre-
valence of tourism in the lakes area. Sales from gasoline service
stations accounted for approximately one quarter of all retail trade (US
Bureau of the Census 1970).
b. Seasonal Population
The great majority of seasonal residents in the Study Area have
their permanent residences within 100 miles of the area. Within this
radius, most seasonal residents come from areas to the south of Steuben
Lakes, in northern Indiana and northwestern Ohio. More seasonal resi-
dents come from Fort Wayne than any other area, although many also come
from Toledo, Ohio. Some seasonal residents also have their permanent
homes in more distant cities, especially Indianapolis, Dayton OH, and
Cincinnati OH (by telephone, Mr. Craig Benson, Steuben Lakes Regional
Waste District, February 1979).
Most seasonal residents have the necessary high incomes for sup-
porting a seasonal as well as a permanent residence. An exception are
the mobile homes, residents generally with moderate or lower incomes (by
telephone, Mr. Craig Benson, Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District,
February 1979). From the limited, non-statistical data on seasonal
residents, it appears that they generally have higher total incomes than
permanent residents of the area. The higher income of seasonal resi-
dents must, however, support two dwellings. Increased costs of waste-
water disposal from seasonal dwellings may thus represent a burden for
seasonal residents despite their relatively high incomes.
3. HOUSING
The Socioeconomic Study Area contained 6,029 dwelling units in
1970. Of these, 3,808 (63%) were occupied year round and 2,221 (37%)
were occupied seasonally. More than 93% of the permanent dwelling units
in the Study Area were owner occupied. Much of the permanent housing is
older, with 51% of the 1970 housing stock built before 1940, 34% from
1940 to 1965, and only 15% after 1965 (see Appendix E-4 for more detailed
information on the permanent housing stock).
The median value of owner-occupied dwellings and median rents in
Steuben County are considerably below the national medians. In 1970
median housing value in Steuben County was $11,998, compared to the
national average of $17,130; median rents in Steuben County were $96,
compared to national average of $110. The lower values in Steuben
County undoubtedly reflect the rural nature of the area.
No 1970 US Census information is available for seasonal dwellings.
However, interviews with knowledgeable local sources do provide clear
insight into the current (1979) nature of seasonal dwellings. The value
83
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of undeveloped lakefront property in early 1979 was estimated to be
about $200 per lakefront foot. Little undeveloped property is avail-
able, however. Seasonal homes range in price generally from $40,000 to
$60,000. A few subdivisions have seasonal homes in the $100,000 range
and one home was recently sold for $700,000.
Most of the seasonal homes are 40 to 60 years old. Earliest sea-
sonal development took place around 1900. The peak construction period
was 1910 to 1930. A second peak occurred after World War II. By 1955
little undeveloped lakefront property remained. Most seasonal homes in
the area are of modest size. The larger and better constructed dwell-
ings have tended to be converted to permanent use (by telephone, Mr.
Craig Benson, Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District, February 1979).
Four thousand one hundred seventy-one dwelling units the Proposed
Service Area were counted from 1976 aerial photography. It is estimated
that 1,813 (43%) of these were occupied all year and 2,358 (57%) sea-
sonally. More than 70% of lakeshore dwellings were seasonal, while all
residences in non-lakeshore areas were of permanent occupancy. Appendix
E-l explains the methodology used in developing the seasonal/permanent
occupancy.
Estimates of the number of dwellings in the Proposed Service Area
in the year 2000 were based on population projections and occupancy
rates provided in the Facilities Plan. The existing and projected
numbers of dwelling units by subarea are given in Table 11-11. An
estimated 6,196 dwelling units are projected in the year 2000, 3,292
(53%) being permanent and 2,904 (47%) seasonal. The dominance of per-
manent dwellings in 2000 represents a shift from seasonal dominance in
1975.
Residences in the Proposed Service Area are currently highly con-
centrated in lakeshore areas. In 1976 a total of 3,494 dwellings (84%)
of all dwellings in the Proposed Service Area were within 300 feet of
the shore of Crooked Lake, Lake Gage, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, and
Snow Lake.
4. LAND USE
a. Existing Land Use
The Study Area contains a variety of land use categories, including
agricultural, open space, residential, commercial, and recreational (see
Figure 11-15). Factors determining the nature, intensity, and distribu-
tion of these land uses are proximity to lake shore areas, accessibility
of transportation, and land characteristics -- especially drainage,
slope, and soil characteristics which influence the feasibility of
installing septic systems. Residential development is concentrated
around Lake Gage, Crooked Lake, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, Lime Lake,
Snow Lake, Big Otter Lake, and Little Otter Lake.
Recreational land use is important in the Proposed Service Area.
Significant recreation and park areas include:
84
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Table H-ll
EXISTING AND PROJECTED DWELLING UNITS
WITHIN THE PROPOSED SERVICE AREA, 1975 AND 2000
oo
Ul
SUBAREA
Lake Gage
Lime Lake
Lake Syl-Van
NW Study Area
Jimmerson Lake
Lake James
Snow Lake
Otter Tail Lake
Crooked Lake (East)
Crooked Lake (South)
Crooked Lake (North)
Crooked Lake (3rd Basin)
Crooked Lake (Main)
TOTAL
Off Lake
On Lake
See Figure II- 14
See Appendix E-l for method of calculation.
1975
PERMANENT
103
11
6
216
251
327
87
47
293
128
40
111
193
1,813
862
951
SEASONAL
255
28
10
0
598
570
214
85
0
0
0
118
480
2,358
0
2,358
TOTAL
358
39
16
216
849
897
301
132
293
128
40
229
673
4,171
862
3,309
2000
PERMANENT
127
13
10
532
321
522
108
74
722
314
98
214
237
3,292
2,122
1,170
SEASONAL
314
35
12
0
737
702
262
106
0
0
0
145
591
2,904
0
2,904
TOTAL
441
48
22
532
1,058
1,224
370
180
722
314
98
359
828
6,196
2,122
4,074
-------
LECEHI)
RESIDENTIAL
MOBILE HOME PARK
GKNEKAL BUSINESS AND COMMERCIAL
I'ARK OR RECREATIONAL
ACU[CULTURAL OR OPEN
» BOAT LAUNCHES
fl
0 2OOO 400O
Source: Schellte Aasuc. INC.
1968; EPIC 1979
I'lCUKK 11-15 STEUBEN LAKES: EXISTING LAND USli
-------
• Pokagon State Park - on the northeast shore of Lake James.
• Steuben County Park - on the southeast shore of Crooked Lake.
The County 4-H Park is adjacent to the Steuben County Park
along the south shore of Crooked Lake.
• Lake James Golf Course - south of Lake James. This is a large
private recreational area.
• Pokagon Girls Camp - a private recreational area west of Snow
Lake and north of Lake James.
• Nature Preserves - Nature preserves are protected by State
law. Picnicking and camping are not allowed in these areas.
Nature preserves include Marsh Lake (State owned), the Beach-
wood Nature.Preserve (south of Big Otter Lake), and the Potawami
Nature Preserve in Pokagon State Park. The State hopes to
acquire the marsh area around Seven Sisters Lakes as a nature
preserve (by telephone, Mr. John Bacone, Indiana DNR, 10
October 1978).
In addition to the recreation and park areas, 23 commercial and
public boat launches exist within the Study Area (see Figure 11-15).
The boat launches provide residents and non-residents of the Steuben
Lakes area with lake access. Over one-half of the area's boat launches
are along Crooked Lake (8 launches) and Lake James (5 launches) (US EPA,
Environmental Photo Interpretation Complex 1979).
Commercial activity is found along State Route 127 and County Route
200 W. No industrial areas exist within the Proposed Service Area and
no provisions exist for industrial development in current zoning plans.
The majority of the Proposed Service Area is currently in low
density land uses, especially in areas removed from the lake shore
zones. Major low density uses include agriculture, wetlands, and open
space.
b. Future Land Use
Steuben County currently has a Master Land Use Plan which was
adopted in 1972. Five principal land use categories are delineated by
this Plan:
Lake residential;
Recreational;
Park and environmental control;
General business; and
Agricultural.
The Master Land Use Plan anticipates major changes in future land
use patterns. Figure 11-16 shows, lake residential uses proposed for
expansion in the area between Crooked Lake and Jimmerson Lake - Lake
James, and to the south of Lake Gage. Recreational areas will remain
87
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LEGEND
LAKE RESIDENTIAL
| | RECREATIONAL
[ ' • j PARK, ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
^H| CKNERAL BUSINESS
| | A(.RICULTURAL
oo
00
Source: Scliellie Assoc.
INC. 1970
FIGURE 11-16 STEUBEN LAKES: FUTURE LAND USE
-------
essentially unchanged. The area east of Pokagon State Park is desig-
nated as an environmental control area, as are areas to the west of
Jimmerson Lake and southeast of Lake Gage. A general business district
is designated for the area between Crooked and Jimmerson Lakes. Agri-
cultural areas are found primarily in the southeast and northwest por-
tions of the Study Area.
c. Growth Management
Steuben County's Zoning Ordinance establishes some land development
controls affecting the shorelands in the Study Area. The State of
Indiana requires developers to obtain permits for shoreland or lakebed
alterations, but has adopted no additional regulatory measures which
would directly affect lakeshore development.
The zoning districts of major import to shoreland development are
those designated as Lake Residence, Single-Family Residence, Environ-
mental Control, and Local Business. Lake Residence Districts are de-
fined as areas that adjoin extensive bodies of water in the county and
are suitable for seasonal or permanent residences. Single-Family Resi-
dence Districts are low-density areas composed of single-family resi-
dences only. Environmental Control Districts are lowland areas lacking
drainage; areas within the floodplain of rivers, creeks, drainage
ditches or backwaters and subject to inundation; and areas of rolling
and rugged topography where conservation of the natural environment is
desirable for recreation or other uses; numerous wetland areas are
apparently excluded from this classification. Local Business Districts
are areas close to residential areas and appropriate to meeting their
shopping and service needs.
These districts differ slightly in their residential development
restrictions (see Table 11-12). Differences between Residential Dis-
tricts and Environmental Control Districts pertain mainly to the exclu-
sion of multi-family residences from the latter. The ordinance does not
include provisions for discharge of liquid or solid wastes into the
lakes. Septic tanks and absorption trenches must be set back at least
50 feet from the shoreline. Septic tank sewage disposal systems are not
permitted in areas that are seasonally wet, are subject to ponding, or
are periodically flooded.
Lake Residence Districts (LRD) and Environmental Control Districts
(ECD) cover most of the shoreland of the Proposed Service Area (see
Figure 11-15). Permitted uses in these districts are as follows:
89
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Table 11-12
RESIDENCE DEVELOPMENT RESTRICTIONS
Minimum Lot Size (sq. ft.)
Maximum Unit Density
Minimum Setback
from Lakeshore (ft.)
District Single-Family Multi-Family Single-Family Multi-Family
Lake Residence
Local Business
Single-Family
Residence
Environmental
Control
10,000 20,000*
10,000 20,000*
10,000
12,000
4 6*
4 6*
4
3.5
Single-Family
20
20
20
20
Multi-Family
15
15
-
* The figures apply for the first two dwelling units—5,000 square feet is added for each additional unit.
Source: Steuben County Zoning Ordinance.
-------
Permitted Uses LRD ECD
Residential Uses
Single dwellings x x
Two family dwellings x
Multifamily dwellings x
Mobile Home X*
Planned development x* x*
Agricultural Uses
Artificial lakes x* x*
General farms x x
Industrial Uses
Mineral extraction, topsoil removal x*
Community Facilities
Airport x*
Churches, Government buildings x x
police & fire stations x* x
libraries or museums x*
schools x x
Public Park & Recreational Facilities x x
Sewage Disposal Plant x* x
Water Stations & Plants x* x
Business Uses
Restaurant x
Clubs, Bowling Alleys, Hunting
& Fishing Lodges x* x*
Commercial Recreational Facilities x* x*
Private Recreational Development x* x*
Hotels, Motels x*
Trailer Park x*
^Denotes permitted use when approved as special exception.
As is shown above, there are negligible differences between uses
allowed in Lake Residence Districts and Environmental Control Districts.
These districts appear to have been established as much to sanction uses
occurring at the time the ordinance was adopted as to control future
activities. Since Lake Residence Districts cover over half the shore-
land in the Study Area, the ordinance appears to have considerable
potential for conflicts of future uses. Many uses can be authorized
only by the Steuben County Planning Commission and the Board of County
Commissioners as special exceptions, but the ordinance does not desig-
nate the extent to which these special exceptions are allowable along
lakeshores. Its apparent impact on filling of wetlands for residential
construction is negligible.
The Steuben County Planning Commission (SCPC) was established on
September 7, 1965 by Ordinance No. 524 under Indiana Code 18-7-5-1. The
stated purposes and goals are:
91
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"to improve the present health, safety, convenience, and
welfare of...citizens and to plan for the future development
of...communities to the end that highway systems be carefully
planned, that new community centers grow only with adequate
highway, utility, educational, and recreational facilities;
that the needs of agriculture, industry and business be recog-
nized in future growth; that residential areas provide healthy
surroundings for family life; and that the growth of the
community is commensurate with and promotive of the efficient
and economical use of public funds."
The SCPC's powers include the adoption and implementation of a
master plan. Accordingly, a Master Plan, developed and approved by SCPC
on December 29, 1971, was adopted as a zoning 'ordinance by the Steuben
County Board of Commissioners on January 3, 1973.
The SCPC has been implementing the Master Plan with notable suc-
cess. On November 9, 1977, the Steuben Circuit Court upheld the en-
forcement order of the SCPC preventing the continuation of a used car
operation on Lake James. In July 1978 the SCPC's disapproval of the
proposed establishment of a large amusement park at the intersection of
State Road #120 and 1-69 led to the developer's withdrawal of the pro-
posal. The SCPC also rejected a proposal for a 4-wheel drive recrea-
tional park near Tamarack Mountain east of Lake James during July 1978
(by letter, Mr. Craig Benson, Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District, 25
July 1978). The impact of the SCPC in controlling developmental growth
in the county has been noted by the public, as is evident in the feature
article of June 21, 1979 in the Steuben Republican (see Appendix A-2).
5. FISCAL CHARACTERISTICS
The grant applicant is the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District
which was established under Chapter 19-3.1.1-14 of the Indiana State
Code. This code restricts the District's fund raising solely to revenue
bonds payable from net revenues of the facilities. The ability of the
District to undertake debt is limited to a percentage of total assessed
valuation. The exact debt limit has not been established because Dis-
trict property values have never been differentiated from township
assessments. The number of dwellings within the Proposed Service Area
and their value indicate that debt limitations would not limit
wastewater facility financing (by telephone, Mr. Craig Benson, Steuben
Lakes Regional Waste District, February 1979).
Wastewater District expenditures will indirectly affect other local
governments because of the additional tax burden they represent. Other
taxing bodies in the area are Steuben County and three local school
districts. Townships in the County share part of the County's tax
revenues. Neither Steuben County nor any townships in the Study Area
maintained any debt during Fiscal Year 1977 (State Board of Accounts
1978). At present, local taxes in the Proposed Service Area are rela-
tively low. However, tax levy rates are presently frozen by the State
of Indiana and Steuben County. Any increases in those levies must be
approved by the State.
92
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6. HISTORICAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES
No sites listed with the National Historic Register or the Indiana
Survey of Historical Sites are within the Study Area. The only historic
site in Steuben County was reported to be the County Courthouse in
Angola (by letter, Indiana Historical Bureau, 25 January 1977 --see
Appendix F-l)
The Glenn A. Black Laboratory of Archaeology, Indiana University
has indicated that no known archaeological sites exist in the Study Area
(see Appendix F-2). However, it recommends that a systematic survey of
all prospective construction areas (sewers and treatment facilities) be
conducted prior to construction since the topography of the Study Area
indicates a likelihood for the existence of archaeological sites.
Should such a survey locate any site(s) eligible for inclusion in the
National Register of Historic Places, a mitigation plan must be proposed.
E. EXISTING SYSTEMS AND NEED FOR ACTION
1. TYPES OF SYSTEMS
Two central collection and treatment systems exist within the Study
Area. One serves the Pokagon State Park and, the other, the Holiday Inn
and Faucher's Motel. Both of these systems have recently been upgraded
to meet the requirements of NPDES permits: the former by the installa-
tion of tertiary treatment facilities; the latter by land application of
secondary effluent instead of discharging to Lake Charles (see Section
I.A.3). These systems have therefore been excluded from the Proposed
Service Area.
On-site waste disposal systems serve the remainder of the Study
Area. Septic tank soil absorption systems are generally in use with the
exception of a few outhouses serving seasonal (summer) cottages. The
status of these systems, their problems and the need for remedial action
are analyzed in the remaining subsections of Section II.E.
2. STATUS OF SYSTEMS
The Steuben County Health Department (SCHD) is the designated local
agency with responsibility for regulating private sewage disposal sys-
tems in the Study Area. No ordinance governing private sewage disposal
systems existed prior to 1957. The 1957 ordinance authorized no action
by the SCHD except when systems were found to be malfunctioning. Regu-
lation of the installation of ST/SASs was first undertaken in the Study
Area on May 4, 1970 when the Commissioners of Steuben County amended
Ordinance No. 500 to provide for "Regulating The Installation, Construc-
tion, Maintenance and Operation of Private Sewage Disposal Systems in
Closely Built-Up Areas and Providing Penalties For Violations Thereof."
The SCHD has pursued a vigorus regulatory program as well as a monitor-
ing program. It has monitored the malfunctioning of ST/SASs by means of
dye tests and called upon owners of such systems to take corrective
93
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action. It has also monitored water quality in the lakes with developed
shorelines (see Section II.B.2). The SCHD provided the following infor-
mation on the status and problems of ST/SASs in the Study Area by letter
of December 13, 1977:
• ST/SASs in Study Area numbered 3513.
• Of 430 permits issued during 1972-1976 new ST/SASs accounted
for 255 or 59%, and replacement and repairs the remaining 41%.
• Of the new installations, 75% failed to meet one or more of
the State's guidelines contained in Bulletin SE 8 while 94% of
the replacements and repairs were similarly at fault.
• Failures of the ST/SASs were attributed to their ages (many
over 40 years); overloading due to overcrowding of lake cot-
tages and increased use of dishwashers, automatic washing
machines, etc; and installation on poor soils and in high
water table areas.
• Table 11-13 shows that the average lot sizes in all but three
of the 16 subdivisions in the Study Area are smaller than the
10,000 square feet minimum recommended by the State's Bulletin
SE 8 and required by the Steuben County Sanitation Policies
and Procedures. Their locations are shown in Figure 11-17.
• Figure 11-18 shows the locations of malfunctioning ST/SASs
identified by eight dye test programs of the Steuben County
Health Department. Owners of such systems have been required
to take corrective measures immediately.
• The Steuben County Health Department has documented that 90%
of the septic systems in use (December 1977) can in "no way be
replaced or repaired under proposed new Indiana State Board of
Health Regulations, because of small lot size, high water
table, poor soil, etc." [New regulations HSE 25 became effec-
tive December 15, 1977]
The above information indicates that significant numbers of ST/SASs
have been malfunctioning, but provides no definitive evidence of signi-
ficant adverse impacts on surface water quality, groundwater quality or
public health. Also, the SCHD's monitoring and enforcement programs
have probably been effective in reducing any likely adverse impacts on
surface water quality. The SCHD furthermore indicated that no infor-
mation was available on the occurrence of wastewater related gastro-
enteric diseases or infant methemoglobinemia in the Study Area. A
number of studies were therefore undertaken to provide a basis for
determining the need for action, and eligibility for Federal funding.
These studies are described and their findings assessed in Section
II.E.3 below.
The SCHD information does indicate that a vast majority of the
existing systems are not in compliance with State and local regulations
94
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Table 11-13
STEUBEN LAKES REGIONAL WASTE DISTRICT AVERAGE LOT SIZES
Subdivision Lot Size*
(sq. ft.)
1.- Lake Gage South Side Plat 5,140
2. O.P. West Colony Bay 5,264
3. Kidney Landing 5,600
4. Folck Addition 7,230
5. Long Beach 5,600
6. Roby Place 5,155
7. Potawatomi Acres 12,530
8. Red Sand Beach 8,095
9. Glen Eyre Beach • 4,910
10. Feick's Point 7,420
11. Eagle Island 4,200
12. Sprague's Addition 10,986
13. Morley's Addition 8,420
14. Hickory Island 4,970
15. Ramblin Acres 11,700
16. Buena Vista 4,567
* Based on the average of seven lots within that subdivision.
Source: Steuben County Health Department, 1977.
95
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1. Lake Gage South Side Plat
2. 0. P. West Colony Bay
3. Kidney Landing
4. Folck Addition
5. Long Beach
6. Roby Place
7. Potawatomi Acres
8. Red Sand Beach
SUBDIVISION
9. Glen Eyre Beach
10. Feick's Point
11. Eagle Island
12. Sprague's Addition
13. Horley's Addition
14. Hickory Island
IS. Rarablin Acres
16. Suena Vista
Source: Steuben County
Health Dept. 1977
FIGURE 11-17 STEUBEH LAKES: SUBDIVISIONS
-------
LEGEND
. MALFUNCTIONING SEPTIC TANKS
(STEUBEN COUNTY HEALTH
DEPARTMENT)
A MALFUNCTIONING SEPTIC TANKS
(EPIC)
20OO 4QOO
:L
J Source; EPIC 1979; Steuben
County Health Dept.
1977.
in CURE 11-18 STEUBEN LAKES: MALFUNCTIONING SEPTIC TANK SYSTEMS
-------
particularly because of very small lot sizes. The density of ST/SASs is
therefore very high and required set back distances of ST/SASs from
wells, surface waters etc., cannot be met. This situation has been
confirmed by an examination of large scale (1 in. = 250 ft.) aerial
photographs flown in April 1976. Estimated linear housing densities and
lot sizes from these photographs are shown in Table II-14. Analysis of
the data indicates that 65% of the houselots in the Proposed Service
Area are less than 1/3 acre in size. This is the lot size generally
needed to ensure compliance with set back distances between ST/SASs and
wells. The percentage of lots less than 1/3 acre is highest in the
lakeshore areas of Crooked Lake (1st and 2nd Basins) with 85%, followed
by the off-lake areas east of Crooked Lake with 82%, and the lakeshore
areas of Lake Gage with 74%, and Jimmerson Lake with 70%. Approximately
49% of the houselots in the Proposed Service Area are also less than \
acre in size. The lakeshore areas of Crooked Lake (1st and 2nd Basins)
are again the highest in this respect with 79% followed by the lakeshore
areas of Jimmerson Lake with 56% and Lake Gage with 51%.
The data also show that linear densities (number of residences per
mile of shoreline) are highest around Crooked Lake (1st and 2nd Basins)
at 136, followed by Lake Gage at 111, and Jimmerson at 109. Correspond-
ing average property frontages are 39 ft., 48 ft., and 48 ft., respec-
tively. These conditions, while being conducive to groundwater contami-
nation and degradation do not necessarily mean that such degradation has
actually occurred. A groundwater quality survey has been undertaken
with a view to determining the existing water quality situation. The
findings are reported in Section II.E.3 below.
3. SPECIAL STUDIES
This discussion summarizes the studies recently undertaken to
evaluate existing systems. Results of these studies are also discussed
elsewhere in this EIS (surface and groundwater quality, etc.).
a. "Investigation of Septic Leachate Discharges into
Steuben Lakes, Indiana" (William Kerfoot 1979)
This study was undertaken in December 1978 to determine the extent
to which groundwater plumes from nearby septic tanks were emerging in
the lakes and contributing nutrients to them. Septic tank leachate
plumes were located with a Septic Leachate Detector, commonly referred
to as a "Septic Snooper". The instrument is equipped with analyzers to
detect both organic and inorganic chemicals from domestic wastewaters.
It is towed along the shoreline to obtain a profile of septic leachate
plumes discharging to the surface water. Surface and ground water
sampling for nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and bacteria were
coordinated with the septic leachate profile to identify the source of
the leachate. Three different types of plumes were encountered:
erupting plumes characterized by the presence of both organic and
inorganic residues; passive plumes in which only organic residues are
present and which are indicative of retreating plumes from seasonally
used septic tanks; and stream source plumes, stream discharges into the
lakes of groundwater leachates, overland flow or direct pipe discharges
into the streams.
98
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Table 11-14
HOUSING DENSITIES AND LOT SIZES IN STUDY AREA
Lakeshore Areas:
Lake Gage
Lime Lake
Lake Syl-Van
Jimmerson Lake
Lake James
Snow Lake
Otter Tail Lakes
Crooked Lake
1st & 2nd Basin
3rd Basin
Off Lake Areas:
North of Lime Lake
North of Crooked Lake
East of Crooked Lake
South of Crooked Lake
No. of
Residences
358
39
16
849
897
301
132
673
229
216
40
328
128
Length of
Segment
(Ft.)
17,000
5,500
3,700
41,300
57,200
19,000
15,300
26,200
20,100
27,600
10,000
22,900
19,800
No. of
Residences
Per Mile
111
37
23
109
83
84
46
136
60
41
21
76
34
Equivalent
Avg. Frontage
(Ft.)
48
143
230
48
64
63
115
39
88
129
251
69
155
No. of House
Lots Smaller Than
1/4 Acre 1/3 Acre
182
15
473
412
109
49
530
27
96
167
2
266
19
5
592
508
137
69
573
85
150
23
268
40
-------
Continuous shoreline surveys were conducted on Charles Lake, Little
Otter Lake, Big Otter Lake, Snow Lake, Lake James, Crooked Lake and Lake
Gage. Only Discrete samplings through the ice cover were undertaken on
Jimmerson Lake, the third basin of Crooked Lake and Lime Lake.
A total of 69 plumes were found irregularly scattered around the
shorelines of the lakes (see Figure 11-19). This is a very small number
of plumes in comparison with the 3,494 lakeshore residences in the
Proposed Service Area. The numbers and types of plumes found in each
lake are summarized in Table 11-15. Almost all of the plumes were found
on three lakes: Lake James, 24 plumes (35%); Crooked Lake (First and
Second Basins), 20 plumes (29%); and Lake Gage, 15 plumes (22%). Erupt-
ing plumes numbered 42, equivalent to 61% of the total. There were 23
passive plumes (33%), and four stream source plumes (6%).
The frequency of the plumes was directly related to the soils
classification. The majority of the plumes, 41 of 69, was associated
with moderately rapid and rapidly permeable soils, or occurred in cut
and fill canal regions of uncertain soil types.
A large stream source plume, principally of bog-like organic com-
position, as distinct from wastewater effluent, was found entering
Little Otter Lake via the connecting stream from Marsh Lake. This plume
became progressively less concentrated as it flowed through Little Otter
Lake, Big Otter Lake, the lower half of Snow Lake, finally becoming
dissipated in the middle basin of Lake James (see Figure 11-20). Asso-
ciated with this plume was a noticeably high level of total phosphorus
ranging from 0.096 mg/1 at the entrance to Little Otter Lake to 0.011 at
the discharge from Lake James to Jimmerson Lake. Old sediment deposits
in Marsh Lake from effluent discharges of the Freemont sewage treatment
plant (east of Marsh Lake) were indicated as the likely source of the
high phosphorus concentrations. While the plant no longer discharges
phosphorus to Marsh Lake, the acidic leachate from the extensive bogs
around Marsh Lake is thought to release phosphorus from its carbonate
binding in the Marsh Lake sediments. Further studies were recommended
to confirm this theory. This and the other stream source plumes were
identified as the major sources of phosphorus to the lakes surveyed.
The bacteriological survey of the lakes revealed very few locations
with fecal contamination shown by the presence of fecal coliforms. The
recommended limit of 200 fecal coliform organisms/100 ml was only ex-
ceeded at three locations: the storm drain outlet on the western shore
of Lake Charles, the stream entering Big Otter Lake in the northeast,
and a point on the north shore of the third basin of Crooked Lake. Four
other elevated concentrations (§100 organisms/100 ml) were found in
canals on the eastern shore of Crooked Lake and on the stream linking
Crooked Lake and Lake Gage. Appendix C-7 contains the Kerfoot study.
A supplementary leachate survey of Crooked Lake and Jimmerson Lake
began in August 1979. Thus far the survey has shown plume concentra-
tions comparable to or lower than those in the late 1978 survey. Plumes
were concentrated around the identified channel areas. Substantial
algal blooms were noted on Jimmerson Lake. A complete report on this
study will be included in the Final EIS.
100
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POKA60N STATE PARK [
LEGEND
ERUPTING PLUME
DORMANT PLUME
STREAM SOURCE PLUME
ICE COVER
0 2OOC 4OOO
Source: Kerfoot 1979
FIGURE 11-19' STEUBEN LAKES; SEPTIC LEACHATE PLUME LOCATIONS
-------
Table 11-15
STEUBEN LAKES: DISTRIBUTION OF LEACHATE PLUMES
Types of Plumes
Lake Erupting Passive Stream Source
Little Otter - - 1
Big Otter 2 -
Snow 52
James 18 5 1
Crooked (1st & 2nd Basins) 16 3 1
Gage 1 13 1
TOTAL 42 23 4
Source: Kerfoot 1979.
102
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FIGURE 11-20 STEUBEN LAKES: LARfiE BOG-LIKE FLUME PATU
-------
b. "Environmental Analysis and Resource Inventory for
Steuben Lakes, Indiana" (EPIC 1979)
The Environmental Photographic Interpretation Center (EPIC) pre-
pared a detailed environmental analysis and resource inventory of the
Study Area. The data used for this purpose were obtained from color,
color infrared, and thermal infrared imagery (at a scale of 1:8000) from
an aerial photo mission flown on May 2, 1978. EPIC's report presents
the data on 7 annotated overlays for easy reference and assimilation.
The original purpose of the study was to identify and locate malfunc-
tioning septic tank/soil absorption systems in the Study Area. Sub-
sequently, the study was expanded to include the environmental resource
inventory.
Location of Malfunctioning Septic Tanks. The remote sensing tech-
nique used in the study can only detect those malfunctions which are
noticeable on the ground surface. It does not detect malfunctions
related to sewage backing up into the home, nor to too rapid transport
through the soil to groundwater. The various "signatures" used as photo
interpretation keys for identifying malfunctions included: 1) con-
spicuously lush vegetation, 2) dead vegetation (especially grass), 3)
standing water or seepage, and 4) dark soil with accumulations of excess
organic matter. Forty-five suspected malfunctioning systems identified
by remote sensing were later inspected on the ground. Only 4 were found
to have failing absorption systems. EPIC attributed the large number of
unconfirmed suspect sites to the variability of "signatures" in different
geographical areas. Based on their fundings and the opinions of the
Steuben County Sanitarians, EPIC concluded that most, if not all, of the
major surface related malfunctions were located.
Environmental Resource Inventory. This inventory contains pertinent
environmental, geographic, and hydrologic data which have been incorpor-
ated in appropriate sections of Chapter II. The major data categories
displayed on the overlays are:
• Surface water features—including ponds, streams, irrigation/
drainage ditches, new water courses (not on existing base
maps).
9 Land use/cover based on the modified USGS Land Use Classi-
fication.
« Aquatic plant growth including accumulations of algae, emer-
gent and submergent vegetation in the larger water bodies.
Substantial algal concentrations were noted in Jimmerson Lake.
• Point and non-point sources of pollution such as gravel pits,
quarries, landfills and dumps, auto junkyards, wastewater
treatment facilities, cattle crossings and confined feeding
areas. Several dozen apparently unauthorized landfill and
dumps were located.
104
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• Wetlands—forested, non-forested, and mixtures of these with
deciduous forest and shrubland, mixtures of ponds and wet-
lands .
• Miscellaneous — including areas of potential erosion and sedi-
mentation, fill areas, commercial and public boat launches.
c. "Investigation of Well Water Quality Within the Steuben
County Regional Waste District" (Tri-State University
Engineering and Research Center 1979)
This study was undertaken to obtain supplementary information on
the existing groundwater quality in the Study Area and an indication of
the effects of current wastewater disposal practices on groundwater
quality. Appendix C-9 contains the report of this study. The sampling
methodology and laboratory methods (Standard Methods) are specified, and
the results tabulated without interpretation.
A total of 101 wells were sampled for bacteriological and chemical
analyses. Sampling was distributed throughout the 13 sub-areas of the
Study Area in proportion to the number of residences in each sub-area
(see Table 11-14). Figure 11-21 shows the sampling locations. Each
sample was analyzed for total coliforms, fecal coliforms, fecal strepto-
cocci, phosphates, nitrates as nitrogen, chlorides and specific conduct-
ance. The tabulated results also show depths of wells sampled, and full
time (permanent)/seasonal occupancy of the related homes. It was only
possible to gain access to 7 seasonal residences because of the timing
of the sampling period during April/May 1979.
Interpretation of Results. Based on the results of the study, the
quality of groundwater(bacteriological and chemical) in the Study Area
is of a high standard. The effects of more than 50 years of septic
tank/soil absorption systems on water quality are seemingly insigni-
ficant.
Fecal coliform determinations were undertaken in order to differ-
entiate between contamination by wastes of warm-blooded animals
(including humans) and other sources of coliform bacteria. Samples
showing the presence of both total and fecal coliforms are indicative of
contamination by wastes of warm-blooded animals. Fecal streptococci
(fecal strep) are also indicators of contamination by warm-blooded
animals. The ratio of fecal coliforms to fecal strep (FC/FS) is greater
than 4 to 1 for human wastes and less than 0.7 to 1 for other animal
wastes. This ratio is therefore used to differentiate between wastes of
human origin and those of other animals. Its use is, however, not
recommended where fecal strep counts are less than 100/100 ml (US EPA
1978b).
The bacteriological results show 10 samples with confirmed total
coliforms. Only 2 of those (nos. 88, 89 north of Lime Lake) were also
positive for fecal coliforms--indicative of animal wastes contamination.
The fecal strep counts (8, 3 per 100 ml, respectively) in those 2 sam-
ples are much too small for application of the FC/FS ratio. The fecal
105
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LEGEND
t SAMPLED WELLS
•98 I Source: Trt-State Untver-
FIGURE 11-21 STEUBEN LAKES: LOCATION OF SAMPLED WELLS
-------
coliform counts are even smaller (1, 1 per 100 ml, respectively). The
likely source of this contamination is animal but non-human wastes. The
other 4 samples containing fecal coliforms showed total coliform most
probable number (MPN) per 100 ml of <2--indicating that, in each case,
none of the 5 tubes of 100 ml portions was positive for total coliforms.
Of 25 samples testing positive for fecal strep, only 5 were also
positive for fecal coliforms. This is unusual, since the survival time
of fecal strep is shorter than that of fecal coliforms (APHA-AWWA-WPCF
1975). A possible explanation is the fact that all varieties of fecal
strep are not restricted to the intestines of man and animals. S
faecalis var. liquefaciens has been found associated with vegetation,
insects and certain types of soils (APHA-AWWA-WPCF 1975). The presence
of fecal strep in the absence of fecal coliforms and confirmed total
coliforms is an indication that the source of the fecal strep may be
vegetation, insects or soils. Dr. P. Hippensteel, Tri-State Univer-
sity's author of the reported study, has indicated that the wetlands
located near all wells showing fecal strep may be the sources of. the
organism (by telephone, July 25, 1979). Highest concentrations of fecal
strep were found around Lake Gage, the south shore of Jimmerson Lake,
and the south and east shores of Lake James. Crooked Lake and Lime Lake
had lesser concentrations, while Snow Lake had no positive samples for
fecal strep.
In summary, less than 10% of the 101 samples were confirmed posi-
tive for total coliforms. Less than 2% of the samples were positive for
both total and fecal coliforms. Human wastes do not appear to be the
source of these coliforms. The bacteriological quality of the ground-
water is of a very high standard and appear to be uncontaminated by
human wastes.
Nitrate levels are in all cases well below the permissible 10 mg/1
as nitrogen of US EPA's Interim Primary Drinking Water Standards. The
values range from <0.03 to 2.6 mg/1. Only 5 samples (<5% of the total)
were above 2 mg/1, and 8 samples between 1 and 2 mg/1. These low levels
and the absence of significant increases in nitrate concentrations over
background levels indicate that the soils have been efficiently treating
septic tank wastes throughout the Study Area for more than 50 years.
Chloride levels are generally well below 100 mg/1 with the excep-
tion of 2 wells on Crooked Lake (138, >650 mg/1), 1 well on Jimmerson
Lake (194 mg/1), and 1 well on Lake Gage (136 mg/1). In all 4 cases,
the associated levels of nitrates (which like chlorides are also soluble
in water) are very low. This indicates that the main source of the
elevated chlorides is unlikely to be human wastes. The only well in
which the US EPA Interim Drinking Water Standards' limit of 250 mg/1 for
chlorides is exceeded (>650 mg/1) is #64, southeast of Crooked Lake.
The likely source of this very high chloride concentration is the Steuben
County Highway Department's barn (salt storage) across the road from the
well (by telephone, Dr. P. Hippensteel, Tri-State University, 16 May
1979).
Phosphate levels are generally low throughout the area, only 16
samples exceeding 0.02 mg/1. Most of the elevated phosphate levels
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(max. 0.15 mg/1) are found in off-lake rural areas east and south of
Crooked Lake, and north of Lime Lake—suggesting agricultural fertilizer
sources. There is no drinking water standard for phosphates.
Specific conductance ranges from 345 to 2700 pmho/cm. With the
exception of 7 samples, all are less than 700 pmho/cm. Among these 7
samples are the 4 with chloride concentrations greater than 100 mg/1.
The highest specific conductance of 2700 |Jmho/cm was found in the well
(#54) southeast of Crooked Lake which was also highest in chlorides.
Higher levels of specific conductance found in these wells than those
reported in the "Septic Snooper" Study (see Section E.3.a and Appendix
C-7) may be due to:
• the leaching of agricultural and highway chemicals;
• greater extraction of salts from soils due to greater depths
of travel to wells than to the lakes;
• uncertainties in the sampling of groundwater through the lake
beds during the "Septic Snooper Survey".
Specific conductance is not of direct significance in drinking
water and there is no established standard.
4. NEED FOR ACTION
The Steuben County Health Department has indicated that violations
of standards of ST/SAS conditions are prevalent throughout the Study
Area. The question arises as to whether these ST/SASs are causing
public health and/or water quality problems and, if so, what is the need
for corrective action. The distinction should be made between water
quality and public health problems on the one hand, and nuisance or
community improvement problems on the other hand. On-site systems known
to contribute to violations of water quality standards or changes in the
trophic status of water bodies pose water quality problems. Public
health problems may result from the ponding of effluent on the soil
surface, and from well waters with bacterial contamination and high
nitrate concentrations (>10 mg/1). Where recreational use involves
direct body contact with lake waters, violation of the fecal coliform
standard also constitutes a public health hazard. Community improvement
problems include odors, restrictions on water use and restrictions on
building expansion.
a. Public Health Problems
The EPIC (1979) remote sensing and ground survey of ST/SASs located
only 4 malfunctioning septic systems in which effluent back-up to the
soil surface occurred. This represents an insignificant 0.1% of the
homes in the Proposed Service Area. The Steuben County Health Depart-
ment's (SCHD) dye-test program has perhaps played a significant role in
minimizing this problem. While failures such as those located by EPIC
and also by the SCHD's dye-test program may occur in the future, the
threat to public health seems an insignificant one, controllable by
management.
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Data from the groundwater quality survey (Tri-State University
1979) indicate that the soils have been efficiently screening bacteria
out of the groundwater. The soils have also been effective in main-
taining nitrate levels considerably below the 10 mg/1 (as nitrogen)
which is associated with infant methemoglobinemia (blue babies). Based
on the available evidence, ST/SASs pose no public health threat to
residents as a result of groundwater contamination. The SCHD has no
record of public health problems associated with wastewater disposal
practices in the Study Area.
Both the SCHD monitoring program (1973-1977) and Kerfoot (1979)
indicate that fecal coliform levels in the Study Area's lakes have been
well below the State's standard of 200 organisms/ 100 ml for body con-
tact recreational use. Kerfoot (1979) confirmed the SCHD's findings
that elevated levels of fecal coliforms were confined to canals and
streams where only 3 samples exceeded the above standard. Septic tanks
are not necessarily the cause of these elevated levels outside of the
lakes since animal wastes and agricultural run-off may be contributory
sources. The Study Area's ST/SASs appear to pose no significant public
health threat to contact recreational use of the lakes.
b. Water Quality Problems
Based on the data of the National Eutrophication Survey, the Steuben
County Health Department's monitoring program, and the "Septic Snooper"
survey, septic tanks are not significantly contributing to surface water
quality degradation. On the very conservative assumption that all
septic tanks within 300 feet of the lake shorelines contribute phos-
phorus to the lakes, it is estimated that ST/SAS contributions to nu-
trient loadings are in all cases less than 7%, except for Lake Gage
(10%) and Jimmerson Lake (21%). The "Septic Snooper" survey of the
lakes actually found only 65 plumes among more than 3000 lakeshore
homes. It is therefore likely that the actual ST/SAS contributions are
considerably less than the estimates, and very small compared with
tributary inflow and the broad source plume originating in the wetlands
around Marsh Lake.
c. Other Problems
Localized growths of algae and aquatic weeds have created nuisance
problems, particularly in Jimmerson Lake and Crooked Lake. It has been
estimated that removal of the current septic tank nutrient loading from
the lakes would not change the trophic status of the lakes signifi-
cantly. Also, the aquatic blooms would continue due to the natural
tendency of the area's marl lakes to recycle nutrients trapped in the
sediments.
d. Conclusions
The Study Area's ST/SASs have not been the source of significant
public health or water quality problems. More than 50% of the ST/SASs
are over 40 years old. Identifiable needs are:
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• Upgrading of old ST/SAS based upon a detailed sanitary and
engineering survey;
• Strengthened management of ST/SASs to ensure their continued
effective performance; and
• Strengthened continuous monitoring programs to include not
only dye tests of ST/SASs and the monitoring of surface water
quality once undertaken by the SCHD, but also the monitoring
of groundwater quality.
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CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF ALTERNATIVES
A. INTRODUCTION
1. GENERAL APPROACH
This chapter explains the development of new alternative systems
for wastewater collection and treatment in the Proposed Service Area.
Chapter IV describes and compares these alternatives, for cost-
effectiveness, with the Facilities Plan Proposed Action (Mick, Rowland &
Associates, Inc. 1976). Chapter V assesses the environmental and socio-
economic impacts of all these systems.
EIS alternative development has focused on those aspects and impli-
cations of the proposed wastewater management plan for the Proposed
Service Area which (a) have been identified as major issues or concerns,
or (b) were not adequately addressed in the Facilities Plan.
Chapter I emphasizes that one of the main issues is the use of
low-cost subregional solutions in areas other than the high density
shorelines of Crooked Lake and parts of Lake James and Jimmerson Lake.
Attention was therefore centered on the possible use of advanced on-site
and cluster systems for groups of homes, as well as other alternative
and innovative technologies in the areas around Lake Gage, Lime Lake and
Lake Syl-Van, Jimmerson Lake, Snow Lake, upper Lake James and the rural/
semi-rural off-lake areas throughout the Proposed Service Area. The
analysis included determinations of the prevailing housing densities and
the availability of suitable soils for effluent absorption systems in
areas with slopes of 12% or less.
For analysis, the Study Area was divided into of 87 segments, con-
solidated into the 13 groups shown in Figure 11-14. Using aerial photo-
graphs (Mick, Rowland & Associates, Inc. 1976), linear housing
densities* and lot sizes in each segment and group were examined (see
Table 11-14). Crooked Lake, with a linear housing density of 136 resi-
dences per mile, was the densest sub-area. Lake Gage (111 residences
per mile) and Jimmerson Lake (109 residences per mile) both were more
densely occupied than Lake James and Snow Lake (84 residences per mile.)
These high densities indicated that alternatives providing for the
sewering of Lake Gage, Snow Lake, and group area 2B (northwest of
Jimmerson Lake) might be considered. These areas, much smaller than
Crooked Lake and Lake James, are termed "Small Flow Systems." Table
11-14 data also indicated that approximately 65% of the lots in the
Study Area are smaller than 1/3 acre and approximately 49% less than \
acre. The soils data (see Figure II-6) showed that soils suitable for
on-site and cluster systems exist near residential development in those
areas considered for "Small Flow Systems". On-site and cluster systems
were, therefore, included in the alternatives proposed for those areas.
Ill
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A second important issue is the overall need for the Facilities
Plan proposal. Documenting a clear need for new wastewater facilities
is sometimes difficult, requiring evidence directly relating existing
on-lot systems to water quality and public health problems. Such a need
is shown by one or more of the following conditions:
• Standing pools of septic tank effluent or raw domestic sewage
in yards or public areas where direct contact with residents
is likely;
• Sewage in basements from inoperable or sluggish sewage dis-
posal systems; and
• Contaminated private wells clearly associated with sewage
disposal systems.
The Proposed Service Area exhibits some indirect evidence of
unsuitable site conditions for on-site soil disposal systems --high
groundwater, slowly permeable soils, small lot sizes, proximity to
lakeshores and substandard setback distances between wells and private
wastewater facilities. Available information on these factors was, in
fact, used early in the preparation of this EIS to develop decentralized
alternatives.
Indirect evidence cannot justify Federal funding, however. Federal
water pollution control legislation and regulations require documenta-
tion of actual water quality or public health problems. Section II.E
summarizes the extensive efforts mounted during this EIS to document and
quantify any need for improved facilities around the Steuben Lakes.
The dollar cost of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action and its
impact on area residents make cost-effectiveness as serious a concern as
needs documentation. Since the collection system accounts for most
(>80%) of the construction costs in the Facilities Plan Proposed Action,
the extent of sewering needed and the use of newer technologies for
wastewater collection have been investigated in detail here, as have
alternative wastewater treatment systems. The technologies assessed
were:
WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT COMPONENTS AND OPTIONS
Functional Component
Flow and Waste Load Reduction
Collection of Wastewaters
Options
- household water conservation
measures
- ban on phosphorus
limited service area
- pressure sewers
vacuum sewers
- gravity sewers
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Wastewater Treatment Processes
Effluent Disposal
Sludge Handling
Sludge Disposal
- conventional centralized
treatment plus chemical
treatment to reduce
phosphorus concentrations
land application
- on-site treatment
- cluster systems
subsurface disposal
- land application
discharge to surface
waters
aerobic digestion
anaerobic digestion
- dewatering (mechanical)
dewatering (drying
beds)
- land application
- landfilling
composting
contract hauling
Next, appropriate options were selected and combined into alterna-
tive systems described in Chapter IV. The last section of this chapter
considers implementation, administration and financing of the alterna-
tives .
2. COMPARABILITY OF ALTERNATIVES: DESIGN POPULATION
The various alternatives for wastewater management in the Proposed
Service Area must provide equivalent or comparable levels of service if
their designs and costs are to be properly compared. The Pokagon State
Park and the Holiday Inn and Fauchers Motel have been excluded from the
Proposed Service Area because their wastewater treatment facilities have
been upgraded to provide the improvements required by the NPDES permits.
The design population is that projected to reside in the Proposed
Service Area (see Figure 1-3) in the year 2000. The following compari-
son of alternatives assumed a design population of 30,787.
This design population has been used as the basis for all the EIS
alternatives and the Facilities Plan Proposed Action in the interest of
equitable comparison. Please note, however, that each alternative
carries its own constraints and that the wastewater management system
chosen may determine much of the Study Area's actual population in the
year 2000. Centralized systems would have a greater tendency to induce
growth than decentralized systems. Chapter IV discusses the importance
of this factor.
3. COMPARABILITY OF ALTERNATIVES:
PROJECTIONS
FLOW AND WASTE LOAD
Design flows for centralized treatment facilities and for the
cluster systems assumed a flow rate of 60 gallons per capita per day
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(gpcd) in residential areas for both permanent and seasonal residents.
Infiltration and inflow (I/I) to gravity sewers was added to the cal-
culated sewage flow in appropriate alternatives.
The design flow used in the Facilities Plan Proposed Action ranged
from 70 to 100 gpcd, including I/I. To compare costs properly in this
EIS, flows developed for the EIS alternatives were also used for the
Facilities Plan Proposed Action.
The rate of sewage generation depends upon the mix of residential,
commercial, and institutional sources in the area. Studies on resi-
dential water usage (Witt, Siegrist, and Boyle 1976; Bailey et al. 1969;
Cohen and Wallman 1974) reported individual household water consumptions
varying widely between 20 and 100 gpcd. However, average values
reported in those studies generally ranged between 40 and 56 gpcd. On a
community-wide basis, non-residential domestic (commercial, small indus-
trial, and institutional) water use increases per capita flows. The
extent of such increases are influenced by:
« the importance of the community as a local or regional trading
center;
« the concentration of such water-intensive institutions as
schools and hospitals; and
» the level of small industrial development.
For communities with populations of less than 5,000, EPA regulations
allow design flows of 60 to 70 gpcd where existing per capita flow data
are lacking. In larger communities, and in communities within Standard
Metropolitan Statistical Areas, the maximum allowable flow ranges up to
85 gpcd.
Water consumption by seasonal users varies much more than consump-
tion by permanent residents. The actual rates of consumption depend
upon such factors as type of accommodations in the area and type of
recreation areas available. EPA regulations (EPA 1978) suggest that
seasonal population can be converted to equivalent permanent population
using the following multipliers:
Day-use visitor 0.1 to 0.2
Seasonal visitor 0.5 to 0.8
A multiplier of 1.0 was applied to the projected seasonal popu-
lation to account for both day-use and seasonal visitors. Considering
the possible error in projecting future seasonal populations, the pre-
ponderance of present seasonal visitors using well-equipped private
dwellings and the lack of data on day-use visitors, this multiplier was
thought generous, i.e., it probably overestimates flows.
The design flow rate of 60 gpcd does not reflect reductions in flow
from water conservation. Residential water conservation devices, dis-
cussed in Section III.B.I.a, could reduce flows by 16 gpcd. In Chapter
4, EIS Alternative 2 is redesigned and recosted to estimate savings from
a water conservation program.
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B. COMPONENTS AND OPTIONS
1. FLOW AND WASTE REDUCTION
Measures reducing flow or pollutant loads can provide the following
benefits to a wastewater management program:
• Reduce the sizes and capital costs of new collection and
treatment facilities;
• Delay the time when future expansion or replacement facilities
will be needed;
• Reduce the operational costs of pumping and treatment; and
• Mitigate the sludge and effluent disposal impacts.
a. Residential Flow Reduction Devices
There are many devices to reduce water consumption and sewage flow.
Some of these are listed in Appendix G-l with data on their water saving
potential and costs. Most of these require no change in the user's
hygienic habits and are as maintenance-free as standard fixtures.
Others, like compost toilets, may require changes in hygiene practices
and/or increased maintenance. The use of these devices may be justified
under certain conditions, for instance when no other device can provide
adequate sanitation or when excessive flows cause malfunctions of con-
ventional on-site septic systems. In most cases, however, the justifi-
cations for flow reduction are economic.
Table III-l lists proven flow reduction devices and homeowner's
savings resulting from their use. Data on the devices listed in
Appendix G-l and local cost assumptions listed beneath the table were
used to develop these estimates. The homeowner's savings include sav-
ings for water supply, water heating and wastewater treatment. A com-
bination of shower flow control insert device, dual cycle toilet and
lavatory faucet flow control device could save approximately $70 per
year.
If all residences in the Proposed Service Area were to install
these flow reduction devices, not all families would save $1.92/1000
gallons in wastewater treatment costs (see assumption in Table III-l).
This is because a substantial portion of this charge goes to pay off
capital and operation and maintenance costs which will remain constant
even if flow is reduced. For all to benefit fully from flow reduction,
wastewater collection, treatment and disposal facilities would have to
be designed with flow capacities reflecting the lower sewage flows. Use
of the three types of devices cited above would reduce per capita sewage
flows by approximately 16 gpcd. To calculate the cost-effectiveness of
community-wide flow reduction, EIS Alternative 2 (see Section IV.B.4)
was redesigned and recosted using a design flow based on 44 gpcd instead
of 60 gpcd.
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Table III-l
ESTIMATED SAVINGS WITH FLOW REDUCTION DEVICES
Shower flow control insert device
Dual cycle toilet3
Toilet damming device
o
Shallow trap toilet
Dual flush adapter for toilets
Spray tap faucet
Improved ballcock assembly for toilets
Faucet flow control device
Faucet aerator
First Year
Savings
(or Cost)
$45.03
19.75
15-84
14.09
11.91
(74.14)
9.73
5.96
1.23
Annual Savings
After First
Year
$47.03
39.75
19.09
19.09
15.91
13.06
12.73
8.96
3.73
First year expenditure assumed to be difference in capital cost between
flow-saving toilet and a standard toilet costing $75.
Assumptions
Household:
Four persons occupying dwelling 328 days per year. One
bathroom in dwelling.
Water Cost: Private well water supply. Cost of water = $0.02/1000
gallons for electricity to pump against a 100 foot hydraulic
head.
Water Heating Electric water heater. Water temperature increase = 100°F-
Cost: Electricity costs $0.03/kilowatt-hour. Cost of water heating
= $7.50/100 gallons.
Wastewater Assumed that water supply is metered and sewage bill is based
Cost: on water supply at a constant rate of $1.92/1000 gallons.
Rate is based on a 1980 Study Area sewage flow of 1.35 mgd
and local costs of $983,300 in 1980 for Alternative 2 as
estimated in this EIS.
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The estimated savings in project capital cost (1980) would be
$318,000 and the operation and maintenance savings would be approxi-
mately $3,000 per year. To achieve these savings, approximately
$250,000 worth of flow reduction devices would be need (see Appendix
G-2). The total present worth* of savings over the 20-year design
period would be $558,300 or 3% of the total present worth of EIS
Alternative 2.
These economic analyses of homeowner's saving and total present
worth reduction assume sewering of all dwellings. However, for
dwellings that still use on-site systems the economic benefits of flow
reduction devices cannot be readily estimated. State regulatory
agencies generally do not allow a reduction in the design of conven-
tional on-site systems based upon proposals to use flow reduction
devices. However, it is likely that reduced flows will prolong the life
of soil absorption systems, thereby saving money in the long run.
With some decentralized technologies require substantial reductions
in flow regardless of costs. Holding tanks, soil absorption systems
which cannot be enlarged, evaporation or evapotranspiration systems and
sand mounds are examples of technologies which would operate with less
risk of malfunction for minimal sewage flows. Sewage flows of 15 to 30
gpcd can be achieved by combinations of the following:
* Reduce lavatory water usage by installing spray tap faucets.
• Replace standard toilets with dual cycle or other low-volume
toilets.
• Reduce shower water use with thermostatic mixing valves and
flow control shower heads. Use of showers rather than baths
should be encouraged whenever possible.
• Replace older clothes washing machines with those equipped
with water-level controls or with front-loading machines.
• Eliminate water-carried toilet wastes by use of in-house
composting toilets.
• Recycle bath and laundry wastewaters for toilet flushing.
Filtering and disinfection of bath and laundry wastes for this
purpose has been shown to be feasible and aesthetically accept-
able in pilot studies (Cohen and Wallman 1974; Mclaughlin
1968). This alternative to in-house composting toilets could
achieve the same level of wastewater flow reduction.
• Recycle bath and laundry wastewaters for lawn sprinkling in
summer. The feasibility of this method would have to be
evaluated on a trial basis in the Study Area because its
general applicability is not certain.
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• Use commercially available pressurized toilets and air-
assisted shower heads with a common air compressor of small
horsepower to reduce sewage volume from these two largest
household sources up to 90%.
b. Indiana Ban on Phosphorus
Phosphorus is often the nutrient controlling algae growth in sur-
face waters and is thus an important influence on lake or stream
eutrophication. Nutrient enrichment of the waters encourages the growth
of algae and other microscopic plant life; decay of the plants increases
biochemical oxygen demand, decreasing dissolved oxygen in the water.
Addition of nutrients encourages higher forms of plant life, hastening
the aging process by which a lake evolves into a bog or marsh.
Normally, eutrophication is a natural process taking thousands of years.
However, human activity can greatly accelerate it. Phosphorus and other
nutrients, contributed to surface waters by human wastes, laundry deter-
gents and agricultural runoff, often cause over-fertilization, over-
productivity of plant matter, and "choking" of a body of water within a
few years. Appendix C-8 discusses the eutrophication process and its
relationship to seasonal changes in lake water quality.
In July 1973, the Indiana legislature passed a law limiting the
amount of phosphorus in household laundry detergents to 0.5% by weight.
Institutions such as hospitals were exempted from complying with the
law. According to the Indiana Water Pollution Control Board, which has
been conducting an extensive wastewater treatment plant monitoring
program throughout the state, a 60% reduction in phosphorus in raw
sewage was achieved by the ban. Table III-2 shows results from the
monitoring program.
Treatment plants and on-site disposal facilities in the Study Area
could show a similar phosphorus reduction. However, such character-
istics of the Steuben Lakes area as the number of residential laundry
facilities may differ from those in the communities where data were
collected. Clearly, the extent of phosphorus reduction can only be
determined by survey of Study Area characteristics.
Reduction of phosphorus by control of detergents will not achieve
the effluent discharge limits of 1 mg/1 (see Appendix C-6 for Effluent
Limits. Consequently, provision of facilities for phosphorus removal in
treatment plant operation is required.
2. COLLECTION
The collection system in the Facilities Plan is estimated to cost
$17 million -- 83% of the total cost of the Proposed Action -- and is
the single most expensive portion of the sewerage facilities. Since
only some parts of collection systems are eligible for Federal and State
funding, collection system costs would affect the local community more
than other project components. There is, therefore, considerable in-
centive at local, state and national levels to choose less expensive
alternatives to conventional sewer systems.
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Table III-2
EFFECT OF PHOSPHORUS BAN
UPON WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Raw
No. of Plants Influent Effluent
Year Monitored (pounds/capita/day) (pounds/capita/day)
0.0146 0.0106
0.0133 0.0098
0.0067 0.0050
0.0064 0.0039**
0.0060
0.0063
0.0059*
* 59% reduction in phosphorus from 1971-1977—influent
** 63% reduction in phosphorus from 1971-1974—effluent
1971
1972
1973 '
1974
1975
1976
1977
37
43
50
42
88
52
54
119
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Alternative means of wastewater collection are:
• pressure sewers (including grinder pumps or STEP systems);
• vacuum sewers; and
• small diameter gravity sewers (Troyan and Morris 1974).
An alternative collection system may economically sewer areas where
site conditions would increase the cost of conventional sewerage, such
as shallow depth to bedrock, high groundwater table, or hilly terrain.
Housing density also affects the relative costs of conventional and
alternative wastewater collection systems.
The alternative most extensively studied in the literature is
collection by a pressure sewer system. The principles behind the pres-
sure system are just the opposite to those 'of a water distribution
system. The water system consists of a single point of pressurization
and a number of user outlets. Conversely, the pressure sewer system has
inlet points of pressurization and a single outlet. Pressurized waste-
water is generally discharged to the treatment facility or to a gravity
sewer.
The two major types of pressure sewer systems are the grinder pump
(GP) system and the septic tank effluent pumping (STEP) system. They
differ in the on-site equipment and layout. The GP system employs
individual grinder pumps to convey raw wastewater to the sewer. In the
STEP system septic tank effluent from individual households is pumped to
the pressure main.
The advantages of pressure sewer systems are:
• elimination of infiltration/inflow;
* reduction of construction cost; and
« suitability for use in varied site and climatic conditions.
The disadvantages include relatively high operation and maintenance
cost, and the need to use individual home STEP systems or grinder pumps.
Vacuum sewers provide similar advantages. Their major components
are vacuum mains, collection tanks and vacuum pumps, and individual home
valve connection systems. Wastewater is transported by suction through
the mains rather than by pressure. Signficant differences have been
noted among designs of the four major types of current vacuum sewer
systems (Cooper and Rezek 1975).
As a third alternative to conventional gravity sewers, small dia-
meter (4-inch) pipe can be used if septic tank effluent, rather than raw
waste, is collected. Such pipe may result in lower costs of materials,
but the systems retain some of the disadvantages of larger sewers. The
need for deep excavations and pump stations is not affected. Prelimi-
nary studies suggest that gravity effluent sewers become cost-preferable
at linear housing densities greater than 50 dwellings per mile.
Analysis of the costs of STEP and grinder pump types of low pres-
sure sewer systems indicated that the STEP system would be slightly more
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cost-effective. An important assumption in this analysis was that 50%
of existing septic tanks would need to be replaced for use in the STEP
system. Reference here is to septic tanks built prior to 1940 which,
due to their age, are likely to be in poor structural condition. Based
on the above finding, STEP systems are used in almost all EIS alterna-
tives. The Facilities Plan Proposed Action has also been modified by
the replacement of grinder pumps with STEP systems. This decision
should be reviewed during the detailed design stage (Step II of the
construction grant process) on the basis of a detailed field survey of
the existing septic tank systems. Figure III-l illustrates the STEP
system.
3. WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Wastewater treatment options fall into three categories:
centralized treatment before surface water discharge; centralized treat-
ment before land disposal; and decentralized treatment.
Centralized treatment means the treatment of wastewater collected
by a single system and transported to a central location. Centralized
treatment systems may serve all or a part of the service area.
Centrally treated effluent may be discharged to surface waters or
applied to the land; the method and site of disposal affect the treat-
ment process requirements.
Decentralized treatment means treatment of a relatively small
amount of wastewater on--site or off-site. Typically, effluent is
disposed near the sewage source, thus eliminating costly transmission of
sewage to distant disposal sites.
a. Centralized Treatment—Discharge to Surface Water
The Facilities Plan evaluated the use of wastewater stabilization
lagoons, disinfection and land disposal of treated effluent by spray
irrigation. Effluent from the land application system would be col-
lected by a set of underdrains. Crooked Creek, in the north of the
Study Area, was selected by the Facilities Plan and this EIS as the
receiving stream for treated wastewater.
In addition to the options examined by the Facilities Plan, this
EIS also examined the use of oxidation ditches and contact stabilization
for conventional centralized treatment. Renovated wastewater recovered
by wells from rapid infiltration sites would also be discharged to
Crooked Creek.
The use of oxidation ditches to treat wastewater is relatively new
in the United States. This technique employs a ring-shaped channel,
approximately 3 feet deep, containing wastewater. A brush-like aeration
device, placed across the channel, provides aeration and circulation.
Contact stabilization is a variation of the activated sludge
process. Wastewater is detained for a period of approximately 1/2 hour
in "contact" tank, for initial reduction of pollutants such as BOD and
suspended solids. Sludge generated in this tank is passed to a
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TYPICAL PUMP INSTALLATION FOR PRESSURE SEWER
-------
"reaeration" tank, in which the pollutants are assimilated. Detention
time in the second tank may range from 2 to 4 hours.
b. Centralized Treatment -- Land Disposal
Land treatment of municipal wastewater uses vegetation and soil to
remove many constituents of wastewater. Available processes may be used
for a variety of objectives such as water reuse, nutrient recycling and
crop production. The three principal types of land application systems
are (EPA 1977):
• Slow rate (spray irrigation)
• Rapid infiltration (infiltration-percolation)
• Overland flow.
Figure III-2 and III-3 show the techniques of irrigation and
infiltration. The effluent quality required for land application in
terms of BOD and suspended solids is not so high as for stream dis-
charge. Preliminary wastewater treatment is needed to prevent health
hazards, maintain high soil treatment efficiency, reduce soil clogging,
and insure reliable operation of the distribution system. In this EIS
oxidation ditches were used to maintain dissolved oxygen in the waste-
water and provide preliminary treatment. The use of oxidation ponds was
also examined, but the ditches were determined to be more cost-
effective.
A recent memorandum (PRM 79-3) from EPA explains Federal eligi-
bility requirements for pretreatment prior to land application. To
encourage both land treatment and land disposal of wastewater, EPA has
indicated that:
"A universal minimum of secondary treatment for direct surface
discharge ... will not be accepted because it is inconsistent
with the basic concepts of land treatment.
...the costs of the additional preapplication increment needed
to meet more stringent preapplication treatment requirements
[than necessary] imposed at the State or local level would be
ineligible for Agency funding and thus would be paid for from
State or local funds." (EPA 1978)
The EPA policy has important ramifications for land treatment
alternatives. It encourages their use by allowing Federal funding of
land used for storage, and by underwriting the risk of failure for
certain land-related projects.
Land treatment systems require wastewater storage during periods of
little or no application caused by factors such as unfavorable weather.
In Indiana storage facilities for the winter months are necessary.
The land application component of the alternatives in this EIS
includes storage facilities similar to those provided by the Facilities
Plan but rapid infiltration is the final disposal method in the new
system.
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Figure III-2
SPRAY IRRIGATION
EVAPOTHANSPIRATION
SPRAY
APPLICATION
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Figure III-3
RAPID INFILTRATION
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AND TREATMENT
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124
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c. Decentralized Treatment and Disposal
A number of technologies are available for decentralized treatment
on-site or at sites near the point of sewage generation. Disposal of
treatment wastewaters can be to the air, soil or surface waters and
normally occurs near the treatment site. Some of the available tech-
nologies are:
• Alternative toilets
Composting toilets
Toilets using filtered and disinfected bath and laundry
wastewater
Waterless toilets using oils to carry and store wastes
Incineration toilets
• On-lot treatment and disposal
Septic tank and soil-disposal systems
"Septic tank and dual, alternating soil-disposal systems
Aerobic treatment and soil-disposal system
Septic tank or aerobic treatment and sand filter with effluent
discharge to surface waters
Septic tank and evapotranspiration system
Septic tank and mechanical evaporation system
Septic tank and elevated sand mound system
• Off-lot treatment and disposal
Cluster systems (multiple houses served by a common
soil-disposal system)
Community septic tank or aerobic treatment and sand filter
with effluent discharge to surface water
Small scale lagoon with seasonal effluent discharge to surface
waters
Small scale lagoon with effluent discharge at rapid infiltra-
tion land application site
Small scale lagoon with seasonal effluent discharge at slow
rate land application site
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Small scale, preconstructed activated sludge (package) treat-
ment plants with effluent discharge to surface waters
Because many of the developed portions of the Study Area are
located along lakeshores rather than streams, decentralized systems with
discharges to surface waters were not considered appropriate. All of
the remaining technologies, used alone or in combination with each other
or with flow reduction devices, could be useful in specific situations
within the Study Area. If the decentralized approach to wastewater
management is selected, technologies selected for each dwelling will be
"tailored" to the problem being remedied (or lack of them), to soil and
groundwater site characteristics, and to expected systems use.
Lacking detailed site-by-site design to select appropriate tech-
nologies, this EIS assumes that the best known and most reliable
decentralized technologies will be used. Continued use of on-site
septic tanks and soil absorption systems is the technology of choice
where acceptable public health and environmental impacts are attainable
with them. Where on-site systems (including alternatives to ST/SAS) are
not economically, environmentally or otherwise feasible, cluster systems
will be used. The assumption that only these two technologies will be
used is made here to form the basis for cost and feasibility estimates
and is not meant to preclude other technologies for any site(s). Esti-
mates of their frequency of repair and construction are conservative to
reflect the possibility that other, more appropriate technologies may
cost more.
Continued use of septic tank-soil absorption systems for most
dwellings in the Proposed EIS Service Area would perpetuate violations
of the Steuben County Sanitary Ordinance as discussed in Section II.E.2.
However, the substantial amount of field investigation undertaken for
this EIS has indicated that most existing systems are operating with
acceptable environmental and public health impacts. More detailed site
investigations may indicate that renovation or replacement of some
existing on-site systems is necessary. To estimate the investment this
might require, it was assumed that 50% of on-site systems will be re-
placed with new septic tanks and 10% with new soil absorption systems.
Detailed site evaluations may show for some dwellings that con-
tinued use of on-site systems is not feasible or that repairs for a
number of dwellings is more expensive than joint disposal. Cluster
systems are subsurface absorption systems similar in operation and
design to on-site soil absorption systems but are large enough to
accommodate flows from a number of (approximately 25) dwellings.
Because of the need to collect and transport wastes, cluster systems
include limited collection facilities using pressure sewers, small
diameter sewers and/or pumps and force mains. Generally, use of
existing septic tanks would continue for settling and stabilization of
wastewater.
As indicated in Section II.A.S.b, suitable soils exist near enough
to residential development throughout the Study Area to permit the use
of cluster and on-site systems. Further field surveys of soils and
groundwater conditions at specific sites selected for cluster systems
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should be undertaken prior to use for this method of disposal. Appendix
H-l contains a discussion of soil characteristics. The exact number and
locations of dwellings requiring off-site disposal of wastewater would
be determined after detailed evaluation of existing systems.
Appendix K-l contains design assumptions for the cluster systems.
Design criteria for the cluster systems recommended by the State of
Indiana were considered in the development of the typical cluster system
design. The cost for cluster systems were developed based on the design
of two "typical" cluster systems serving residences along the shorelines
of the Steuben Lakes. The costs include 50% septic tanks replacement.
Presently, there are successfully operating cluster systems in many
states, notably Minnesota and California.
4. EFFLUENT DISPOSAL
Treated wastewater may be disposed of in one of three basic ways.
Reuse, perhaps the most desirable, implies recycling of the effluent by
industry or agriculture or to groundwater recharge. Land application
takes advantage of the absorptive and renovative capacities of soil to
improve effluent quality and reduce the quantity of wastewater requiring
disposal. Discharge to surface water generally implies the use of
streams or impoundments as the ultimate receiving body for treated
effluent.
a. Reuse
Industry Reuse. There is no industrial development in the Study
Area, nor is any planned. Consequently industrial reuse does not seem
to be a feasible means of effluent disposal.
Agricultural Irrigation. The use of treated wastewaters for
irrigation is addressed in Section III.B.4.C.
Groundwater Recharge. Groundwater supplies all potable water in
the Study Area. The sand and gravel deposits of the Study Area contain
ample quantities of water and are an important resource. There is no
evidence that this resource is being depleted to an extent requiring
supplemental recharge. Furthermore, the volume of wastewater generated
is insignificant compared to the available groundwater resources.
b. Discharge to Surface Waters
In the Facilities Plan Proposed Action, effluent from the land
application site, percolating down through the soil, would be collected
in underground drains. This option was provided to avoid raising the
water table. The collected effluent would be discharged to Crooked
Creek.
Similarly, treated effluent from the rapid infiltration sites would
percolate down through the soil and enter the water table. Recovery
wells would collect the renovated wastewater, which would be pumped
directly to Crooked Creek or Bell Ditch (depending on the alternative);
approximately 75% of the effluent would be recovered. For conventional
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treatment by contact stabilization, treated effluent would be discharged
to Crooked Creek.
c. Land Application
Two land application methods were examined during the preparation
of this EIS: spray irrigation and rapid infiltration/ percolation. For
spray irrigation, as proposed by the Facilities Plan, wastewater would
be sprinkled on a crop such as alfalfa at an application rate of 2
inches/week. Alfalfa minimizes the losses of nitrogen to groundwater
and allows a relatively high application rate. The site recommended for
this treatment is located between Crooked Creek and Bell Lake Ditch. It
conforms with the requirements discussed in Chapter II.
In rapid infiltration wastewater is treated by infiltration and
percolation through the soil. Wastewater is applied to the soil by
means of spreading basins. Besides treating wastewater, rapid infil-
tration may also recharge groundwater supplies. However, in the Steuben
Lakes area recovery wells would be constructed in the rapid infiltration
sites to protect the groundwater from pollution by nitrates. After
treatment, the renovated water would be withdrawn by the recovery wells
and discharged to either Crooked Creek or Bell Lake Ditch. The poten-
tial sites for rapid infiltration have seasonally high groundwater
tables deeper than 6 feet, and moderately to rapidly permeable soils.
The renovated wastewater will meet state NPDES requirements for surface
water discharges. Facilities to store wastewater for 12 weeks of incle-
ment weather would be necessary, and wastewater would be applied to the
land at a rate of 12 inches per week. The sites identified for use are
located north of Bell Lake, east of Snow Lake, and northeast of
Cheesboro Lake.
5. SLUDGE HANDLING AND DISPOSAL
Two types of sludge would be generated by the wastewater treatment
options considered above: chemical/biological sludges from conventional
treatment; and solids pumped from septic tanks. The residues from
treatment by lagoons and land application are grit and screenings.
Aerobic and/or anaerobic digestion of sludges, followed by land
application were two sludge handling and disposal options considered in
the Facilities Plan. Aerobic digestion of sludge is accomplished by
aerating the organic sludges in an open tank. Anaerobic digestion of
sludge is performed in closed tanks that exclude oxygen. This EIS has
evaluated the cost-effectiveness of aerobic and anaerobic sludge diges-
tion for those alternatives that produce biological/chemical sludges and
incorporated the results into Section IV.D.
To remove water from digested sludge, a dewatering process follows
digestion. After digestion sludge solid concentrations usually range
from 4 to 6%. Dewatering devices such as vacuum filters, filter
presses, and drying beds can usually increase the solids content to 20
to 45%, simplifying handling during disposal. Sludge drying beds were
the dewatering option selected in the Facilities Plan. Based on costs,
reliability, and ease of operation sludge drying beds have been
evaluated further in this EIS.
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Sludge disposal would consist of contract hauling (recommended
option in the Facilities Plan) to a landfill site or to farmland sites
(by farmers or a contract hauler). Sludge application to farmland is
beneficial because it conditions the soil and recycles nutrients. Both
options have been examined in this EIS.
Alternatives using residential septic tanks for on-lot systems,
cluster systems or STEP sewer systems must provide for periodic removal
and disposal of sludge. For the purposes of designing and costing these
alternatives, it was assumed that the average cost of pumping would be
$10 per year. Local septage haulers are licensed to operate in Steuben
County; farmlands are typical disposal sites.
C. FLEXIBILITY OF COMPONENTS
Flexibility measures system ability to accommodate growth or future
changes in requirements. This section examines the flexibility of the
components in each alternative, and the restraints on operation and
design of the facilities. These are discussed in terms of their impacts
upon choices of systems and decisions of planning and design.
1. TRANSMISSION AND CONVEYANCE
For gravity and pressure sewer systems, flexibility is the ability
to handle future increases in flow. For flows greater than the original
design this is generally low; an increase in capacity is usually expen-
sive. Also, the layout of the system depends upon the location of the
treatment facility. Relocation or expansion of a finished facility
requires costly redesign and addition of sewers.
Both gravity and pressure sewers require minimum flow velocities to
prevent deposition of solids which could cause blockage. The velocity
of the fluid in gravity sewers depends mainly upon pipe slope. Contour
of the ground surface may determine pipe slope and depth, and conse-
quently, construction costs. Pressure sewers, however, can carry sewage
uphill under pressure, independent of slope to maintain the flow
velocity; they offer the designer somewhat more flexibility than gravity
sewers.
2. CONVENTIONAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
Ability to expand a conventional wastewater treatment plant depends
largely upon the process used, facility layout, and availability of
additional land for expansion. Compared to many systems for land appli-
cation, conventional treatment processes require little land, increasing
expansion flexibility. However, unless the the plant was designed for
future additional capacity, expansion may be difficult. Establishment
of a facility such as a sewage treatment plant reduces flexibility for
future planning decisions within the affected municipalities.
Because operators can, to some extent, vary the components of
treatment, most conventional processes have good operational flexi-
bility. By altering the amounts and types of chemicals, flow rates,
\
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detention times, or even process schemes, the required effluent quality
can usually be obtained.
a. Oxidation Ditch
Oxidation ditches are simple to operate. They are similar in
theory to extended aeration, long employed in the US. Operational
flexibility of such plants is good because of their relative simplicity.
Oxidation ditches require relatively shallow basin depths (3 to 6
feet), another advantage. Less structural strength for the basin is
necessary because of the shallow depth. Therefore, there is more leeway
in choosing a site, because soils and geologic factors are less
important.
There are several disadvantages to these ditches. The shallow
basin limits the quantity of wastewater that can be treated. Design
flows are thus limited by the large tracts of land needed to the range
of 0.1 to 10 mgd. In addition, oxidation ditches cannot be readily
converted to another process should the need arise. Similarly, the
expansion flexibility is low because of the land requirements.
b. Contact Stabilization
The contact stabilization process has been examined in great detail
by engineers. Consequently, operational parameters of this process have
been well established.
Contact stabilization tanks are available either as prefabricated
or cast-in-place units. Because they are available as prefabricated
units, their flexibility to accommodate future growth is high. In
addition, if expansion requires an increase in hydraulic capacity, it is
sometimes possible to convert to another type of activated sludge
process.
Disadvantages include the requirement for a skilled treatment plant
operator. Also, because contact stabilization is a suspended-growth
process it is subject to operational upsets and consequent loss of
effluent quality.
Another disadvantage is the requirement for disposal of both efflu-
ent and sludge. This limits flexibility for future growth since dis-
posal of additional effluent may exceed the assimilative capacity of the
receiving stream. Similarly, additional sludge disposal may require
additional land, which may not be available.
3. ON-SITE SEPTIC SYSTEMS
Septic systems are flexible in that they can be designed for each
user. As long as spatial and environmental parameters are met, the type
of system can be chosen according to individual requirements. This
flexibility is useful in some rural areas where centralized treatment
would be neither cost-effective nor desirable.
327 A16 130
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Existing septic systems can be expanded by adding tank and drain-
field capacity, if suitable land is available. Flow can then be dis-
tributed to an added system with little disturbance of the existing one.
Cluster systems are septic systems treating wastewater from more
than one house, usually 15 to 25. The flexibility for design and expan-
sion of such a system is somewhat less than for a standard septic sys-
tem. Sizes of cluster systems absorption fields range from one-quarter
to one acre, a substantial increase compared to a standard septic system
(of about 1000 square feet). Right-of-way requirements for piping must
be considered because the system crosses property boundaries and may
cross public property. The location of other underground utilities such
as water, electricity, gas, and telephone must also be considered in the
design.
An alternative system for on-site sewage treatment, such as an
elevated sand mound, is required where siting restrictions prohibit the
use of standard septic system and centralized collection of sewage is
not available. In these c$ses future expansion may be difficult or
impossible. Stipulations of the health codes restrict'the potential of
the alternative system for alteration or expansion.
4. LAND APPLICATION
To be flexible, a land application system should operate effi-
ciently under changing conditions, and should be easy to modify or
expand. These factors depend largely upon geographical location.
The ability to handle changes in treatment requirements and waste-
water characteristics is a specific measure of flexibility for a land
application facility. Furthermore, the level of treatment provided by
the land application system will in part determine whether it can handle
possible increases in flows in the future. Wastewater in the Steuben
Lakes Study Area consists primarily of domestic sewage and future chan-
ges in composition of the wastewater are not likely to occur. If indus-
trial wastewater were added in the future, pretreatraent at the indus-
trial source could be required.
Expandability is an important element of flexibility. Efficient
and economical land acquisition for future flow increases depends upon
the proximity of the facility to populated areas, design and layout of
the system, additional transmission requirements, and the type of appli-
cation system used. A number of application mechanisms are available —
spray, overland flow, or rapid infiltration. Sites can be forest land,
cropland, or open fields. Attention must be paid, however, to charac-
teristics of the surrounding land, and to possible future changes in
land use. Also, requirements are strict concerning the hydraulic and
geologic conditions of the proposed site. When initially planning the
facility, all of the above mentioned conditions should be taken into
consideration if maximum flexibility for future expansion is desired.
Land itself accounts for much of the capital cost for a land
application facility, greatly affecting the possibility of expansion or
ease of discontinuing the site. Because land normally appreciates in
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value, the final salvage value of the site may be very high after the
expected 20-year design life. If the site is abandoned, much of the
initial capital cost of the facility may be recovered by reselling the
land at the appreciated price. Note, however, that the public may be
reluctant because of its former use to use the land; this would depend
largely upon the appearance of the land at the time of resale.
Finally, operational flexibility of land application systems
depends upon climate. When heavy rains saturate the soil or flooding
occurs, treatment efficiency is greatly reduced. Where cold tempera-
tures might make land application unusuable, storage facilities are
required. Very cold climates require up to 6 months of storage
capacity- Rapid infiltration is the only land application technique
used successfully in very cold temperatures.
D. RELIABILITY OF COMPONENTS
Reliability measures the ability of a system or component to
operate without failure at the level of efficiency for which it was
designed. It is particularly important to have dependable operation in
situations where environmental or economic harm may result from system
failure. This section examines the reliability of local component used
in EIS alternatives.
1, SEWERS
Gravity Sewers. When possible, sewer systems allow wastewater to
flow downhill by force of gravity. This type of system, known as grav-
ity sewer, is highly reliable. Designed properly, such systems require
little maintenance. They consume no energy and have no mechanical
components to malfunction.
Gravity sewer problems include clogged pipes, leading to sewer
backups; infiltration/inflow, increasing the volume of flow beyond the
design level; and broken or misaligned pipes. Major contributors to
these problems are improperly jointed pipes and the intrusion of tree
roots into the sewer, which tends to be more prevalent in older systems.
Where ground slope opposes the direction of sewage flow, it may be
necessary to pump the sewage through sections of pipe called force
mains. The pumps add a mechanical component which increases operation
and maintenance (O&M) requirements and decreases the system reliability.
To assure uninterrupted system operation, two pumps are generally
installed, providing a backup if one malfunctions. Each is usually can
handle at least tx
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Pressure Sewers. Pressure sewers transmit wastewater uphill when
ground topography does not allow gravity flow. Because the system' is
always under pressure, pumping is needed to force the wastewater into
the sewer.
Grinder Pumps. Grinder pumps are used primarily to grind and pump
raw domestic sewage from an individual house to the collection system,
and occasionally for small lift stations. They are either of the semi-
positive displacement or the centrifugal type, depending upon the mode
of operation. The reliability of both types is high.
One problem may arise during a power failure. Standby power for a
grinder pump would not usually be available at an individual house and
the residence would be without sewage removal. This is a lesser problem
than might be supposed, for a power failure would curtail many opera-
tions that generate wastewater.
There were problems in the operation of the first generation of
grinder pumps when pressure to pump wastewater or power to grind solids
was insufficient. Modifications have been made in their design and
construction, and the second generation of these pumps is appreciably
more reliable. Periodic maintenance is required to clean or replace
parts of the grinder pump.
Septic Tank Effluent (STEP) Pumps. It is sometimes desirable to
pump wastewater from an existing septic tank rather than directly from
the house, using septic tank effluent pumps* (STEP) rather than a
grinder pump. In this way difficulties associated with suspended solids
are largely avoided. STEP pumps are relatively simple modifications of
conventional sump pumps.
The reliability of STEP pumps made by experienced manufacturers is
good. Newer entries into the field have not yet accumulated the operat-
ing experience necessary to demonstrate conclusively the reliability of
their products. In the event of failure of a STEP system, an overflow
line may be provided, allowing septic tank effluent to reach the old
drainfield for emergency disposal.
Pipes. Pressure sewer pipes are subject to the same problems as
force mains, discussed above. As with force mains, proper design can
prevent clogging and breaking of pipes, the most common cause of sewer
problems. Because pressure sewer piping has no mechanical components,
the reliability is high.
2. CENTRALIZED TREATMENT
Conventional. The reliability of conventional wastewater treatment
has been tested by time. Most unit processes have been used for many
years, and there is consequently much information on their design and
operation in nearly all climates. In general, the larger the treatment
facility, the more reliable its operation, because the large flow
volumes require multiple units per treatment process. For instance, a
large facility will, have several primary clarifiers; if one malfunc-
tions, the remaining units can handle the entire load. Therefore,
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difficulties arising as a result of failure of a single unit process, or
of severe weather conditions such as heavy rain or very cold tempera-
tures, are less likely to affect operations. Conventional wastewater
treatment plants can be designed to handle most problems.
Land Application. Land application of treated sewage effluent is
still uncommon in the United States, but its use is growing steadily.
Local climatic conditions such as heavy rains or very low temperatures
may make the technique unsuitable in a particular area.
Potential problems with land application include: groundwater con-
tamination; dispersal of microbial mass by airborne transport; odors;
surface water contamination; accumulation of metals in the vegetation;
and possible toxic effects upon local animals. These problems can be
minimized with proper design, but there is not yet the extensive prac-
tical experience required to develop advanced design technology.
3; ON-SITE TREATMENT
Septic Tanks. The design and operation of modern septic tanks have
benefitted from long experience. Properly designed and maintained,
septic systems will provide satisfactory service with minimum mainten-
ance. Care must be taken not to put materials in the system that may
clog it. The principal maintenance requirement is periodic pumping of
the tank, usually every 2 or 3 years.
Problems of septic systems include heavy rain saturating the
ground, clogged drainfields caused by full septic tanks, clogged or
frozen pipes, and broken pipes. Current environmental laws restricting
sites according to soil suitability, depth to groundwater and bedrock,
and other factors, limit the cases where septic systems can be used.
Sand Mounds. Elevated sand mounds 4 or 5 feet above original
ground level are an alternative drainage mechanism where siting restric-
tions do not allow standard drainfields. Because they do not always
provide satisfactory service and are considerably more expensive than
conventional drainfields, they have not been universally accepted. In
states were proper design standards are enforced such as Minnesota and
Wisconsin, they do have a very good record of reliability.
4. CLUSTER SYSTEMS
Cluster systems are localized wastewater disposal mechanisms ser-
ving several residences. The reliability is similar to that of a septic
system, except that a malfunction affects not just one, but a number of
residences. Because a cluster system requires more piping to connect
individual houses to the treatment tank than does a series of individual
systems, there is a greater chance for pipes to break or clog, or for
I/I to occur during heavy rain. If pumping is required, the reliability
of the system declines because of the mechanical nature of the pumps and
their dependence upon electricity for power.
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E. IMPLEMENTATION
The implementation of a wastewater management plan depends upon
whether the selected alternative relies primarily upon centralized or
decentralized components. Since most sanitary districts have in the
past heen designed around centralized wastewater collection and treat-
ment there is a great deal of information about the implementation of
such systems. Decentralized collection and treatment is, however,
relatively new and there is little management experience.
Whether the selected alternative is primarily centralized or
decentralized, four aspects of the implementation program must be
addressed:
» Legal authority for a managing agency to exist and financial
authority for it to operate.
• Agency management of construction, ownership and operation of
the sanitary facilities.
• Choice between the several types of long-term financing that
are generally required to pay for project capital expendi-
tures.
• A system of user charges to retire capital debts, to cover
expenditures for operation and maintenance, and to provide a
reserve for contingencies.
In the following sections, these requirements are examined first
with respect to centralized sanitary districts, then with respect to
decentralized districts.
1. CENTRALIZED DISTRICTS
a. Authority
The Steuben Lakes Facilities Plan identified the Steuben Lakes
Regional Waste District as the legal authority for implementing the
Plan's Proposed Action. The District was established in February, 1975,
under Section 19-3-1.1 of the Indiana Code. This law permits any area
in the State to be organized as a regional water, sewage, and/or solid
waste district to provide a number of services, including the collec-
tion, treatment, and disposal of sewage within and outside of the dis-
trict.
b. Managing Agency
The role of the managing agency has been well defined for cen-
tralized sanitary districts. In general, the agency constructs, main-
tains and operates the sewerage facilities. Although in fact different
contractual relationships exist between the agencies and their service
areas, for the purposes of this document, ownership of the facilities
may be assumed to reside with the agency. For gravity sewers, such
ownership has traditionally extended to the private property line. For
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STEP or grinder pump stations connected to pressure sewers several
options exist in all of which individual residences are treated equally:
• The station may be designed to agency specifications, with the
responsibility for purchase, maintenance and ownership resid-
ing with the homeowner.
• The station may be specified and purchased by the agency, with
the homeowner repurchasing and maintaining it.
» , The station may be specified and owned by the agency, but
purchased by the homeowner.
• The station may be specified, purchased and owned by the
agency.
c. Financing
Appendix 1-2 discussed in detail various financing methods for
capital expenses associated with a project. Briefly, they are:
• pay-as-you-go methods;
» special benefit assessments;
» reserve funds; and
« debt financing.
The Facilities Plan indicated that much of the Proposed Action
would be funded by Federal and State grants, and demonstrated that funds
for the local share which could be available from the Farmers Home
Administration would result in the lowest annual service charge per
connection.
d. User Charges
User charges are set at a level adequate to repay long-term debt
and cover operating and maintenance expenses. In addition, prudent
management agencies often add an extra charge to provide a contingency
fund for extraordinary expenses and replacement of equipment.
The implementation program proposed by the Facilities Plan is an
example of one method for a Regional District to recover the costs of
wastewater management from the users of the system. Because of the
potential economic impacts, the charges must be carefully allocated
among various classes of users. Recognized classes of users include:
• Permanent residents/Seasonal residents
» Residential/Commercial/Industrial users
• Presently sewered users/Newly sewered users
• Low- and fixed-income residents/Active income producers
Each class of user imposes different requirements on the design and
cost of each alternative, receives different benefits, and has different
financial capabilities.
136
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2. SMALL WASTE FLOWS DISTRICTS
Regulation of on-lot sewage systems has evolved to the point where
most new facilities are designed, permitted and inspected by local
health departments or other agencies. After installation, local govern-
ment has no further responsibility for these systems until malfunctions
become evident. In such cases the local government may inspect and
issue permits for repair of the systems. The sole basis for government
regulation in this field has been its obligation to protect public
health.
Rarely have governmental obligations been interpreted broadly
enough to include monitoring and control of other effects of on-lot
system use or misuse. One of the few examples of such broader inter-
pretation exists in the Study Area where the Steuben County Health
Department has for several years been monitoring and controlling the
effects of on-lot systems on the water quality of the area's lakes.
Unfortunately this program has recently been scaled down due to a lack
of funds.
Methods of identifying and dealing" with the adverse effects of
on-lot systems without building expensive sewers are being developed
through the United States. Technical methods include both the waste-
water treatment and disposal alternatives discussed in Section III.B and
improved monitoring of water quality. Appendix J-l discusses managerial
methods already developed and applied dozens of communities in Cali-
fornia alone. As with centralized district, the issues of legal and
fiscal authority, agency management, project financing, and user charges
must all be resolved by small waste flows districts.
a. Authority
Indiana presently has no legislation which explicitly authorizes
governmental entities to manage wastewater facilities other than those
connected to conventional collection systems. However, statutes in
Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin have been interpreted as providing
counties, townships, villages, cities, and special purpose districts
with sufficient powers to manage decentralized facilities (Otis and
Stewart 1976). It is thought likely that the enabling legislation for
the establishment of the Steuben Lakes Regional Waste District, also
provides this authority (by telephone, Mr. Joseph Karen, Indiana Stream
Pollution Control Board, September 25, 1978).
California and Illinois, to resolve interagency conflicts or to
authorize access to private properties for inspection and maintenance of
wastewater facilities, have passed legislation specifically intended to
facilitate management of decentralized facilities. These laws are
summarized in Appendix J-2.
b. Management
The purpose of a small waste flows district is to balance the costs
of management with the needs of public health and environmental quality.
137
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Management of such a district implies formation of a management agency
and formulation of policies for the agency. The concept of such an
agency is relatively new. Appendix J-3 discusses this concept in
detail.
Table III-3 presents the range of functions a management agency may
exercise for adequate control and use of decentralized technologies.
Because the level of funding for these functions could become an
economic burden, their costs and benefits should be considered in the
development of the management agency. Major decisions for the locality
which have to be made in the development of this agency relate to the
following questions:
• Should the agency provide engineering and operation functions,
or private organizations under contract?
• Would off-site facilities require acquisition of property and
right-of-way?
• Would public or private ownership of on-site wastewater
facilities be more likely to provide cost savings and improved
control of facilities operation?
• Are there environmental, land use, or economic characteristics
of the area that would be sensitive to operation and construc-
tion of decentralized systems? If so, would special planning,
education and permitting steps be appropriate?
Five steps are recommended to implement an efficient, effective
program for the management of wastewater in unsewered areas:
» Develop a site-specific environmental and engineering data
base;
e Design the management organization;
» Agency start-up;
• Construct and rehabilitate of facilities; and
® Operate facilities.
Site Specific Environmental and Engineering Data Base. The data
base should include groundwater monitoring, a house-to-house investi-
gation (sanitary survey), soils and engineering studies, and a survey of
available technologies likely to be feasible in the area. This baseline
information will provide the framework for the systems and technologies
appropriate to the district.
A program for monitoring groundwater should include water quality
sampling of existing wells and possibly additional testing of the
aquifer. Such monitoring should be instituted early enough to provide
data useful in selecting and designing wastewater disposal systems.
138
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Table III-3
SMALL WASTE FLOW MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS BY OPERATIONAL COMPONENT
AND BY BASIC AND SUPPLEMENTAL USAGE
Component
Basic Usage*
Supplemental Usage*
Administrative User charge system
Staffing
Enforcement
Engineering
Operations
Planning
Adopt design standards*
Review and approval of plans*
Evaluate Existing systems/
design rehabilitation
measures
Installation inspection*
On-site soils investigations*
Acceptance for public
management of privately
installed facilities
Routine inspection and
maintenance
Septage collection and
disposal
Groundwater monitoring
Grants administration
Service contracts supervision
Occupancy/operating permits
Interagency coordination
Property and right-of-way
acquisition
Performance bonding
requirements
Design and install facilities
for public ownership
Contractor training
Special designs for alternative
technologies
Pilot studies of alternative
technologies
Implementing flow reduction
techniques
Emergency inspection and
maintenance
Surface water monitoring
Land use planning
Public education
Designate areas sensitive
to soil-dependent systems
Establish environmental, land
use and economic criteria
for issuance or non-issuance
of permits
* Usage normally provided by local governments at present.
139
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The sanitary survey should include interviews with residents and
inspections of existing systems. A trained surveyor should record
information on lot size and location; age and use of dwelling; location,
age, and type of sewage disposal system; adequacy of the maintenance of
the existing system; water-using fixtures; and problems with the exist-
ing system.
Detailed site analyses may be required to evaluate operation of the
effluent disposal fields and to determine the impacts of effluent dispo-
sal upon local groundwater. These studies may include probing the
disposal area; borings for soil samples; and the installation of shallow
groundwater observation shafts. Sampling of the groundwater downhill
from leach fields aids in evaluating the potential for transport of
nutrients and pathogens through the soil. Study of soil classifications
near selected leach fields may improve correlations between soil charac-
teristics and leach field failures. An examination of the reasons for
the inadequate functioning of existing wastewater systems may avoid such
problems with the rehabilitated or new systems.
Design the Management Organization. The District's technical and
administrative capabilities should be analyzed as outlined in Table
III-3, concurrently with development of the environmental and engineer-
ing data base. The roles of organizations such as the Steuben County
Health Department should be examined with respect to avoiding inter-
agency conflicts and duplication of effort and staffing.
Determination of the basic and supplementary management functions
to be provided will be influenced by the technologies appropriate to the
Study Area. In this respect, the questions raised earlier regarding
formulation of management policies must be resolved.
The product of these analyses should be an organizational design in
which staffing requirements, functions, interagency agreements, user
charge systems and procedural guidelines are defined.
Agency Start-Up. Once the structure and responsibilities of the
management agency have been defined, public review is advisable. Addi-
tional personnel required for construction and/or operation should be
provided. If necessary, contractual arrangements with private organiza-
tions should be made. Acquisition of property should also begin.
Construction and Rehabilitation of Facilities. Site data collected
for the environmental and engineering data base should support selection
and design of appropriate systems for individual residences. Once
construction and rehabilitation begin, site conditions may be revealed
that suggest technology or design changes. Since decentralized systems
generally must be designed to operate within site limitations instead of
overcoming them, flexibility should be provided. Personnel authorized
to revise designs in the field would provide this flexibility.
Operation of Facilities. The administrative planning, engineering,
and operations functions listed in Table III-3 are primarily applicable
to this phase. The role of the management agency would have been deter-
mined in the organizational phase. The experience of agency start-up
140
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and project construction may indicate that higher or lower levels of
effort are necessary to ensure long-term reliability of the decen-
tralized facilities.
c. Financing
The financing of a small waste flows district is similar to that of
a centralized district. Such financing was discussed in Section
III.E.I.e.
d. User Charges
Although renovation and replacement costs for on-site systems owned
by permanent residents are eligible for Federal funding, such costs
incurred by seasonal residents are not. A major difference in the
financing of permanent and seasonally owned on-site systems results.
With respect to the Study Area where a significant proportion of the
users would be seasonal, the absence of Federal funding would transfer a
large fraction of the project costs to the local users. This would be
reflected in either 1) capital outlays by the users for construction, 2)
increased user charges covering increased local costs, or 3) both.
Under US EPA Program Guidance Memorandum 79-8, however, district
access to on-site systems, even those owned by seasonal residents is
considered to be equivalent to public ownership, and thus eligible for
Federal funding. A grant of definite access to the on-site system by
easement or covenant would allow Federal and State funding of on-site
repair.
Section III.E.l.d discusses user charges and classes. Decentral-
ized districts create an additional class of users. Since some house-
holds of such districts may be in centrally sewered areas and others in
decentralized areas, user charges may differ. As a result many dif-
ferent management functions are conjoined. For example, permanent users
on septic systems may be charged less than those on central sewers.
Seasonal users on pressure sewers may have high annual costs associated
with amortization of capital expenses; permanent users of pressure
sewers may be charged less than seasonal users, because Federal funding
reduced their share of the capital costs. Alternatively, the management
agency may choose to divide all costs equally among all users. For the
analyses in this EIS, public ownership of permanent and seasonal on-site
systems has been assumed.
Problems such as these have not been fully addressed by available
sources of management information. Development of user charges by small
waste flows districts will undoubtedly have to overcome by such limita-
tions. EPA is preparing an analysis of equitable means for recovering
costs from users in small waste flows districts and combined sewer/small
waste flows districts to meet this need.
141
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142
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CHAPTER IV
EIS ALTERNATIVES
A. APPROACH
The preceding chapter described options for the functional com-
ponents of wastewater management systems for the Study Area communities.
This chapter examines alternative wastewater management plans for the
Study Area, including a No Action Alternative.
The Facilities Plan Proposed Action (described earlier) provided
for centralized collection and treatment of wastewater. Responding to
cost and needs documentation issues, EIS alternative development focused
on decentralized and alternative or innovative technologies: alter-
native collection .systems; decentralized treatment; and land disposal
of wastewaters. The EIS Alternatives would manage wastewaters in the
same Service Area as the Facilities Plan Proposed Action, but the EIS
Alternatives use decentralized collection and treatment to avoid some of
the costs of sewers.
Because of the high collection costs in the Proposed Action, the
cost-effectiveness of pressure sewers, vacuum sewers, and small-diameter
gravity sewers were compared. Of these, the combination of gravity and
pressure sewers recommended by the Facilities Plan was the most cost-
effective. Similarly, the use of a septic tank effluent pumping (STEP)
system was analyzed as an alternative to the grinder pumps serving the
pressure sewers proposed by the Facilities Plan. Assuming 50% replace-
ment of the septic tanks, the STEP system was computed to be the
slightly more cost-effective solution and was used in the EIS Alterna-
tives. This selection should be reviewed during the preparation of
detailed designs.
Where conditions like soils and topography are favorable, land
disposal of wastewater offers advantages over conventional biological
treatment systems discharging surface waters: the land is used as a
natural treatment facility; reduced operation and maintenance may result
from the relatively simple operation; and savings in capital and operat-
ing costs are possible.
Analysis of decentralized treatment technologies and site condi-
tions showed feasible alternatives to sewering the entire Service Area.
It would be possible to combine multi-family filter fields (cluster
systems) with rehabilitated and new on-site treatment systems.
Appendix K-l presents the assumptions used in design and costing of
the alternatives. Section IV.B lists the major features of the Proposed
Action, and the EIS Alternatives.
B. ALTERNATIVES
The Facilities Plan Proposed Action has been compared with the No
Action Alternative, a Limited Action Alternative, and six new approaches
developed in this EIS. Table IV-1 summarizes these alternatives.
143
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Table IV-1
ALTERNATIVES - SUMMARY OF MAJOR COMPONENTS
Alternative
Facilities
Plan
Proposed
Ac t ion
Limited
Action
EIS
Alternative
1
Centralized
Treatment
Aerated lagoon/land application
system serving entire Proposed
Service Area
No
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
f* . Trnokpd Lake — First & Second
Treatment Plant
Siting
Millgrove Township
Sections 23 & 24
No
a. Mill prove Township
Effluent Disposal
Land application by spray
irrigation with recovery
of renovated wastewater
and discharge to Crooked
Creek
No
a. Land application bv
On-Lot &
Cluster Systems
No
Repair and replacement of on-site systems
throughout the Proposed Service Area
Alternative
Collection Method
Use of pressure sewer/septic
tank effluent pumping (STEP)
system in steep lakeshore
areas
No
Use of nressure aewer/seotic
EIS
Alternative
2
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
.Timmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores, and
portion of West Shore
Lake Gage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Snow Lake
Oxidation ditch/land application
system serving:
Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jiramerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Section 25
b.
Jamestown Township
Section 22
Millgrove Township
Section 25
rapid Infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewacer
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
b. Land application by
rapid Infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
Land application by rapid
infiltration with recovery
of renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell Lake
Ditch
remainder of Proposed Service Area
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
tank effluent pumping (STEP)
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection system
-------
Table IV-1 (Continued)
Alternative
Centralized
Treatment
Treatment Plant
Siting
Effluent Disposal
On-Lot &
Cluster Systems
Alternative
Collection Method
EIS
Alternative
3
EIS
Alternative
EIS
Alternative
5
Contact stabilization/mixed
media filtration plant serving;
Crooked Lake—First f> Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
a. Jimmerson Lake—portion of
West Shore
Lake Cage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Snow Lake
Contact stabilization/mixed
media filtration plant serving:
Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Oxidation ditch/land application
systems serving:
a. Lake James—Middle & Lower
Basins
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores and
portion of West Shore
Lake Gage, Lake Sylvan, and
Lime Lake
b. Crooked Lake—First & Second
Basins
Jamestown Township
Section 29
b.
Millgrove Township
Section 25
Jamestown Township
Section 22
Jamestown Township
Section 29
b.
Millgrove Township
Section 25
Pleasant Township
Section 19
Discharge to Crooked Creek
a. Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
b. Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
Discharge to Crooked Creek
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to Bell
Lake Ditch
Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
renovated wastewater
and discharge to
Cheeseboro Lake
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
-------
Table IV-1 (Concluded)
Alternative
EIS
Alternative
5 (Cont'd.)
EIS
Al ternative
6
Centralized
Treatment
c . Snow Lake
Contac t stab ili zat ion /mixed
media filtration plant serving:
a . Lake James — Middle & Lower
Treatment Plant
Siting
c. Jamestown Township
Section 22
a . Jamestown Township
On-Lot &
Effluent Disposal Cluster Systems
c. Land application by
rapid infiltration
with recovery of
and discharge to
Crooked Creek
On-lot and cluster systems serving
remainder of Proposed Service Area
a. Discharge to Crooked
Alternative
Collection Method
Use of pressure sewer/STEP
system in steep lakeshore
areas served by the central
collection systems
Jimmerson Lake—Lower East,
Southeast Shores
Crooked Lake—First 4 Second
Basins
b. Pleasant Township
Section 9
b. Discharge to Crooked
Lake
-------
1. NO ACTION
The EIS process must evaluate the consequences of not taking
action. Under the No Action Alternative, EPA would not provide funds to
support new construction, upgrading, or expansion of existing wastewater
collection and treatment systems. Wastewater would continue to be
treated in existing plants and on-site systems, in their existing condi-
tion. Presumably no action would be taken to correct existing systems
that are poorly designed and operated. Nor Would action be taken to
correct septic tank and field sizing and other deficiencies related to
state and local codes.
2. FACILITIES PLAN PROPOSED ACTION
The Facilities Plan recommended construction of a regional collec-
tion system and centralized treatment. The collection system would
comprise a combination of pressure sewers/grinder pumps and gravity
sewers with lift stations.
The Facilities Plan also proposed treatment of 1.9 mgd of waste-
water by aerated lagoons, and land application. Spray irrigation was
selected with an underdrain system to collect the effluent for discharge
to Crooked Creek. Figure IV-1 sketches of the proposed treatment pro-
cesses. Figure IV-2 illustrates the Proposed Service Area and location
of the proposed stabilization pond.
In Section IV.A.I, STEP systems were found to be somewhat more
cost-effective than the grinder pumps recommended in the Facilities
Plan. For this reason, STEP systems were substituted in the Proposed
Action discussed in this EIS. The Proposed Action differs in this
respect from that in the Facilities Plan.
3. EIS ALTERNATIVE 1
EIS Alternative 1 proposes centralized collection and treatment of
wastewaters from Crooked Lake, Lake James, Jimmerson Lake, and Lake
Gage, Lime Lake, Lake Syl-Van and Snow Lake.
The flow from the Snow Lake area (0.14 mgd) would be treated in an
oxidation ditch and applied, by rapid infiltration, to the land at a
site northeast of the Lake. Flows from the remaining areas listed above
(1.3 mgd) would be treated similarly, but disposal would be at a site
north of Bell Lake. Approximately 75% of the renovated effluent would
be recovered from wells and discharged to Crooked Creek. The remaining
25% of the treated effluent would presumably percolate down to ground-
water. Well output could, if necessary, be increased to 100%. In any
case, the renovated effluent would meet Drinking Water Standards for
nitrates, 10 mg/1 (US PHS 1962). Sludge would be dried in drying beds
and then applied to agricultural lands for disposal.
The remaining portions of the Proposed Service Area would be served
by a combination of cluster systems and on-site systems suitable to
local soil conditions. The preliminary design, comparison, and assess-
ment of decentralized systems were based upon the following assumptions:
147
-------
FIGURE IV-1
FACILITY PLAN PROPOSED ACTION
TREATMENT PROCESSES
SPRAY
IRRIGATION
r
~i
CO
CHLORSNAT10N
-------
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
PLANT
&
SPRAY (HRIpATION SITE
LEGEND
[LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
FIGURE IV-2 STEUBEN LAKES: FACILITIES PLAN PROPOSED ACTION
-------
Cluster Systerns. Cluster systems would be used for those parts of
the Proposed Service Area where topography or soil limitations preclude
on-site systems. It was assumed that those residences occupying less
than one-third of an acre and utilizing decentralized systems would be
tied into cluster systems; suitable soils exist at the sites for which
these systems are proposed.
On-lot Systems. Residences not served by sewers or cluster systems
would use on-lot systems. This would include a program of maintenance;
malfunctioning systems would be repaired or replaced as appropriate.
The specific requirements for upgrading existing on-lot systems
were estimated by analysis of the data presented in the "Septic Snooper"
investigation, and other environmental data. Based upon these, 50% of
the on-lot systems were assumed to require replacement of the septic
tank and 10% were assumed to require a new drainfield. Figure IV-3
shows the centralized treatment process. Figure IV-4 shows the area to
be' served by the system, the treatment plant location, and the trans-
mission line routings.
4. EIS ALTERNATIVE 2
This alternative differs from EIS Alternative 1 only in that the
shoreline areas of Lake Gage, Lime Lake, Lake Syl-Van, Snow Lake, and a
portion of the west shore of Jimmerson Lake would use ST/SAS and cluster
systems, rather than centralized sewers. As a result, 1.0 mgd would be
treated by rapid infiltration. Figure IV-5 shows the process. Figure
IV-6 illustrates this alternative.
5. EIS ALTERNATIVE 3
This alternative differs from EIS Alternative 1 in offering conven-
tional treatment of wastewater for the central collection areas around
Crooked Lake, Lake James and Jimmerson Lake.
The treatment plant, using the contact stabilization process, would
have a design hydraulic capacity of 1 mgd and would be located north of
Jiramerson Lake. It would discharge effluent to Crooked Creek.
Flows from the Snow Lake area would be treated by a 0.14 mgd rapid
infiltration facility located near the northern part of the Lake.
Similarly, 0.29 mgd from Lake Gage, Lime Lake, Lake Syl-Van and part of
Jimmerson Lake would be treated by rapid infiltration at a site north of
Bell Lake.
Figures IV-7 and IV-8 shows the treatment processes. The locations
of centralized and decentralized treatment areas for this alternative
are shown in Figure IV-9.
6. EIS ALTERNATIVE 4
This alternative resembles EIS Alternative 3, differing from it in
that the areas served by central sewers and rapid infiltration would
employ ST-SAS/cluster systems instead. Figure IV-10 illustrates the
150
-------
FIGURE IV-3.
EIS ALTERNATIVE 1
TREATMENT PROCESSES
RAW
WASTE
WATER
PRELIMI-
NARY
TREAT-
MENT
OXIDA-
TION
DITCH
CHLORINATION
RAPID
NFILT
RATIO!
BASINS
RECOVERY
TO
RECEIVING
STREAM
WELLS
-------
Ul
ro
*|LAND
APPLICATION
RAPID
APPLICATION
RAPID
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
A 0 2000 4000
FIGURE IV-4 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE I
-------
FIGURE IV-5
EIS ALTERNATIVE 2
TREATMENT PROCESSES
r
~l
RAW
Ln
LO
WASTE
WATER
PRELIMI-
NARY
TREAT-
MENT
OXIDA-
TION
DITCH
STORAGE
LAGOON
CHLORINATION
RAPID
NFILT
RATIO!
BASINS
RECOVERY
TO
RECEIVING
STREAM
WELLS
-------
LANO APPLICATION
'i-<^-
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEUER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-S1TE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
FIGURE IV-6 STEUbEN LAKES: E1S ALTERNATIVE 2
-------
FIGURE IV-7
EIS ALTERNATIVE 3
TREATMENT PROCESSES-SURFACE DISCHARGE
ALUM
ADDITION
PUMP
STA.
RAW
AERATED
GRIT
CHAMBER
^ .
l^j
MIXED «E"0M
CHLORINATION
TO RECEIVING
STREAM
SLUDGE DRYING
BEDS
-------
FIGURE IV-8
EIS ALTERNATIVE 3
TREATMENT PROCESSES-LAND APPLICATION
WASTE
WATER
CHLORSNATION
RAPID
NFILT
RATIOI
BASINS
RECOVERY
TO
RECEIVING
STREAM
WELLS
-------
LEGEND
LIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
FIGURE IV-9 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE 3
-------
FIGURE IV-10
EIS ALTERNATIVE 4
TREATMENT PROCESSES
ALUM
ADDITION
PUMP
STA.
oo
RAW
WATER
CONTACT
\ ZONE
REAER-
TI°N
AERATED
GRIT
CHAMBER
^ .
z&/
MIXED MEDIA
FILTRATION
CMLORINATION
»-
TO RECEIVING
STREAM
SLUDGE DRYING
BEDS
-------
treatment processes for this alternative. Figure IV-11 shows the
locations of proposed collection and treatment facilities.
7. EIS ALTERNATIVE 5
This alternative resembles EIS Alternative 1, but a separate
collection and treatment system would be provided for the Crooked Lake
areas. The 0.43 mgd flow would be collected by a combined pressure-
gravity sewer system and treated by rapid infiltration at a site
southwest of the Lake. Recovered effluent would be discharged to
Cheeseboro Lake. The James/Jimmerson collection system would handle a
flow of 0.9 mgd and discharge to a rapid infiltration site north of Bell
Lake Ditch. Similarly, the flow of 0.14 mgd Snow Lake area flows would
be treated by rapid infiltration.
Figure IV-12 shows a schematic representation of the treatment pro-
cesses while Figure IV-13 depicts the entire wastewater disposal system,
with the locations of cluster systems, on-site disposal areas, and the
land application sites.
8. EIS ALTERNATIVE 6
This alternative resembles EIS Alternative 4, but the major col-
lection areas around Crooked Lake, and those around Lakes James and
Jimmerson were treated as two separate systems.
The 0.43 mgd Crooked Lake flows would be collected by a combined
pressure and gravity sewer system. A conventional contact stabilization
treatment plant northeast of the Lake would discharge treated effluent
to Crooked Lake. The flow from the James/ Jimmerson area would be
reduced to 0.6 mgd. Figure IV-14 represents of the treatment processes
while Figure IV-15 depicts the entire wastewater disposal system.
9. LIMITED ACTION
This alternative in effect proposes the continuance of ST/SASs as
the method of wastewater disposal in the Study Area. However, it dif-
fers from the No Action Alternative by providing for:
• Replacement of approximately 50% of the existing ST/SASs in
the year 1980. Such tanks are over 40 years old and often are
structurally unsound and leaky.
• Replacement of approximately 10% of the drainfields in the
Study Area that are believed to be non-functional.
• Development of a management agency to provide routine inspec-
tion and maintenance of the systems and monitor their environ-
mental effects -- especially on groundwater and surface water
quality.
Figure IV-16 maps this alternative.
159
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ON
o
LEGEND
iLIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
O 0 2000 4OOO
FIGURE IV-11 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE
-------
FIGURE IV-12
EIS ALTERNATIVE 5
TREATMENT PROCESSES
RAW
WASTE *
WATER
PRELIMI-
NARY
TREAT-
MENT
OXIDA-
TION
DITCH
I
>
1 _
STORAGE
LAGOON
i
*
]„
CHLOR1NATION
*.
.H.UII.II IfeTH
1
RAPID
NFILT
RATIOI
BASINS
1
RECOVERY
TO
RECEIVING
STREAM
WELLS
-------
LAND
APPLICATION
RAPID INFILTRATION
LEGEND
9 iLIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
LAND
APPLICATION
FIGURE IV-13 STEUBEN LAKES:
EIS ALTERNATIVE 5
HAPID INFILTRATION
-------
FIGURE IV-14
EIS ALTERNATIVE 6
TREATMENT PROCESSES
ALUM
ADDITION
PUMP
STA.
\ CffNTACT
\ ZONE
REAER-
T'° 'SEDIMEN-
TSTION
ZONF
AERATED
GRIT
CHAMBER
CHLORINAT1ON
TO RECEIVING
STREAM
SLUDGE DRYING
BEDS
-------
LEGEND
iLIFT STATION
PRESSURE SEWER
FORCE MAIN
GRAVITY SEWER
ON-SITE AND CLUSTER
SYSTEMS
2000 40OO
FIGURE IV-15 STEUBEN LAKES: EIS ALTERNATIVE 6
-------
FIGURE IV-16 STEUBEN LAKES: LIMITED ACTION ALTERNATIVE
-------
C. FLEXIBILITY OF ALTERNATIVES
This section evaluates the flexibility of the Proposed Action and
the EIS Alternatives to accommodate future Service Area growth, along
with their operational flexibility over the design period.
1. FACILITIES PLAN PROPOSED ACTION
This alternative offers good flexibility for growth; as long as
land is available, aerated lagoons can be expanded to accommodate
increased flows relatively easily. Flexibility for future growth is,
however, reduced somewhat because the entire proposed Service Area is
sewered. Greater flexibility for future expansion is usually available
with alternatives that require a smaller • initial commitment of
resources.
2. EIS ALTERNATIVE 1
By using on-lot and cluster systems, this alternative retains more
flexibility for future planning than the Proposed Action. In addition,
the use of two treatment locations could provide operational flexibility
if interconnections between the two collection systems were provided.
The EIS Alternative 1 treatment plan provides greater operational flexi-
bility than the aerated lagooa. The expansion flexibility of oxidation
ditches depends on land availabile. An oxidation ditch, however,
requires much less land than a stabilization pond.
Finally, this alternative proposes wastewater disposal by rapid
infiltration, rather than spray irrigation, as in the Facilities Plan.
For expansion, sewer siting restrictions make rapid infiltration less
flexible than spray irrigation. However, rapid infiltration requires
much less land area than spray irrigation. Also, the operational flexi-
bility of rapid infiltration is good offering a wide range of possible
application rates, almost year round use, even in cold weather.
3. EIS ALTERNATIVE 2
This alternative resembles EIS Alternative 1, but the Snow Lake
area would be served by decentralized systems. This increases the
flexibility for future planning.
4. EIS ALTERNATIVE 3
This alternative proposed rapid infiltration systems for Snow Lake
and for the Gage-Syl-Van-Lime areas. Crooked, James and much of
Jimmerson would be served by a contact stabilization facility. The
three separate treatment facilities could provide good operational
flexibility if collection systems were interconnected. The flexibility
for future planning is not as great as EIS Alternative 2, because the
decentralized areas are smaller, but the flexibility for expansion is
greater than for the previous alternative.
166
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5. EIS ALTERNATIVE 4
This alternative resembles EIS Alternative 2, but contact stabili-
zation treatment would be used instead of rapid infiltration. This
increases the flexibility for future growth compared to EIS Alternative
2, because less land would be required if the treatment facility needed
expansion. Contact stabilization also has less stringent siting require-
ments than rapid infiltration.
6. EIS ALTERNATIVE 5
This alternative resembles Alternative 3 providing three separate
collection and treatment facilities. Comments on the operational flexi-
bility of that alternative are applicable to this one too, but the
operational flexibility of rapid infiltration is lower than for contact
stabilization, since the former is subject to climatic variations.
Thus, the operational flexibility of Alternative 5 is somewhat lower
than for Alternative 2. The flexibilities for future expansion are
similar for the two alternatives, since the same decentralized areas are
proposed for both. The potential for treatment expansion of is somewhat
greater for Alternative 3 (contact stabilization) than for Alternative 5
(rapid infiltration).
7. EIS ALTERNATIVE 6
This alternative proposes two separate collection and treatment
systems, with much of the Proposed Service Area using on-lot and cluster
systems. Interconnection of the two collection systems would increase
operational flexibility to level of EIS Alternative 1, but not EIS
Alternatives 3 or 5. Use of contact stabilization plants increases
future expansion flexibility, but widespread use of decentralized
systems completely offsets this. Flexibility for future expansion would
be increased because of the use of contact stabilization plants, but
this is more than offset by the extensive use of decentralized systems.
The decentralized systems do increase the flexibility for future
planning.
8. LIMITED ACTION
The Limited Action Alternative offers the most decentralized
approach of all wastewater management plans evaluated in this EIS.
Lacking improved collection and treatment facilities for present and
future residents outside currently sewered areas, it is the least
flexibile of all alternatives in terms of accommodating future growth,
but is the most flexible for future planning.
D, COSTS OF ALTERNATIVES
Project costs were grouped by capital expenses, operating and
maintenance expenses, and salvage values of the equipment for ^each
alternative. A contingency fund amounting to approximately 25% of
capital and salvage value was included to provide for such expenses as
167
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engineering and legal fees, acquisition of rights-of-way, and admini-
stration. Appendix K-l describes the assumptions used in the analyses.
Appendix K-2 presents detailed costs for each alternative.
Table IV-2 summarizes present and future project costs for each of
alternatives. It also presents the analyses of total present worth and
annual equivalent costs of each alternative. (Debt service on financing
the local share is not included.) Section V.E presents a discussion of
Federal and State cost sharing and remaining local costs.
168
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Table IV-2
COST-EFFECTIVE ANALYSIS OF ALTERNATIVES
FACILITIES PLAN LIMITED
PROPOSED ACTION EIS 1 BIS 2 EIS 3 EIS 4 EIS 5 EIS 6 ACTION
Present Project Cost 20,839.8 17.640.2 17,620.3 18,058.3 17,571.7 18,210.3 17.8GI.6 1,967.8
(x$l,000)
Future Project Construction Costa 125.6 185.1 212.8 185.1 212.8 185.L 212.6 4,751.1
(x$l,000/yr) (1990)
Total Present Worth 23,166.8 19,874.4 18,951.4 21,212.4 19,663.1 20,485.37 19,9*9.4 8,268.7
(x$l,000)
Average Annual Equivalent Costs 2,124.4 1,822.5 1,737.8 1,945.2 1,803.1" 1,878.5 1,83X9 758.2
(x$l,000)
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170
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CHAPTER V
IMPACTS
A. IMPACTS ON SURFACE WATER QUALITY
1. PRIMARY IMPACTS
a. Analysis of Eutrophication Potential
This section discusses the effect of nutrient loading associated
with different wastewater management alternatives upon the trophic
status of open waters in the Steuben Study Area lakes. To evaluate the
impact of each alternative, nutrient loading levels for phosphorus were
calculated. The empirical model developed by Dillon was used to project
future trophic conditions associated with different phosphorus loading
scenarios based on the EIS wastewater management alternatives.
The major sources of phosphorus for lakes in the Study Area were
identified earlier in the following order of significance:
tributary inflow
immediate drainage around the lake
precipitation
septic tanks
point sources.
Other sources known to contribute to nutrient loading such as
groundwater, detritus, waterfowl, and release from sediments are less
significant in the Study Area in terms of the time scales considered.
Future Phosphorus Loadings. Changes in year 2000 phosphorus load-
ings due to each wastewater management alternative are presented in
Table V-l and may be compared with the average present loadings shown
earlier in Figure II-9. These changes reflect the percent increase or
decrease of phosphorus loading in relation to the present conditions.
The impacts were determined on the basis that septic tanks from all
(approximately 3,500) residences within 300 ft of the lakeshores
contributed 7% of their total phosphorus content to the lakes. However,
the septic snooper survey (Kerfoot 1979) located only 69 leachate plumes
(including 4 stream source plumes) entering the iakes~-the equivalent of
less than 2% of all septic tanks being contributory. The percentage
contribution of septic tanks to the phosphorus loading of the lakes and
the impacts predicted by phosphorus models are therefore likely to be
conservatively high.
If the No Action Alternative were implemented in the Proposed
Service Area, the phosphorus loadings to all lakes except Snow Lake
would increase by the year 2000 from 1% to 24% above what is^ estimated
for average present conditions. Snow Lake would exhibit a 17% decrease
in phosphorus loading mainly because the new tertiary treatment plant at
Pokagon State Park went into operation in May 1979. This reduction of
171
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TABLE V-l
Comparison of Phosphorus Loading of Alternatives
In The Year 2000 With The Average Present Conditions
N3
Lake
Crooked
Gage
Lime
Little Otter
Big Otter
Snow*
James
Jimmerson
No
Action
9% increase
5% increase
24% increase
<1% increase
<1% increase
17% decrease
1% increase
2% increase
Limited
Action
1% increase
<1% increase
2% increase
No change
No change
17% decrease
No change
No change
Facility Plan
Proposed Act inn
7% decrease
10% decrease
3% decrease
2% decrease
4% decrease
20% decrease
5% decrease
21% decrease
EIS
1. 3. 5
7% decrease
10% decrease
3% decrease
No change
No change
20% decrease
5% decrease
3% decrease
EIS
2. 4, 6
7% decrease
5% increase
3% decrease
No change
No change
17% decrease
5% decrease
3% decrease
*Decrease of 17% in all alternatives due to the Pokagon State Park's
tertiary treatment plant which became operational in May 1979.
-------
phosphorus loading is expected regardless of the alternative implemented
since it is independent actions taken in the EIS alternatives.
The Limited Action Alternative would cause very insignificant
changes in phosphorus loading. In general, implementing any of the EIS
alternatives or the Facilities Plan Proposed Action would cause
relatively small effects on phosphorus loading. Sewering of homes
around Lake Gage and Lime Lake (Facilities Plan Proposed Action and EIS
Alternatives 1, 3, and 5) would decrease the phosphorus loadings by 10%
and 3%, respectively; whereas, continued reliance on septic tank systems
along lakeshores (EIS Alternatives 2, 4, and 6) would result in a slight
increase in phosphorus loading to Lime Lake due to projected growth and
associated housing increase around the lakeshores. Big Otter Lake,
Little Otter Lake, James Lake, and Jimmerson Lake are only slightly
affected by any of the alternatives. The Facilities Plan Proposed
Action, however, is expected to remove all the phosphorus contribution
from septic tanks around Jimmerson Lake. As a result, the reduction of
phosphorus loading is relatively substantial (21% decrease). Crooked
Lake is expected to experience a moderate 7% reduction of phosphorus
loading by implementing the various alternatives.
Future Trophic Conditions. The empirical model developed by Dillon
was used to project the trophic conditions of the lakes by the year
2000. As described in Appendix C-3, the model incorporates phosphorus
loadings, hydraulic residence time, phosphorus retention rate, and mean
depth to determine the trophic conditions. As expected, the changes in
phosphorus loading imposed by various wastewater alternatives are not
significant enough to change any of the present trophic conditions of
the lakes. Even in the case of Snow Lake where reduction of phosphorus
loadings are significant due to the newly operated tertiary treatment
plant at the Pokagon State Park, the model result does not indicate
enough improvement to change the trophic condition from eutrophic to
mesotrophic. Jimmerson Lake, with its phosphorus loading to be reduced
21% by the Facilities Plan Proposed Action, will remain in its present
mesotrophic condition. The most significant reduction of phosphorus
loading will be expected in Marsh Lake as a result of phosphorus removal
in the Fremont treatment plant which is not a part of any of the EIS
alternatives. The lake, however, will still remain eutrophic according
to the model's prediction. This finding concurs with the results of NES
(1976).
b. Bacterial Contamination
Lakes in the Study Area generally meet State standards for fecal
and total coliform bacteria. Where human wastes have been implicated as
a contributor to coliform counts in the lakes, it is expected that all
the wastewater management alternatives should effectively abate such a
problem.
Land application of wastewater is an effective way of eliminating
or immobilizing sewage-borne pathogens particularly if some pretreatment
(stabilization pond) precedes it (Johnson et al. 1977). Bacterial
pathogens undergo rapid die-off in the soil matrix. Studies have shown
the summer survival rate of fecal coliform organisms to be 0.001% after
a period of 35 days (Miller 1973).
173
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With the centralized alternatives, pumping station malfunctions
could result in substantial bacterial lake contamination. Rigorous
inspection and maintenance of pumping stations, back-up electrical power
supplies, standby pumps and an overflow alarm would minimize the
possibility of this happening. Similar measures should be taken with
pumping stations for cluster systems.
c. Non-Point Source Loads
Primary impacts on surface water quality related to the construc-
tion of ST/SAS and the replacement of old systems is likely to result in
increased soil erosion. Similarly, installation of sewers, especially
those that pass under the many small drainage ways leading to the lakes,
will increase erosion.
Compliance with State and local soil erosion control requirements
could substantially reduce the erosion problem and the subsequent impact
on water quality.
2. SECONDARY IMPACTS
Increasing housing development along lake shores may increase
nutrient and sediment loads into the lake as a result of the following:
« increased runoff from construction of impervious surfaces such
as rooftops and parking areas;
• lawn and garden fertilization creating unnaturally high
nutrient levels in the runoff; and
» soil disruption by human activities (i.e., housing construc-
tion, leveling of forested area, etc.).
Soil organic debris and dissolved materials mobilized and transported to
temporary runoff channels during storms are settled, filtered and
absorbed on the land or in pools if the runoff channels are long or if
adequate storage areas, such as wetlands, occur. Increasing housing
density normally accelerates storm runoff, thereby increasing not only
the amount of runoff but also its ability to erode soil and to transport
contaminants.
B* GROUNDWATER JMPACTS
Groundwater impacts fall into two categories, those affecting the
available quantity of the resource, and those affecting its quality.
1. GROUNDWATER QUANTITY IMPACTS
No significant primary or secondary impacts on groundwater quantity
should result from any of the various alternatives. This is mainly
because all of the water quantities associated with the alternatives are
relatively miniscule in comparison with the estimated groundwater
174
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storage, recharge from all other sources, and available grouridwater
yield.
The conversion from sewage disposal practices based on individual
soil absorption systems to central sewage treatment systems without
effluent land disposal can result in the loss of groundwater recharge.
The significance of this loss hinges upon its relationship to the
recharge from all other sources; these include downward infiltration and
percolation from precipitation and surface water bodies, and adjacent
aquifer inflow. Precise definition of this depends upon an accurate
knowledge of the aquifer(s), and its hydrology (e.g., precipitation,
runoff, evapotranspiration, discharge) and hydraulic characteristics
(e.g., transmissivity, and storage coefficients). There are
insufficient data with which to undertake such precise quantification.
However, as can be seen in Table V-2, the maximum possible waste-
water recharge to the Study Area's aquifers in the design year 2000 is
estimated to average 1.87 mgd for the No Action Alternative. This is
insignificant in relation to the estimated 670 mgd being discharged by
the aquifers in the basin to surface waters and to the 5,000,000 million
gallons stored in those aquifers. Failure to return the wastewater
flows to the aquifers is therefore not expected to have a significant
impact upon groundwater quantity and the availability of groundwater in
the basin in which current usage is of the order of 10% of the available
yield.
The short-terra construction impacts on groundwater quantity will be
even less discernible since still smaller quantities of water will be
involved. Also, in no case will construction activities be likely to
result in the sealing of enough recharge area to create a significant
adverse effect upon groundwater quantity.
Increased groundwater demands from Study Area induced growth, is a
possible source of secondary groundwater quantity impacts.
Decentralized alternatives should have a lesser tendency than
centralized sewer system alternatives to cause such impacts. Study Area
population growth from centralized systems use may be about 11% by the
year 2000. A corresponding 11% increase in water use would amount to
about 0.20 mgd. This increased demand is so small compared to the
aquifer capacity as to create no significant impact.
2. GROUNDWATER QUALITY IMPACTS
No significant short-term impacts on groundwater quality should
result from the construction of any of the alternatives. Long-term
impacts on bacterial quality, shoreline algal growths and nitrate
concentrations are also expected to be insignificant. These conclusions
are discussed in more detail in the following sections.
Construction-related soil erosion releases sediment which may cause
short-term impacts on water quality. The clayey soils found throughout
the area by means of filtration and adsorption provide an effective
barrier against sediments reaching the aquifers. No significant impacts
of this type are thus expected from any of the alternatives.
175
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Table V-2
STEUBEN LAKES WASTEWATER RECHARGE TO GROUNDWATER IN YEAR 2000
Wastewater Recharge (mgd)
Alternative
1
2
. 3
4
' 5
6
No Action
Limited Action
Proposed Action (F.P.)
SAS/Cluster Systems
0.76
0.85
0.76
0.85
0.76
0.85
1.87
1.87
— _ _
Rapid Infiltration Systems
25% Flow
0.36
0.25
0.11
— --
0.36
Total
1.12
1.10
0.87
0.85
1.12
0.85
1.87
1.87
0
176
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Long-term impacts on groundwater quality are mainly associated with
the following three types of pollutants: (1) bacteria, organics, and
suspended solids, (2) phosphorus, and (3) nitrogen in the form of
nitrates.
Bacteria and suspended organics are readily removed by filtration
and adsorption onto soil particles. Five feet of soils are ample to
remove bacteria except in very coarse grained, highly permeable
material. Available data show that bacterial well water contamination
is not a problem in the Study Area.
Land application of treated effluent on soils should not cause
groundwater bacterial contamination. Land application sites were chosen
for the effectiveness of their soils in removing bacteria and suspended
solids. Pretreatment and subsequent die-off due to dehydration will
greatly reduce viable bacteria.
Phosphorus in groundwater is important because of the potential
role in lake eutrophication. Jones (1977) reviewed relevant studies on
this subject for the Environmental Protection Agency -concluding that:
... it is very unlikely that under most circumstances, sufficient
available phosphate would be transported from septic tank
wastewater disposal systems to significantly contribute to the
excessive aquatic plant growth problems in water courses recharged
by these waters.
Field studies, they point out, have shown that most soils, even medium
sandy soils typically remove over 95% of phosphates within short
distances from effluent sources. The review shows the two primary
factors in the removal of phosphates applied to the land. The first is
phosphorus adsorption on small amounts of clay minerals, iron oxide and
aluminum oxide in soil and aquifer materials. The second is calcium
carbonate in hard water which precipitates phosphate as hydroxyapatite.
Jones et al. (1977) have also indicated several studies in areas
similar to the Study Area (loamy, clayey soils over glacial moraine and
outwash deposits) where the soil has essentially removed all of the
phosphorus present in septic tank effluents. They also stated that in
hard water areas the "likelihood of significant phosphate transport from
septic tank wastewater disposal system effluent to the surface waters is
greatly reduced because of the calcium carbonate present in the soil and
subsoil systems."
Because the soils and subsoil systems throughout the Study Area are
clayey to varying degrees and the groundwaters are also very hard (up to
430 mg/1 as CaCOs) very little phosphate transport from groundwaters to
surface waters should take place. This was confirmed by the "Septic
Snooper" survey of groundwater leachate plumes entering the Study Area
lakes (Kerfoot 1979). Only 65 of the approximately 3500 existing
shoreline dwellings showed detectable septic tank leachate plumes.
Groundwater nitrates are of concern at high concentrations which
cause methemoglobinemia in infants consuming foods prepared with such
177
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waters. The National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations
(40 CFR 141) of the Safe Drinking Water Act P.L. 93-523 set a limit of
10 mg/1 of nitrates as nitrogen (N03-N). Chapter II discusses the well
water levels of nitrates found in the Study Area. None of the alter-
natives is expected to cause significant increases of the low levels
associated with more than 50 years of on-site waste disposal practice in
the Study Area.
Cluster system soil absorption fields are designed like septic tank
fields to ensure an adequate areal distribution of the effluent and
depth to groundwater for satisfactory treatment. Nitrate levels
entering groundwater should be equivalent to those of leachate from
ST/SASs. Locating the soil absorption fields of cluster systems at
greater distances from residential developments (500 feet adopted for
EIS Alternative design) provides more than ample room for dilution of
nitrate concentrations below drinking water limits prior to interception
by wells. Cluster system alternatives should therefore produce no
significant grouadwater nitrate impacts.
EPA recognizes almost all types of land treatment alternatives as
being capable of producing final effluent nitrate nitrogen (NOs-N)
concentrations of 10 mg/1 and less prior to entry into groundwaters.
Table V-3 shows irrigation (spray) and overland flow methods produce
effluents of 2.5 mg/1 of NOg-N while for infiltration percolation (rapid
infiltration) 10 mg/1 may be expected (EPA 1975). Dilution within
aquifers by groundwater flow further reduces these concentrations. No
signficant impacts on groundwater quality are therefore expected from
alternatives using land application techniques. While spray irrigation
and overland flow techniques produce better quality effluents, rapid
infiltration produces a satisfactory one. Selection of land application
alternatives would require a detailed site analysis including a
geohydrologic survey, soils classification and soil chemistry survey.
3. MITIGATIVE MEASURES
Groundwater quality should be carefully monitored for all
alternatives using ST/SASs, cluster systems and land application
systems. This will verify that water quality is not being significantly
degraded, and warn of malfunctions, inadequate treatment and the need
for corrective action.
C. POPULATION AND LAND USE
1. INTRODUCTION
This section evaluates population and land use impacts associated
with the various alternatives. These impacts are summarized below. EIS
Alternatives 1, 3, and 5 are the most centralized proposed, while EIS
Alternatives 2, 4, and 6 are more decentralized. The Facilities Plan
Proposed Action provides for complete centralization, while the Limited
Action and the No Action Alternatives provide for complete
decentralization. (The Facilities Plan Proposed Action and the EIS
Alternatives 1 to 6 which include varying degrees of centralized
treatment systems are referred to as the system alternatives.)
178
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Table V-3
EFFLUENT QUALITY COMPARISON FOR LAND TREATMENT AND AWT SYSTEMS
Effluent quality
System
Aerated lagoon
Activated sludge
Irrigation
Overland flow
Infiltration-percolation
AWT-1
AWT- 2
AWT-3
AWT-4
BOD
35
20
1
5
5
12
15
5
5
SS
40
25
1
5
1
15
16
5
5
NH^-N
10
20
0.5
0.5
-
1
-
20
-
parameter, mg/1
NO^-N
20
10
2.5
2.5
10
29
-
10
-
Total N
30
30
3
3
10
30
3
30
3
P
8
8
0.1
5
2
8
8
0.5
0.5
Cost-Effective Comparison of Land Application and Advanced Wastewater
Treatment (EPA-430/9-75-016)-
179
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• Population in the Proposed Service Area is expected to
increase 33% between 1975 and 2000 under all of the seven
system alternatives.
• Adoption of the Limited Action or No Action Alternative would
limit area population growth to a level of 22% of the existing
population during this period.
» Provision of centralized or paTtially^centralized facilities
(any of the seven system alternatives) Would require an
increase in residential development of approximately 420 acres
between 1975 and 2000.
« Higher degrees of centralization of wastewater treatment will
increase the density of residential development. Thus,
centralized alternatives will require less land to accommodate
a given increase in population.
9 Adoption of the No Action Alternative would require an
increase in residential development of about 600 acres between
1975 and 2000. Thus, despite the lower rate of population
growth without centralization, more land would be needed for
non-centralized alternatives because of their lower density of
development.
@ The Facilities Plan Proposed Action or EIS Alternatives 1, 3,
or 5 would speed conversion from seasonal to year-round
occupancy status. These alternatives would also result in a
somewhat more affluent population base through displacement of
lower-income families.
« EIS Alternatives 2, 4, 6, the Limited or No Action
Alternatives would not significantly influence community
composition.
® Differential influences upon community character attributable
to alternative service provisions would be relatively
insignificant.
2. POPULATION
The capacity of an area to support development varies with the
degree to which wastewater facilities are site-related. On-site
wastewater treatment facilities limit development to areas with suitable
soils. Sewers allow development to be much more site independent
because soil character, slope, and drainage are not such strong
constraining factors. Thus, sewers increase the inventory of
developable land. Sewers also increase the possible density of
development.
Significant population growth differentials are found in
contrasting the seven system alternatives with the Limited Action and No
Action Alternatives. Restriction to on-site facilities throughout the
Study Area would constrain future population growth below the level
anticipated with the provision of off-site (centralized) wastewater
180
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treatment. In-summer population in the Proposed Service Area is
projected to grow by 33% from 1975 to 2000. Under the No Action
Alternative the growth would be limited to an estimated 22% above the
1975 level (see Appendix E-5 for the derivation of this estimate).
Under the No Action Alternative, little growth would occur around
Jimmerson Lake, Lake James, and Crooked Lake, which are already nearly
completely developed, thereby constraining population increase in the
Proposed Service Area.
There are no significant differences in anticipated growth among
the seven system alternatives. All alternatives provide centralized
facilities for the most intensively developed lakeshore areas along Lake
James, Jimmerson Lake, and Crooked Lake. Configuration and capacity are
comparable for all seven alternatives. Those areas where development
capability constraints are evident would be extended to off-site
services under each system alternative, thereby eliminating any
measurable development differential system among alternatives.
3. LAND USE
Adoption of the Limited Action or No Action Alternatives would
result in conversion of 600 acres of land to residential use, while each
of the seven system alternatives would result in conversion of approxi-
mately 420 acres. The greater residential land requirement of the
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives, despite the lower rate of
population growth associated with it, is a result of the more scattered,
lower-density development associated with it. Thus, the Limited Action
and No Action Alternatives are estimated to result in the consumption of
over 40% more residential land to accommodate 33% fewer people between
1975 and 2000 than the seven system alternatives. No significant
differences in land use patterns or intensity are anticipated among any
of the seven system alternatives. Areas where site-related constraints
might otherwise influence development are provided with comparable
service under all alternatives, effectively eliminating site-related
factors in areas with most intense development pressures.
Appendix E-5 discusses the methodology for projecting the land use
and population distributions associated with the various alternatives.
The additional land required for residential development was assumed, in
all cases, to be converted from forest, cleared, and agricultural use
categories in proportion to the currently observed land distribution
among these categories. Thus, the existing balance between
agricultural, forest and cleared acreage was maintained.
On the above basis, of the 600 acres required for residential use
by the Limited Action and No Action Alternatives, 325 acres would be
converted from agricultural use, 151 acres from cleared lands, and 124
acres from forest land. This represents 5% of the total agricultural
lands, 11% of cleared lands and 6% of forest lands. These are
relatively insignificant levels of conversion. No wetlands would be
converted.
Similarly the 420 acres required for residential use by the seven
system alternatives would be comprised of 230 acres of agricultural
lands, 100 acres of cleared lands and 90 acres of forest lands. The
181
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respective conversion levels are 4% of agricultural lands, 8% of cleared
lands, and 5% of forest lands which is insignificant. No conversion of
wetlands would be involved.
4- CHANGES IN COMMUNITY COMPOSITION AND CHARACTER
Compared to the Limited Action and No Action Alternatives, the
seven system alternatives would support more intense development in the
areas surrounding Lake James, Jiramerson Lake, and Crooked Lake. All of
the seven system alternatives would have comparable influence upon the
general character of the communities. Increased population growth and
density under the system alternatives would tend to give the area a more
urban character. Most lakeshore areas are already fully developed,
however. Increased development will thus represent only a modest
increment to existing development.
Adoption of the Limited Action or No Action Alternatives would be
unlikely to have any direct effect upon community character. No
siginificant adverse effects on water quality are expected. Therefore,
no degradation of the environmental and recreational -resource base of
the Study Area is anticipated and the quality of life and economic
condition of the area should not diminish.
D. ENCROACHMENT ON ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITIVE AREAS
There are two principal threats to environmentally sensitive areas:
their immediate loss or alteration due to construction or related
activities, and their eventual (later) loss or conversion attributable
to the growth-indueing nature of the improvements resulting from the
project. These are called primary and secondary impacts, respectively.
The Steuben County Planning Commission (SCPC) developed and approved (on
December 29, 1971) a Master Plan, which was adopted as a zoning
ordinance by the Steuben County Board of Commissioners on
January 3, 1972. Although no circuit court injunction forbidding a
project has related to an environmentally sensitive area, the record to
date indicates that projects capable of generating noise, eyesore, or
excessive congestion of roadways are unlikely to obtain building or
other permits under the existing Master Plan.
1. FLOODPLAINS
a. Primary Impacts
The Steuben County Master Plan regulates the types of structures
that can be built within 15 feet of the high waterline of any stream or
lake in the county to fences, docks, or boathouses. Land use is
restricted in these areas to agriculture, forestry, public utilities,
and recreation. Neither the Facilities Plan Proposed Action nor any
other alternative would directly affect the floodplain of the lakes and
streams in the Study Area (see Figure 11-12 for extent of floodplain).
182
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b. Secondary Impacts
If landowners are provided with centralized sewer service, building
lots can be developed as long as there is compliance with the set-back
provisions of the Master Plan. Consequently, some growth may be induced
by implementation of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action or the other 6
system alternatives. However, the requirement for compliance with the
Master Plan would ensure that no residential development occurs on
floodplains.
c. Mitigative Measures
Because none of the alternatives is ' expected to impact the
floodplains no mitigations are necessary-
2. STEEP SLOPES
a. Primary Impacts
Steep slopes exist primarily in the areas around Lake James and
Jimmerson Lake (see Figure II-l). The difficulties of installing on-lot
systems on steep slopes appear to be one of the factors that
historically has limited home construction mostly to lakeshore and other
level-to-rolling sites. However, sewers and specially designed on-site
systems can be constructed on steep slopes. Accelerated soil erosion
would be a direct effect of such construction activities. The
accelerated erosion locally increases turbidity and non-point source
nutrient loads in surface waters. The totally decentralized Limited
Action and No Action Alternatives would have no significant primary
impacts on steep slopes. Minor to moderate impacts might result from
implementation of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action in particular, and
the EIS Alternatives.
b. Secondary Impacts
Sewers availability provided by the Facilities Plan Proposed Action
or in the local sewering proposed under the EIS Alternatives, may result
in new construction due to induced growth. The potential exists for
such construction of houses and trenches to erode steep slopes resulting
in turbidity, sedimentation and non-point source nutrient loading of
surface waters. The impacts are likely to be minor to moderate
particularly for the Facilities Plan Proposed Action and to a lesser
degree for the EIS Alternatives.
c. Mitigative Measures
The Steuben County Planning Commission should adopt performance
standards with specific slope-density provisions. Developers would then
have to meet performance standards which require proof that the sloped
areas are not a hazard to development. Zoning ordinances should limit
growth in steeply sloped areas, require collection of surface run-off
before it enters lake or streams, and specifically exclude construction
methods that would promote the long-term exposure of a construction site
to sheet erosion.
183
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If cluster systems or septic tanks are placed in areas with steep
slopes, a series of drop boxes should be used. With this method, no
hillside seepage will occur unless the sewage flow exceeds the design
capacity.
3. WETLANDS
a. Primary Impacts
None of the facilities comprising the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action or the EIS Alternatives are expected to disrupt wetlands either
by their construction or by their operation. Sewer alignments have been
selected to avoid direct passage through wetlands.
b. Secondary Impacts
Induced growth associated with sewering in the system alternatives
may create pressures for development of wetlands not protected by State
ownership. Repeated instances of the filling of shoreline and hinter-
land wetlands, the object of repeated lawsuits by the Steuben Lakes
Association, would continue in the absence of new legislation or new
interpretation of existing legislation. Presidential Executive Order
11990 specifically limits Federal participation in projects directly or
indirectly resulting in the destruction of wetlands. Only the No Action
and Limited Action Alternatives would involve no Federal aid to future
residential sites built on filled wetlands. The sewered alternatives
could easily provide service to such filled areas. Federal funding of
any of the sewered alternatives may be in violation of Executive Order
11990.
c. Mitigative Measures
The zoning ordinance should be revised and broadened to provide
greater protection of wetland areas. This is in recognition of the
value of wetlands in filtering sediments from the run-off from adjacent
land and as spawning grounds for northern pike, a valued game fish and
an important top predator in the fish community. With the Limited
Action Alternative, the Small Waste Flows District would not issue per-
mits for septic tank installations on wetlands or on fill areas.
4. PRIME AGRICULTURAL LANDS
a. Primary Impacts
As illustrated by Figure II-7, the prime agricultural soils in the
Study Area are fragmented and scattered throughout the area, occurring
mainly in upland areas rather than along lake shores and other sections
184
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of the Proposed Service Area. The No Action or limited Action would
result in the conversion of approximately ^325 acres or 5% of all
agricultural lands to residential use. The Facilities Plan Proposed
Action and the 6 EIS Alternatives would each convert approximately 230
acres or 4% of agricultural lands. In all cases the impacts on prime
agricultural lands are likely to be insignificant.
b. Secondary Impacts
There are expected to be no effects of induced growth on the prime
agricultural lands of the Study Area. Projected growth is concentrated
in the lakeshore areas of Jimmerson Lake, Crooked Lake, and Lake James,
especially with centralized sewers.
c. Mitigative Measures
Since impacts are likely to be insignificant no mitigative measures
are proposed.
5. UNIQUE NATURAL AREAS
a. Primary Impacts
No location within the Study Area has been designated by Indiana
DNR as a unique natural area. Perhaps the most difficult to restore
(and therefore valued) habitats within the Study Area are the tamarack
bogs. As stated in Chapter II, tamarack bogs provide habitat for at
least two species of orchids, the pale green orchid and the prairie
orchid. Neither species is considered to have special status and
therefore, to be in need of study for the evaluation of Federally
protected threatened or endangered species, nor does either have special
status within the State of Indiana. Nevertheless, the tamarack bog
habitat, and the plants that may be associated with bogs, are considered
to be valuable natural resources and worthy of protection. Tamarack
bogs are located within larger wetland areas, many of which are
protected, as discussed in the wetland section above. Therefore, it is
expected that habitat disruption will be negligible. Several wetland
areas are protected by state ownership, including the Potawatomi Nature
Preserve in Pokagon State Park and the Beachwood Nature Preserve.
b. Secondary Impacts
There are expected to be no effects of induced growth on the
tamarack bogs of the Study Area.
c. Mitigative Measures
With alternatives involving sewering, measures would have to be
adopted to minimize the adverse effects of such construction on tamarack
bogs. Where possible, construction would have to circumvent tamarack
bogs.
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E. ECONOMIC IMPACTS
1. INTRODUCTION
This section evaluates the economic impacts of the wastewater
system alternatives proposed for the Steuben Lakes Study Area. These
impacts include: financial burden on system users; financial pressure
causing residents to move away from the Study Area (displacement
pressure); and financial pressure^ to convert seasonal residences to
full-year residences (conversion pressure).
I
}
2. USER CHARGES
User charges are the costs periodically billed to customers of the
wastewater system. They consist of three parts: debt service
(repayment of principal and interest), operation and maintenance costs,
and an annual reserve fund allocation assumed to equal 20% of the
annual debt service amount. The reserve fund is a portion of current
revenues invested to finance future capital improvements. Table V-4
presents estimated user charges for each alternative.
a. Eligibility
Eligibility refers to that portion of wastewater facilities costs
determined by US EPA to be eligible for a Federal wastewater facilities
construction grant. Capital costs of wastewater facilities are funded
under Section 201 of the 1972 Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amend-
ments and the Clean Water Act of 1977. The 1972 and 1977 Acts enable
US EPA to fund 75% of total eligible capital costs of conventional
systems and 85% of the eligible capital costs of innovative and alter-
native systems. Innovative and alternative systems considered in the
EIS include land treatment, pressure sewers, cluster systems, and septic
tank rehabilitation and replacement. The State of Indiana funds 10% of
the capital costs of conventional wastewater systems and 6% of the
capital costs of innovative/alternative systems. The funding formula in
Indiana thus requires localities to pay 15% of the capital costs of
conventional systems and 9% of the capital costs of
innovative/alternative systems. Operation and maintenance costs are not
funded by the Federal government and must be paid by the users of the
facilities.
The percentage of capital costs eligible for Federal and State
funding greatly affects the cost that local users must bear. Treatment
capital costs were assumed to be fully eligible for grant funding while
collection system capital costs were subject to the terms of Program
Requirements Memorandum (PRM) 78-9. This PRM establishes three main
conditions that must be satisfied before collector sewer costs may be
declared eligible:
• Systems in use for disposal of wastes from the existing popu-
lation are creating a public health problem, contaminating
groundwater or violating point source discharge requirements.
186
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Table V-4
ANNUAL USER CHARGES
ALTERNATIVE ANNUAL USER CHARGE
Facilities Plan Proposed Action $450
EIS Alternative #1 $320
EIS Alternative #2 $230
EIS Alternative #3 . $340
EIS Alternative #4 $240
EIS Alternative #5 $340
EIS Alternative #6 $250
Limited Action Alternative $ 50
187
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• Two-thirds of the design population (year 2000) served by a
sewer must have been in residence on 18 October 1972.
a Sewers must be shown to be cost-effective when compared to
decentralized or on-site alternatives.
The Facilities Planning branch of EPA Region V evaluated the
eligibility of the sewers proposed in the Facilities Plan and the EIS.
Their evaluation concluded that there is no indicated need for sewers
and thus no sewer costs are eligible for Federal funding. On-site and
cluster systems have been determined to be 100% eligible for Federal
funding. The local costs in Table V-5 are based upon the EPA
determination of eligibility.
A final determination of grant eligibility will be prepared by the
Indiana State Board of Health (ISBH). ISBK's determination will be
based upon Step 2 plans and specifications for the alternative selected
to' be funded and may differ from the EPA determination.
b. Calculation of User Charges
The user charges developed for the Steuben Lakes alternative
systems consist of local capital costs, operation and maintenance costs,
and a reserve fund charge. The calculation of debt service was based on
local costs being paid through the use of a 30-year bond at 6 7/8%
interest. The user charges in Table V-4 are presented on an annual
charge per household basis.
The mainly centralized alternatives (Facilities Plan Proposed
Action, EIS Alternatives 1, 2 and 5) are the most costly to users in the
Steuben Lakes area. The annual user charges for the centralized
alternatives range from $320 to $450 per household. The relatively high
costs of the centralized alternatives stem from the ineligibility of all
collector sewers. Costs for these ineligible sewers must be met
entirely at the local level without Federal and State assistance.
The partially decentralized alternatives (EIS Alternatives 2, 4,
and 6) and the totally decentralized Limited Action are less expensive
than the centralized alternatives and range from $50 to $250. The
Limited Action ($50) is the least expensive of all the alternatives.
Overall, the partially and totally decentralized alternatives involve
the least amount of sewering and thus have the lowest amount of
ineligible costs.
In addition to user charges, households connected to a centralized
collection system would have to pay the capital costs ($968 for gravity
sewers) of a sewer connection. Seasonal homeowners also may have to pay
the full price for the replacement or rehabilitation of their on-site
systems (septic tanks and soil absorption systems) if these systems are
not ceded to the local wastewater management agency. These private
costs would vary from household to household due to differences in the
distance to the gravity collector sewer and the condition of on-site
systems. The Limited Action Alternative would have no such private
costs, which might amount ot more than $3 million for the Facilities
Plan Proposed Action.
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Table V-5
LOCAL SHARE OF CAPITAL COSTS
ALTERNATIVE
Facilities Plan Proposed Action
EIS Alternative #1
EIS Alternative #2
EIS Alternative #3
EIS Alternative #4
EIS Alternative #5
EIS Alternative #6
Limited Action Alternative
LOCAL SHARE
$17,100,900
$11,894,900
$ 8,422,300
$12,313,000
$ 8,373,700
$12,465,000
$ 8,603,600
$ 177,100
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3. LOCAL COST BURDEN
a. Significant Financial Burden
High-cost wastewater facilities may place an excessive financial
burden on system users. Such burdens may cause families to alter their
spending patterns substantially. The Federal government has developed
criteria to identify high-cost wastewater projects (The White House
Rural Development Initiatives 1978). A project is considered high-cost
when the annual user charges are:
e 1.5% of median household incomes less than $6,000;
• 2.0% of median household incomes between $6,000 and $10,000;
and
® 2.5% of median household incomes greater than $10,000.
The 1978 median household income for the Proposed Service Area has
been estimated as $18,000 for permanent residents. (No data are
available for seasonal resident income characteristics.) According to
the Federal criteria, annual user charges should not exceed 2.5% ($450)
of the $18,000 median household income figure. Any alternative having
annual user charges exceeding $450 is identified as a high-cost
alternative and is likely to place a financial burden on users of the
system. The Facilities Plan Proposed Action is the only alternative
classified as high-cost according to the Federal criteria.
Significant financial burden is determined by comparing annual user
charges with the distribution of household incomes. Families not facing
a significant financial burden would be the only families able to afford
the annual wastewater user charges. Table V-6 shows the percentage of
households estimated to face a significant financial burden under each
of the alternatives. The centralized alternatives imply annual user
charges that would place a significant financial burden on 20 to 50% of
the households in the Steuben Lakes area. Approximately 50 to 80% of
the households in the area could afford the annual user charges under
the centralized alternatives. Significant financial burden under the
decentralized alternatives ranges from 2 to 30% of the households. The
percentage of households able to afford the decentralized alternatives
ranges from 70 to 98°/0. The Limited Action would place the least
financial burden (2 to 5%) on households.
b. Displacement Pressure
Displacement pressure is the stress placed upon families to move
from the service area as a result of costly user charges. Displacement
pressure is measured by determining the percentage of households having
annual user charges exceeding 5% of their annual income. The
displacement pressure induced by each of the alternatives is listed in
Table V-6.
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Table V-6
FINANCIAL BURDEN AND DISPLACEMENT PRESSURE
DISPLACEMENT FINANCIAL CAN
ALTERNATIVE PRESSURE BURDEN AFFORD
Facilities Plan
Proposed Action 10-20% 40-50% 50-60%
EIS Alternative #1 10-20% 20-30% 70-80%
EIS Alternative #2 5-10% 20-30% . 70-80%
EIS Alternative #3 10-20% 30-40% 60-70%
EIS Alternative #4 5-10% 20-30% 70-80%
EIS Alternative #5 10-20% 30-40% 60-70%
EIS Alternative #6 5-10% 20-30% 70-80%
Limited Action
Alternative <2% 2-5% 95-98%
191
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Displacement pressure is highest under the centralized
alternatives: from 10 to 20% of the total number of households.
Displacement pressure is less under the decentralized alternatives: 2 to
10%. The Limited Action would place the least amount of displacement
pressure (less than 2%) on households.
c. Conversion Pressure
Wastewater facilities costs are likely to encourage the trend,
already underway, of converting seasonal residences to permanent resi-
dences. Uniform user charges would impose a relatively heavier cost
burden on seasonal residences than on permanent ones. These residences
would typically be used only three or four months during the year but
would be charged for capital costs throughout the year. This may place
a financial burden on seasonal residents 'maintaining a full-time
residence in addition to their seasonal residence. The higher cost
burden of centralized alternatives will exert more conversion pressure
than the cost burden of the decentralized alternatives. Because of the
apparent high income of seasonal residents (based on visual inspection
of seasonal residences) the number of seasonal-to-permanent residential
conversions as a result of the wastewater user charges may be small in
any case.
4. MITIGATIVE MEASURES
The significant financial burden and displacement pressure created
by the centralized alternatives may be mitigated by selection of a lower
cost decentralized alternative.
The local wastewater management authority may also seek a loan or
grant from the Farmers Home Administration. Such a loan would decrease
annual user charges by spreading out the payment of the local share over
a longer period of time with a lower interest rate.
The impacts of the high costs to seasonal users may be mitigated by
not charging for operation and maintenance during the months that
seasonal residences are vacant.
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F. LMl'ACT MATRIX
Impact Category
Surface water
resources
Nutrient loading
and eutrophica-
tion potential
of lakes
Non-point source
loading to lakes
Shoreline Algae
f> Aquatic weed
growth
Bacterial con-
tamination of
streams and
lakes
Impact Type & Degree
Primary: Long-Term
Impact Descrjption
Secondary: Long-Term
Primary: Long-Term
Primary: Long-Term
Facilities Plan j*iropQsed Action:
Total phosphorus loadings decrease between <1 and 47% for all lakes.
Alternat ives 1-6:
Phosphorus loadings decrease between <1% and 34%, for Jiramerson Lake, Lake James (Lower
and Middle Basins) and Crooked Lakes (Basins 1, 2,3,). Phosphorus loadings increase
slightly (<1%) in the Upper Basin of Lake James, Big Otter Lake and Little Otter Lake.
Alternat iyes^l, 3_r J^:
Phosphorus loadings decrease 3%-l'i% in Lake Gage and Lime Lake, respectively.
Alternatives 2, 4_,_ 6:
5%-24% increase In phosphorus loadings in Lake Gage and Lime Lake. 44% decrease in Snow
Lake due to expected ungradlng of Pikagon State Park facility.
Limited Action, No Action:
Phosphorus loadings from
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Impact Category Impacted Area Impact Type & Degree Impact Description
Cruimdwater Groundwater Primary: Short-Term All Alternatives:
Resources Quantity
Construction works would result in no significant impact on groundwater quantity and
availability.
Primary: Long-Term All Alternatives:
Failure to return wastewater flows would result in negligible loss.
Secondary: Long-Term Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives 1-6:
Increase groundwater use due to induced growth would be negligible.
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No induced growth and therefore no impacts.
Groundwater Primary: Short-Term All Alternatives:
Quality
Construction works would result in no significant impact on groundwater quality.
Primary: Long-Tenu All Alternatives:
Operation of all wastewater disposal systems would cause insignificant impacts on bac-
terial quailty and nitrates. Groundwater flow into lakes would cause Insignificant
Impacts on phosphate loadings and shoreline algal growths.
Secondary: Long-Term Facilities j*lan Proposed Action and Alternatives 1-6:
No significant impacts would result from induced growth.
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No induced growth and therefore, no impacts.
Population Rate of Secondary: Long-Term Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternative 1-6;
Growth
Growth anticipated to increase by 9% over baseline projections.
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No induced growth would result.
Land Use Developable Secondary: Long-Term Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives 1-6:
Acreage; Growth
Patterns Projected increase in residential development of 420 acres. Residential densities likely
to increase with the degree of centralization, minimizing the amount of land required to
accommodate the increased population.
Limited Action and Mo Action Alternatives
Increase in residential development of 600 acres. More scattered, lower density develop-
ment .
-------
Impact Category
Environmentally
Sensitive Areas
Impacted Area
Flood Plains
Steep Slopes
Wetlands
Prime Agricul-
tural Lands
Impact Type & Degree
Primary: Long-Term
Secondary: Long-Term
Primary: Long- and
Short-Term
Impact; Description
All Alternatives:
No impacts expected.
All Alternatives:
No impac ts expec ted.
Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives jl-6:
Impacts expected to be minor to moderate due to construction on steep slopes associated
with seuer systems,
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No significant impacts.
Secondary: Long-Term Facill ties Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives* 1-6:
Impacts expected to be minor to moderate as a result of sewer related induced growth.
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No impacts expected.
Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives 1-6:
Primary: Long-Term
Secondary: Long-Terra
Primary: Long-Term
Secondary: Long-Terra
No wetlands would be converted to residential development. Minimal impacts expected on
wetlands located close to the paths of sewer lines.
Limited Action and No Action Alternatives:
No wetlands would be converted to residential development and no impacts are expected.
Facilities Plan Proposed Action and Alternatives 1-6:
Impacts due co induced growth would be insignificant since most lakeshore areas are al-
ready developed and an abundance of suitable land for development (other than wetlands)
exists.
All Alternatives:
Conversion of 4% to 5% of prime agricultural lands to residential use expected. Impact
would be insignificant.
All Alternatives:
No impact expected.
-------
Impact Category Impacted Area Impact Type & Degree Impact Description
Unique Natural Primary: Long-Term All Alternatives:
Areas
Impact on the tamarack bogs would be minimal since most bogs are in State protected areas.
Secondary: Long-Term All Alternatives;
No impacts expected.
Local Economy Local Cost Primary: Long-Term Facilities Plan Proposed __Ag.tj.Qii:
Burden
Average annual user charge would be $450. 50% to 60% of families could afford this
system.
Alternatives lt 3, and 5:
User charges for these alternatives range from $320 to $340. 60% to 80% of families
could afford these systems.
Alternatives 2, 4, and 6:
User charges for these decentralized alternatives range from $230 to $250. 70% to 30%
of families could afford these systems.
Limited Action Alternative:
Average annual user charge would be ?50. 95% to 98% of families could afford this system.
Conversion Primary: Long-Terra All Alternatives:
Pressures
Recent trends Indicate that conversion from seasonal to permanent units will continue to
occur under all alternatives. Conversion pressure will be highest under the Facilities
Plan Proposed Action and the 6 EIS Alternatives and lowest under the Limited Action
Alternative.
Displacement Primary: Long-Term Facilities Plan Proposed ^Action:
Pressure
Proposed Action would result in the displacement of approximately 10-20% of the households.
Alternatives 1, 3, and 5:
These alternatives would result in the dispalcement of approximately 10-20% of the households.
Alternatives 2tb_t and 6:
The decentralized alternative would place displacement pressure on 5-10% of the households.
Limited Action:
Displacement would be less than 2%.
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CHAPTER VI
SELECTION OF THE RECOMMENDED ACTION
A. INTRODUCTION
As discussed in Section I.D.I, EPA has several possible courses of
action. It may:
• Approve the original grant application, possibly with recom-
mendations for design changes and/or measures to mitigate
impacts of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action;
• With the applicant's and State's concurrence, approve Step 2
funding for an alternative to the Facilities Plan Proposed
Action;
• Return the application with recommendations- for additional
Step 1 analysis;
• Reject the grant application.
The basis for choosing one of the above options is a comparison of
the EIS Alternatives with the Facilities Plan Proposed Action.
B. SELECTION OF THE RECOMMENDED ALTERNATIVE
1. SELECTION PROCEDURE
Four primary criteria were used to selecting the EIS Recommended
Action -- costs, impacts, reliability, and flexibility. Within each
category several factors were compared. Cost factors for example,
included present worth, user charges, and total 1980 private costs.
Impacts which EPA considers to be decisive in alternative selection are
identified and considered. The alternatives reliability is measured
against centralized collection and treatment as the standard.
A matrix offers a simple way to visualize the relationship between
alternatives and the criteria used to evaluate them. By tabulating for
each alternative the factors that influence the range of choice, one can
quickly compare the effect of each alternative upon that factor.
Section V.F contain? a matrix relating alternatives to environmental
impacts. Table VI-1 presents a matrix summarizing the relationship
between the alternatives and their costs, environmental impacts, reli-
ability, and flexibility.
Table VI-1 also ranks the alternatives according to their total
present worth. This ranking has two purposes:
• Costs are easily quantifiable, perhaps the least subjective
measure of value.
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Table VI-1
ALTERNATIVE SELECTION MATKIX
ALTERNATIVES
Limited
Action
EIS
Alternative
2
COSTS ($)
PRESENT
WORTH
(xl.OOO)
8,268.7
18,951.4
ANNUAL
USER
CHARGES
50
230
TOTAL
PRIVATE
COSTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
SURFACE WATER
QUALITY
• Increased nutrient
loading of lakes
but minimal con-
tributions from
septic tanks;
# Non-point sources
and the wetlands
around Marsh Lake
continue to be
the most signifi-
cant sources of
nutrients for the
lakes;
• Potential septic
tank contribution
to shoreline
algal growth is
minimal .
• Reduction in
nutrient loading
of Jimmerson
Lake, Crooked
Lake, Lake James
(Lower and
Middle Basins)
and Snow Lake.
Negligible in-
crease in Big
Otter, Little
Otter and Lake
James (Upper
Basin) . Increase
in Lake Gage and
Lime Lake.
• Impacts on non-
point sources
and septic tanks
would be similar
tu the Limited
Action Alterna-
tive.
GROUNDWATER
QUALITY
• Insignificant im-
impacts on bac-
terial quality
and nitrate con-
centrations;
« Insignificant
contribution of
phosphorus to
the lakes by
ground water flow.
• Insignificant im-
pacts on all as-
pects of ground-
water quality .
ENVIRONMENTALLY
SENSITIVE
AREAS
• Construction Im-
pacts not ex-
pected on flood
plains, and min-
imal on steep
slopes , wet lands ,
and prime agri-
cultrlal lands;
• Primary long-
term impacts
not expected on
flood plains and
wetlands; and
minimal on
steep slopes and
prime agricul-
tural lands;
• No secondary
impacts ex-
pected ;'
• Filling of wet-
lands continues
unchanged .
• Construction im-
pacts not ex-
pected on flood
plains , and min-
imal on steep
slopes , wetlands,
and prime agri-
cultural lands;
a All primary and
secondary long-
term impacts ex-
pected to be in-
significant ;
• Filling of wet-
lands continues
as in Limited
Ac t ion .
POPULATION
No population
increase
above base-
line projec-
tions.
9% increase
in population
over baseline
projections.
LAND
USE
Increase in
residential
development
of 600
acres re-
presents
insignifi-
cant con-
version
from forest,
cleared and
agricultural
lands.
Insignifi-
cant con-
version of
420 acres
from forest,
cleared and
a'gricultura'
lands to
residential
development
SOCIOECONOMIC
IMPACTS
FINANCIAL 1 DISPLACEMENT
BURDEN
2-5%
20-30%
PRESSURE
<2%
5-10%
FLEXIBILITY
Highest for future
planning; lowest
for future expan-
sion.
Greater flex-
ibility for future
planning than
Alternative 1;
less flexibility
for expansion.
RELIABILITY
Lowest of these
alternatives -
continued reli-
ance upon on-
site systems.
However , least
affected by
civil, labor
or energy
disruption.
Greater than
Limited Action.
Centralized
sewers and treat
ment improve
reliability.
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Tablt VI-1 (Continued)
ALTERNATIVES
EIS
Alternative
4
EIS
Alternative
1
EIS
Alternative
6
EIS
Alternative
5
EIS
Alternative
3
COSTS ($)
PRESENT
WORTH
(x 1,000)
19,663.1
19,874.4
19,999.4
20,485.3
21,212.4
ANNUAL
USER
CHARGES
240
320
250
340
340
TOTAL
PRIVATE
COSTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
SURFACE WATER
QUALITY
Same as Alternative
2
Same as Alternative
2, except for de-
creased nutrient
loading of Lake
Cage and Lime Lake.
Same as Alternative
2
Same as Alternative
1
Same ae Alternative
1
CROUNDUATER
QUALITY
Same as Alternative
2
Same as Alternative
2
Same as Alternative
2
Same as Alternative
1
Same as Alternative
1
ENVIRONMENTALLY
SENSITIVE
AREAS
Same as Alterna-
tive 2
Same as Alterna-
tive 2
Same as Alterna-
tive 2
Same as Alterna-
tive 1
Same as Alterna-
tive 1
POPULATION
Same as
Alternative 2
Same as
Alternative 2
Same as
Alternative 2
Same as
Alternative I
Same as
Alternative I
LAND
USE
Same as
Alternative
2
Same as
Alternative
2
Same as
Alternative
2
Same as
Alternative
1
Same as
Alternative
1
SOCIOECONOMIC
IMPACTS
FINANC1A1
BURDEN
20-30%
20-30%
20-30%
30-402
30-40%
DISPLACEMENT
PRESSURE
5-10%
10-20%
5-10%
10-20%
10-20%
FLEXIBILITY
Flexibility for
future growth;
than for Alterna-
tive 2.
Good operational
flexibility; high
flexibility for
expansion .
Operational flex-
ibility similar
to Alternative 1,
but less than
Alternatives 3 or
5. Flexibility
for future expan-
sion less than
for Alternatives
3 or 5.
Operational flex-
ibility lower
than for Alterna-
tive 3. Flexibil-
grouth lower than
Alternative 3.
Less flexibility
for future plann-
ing than Alterna-
tive 2. Greater
flexibility for
growth.
RELIABILITY
Slightly greater
than Alternative
ilization may be
more reliable
than rapid infil-
tration because
of absence of
weather effects.
Same as Alterna-
tive 5.
Same as Alterna-
tive 4.
Slightly less
than Alternative
3. Rapid infil-
tration may be
than contact
stabilization
because of
weather effects
on operation.
Slightly less
than Facilities
Plan Proposed
Action. May be
reduced by use of
on-lot and clustf
systems.
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Table Vl-1 (Continued)
ALTERNATIVES
Facilities
Plan
Proposed
Action
COSTS ($)
PRESENT
WOKTii
(xl.OOO)
23,166.8
ANNUAL
USER
CHARGES
450
TOTAL
PRIVATE
COSTS
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
SURFACE WATER
QUALITY
• Decreased nutrient
loading of all
lakes;
• Impacts of non-
point sources and
wetlands around
Marsh Lake would
be similar to all
other alterna-
tives.
CROUNDUATER
QUALITY
• Similarly insig-
nificant impacts
on all aspects
of groundwater
quality as for
other alterna-
tives;
• Essentially no
groundwater con-
tribution to the
nutrient loading
of the lakes.
ENVIRONMENTALLY
SENSITIVE
AREAS
Same as Alterna-
tives 1 to 6
POPULATION
Same as
Alternatives
1 to 6
LAND
USE
Same as
Alterna-
tives 1
to 6
SOCIOECONOMIC
IMPACTS
FINANCIAL
BURDEN
40-50%
DISPLACEMENT
PRESSURE
10-20%
FLEXIBILITY
Lowest for future
planning. High-
est for future
growth.
RELIABILITY
High. Decreased
by the use of
pressure sewers.
o
o
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• EPA Construction Grants regulations require selection of the
most cost-effective alternative: the alternative meeting
project goals with the least total present worth and accept-
able environmental and socioeconomic impacts.
Selection of the cost-effective alternative requires identification
of trade-offs between costs and other criteria. The evaluation factors
included with total present worth in Table VI-1 are those EPA has deter-
mined to be most important in identifying trade-offs for this project.
2. CONCLUSIONS
Most of the on-site systems in the Study Area have been functioning
well as evidenced by the findings of the special studies (Section
II.E.3) undertaken for this EIS. Only 69 effluent plumes (including 4
stream-source plumes) were found entering the lakes of the Proposed
Service Area from its approximately 3500 lakeshore residences. On-site
systems do not appear to be significant contributors to the eutrophica-
tion of the lakes nor to any other adverse surface water quality im-
pacts. Groundwater quality within the Proposed Service Area is also
very good, and insignificantly affected by on-site systems. This is the
case despite the considerable non-compliance of existing systems with
State and local codes.
Future development in the Study Area depends upon the number and
density of available new lots. Alternatives, like Limited Action,
depending entirely upon the continued use of on-site systems, would
restrict both the number of new lots and their density in comparison
with alternatives based on extensive sewering. An important effect of
this limitation is to preserve the present character of the community.
There are large differences in the present worth and user costs
among the alternatives. The most costly alternative is the fully cen-
tralized Facilities Plan Proposed Action while the least costly is the
totally decentralized Limited Action. Costs of the other alternatives,
all using mixtures of centralized and decentralized systems lie in
between these extremes. The high local user charges associated with the
more costly alternatives would result in substantial pressures for the
displacement of the permanent residents as well as for the conversion of
seasonal residences to permanent use. Proportionate improvements in
water quality to offset these effects of higher costs would not occur.
The Facilities Plan Proposed Action and EIS Alternatives 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, and 6 are costly and provide very limited water quality benefits.
They are not cost-effective and, therefore, not recommended. The No
Action Alternative is not recommended because it is considered necessary
that existing old, structurally unsound septic tanks and the small
number of non-functional absorption fields should be replaced. Also
there is need for strengthened management of on-site systems including
the monitoring of water quality.
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The Limited Action Alternative meets these needs and is cost-effec-
tive. The Recommended Alternative of this draft EIS is the Limited
Action.
C. RECOMMENDED ALTERNATIVE
1. DESCRIPTION
The Recommended Alternative (see Figure VI-1) provides continued
used of on-site systems throughout the Proposed Service Area under the
management of a Small Waste Flows District. It includes:
• site specific environmental and engineering analysis of exist-
ing on-site systems throughout the Proposed Service Area;
• repair and renovation of on-site systems as needed;
• management of the on-site systems by a Small Waste Flows
District; and
• continued monitoring of surface water quality (previously
undertaken by the Steuben County Health Department) as well as
groundwater quality.
Cluster systems or other off-site treatment will be included should the
site-specific analyses of on-site systems and cost comparisons of local
alternatives indicate their need and cost-effectiveness. This will
depend on the results of the additional water quality studies in
progress during July and August 1979, as well as the detailed Step II
design work described below. The manmade channel areas, and Jimmerson
Lake, with its possible 21% septic tank phosphorus input are the areas
for closest study.
2. IMPLEMENTATION
While the additional studies are being completed in August timely
action can ensure quick processing of the Step II application. It is
recommended that a small waste flows district be established encompass-
ing at least the Proposed Service Area. Guidance for development of
this district is included in Section III.E.2. Specific aspects of
implementing the Draft EIS Recommended Action are discussed below.
a. Replacement of Septic Tanks and Soil Absorption Systems
The percentages of septic tanks and soil absorption systems to be
replaced are estimates based on available records and information sup-
plied by the Steuben County Health Department. A detailed survey of the
existing systems should be undertaken at the beginning of Step 2 of the
Construction Grants process to determine precisely which ST/SAS's need
to be replaced.
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tsJ
O
FIGURE VI-1 STUEBEN LAKES: RECOMMENDED ALTERNATIVE
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b. Completion of Step I (Facilities Planning) Requirements
For The Small Waste Flows District
For timely release of Step 2 funds for any decentralized Alter-
native, the applicant would first need to:
• Certify that construction of the project and the operation and
maintenance program will meet local, State and Federal require-
ments. This would involve development of variance procedures
for upgrading and continued use of non-conforming systems not
causing water quality problems.
• Obtain assurance of unlimited access to each individual system
at all reasonable times for such purposes as inspections,
monitoring, construction, maintenance, operations, rehabili-
tation and replacement.
• Plan for a comprehensive program of regulation and inspection
for individual systems.
c. Scope of Step II For The Small Waste Flows District
A five step program for wastewater management in small waste flows
districts was suggested in Section III.E.2. The first three would
appropriately be completed in Step II. These are:
• Develop a site-specific environmental and engineering data
base;
• Design the Management Organization; and
• Agency start-up.
EPA will assist the applicant in defining specific objectives and
tasks for Step II work.
d. Compliance with State and Local Standards in the Small
Waste Flows District
As discussed in Section II.C many existing on-site systems do not
conform to current design standards for site, design or distance from
wells or surface waters. For some systems, such as those with under-
sized septic tanks, non-conformance can be remedied relatively easily
and inexpensively. In other cases the remedy may be disruptive and
expensive and should be undertaken only where the need is clearly
identified. Data on the effects of existing systems indicate that many
existing non-conforming systems, and future repairs that still may not
conform to design standards, may operate satisfactorily. Where com-
pliance with design standards is 1) unfeasible or too expensive and 2)
site monitoring of ground and surface waters shows that acceptable
impacts are attainable, then a variance procedure to allow renovation
and continued use of non-conforming system is recommended. Decisions to
204
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grant variances should be based on site-specific data or on a substan-
tial history of similar sites in the area.
This does not mean that State or local standards should simply be
discarded. The alternative projects a substantial level of on-site
system repair and upgrading. Variance procedures might be appropriate
for the residents of systems that either (a) cannot be upgraded to
compliance with State or local standards and (b) are not causing any
discernable water quality problems.
Local and State decisions on variance procedures would likely be
influenced by the degree of authority vested in the small waste flows
district. If the district has the authority and sufficient financial
means to correct errors, plus the trained personnel to minimize errors
in granting variances, variance procedures m'ay be more liberal than
where financial and professional resources are limited. Higher local
costs, caused by unnecessary repairs or abandonment of systems would be
expected to result from very conservative or no variance guidelines.
Conversely, ill-conceived or improperly implemented variance procedures
would cause frequent water quality problems and demands for more expen-
sive off-site technologies.
e. Ownership of On-Site Systems Serving Seasonal Residences
Construction Grants regulations allow Federal funding for 1) reno-
vation and replacement of publicly owned on-site systems serving perma-
nent or seasonally occupied residences, and 2) of privately owned
on-site systems serving permanent residences. Privately owned systems
serving seasonally occupied residences are not eligible for Federally
funded renovation and replacement.
Depending upon the extent and costs of renovation and replacement
necessary for seasonal residences, the municipalities or a small waste
flows district may elect to accept ownership of the on-site systems.
Rehabilitation of these systems would then be eligible for Federal
assistance, and local costs for seasonal residents would be dramatically
reduced.
Under EPA Program Requirements Memorandum 79-8, however, an ease-
ment giving the District access to a control of on-site systems would be
considered tantamount to public ownership -- without an actual transfer
of property.
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206
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CHAPTER VII
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF THE RECOMMENDED ACTION
A. UNAVOIDABLE ADVERSE IMPACTS
The implementation of the Recommended Alternative (Limited Action)
is not expected to create any significant adverse impacts. By replacing
existing structurally unsound and, in some cases, undersized septic
tanks, the Recommended Alternative would reduce the occurrence of inade-
quately treated wastewater leaking from tanks into the soil. It would
also ensure adequate treatment in septic tanks prior to disposal in the
absorption fields. In addition, the replacement of nonfunctional exist-
ing fields would further ensure against adverse impacts. Thus, the high
quality in surface water bodies and in wells would be safeguarded. The
Recommended Action would thus be an improvement on the existing situa-
tion which in more than half a century has not created significant
adverse impacts.
B. IMCOMPATIBILITY WITH STATE AND LOCAL CODES
The Recommended Alternative would have little effect on the number
of existing ST/SAS's which currently do not satisfy the provisions of
State and local codes pertaining to minimum lot sizes, setback distances
from wells, surface water bodies, etc., and the sizes of some soil
absorption fields. The special studies undertaken for this EIS have
indicated that the noncompliance with these provisions has not resulted
in significant adverse impacts. The monitoring and maintenance programs
proposed under the Recommended Action should, under these circumstances,
prove to be the cost-effective solution to the existing noncompliance
with State and local codes.
C. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SHORT-TERM USE AND LONG-TERM
PRODUCTIVITY
1. SHORT-TERM USE OF THE STUDY AREA
Implementation of the Recommended Alternative would result in a
minimal loss of terrestrial habitat. Wherever cluster systems are
required additional open space will be provided.
Implementation of the Limited Action Alternative would avoid the
problems of erosion, sedimentation and further lake deterioration which
could be expected to result from construction of central sewers proposed
in the Facilities Plan. Furthermore, disruption of road right-of-ways
through construction of sewers would be avoided.
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2. IMPACTS ON LONG-TERM PRODUCTIVITY
a. Commitment of Non-Renewable Resources
The Steuben Lakes Study Area has been and will continue to be used
as a residential and recreational area. The site was initially dis-
turbed when construction of houses first began more than 40 years ago.
Disturbance of the Study Area by routine residential/recreational
activities will continue. Implementation of the Recommended Alternative
is not expected to alter these disturbances.
Most of the limited development is expected in off-lake areas where
a sufficiency of suitable land (excluding terrestrial habitats) exists.
Unlike the Facilities Plan Proposed Action, there is no potential for
induced growth.
Non-renewable resources associated with the Recommended Action
would include concrete for construction. This represents no change from
the existing situation. Unlike the Facilities Plan Proposed Action, the
continued use of on-site systems would require no electric power for
pumps. If cluster systems were to be required in certain problem areas,
electric power would be utilized there for pumping but not to the extent
of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action.
b. Limitations on Beneficial Use of the Environment
The Recommended Alternative would not have any significant adverse
effects on the beneficial use of the environment. The level of public
enjoyment of the lakes, parks and other scenic features of the Study
Area would be enhanced. This alternative, unlike the Facilities Plan
Proposed Action, does not have a potential for inducing growth that
would result in a greater density of development or change in character
or the lake areas.
D. IRREVERSIBLE AND IRRETRIEVABLE COMMITMENT OF RESOURCES
The resources that would be committed during implementation of the
Recommended Alternative include those associated with construction and
maintenance of on-site wastewater systems. These were discussed in
Section VII.C.2.a. The financial resources and construction materials
employed would be much less than that which would have been employed in
implementation of the Facilities Plan Proposed Action.
In addition, growth expected in the Study Area would require a
commitment of resources to the construction of new dwellings and commer-
cial establishments, construction or improvement of roads and facilities
associated with water sports. Besides construction materials, such as
lumber, steel, concrete and glass, electricity and manpower would also
be committed to new development.
Manpower requirements for construction would be at existing levels.
Some increase of manpower above existing levels would be required for
the operation and management of the on-site systems and the water qual-
ity monitoring program.
208
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GLOSSARY
209
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GLOSSARY
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS. A method of secondary wastewater treatment in
which a suspended culture of microbial organisms is maintained
inside an aerated treatment basin. The microbial organisms hasten
the breakdown of the complex organic matter in the wastewater to
simpler materials.
ADVANCED WASTE TREATMENT. Wastewater treatment beyond the secondary or
biological stage which includes removal of nutrients such as phos-
phorus and nitrogen and a high percentage of suspended solids.
Advanced waste treatment, also known as tertiary treatment, is the
"polishing stage" of wastewater treatment and produces a high
quality of effluent.
AEROBIC. Refers to life or processes that occur only in the presence of
oxygen.
ALGAL BLOOM. A proliferation of algae on the surface of lakes, streams
or ponds. Algal blooms are stimulated by phosphate and nitrate
enrichment.
ALKALINE. Having the qualities of a base, with a pH of more than 7.
ALLUVIAL. Pertaining to material that has been carried by a stream.
ALTERNATIVE TECHNOLOGY. Alternative waste treatment processes and
techniques are proven methods which provide for the reclaiming and
reuse of water, productively recycle waste water constituents or
otherwise eliminate the discharge of pollutants, or recover energy.
Alternative technologies may not be variants of conventional bio-
logical or physical/ chemical treatment.
AMBIENT AIR. The unconfined portion of the atmosphere; the outside air.
ANAEROBIC. Refers to life or processes that occur in the absence of
oxygen.
AQUATIC PLANTS. Plants that grow in water, either floating on the
surface, or rooted emergent or submergent.
AQUIFER. A geologic stratum or unit, that is saturated with water and
will yield its water to wells and springs at a sufficient rate for
practical use. The water may reside in and travel through innumer-
able spaces between rock grains in a sand or gravel aquifer, small
or cavernous openings formed by solution in a limestone aquifer, or
fissures, cracks, and rubble in such harder rocks as shale.
ARTESIAN AQUIFER, An aquifer that is confined between relatively imper-
meable layers above and below it. The upper impermeable layer
confines Lhe water in the aquifer at pressures greater than atmos-
pheric pressure which cause the water to rise above the top of the
aquifer. If the water pressure is great, water will flow freely
from artesian wells. See Aquifer.
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ARTESIAN WELL. A well which taps water from an artesian aquifer. See
Artesian Aquifer.
BACTERIA. Microscopic, single-celled, plant-like organisms which differ
from plants in that they lack chlorophyll. They are widely dis-
tributed in soil, air, water, food and parts of the body, and are
important to man because of their effects in nitrogen fixation,
putrefaction, fermentation and the spreading of disease.
BAR SCREEN. In wastewater treatment, a screen that removes large float-
ing and suspended solids.
BASE FLOW. The rate of movement of water in a stream channel which
occurs typically during rainless periods when stream flow is main-
tained largely or entirely by discharges of groundwater.
BASIC USAGE. Those functions that small waste flow districts would be
required to perform in order to comply with EPA Construction Grants
regulations governing individual on-site wastewater systems.
BEDROCK. The solid rock beneath the soil and subsoil.
BENTHIC. Referring to organisms, primarily animals, living in the
bottom sediments of lakes and rivers.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD). A measure of the amount of oxygen
consumed in the biological processes that decompose organic matter
in water. Large amounts of organic waste use up large amounts of
dissolved oxygen; thus, the greater the degree of organic pollu-
tion, the greater the BOD.
BIOMASS. The weight of living matter in a specified unit of environ-
ment. Or, an expression of the total mass or weight of a given
population of plants or animals.
BIOTA. The plants and animals of an area.
BOD,.. See "Biochemical Oxygen Demand." Standard measurement is made
for 5 days at 20°C.
BOG. Wet, spongy land; usually poorly drained, and rich in plant resi-
due, ultimately producing highly acid peat.
CAPITAL COSTS. All costs associated with installation (as opposed to
operation) of a project.
CAPITAL EXPENDITURES. See Capital Costs.
CENTRARCHIDS. A family of freshwater fishes including bass of several
kinds, bluegill, red-ear, long-ear and other sunfishes, and several
other kinds of fishes sought for their sport and food value.
CHLORINATION. The application of chlorine to drinking water, sewage or
industrial waste for disinfection or oxidation of undesirable
compounds.
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COARSE FISH. See Rough Fish.
COLIFORM BACTERIA. Members of a large group of bacteria that flourish
in the feces and/or intestines of warm-blooded animals, including
man. Fecal coliform bacteria, particularly Escherichia coli (E.
coli), enter water mostly in fecal matter, such as sewage or feed-
lot runoff. Coliform bacteria do not cause human diseases, but are
abundant in polluted waters and are fairly easy to detect. The
presence of coliform bacteria in water, therefore, is used as an
indicator of the likely occurrence of such disease-producing bodies
(pathogens) as Salmonella, Shigella, and enteric viruses. These
pathogens are relatively difficult to detect.
COLIFORM ORGANISM. Any of a number of organisms common to the intes-
tinal tract of man and animals whose presence in wastewater is an
indicator of possible pollution and of potentially dangerous bac-
terial contamination.
COMMINTJTOR. A machine that breaks up wastewater solids.
CONNECTION FEE. Fee charged by municipality to hook up house connection
to lateral sewer.
CUBIC FEET PER SECOND (cfs). The volume in cubic feet of water
passing a given, point every second.
CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION. Acceleration by man of the natural aging
process of bodies of water.
DECIDUOUS. The term describing a plant that periodically loses all of
its leaves, usually in the autumn. Most broadleaf trees in North
America and a few conifers, such as larch and cypress, are decid-
uous .
DECOMPOSITION. Reduction of the net energy level and change in chemical
composition of organic matter by action of aerobic or anaerobic
microorganisms. The breakdown of complex material into simpler
substances by chemical or biological means.
DETENTION TIME. Average time required for water to flow through a
basin. Also called retention time. Or, the time required for
natural processes to replace the entire volume of a lake's water,
assuming complete mixing.
DETJSrf US. (1.) The heavier mineral debris moved by natural watercourses
(or in wastewater) usually in bed-load form. (2) The sand, grit,
and other coarse material removed by differential sedimentation in
a relatively short period of detention. (3) Debris from the decom-
position of plants and animals.
DISINFECTION. Effective killing by chemical or physical processes of
all organisms capable of causing infectious disease. Chlorination
is the disinfection method commonly employed in sewage treatment
processes.
212
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DISSOLVED OXYGEN (DO). The oxygen gas (0 ) dissolved in water or waste-
water. Adequate oxygen is necessary for maintenance of fish and
other aquatic organisms. Low dissolved oxygen concentrations
sometimes are due to presence, in inadequately treated wastewater,
of high levels of organic compounds.
DRAINAGE BASIN. (1) An area from which surface runoff is carried away
by a single drainage system. Also called catchment area, water-
shed, drainage area. (2) The largest natural drainage area sub-
division of a continent. The United States has been divided at one
time or another, for various administrative purposes, into some 12
to 18 drainage basins.
EFFLUENT. Wastewater or other liquid, partially or completely treated,
or in its natural state, flowing out of a reservoir, basin, treat-
ment plant, or industrial plant, or part thereof.
EFFLUENT LIMITED. Any stream segment for which it is known that water
quality will meet applicable water quality standards after com-
liance with effluent discharge standards.
ELEVATED MOUND. A mound, generally constructed of sand, to which set-
tled wastewater is applied. Usually used in areas where the thick-
ness of soil and/or depth to water table are inadequate for conven-
tional on-site treatment.
ENDANGERED SPECIES (FEDERAL CLASSIFICATION). Any species of animal or
plant declared to be in known danger of extinction throughout all
or a significant part of its range. Protected under Public Law
93-205 as amended.
ENDECO. Type 2100 Septic Leachate Detector. See "Septic Snooper".
ENVIRONMENT. The conditions external to a particular object, but gener-
ally limited to those conditions which have a direct and measurable
effect on the object. Usually considered to be the conditions
which surround and influence a particular living organism, popu-
lation, or community. The physical environment includes light,
heat, moisture, and other principally abiotic components. The
components of the biotic environment are other living organisms and
their products.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STATEMENT. A document required by the National
Environmental Policy Act (PL 91-190, 1969) when a Federal action
would significantly dffect the quality of the human environment.
Used in the decision-making process to evaluate the anticipated
effects (impacts) of the proposed action on the human, biological
and physical environment.
EPILIMINION. The upper layer of generally warm, circulating water in
lakes.
EQUALIZED SUMMER FLOW. The constant rate of flow from the equalization
basin to the treatment plant during summer months. Where large
differences exist between summer midweek wastewater flows and
213
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summer weekend flows due to increases in recreational visitors,
equalization basins are used to provide storage of incoming waste-
water and releases at a constant flow rate to the treatment plant.
EROSION. The process by which an object is eroded, or worn away, by the
action of wind, water, glacial ice, or combinations of these
agents. Sometimes used to refer to results of chemical actions or
temperature changes. Erosion may be accelerated by human activ-
ities .
EUTROPHIC. Waters with a high concentration of nutrients and hence a
large production of vegetation and frequent die-offs of plants and
animals.
EUTROPHIC LAKES. Shallow lakes, weed-choked at the edges and very rich
in nutrients. The water is characterized by large quantities of
algae, low water transparency, low dissolved oxygen and high BOD.
EUTROPHICATION. The normally slow aging process by which a lake evolves
into a bog or marsh, ultimately assumes a completely terrestrial
state and disappears. During eutrophication the lake becomes so
rich in nutritive compounds, especially nitrogen and phosphorus,
that algae and plant life become superabundant, thereby "choking"
the lake and causing it eventually to dry up. Eutrophication may
be accelerated by human activities. In the process, a once oligo-
trophic lake becomes mesotrophic and then eutrophic.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION. A process by which water is evaporated and/or
transpired from water, soil, and plant surfaces.
EXTENDED AERATION. A modified form of the conventional activated sludge
wastewater treatment process using a relatively low organic .loading
and a long (extended) aeration time. The method is applicable only
to small treatment plants of less than 1 mgd and is extensively
used in prefabricated package plants. (Also see Activated Sludge).
FECAL COLIFORM BACTERIA. See Coliform Bacteria.
FILAMENTOUS ALGAE. Primitive plants (algae) that have a linear growth
form (filament), arid which grow attached to the substrate or other
plants, usually in the shallow zones of lakes and rivers. Under
certain environmental conditions, including excessive nutrients in
the waters, filamentous algae contribute to the late summer
die-offs in eutrophic lakes which can result in large masses of
putrefying organisms.
FLOE. A sheet of floating ice.
FORCE MAIN. Pipe designed to carry wastewater under pressure.
GLACIAL DEPOSIT. A landform of rock, soil, and earth material deposited
by a melting glacier. Such material was originally picked up by
the glacier and carried along its path; it usually varies in tex-
ture from very fine rock flour to large boulders. Named according
to their location and shape.
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GLACIAL DRIFT. Material which has been deposited by a glacier or in
connection with glacial processes. It consists of rock flour,
sand, pebbles, cobbles, and boulders. It may occur in a heter-
ogeneous mass or be more or less well-sorted, according to its
manner of deposition.
GRAVITY SYSTEM. A system of conduits (open or closed) in which no
liquid pumping is required.
GROUNDWATER. Water that is below the water table in the saturated
zone of geologic rocks.
HABITAT. The specific place or the general kind of site in which a
plant or animal normally lives during all or part of its life
cycle. An area in which the requirements of a specific plant or
animal are met.
HOLDING TANK. Enclosed tank, usually of fiberglass or concrete, for the
storage of wastewater prior to removal or disposal at another
location.
HYPOLIMNION. Deep, cold and relatively undisturbed water separated from
the surface layer in the lakes of temperate and arctic regions.
IGNEOUS. Rock formed by the solidification of magma (hot molten
material).
INFILTRATION. The flow of a fluid into a substance through pores or
small openings. Commonly used in hydrology to denote the flow of
water into soil material.
INFILTRATION/INFLOW. Total quantity of water entering a sewer system.
Infiltration means entry through such sources as defective pipes,
pipe joints, connections, or manhole walls. Inflow signifies dis-
charge into the sewer system through service connections from such
sources as area or foundation drainage, springs and swamps, storm
waters, street wash waters, or sewers.
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIES. Technologies whose use has not been widely
documented by experience. They may not be variants of conventional
biological or physical/chemical treatment but offer promise as
methods for conservation of energy or wastewater constituents, or
contribute to the elimination of discharge of pollutants.
INTERCEPTOR SEWERS. Sewers used to collect the flows from main and
trunk sewers and carry them to a central point for treatment and
discharge. In a combined sewer system, where street runoff from
rains is allowed to enter the system along with the sewage,
interceptor sewers allow some of the sewage to flow untreated
directly into the receiving stream to prevent the treatment plant
from being overloaded.
LAGOON. In wastewater treatment, a shallow pond, usually man-made, in
which sunlight, algal and bacterial action and oxygen interact to
restore the wastewater to a reasonable state of purity.
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LAND TREATMENT. A method of treatment in which soil, air, vegetation,
bacteria, and/or fungi are employed to remove pollutants from
wastewater. In its simplest form, the method includes three steps:
(1) pretreatment to screen out large solids; (2) secondary treat-
ment and chlorination; and (3) application to cropland, pasture, or
natural vegetation to allow plants and soil microorganisms to
remove additional pollutants. Some of the applied wastewater
evaporates, and the remainder may be allowed to percolate to the
water table, discharged through drain tiles, or reclaimed by wells.
LEACHATE. Solution formed when water percolates through solid wastes,
soil or other materials and extracts soluble or suspendable sub-
stances from the material.
LIMITING FACTOR. A factor whose absence, or excessive concentration,
exerts some restraining influence upon a population of plants,
animals or humans.
LOAM. The textural class name for soil having a moderate amount of
sand, silt, and clay. Loam soils contain 7 to 27% of clay, 28 to
50% of silt, and less than 52% of sand.
MACROPHYTE. A large (not microscopic) plant, usually in an aquatic
habitat.
MELT WATER. Water which is formed from the melting of snow, rime, or
ice.
MESOTROPHIC. Waters with a moderate supply of nutrients and, compared
to eutrophic waters, having less production of organic matter.
MESOTROPHIC LAKE. Lakes of characteristics intermediate between oligo-
trophic and eutrophic, with a moderate supply of nutrients and
plant life.
METHEMOGLOBINEMIA. The presence of methemoglobin in the blood. Methe-
moglobin is the oxidized form of hemoglobin and it is unable to
combine reversibly with oxygen.
MICROSTRAINER. A device for screening suspended solids that are not
removed by sedimentation.
MILLIGRAM PER LITER (mg/1). A concentration of 1/1000 gram of a sub-
stance in 1 liter of water. Because 1 liter of pure water weighs
1,000 grams, the concentration also can be stated as 1 ppm (part
per million, by weight). Used to measure and report the concen-
trations of most substances that commonly occur in natural and
polluted waters.
MORPHOLOGICAL. Pertaining to Morphology.
MORPHOLOGY. The form or structure of a plant or animal, or of a feature
of the earth, such as a stream, a lake, or the land in general.
Also, the science that is concerned with the study of form and
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structure of living organisms. Geomorphology deals with the form
and structure of the earth.
NON-POINT SOURCE. A general source of pollution. Surface water runoff
is an example as it does not originate from a single source and is
not easily controlled.
NUTRIENT BUDGET. The amount of nutrients entering and leaving a body of
water on an annual basis.
NUTRIENTS. Elements or compounds essential as raw materials for the
growth and development of organisms, especially carbon, oxygen,
nitrogen and phosphorus.
OLIGOTROPHIC. Surface waters with good water' quality, relatively low
concentrations of nutrients, and modest production of vegetation.
OEIGOTROPHIC LAKES. Lakes with highly transparent water of good
quality, high DO levels, and modest production of aquatic vegeta-
tion.
ORDINANCE. A municipal or county regulation.
OUTWASH. Drift carried by melt water from a glacier and deposited
beyond the marginal moraine.
OUTWASH PLAIN. A plain formed by material deposited by melt water from
a glacier flowing over a more or less flat surface of large area.
Deposits of this origin are usually distinguishable from ordinary
river deposits by the fact that they often grade into moraines and
their constituents bear evidence of glacial origin. Also called
frontal apron.
PARAMETER. Any of a set of physical properties whose values determine
characteristics or behavior.
PERCOLATION. The downward movement of water through pore spaces or
larger voids in soil or rock.
PERMEABILITY. The property or capacity of porous rock, sediment, or soil
to transmit a fluid, usually water, or air; it is a measure of the
relative ease of flow under unequal pressures. Terms used to
describe the permeability of soil are: slow, less than 0.2 inch
per hour; moderately slow, 0.2 to 0.63 inch; moderate, 0.63 to 2.0
inches; moderately rapid. 2.0 to 6.3 inches; and rapid, more than
6.3 inches per hour. A very slow class and a very rapid class also
may be recognized.
PHOSPHORUS LIMITED. Of all the primary nutrients necessary to support
algal growth, phosphorus is in the shortest supply. Phosphorus can
limit additional algal growth, or if abundant, can stimulate growth
of algae.
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PHYTOPLANKTON. Floating plants, microsopic in size, that supply small
animals with food and give polluted water its green color and bad
taste.
PHOTOSYNTHETIC. Referring to plants that convert solar energy to chem-
ical energy, in the form of glucose (sugar) or some other storage
product. Generally, these plants are green, due to the presence of
the chlorophyll, the coloring matter that makes the energy conver-
sion possible.
PLANKTONIC. Referring to plants or animals, usually microscopic in
size, that are freely floating in the waters of lakes and rivers.
POINT SOURCE. A stationary source of a large individual emission. This
is a general definition; point source is legally and precisely
defined in Federal regulations.
POVERTY LEVEL. An index providing a range of poverty income cutoffs
adjusted by such factors as family size, sex of family head, number
of children under 18 years of age, and farm or noa-farm residence.
PREHISTORIC. A term which describes the period of human development
that occurred before the advent of written records. More gener-
ally, any period in geologic time before written history.
PRESENT WORTH. The sum of money that must be set aside at the beginning
of the planning period in order to meet all present and future
costs of the project throughout the planning period at a given
discount or interest rate. The applicable interest rate is that
set by the Water Resources Council.
PRESSURE SEWER SYSTEM. A wastewater collection system in which house-
hold wastes are collected in the building drain and conveyed there-
in to the pretreatment and/or pressurization facility. The system
consists of two major elements, the on-site or pressurization
facility, and the primary conductor pressurized sewer main.
PRIMARY PRODUCTION. Growth of green plants resulting from solar energy
being fixed as sugar during photosynthesis.
PRIMARY TREATMENT. The first stage in wastewater treatment in which
nearly all floating or settleable solids are mechanically removed
by screening and sedimentation.
RAPID INFILTRATION. A form of land treatment where wastewater is placed
into spreading basins and applied to the land to percolate into the
soil.
RAPID INFILTRATION BASIN. Unlined wastewater lagoons designed so that
all or part of the wastewater percolates into the underlying soil.
RARE SPECIES. A species not Endangered or Threatened but uncommon and
deserving of further study and monitoring. Peripheral species, not
listed as threatened, may be included in this category along with
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those species that were once "threatened" or "endangered" but now
have increasing or protected, stable populations. Used as official
classification by some states.
RECHARGE. The process by which water is added to an aquifer. Used also
to indicate the water that is added. Natural recharge occurs when
water from rainfall or a stream enters the ground and percolates to
the water table. Artificial recharge by spreading water on absorp-
tive ground over an aquifer or by injecting water through wells is
used to store water and to protect groundwater against the intru-
sion of sea water.
RETENTION TIME. See Detention Time.
ROTATING BIOLOGICAL CONTACTOR (RBC). A device, consisting of plastic
disks that rotate alternately through wastewater and air, used for
secondary treatment of wastewater.
ROUGH FISH. Those fish species considered to be of low sport value when
taken on tackle, or of poor eating quality; e.g. gar, suckers.
Rough fish are more tolerant of widely changing environmental
conditions than are game fish. Also called coarse fish.
RUNOFF. Surface runoff is the water from rainfall, melted snow or
irrigation water that flows over the surface of the land. Ground-
water runoff, or seepage flow from groundwater, is the water that
enters the ground and reappears as surface water. Hydraulic runoff
is groundwater runoff plus the surface runoff that flows to stream
channels, and represents that part of the precipitation on a drain-
age basin that is discharged from the basin as streamflow. Runoff
can pick up pollutants from the air or the land and carry them to
the receiving waters.
SANITARY SEWERS. Sewers that transport only domestic or commercial
sewage. Storm water runoff is carried in a separate system. See
sewer.
SANITARY SURVEY. (1) A study of conditions related to the collection,
treatment, and disposal of liquid, solid, or airborne wastes to
determine the potential hazards contributed from these sources to
the environment. (2) A study of the effect of wastewater dis-
charges on sources of water supply, on bathing or other recrea-
tional waters, on shellfish culture, and other related environ-
ments .
SECCHI DISK. A round plate, 30 cm (1 foot) in diameter, that is used to
measure the transparency of water. The disk is lowered into the
water until it no longer can be seen from the surface- The depth
at which the disk becomes invisible is a measure of transparency.
SECONDARY TREATMENT. The second stage in the treatment of wastewater in
which bacteria are utilized to decompose the organic matter in
sewage This step is accomplished by using such processes as a
trickling filter or activated slugde. Effective secondary treat-
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ment processes remove virtually all floating solids and settleable
solids as well as 90% of BOD and suspended solids. Disinfection of
the effluent by chlorination customarily is the last step in this
process.
SEPTIC SNOOPER. Trademark for the ENDECO (Environmental Devices Corpor-
ation) Type 2100 Septic Leachate Detector. This instrument con-
sists of an underwater probe, a water intake system, an analyzer
control unit and a graphic recorder. Water drawn through the
instrument is continuously analyzed for specific fluorescence and
conductivity. When calibrated against typical effluents, the
instrument can detect and profile effluent-like substances and
thereby locate septic tank leachate or other sources of domestic
sewage entering lakes and streams.
SEPTIC TANK. An underground tank used for the collection of domestic
wastes. Bacteria in the wastes decompose the organic matter, and
the sludge settles to the bottom. The effluent flows through
drains into the ground. Sludge is pumped out at regular intervals.
SEPTIC TANK EFFLUENT PUMP (STEP). Pump designed to transfer settled
wastewater from a septic tank to a sewer.
SEPTIC TANK SOIL ABSORPTION SYSTEM (ST/SAS). A system of wastewater
disposal in which large solids are retained in a tank; fine solids
and liquids are dispersed into the surrounding soil by a system of
pipes.
SEWER, COMBINED. A sewer, or system of sewers, that collects and con-
ducts both sanitary sewage and storm-water runoff. During rainless
periods, most or all of the flow in a combined sewer is composed of
sanitary sewage. During a storm, runoff increases the rate of flow
and may overload the sewage treatment plant to which the sewer
connects. At such times, it is common to divert some of the flow,
without treatment, into the receiving water.
SEWER, INTERCEPTOR. See Interceptor Sewer.
SEWER, LATERAL. A sewer designed and installed to collect sewage from a
limited number of individual properties and conduct it to a trunk
sewer. Also known as a street sewer or collecting sewer.
SEWER, SANITARY. See Sanitary Sewer.
SEWER, STORM. A conduit that collects and transports storm-water run-
off. In many sewerage systems, storm sewers are separate from
those carrying sanitary or industrial wastewater.
SEWER, TRUNK. A sewer designed and installed to collect sewage from a
number of lateral sewers and conduct it to an interceptor sewer or,
in some cases, to a sewage treatment plant.
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SINKING FUND. A fund established by periodic installments to provide
for the retirement of the principal of term bonds.
SLOPE. The incline of the surface of the land. It is usually expressed
as a percent (%) of slope that equals the number of feet of fall
per 100 feet in horizontal distance.
SOIL ASSOCIATION. General term used to describe a pattern of occurrence
of soil types in a geographic area.
SOIL TEXTURAL CLASS. The classification of soil material according to
the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. The principal textural
classes in soil, in increasing order of the amount of silt and
clay, are as follows: sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt
loam, sandy clay loam, clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay,
silty clay, and clay. These class names are modified to indicate
the size of the sand fraction or the presence of gravel, sandy
loam, gravelly loam, stony clay, and cobbly loam, and are used on
detailed soil maps. These terms apply only to individual soil
horizons or to the surface layer of a soil type.
STRATIFICATION. The condition of a lake, ocean, or other body of water
when the water column is divided into a relatively cold bottom
layer and a relatively warm surface layer, with a thin boundary
layer (thermocline) between them. Stratification generally occurs
during the summer and during periods of ice cover in the winter.
Overturns, or periods of mixing, occur in the spring and autumn.
Stratification is most common in middle latitudes and is related to
weather conditions, basin morphology, and altitude.
SUBSTRATE. (1) The surface on which organisms may live; generally the
soil, the bottom of the ocean, of a lake, a stream, or other body
of water, or the face of a rock, piling, or other natural or man-
made structure. (2) The substances used by organisms in liquid
suspension. (3) The liquor in which activated sludge or other
matter is kept in suspension.
SUCCESSION. A gradual sequence of changes or phases in vegetation (or
animals) over a period of time, even if the climate remains un-
altered; hence plant succession. This will proceed until some
situation of equilibrium is attained, and a climax community is
established.
SUPPLEMENTAL USAGE. Those functions that small waste flow districts are
not required to perform in order to comply with EPA Construction
Grants regulations governing individual, on-site wastewater sys-
tems. These functions may, however, be necessary to achieve
administrative or environmental objectives.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS (SS). Undissolved particles that are suspended in
water, wastewater or other liquid, and that contribute to tur-
bidity. The examination of suspended solids plus the BOD test
constitute the two main determinations for water quality performed
at wastewater treatment facilities.
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TERTIARY TREATMENT. See Advanced Waste Treatment.
THREATENED SPECIES (FEDERAL CLASSIFICATION). Any species of animal or
plant that is likely to become an Endangered species within the
foreseeable future throughout all or a significant part of its
range. Protected under Public Law 93-205, as amended.
TILL. Deposits of glacial drift laid down in place as the glacier
melts. These deposits are neither sorted nor stratified and con-
sist of a heterogeneous mass of rock flow, sand, pebbles, cobbles,
and boulders.
TOPOGRAPHY. The configuration of a surface area including its relief,
or relative evaluations, and the position of its natural and
man-made features.
TRICKLING FILTER PROCESS. A method of secondary wastewater treatment in
which biological growth is attached to a fixed medium, such as a
bed of rocks, over which wastewater is sprayed. The filter organ-
isms biochemically oxidize the complex organic matter in the waste-
water to simpler materials and energy.
TROPHIC LEVEL. Any of the feeding levels through which the passage of
energy through an ecosystem proceeds. In simplest form, trophic
levels are: primary producers (green plants) herbivores, omni-
vores, predators, scavengers, and decomposers.
TURBIDITY. (1) A condition in water or wastewater caused by the pres-
ence of suspended matter, resulting in the scattering and absorp-
tion of light rays. (2) A measure of fine suspended matter in
liquids. (3) An analytical quantity usually reported in arbitrary
turbidity units determined by measurements of light diffraction.
VASCULAR PLANT. In the literal sense, a plant with vessels, i.e., with
structural elements giving the plant support to be erect. In
practice, referring to plants that produce flowers, fruits, and
seeds during the reproductive cycle.
WATER QUALITY. The relative condition of a body of water as judged by a
comparison between contemporary values and certain more or less
objective standard values for biological, chemical, and/or physical
parameters. The standard values usually are based on a specific
series of intended uses, and may vary as the intended uses vary.
WATER TABLE. The upper level of groundwater that is not confined by an
upper impermeable layer and is under atmospheric pressure. The
upper surface of the substrate that is wholly saturated with
groundwater. This level varies seasonally with the amount of
percolation. Where it intersects the ground surface, springs,
seepages, marshes or lakes may occur. Also known as the unconfined
groundwater level.
WATERSHED. The land area drained by a stream, or by an entire river
system.
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WELL LOG. A chronological record of the soil and rock formations en-
countered in the operation of sinking a well, with either their
thickness or the elevation of the top and bottom of each formation
given. It also usually includes statements about the character of
the rocks and water-bearing characteristics of each formation,
static and pumping water levels, and well yield.
ZONING. The regulation by governmental action (invested by the State to
cities, townships, or counties) of the use of the land, the height
of buildings, and/or the proportion of the land surface that can be
covered by structures.
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REFERENCES
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