&EPA nited States Environmental Protection Agency Office of External Affairs Region VII 324 East 11th Street Kansas City, Missouri 64106 September 1980 Profile of Environmental Quality! Nebraska j $0* ------- Preface The Environmental Profile is a report to the people of Nebraska on the quality of their environment. At one time natural cleansing pro- cesses were adequate to maintain a livable environment, but these pro- cesses have not been able to keep pace with rapidly evolving modern society. Our aim for the future of Nebraska must be to reach a reasonable balance between the benefits of economic growth (with its attendant increased energy demands) and the need for healthful air, clean water, and the aesthetic qualities of life that characterize the State. Toward this end, I invite all Nebraskans to be involved in identify- ing and solving environmental prob- lems. The technical data on which this re- port is based are available from the Region VII office of the U.S. Environ- mental Protection Agency (EPA). Any persons interested in investigating a particular topic in greater depth or those needing additional detail for planning or management purposes should contact this office. Updated reports will be issued as im- provements and expansions to the in- formation become available. Your comments, questions, and sug- gestions are welcome. Kathleen Q. Camin, Ph.D. Regional Administrator Region VII, U.S. EPA ------- Contents Page Number Water Resources 6 AirQuality 22 Solid Waste 28 Hazardous Materials 30 Pesticides 32 Radiation 34 Noise 36 EPA Mission 38 Further Information . 39 ------- Introduction Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and Missouri, which make up EPA Region VII, are among the leading corn and wheat producing States in the Na- tion. These States also produce a significant share of the soybean, grain sorghum, fat cattle, and fin- ished hogs that are supplied to American and foreign markets. Although the States in Region VII can best be characterized as rural, 65 per- cent of their nearly 12 million people live in urban areas. In Nebraska, metropolitan areas such as Omaha have environmental problems resulting from major industrial opera- tions, municipal services, transporta- tion, and energy production. Metropolitan areas, however, do not have a monopoly on environmental problems. Hundreds of communities with populations of less than 5000 have some of the same problems, but they suffer the disadvantage of hav- ing inadequate tax bases to deal with them. Few realize the extent and serious- ness of the results of air pollution. It not only harms public health, but also corrodes physical structures of all kinds and damages agricultural crops. Air quality varies widely throughout the Region. Pollution in rural areas may result from higher-than-recom- mended background levels of sus- pended particles, whereas pollution in urban areas comes from industry and transportation. The means of controlling air pollution depends on the meteorology, the sources, and the background air characteristics, which will differ from area to area. Nebraska is blessed with high-quality streams and lakes, especially in the Sandhills region. Even so, many of our streams, rivers, and lakes are severely polluted. It would be difficult to find a body of water that does not bear some mark of man's activities. The pollution comes from various sources: inadequately treated sewage from some communities; oil and chemical spills by industry; and animal wastes, fertilizer, salts, and pesticides from farms. Solid waste (some of which is hazard- ous) is a problem to everyone. Mil- lions of tons are discarded in the Region each year. This waste ranges from common household trash to complex materials in industrial wastes, sewage sludge, agricultural residues, mining refuse, and path- ological wastes from institutions such as hospitals and laboratories. Many dangerous materials discarded ------- by society over the past few decades have endured in the environment. These materials may contribute to the pollution of groundwater because of improperly sited or operated land- fills and surface waste disposal ponds. This is particularly critical in Region VII because nearly half of the population uses groundwater as a source of drinking water. In addition, improper handling or disposal of haz- ardous waste can cause other kinds of environmental damage, such as air pollution, contamination of the food chain, and poisoning by direct con- tact. skilled environmental capability that the Nation needs. The EPA, State and local govern- ments, and private citizens must work together to restore the quality of our environment and protect the Region's natural resources for future generations. The Environmental Protection Agen- cy (EPA) is engaged in a massive ef- fort to restore America's water qual- ity, to reduce air pollution, and to find a comprehensive approach to other environmental problems associated with pesticide use, radiation, solid and hazardous waste disposal, mechanically generated noise, and toxic substances. The EPA is first and foremost a regulatory agency with responsibility for setting and en- forcing standards. The agency also offers technical and financial assistance for environmental protec- tion efforts at all levels of govern- ment. As a research body, the EPA monitors and analyzes the environment and conducts scientific studies. The agency provides technical and scien- tific information to the public and the training necessary to develop the ------- Water Resources Sources of Water Pollution Water plays a crucial role in the lives of every person living in Nebraska. Good quality water for drinking, agri- culture, and other daily needs is essential. Water is also needed for recreational activities such as swim- ming, fishing, and boating. Cities and towns that have grown along water- ways frequently depend on these waterways for waste disposal and, in some eases, for water supply. In- dustries require fresh water to pro- duce goods and to carry away treated wastes resulting from their opera- tions. As a result of the demand made on them, the waterways of Nebraska are often contaminated. Pollution sources can be categorized as either point or nonpoint. A point source is a polluting discharge with an iden- tifiable outlet, such as a pipe to a lake or stream. Examples are in- dustrial and municipal wastewater treatment plants. A nonpoint source has no particular outlet; rather, it allows pollutants to enter the water- ways at several different places and often over broad areas. Examples of contaminants from nonpoint sources include fertilizers, pesticides, and sediment from agricultural practices; metals, salts, solids, and other con- taminants in runoff from city streets. Both point and nonpoint sources af- fect the water quality of Nebraska's rivers. The lowered quality manifests itself in such things as fish kills and lake use impairment. These same pollutant sources also affect Nebraska's groundwater, which is ------- the principal source of drinking water. Point Sources Point source discharges into water bodies are both municipal and non- municipal in nature. The people and industries served by municipal sewerage generate more than 25 billion gallons of sewage every day in the United States. In the past, some communities provided only primary treatment of their waste; that is, they screened floating solids and allowed other solids to settle in holding ponds. Present laws require that wastewater be further treated by a series of processes called "secon- dary treatment," which is required of all publicly owned sewage treatment plants. In certain eases, treatment beyond the secondary level may be mandated to meet water quality stan- dards in the receiving streams or lakes. Recognizing that many State and local governments could not afford to build needed treatment facilities without financial assistance, Con- gress developed a program of Feder- al aid, in which grants are offered to cover 75 percent of the costs of con- structing publicly owned sewage treatment works. The remaining 25 percent is paid by state and local governments. The graph shows the amount of Federal construction grants provided in Nebraska in recent years. More than 17,000 sueh grant projects are active nationwide. Federal Support Obligated for Wastewater Treatment Facilities in Nebraska 50 to | 30 13 "5 0> § 20 10 1971 1972' 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 •S20.500 ------- Sources of Water Pollution (continued) Point Sources (continued) years. More than 17,000 sueh grant projects are active nationwide. The EPA has established effluent limits on the amount and kind of pollutants that can be discharged from various categories of non- municipal sources such as chemical plants, oil refineries, and meat pack- ing plants. No point source, muni- cipal or nonmunicipal, can discharge wastes into a body of water unless it first obtains a permit from the State. The permit states what and how much can be discharged and still meet effluent limits and water quality standards. The pie charts show com- pliance with permit conditions. Federal and state agencies also use other means of controlling pollution from point sources. These include (10 a requirement that some very strong or toxic industrial wastes be "pretreated" before they are discharged into public sewer sys- tems, (2) a special program to regulate toxic pollutants, and (3) the issuance of permits for disposal and use of dredged and fill material in or near the water. Livestock feedlots are also con- sidered point sources. The Agricultural Pollution Control Divi- sion administers an onsite inspec- tion program for the evaluation of pollution potential from existing and proposed livestock operations across the State. To date, over 7600 operations have been inspected, and 14.5 percent of these have been re- quired to take measures aimed at pollution abatement. Currently, 840 livestock waste control facilities have been constructed, and an opera- tion and maintenance inspection pro- gram is administered for all waste control facilities. In addition, 482 Na- tional Pollutant Discharge Elimina- tion System (NPDES) permits have been issued and 1770 applications have been exempted from permit re- quirements. Percentage of Major Sources Meeting Permit Requirements for Effluents in Nebraska (1979) 42 Municipal Sources 32 Nonmunicipal Sources 8 ------- Nonpoint Sources Agricultural runoff is a major non- point source of pollutants. Runoff from farming and grazing land con- tributes significant amounts of suspended solids, nutrients, and bacterial contamination to Nebraska's water. Nebraska has prepared a water quali- ty management plan to assess ex- isting and possible water quality problems and is developing a strategy to deal with these problems. A key element of this planning has been the designation of those areas most in need of practical and effec- tive measures to curb runoff from agricultural operations and thereby minimize soil erosion and water con- tamination. Known as Best Manage- ment Practices, these measures in- clude terraces, drainage tiles, grassed waterways, schedules for ef- ficient application of fertilizers and pesticides, and other conservation practices. The water quality management plan also deals with pollution from other nonpofnt sources, such as urban stermwater runoff, septic tank, failures, roadside erosion, streanv bank erosion, construction site runoff, and leaching from landfills. ------- Water Resources Rivers Stream Quality The 1983 goal of the Clean Water Aet is to make our Nation's waters suit- able for swimming and fishing wherever that goal is attainable. Many types of pollutants now affect these and other uses. Important as- pects of clean water are described below. •Water temperature is vital. Each fish species has its own range of water temperature tolerance. When these tolerances are ex- ceeded, aquatic life can be harmed. • Oxygen dissolved in water is as important to aquatic life as ox- ygen in air is to humans. Pol- lutants such as improperly treated sewage can deplete ox- ygen and suffocate fish and other aquatic life. •The pH of water, which relates to the acidity and alkalinity, is measured on a scale from 0 to 14. The value of 7 is considered neutral; anything over 7 is alka- line; anything under 7 is acidic. Either too high or too low a pH adversely affects stream life. Ex- treme values in either direction can be harmful in themselves or can increase the toxieity of other substances in the water. Changes in pH can affect fish life by preventing fish eggs from hatching and by destroying floating plants and animals that serve as food for the fish. •The trophic state of a river refers to the productivity of the water. An overabundance of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phos- phorus, can create excessive plant growth, which not only is unsightly, but also affects recreational and other uses of the water. •The toxieity of water refers to the concentrations of toxic ma- terials found in it. Pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), heavy metals, cyanide, and ammonia are examples of toxic materials. • Excessive levels of bacteria cause streams to be unfit for ac- tivities involving human contact, such as water-skiing and swim- ming. The amount of fecal eol- iform (bacteria that normally live in the intestines of humans and other warm-blooded animals) is directly related to the amount and kinds of pollution from sew- age and animal waste sources in the water. These bacteria are used as indicator organisms to alert the possible presence of other, more harmful organisms in the water. •The total volume of solids refers to the dissolved and suspended material in the water. These solids affect the clarity, hard- ness, and corrosiveness of the water. • Aesthetic value refers to the general beauty and quality of the water and takes into con- sideration the levels of oil and grease, visual clarity, and taste- tainting chemicals. The information depicted in the stream quality map is based on a comparison of those physical, chem- ical, and biological data with recom- mended Federal Water Quality Criteria. 10 ------- Stream Quality (1972-1978) Water Quality Problems o Oxygon B Bacteria N Nutrients s Solids M Toxic motals A Aesthetic deterioration Wficfc no 3IIOA3 Jlc ihOAn fcf .1 Mfctcft of fi»cr. cilhe? the water quality has &cofi liable lor the palt 7 ,t-.:-; Of ;).i!.i AOIC inluldcicnt to dotcrrTMnc licndl — Meets Federal water quality goals — Moderate water quality; provisionally moots Federal water quality goals — Does not moot Federal water quality goals — Insufficient data to determine quality •ffr Water quality improving •$• Water quality deteriorating ------- Water Resources Lakes Lakes are important water resources for recreation, water supply, and aesthetic appeal. Increases in pollu- tion from nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus can impair the value of Nebraska lakes. Although plant life is an important part of a lake's ecosystem, an overabundance of nutrients will cause excessive growth of algae and larger plants. Such overgrowth can choke the lake of needed oxygen, decrease light penetration, and be a nuisance to those using the lake for recreational or other purposes. Siltation and turbidity from agricultural runoff, construction ac- tivity, and other nonpoint sources may also affect light penetration and contribute to premature filling of lakes by sedimentation. Publicly owned lakes with these and other water quality problems may receive help through the Clean Lakes Program. This program provides funds to assist the State of Nebraska in (1) ranking its public lakes, (2) con- ducting lake studies, and (3) restor- ing and protecting these lakes. The map shows the principal lakes in Nebraska — those that have a sur- face area greater than 6400 acres and some smaller lakes that have signifi- cant recreational importance, are easily accessible to urban areas, or are used extensively by the public. The table shows the level of impair- ment to principal lakes resulting from pollution. Principal Lakes 12 ------- Pollution-Related Use Impairment of Principal Nebraska Lakes (1980) Lake Branched Oak Reservoir Gartor'lako Hatlan County Reservoir JohnsorvLake LakO'McGonaughy Lewis and Glark Lake •Pawnee-Reservoir Surface Area, acres 1,800 300 13:600 2.060 35,700 33;000 740 Swimming Fishing Boating. Aesthetics I ]' Low'impalrment (' Moderate impairment Severe impairment 1 Low-impairment v/iih,periodic moderate impairment ------- Water Resources Fish Kills Reports indicate that approximately 7000 fish were killed in seven separate incidents of water pollution in Nebraska in 1976. The map shows the location, size, and cause of the 1976 kills. Because reporting is entirely volun- tary, the information shown probably represents only a fraction of the kills that occurred. Numerous small kills go unnoticed or unreported, and some significantly large kills are not included because information is in- sufficient to determine if the kills resulted from pollutants in the water or from natural causes. Reported Pollution-Caused Fish Kills (1976) O 1-100 Fish O 100-1.000 Fish • 1.000-10.000 Fish 14 ------- Ground water Water held in underground gravel, sand, and silt layers (aquifers) is referred to as groundwater. Surface water and precipitation trickle through craeks and pores in the earth to reach the aquifers. The quality of groundwater is important because it is the water source for a large seg- ment of the State's population. The contamination of groundwater sup- pliies by nitrates and toxic substances is receiving increased at- tention. Nitrates are known to cause anemic conditions in infants. Although nature provides some of the nitrates in groundwater (through decaying organic material), the amount of nitrates can be increased by modern agricultural practices requiring irriga- tion and the use of such fertilizers as ammonia and liquid nitrogen, this results from the application of more fertilizer than the plant roots can use, which allows the excess to reach the groundwater. ilihe groundwater in central Rla'tte Valley, Holt County, and possibly the 'northwest corner of the State has high nitrate levels, but concentrations vary widely. Uncontrolled tox-ic chemical disposal sites are another possible source of groundwater contamination. The Re- source Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976 addresses this problem. It requires such sites to have an im- permeable barrier to prevent ground- water contamination from the buried material. NaturalH-y. occurring radiation, selenium, and fluoride released from underlying rocks have contaminated groundwater in some areas. Concen- trations of these contaminants vary erratically and sometimes reach levels of concern. ©nee groundwater has become contaminated, purifying it by natural means is very slow at best. Therefore, prevention of groundwater pollution is critical. To this end, the EPA has in- stituted the Underground Injection Program to limit the injection of wastes underground. States may assume responsibility for this pro- gram. Sources and Pathways of Nitrogen to the Aquifer Precipitation Root2oneiiiiy .-.- • : • Water Level Consolidated Material 15 ------- Water Resources Drinking Water The average adult consumes from one and a half to five quarts of water a day. Most people assume the water they drink is safe, and it usually is. Sometimes, however, it can be con- taminated by bacteria, metals, toxic chemicals, or other pollutants. At least 4000 documented cases of waterborne illnesses occur each year in the United States; the actual number is probably much greater, as many go unreported. In addition, the health effects of long-term, low-level exposure to contaminated water are not welt known. Nevertheless, these also should be of concern to each of us. To help fight these health threats, Congress (in the Safe Drinking Water Act) directed EPA to establish drink- ing water standards for all public water supplies having 15 or more ser- vice connections or regularly serving 25 or more persons. The pollutants for which standards have been established are briefly described below. Bacteria — Coliform bacteria from human and other animal wastes can be found in improperly treated drink- ing water. These bacteria may in- dicate the presence of other harmful organisms. Waterborne diseases such as typhoid, cholera, infectious hepatitis, and dysentery have been traced to improperly disinfected drinking water. Nitrate — Drinking water having nitrate levels above the national stan- dard poses an immediate threat to children under three months of age. In some infants, excessive levels of nitrate have been known to react with the hemoglobin in the blood to pro- duce an anemic condition commonly known as "blue baby." Arsenic — This element occurs naturally in the environment. It is also found in insecticides, foods, tobac- co, shellfish, drinking water, and air. Consumption of water that con- tinuously exceeds the national stan- dard can cause fatigue and loss of energy. High levels of arsenic intake can be fatal. Barium — This element also occurs naturally in the environment in some areas, but it is not as widespread as arsenic. Barium can also enter water supplies through industrial waste discharges. Although small doses are not harmful, consumption of large quantities is quite dangerous and can cause high blood pressure, nerve damage, and even death. Cadmium — Only minute amounts of this element are found in natural waters in the United States; however, improperly treated waste discharges from electroplating, photography, in- secticide, and metallurgy industries can increase cadmium levels. Al- though most cadmium enters the 16 ------- body through cigarette smoking and food intake, minute quantities have also been found in water supplies having galvanized pipes and fixtures. Chromium — Cigarettes, foods, and air are the most common sources of chromium. High levels of chromium in drinking water may cause skin and respiratory ailments. Although some studies suggest that minute amounts of chromium may be essential to humans, this theory has not yet been proven. Lead — This metal is found in the air, in food, and in the pigment of some older paints. The lead in drinking water comes from plumbing, auto ex- hausts, and other sources. When standards are greatly exceeded, humans may suffer from nervous system disorders or from brain or kidney damage. Mercury — Mercury levels in water can be raised above normal by in- dustrial discharges and mercury- based pesticides. A greater health risk results from eating fish from such waters than simply from water- borne mercury itself, because the ele- ment becomes concentrated in the fish tissues. Ingested mercury can cause liver, intestinal, circulatory, kidney and neurological ailments — even death. Mercury poisoning can be acute, as a result of large doses, or chronic, as a result of smaller doses received over an extended time. Selenium — This material occurs naturally in soil and plants and is found in meat and other foods. Although selenium is believed to be essential in the diet, indications are that excessive amounts may be toxic. Studies are under way to determine the amount required for good nutri- tion and that which may be harmful. Silver — The need to set a drinking water standard for silver arises from its intentional addition as a disinfec- tant in some water supplies. Overex- posure to silver causes discoloration of the skin and mucous membrane. When absorbed through the skin or consumed at high levels, silver can cause kidney, liver, and spleen damage. Pesticides — Each year some of the millions of pounds of pesticides used on croplands, forests, lawns, and gardens in the United States drain off into surface waters or seep into underground water supplies. If they get into drinking water and the water is not properly treated, many of them may pose health problems. The pesticides for which drinking water standards have been established are Endrin, Lindane, Methoxyehlor, Tox- aphene, 2,4-D, and 2,4,5-TP Silvex. Radioactivity — Radiation, which results from both natural and man- made processes, is of concern be- cause it is known to cause cancer and genetic defects in humans. Some water supplies within the State have been found to contain radio- activity above the concern level. Radioactivity is discussed further in the radiation section of this publica- tion. Turbidity — Turbidity (cloudiness resulting from minute suspended par- ticles) in drinking water interferes with the aesthetic quality of the water. Excessive turbidity can also interfere with disinfection and allow disease-causing organisms to sur- vive. National standards have been set to correct this problem. 17 ------- Water Resources Drinking Water (continued) The figure shows the percentage of Nebraska communities meeting drinking water standards for each of these contaminants. Percentages out of compliance are based on total number of violations divided by the number of community water supplies. Compliance of Nebraska Community Water Supplies With Chemical Drinking Water Standards (664 Supplies) Arsenic Barium Cadmium Chromium Lead Mercury Nitrate Selenium Silver Fluoride All Organic;, (Including ^^ ^ 2^ / 96% 99% 90 95 100 Percent in Compliance in 1979 •Based on 451 supplies. ** Based on 85 supplies. 18 ------- Fluoride is a naturally occurring ele- ment that is commonly added to water supplies to help prevent tooth decay. The recommended concentra- tion is 1 part per million (ppm). Because too much fluoride can cause mottling of teeth, concentra- tions above 2 ppm are a cause for concern. The map shows Nebraska communities that have adequate fluoride in their drinking water. Communities Receiving Adequately Fluoridated Water (1980) O Adjusted Source g) Natural Source Total Population of State Population of Communities With Adequate Fluoride* Natural Adjusted •AOoqutlo lluoilda mwns wjjutled to optimum (1,0 ppm) or has above 0.7 ppm ruluinl lluoildo. 1,485,333 49,176 (3%) 666.Z19 (45%) ------- Water Resources Wetland Areas Wetlands are lowland areas, such as marshes or swamps, that are saturated with moisture all or part of the year. These lands represent unique ecosystems of major impor- tance. Nebraska wetlands provide unique recreational areas, which sup- port hunting and fishing, are high in aesthetic value, and contain irreplaceable plant and animal life that make them especially valuable for educational and scientific studies. Some other roles and functions of wetlands are often not appreciated. For example, these areas can recharge groundwater supplies and help to maintain flow during dry periods. The dense vegetation, acting as a filter, traps pollutants and helps to maintain water quality in nearby streams and lakes. By storing flood- waters and excess runoff, the wet- lands can serve as buffer zones and reduce erosion by dissipating the energy of floodwaters. They also can be a source of harvestable timber and crops. As shown on the map, the primary zones in Nebraska where the remain- ing wetlands are located are (1) the Sandhills and (2) the prairie potholes of the Rainwater Basin. The approx- imately 188,000 acres of wetlands re- maining in 1972 represent a decrease of 32 percent from those existing dur- ing a 1960 survey. These losses resulted mainly from agricultural drainage and drawdown by irrigation systems. A new inventory of the wetlands in Nebraska is being prepared and should be completed by mid-1980. Wetland Acreage Remaining in Nebraska c to o 250 200 150 100 50 1960 1972 20 ------- Zones in Which Remaining Wetlands Are Located Omaha Sandhill Marshes JPrair (Pair (Rainwater Basin) Other Wetlands Riverine Wetlands ------- Air Quality Air Pollutants and Standards The objective of the EPA's air pollu- tion control program is to meet the re- quirements of the Federal Clean Air Act by achieving and maintaining Na- tional Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) by 1983. Toward this goal, the EPA provides research on health effects, offers the State both technical and financial assistance, and sets standards for specific sources. The primary concern is the effect of air quality on public health. Com- monly known effects of air pollution are respiratory aggravation and cardiovascular stress. Air pollution also threatens crops, forests, fish, lake ecosystems, and property values. These are referred to as public welfare considerations. The many sources of air pollution range from natural sources, such as dust, to the daily emission of thousands of tons of pollutants from industrial smokestacks and automobile exhausts. State Implementation Plans The EPA required that all states have an approved State Implementation Plan (SIP) by 1972. The plans were to detail the state's program for achiev- ing and maintaining the National Am- bient Air Quality Standards and the regulatory mechanisms for accom- plishing that goal. When monitoring shows that a particular pollutant ex- ceeds standards, an inadequacy in the original SIP is indicated. The area where this occurs is declared a nonattainment area. On a relative basis, Nebraska's air quality is good (as illustrated by the few areas of nonattainment on the accompanying nonattainment maps.) Revisions to the SIP must be submit- ted to EPA for the nonattainment area and pollutant standard being violated. The revised SIP must in- dicate additional controls for ex- isting and new sources and the sup- porting regulatory mechanisms. As part of the control program, all ex- isting point sources must apply Reasonably Available Control Technology. All new point sources must apply the more stringent Lowest Achievable Emission Rate control. Further, in the interim period before the SIP revision is approved by EPA, no new point sources can be built unless emissions from other sources are correspondingly reduced. After the SIP is approved, every new point source must be evaluated to demonstrate that its proposed emis- sions will not cause a violation of the applicable air quality standard. Standards have been written for six criteria pollutants: Total suspended partieulates (TSP), ozone, carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SOJ, lead (Pb), and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Primary standards are written to pro- tect public health, whereas secon- dary standards are written to protect public welfare. The State determines compliance with National Ambient Air Quality Standards (by monitoring air quality) and acts as the primary enforcement agent. The Lincoln-Lancaster County Health Department, the Omaha Public Safety Department, and the Omaha-Douglas County Health Department assist the State in these tasks. Population Exposure Where Ambient Air Health Standards Are Exceeded in Nebraska Population Exposed 390.076 Omaha and Cass Co. 530,500 Omaha and Lincoln Paniculate* Carbon Monoxide ^ J w ^\ J Total State Population 1.485,333 In addition to emissions of the six criteria pollutants for which ambient standards have been established, the EPA also regulates emissions of a special group of hazardous air pollutants — asbestos, vinyl chloride, mercury, benzene, beryllium, and radioactive particles. All of these have been shown to cause cancer in humans. The three sludge incinerators in Nebraska are all in compliance with the National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants. 22 ------- Number of Days National Total Suspended Participate Standards Were Exceeded in Nebraska in 1978* Lincoln Omaha 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Number of Days Carbon Monoxide Standards Were Exceeded in Nebraska in 1978 * Lincoln Omaha 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 I | Health standard exceeded [ I Alert level exceeded "Note: Because consideration must be given to natural meteorological events, exceeding Ambient Air Quality Standards for one day during a single year does not constitute a violation; the standard must be exceeded at least two days in a single year to be considered a violation. ------- Air Quality Air Pollutants and Standards (continued) Nonattainment Areas for Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) (1980) Nonattainment Areas for Carbon Monoxide (CO) (1980) Par! ol county violates primary (public health) standards. Entire county violates primary standard. Total Suspended Particulates (TSP) Omaha and Cass County are nonat- tainment areas for total suspended particulates. The term TSP refers to all the solid material floating in the air, such as dust, soot, and fly ash. Agricultural activities, construction sites, un- paved roads, grain handling, automobile exhausts, and coal com- bustion are all sources of TSP. All TSP affects the respiratory system, 24 but the smallest particles are the most harmful. In addition, toxic materials such as pesticides and lead are sometimes carried by these suspended particles. Carbon Monoxide (CO) Lincoln and Omaha are nonattain- ment areas for carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide, a toxic byproduct of incomplete combustion (auto- mobile exhausts are the major source), reduces the amount of ox- ygen available to lung tissues, im- pairs visual perception, decreases alertness, and in high concen- trations, can be fatal. ------- The entire State of Nebraska meets the national standards for the other criteria pollutants, with the exception of Omaha, which exceeds the na- tional standard for lead emissions. The other criteria pollutants are briefly described below. Lead The metal lead (Pb) reaches the air primarily through the use of leaded gasoline. Other sources include lead and zinc mining and processing sites, lead recovery plants, battery manufacturing facilities, and certain industrial ehemieal processing fac- tories. Lead is particularly harmful to the soft tissues of the body, the reproductive system, and the nervous system. It also can cause anemia and irreversible brain damage. Sulfur Dioxide Sulfur dioxide (SO,) results from the combustion of sulfur-containing coal and oil, the smelting of metal ores, the refining of oil, and other in- dustrial processes. This compound reacts readily with other atmospheric pollutants to form a group of substances called sulfates, which aggravate heart disease and such respiratory ailments as bronchitis, emphysema, and asthma. Sulfur dioxide also reacts with moisture to produce acid rain, a problem affec- ting the delicate ecosystems of lakes and forests. Nitrogen Oxides Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced by fuel combustion and come from both stationary and mobile sources. Coal- and oil-fired furnaces and automobiles are major sources. These compounds react with hydro- carbons in the presence of sunlight and produce ozone. They also cause acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide (NO,), a form of NOx, can affect lung tissue, reduce resistance to disease, con- tribute to bronchitis and pneumonia, and aggravate chronic lung disorders. Ozone Ozone is a major component of photochemical smog formed by a series of chemical reactions that oc- cur when hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides are exposed to sunlight. Hydrocarbons include the fumes from any of numerous oil-derived liquids (for example, gasoline, kero- sene, diesel fuels, lacquers, and thin- ners). The most common sources of airborne hydrocarbons are auto- mobiles, refineries, fuel transfer facilities, painting operations, fuel combustion in stationary sources, and nature itself. Ozone, which is a severe irritant to mucous mem- branes, aggravates respiratory dis- orders, reduces lung function, and in- creases susceptibility to bacterial in- fection. 25 ------- Air Quality Air Pollutants and Standards (continued) Emissions No SIP revisions are required in areas where monitoring indicates com- pliance with NAAQS. Existing sources, however, must meet ap- plicable State and local regulations, and new sources may also be subject to more stringent regulations. Some new source categories must meet New Source Performance Standards. Major new sources must meet Pre- vention of Significant Deterioration regulations. Of the 419 existing major point sources in Nebraska, 415 sources are in compliance with applicable emis- sion regulations. Ranges in color keys indicate 1000's tons/yr. Participate Emissions D«11 D 11-20 D 21-50 26 ------- SOj Emissions D«10 O 10-50 D 51-100 S»100 Hydrocarbon Emissions Q«10 D 10-20 D 21-50 S»50 D«20 CO Emissions 20-75 D 76-140 13 »140 D<5 NO, Emissions D 5-40 D 41-60 D >60 27 ------- Solid Waste Disposal and Recovery Besides the well-known household garbage, solid waste includes sueh material as waste from agricultural, industrial, and mining activities; sludges from water and air pollution control facilities; demolition material; and abandoned cars. Na- tional statistics show that 87 percent of the solid waste in the United States is produced by agricultural and mining activities, 9 percent by in- dustrial activities, and 4 percent by residential and commercial ac- tivities. The amount of solid waste constantly increases, and its com- position changes with the Nation's population growth and technological advancement. Increases in solid waste result in the littering of city streets, country road- sides, and any available open spaces. Such littering diminishes our enjoyment of the environment and creates an expensive cleanup prob- lem. The most fundamental ways to lessen environmental damage from solid waste are (1)to generate less waste or (2) to recover and reuse valuable resources from those wastes. Both approaches would not only reduce degradation, but save energy and materials as well. Generation of solid waste by municipalities is high — about 1300 pounds per person per year; the rate of resource recovery is low — about 7 percent. The rising cost of land disposal, however, is likely to make resource recovery and conservation increasingly more attractive. Passage of the Resource Conserva- tion and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976 accelerated solid waste management programs at all levels of government. Uncontrolled open dumps and open burning of solid waste will soon be a thing of the past. Sanitary landfills are the most common replacement for open dumps in solid waste management programs. The design of these landfills is such that solid waste can be buried in a manner effi- cient enough to protect both ground- water and surface water. The map in- dicates the approved sanitary land- fills in Nebraska. Proper operation of the landfills is essential to adequate control of the waste placed there. Also, every Nebraska citizen must recognize his or her role in environmental protec- tion by assuring that any household waste, dead animals, pesticide con- tainers, and the like are disposed of properly. 28 ------- Licensed Solid Waste Disposal Facilities (1980) O Refuse/garbage O Demolition O Industrial ------- Hazardous Materials Hazardous Waste The use of large quantities of chemicals has become a way of life in our society. The list of more than 4,000,000 recognized chemical com- pounds grows at the rate of 6,000 per week. Many once believed thai the Midwest would never have to worry about health hazards associated with im- proper handling of chemicals such as those experienced in the East — for example, the nationally publicized Love Canal incident in New York. The problem was brought close to home last year, however, when cattle on a Kansas farm became contaminated with PCBs because waste oil con- taining these hazardous chemicals was used in animal baekrubbers. The waste oil (which came from electrical transformers) had been purchased from a salvage yard in 1972, before the effects of PCBs were widely known. Fifty-four head of cattle died, and before the cause of death was determined, hides, tallow, and meat for dog food had been shipped to several states and had to be traced and properly disposed of. Another 112 head had to be killed and buried in an approved hazardous waste disposal site. Portions of the soil in the feedlot were also contaminated and had to be removed and disposed of properly. In the 40 years preceding the passage of the Resource Conserva- tion and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976, the disposal of hazardous wastes was largely unregulated. The act mandated a comprehensive "cradle to grave" hazardous waste management program. Such proper environmental control will cost more, but eliminate the astronomical costs of correcting poor disposal practices. For example, a 1979 EPA study reported that cleaning up abandoned and improperly operated hazardous waste sites could cost as much as $44 billion, of which only a portion would likely be paid by the owners of the sites. The RCRA plan of attack consists of two phases. The first provides a system for following hazardous waste from its point of origin to its final disposal. This system includes: •Identifying hazardous waste. •Setting standards for producers and shippers of hazardous waste. • Specifying performance, design, and operating requirements for facilities that treat, store, or dispose of hazardous waste. • Providing a system for issuing permits to such facilities. • Furnishing guidelines that outline conditions under which state governments can be authorized to carry out their own programs for hazardous waste management. The second phase of the program en- tails a comprehensive effort to iden- tify dangerous abandoned or uncon- trolled dump sites. If danger to human health and the environment is deemed "imminent and substantial," the owner can be forced to clean up the site. Unfortunately, many of the owners cannot be found or are not financially able to correct the prob- lem. 30 ------- Hazardous Spills Most environmental problems do not require immediate action, but the ac- cidental release of oil or some haz- ardous material can constitute an emergency condition. Such incidents necessitate immediate action to pro- tect public health and to minimize damage to natural resources. In the event of such emergencies, a response team must be prepared to travel to the area, identify the nature and source of the substance spilled, and take direct action to contain the spill. Cleanup of the spilled material can then begin, and if necessary, ap- propriate legal action can be taken. This type of response is complex and expensive. The workers must wear protective equipment and take the necessary precautionary measures until such time as the nature of the chemical involved has been deter- mined. Few safe sites are readily available for disposal of hazardous materials, and such materials often must be transported a great distance for proper long-term disposal. The charts show the number of spills by type of material and environment affected for the two-year period from October 1977 to September 1979. Percent of Total Number of Spills by Type* in Nebraska 1% Acid 1% Pesticide 4% Miscellaneous Percent of Total Petroleum Spills by Environment Affected* Percent of Total Nonpetroleum Spills by Environment Affected * •Based on EPA's Surveillance and Analysis Division Spill Investigation Reports (October 1977-79). ------- Pesticides Use and Misuse The use of insecticides and her- bicides is common and beneficial on farms, in the home and garden, and in commercial and institutional estab- lishments. Besides the increased crop production made possible by the extensive agricultural use of pes- ticides, another benefit derived from the use of pesticides is the control of such pests as rodents, flies, roaches, and other insects. Because of the manner in which they provide these benefits, pesticides must be considered poisons, and as such, they can be dangerous not only to the people who apply them, but also to those who may be acciden- tally exposed. Harm can result from inhaling the pesticide or from absorb- ing it through the skin. Pesticides can also contaminate food crops and harm the people who consume them. Many pesticides Kill plants, birds, animals, and such beneficial insects as honeybees, along with the in- tended pests. They can also become concentrated in fish and wildlife and pose a threat to those who eat them. For these reasons, the manufacture, sale, and use of these compounds are regulated by the government. More than 1,400 chemicals are in- cluded in the approximately 40,000 pesticide products registered with the EPA. As of 1980, 49 of these chemicals {involving about 1,700 products) have been restricted to cer- tain uses, and the use of 44 pesticides has been limited, suspended, or banned. Persons who wish to apply restricted-use products 32 must become certified as applicators and, in some cases, are required to attend training courses prior to cer- tification. In Nebraska, the EPA has certified 44,666 private and 5,457 commercial applicators. The charts show the uses and types of pesticides in Nebraska, based on a 1974 survey. ------- Pesticide Usage in Nebraska (1974) Uses 05% Industry 0.8% Government Types 0.2% Nematocides 0.8% Fungicides 61% Herbicides Total 1974 Pesticide Usage = 28,612,000 pounds 33 ------- Radiation Environmental Exposure Radiation results from the breakup of an atomic nucleus. Two types are emitted during the breakup: ionizing radiation (a stream of nuclear fragments) and nonionizing radiation (a high-energy burst of X rays). When radiation passes through living cells, it disturbs essential chemical mole- cules. Such disturbance can result in death of the cell, cancer, or a genetic defect. Scientists are currently un- sure whether or not there is a safe level of radiation — one at which these effects are not produced. Some radiation in the environment is due to natural causes; some results from human activities. Natural radioactivity (known as cosmic rays) continuously bombards Earth from space, and the planet itself contains radioactive uranium, thorium, and potassium. Because this natural radioactivity is in the air we breathe, the water we drink, and the foods we eat, we all have some amount of radioactivity within us. Man adds to radiation exposure in various ways: dental and medical X rays, the production of fallout through atmospheric tests of nuclear weapons, the combustion of coal (which contains several radioactive elements), and the creation of radioactive materials during nuclear energy production. 34 Radiation Exposure From Environmental Sources ------- Combined Terrestrial and Cosmic Radiation Exposure by State D 40-50 Millirems' D 61-70 Millirems Per Year D 51-60 Millirems Per Year Per Year 71-80 Millirems Per Year •Note: A millirem is one-thousandth of a rem. which is a unit ot radiation exposure to the human body. For example, a chest Xray equals about SO miliirems per hour, a dental Xray about 20 miliirems per hour. and viewing color television about 2 miliirems per hour The lethal dosage is about 500.000 miliirems. I 81-90 Millirems Per Year ------- Noise Effects and Controls Everyone is exposed to noise of vary- ing intensities and from many dif- ferent sources every day. Constant exposure to loud noise can be harm- ful. Noise-induced hearing loss is par- ticularly recognized in employees of highly mechanized industries and other occupations involving ex- posure to loud noise. Excessive levels of noise appear to cause stress, which may in turn increase susceptibility to disease and infec- tion, notably heart disease and ulcers. An estimated 14.7 million workers are exposed to an 8-hour average sound level of 75 decibels, at which there is risk of hearing damage. The EPA is in the process of estab- lishing standards that require the reduction of noise in new production of portable air compressors, medium- and heavy-duty trucks, earth-moving machinery, buses, truck-mounted solid waste compactors, motor- cycles, jack-hammers, and lawn- mowers. As older equipment is replaced with products conforming with the standards, a gradual reduc- tion in environmental noise levels will occur. Other EPA activity centers around the development of regula- tions requiring equipment to be labeled so that prospective buyers are aware of the level of noise the product emits. 36 The intensity of a sound is measured on the decibel (dB) scale, ranging from 0 to 140. An increase of 10 on this scale represents a tenfold in- crease in intensity. The doubling of intensity of a 70-dB sound, for in- stance, results in an exposure to 73 dB. Most noise ordinances are not based on actual measurements, but consider sound a problem only when it becomes a "nuisance." Nebraska Population Protected by Enforceable Noise Ordinances Total State Population: 1,463,493 ------- Typical Exposure Levels (in decibels) Jet Takeoff (100 m away) Street Traffic Woods -140 130- 110 90- 75 70 50- 30 — 10 — -100 -80 Live Concert Possibility of noise-induced hearing damage (after 8-hour exposure) -60 -40 — 20 Conversation _ Threshold ' of Hearing The measure of energy per area is presented in decibels. An increase from 20 to 30 or 90 to 100 represents a tenfold increase in energy. 37 ------- The EPA Mission The Environmental Protection Agen- cy serves as the advocate for a live- able environment in a number of ways. First and foremost, it is a regulatory agency responsible for setting and enforcing standards. The EPA is currently engaged in a massive effort to restore America's waters, to reduce air pollution, and to find a comprehensive approach to other environmental problems asso- ciated with pesticides use, radiation, solid and hazardous waste disposal, mechanically generated noise, and toxic substances. As a research body, the EPA monitors and analyzes the environment and conducts scien- tific studies. The agency furnishes technical and scientific information to the public, provides training to develop the environmental skills that the Nation needs, and offers technical and financial assistance for environmental protection efforts at all levels of government. Nebraska Environmental Agencies The Nebraska Department of En- vironmental Control is responsible for air quality, water quality, and the disposal of solid and hazardous wastes. The Department of Health is responsible for the water supply and radiation programs. The Department of Agriculture administers the pesticide registration program. (The EPA is responsible for certification of pesticide applicators and enforce- ment of applicable standards.) 38 ------- For Further Information If you would like additional information about specific en- vironmental programs in which EPA is involved, please con- tact EPA Region VII, Public Affairs Office, 324 E. 11th St., Kansas City, M© 64106, or call (800) 821-3714. This office maintains a supply of EPA publications that relate to the various programs mentioned in this document, operates an informal speaker's bureau, and coordinates distribution of environmental films (all free of charge to the public). If you encounter an environmental problem, report it first to your local and then to your state pollution control agency. EPA Region VII program numbers: Action Line (800) 821-3714 Air Pollution Programs (816) 374-3791 Hazardous Wastes Program (816) 374-3307 Oil and Chemical Spills Region VII Emergency Response Center .. .(816) 374-3778 National Emergency Response Genter (800) 424-8802 Pesticides Program (816) 374-3036 Pesticides Poisoning Emergency (800) 424-9300 Radiation Program (816) 374-6621 Resource Recovery Program (816) 374-6532 Solid Wastes Program (816) 374-6532 Toxic Substances Program (816) 374-3036 Wastewater Treatment (816) 374-2725 Water Supply (816)374-5429 Wetlands (816) 374-2921 In addition to the U.S. EPA, several State agencies assist residents with their environmental questions and problems. In Nebraska, these agencies are: Department of Environmental Control (402) 471-2186 Air Pollution Control Solid and (Hazardous Waste Management Water Pollution Control Water Quality Planning Oil and Chemical Spills Department of Health Radiation Water Supply Department of Agriculture Pesticides (402)471-2133 (402)471-2341 39 ------- |