&EPA
nited States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of External Affairs
Region VII
324 East 11th Street
Kansas City, Missouri 64106
September 1980
Profile of
Environmental
Quality!
Nebraska j
$0*
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Preface
The Environmental Profile is a report
to the people of Nebraska on the
quality of their environment.
At one time natural cleansing pro-
cesses were adequate to maintain a
livable environment, but these pro-
cesses have not been able to keep
pace with rapidly evolving modern
society. Our aim for the future of
Nebraska must be to reach a
reasonable balance between the
benefits of economic growth (with its
attendant increased energy
demands) and the need for healthful
air, clean water, and the aesthetic
qualities of life that characterize the
State.
Toward this end, I invite all
Nebraskans to be involved in identify-
ing and solving environmental prob-
lems.
The technical data on which this re-
port is based are available from the
Region VII office of the U.S. Environ-
mental Protection Agency (EPA). Any
persons interested in investigating a
particular topic in greater depth or
those needing additional detail for
planning or management purposes
should contact this office. Updated
reports will be issued as im-
provements and expansions to the in-
formation become available.
Your comments, questions, and sug-
gestions are welcome.
Kathleen Q. Camin, Ph.D.
Regional Administrator
Region VII, U.S. EPA
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Contents
Page Number
Water Resources 6
AirQuality 22
Solid Waste 28
Hazardous Materials 30
Pesticides 32
Radiation 34
Noise 36
EPA Mission 38
Further Information . 39
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Introduction
Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas, and
Missouri, which make up EPA Region
VII, are among the leading corn and
wheat producing States in the Na-
tion. These States also produce a
significant share of the soybean,
grain sorghum, fat cattle, and fin-
ished hogs that are supplied to
American and foreign markets.
Although the States in Region VII can
best be characterized as rural, 65 per-
cent of their nearly 12 million people
live in urban areas. In Nebraska,
metropolitan areas such as Omaha
have environmental problems
resulting from major industrial opera-
tions, municipal services, transporta-
tion, and energy production.
Metropolitan areas, however, do not
have a monopoly on environmental
problems. Hundreds of communities
with populations of less than 5000
have some of the same problems, but
they suffer the disadvantage of hav-
ing inadequate tax bases to deal with
them.
Few realize the extent and serious-
ness of the results of air pollution. It
not only harms public health, but also
corrodes physical structures of all
kinds and damages agricultural
crops.
Air quality varies widely throughout
the Region. Pollution in rural areas
may result from higher-than-recom-
mended background levels of sus-
pended particles, whereas pollution
in urban areas comes from industry
and transportation. The means of
controlling air pollution depends on
the meteorology, the sources, and
the background air characteristics,
which will differ from area to area.
Nebraska is blessed with high-quality
streams and lakes, especially in the
Sandhills region. Even so, many of
our streams, rivers, and lakes are
severely polluted. It would be difficult
to find a body of water that does not
bear some mark of man's activities.
The pollution comes from various
sources: inadequately treated
sewage from some communities; oil
and chemical spills by industry; and
animal wastes, fertilizer, salts, and
pesticides from farms.
Solid waste (some of which is hazard-
ous) is a problem to everyone. Mil-
lions of tons are discarded in the
Region each year. This waste ranges
from common household trash to
complex materials in industrial
wastes, sewage sludge, agricultural
residues, mining refuse, and path-
ological wastes from institutions
such as hospitals and laboratories.
Many dangerous materials discarded
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by society over the past few decades
have endured in the environment.
These materials may contribute to
the pollution of groundwater because
of improperly sited or operated land-
fills and surface waste disposal
ponds. This is particularly critical in
Region VII because nearly half of the
population uses groundwater as a
source of drinking water. In addition,
improper handling or disposal of haz-
ardous waste can cause other kinds
of environmental damage, such as air
pollution, contamination of the food
chain, and poisoning by direct con-
tact.
skilled environmental capability that
the Nation needs.
The EPA, State and local govern-
ments, and private citizens must
work together to restore the quality of
our environment and protect the
Region's natural resources for future
generations.
The Environmental Protection Agen-
cy (EPA) is engaged in a massive ef-
fort to restore America's water qual-
ity, to reduce air pollution, and to find
a comprehensive approach to other
environmental problems associated
with pesticide use, radiation, solid
and hazardous waste disposal,
mechanically generated noise, and
toxic substances. The EPA is first
and foremost a regulatory agency
with responsibility for setting and en-
forcing standards. The agency also
offers technical and financial
assistance for environmental protec-
tion efforts at all levels of govern-
ment.
As a research body, the EPA monitors
and analyzes the environment and
conducts scientific studies. The
agency provides technical and scien-
tific information to the public and the
training necessary to develop the
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Water Resources
Sources of Water Pollution
Water plays a crucial role in the lives
of every person living in Nebraska.
Good quality water for drinking, agri-
culture, and other daily needs is
essential. Water is also needed for
recreational activities such as swim-
ming, fishing, and boating. Cities and
towns that have grown along water-
ways frequently depend on these
waterways for waste disposal and, in
some eases, for water supply. In-
dustries require fresh water to pro-
duce goods and to carry away treated
wastes resulting from their opera-
tions.
As a result of the demand made on
them, the waterways of Nebraska are
often contaminated. Pollution
sources can be categorized as either
point or nonpoint. A point source is a
polluting discharge with an iden-
tifiable outlet, such as a pipe to a
lake or stream. Examples are in-
dustrial and municipal wastewater
treatment plants. A nonpoint source
has no particular outlet; rather, it
allows pollutants to enter the water-
ways at several different places and
often over broad areas. Examples of
contaminants from nonpoint sources
include fertilizers, pesticides, and
sediment from agricultural practices;
metals, salts, solids, and other con-
taminants in runoff from city streets.
Both point and nonpoint sources af-
fect the water quality of Nebraska's
rivers. The lowered quality manifests
itself in such things as fish kills and
lake use impairment. These same
pollutant sources also affect
Nebraska's groundwater, which is
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the principal source of drinking
water.
Point Sources
Point source discharges into water
bodies are both municipal and non-
municipal in nature.
The people and industries served by
municipal sewerage generate more
than 25 billion gallons of sewage
every day in the United States. In the
past, some communities provided
only primary treatment of their waste;
that is, they screened floating solids
and allowed other solids to settle in
holding ponds. Present laws require
that wastewater be further treated by
a series of processes called "secon-
dary treatment," which is required of
all publicly owned sewage treatment
plants. In certain eases, treatment
beyond the secondary level may be
mandated to meet water quality stan-
dards in the receiving streams or
lakes.
Recognizing that many State and
local governments could not afford to
build needed treatment facilities
without financial assistance, Con-
gress developed a program of Feder-
al aid, in which grants are offered to
cover 75 percent of the costs of con-
structing publicly owned sewage
treatment works. The remaining 25
percent is paid by state and local
governments. The graph shows the
amount of Federal construction
grants provided in Nebraska in recent
years. More than 17,000 sueh grant
projects are active nationwide.
Federal Support Obligated for Wastewater Treatment Facilities
in Nebraska
50
to
| 30
13
"5
0>
§ 20
10
1971 1972' 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979
•S20.500
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Sources of Water Pollution (continued)
Point Sources (continued)
years. More than 17,000 sueh grant
projects are active nationwide.
The EPA has established effluent
limits on the amount and kind of
pollutants that can be discharged
from various categories of non-
municipal sources such as chemical
plants, oil refineries, and meat pack-
ing plants. No point source, muni-
cipal or nonmunicipal, can discharge
wastes into a body of water unless it
first obtains a permit from the State.
The permit states what and how
much can be discharged and still
meet effluent limits and water quality
standards. The pie charts show com-
pliance with permit conditions.
Federal and state agencies also use
other means of controlling pollution
from point sources. These include
(10 a requirement that some very
strong or toxic industrial wastes be
"pretreated" before they are
discharged into public sewer sys-
tems, (2) a special program to
regulate toxic pollutants, and (3) the
issuance of permits for disposal and
use of dredged and fill material in or
near the water.
Livestock feedlots are also con-
sidered point sources. The
Agricultural Pollution Control Divi-
sion administers an onsite inspec-
tion program for the evaluation of
pollution potential from existing and
proposed livestock operations
across the State. To date, over 7600
operations have been inspected, and
14.5 percent of these have been re-
quired to take measures aimed at
pollution abatement. Currently, 840
livestock waste control facilities
have been constructed, and an opera-
tion and maintenance inspection pro-
gram is administered for all waste
control facilities. In addition, 482 Na-
tional Pollutant Discharge Elimina-
tion System (NPDES) permits have
been issued and 1770 applications
have been exempted from permit re-
quirements.
Percentage of Major Sources Meeting Permit
Requirements for Effluents in Nebraska
(1979)
42
Municipal Sources
32
Nonmunicipal Sources
8
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Nonpoint Sources
Agricultural runoff is a major non-
point source of pollutants. Runoff
from farming and grazing land con-
tributes significant amounts of
suspended solids, nutrients, and
bacterial contamination to
Nebraska's water.
Nebraska has prepared a water quali-
ty management plan to assess ex-
isting and possible water quality
problems and is developing a
strategy to deal with these problems.
A key element of this planning has
been the designation of those areas
most in need of practical and effec-
tive measures to curb runoff from
agricultural operations and thereby
minimize soil erosion and water con-
tamination. Known as Best Manage-
ment Practices, these measures in-
clude terraces, drainage tiles,
grassed waterways, schedules for ef-
ficient application of fertilizers and
pesticides, and other conservation
practices.
The water quality management plan
also deals with pollution from other
nonpofnt sources, such as urban
stermwater runoff, septic tank,
failures, roadside erosion, streanv
bank erosion, construction site
runoff, and leaching from landfills.
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Water Resources
Rivers
Stream Quality
The 1983 goal of the Clean Water Aet
is to make our Nation's waters suit-
able for swimming and fishing
wherever that goal is attainable.
Many types of pollutants now affect
these and other uses. Important as-
pects of clean water are described
below.
•Water temperature is vital. Each
fish species has its own range
of water temperature tolerance.
When these tolerances are ex-
ceeded, aquatic life can be
harmed.
• Oxygen dissolved in water is as
important to aquatic life as ox-
ygen in air is to humans. Pol-
lutants such as improperly
treated sewage can deplete ox-
ygen and suffocate fish and
other aquatic life.
•The pH of water, which relates
to the acidity and alkalinity, is
measured on a scale from 0 to
14. The value of 7 is considered
neutral; anything over 7 is alka-
line; anything under 7 is acidic.
Either too high or too low a pH
adversely affects stream life. Ex-
treme values in either direction
can be harmful in themselves or
can increase the toxieity of
other substances in the water.
Changes in pH can affect fish
life by preventing fish eggs from
hatching and by destroying
floating plants and animals that
serve as food for the fish.
•The trophic state of a river refers
to the productivity of the water.
An overabundance of nutrients,
especially nitrogen and phos-
phorus, can create excessive
plant growth, which not only is
unsightly, but also affects
recreational and other uses of
the water.
•The toxieity of water refers to
the concentrations of toxic ma-
terials found in it. Pesticides,
polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), heavy metals, cyanide,
and ammonia are examples of
toxic materials.
• Excessive levels of bacteria
cause streams to be unfit for ac-
tivities involving human contact,
such as water-skiing and swim-
ming. The amount of fecal eol-
iform (bacteria that normally live
in the intestines of humans and
other warm-blooded animals) is
directly related to the amount
and kinds of pollution from sew-
age and animal waste sources
in the water. These bacteria are
used as indicator organisms to
alert the possible presence of
other, more harmful organisms
in the water.
•The total volume of solids refers
to the dissolved and suspended
material in the water. These
solids affect the clarity, hard-
ness, and corrosiveness of the
water.
• Aesthetic value refers to the
general beauty and quality of
the water and takes into con-
sideration the levels of oil and
grease, visual clarity, and taste-
tainting chemicals.
The information depicted in the
stream quality map is based on a
comparison of those physical, chem-
ical, and biological data with recom-
mended Federal Water Quality
Criteria.
10
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Stream Quality
(1972-1978)
Water Quality Problems
o Oxygon
B Bacteria
N Nutrients
s Solids
M Toxic motals
A Aesthetic deterioration
Wficfc no 3IIOA3 Jlc ihOAn fcf .1 Mfctcft of fi»cr.
cilhe? the water quality has &cofi liable lor the palt 7
,t-.:-; Of ;).i!.i AOIC inluldcicnt to dotcrrTMnc licndl
— Meets Federal water quality goals
— Moderate water quality; provisionally
moots Federal water quality goals
— Does not moot Federal water quality goals
— Insufficient data to determine quality
•ffr Water quality improving
•$• Water quality deteriorating
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Water Resources
Lakes
Lakes are important water resources
for recreation, water supply, and
aesthetic appeal. Increases in pollu-
tion from nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorus can impair the value
of Nebraska lakes. Although plant
life is an important part of a lake's
ecosystem, an overabundance of
nutrients will cause excessive
growth of algae and larger plants.
Such overgrowth can choke the lake
of needed oxygen, decrease light
penetration, and be a nuisance to
those using the lake for recreational
or other purposes.
Siltation and turbidity from
agricultural runoff, construction ac-
tivity, and other nonpoint sources
may also affect light penetration and
contribute to premature filling of
lakes by sedimentation.
Publicly owned lakes with these and
other water quality problems may
receive help through the Clean Lakes
Program. This program provides
funds to assist the State of Nebraska
in (1) ranking its public lakes, (2) con-
ducting lake studies, and (3) restor-
ing and protecting these lakes.
The map shows the principal lakes in
Nebraska — those that have a sur-
face area greater than 6400 acres and
some smaller lakes that have signifi-
cant recreational importance, are
easily accessible to urban areas, or
are used extensively by the public.
The table shows the level of impair-
ment to principal lakes resulting from
pollution.
Principal Lakes
12
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Pollution-Related Use Impairment of Principal Nebraska Lakes
(1980)
Lake
Branched Oak Reservoir
Gartor'lako
Hatlan County Reservoir
JohnsorvLake
LakO'McGonaughy
Lewis and Glark Lake
•Pawnee-Reservoir
Surface Area,
acres
1,800
300
13:600
2.060
35,700
33;000
740
Swimming
Fishing
Boating.
Aesthetics
I ]' Low'impalrment (' Moderate impairment
Severe impairment
1 Low-impairment v/iih,periodic moderate impairment
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Water Resources
Fish Kills
Reports indicate that approximately
7000 fish were killed in seven
separate incidents of water pollution
in Nebraska in 1976. The map shows
the location, size, and cause of the
1976 kills.
Because reporting is entirely volun-
tary, the information shown probably
represents only a fraction of the kills
that occurred. Numerous small kills
go unnoticed or unreported, and
some significantly large kills are not
included because information is in-
sufficient to determine if the kills
resulted from pollutants in the water
or from natural causes.
Reported Pollution-Caused Fish Kills
(1976)
O 1-100 Fish
O 100-1.000 Fish
• 1.000-10.000 Fish
14
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Ground water
Water held in underground gravel,
sand, and silt layers (aquifers) is
referred to as groundwater. Surface
water and precipitation trickle
through craeks and pores in the earth
to reach the aquifers. The quality of
groundwater is important because it
is the water source for a large seg-
ment of the State's population. The
contamination of groundwater sup-
pliies by nitrates and toxic
substances is receiving increased at-
tention.
Nitrates are known to cause anemic
conditions in infants. Although
nature provides some of the nitrates
in groundwater (through decaying
organic material), the amount of
nitrates can be increased by modern
agricultural practices requiring irriga-
tion and the use of such fertilizers as
ammonia and liquid nitrogen, this
results from the application of more
fertilizer than the plant roots can use,
which allows the excess to reach the
groundwater. ilihe groundwater in
central Rla'tte Valley, Holt County,
and possibly the 'northwest corner of
the State has high nitrate levels, but
concentrations vary widely.
Uncontrolled tox-ic chemical disposal
sites are another possible source of
groundwater contamination. The Re-
source Conservation and Recovery
Act of 1976 addresses this problem. It
requires such sites to have an im-
permeable barrier to prevent ground-
water contamination from the buried
material.
NaturalH-y. occurring radiation,
selenium, and fluoride released from
underlying rocks have contaminated
groundwater in some areas. Concen-
trations of these contaminants vary
erratically and sometimes reach
levels of concern.
©nee groundwater has become
contaminated, purifying it by natural
means is very slow at best. Therefore,
prevention of groundwater pollution
is critical. To this end, the EPA has in-
stituted the Underground Injection
Program to limit the injection of
wastes underground. States may
assume responsibility for this pro-
gram.
Sources and Pathways of Nitrogen to the Aquifer
Precipitation
Root2oneiiiiy
.-.- • :
• Water Level
Consolidated
Material
15
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Water Resources
Drinking Water
The average adult consumes from
one and a half to five quarts of water
a day. Most people assume the water
they drink is safe, and it usually is.
Sometimes, however, it can be con-
taminated by bacteria, metals, toxic
chemicals, or other pollutants.
At least 4000 documented cases of
waterborne illnesses occur each year
in the United States; the actual
number is probably much greater, as
many go unreported. In addition, the
health effects of long-term, low-level
exposure to contaminated water are
not welt known. Nevertheless, these
also should be of concern to each of
us.
To help fight these health threats,
Congress (in the Safe Drinking Water
Act) directed EPA to establish drink-
ing water standards for all public
water supplies having 15 or more ser-
vice connections or regularly serving
25 or more persons. The pollutants
for which standards have been
established are briefly described
below.
Bacteria — Coliform bacteria from
human and other animal wastes can
be found in improperly treated drink-
ing water. These bacteria may in-
dicate the presence of other harmful
organisms. Waterborne diseases
such as typhoid, cholera, infectious
hepatitis, and dysentery have been
traced to improperly disinfected
drinking water.
Nitrate — Drinking water having
nitrate levels above the national stan-
dard poses an immediate threat to
children under three months of age.
In some infants, excessive levels of
nitrate have been known to react with
the hemoglobin in the blood to pro-
duce an anemic condition commonly
known as "blue baby."
Arsenic — This element occurs
naturally in the environment. It is also
found in insecticides, foods, tobac-
co, shellfish, drinking water, and air.
Consumption of water that con-
tinuously exceeds the national stan-
dard can cause fatigue and loss of
energy. High levels of arsenic intake
can be fatal.
Barium — This element also occurs
naturally in the environment in some
areas, but it is not as widespread as
arsenic. Barium can also enter water
supplies through industrial waste
discharges. Although small doses
are not harmful, consumption of
large quantities is quite dangerous
and can cause high blood pressure,
nerve damage, and even death.
Cadmium — Only minute amounts of
this element are found in natural
waters in the United States; however,
improperly treated waste discharges
from electroplating, photography, in-
secticide, and metallurgy industries
can increase cadmium levels. Al-
though most cadmium enters the
16
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body through cigarette smoking and
food intake, minute quantities have
also been found in water supplies
having galvanized pipes and fixtures.
Chromium — Cigarettes, foods, and
air are the most common sources of
chromium. High levels of chromium
in drinking water may cause skin and
respiratory ailments. Although some
studies suggest that minute amounts
of chromium may be essential to
humans, this theory has not yet been
proven.
Lead — This metal is found in the air,
in food, and in the pigment of some
older paints. The lead in drinking
water comes from plumbing, auto ex-
hausts, and other sources. When
standards are greatly exceeded,
humans may suffer from nervous
system disorders or from brain or
kidney damage.
Mercury — Mercury levels in water
can be raised above normal by in-
dustrial discharges and mercury-
based pesticides. A greater health
risk results from eating fish from
such waters than simply from water-
borne mercury itself, because the ele-
ment becomes concentrated in the
fish tissues. Ingested mercury can
cause liver, intestinal, circulatory,
kidney and neurological ailments —
even death. Mercury poisoning can
be acute, as a result of large doses,
or chronic, as a result of smaller
doses received over an extended
time.
Selenium — This material occurs
naturally in soil and plants and is
found in meat and other foods.
Although selenium is believed to be
essential in the diet, indications are
that excessive amounts may be toxic.
Studies are under way to determine
the amount required for good nutri-
tion and that which may be harmful.
Silver — The need to set a drinking
water standard for silver arises from
its intentional addition as a disinfec-
tant in some water supplies. Overex-
posure to silver causes discoloration
of the skin and mucous membrane.
When absorbed through the skin or
consumed at high levels, silver can
cause kidney, liver, and spleen
damage.
Pesticides — Each year some of the
millions of pounds of pesticides used
on croplands, forests, lawns, and
gardens in the United States drain off
into surface waters or seep into
underground water supplies. If they
get into drinking water and the water
is not properly treated, many of them
may pose health problems. The
pesticides for which drinking water
standards have been established are
Endrin, Lindane, Methoxyehlor, Tox-
aphene, 2,4-D, and 2,4,5-TP Silvex.
Radioactivity — Radiation, which
results from both natural and man-
made processes, is of concern be-
cause it is known to cause cancer
and genetic defects in humans.
Some water supplies within the State
have been found to contain radio-
activity above the concern level.
Radioactivity is discussed further in
the radiation section of this publica-
tion.
Turbidity — Turbidity (cloudiness
resulting from minute suspended par-
ticles) in drinking water interferes
with the aesthetic quality of the
water. Excessive turbidity can also
interfere with disinfection and allow
disease-causing organisms to sur-
vive. National standards have been
set to correct this problem.
17
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Water Resources
Drinking Water (continued)
The figure shows the percentage of
Nebraska communities meeting
drinking water standards for each of
these contaminants.
Percentages out of compliance are
based on total number of violations
divided by the number of community
water supplies.
Compliance of Nebraska Community Water Supplies
With Chemical Drinking Water Standards
(664 Supplies)
Arsenic
Barium
Cadmium
Chromium
Lead
Mercury
Nitrate
Selenium
Silver
Fluoride
All Organic;,
(Including
^^ ^ 2^
/
96%
99%
90
95
100
Percent in Compliance in 1979
•Based on 451 supplies.
** Based on 85 supplies.
18
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Fluoride is a naturally occurring ele-
ment that is commonly added to
water supplies to help prevent tooth
decay. The recommended concentra-
tion is 1 part per million (ppm).
Because too much fluoride can
cause mottling of teeth, concentra-
tions above 2 ppm are a cause for
concern. The map shows Nebraska
communities that have adequate
fluoride in their drinking water.
Communities Receiving Adequately Fluoridated Water
(1980)
O Adjusted Source
g) Natural Source
Total Population of State
Population of Communities With
Adequate Fluoride*
Natural
Adjusted
•AOoqutlo lluoilda mwns wjjutled to optimum
(1,0 ppm) or has above 0.7 ppm ruluinl lluoildo.
1,485,333
49,176 (3%)
666.Z19 (45%)
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Water Resources
Wetland Areas
Wetlands are lowland areas, such as
marshes or swamps, that are
saturated with moisture all or part of
the year. These lands represent
unique ecosystems of major impor-
tance. Nebraska wetlands provide
unique recreational areas, which sup-
port hunting and fishing, are high in
aesthetic value, and contain
irreplaceable plant and animal life
that make them especially valuable
for educational and scientific
studies.
Some other roles and functions of
wetlands are often not appreciated.
For example, these areas can
recharge groundwater supplies and
help to maintain flow during dry
periods. The dense vegetation, acting
as a filter, traps pollutants and helps
to maintain water quality in nearby
streams and lakes. By storing flood-
waters and excess runoff, the wet-
lands can serve as buffer zones and
reduce erosion by dissipating the
energy of floodwaters. They also can
be a source of harvestable timber and
crops.
As shown on the map, the primary
zones in Nebraska where the remain-
ing wetlands are located are (1) the
Sandhills and (2) the prairie potholes
of the Rainwater Basin. The approx-
imately 188,000 acres of wetlands re-
maining in 1972 represent a decrease
of 32 percent from those existing dur-
ing a 1960 survey. These losses
resulted mainly from agricultural
drainage and drawdown by irrigation
systems. A new inventory of the
wetlands in Nebraska is being
prepared and should be completed
by mid-1980.
Wetland Acreage Remaining in Nebraska
c
to
o
250
200
150
100
50
1960
1972
20
-------
Zones in Which Remaining Wetlands Are Located
Omaha
Sandhill Marshes
JPrair
(Pair
(Rainwater Basin)
Other Wetlands
Riverine Wetlands
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Air Quality
Air Pollutants and Standards
The objective of the EPA's air pollu-
tion control program is to meet the re-
quirements of the Federal Clean Air
Act by achieving and maintaining Na-
tional Ambient Air Quality Standards
(NAAQS) by 1983. Toward this goal,
the EPA provides research on health
effects, offers the State both
technical and financial assistance,
and sets standards for specific
sources.
The primary concern is the effect of
air quality on public health. Com-
monly known effects of air pollution
are respiratory aggravation and
cardiovascular stress. Air pollution
also threatens crops, forests, fish,
lake ecosystems, and property
values. These are referred to as
public welfare considerations.
The many sources of air pollution
range from natural sources, such as
dust, to the daily emission of
thousands of tons of pollutants from
industrial smokestacks and
automobile exhausts.
State Implementation Plans
The EPA required that all states have
an approved State Implementation
Plan (SIP) by 1972. The plans were to
detail the state's program for achiev-
ing and maintaining the National Am-
bient Air Quality Standards and the
regulatory mechanisms for accom-
plishing that goal. When monitoring
shows that a particular pollutant ex-
ceeds standards, an inadequacy in
the original SIP is indicated. The area
where this occurs is declared a
nonattainment area. On a relative
basis, Nebraska's air quality is good
(as illustrated by the few areas of
nonattainment on the accompanying
nonattainment maps.)
Revisions to the SIP must be submit-
ted to EPA for the nonattainment
area and pollutant standard being
violated. The revised SIP must in-
dicate additional controls for ex-
isting and new sources and the sup-
porting regulatory mechanisms. As
part of the control program, all ex-
isting point sources must apply
Reasonably Available Control
Technology. All new point sources
must apply the more stringent
Lowest Achievable Emission Rate
control.
Further, in the interim period before
the SIP revision is approved by EPA,
no new point sources can be built
unless emissions from other sources
are correspondingly reduced. After
the SIP is approved, every new point
source must be evaluated to
demonstrate that its proposed emis-
sions will not cause a violation of the
applicable air quality standard.
Standards have been written for six
criteria pollutants: Total suspended
partieulates (TSP), ozone, carbon
monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SOJ,
lead (Pb), and nitrogen oxides (NOx).
Primary standards are written to pro-
tect public health, whereas secon-
dary standards are written to protect
public welfare.
The State determines compliance
with National Ambient Air Quality
Standards (by monitoring air quality)
and acts as the primary enforcement
agent. The Lincoln-Lancaster County
Health Department, the Omaha
Public Safety Department, and the
Omaha-Douglas County Health
Department assist the State in these
tasks.
Population Exposure Where Ambient Air
Health Standards Are Exceeded
in Nebraska
Population
Exposed
390.076
Omaha and
Cass Co.
530,500
Omaha and
Lincoln
Paniculate*
Carbon Monoxide
^
J
w ^\
J
Total State Population
1.485,333
In addition to emissions of the six
criteria pollutants for which ambient
standards have been established, the
EPA also regulates emissions of a
special group of hazardous air
pollutants — asbestos, vinyl
chloride, mercury, benzene,
beryllium, and radioactive particles.
All of these have been shown to
cause cancer in humans. The three
sludge incinerators in Nebraska are
all in compliance with the National
Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants.
22
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Number of Days National Total Suspended
Participate Standards Were
Exceeded in Nebraska in 1978*
Lincoln
Omaha
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Number of Days Carbon Monoxide Standards
Were Exceeded in Nebraska in 1978 *
Lincoln
Omaha
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
I | Health standard exceeded
[ I Alert level exceeded
"Note: Because consideration must be given to natural
meteorological events, exceeding Ambient Air
Quality Standards for one day during a single
year does not constitute a violation; the
standard must be exceeded at least two days
in a single year to be considered a violation.
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Air Quality
Air Pollutants and Standards (continued)
Nonattainment Areas for
Total Suspended Particulates (TSP)
(1980)
Nonattainment Areas for
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
(1980)
Par! ol county violates primary (public health) standards.
Entire county violates primary standard.
Total Suspended
Particulates (TSP)
Omaha and Cass County are nonat-
tainment areas for total suspended
particulates.
The term TSP refers to all the solid
material floating in the air, such as
dust, soot, and fly ash. Agricultural
activities, construction sites, un-
paved roads, grain handling,
automobile exhausts, and coal com-
bustion are all sources of TSP. All
TSP affects the respiratory system,
24
but the smallest particles are the
most harmful. In addition, toxic
materials such as pesticides and
lead are sometimes carried by these
suspended particles.
Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Lincoln and Omaha are nonattain-
ment areas for carbon monoxide.
Carbon monoxide, a toxic byproduct
of incomplete combustion (auto-
mobile exhausts are the major
source), reduces the amount of ox-
ygen available to lung tissues, im-
pairs visual perception, decreases
alertness, and in high concen-
trations, can be fatal.
-------
The entire State of Nebraska meets
the national standards for the other
criteria pollutants, with the exception
of Omaha, which exceeds the na-
tional standard for lead emissions.
The other criteria pollutants are
briefly described below.
Lead
The metal lead (Pb) reaches the air
primarily through the use of leaded
gasoline. Other sources include lead
and zinc mining and processing
sites, lead recovery plants, battery
manufacturing facilities, and certain
industrial ehemieal processing fac-
tories. Lead is particularly harmful to
the soft tissues of the body, the
reproductive system, and the nervous
system. It also can cause anemia and
irreversible brain damage.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide (SO,) results from the
combustion of sulfur-containing coal
and oil, the smelting of metal ores,
the refining of oil, and other in-
dustrial processes. This compound
reacts readily with other atmospheric
pollutants to form a group of
substances called sulfates, which
aggravate heart disease and such
respiratory ailments as bronchitis,
emphysema, and asthma. Sulfur
dioxide also reacts with moisture to
produce acid rain, a problem affec-
ting the delicate ecosystems of lakes
and forests.
Nitrogen Oxides
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced
by fuel combustion and come from
both stationary and mobile sources.
Coal- and oil-fired furnaces and
automobiles are major sources.
These compounds react with hydro-
carbons in the presence of sunlight
and produce ozone. They also cause
acid rain. Nitrogen dioxide (NO,), a
form of NOx, can affect lung tissue,
reduce resistance to disease, con-
tribute to bronchitis and pneumonia,
and aggravate chronic lung
disorders.
Ozone
Ozone is a major component of
photochemical smog formed by a
series of chemical reactions that oc-
cur when hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides are exposed to sunlight.
Hydrocarbons include the fumes
from any of numerous oil-derived
liquids (for example, gasoline, kero-
sene, diesel fuels, lacquers, and thin-
ners). The most common sources of
airborne hydrocarbons are auto-
mobiles, refineries, fuel transfer
facilities, painting operations, fuel
combustion in stationary sources,
and nature itself. Ozone, which is a
severe irritant to mucous mem-
branes, aggravates respiratory dis-
orders, reduces lung function, and in-
creases susceptibility to bacterial in-
fection.
25
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Air Quality
Air Pollutants and Standards (continued)
Emissions
No SIP revisions are required in areas
where monitoring indicates com-
pliance with NAAQS. Existing
sources, however, must meet ap-
plicable State and local regulations,
and new sources may also be subject
to more stringent regulations. Some
new source categories must meet
New Source Performance Standards.
Major new sources must meet Pre-
vention of Significant Deterioration
regulations.
Of the 419 existing major point
sources in Nebraska, 415 sources are
in compliance with applicable emis-
sion regulations.
Ranges in color keys
indicate 1000's tons/yr.
Participate Emissions
D«11 D 11-20 D 21-50
26
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SOj Emissions
D«10 O 10-50 D 51-100 S»100
Hydrocarbon Emissions
Q«10 D 10-20 D 21-50 S»50
D«20
CO Emissions
20-75 D 76-140 13 »140
D<5
NO, Emissions
D 5-40 D 41-60
D >60
27
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Solid Waste
Disposal and Recovery
Besides the well-known household
garbage, solid waste includes sueh
material as waste from agricultural,
industrial, and mining activities;
sludges from water and air pollution
control facilities; demolition
material; and abandoned cars. Na-
tional statistics show that 87 percent
of the solid waste in the United
States is produced by agricultural
and mining activities, 9 percent by in-
dustrial activities, and 4 percent by
residential and commercial ac-
tivities. The amount of solid waste
constantly increases, and its com-
position changes with the Nation's
population growth and technological
advancement.
Increases in solid waste result in the
littering of city streets, country road-
sides, and any available open
spaces. Such littering diminishes our
enjoyment of the environment and
creates an expensive cleanup prob-
lem.
The most fundamental ways to
lessen environmental damage from
solid waste are (1)to generate less
waste or (2) to recover and reuse
valuable resources from those
wastes. Both approaches would not
only reduce degradation, but save
energy and materials as well.
Generation of solid waste by
municipalities is high — about 1300
pounds per person per year; the rate
of resource recovery is low — about 7
percent. The rising cost of land
disposal, however, is likely to make
resource recovery and conservation
increasingly more attractive.
Passage of the Resource Conserva-
tion and Recovery Act (RCRA) in 1976
accelerated solid waste management
programs at all levels of government.
Uncontrolled open dumps and open
burning of solid waste will soon be a
thing of the past. Sanitary landfills
are the most common replacement
for open dumps in solid waste
management programs. The design
of these landfills is such that solid
waste can be buried in a manner effi-
cient enough to protect both ground-
water and surface water. The map in-
dicates the approved sanitary land-
fills in Nebraska.
Proper operation of the landfills is
essential to adequate control of the
waste placed there. Also, every
Nebraska citizen must recognize his
or her role in environmental protec-
tion by assuring that any household
waste, dead animals, pesticide con-
tainers, and the like are disposed of
properly.
28
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Licensed Solid Waste Disposal Facilities
(1980)
O Refuse/garbage
O Demolition
O Industrial
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Hazardous Materials
Hazardous Waste
The use of large quantities of
chemicals has become a way of life
in our society. The list of more than
4,000,000 recognized chemical com-
pounds grows at the rate of 6,000 per
week.
Many once believed thai the Midwest
would never have to worry about
health hazards associated with im-
proper handling of chemicals such as
those experienced in the East — for
example, the nationally publicized
Love Canal incident in New York. The
problem was brought close to home
last year, however, when cattle on a
Kansas farm became contaminated
with PCBs because waste oil con-
taining these hazardous chemicals
was used in animal baekrubbers. The
waste oil (which came from electrical
transformers) had been purchased
from a salvage yard in 1972, before
the effects of PCBs were widely
known. Fifty-four head of cattle died,
and before the cause of death was
determined, hides, tallow, and meat
for dog food had been shipped to
several states and had to be traced
and properly disposed of. Another
112 head had to be killed and buried
in an approved hazardous waste
disposal site. Portions of the soil in
the feedlot were also contaminated
and had to be removed and disposed
of properly.
In the 40 years preceding the
passage of the Resource Conserva-
tion and Recovery Act (RCRA) in
1976, the disposal of hazardous
wastes was largely unregulated. The
act mandated a comprehensive
"cradle to grave" hazardous waste
management program. Such proper
environmental control will cost more,
but eliminate the astronomical costs
of correcting poor disposal practices.
For example, a 1979 EPA study
reported that cleaning up abandoned
and improperly operated hazardous
waste sites could cost as much as
$44 billion, of which only a portion
would likely be paid by the owners of
the sites.
The RCRA plan of attack consists of
two phases. The first provides a
system for following hazardous
waste from its point of origin to its
final disposal. This system includes:
•Identifying hazardous waste.
•Setting standards for producers
and shippers of hazardous
waste.
• Specifying performance, design,
and operating requirements for
facilities that treat, store, or
dispose of hazardous waste.
• Providing a system for issuing
permits to such facilities.
• Furnishing guidelines that
outline conditions under which
state governments can be
authorized to carry out their own
programs for hazardous waste
management.
The second phase of the program en-
tails a comprehensive effort to iden-
tify dangerous abandoned or uncon-
trolled dump sites. If danger to
human health and the environment is
deemed "imminent and substantial,"
the owner can be forced to clean up
the site. Unfortunately, many of the
owners cannot be found or are not
financially able to correct the prob-
lem.
30
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Hazardous Spills
Most environmental problems do not
require immediate action, but the ac-
cidental release of oil or some haz-
ardous material can constitute an
emergency condition. Such incidents
necessitate immediate action to pro-
tect public health and to minimize
damage to natural resources.
In the event of such emergencies, a
response team must be prepared to
travel to the area, identify the nature
and source of the substance spilled,
and take direct action to contain the
spill. Cleanup of the spilled material
can then begin, and if necessary, ap-
propriate legal action can be taken.
This type of response is complex and
expensive. The workers must wear
protective equipment and take the
necessary precautionary measures
until such time as the nature of the
chemical involved has been deter-
mined. Few safe sites are readily
available for disposal of hazardous
materials, and such materials often
must be transported a great distance
for proper long-term disposal.
The charts show the number of spills
by type of material and environment
affected for the two-year period from
October 1977 to September 1979.
Percent of Total Number of Spills by Type* in Nebraska
1% Acid
1% Pesticide
4%
Miscellaneous
Percent of Total Petroleum Spills
by Environment Affected*
Percent of Total Nonpetroleum Spills
by Environment Affected *
•Based on EPA's Surveillance and Analysis Division
Spill Investigation Reports (October 1977-79).
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Pesticides
Use and Misuse
The use of insecticides and her-
bicides is common and beneficial on
farms, in the home and garden, and in
commercial and institutional estab-
lishments. Besides the increased
crop production made possible by
the extensive agricultural use of pes-
ticides, another benefit derived from
the use of pesticides is the control of
such pests as rodents, flies, roaches,
and other insects.
Because of the manner in which they
provide these benefits, pesticides
must be considered poisons, and as
such, they can be dangerous not only
to the people who apply them, but
also to those who may be acciden-
tally exposed. Harm can result from
inhaling the pesticide or from absorb-
ing it through the skin. Pesticides
can also contaminate food crops and
harm the people who consume them.
Many pesticides Kill plants, birds,
animals, and such beneficial insects
as honeybees, along with the in-
tended pests. They can also become
concentrated in fish and wildlife and
pose a threat to those who eat them.
For these reasons, the manufacture,
sale, and use of these compounds
are regulated by the government.
More than 1,400 chemicals are in-
cluded in the approximately 40,000
pesticide products registered with
the EPA. As of 1980, 49 of these
chemicals {involving about 1,700
products) have been restricted to cer-
tain uses, and the use of 44
pesticides has been limited,
suspended, or banned. Persons who
wish to apply restricted-use products
32
must become certified as applicators
and, in some cases, are required to
attend training courses prior to cer-
tification. In Nebraska, the EPA has
certified 44,666 private and 5,457
commercial applicators.
The charts show the uses and types
of pesticides in Nebraska, based on a
1974 survey.
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Pesticide Usage in Nebraska
(1974)
Uses
05% Industry
0.8% Government
Types
0.2% Nematocides
0.8% Fungicides
61% Herbicides
Total 1974 Pesticide Usage = 28,612,000 pounds
33
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Radiation
Environmental Exposure
Radiation results from the breakup of
an atomic nucleus. Two types are
emitted during the breakup: ionizing
radiation (a stream of nuclear
fragments) and nonionizing radiation
(a high-energy burst of X rays). When
radiation passes through living cells,
it disturbs essential chemical mole-
cules. Such disturbance can result in
death of the cell, cancer, or a genetic
defect. Scientists are currently un-
sure whether or not there is a safe
level of radiation — one at which
these effects are not produced.
Some radiation in the environment is
due to natural causes; some results
from human activities. Natural
radioactivity (known as cosmic rays)
continuously bombards Earth from
space, and the planet itself contains
radioactive uranium, thorium, and
potassium. Because this natural
radioactivity is in the air we breathe,
the water we drink, and the foods we
eat, we all have some amount of
radioactivity within us.
Man adds to radiation exposure in
various ways: dental and medical X
rays, the production of fallout
through atmospheric tests of nuclear
weapons, the combustion of coal
(which contains several radioactive
elements), and the creation of
radioactive materials during nuclear
energy production.
34
Radiation Exposure From Environmental Sources
-------
Combined Terrestrial and Cosmic Radiation Exposure by State
D 40-50 Millirems' D 61-70 Millirems
Per Year
D 51-60 Millirems
Per Year
Per Year
71-80 Millirems
Per Year
•Note: A millirem is one-thousandth of a rem. which is
a unit ot radiation exposure to the human body.
For example, a chest Xray equals about SO miliirems
per hour, a dental Xray about 20 miliirems per hour.
and viewing color television about 2 miliirems per hour
The lethal dosage is about 500.000 miliirems.
I 81-90 Millirems
Per Year
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Noise
Effects and Controls
Everyone is exposed to noise of vary-
ing intensities and from many dif-
ferent sources every day. Constant
exposure to loud noise can be harm-
ful.
Noise-induced hearing loss is par-
ticularly recognized in employees of
highly mechanized industries and
other occupations involving ex-
posure to loud noise. Excessive
levels of noise appear to cause
stress, which may in turn increase
susceptibility to disease and infec-
tion, notably heart disease and
ulcers. An estimated 14.7 million
workers are exposed to an 8-hour
average sound level of 75 decibels, at
which there is risk of hearing
damage.
The EPA is in the process of estab-
lishing standards that require the
reduction of noise in new production
of portable air compressors, medium-
and heavy-duty trucks, earth-moving
machinery, buses, truck-mounted
solid waste compactors, motor-
cycles, jack-hammers, and lawn-
mowers. As older equipment is
replaced with products conforming
with the standards, a gradual reduc-
tion in environmental noise levels
will occur. Other EPA activity centers
around the development of regula-
tions requiring equipment to be
labeled so that prospective buyers
are aware of the level of noise the
product emits.
36
The intensity of a sound is measured
on the decibel (dB) scale, ranging
from 0 to 140. An increase of 10 on
this scale represents a tenfold in-
crease in intensity. The doubling of
intensity of a 70-dB sound, for in-
stance, results in an exposure to 73
dB. Most noise ordinances are not
based on actual measurements, but
consider sound a problem only when
it becomes a "nuisance."
Nebraska Population Protected
by Enforceable Noise Ordinances
Total State Population:
1,463,493
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Typical Exposure Levels
(in decibels)
Jet Takeoff
(100 m away)
Street
Traffic
Woods
-140
130-
110
90-
75
70
50-
30 —
10 —
-100
-80
Live Concert
Possibility of noise-induced
hearing damage
(after 8-hour exposure)
-60
-40
— 20
Conversation
_ Threshold
' of Hearing
The measure of energy per area
is presented in decibels. An
increase from 20 to 30 or 90 to
100 represents a tenfold increase
in energy.
37
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The EPA Mission
The Environmental Protection Agen-
cy serves as the advocate for a live-
able environment in a number of
ways. First and foremost, it is a
regulatory agency responsible for
setting and enforcing standards. The
EPA is currently engaged in a
massive effort to restore America's
waters, to reduce air pollution, and to
find a comprehensive approach to
other environmental problems asso-
ciated with pesticides use, radiation,
solid and hazardous waste disposal,
mechanically generated noise, and
toxic substances. As a research
body, the EPA monitors and analyzes
the environment and conducts scien-
tific studies. The agency furnishes
technical and scientific information
to the public, provides training to
develop the environmental skills that
the Nation needs, and offers
technical and financial assistance
for environmental protection efforts
at all levels of government.
Nebraska Environmental
Agencies
The Nebraska Department of En-
vironmental Control is responsible
for air quality, water quality, and the
disposal of solid and hazardous
wastes. The Department of Health is
responsible for the water supply and
radiation programs. The Department
of Agriculture administers the
pesticide registration program. (The
EPA is responsible for certification of
pesticide applicators and enforce-
ment of applicable standards.)
38
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For Further Information
If you would like additional information about specific en-
vironmental programs in which EPA is involved, please con-
tact EPA Region VII, Public Affairs Office, 324 E. 11th St.,
Kansas City, M© 64106, or call (800) 821-3714. This office
maintains a supply of EPA publications that relate to the
various programs mentioned in this document, operates an
informal speaker's bureau, and coordinates distribution of
environmental films (all free of charge to the public). If you
encounter an environmental problem, report it first to your
local and then to your state pollution control agency.
EPA Region VII program numbers:
Action Line (800) 821-3714
Air Pollution Programs (816) 374-3791
Hazardous Wastes Program (816) 374-3307
Oil and Chemical Spills
Region VII Emergency Response Center .. .(816) 374-3778
National Emergency Response Genter (800) 424-8802
Pesticides Program (816) 374-3036
Pesticides Poisoning Emergency (800) 424-9300
Radiation Program (816) 374-6621
Resource Recovery Program (816) 374-6532
Solid Wastes Program (816) 374-6532
Toxic Substances Program (816) 374-3036
Wastewater Treatment (816) 374-2725
Water Supply (816)374-5429
Wetlands (816) 374-2921
In addition to the U.S. EPA, several State agencies assist
residents with their environmental questions and problems.
In Nebraska, these agencies are:
Department of Environmental Control (402) 471-2186
Air Pollution Control
Solid and (Hazardous Waste Management
Water Pollution Control
Water Quality Planning
Oil and Chemical Spills
Department of Health
Radiation
Water Supply
Department of Agriculture
Pesticides
(402)471-2133
(402)471-2341
39
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