Alaska
United States Region 10 Idaho
Environmental Protection 1200 Sixth Avenue Oregon
Agency SeattleWA98101 Washington
August 2000
&EPA EPA Intern Program (EIP)
Class of 1998
November 1-6,1999
Field Studies Unit
Trip Report August 2000
FIELD STUDY LOCATION:
Southern Florida
SPECIFIC STUDY AREAS:
Miami Superfund and Brownfields Sites
Everglades, National Marine Sanctuary
National Wildlife Refuge
Coral Reef Habitat
Florida Keys Political Landscape
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Trip Report Title Page B-l
Trip Report Abstract : B-l
Attendees and Absentees B-2
Mission, Goals and Location B-2
Foreword and Acknowledgements B-2, B-3
Chapter 1: Superfund and Brownfields
Abstract 1-1
Group Introduction and Objectives 1-1
By Lilibeth Serrano-Velez
Introduction to Brownfields Program 1-2
By Wendy Hopkins
Discussion Questions 1-3
Superfund Case Study and Process 1-3
By Benjamin Levy
Discussion Questions 1-5
Superfund Site: PRP Search and
Environmental Justice Issues 1-5
By Lilibeth Serrano-Velez
Introduction of Sites 1-6
By Damon Brown
Discussion Questions 1-6
Field Trip to visit Superfund
and Brownfields Sites 1-7
By Kerianne Gardner
Discussion Questions 1-7
End of Day Debrief 1-8
Group 1 Handout 1-8
Chapter 2: Everglades National Park
Abstract 2-1
Introduction 2-2
Legislative Overview 2-2
By Dawn Tesorero
Hydrology 101 2-3
By Jen Fisher and Gabe Gruta
Eastward Ho: Development
and its Effects 2-6
By Karen L. Martin, R.S.
Field Trip to Everglades National Park 2-6
By Kerianne Gardner
Discussion Questions 2-8
Chapter 3: National Marine Sanctuar
and Wildlife Refuge System
Abstract 3-1
Keywords 3-2
The National Marine Sanctuary 3-2
By Eial Dujovny
Sustainable Development and
the National Marine Sanctuary 3-3
By Eileen Henniger
The National Wildlife Refuge System 3-5
By Kate Rickett
Field Trips to National Marine Sanctuary
Office and to Big Pine Wildlife Refuge 3-6
By Kerianne Gardner
Conclusion 3-6
Index of National Marine
Sanctuary Handouts 3-7
Distributed by Eial Dujovny
Table of Contents
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
Chapter 4: Coral Reefs and Coastal
Zone Management
Abstract 4-1
Defining a Coral Reef Ecosystem
& Geography (What & Where) 4-2
By Juan D. Paez
Formative Processes, Ecology, and Habitat
of Coral Reefs 4-5
By Brandon Carter
Coral Reefs: Anthropogenic Disturbance
and Threats 4-7
By Erika Clark
Coral Reef Protection & Management 4-9
By Sonia Altieri
Potential Future Risks to Coral Reefs:
Global Warming, Population Pressures,
International Agreements 4-13
By David Erickson
National Marine Sanctuary
Field Trip Description 4-15
By Kerianne Gardner
Evening Debrief Session 4-16
Conclusion 4-16
Chapter 5: Community Meeting:
Local Stakeholders Discuss
Environmental and Economic
Development Issues
Abstract
Introduction
Sewerage Woes in the Florida Keys:
A Technical Glance At The
Environmental Issues Faced By
The Florida Keys
By Carlton Eley and Juan Parra
Historical Account of the Florida Keys.
By Kara McKoy-Belle
Protected Habitat in and Around the
Florida Keys and Transition to
Public Meeting Segment
By Margaret Schneider
Guidelines for Public Meetings
By Marshelle Howard
Conclusion
.5-1
,5-2
.5-2
.5-6
.5-7
.5-8
.5-9
Chapter 6: Facilitated Evaluation Exercise
for EPA Intern Field Studies Unit
Reason for Exercise 6-2
Outcome 6-2
Suggestions 6-4
Chapter?: Conclusion
Table of Contents
A-2
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
EPA Intern
Program (EIP)
Class of 1998
November 1-6,1999
Field Studies Unit
TRIP REPORT AUGUST 2000
KERIANNE M.GARDNER, EDITOR
SUPPORTING EDITORS:
Wendy L. Chavez
John Reyna
Nathan Spees
FIELD STUDY LOCATION:
Southern Florida
SPECIFIC STUDY AREAS:
Miami Superfund and Brovvnfields Sites
Everglades, National Marine Sanctuary
National Wildlife Refuge
Coral Reef Habitat
Florida Keys Political Landscape
ABSTRACT:
During this week long educational field studies unit, EPA
Intern Program Class of 1998 witnessed firsthand the
mechanics of environmental protection from state, local,
industry, public and other federal agency perspectives.
Topical groups were formed around environmental issues
and program areas. Each Intern group presented on a
topic appropriate to the daily field visits. Day 1 included
a presentation on the Superfund process, Brownfields and
a visit to Munisport. an inactive landfill, and to Wynwood.
a potential Brownfields site. Day 2 included a presentation
on the history and relevance of the Everglades, a guided
tour of the Anhinga Loop trail and a visit to research
facilities. Day 3 included a presentation on the National
Marine Sanctuary System. National Wildlife Refuge and
sustainable practices, followed by a field trip to the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary offices in Marathon for
a slide presentation and an afternoon visit to the Big Pine
Wildlife Refuge. Day 4 involved a morning presentation
on coral reef ecology and an afternoon snorkeling
excursion to see the reef firsthand. On the eve of day 4.
John Clark, a local and world renowned coral reef expert
lectured on the impacts to coral reef. Day 5 began with a
presentation on the means and methods of hosting a public
meeting and was followed by a mock community meeting
involving local politician, media and environmental
advocate groups.
B-1
Introduction
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
EPA INTERN PROGRAM CLASS OF 1998
FIELD STUDIES UNIT
NOVEMBER 1-6,1999
SOUTH FLORIDA, USA
ATTENDEES:
Sonia Altieri
Brandon Carter
Eial Dujovny
David Erickson
Kerianne Gardner
Eileen Henniger
Marshelle Howard
Karen L Martin
Juan Paez
Katherine Rickett
Lilibeth Serrano-Velez
ABSENTEES:
Wendy L. Chavez
Michael Regan
Nathan Spees
MISSION
Damon Brown
Erika Clark
Carlton Eley
Jen Fisher
Gabe Gruta
Wendy Hopkins
Benjamin Levy
Kara McKoy-Belle
Juan Parra
Margaret Schneider
Dawn Tesorero
Simon Nigel
John Reyna
The Class of 1998 convened in Southern Florida
to view firsthand many of the complex
environmental issues that EPA is striving to
improve. Often, office politics and day-to-day rote
paperwork may obscure the ultimate goal of the
EPA, which is to protect human health and the
environment. The intent of this trip is to reaffirm
the importance of our work and to refocus the group
on the environmental issues which drive the work
of the agency.
GOALS
To view a number of pertinent environmental
quality issues from various perspectives, including
those of EPA, other federal agencies, state and local
governments, industry and private interest groups.
To provide opportunity for the Intern class to
coalesce and establish working relationships that
will ultimately enhance the future efficiency of the
agency.
WHY FLORIDA
South Florida was used as a case study to explore
how complex technical, economic, social and
political inter-relationships affect the work of the
Agency. Many environmental issues are amplified
in South Florida due to its unique geographical and
political climate. Water quality issues, Superfund,
urbanization, agricultural impacts and marine
effects may be observed in relatively close
proximity to one another. Due to these, amplified
environmental issues, it is an ideal environment in
which to view tangible evidence of water quality
impairments and related issues.
FOREWORD
By Jamie Langlie, Manager, EPA Intern
Program
The EPA Intern Program (EIP) is an entry-level,
permanent, full-time employment and career
development program at the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency. The EIP, an important
component of the Agency's Workforce
Development Strategy, is designed to recruit and
nurture the next generation of EPA leaders. During
the two-year, centrally-funded Program, Interns
have an opportunity to participate in a number of
developmental experiences, including orientation
and end-of-program conferences, several rotations
and a Field Studies Unit. The purpose of the Field
Studies is to introduce Interns to the complex
scientific, ecosystem and stakeholder issues that
affect the work of the Agency. In November of
1999, the EIP held its first Field Studies Unit in
South Florida.
This "Trip Report" represents the preparatory
research, on-site experiences and hard work of the
EPA Intern Program Class of 1998. The South
Florida Field Studies Unit provided excellent
opportunities for Interns to learn about the work
of the Agency, together with interpersonal skills
and group dynamics. In preparation for the trip,
individuals were assigned to one of five teams,
based on expressed topic preferences and
geographic diversity. These teams were tasked
with doing background research to "set the stage"
for each day's activities. As a result, the format of
the "Trip Report" is more akin to symposia
proceedings than to a body of annotated research
written for the purpose of a report. The Report's
contents are based on rough outlines and research
Introduction
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
notes submitted by the individuals who presented,
as well as on notes recorded during the trip by
Kerianne Gardner, the Trip Recorder and Primary
Editor to whom everyone associated with the
EIP owes a huge debt of gratitude. Each of the
following chapters chronicles one daily
presentation, together with the day's educational
activities, during week of November 1-5,1999.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A special thank you to the Staff of the EPA Institute
for Individual and Organizational Excellence: EIP
Manager Jamie Langlie for developing the overall
guidance for the Field Studies Unit, coordinating
with the Interns and providing input to this Report;
Gwen Coleman, Employee Development
Specialist, for handling the travel logistics; Kerry
Weiss, EPA Institute Director, for his support of
the EIP; and Kirk Maconaughey for orchestrating
speakers and arrangements in Florida.
Commendations to each Intern group for its
instrumental role in researching and securing
presenters and site visits related to their respective
topics. I would like to extend a heartfelt "thank
you" to the many group members who provided
feedback as I wrote each respective chapter and to
the persevering few who were willing to review
the final draft of this report in its entirety. Without
these invaluable insights, this report could not have
been considered complete.
The editing of this report was an arduous attempt
to best represent the many talents and contributions
of the 1998 Interns. Though some sections of this
report were recreated from my notes, I made a
diligent effort to maintain the style and integrity
of the written materials submitted by the respective
groups, whenever possible.
Sincerely,
Kerianne M. Gardner
B-3
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
1
Superfund and
Brownfields
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the main concepts and terminology
of the Superfund and Brownfield Programs. Main issues.
challenges and accomplishments at the Wingate,
Wynwood and Munisport sites located in and around
Miami. Florida are also described.
GROUP I:
Lilibeth Serrano-Velez
Damon Brown
Wendy Hopkins
Benjamin Levy
November I. 1999
GROUP INTRODUCTION
AND OBJECTIVES
By Lilibeth Serrano-Velez
As a group, we have been in contact with local,
state, and federal entities who work with
Brownfields issues in the Miami area. We
arranged presentations and field visits as a result
of those communications. Wendy Hopkins will
give an overview of the Brownfields Program
and a description of the Wynwood site.
Benjamin Levy will describe the Superfund
process. Lilibeth Serrano-Velez will review the
means of identifying Potential Responsible
Parties (PRPs) and environmental justice issues.
Damon Brown will describe the sites we will
tour, including a site visit that was canceled due
to the potential for controversy to arise as result
of our visit.
Following are the objectives our group would
like to meet via the field study unit:
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
1. Introduce the main concepts and terminology of
the Superfund/Brownfields Program.
2. Introduce the main issues, challenges and
accomplishments of the sites we plan to visit.
3. Generate focus questions to ask during our
conversations with the guides and locals at the
sites we plan to visit.
INTRODUCTION TO BROWNFIELDS
PROGRAM
By Wendy Hopkins
Brownfields Program Fact Sheet is attached at
end of this chapter.
Background
The EPA defines Brownfields as "abandoned,
idled, or under-used industrial and commercial
facilities where expansion or redevelopment is
complicated by real or perceived environmental
contamination." Estimates show there may be as
many as 450,000 Brownfield sites across the
country. Like many urban areas, the
Metropolitan Miami area has many potential
Brownfield sites. On the EIP Field Studies trip,
our first site visit is to the Wynwood Brownfield
Site.
Brownfields is also a program through which
EPA works with state, tribal and local
governments to redevelop land that has been, or
is perceived to have been, exposed to low level
contamination. Grants are the primary
mechanism through which EPA provides
support. Restoration, cleanup, beautification and
job training are components of the Brownfields
program.
What is a Brownfield?
A Brownfield is a site, or portion thereof, that
has actual or perceived contamination and an
active potential for redevelopment or reuse (EPA
Brownfield Quick Reference Fact Sheet).
Where are Brownfields located?
Usually, Brownfields are located in urban core
areas which are often low income and/or
minority areas.
What is EPA's intended goal for the
Brownfields Program?
Protect/ restore human heath and environment
while promoting reuse of areas with low grade
contamination.
Brownfields Program and the Wynwood
Site
(Video: Miami Success Brownfield
Redevelopment)
The Wynwood Brownfield Site sits in a desirable
location between downtown Miami and Miami
Beach. The site once housed a laundry and dry
cleaning facility. The Wynwood area is
economically depressed, the unemployment rate
is high and opportunities for new development
are rare. The possibility of low level
contamination on the Wynwood site was a
disincentive for development. Due to the low
level contamination and the location of the site,
Wynwood seemed an ideal candidate for a
Brownfield grant.
The City of Miami formed a Brownfield work
group including the executive director of a
Community Development Center, a long-time
realtor for the Wynwood area, the Administrator
for the Wynwood Neighborhood Enhancement
Team, and the Pilot Manager, a municipal
*> employee at the time of the Pilot application.
The Wynwood Workgroup has sole
responsibility for the project. The developer of
the site plans to open a ready-mix cement plant
on the west side of the land parcel. This
development would clean up the area and create
30 new jobs.
The process of developing the Wynwood site has
been slow. Progress has been delayed by
confusion over processes. While trash littering
the area has been removed, the construction on
the development has yet to begin.
Conclusion
It is difficult to depict a typical case study of the
Brownfield program. Each site has unique
contamination issues and a unique set of
community interests. However, the Wynwood
site provides a good example of the challenges to
implementing the Brownfield program
Chapter One
1-2
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Discussion Questions
What type of contaminant is present at this
site? Asbestos, VOCs, UST, Petroleum
products.
Is this an EPA lead site? Yes
Did these sites not score high enough to be a
Superfund (SF) site, and thus default to being
classified as a Brownfield? The Brownfield
project is a separate process from the
Superfund program. The contamination at the
Wynwood site does not meet the criteria to
be classified as a SF site, however, the
contamination (or perception of
contamination) allows the Wynwood site to
be classified as a Brownfield. Often when a
site is admitted into the Brownfields program,
financial assistance may be available for
redevelopment projects. County and City
government is very interested in using this
money to redevelop the property.
Have all the Potential Responsible Parties
(PRPs) been accounted for? No EPA
usually identifies the primary PRPs, and then
under the Joint & Several Act, they may charge
one or two PRP with the triplicate bill. Those
PRPs may then attempt to recover costs from
the other PRPs. This site has involved a
number of PRPs over a long period, thus it
may be difficult to identify the primary PRPs.
To complicate matters, the owner of the
Wynwood property is in bankruptcy and has
been difficult to locate.
SUPERFUND CASE STUDY AND
PROCESS
By Benjamin Levy
Handout #1: Superfund Process on side one, Site
Assessment Process on side two.
Handout #2: Enforcement Process
Case Study: Love Canal, New York, U.S.A.
Love Canal was a canal excavated by Mr.
William T. Love in the 1890's for a proposed
hydroelectric power plant that never was built.
From 1942-1952 the canal was used by Hooker
Chemical and Plastics (now Occidental
Chemical Corporation) for disposal of over
21,000 tons of various chemical wastes. The
landfill was covered and deeded to the Niagara
Falls Board of Education in 1953. An
elementary school and houses were built near the
landfill. Reports of odors and residues began in
the 1960's and got subsequently worse in the
1970's as the water table rose. There were
reports of children getting chemical burns from
playing in the dirt in their backyards, as well as
many illnesses linked to the site. Studies done in
the late 1970's and early 1980's indicated that
the chemicals had migrated into surrounding
areas, including creeks, streams, the Niagara
River and the municipal sewage system.
This site commanded national attention and
actions were taken to remediate the site. With
the assistance of the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA), 950 homes had
to be evacuated. The Love Canal Area
Revitalization Agency (LCARA) is responsible
for maintaining, rehabilitating and selling
property in the Emergency Declaration Area
(EDA) established by then-President Carter.
In addition to the initial actions taken in the late
1970's to evacuate residents and begin a
preliminary cleanup, there were six long term
remedies. 1) landfill containment and leachate
collection, treatment and disposal;; 2) excavation
and interim storage of sewer and creek sediments
3) final treatment-disposal of sewer and creek
sediments and other love canal wastes; 4)
remediation of the 93rd Street School soils; 5)
EDA home maintenance and technical assistance
to LCARA and 6) buyout of homes and other
properties through LCARA.
It was the Love Canal incident that prompted
Congress to enact and establish the
Superfund(SF) legislation, known as the
Comprehensive Response Compensation and
Liability Act of 1980 (CERCLA). Sites may
become SF sites as result of oil spills, train
wrecks and careless handling of materials. SF
sites may be discovered through the observation
of a unusual high number of dead animals, the
presence of strange odors, or an unusual amount
or type of illness occurring in a given area.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
Where does Superfund's authority come
from?
CERCLA (Comprehensive Response
Compensation and Liability Act) was established
in 1980 to give specific responsibility to EPA to
respond to abandoned hazardous waste sites.
What is the Superfund(SF) Process?
SITE DISCOVERS The SF process begins with the
discovery of a site that is suspected to have been
contaminated by hazardous substances. Site
discovery may happen as a result of a tip phoned
in by a concerned citizen or the site may be
discovered through testing done when the site is
in the process of being sold.
PRELIMINARY ASSESSMENT AND SITE
INSPECTION: The next step in the SF process
is to inspect the site and get an idea of the type
of risks that may be associated with the site.
This step is called Preliminary Assessment (PA)
and Site Inspection (SI). As this is a PA,
physical samples are not collected at this time.
Instead, the surrounding communities may be
interviewed or a public meeting might be
conducted to determine the extent of exposure
risk and to collect any observations the public
may have made in regards to the site. If the risk
of hazzard is determined to be very high, an
immediate removal action may be performed.
REMOVAL ACTION involves physically relocating
the contaminant or installing a technological or
physical barrier between the contaminant and the
potentially exposed citizen. Removal actions
may occur at any time after site discovery and
until closeout of the site.
HAZARDOUS RANKING SYSTEM (HRS): Following
preliminary assessment, the site is ranked according
to the HRS and may be placed on the National
Priorities List (NPL) if the site qualifies. The HRS
is a screening process used to evaluate the
discovered sites to determine if they should be
placed on the NPL. HRS assigns a numeric value
to the site based on the following criteria: (1)
Likelihood that a site has released or has the
potential to release hazardous substances into the
environment; (2) characteristics of the waste (e.g.
toxicity and waste quantity); and (3) people or
sensitive environments (targets) affected by the
release. If the HRS number is greater than 28.5,
the site qualifies for listing on the NPL.
NATIONAL PRIORITY LIST (NPL) is a list of sites
awaiting clean-up via the Superfund process.
Currently, 1200 Superfund sites are listed on the
NPL. When a site is listed on the NPL, it is
possible for clean-up to be funded by the
Superfund Trust Fund.
REMEDIAL INVESTIGATION AND FEASIBILITY
STUDY (RI/FS): As the HRS serves to identify
sites for the NPL, but does not assess the degree
of risk to human health, a step identified as
Remedial Investigation (RI) and Feasibility
Study (FS) must be conducted. A RI is a longer
term study that looks at the potential risks
involved and explores the options available to
restore the health of the site. A FS takes a closer
looks at the remedial alternatives suggested and
determines the likelihood of success for each of
those suggested options. Public participation is
encouraged and enforcement efforts are
conducted continuously throughout the SF
Process, from site discovery through closeout of
the site.
REMEDY SELECTION AND RECORD OF
DECISION (ROD): Following the RI/FS, is the
Remedy Selection and Record of Decision. The
remedy selection involves choosing the best
option based on the information gathered via the
remedial investigation and feasibility study.
Upon selection of the remedy, the decision is
officially noted in a document called the ROD,
and that document is signed by EPA's Regional
Administrator and other federal agency
leadership who may be involved in the decision-
making. The ROD is published in the Federal
Register and made accessible to the public.
REMEDIAL DESIGN (RD) follows the ROD in the
Superfund Process. RD is the phase in
Superfund site cleanup process where the
technical plans for cleanup are designed.
Remedial Action (RA), which follows the RD,
involves construction or implementation of the
remedy outlined in the ROD.
SITE COMPLETION: Nearing the end of the SF
Process, Site Completion identifies when the
physical construction, as per the Remedy
Design, has been completed. A construction
completion list (CCL) exists to better define and
Chapter One
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
communicate the successful completion of
cleanup activities. Sites qualify for being placed
on the CCL when: (1) any necessary physical
construction is complete, regardless of any other
requirements that may need to be achieved; (2)
EPA has determined that the response action
should be limited to measures that do not involve
construction; or (3) the site qualifies for deletion
from the NPL. Throughout the Site Completion
and Closeout, continuous operation and
maintenance is conducted.
CLOSEOUT AND NPL DELETION: The final
element involved in the SF Process is Closeout
and NPL Deletion. Closeout involves proper
disposal of waste and removal of equipment,
return of residents that had been relocated and
certification that work on the site is complete. If
Discussion Questions
When you mentioned removal actions do
you mean removal of source or capping?
Removal actions are often faster, but it
doesn't actually cleanup the site to render it
reusable. Capping occurs when there is
little risk to the public and the site can be
reused in some way, or, as is the case in
Love Canal, the site is so contaminated that
there is no other feasible alternative to
decontaminate the site.
Please describe public participation process.
The SF public outreach/ participation
process is the most comprehensive in the
agency. Just to give you an idea of how
vast this process is, the SF program is the
only one in the Agency with their own
community relations department. Any
action must be listed in the Federal Register
to allow for public participation. Often SF
sites associated with residential areas are
emotionally charged endeavors. Dealing
with the public requires much listening,
making the public feel heard, and
relationship building. The whole process is
very time consuming. It consists of public
meetings through every step of the process,
as well as responding to the public's
comments and concerns in a diplomatic
fashion. In many cases the public is the
driving force behind certain decisions.
it is not possible for relocated residents to return
home, those residents should be duly
compensated the loss of their homes and
property. Once all of these criteria have been
met, the site may be removed from the NPL.
Since 1980, 600 closures have occurred.
SUPERFUND SITE: PRP SEARCH AND
ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE ISSUES
By Lilibeth Serrano-velez
Since the site changed, the information in this
section will be more general, and the Project
Manager will fill in more details upon our arrival
to the site. The information presented was
gathered from CERCLA/Superfund Cost
Recovery Manual.
Mechanics of CERCLA/Superfund Cost
Recovery
THE COST RECOVERY PACKAGE is the most
important tool. This is a very detailed document,
though the level of detail varies with the state of
the site and the likelihood of the Potential
Responsible Parties (PRPs) to instigate litigation
against the actions EPA is asking them to
undertake. Costs are not summarized, but line
items are recorded.
THE STATUTE OF LIMITATIONS: Section 107(a) of
CERCLA establishes the authority for EPA to
recover costs associated with all response actions
and recovery of all damages for natural
resources. However, there is a limit on the time
period in which the costs may be recovered.
PRP SEARCH: An attempt is made by EPA to identify
any and all parties who may be liable for the
release or threat of release of a hazardous
substance. Ideally, this search will begin even
before the site is officially listed on the National
Priorities List. Methods used to seek out PRPs
include: detailed title searches, employee
interviews, documentation reviews, site operator
and transporter interviews, talking with
neighboring industries, site visits to document
evidence and formal information requests to
people whom EPA believe may have pertinent
information. Once the Potential Responsible
Parties are identified, they are notified via
general notice letter and are offered an
opportunity to negotiate about how site cleanup
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
will be conducted. Further investigation may be
conducted to determine the extent of liability.
JOINT AND SEVERAL LIABILITY: When more
than one PRP is involved at a site and the harm
done is indivisible, such as is the case when
drums and/ or wastes are commingled with each
other and when contaminated surface water and
ground water mix, joint and several liability may
be imposed by the court. Joint and several
liability means that «ach PRP involved with the
site is individually responsible for the costs
associated with remediation of the site, though
EPA may only seek to reclaim damages from the
primary PRP. It is then the responsibility for the
primary PRP to recover the costs, if they desire,
from the numerous other PRPs associated with
the site. Also under joint and several liability,
the universe of PRPs may unite and form a
group for EPA to work with.
Example Of Joint And Several Liability Issue: Wynwood,
A Landfill And Dump Site.
This site is very complex, especially since there
have been approximately 33 PRPs over the course
of the 30-50 years that the site had operated. The
Criminal Site Investigators and Remedial Project
Manager must look at the many aspects of the site.
They must link PRPs to the site and assess the
financial viability of the PRP in order to decide
which of the PRPs should be named as the primary
PRP. For Wynwood, the main PRP is the City of
Miami.
INTRODUCTION OF SITES
By Damon Brown
Wingate, the original Site to be visited
Handout #1: ROD Abstract and Remedy
DESCRIPTION OF WINGATE AS LISTED IN THE
ROD ABSTRACT: The Wingate Road
Municipal Incinerator Dump is located in Ft.
Lauderdale, Florida. It is currently owned and
formerly operated by the City of Ft. Lauderdale
between 1954-1978. The site is bordered by a
junk yard, a privately owned lake, and by
residential properties. The site is approximately
60 acres. On the site are two inactive incinerator
buildings, cooling water treatment structures, an
ash and solid waste landfill, a vehicle
maintenance area and various structures.
Residential, commercial and incinerator wastes
were disposed of at the site. Contaminant issues
stem from ash residues mixed with sludge that
accumulated in the water treatment system and
was deposited in the landfill, and from 100 steel
drums reputed to have been buried under a dirt
road between 1955-1958. Tests conducted in
1985 showed the presence of pesticides in the
surface and subsurface soils of the dump area.
Approximately 350,000 people obtain their
water supply from municipal wells located
within 3 miles of the site. 40,000 people live
within one mile of the site. The remedy
indicated in the Record of Decision is to cap the
landfill and install erosion controls. As is
evident, the Wingate site involves many
politically charged issues, thus plans to visit this
site were canceled. Instead, we will visit the
Wynwood Superfund site.
Discussion Questions
In R-8, a decision was made at the regional
level to cap a SF site. HQ intervened and
overturned the Regional decision. EPA
decided to make a decision despite
community input. EPA's justification for
this overturn was that "we should not let the
community push EPA around". Has there
been similar issues raised upon the
announcement of the decision to cap the
landfill? Not that we know of.
Munisport, the actual site visited
Munisport is an inactive landfill located on 291
acres in North Miami. This landfill is bordered
by Biscayne Bay, wetlands, commercial
developments, a state university, and a mobile
home community.. Operations at Munisport
began in the mid-1960s, included placement of
debris to raise the elevation of wetland areas in
the 1970s, and was initially investigated by EPA
in 1988. EPA had attempted to halt the dredge
and fill permit revision by using their veto
authority to overrule the Army Corps of
Engineers' decision. However, before practices
could be halted, as much as 6 million cubic yards
of solid waste had been placed in the unlined
landfill without leachate controls, to raise the
elevation of the landfill. As result, elevated
levels of ammonia were released into ground
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water and surface water when water percolated
through the soil.
During EPA's remedial investigation in 1988, it
was discovered that the site did not pose a threat
to human health, but did present a significant
threat to aquatic life. A ROD was issued in 1990
that indicated a need to implement a hydraulic
barrier to intercept the discharge of contaminated
ground water from the landfill to the Mangrove
Preserve. In 1992, a Consent Decree was
devised between the City of Miami and EPA for
the cleanup operation. EPA decided to segment
the cleanup into the following areas: Tidal
Restoration of a Wetland Area, Access and
Service Road, Hydraulic Barrier Recovery
Wells, and Treatment and Disposal System. In
September 1995, construction for the Tidal
Restoration of wetlands was completed. In
1996, construction of service road and recovery
wells were mostly completed and a design for
the ground water treatment and disposal system
was submitted to EPA. In 1997, EPA concluded
that increased tidal circulation would be
sufficient to mitigate the environmental threat,
the ROD was amended to reflect "No Further
Action" needed, and the site is scheduled to be
deleted from the NPL in 1999.
The remedies underway involve the following
major components: (1) Construction of a clay or
synthetic cap, (2) Excavation of contaminated
soil, incinerator ashes, and dioxin contaminated
ash waste to be shipped off-site, (3) Drainage,
treatment, and disposal of water in Lake Stupid
and storm water management controls, (4)
Construction of a vertical barrier between
landfill and Rock Pit Lake, (5) Decontamination
of buildings and structures; ground water,
surface water, sediment, and fish tissue
monitoring, and (6) Controls for maintenance of
the site cap, storm water management controls,
and institutional controls, such as fencing and
signs.
FIELD TRIP TO VISIT SUPERFUND AND
BROWNFIELDS SITES
By Kerianne Gardner
SiteVisit#1:
Munisport Landfill, Brad Jackson, veteran
project manager from Region 4 EPA. As a
group, we met Brad Jackson and Jim McGuire in
the trailer/office near Munisport's entrance. We
were briefed on the history of the landfill and
viewed aerial photos, and then proceeded to tour
the perimeter of the landfill.
Why this site?
According to Brad Jackson, who has been the
project manager for this site over the past 10
years, there are many lessons to be learned from
this site. In the past, many of those lessons have
been what not to do, but those lessons have
proved themselves invaluable as they are applied
to many other sites.
Where is this site in the Superfund
Process?
Currently, the city of Miami is working on
closing the site.
Discussion Questions
Isn't the contaminated source still there?
Thus, even if you treat the water, won't that
only temporarily deal with the symptoms,
and not cure the problem? The source is
finite. The idea is to flush through the
system. 2 approaches have been considered:
(1) Cap to minimize infiltration, and (2)
look into enhancing infiltration, thus
speeding up the flushing process with a
microbial injection.
Have you done sampling outside of the
landfill boundaries, for example on the
adjourning mobile home community, a
potential environmental justice site? Yes,
we have sampled south of the landfill
boundary. The contaminant levels
decreased by a magnitude of 10 outside the
boundary. Ammonia and metals were tested
for. The soil in the area has about 2 inches
of unsaturated soil, and then the saturated
zone and septic areas are present, so the
mobile home park may contribute to the
contaminant levels. To put the each mobile
home on a sewer system would cost as much
as the entire home park is worth!
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History
This site has been an interagency venture even
before it was popular to join efforts. EPA ,
Florida state, the City of Miami, and even some
international interests worked together with a
goal of creating a golf course on the landfill.
The land was viewed as an economic asset that
could one day be redeveloped. While 130 acres
of Mangroves were spared, a sizeable wetland
area was filled. A number of studies were
conducted in an effort to determine the type of
closure that would eventually be required. The
issue at stake was whether to do a landfill
closure or a Superfund-type closure.
Site visit #2:
Wynwood, Bob Swartzreich, Economist with the
City of Miami
The City of Miami envisioned a prime real estate
potential in this currently dilapidated area and
hoped to obtain redevelopment grant money
through EPA's Brownfields Program to follow
through on their dreams. Wynwood is
conveniently located 2 miles from a major seaport,
2 miles from Downtown Miami, and 4 miles from
an international airport. The City of Miami, along
with an environmental consultant, a "sage" EPA
Region 4 representative, and local environmental
groups formed a group to discuss the possibilities
for cleanup and future use of this land parcel.
They discussed a need to have a vision for the end
point, and since the goal of Brownfields is to
revitalize the community, obtaining a grant for
redevelopment as prime real estate may not work.
Another idea that had been entertained is to build a
cement mixing plant on the site, which would
provide jobs to the local community. The cement
mixing company had a standing reputation for
other projects they had built upon Brownfields in
the Chicago area.
Discussion Questions:
What were the major environmental issues
associated with this site? On the southern
er;d of the site, a piie of soil had been
dumped mop an area where fuel had been
buried. A plume of contaminant entered the
ground water and then migrated off-site.
How to arrive at site closure is still an issue.
£ND OF DAY DEBRIEF
1998 EIP Interns and EIP Staff
What were your observations, comments,
and recommendations?
Walkie Talkies provided by the City of Miami
for the tour made narrating the site visit more
smooth.
Stayed on time.
If the nature of Brownfields is community-based
with a goal of reviving the communily, how does
a cement plant strive to meet this goal?
This project that we saw today looks like it
would more appropriately fall under a Housing
and Urban Development (HUD) project.
What did we learn today?
It means more when we see the issue/ site in
person
Outreach and an improvement in communication
style is needed. EPA is often good with
scientific topics, but is prone to talking above the
level that is understood by the average citizen.
EPA needs to take more time to explain.
The people in the surrounding Brownfields
community need to be considered more.
Methods to reach a variety of cultures and
communities need to be devised and utilized.
GROUP 1 HANDOUTBrownfields
#1: From Wendy Hopkins
What is a Brownfield?
Abandoned or inactive industrial site potentially
contaminated with pollutants. An actual or
perceived environmental contamination
complicates the redevelopment of these sites.
Most banks are not willing to finance
redevelopment of these sites because, if the site
is environmentally contaminated, they could be
held liable for cleanup costs under the
Comprehensive Environmental Response
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA),
commonly known as "Superfund." Even if a
developer is interested in using a Brownfield
site, it may be difficult due to lack of financial
support.
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Where are Brownfields located?
Brownfields are typically situated in urban areas
near utilities, highways, railways and
inexpensive labor pools. Estimates show there
may be as many as 450,000 Brownfield sites
across the country. However, developers have
been reluctant to utilize these sites because of the
potential liability involved with environmental
contamination of the sites.
What is the Brownfields Initiative?
Goals
Protect public health and the environment
Clean up contaminated properties
Build economic viability
Create job opportunities
EPA's Brownfields Economic Redevelopment
Initiative is designed to empower States,
communities, and other stakeholders in
economic redevelopment to work together in a
timely manner to prevent, assess, safely clean
up, and sustainably reuse Brownfields.
Brownfields is and Interagency initiative, other
agencies working on Brownfields include: the
Department of Housing and Urban
Development, the Economic Development
Administration, the Department of
Transportation, the General Services
Administration, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, the Department of
Health and Human Services, and the Department
of Energy.
Information from:(National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA)
Fact Sheet http://www.gsa.gov/pbs/pt/call-in/
factshet/0497/0497fact.htm)AND
(EPA Brownfields National Partnership Action
Agenda
Publication: EPA 500-F-97-090 May 1997
http://www.epa.gov/swerosps/bf/html-doc/
97aa-fs.htm)
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Everglades
National Park
ABSTRACT
This chapter describes the political, ecological, and
socioeconomic environment associated with the
Everglades National Park, located in the Southern Florida
ecosystem. A brief Legislative history, current issues,
including those regarding the Miccosukee and the
Westward-Ho Restoration, mercury accumulation, and
hydrology are discussed.
GROUP 2:
Jen Fisher
Gabe Gruta
Karen L. Martin
Dawn Tesorero
November 2, 1999
In this chapter, Dawn Tesorero documents the legislative
history of how the Everglades was established as a
National Park and describes the socio-political landscape,
Jen Fisher and Gabe Gruta discuss the ecological and
hydrological functions present in the Everglades, and
Karen L. Martin explores the effects of development on
the Everglades. Following the morning presentation, the
1998 Intern Class hiked the Anhinga interpretive loop at
Royal Palm Visitors Center. The afternoon field trip was
comprised of a visit to the South Everglades research
station and a lecture entitled: "The Changing Waterways
of Florida" by Sherry Mitchell-Brunker, Ph.D., Research
Hydrologist.
The Everglades team would like to refer the reader to the
issues page of the Everglades National Park website: http:/
/www.nps.gov/ever/presskit/issues.htm. While this site
was last updated in 1997, the issues are still relevant,
though they vary in priority. One highlight, the impact of
Hurricane Irene's flooding, is a hot political debate that
we may want to watch for when we go to Florida.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
INTRODUCTION
Everglades National Park was established in 1947
to preserve the unique biological features and
essential primitive conditions found in the
subtropical Everglades of Florida. Everglades is
recognized as the largest and most threatened U.S.
National Park east of the Rocky Mountains, due
primarily to hydrological developments that have
disrupted water flow with serious ecological
consequences. Over the past 70 years, the size of
the Everglades has been reduced by fifty percent,
the amount of water flowing to the remaining
Everglades has been reduced by seventy percent,
and water quality has deteriorated. Much of the
habitat located within the Everglades is either
reduced or damaged, and 68 endangered species
are associated with the Everglades National Park.
These reductions resulted from a number of
hydrological modifications made by Army Corps
of Engineers to control flooding, to make the land
more suitable to development, and to retain water
for irrigation purposes. The potential long-term
implications of these actions had not been
anticipated, as the immediate benefits were viewed
as quite positive at the time. Currently, the primary
focus is on study and planning to improve the
ecological condition of the Everglades.
The restudy outlined in the Southern Florida
Initiative, titled "The Central and Southern Florida
Project," intends to conduct a restudy of the original
review study and discern a plan to resolve water
quality and quantity issues. There is interest in
resuming a natural flow pattern, however 500,000
people currently reside in and depend on the
Southern Florida ecosystem. People may like the
idea of having a natural flow regime, however, the
reality of flooding and periodic dry spells are not
viewed favorably. This plan would capture most
of the 1.7 billion gallons of water per day that is
currently lost to the ocean and gulf, and store that
water for later use. At the right time, the system
will deliver the right quantity and quality of water
to the right places based on scientific data. This
potential means of problem resolution was devised
by a collaborative effort between a number of
agencies and disciplines, an is flexible enough to
accommodate emerging science. There are a
number of politically charged issues that have risen
in response to the proposed plan, which are further
discussed in a later section.
LEGISLATIVE OVERVIEW
By Dawn Tesorero
Park Establishment and Legislation
The Everglades National Park was authorized in
1934, and was established in 1947 with a dedication
by President Harry S. Truman. Legislation for the
Everglades is often dependant on the inconsistent
funding of the Land and Water Conservation Fund
Act of 1965. The most influential Federal
legislation which literally shapes the Everglades
is the engineering of the Army Corps, as issued
through Congress. The Army Corps of Engineers
have a life-long relationship with the Everglades
beginning with the first flood control project in
1948. The relationship continues with additional
flood control engineering and studies of the
effectiveness of the rerouting of waters in 1971,
1989,1990,1993. The most recent "restudy" was
submitted in 1999 with the hopes of applying the
restudy to law in 2000.
The most pertinent Florida state legislation to effect
the Everglades is the Everglades Forever Act,
established in 1989 and rewritten in 1994. After
five years of costly litigation, a partnership formed
among Federal government, the South Florida
Water Management District, the FL Department
of Environmental Protection, and agricultural
industry representatives. Through this partnership,
a commitment was made to expeditiously begin
clean-up and renewal of the Everglades ecosystem.
Environmental Justice and Legislation
Also in 1994, the Army Corps "Restudy" collided
with a potential environmental justice issue, "the
8.5 Square Mile." The Corps was considering a
"buyout"of 8.5 square miles where Cuban-
Americans owned and squatted. They viewed the
buyout as "cost effective." A study by a water
district hydrologist found that the Corps' water
rerouting plan, as mandated by the 1989 Modified
Water Deliveries Act, served restoration goals as
well as any other alternative without the need to
relocate the 8.5 Square Mile residents. For the
purposes of evaluating the technical soundness of
the rerouting plan, an assumption was made that
the current residents would be willing to relocate.
However, the property owners in 8.5 Square Mile
are not willing to sell their property and their
property rights. Forced acquisition, or
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
condemnation, was considered as a course of
action, yet due to political pressure from the nearby
Miccosukee Reservation, process was delayed.
The Miccosukee Tribe condemns the agencies in
relation to this incident, claiming that the National
Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and the
Modified Water Deliveries Act were disregarded
during the review process of the restudy. This
claim was especially controversial, since NEPA and
the Modified Water Deliveries Act are ripe for
Congressional review. ("Facing Up to Problems
in Everglades Restoration," by Dexter Lehtinen,
So. FL Ecosystem Restoration Task Force, April
1999). As it stands at this moment, the actions
and political savvy of the Miccosukee have
substantially delayed the project and bought time
for the re_sidents of the 8.5 Square Mile area.
All eyes will be on Congress and their decisions
based on the review of the Army Corps Restudy
and how it will again shape the Everglades in 2000.
HYDROLOGY 101
By Jen Fisher And Gabe Gruta
Ecological Background
Ecology and Characteristics of Wetlands: Wetlands are
the link between water and land. "Wetlands" is the
collective term for marshes, swamps, bogs, and
similar areas found in flat vegetated areas, in
depressions in the landscape, and between dry land
and water along the edges of streams, rivers, lakes,
and coastlines. However, water may be on the
surface for only a short time and look dry the rest
of the year. Wetlands provide many benefits,
including food and habitat for fish and wildlife;
flood protection; shoreline erosion control; natural
products for human use; water quality
improvement; and opportunities for recreation,
education, and research. Wetlands are vital to the
survival of various animals and plants, including
threatened and endangered species like the wood
stork, Florida panther, and whooping crane. The
U.S; Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that up to
43% of the threatened and endangered species rely
directly or indirectly on wetlands for their survival.
For many other species, such as the wood duck,
muskrat, and swamp rose, wetlands are primary
habitats. For others, wetlands provide important
seasonal habitats where food, water, and cover are
plentiful.
Wetlands play an important role in nutrient transfer
and the biogeochemical cycling of elements such
as phosphorus, nitrogen, carbon, sulfur, and metals.
Wetlands can act as a sink or a source, of nutrients
and can also transform nutrients to various forms
that may or may not be available to plants,
microbes, and animals. Wetlands link upland and
aquatic systems, thus they have a propensity to
highlight inadequate nutrient, or other,
management practices that may be occurring in
upland areas.
Hydrology plays an important role in defining the
character of a wetland, most notably its
hydroperiod, by the simple presence or absence of
water. Wetland hydrology depends on precipitation
and groundwater flow. Overland flow, particularly
in flood conditions, causes nutrient levels to
increase. The Everglades are threatened by a
combination of altered hydroperiods caused by
human development, drainage for development,
and polluted runoff. Almost half of the original
Everglades have been lost to agriculture and urban
development.
Ecology and Characteristics of the Everglades: The
Everglades are comprised mostly of sawgrass dike
marshes and are made up of three Water
Conservation Areas (WCAs). Under natural
conditions, the Everglades is an oligotrophic, or
low nutrient, phosphorous-limited system. In
recent tinies, the agricultural value of this unique
landscape was discovered, and 3 areas to the north
of Everglades National Park have been completely
diked since the 1940s. Historically and presently,
rainfall is the primary source of water entering the
Everglades system. At present, rainfall must first
flow through the Everglades Agricultural Area
(EAA), an impacted area.
The Everglades is widely recognized as an
ecosystem of international importance. Many rare
and endangered plant and animal species depend
on the unique ecological features found in the
Everglades. As mentioned above, the Everglades
was historically a severely nutrient-limited system,
with total phosphorus (TP) concentrations in the
open water typically at, or below, 10 micrograms
per liter. In recent decades, excessive phosphorus
has been introduced into the Everglades. One
source of phosphorous is runoff from agricultural
fields where fertilizer containing phosphorous was
used. Total phosphorus concentrations entering
portions of the Everglades today typically range
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
from 100 to 200 micrograms per liter. In some
areas, this may mean that Phosphorous increased
by 10 or 20 times the historic amount. Increased
TP loading in some of these areas, together with
changes in the natural hydroperiod, have
dramatically altered the species composition of
plant communities, and disrupted food chains.
Eutrophication Issues
What is Eutrophication? Excessive phosphorus from
runoff and erosion can "fertilize" surface waters.
In this process, called eutrophication, microscopic
floating plants, known as algae, multiply rapidly
when fertilized by phosphorus. These algae cloud
the water making it difficult for larger submerged
aquatic vegetation (SAV) to get enough light. The
SAV may die, reducing available habitat of aquatic
animals. When the algae themselves eventually
die, they decompose. During decomposition,
dissolved oxygen is removed from the water.
Lowered oxygen levels make it difficult for other
aquatic organisms to survive.
Dissolved phosphorus in the water may attach to
sediment and can accumulate in wetland areas. This
phosphorus may be recycled slowly via wetland
processes, or released rapidly when the sediments
are disturbed, for example during a storm or flood.
Pollution from phosphorus is a long-term problem.
Sources and Effects of Eutrophication: Runoff (sometimes
called "stormwater" or "nonpoint source
pollution") is caused by rainfall, snow melt, or
irrigation water moving over and through the
ground. Runoff carries natural and manmade
pollutants into low areas such as wetlands
eventually into ground water. In addition,
atmospheric deposition and hydrological
modifications can contribute pollutants to runoff,
as well as directly into surface water. The quality
of U.S. wetlands and other water resources is
related to the quality of the environment
contributing to these waters. Untreated runoff from
agricultural land, urban areas, and other sources is
a leading cause of water quality impairment.
Siltation, pollutants, excess nutrients, changes to
water flows, and increased turbidity are responsible
for the majority of the impacts to wetlands from
runoff. Impacts to wetlands have resulted in
consequences such as changed species
composition, increased pollutant loadings (e.g.,
heavy metals), and replacement of complex
wetland systems with less desirable open water.
Modifications of wetlands associated with some
runoff management practices have resulted in
significant impacts to wetlands.
Effects of Eutrophication on the Everglades: In the
Everglades, eutrophication/nutrient enrichment has
been noted by evidence of dramatic changes in
plant species that occur as phosphorous levels rise.
Increased phosphorous levels have caused several
taxonomic (species) changes in plant communities
located in marsh areas with phosphorus
concentrations greater than 10 micrograms per liter.
Species shift according to the following gradient:
- low P -> water lilies, sawgrass
- med P => increase in lilies, cattails appear
- hi P (>50 ug) => only cattails (no open
water, lilies shaded out)
Because of these dramatic taxonomic changes,
Florida passed the Everglades Forever Act, a
mandate to prevent imbalance in natural flora and
fauna. The EFA requires development of numeric
phosphorus standard to maintain the natural species
balance.
Remediation Efforts to Compensate for Eutrophication:
An important component of the South Florida
Water Management District's (the District)
proposed Everglades Restoration Plan is
construction of six treatment wetlands, which serve
as Stormwater Treatment Areas (STAs) to reduce
nutrient levels, primarily total phosphorous (TP),
in the incoming agricultural water. The principal
treatment mechanism of the STAs is uptake of
nutrients by vegetation and subsequent burial of
this plant material in the bottom sediments.
The District completed construction of a large-scale
treatment wetland, the Everglades Nutrient
Removal (ENR) Project, in 1993. This facility is
operating as a technology demonstration project
to validate the STA concept and to gain the
experience that will be needed to construct and
operate future STAs. The wetland constructed for
the ENR demonstration project is divided into four
treatment cells that are arranged into two parallel
flow-through trains. The upper treatment cell in
each train was allowed to revegetate naturally with
cattail. One of the lower treatment cells was
partially planted with a mixture of common marsh
species, while the remaining treatment cell has been
actively maintained as a periphyton/submersed
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
macrophyte community. At 3,818 acres, the ENR
Project is currently the largest constructed wetland
in the United States.
Methyl Mercury Issues
Bioaccumulation: In addition to problems with
eutrophication, the Everglades has recently been
plagued by troubles with Methyl Mercury (MeHg).
Since 1900, methyl mercury levels in the
Everglades has increased sharply, from less than
10 micrograms per meter squared in 1900 to 50
micrograms per meter squared in 1990. MeHg is
the form of mercury that is not only toxic, but
bioaccumulative. Hg2+ ions are "methylated" by
bacteria as a result of natural enzymatic processes.
MeHg has a high affinity for organic matter; hence,
in the peat (high carbon from decayed organic
matter) soils of the Everglades, MeHg accumulates
rapidly. The Everglades do not have naturally high
Hg levels as shown by historical soil cores.
However, mercury poisoning is now an issue.
Organisms at the top of the food chain (e.g. Florida
Panther) have Hg levels in their bodies of hundreds
of thousands to millions of times higher than levels
in the soil. MeHg in the soil is taken up by plants
and algae, which are eaten by fish, birds, and other
small wildlife, who are, in turn, consumed by larger
predators. At each level in the food chain (or web),
the concentration of MeHg in the organism
increases, thus the predators at the top accumulate
the highest amounts.
Sources and Effects of Mercury in the Everglades: The
Mercury issue is an interesting example of how
human activities have far-reaching effects on the
biogeochemistry of the Everglades. The mercury
found in the Everglades is most likely a result of
atmospheric deposition (i.e. rainfall), not
agricultural runoff. About 95 percent of mercury
that enters the Everglades comes from the
atmosphere. There are natural and anthropogenic,
or human related, sources of mercury to the
atmosphere. Natural sources include gasses that
escape from tectonic activity in oceans, volcanoes,
and natural mercury deposits. Coal combustion,
waste incineration, metal mining and smelting, and
some forms of power generation are the primary
anthropogenic sources that have potential to
contribute to mercury levels in the atmosphere. It
is thought that mercury may be carried long
distances by global winds from pollution sources
worldwide. One proposed theory is that the heavy
thunderstorms of southern Florida may play a role
in the increased quantity of mercury that is
deposited in the Everglades.
While agriculture is not a direct source of mercury,
agricultural practices contribute to the methylation,
or availability, of methyl mercury in the
environment. Methylation is the chemical
transformation of ionic mercury to methyl mercury.
Ionic mercury (Hg(II)) is the most common form
of mercury in the environment. It is a typical
agriculture practice to add sulfur to the soil to
acidify, or lower the pH of, limestone-based (high
pH) soils to create optimum growing conditions.
The sulfur runoff creates a sulphate excess
downstream which fosters the sulphate-reducing
bacteria (SRB) community. Acid rain may also
contribute the requisite sulfate to foster a SRB
community. Sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are
the bacteria that methylate the mercury. Since
methyl mercury is the most bioaccumulative form
and the form that comprises nearly all of the
mercury in consumable fish, it is the focus of
control and restoration efforts.
Efforts to control Mercury and Restore the Everglades:
While there is work to be done to further
understand the processes by which methyl mercury
accumulates, some preliminary steps have been
taken to alleviate the problems currently associated
with mercury. Primary focus has been on reducing
the quantity of ionic and methyl mercury that is
introduced into the environment. Emission
controls have been initiated on municipal and
medical incinerators, where possible, mercury has
been eliminated from commercial products and
processes, tighter waste disposal regulations have
been passed, and recycling efforts have increased.
With the passage of the Everglades Forever Act in
1994, increased governmental energy began being
focused on Southern Florida. A first step in the
intergovernmental restoration effort is to create an
interdisciplinary team to study how mercury cycles
through the Everglades system and how the
processes of accumulation occur. It is hoped that
studying mercury cycles will provide a strong
scientific basis upon which resource management
decisions may be made.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
EASTWARD HO: DEVELOPMENT AND
ITS EFFECTS
By Karen L. Martin, R.s.
The Southern Florida region stands at a crossroads,
with an expanding human population and a delicate
natural environment with stressed resource
availability. Urban sprawl, hydrologic disconnect
that has occurred due to past and present flood
control practices, the loss of natural ecosystem
function, and people's decreasing awareness of the
natural environment are the primary issues that
arise when the topic of development is raised.
Higher and middle income level people are moving
away from Miami. At this time, over 50 % of the
population in Miami is comprised of African
American, Cuban, and Africans, of which most are
underpaid wage/labor workers. Currently, a focus
is on a more science based approach to
management.
Corrective Action Goals
Ultimately, the aim is to restore natural hydrologic
functions, restore and enhance the natural system,
and to transform the developed environment.
How to Achieve Corrective Action Goals
Through adaptive and innovative management, the
above goals will be reached. Innovative
management involves being willing to learn as you
go and being open to new approaches to solving
problems. An adaptive management scheme
means that action will be taken while data is
gathered. If a better approach is found, the
flexibility to change course exists.
What is currently being done?
Everglades Construction Project: Devise controls
or management practices to prevent water quality
impaired agricultural and urban runoff from
reaching the Everglades.
Water Preserve Areas: An interconnected system.
These areas serve five purposes.
Eastward Ho: An effort to redirect future
development into the historic corridor of Southern
Florida. There are seven points in this program.
CONCLUSION
The good news is that progress is being made and
efforts are being made to increase the public
awareness of the environmental and social issues
in Southern Florida. The need to reduce the amount
of Phosphorous in the agricultural runoff is
recognized and begun to be realized, not only in
the south florida area, but also nationwide.
Hopefully, with increased awareness and decreased
nutrient loading, South Florida will be able to
maintain it's commercial and recreational fishing
industry, tourism, and unique ecological features,
upon which the lifeblood of their economy are
based.
FIELD TRIP TO EVERGLADES NATIONAL
PARK
By Kerianne Gardner
MORNING:
Lecture, followed by a guided tour on the Anhinga
interpretive loop at Royal Palm Visitors Center
Deborah Nordeen gave a brief introduction and
overview of the political and geographic location
of the Everglades National Park.
Rich Cook, Public Affairs Officer for Everglades
National Park, described the ecological,
socioeconomic, and tribal issues that the Park is
currently facing. Below is a brief outline of the
points he presented, and the questions asked
following the presentation.
Introduction: Over the past 70 years, the size of the
Everglades has been reduced by fifty percent, the
amount of water flowing to the remaining
Everglades has been reduced by seventy percent,
and water quality has deteriorated. Much of the
habitat located within the Everglades is either
reduced or damaged, and there are 68 endangered
species associated with the Everglades.
Ecosystem Issues
The Everglades was designated as a National Park
because of the biological significance associated
with the intricate and diverse life forms. The
intention of designating the area as a National Park
is to conserve the natural resources and allow
reasonable public access to the park. Access must
not interfere with the primary goal to conserve the
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biological values of the natural resource. As the
Park has decreased in size by approximately 50 %
since its designation, an increased concern about
the continued existence of Everglades as a
functional, biologically significant area has arisen.
North of the Everglades, the largest public works
development in the United States, a controlled
water management system, has been in place since
1948. Over 1900 miles of canals and 400 miles of
levees exist to manage the flow of water north of
the Everglades. During wet periods, people do not
want the water, yet during the dry periods, water is
needed. Since Everglades National Park is at the
bottom of this controlled system, the water
available for ecological subsistence is at the mercy
of the controlled system to the north. Growing
population numbers compound this water
availability issue. In 1947, when the park was
designated, 500,000 people resided in south
Florida. Today, over 6 million people depend upon
the resources of South Florida, and this number is
expected to double by 2011.
Governmental Funding and Support: Local support and
constituencies are strong. In this current political
environment, federal and state governmental
support is high. Since 1993, the federal
government has invested 9.5 billion dollars in
Everglades-related issues, and the state government
has invested 2.3 billion dollars since 1983. The
majority of the money has gone toward acquiring
land. Land acquisition is a focus based on the the
belief that as long as there are tracts of lands held
by the National Park system, work may be done to
preserve and protect the land and the biological
functions associated with that land.
Restoration Efforts: Acquisition of 109,000 acres of Shark
River Slough in 1989 was a major target of
restoration that was met. The deep water portion
of the Everglades had been cut in half by the Park
boundary, with half of the deep water area located
inside the Park boundary, and the other half located
outside of the Park boundary. By acquiring rights
to this slough, the Park may now make structural
changes to allow water to leave the park more
naturally on th& east side. A buffer between the
park boundary and agricultural lands is viewed as
a means to satisfy conflicting needs that currently
exist between agriculture and National Park goals.
The Park wants to restore water flow and volumes
to natural condition, whereas farmers want to lower
water early in the year and have the capability to
use that water for irrigation later in the year. A
buffer would allow a gradual step down in the
hydrology to occur between the Park and
agricultural lands, thus meeting the needs of both
constituents.
A second restoration target is Taylor Slough, a
smaller tributary that is responsible for bringing
freshwater to Northeast Florida Bay. Florida Bay
is an area of concern due to dramatic ecological
changes that were noticed in the early 1980s. Sea
grass die-off and the spread of algal blooms had
widespread implications for the commercial and
recreational fishing industry, as Florida Bay serves
as a nursery for shrimp, lobster, and other fisheries.
These issues of concern involve not only
environmental impacts, but also economic impacts
to the region, thus providing further validation for
the need to support restoration efforts.
Construction Projects: As natural water flow was restored
to Taylor Slough, it was noticed that the main park
road acted as a barrier to flow, despite the presence
of a bridge. A decision to remove the smaller
bridge and replace it with two longer bridges (230
feet and 60 feet) was made to promote improved
water flow through the Park.
Some of the construction projects may seem
peripheral to the Park function, but for their day
and time, they were visionary. In today's political
climate, there is a propensity to think in broader
terms about restoring the Everglades. Army Corps
of Engineers has devised a massive plan that looks
at the total system. Their plan addresses the deep
compartmentalization of the Everglades to the
north and issues related to the free flow and volume
of water that, is necessary to achieve biological
response. On July 1, 1999, the Army Corps of
Engineers' plan was submitted to Congress, with
a projected budget of 8 million dollars to be shared
50/50 between the state of Florida and the federal
government. This holistic planning effort is a
hopeful sign for the future of the Everglades.
Tribal Issues
History: There are two federally recognized tribes with
designated reservation lands located within the
Park boundary. Seminoles are the larger of the
two tribes with 4,000 members and a headquarters
located in Hollywood, Florida. Miccosukee have
a smaller membership of 300, though they have
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considerable political power. The Miccosukee have
been a federally recognized tribe since 1962. Both
tribes originated with the Creek Federation in the
Carolinas and Georgia. Through a series of 3 very
bloody Seminole wars that occurred in the 19th
century, the tribes were pushed south, and
eventually forcibly relocated to Oklahoma. One
small band refused to relocate and sought refuge
in the Everglades. As no one wanted to pursue the
group into the reputedly wild and dangerous
Everglades, the Miccosukee thrived in the
Everglades for 150 years. A notably proud and
independent tribe, issues arose with the creation
of the National Park and the subsequent governing
power associated with this entity. Originally, the
area where the Miccosukee was governed via a
special use permit, which provided terms for
inhabitation and required the tribe to consult with
Park administration on development and
construction issues. Controversy arose when the
Miccosukee wanted to construct some new homes,
and the Park Service disagreed with their request.
A lawsuit ensued, though Congress intervened
before this law suit could be played out. Congress
changed the governing status of the Miccosukee
residential area to a "Miccosukee reserved area",
where their land is still within the Park boundary,
but the Park Service has no responsibility with
regard to the Miccosukee's development.
Current Politics: The successful operation of "soft
gambling" ventures have afforded the Miccosukee
opportunity to expand, become politically
influential, and hire an aggressive lawyer to pursue
a series of lawsuits challenging various aspects of
the restoration plan. Their slogan is "Miccosukee
are truly the ones who care about the Everglades",
and their political position is: "Some approaches/
strategies (being considered in the restoration plan)
they do not think are appropriate." The first point
of opposition is the private 8.5 Square Mile
residential area that is not guaranteed legal or
physical protection from flooding, since that area
is west of the existing levee. While there had been
talk by the Park Service and Army Corps of
Engineers of installing an additional levee further
in the Park boundary, it is ultimately more cost
effective to buy-out the residents in order to
implement the restoration plan. The Miccosukee
do not agree with the purchase and have instigated
legal actions to halt the process. Currently, the
Park is undergoing the NEPA process to determine
the best alternative.
Discussion Questions
What, exactly, is the Miccosukee's interest in
that 8.5 square mile parcel of land? The
Miccosukee publically state that they believe
acquiring this area would be such a
controversial move that it would lead to
extended litigation, where the residents of the
area would challenge the buy-out and further
delay the restoration process. The public
meetings where residential buy-out was
discussed have been emotionally charged
because some of the residents favor the buy-
out and others are opposed to the buy-out. The
Miccosukee want the eastern slough
restoration to go through quickly, because they
use these lands for tourism and traditional
religious practices. Without the eastern slough
amendments, the only point of entry for water
is the Western Shark Slough. Since 1994,
there has been much high water in these areas
to the north of Everglades National Park.
Since the Miccosukee have cultural and
economic investment related to natural flow
being restored, they would like to see the
restoration project completed as soon as
possible.
What are some other impacts that are
associated with the restoration plan? In
addition to surface water, seepage to ground
water is also an issue. As we move from a
conceptual plan to implementation, the reality
of the impacts on people's lives and property
come into play. We do not have forever to
restore the Everglades, though. The political
will exists for us to act now. Thus, the true
question is: If we cannot save this ecological
gem here in the richest country in the world,
where the best science and technology are
available - then, what other place has a
fighting chance? We probably do not have a
good standing to talk about saving other
places. The Everglades project will be an
interesting test case. In the next few years, it
will be interesting to see if a National Park
will actually be lost. This country hasn't lost
one yet, but you never know...
What might influence as to whether or not a
National Park is lost? A lot depends on
elections- this has been an overwhelmingly
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bipartisan cause. The Florida delegation has
been very supportive; Democratic Senator
Graham and Republican Senator Mack have
both upheld this restoration effort. The
lawsuits that have occurred in relation to this
plan have not been helpful in projecting a
cohesive and consensus-oriented
environment. The Park had thought that they
had consensus and cohesion, however when
they began discussing the actual details of
implementing the plan, it got nasty.
What do you mean when you say "lose a
National Park"? The nationally significant
biological values of the park that were
recognized when the Park was designated in
1934 may become so seriously degraded that
the area may no longer be considered
ecologically functioning. Without the
presence of unique ecological functions and
biological features, such as biological
diversity, the protected designation may be
lost. There may still be 1.5 million acres of
water in this area, but do we still have grounds
to call the area a National Park without those
i.
unique biological features? Probably not. The
Everglades National Park is the only property
in the United States that has been designated
under 3 international treaties, thus it not only
has significance nationally, but also
internationally.
AFTERNOON:
Visit research station and attend a lecture entitled:
"The Changing Waterways of Florida" by Sherry
Mitchell-Brunker, Ph.D., Research Hydrologist.
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National Marine
Sanctuary and
Wildlife Refuge
System
ABSTRACT
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary was designated
by Congress in 1990, and encompassed the pre-existing
Key Largo and Looe Key National Marine Sanctuaries.
It is the second largest sanctuary and contains the third
largest coral reef system in the world. Threats to habitat/
wildlife from transboundary pollution, poachers,
consumerism, lifestyle effects, and economic activities
led to the formation of the National Wildlife Refuge
System, which was established by an executive order in
1903 and signed by President Theodore Roosevelt.
Sustainable development in and around National Marine
Sanctuary and Wildlife Refuge Areas is key in ensuring
the protection of biodiversity and unique ecological
functions of coral reef and other fragile habitats.
GROUP 3:
Eial Dujovny
Eileen Henniger
Katherine Rickett
Wednesday, November 3, 1999
This chapter explores the creation and management of the
National Marine Sanctuary and National Wildlife Refuge
System. Eial Dujovny presents a chronological history of
the establishment of the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary, Eileen Henniger emphasizes and explains the
need for sustainability in the National Marine Sanctuary,
and Kate Rickett describes the values of the Florida Keys
National Wildlife Refuge. A visit to National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration's Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary office rewarded us with a captivating
and educational slide presentation, and an escorted tour of
the Big Pine National Wildlife Refuge rewarded us with
an up-close view of the endangered Key Deer.
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KEY WORDS: Coral Reef, Key Deer, Sustainable
Development, EPA, NOAA, South Florida Keys,
National Marine Sanctuary, Zoning, Wildlife
Refuge, Environmental Protection
THE NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY
By Eial Dujovny
Introduction
Increasing interest in America's marine resources
in the late 1960's led to the creation of the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
within the Department of Commerce in 1970. One
of the founding statutes of NOAA was the 1972
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act
that was designed to protect areas of, "specific
national significance due to their resource or human
use values." Today the sanctuary system consists
of 12 protected marine areas as far-flung as
Stellwagen Bank in New England and Fagatele Bay
in American Samoa. A 13th site is presently being
designated in the Great Lakes. As a result of the
public outcry that followed two major groundings
in 1989, Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
was designated by Congress in 1990 and
encompassed the pre-existing Key Largo and Looe
Key National Marine Sanctuaries. It is the second
largest sanctuary after Monterey Bay National
Marine Sanctuary and encompasses the third
largest coral reef system in the world. In 1997,
after seven years of negotiations wjth local
stakeholders, the management plan for the
sanctuary was finalized and implemented.
Chronology of Marine Sanctuary
Establishment
1960's Increasing awareness of the importance of
America's marine resources.
1966 Creation of the Marine Sciences Council
headed by Hubert Humphrey.
1970 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) created in the
Commerce Department.
1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries
Act passed. Provides for certification of
sanctuaries by the Secretary of the Commerce
Department.
1975 USS Monitor National Marine Sanctuary off
1975
1981
1989
1990
1997
1999
the coast of North Carolina is the first
designated sanctuary. The sanctuary is one
square mile preserve set up to protect an
historic Civil War ironclad.
Key Largo National Marine Sanctuary in
Florida is designated. Protects 100 square
miles.
Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary is
designated in Florida. Protects 5.3 square
miles.
The vessels Elpis and Alex Owen Maitland
ground in Key Largo Sanctuary. A public
outcry ensues.
Congress creates the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary. The sanctuary
encompasses 3,674 square miles.
Management plan for the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary is agreed to by the
stakeholders and is implemented.
13th sanctuary and first one in the Great Lakes
to be incorporated into the sanctuary system.
Additional Information
A number of NOAA brochures accompanied the
introductory presentation. These brochures were not
available in electronic form and copyright laws
prevent incorporating scanned images of the
brochures into the body of the trip report. An index
of the brochures and information about where they
may be obtained is available at the end of this chapter.
Conclusion
Through heightened awareness about fragile
marine environments, savvy politicians, and
persistent determination, America's National
Marine Sanctuary System was established.
Next, we will build upon our understanding of how
the national marine sanctuary system came into
existence by exploring issues of sustainable
development and sanctuary management. Invisible
boundaries and the interwoven nature of the
impacts to this fragile ecosystem all play a role in
the management of marine resources, as the
following section demonstrates.
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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND
THE NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY
By Eileen Henniger
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
incorporates sustainable development in its
management to mitigate environmental pressures
inside and outside of its boundaries from urban
sprawl, agriculture, tourism, commercial fishing,
and industry. Sustainable development is being
addressed through several management tools,
including zones, visitor rules and regulation,
research, and participation in integrated
management plans that potentially affect the
sanctuaries ecosystem. EPA's role in contributing
to the sustainable development in the .ecosystem
consists of its mandated participation in water
quality protection plans and encouragement of
sustainable development activities, as well as other
management plans and initiatives. Sustainable
development helps to ensure adverse effects from
increasing activity and development do not impair
the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary.
Why Should Sanctuary Management
Incorporate Sustainable Development
Principles?
Amazingly, sustainable development is not stated
in the mission of Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary. Dealing with development issues is a
national sanctuary may seem like a contradiction
in terms. While there is no major development of
the sanctuary itself, it faces pressures of heavy
visitation and outside effects from development.
The sanctuary may be impacted by degraded water
quality and increased pollution levels from urban
areas upstream from sanctuary and cities within
its borders. Important reasons exist for
incorporating sustainable development principles
into its management plans. Below lists several key
reasons for incorporating sustainable development
principles into protected areas of the National
Marine Sanctuary System:
1. To aid in setting priorities for any future
development and use. For example, Florida gave
up future development of mineral and other
resources in sea beds that might degrade the coral
or any of its other natural resources.
2. To protect the ecosystem and sensitive species from
development and disturbances.
3.
4.
5.
6.
To protect biodiversity and ecological functions
that may be altered with heavy use.
To allow for recovery of species affected by
disturbances and replenishment of over-utilized
species.
To ensure that healthy and natural quality
conditions are available for the purposes of
research and gathering of crucial baseline data.
Enable incorporation of activities and enjoyment
for future generations by ensuring compatibility
of various uses.
Ultimately, sustainable development practices lead
to the public's perception of sanctuary resources
as being of greater quality, such as increased size
and abundance of ecosystem resources. Protection
enhances the sanctuary's value to humans, which
leads to better business marketing of sustainable
uses and activities.
Initiatives to Mitigate Impact of Use,
Growth, and Development
A number of programs exist to minimize or
compensate for the impacts of use, growth, and
development in and around National Marine
Sanctuaries. These programs include Marine
Zoning Program, Water Quality Protection
Program, channel marking initiatives to prevent
grounding by boats, and providing mooring buoys,
instead of allowing boaters to anchor to the reef,
which may cause damage to the coral.
Management and Regulation: In addition, management
plays an important role in maintaining the integrity
of the National Marine Sanctuary. NOAA and
Florida Department of Environmental Protection
regulates activities within the boundaries of the
sanctuary. For example, regulations prohibit
dredging, anchoring, and release of exotic species
within sanctuary boundaries. Regulations, such
as the aforementioned, allow for special protection
of sensitive areas and species. Via regulation and
management, the agencies are able to address
specific problems. Aside from regulations, other
tools are available.
Zoning: When the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary was established, it encompassed all
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existing state and federal managed areas. While
zoning of marine areas has been used by other
countries, the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary is one of the first instances where the
United States has applied zoning to marine areas
for management of activities and uses. Zoning
allows for the development of diverse sustainable,
non-consumptive used and avoids user conflicts.
Zoning was specifically referred to in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary Protection Act.
There are 4 types of zoning. The first two types,
Ecological Reserves and Sanctuary Preservation
Areas, prohibit such activities as fishing and
anchoring to protect biodiversity. The sanctuary
is presently in the process of evaluating plans to
create a new zone, called the Dry Tortugas
Ecological Reserve. This is a sustainable
development tool to mitigate the increasing
environmental pressures from growing numbers of
visitors and commercial services within the Dry
Tortugas National Park, which is considered to be
the most pristine area of the sanctuary. The
designation as a reserve would also allow this area
to serve as a control site for research and
monitoring and preserve sensitive species. The
third type, Special Use Areas, only allows research
and public education activities. The fourth type is
Existing Management Zone. When the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary was established,
it encompassed all state and federally managed
areas within its boundaries, such as state parks or
wildlife refuges. These existing areas, such as
smaller sanctuaries and fishing zones, were
incorporated and continue to be managed by their
original agencies.
Integrated Inter-Agency Management Plans: A second
tool that is used to provide optimal protection of
sanctuary areas is integration of management plans
from agencies within all levels of government. An
example of this inter-agency integration is the
South Florida Ecosystem Management Restoration
and Sustainability Project. This project is carried
out in cooperation with all levels of government
agencies and local groups to mitigate pollution and
degradation of water quality inside and outside the
sanctuary. The project was initiated to holistically
address problems affecting the ecosystem.
Due to the its position within the landscape, the
sanctuary is greatly affected by all activities on land
upstream from it. Many effects, including those
from South Florida run off, agricultural practices
and historical changes to water flow for agricultural
use, inflow of pollution, increased water salinity
and decrease in water visibility and clarity must
be managed broadly and through interagency
cooperation. Due to the many overlapping zones
and areas inside the sanctuary that are managed
by different state and federal agencies, an
ecosystem-wide management plan was developed.
It was designed to incorporate, but avoid conflict
between, differing uses in all managed areas.
NOAA's Sustainable Seas Exploration: This is a new
program to provide an information base for
management decisions. NOAA began research
missions in marine sanctuaries in April 1999. In
the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, the
Sustainable Seas Exploration's first mission is to
characterize the area of the proposed Tortugas "No-
take" Ecological Reserves. This effort is part of
the Tortugas 2000 initiative, with a goal to obtain
baseline data, which will be used by other zones
and areas in the sanctuary for comparison studies.
If the proposed ecological reserve is established,
it would prohibit consumptive activities and restrict
diving and other activities, but would allow for
research.
EPA's Role in Sustainable Development of
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary
EPA acts in a participatory capacity in South
Florida environmental and public health issues. In
addition, EPA is a source of research funding and
sustainable development grants. Following are a
number of programs and initiatives that EPA, the
State of Florida and other entities are working on.
Water Quality Protection Program: Congress mandated
that EPA and the State of Florida, in consultation
with NOAA, develop a Water Quality Protection
Program for the sanctuary. EPA's Office of
Community Based Environmental Protection
(CBEP) assists in implementation of the Water
Quality Protection Program and location of funds
for the monitoring of recreation and commercial
fish catch statistics. The Water Quality Protection
Program addresses several water quality problems,
such as septic leachate from on-site sewage
disposal systems, sewage treatment, package plant
discharges, sewage discharge from live-on-board
vessels, storm water run-off, nutrient levels, water
clarity, oil spill contamination, pesticide and heavy
metal contamination. The goal of the program is
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to restore and maintain the physical and biological
integrity of the sanctuary. Under the program's
plan, biochemical ecological indicators are being
identified in the coral reef, hard bottom areas, and
sea grass ecosystems to gain information to
evaluate status, trends and effectiveness of remedial
actions.
The South Florida Initiative: The primary goal of EPA's
South Florida Initiative is to ensure sustainability
and coexistence of natural resources, agricultural
operations, and the expanding population.
Recently, Region 4 was granted responsibility for
the South Florida Urban Initiative, which was
previously run by EPA headquarters. The South
Florida Urban Initiative Strategic Plan incorporates
an EPA initiative to improve delivery of EPA
programs to the southeast urban corridor (from
Miami-Dade to Palm Beach county) and to prevent
urban sprawl westward into the Everglades.
Averting urban sprawl prevents further degradation
of water quality entering into the sanctuary from
the Everglades. Other activities under the initiative
include identifying connections between EPA
projects, such as solid waste, greenspace, air and
transportation projects. Also, the Florida
Governor's Commission for Sustainable South
Florida, which became known as Eastward Ho!
lists 110 recommendations that became a part of
EPA's South Florida Initiative.
Sustainable Development Challenge Grant: EPA Region
4 has a program, called the Sustainable
Development Challenge Grant, that they use to
encourage sustainable development activities. The
Sustainable Development Challenge Grant was a
result of President Clinton's "high priority" actions
to encourage communities to "invest in a
sustainable future that links environmental
protection, economic prosperity, and community
well-being". The grant can be used by
communities for cultivation of sustainable
development initiatives and by small businesses
to promote development of new technologies used
in sustainable development activities.
Conclusion
Sustainable development is not only relevant for
communities inside the borders of the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary, but outside as well.
Changes in water flow, agriculture and urban
sprawl affect water quality and habitat in a number
of ecological settings. NOAA and other agencies
managing areas in the sanctuary ensure their plans
and activities are coordinated with the agencies
overseeing activities outside sanctuary boundaries
to ensure compatibility and sustain development
that will not impair the sanctuary. This field studies
unit allows us to see the interconnectedness of the
South Florida ecosystem. We have had the
opportunity to see that activities that were thought
to only impact isolated local areas actually have
effects for the sanctuary as a whole. Environmental
protection at the ecosystem level is why sustainable
development, both inside and outside the
boundaries of the sanctuary, is important.
THE NATIONAL WILDLIFE REFUGE
SYSTEM
By Kate Rickett
Introduction
The National Wildlife Refuge System began as a
desire to preserve wildlife and habitat for the
American people to enjoy for generations. Public
concern over the unrestricted harvest of food and
commerce were mounting in the late 1800s and
early 1900s. Specifically, populations of waterfowl
in the South Florida area were being decimated
for their plumage to be used for lady's chapeaus.
Conservationists realized that without immediate
steps towards preserving and providing habitat for
birds (waterfowl, migratory, etc.), several species
would be lost. In 1903, President Theodore
Roosevelt championed the cause. Focusing on a
small island populated with pelicans, ibises, herons
and roseate spoonbills in Florida's Indian River,
he signed an Executive Order establishing the first
national wildlife refuge, Pelican Island Refuge.
Background of The National Wildlife
Refuge System
Currently, there are over 500 refuges across the 50
states and U.S. territories. In South Florida, there
are 4 refuges; Pelican Island Refuge, Great White
Heron Refuge, National Key Deer Refuge and
Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge.
Following is a brief description of the South Florida
Wildlife Refuges.
Pelican Island Refuge: see description in Introduction.
Great White Heron Refuge: Established in 1908 by
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Theodore Roosevelt, this refuge was founded for
reasons similar to the Pelican Island Refuge.
Conservationists were seeking protection for birds
whose feathers were highly valued for hats. This
refuge is a group of isolated keys with plush, low
growing mangroves.
National Key Deer Refuge: Established in 1957, the
purpose of this refuge is to protect and provide
habitat for the Key deer. In the late 1950s, there
were only 50 Key deer in the area. The Key deer
population today is around 300.
Crocodile Lake National Wildlife Refuge: This refuge is
closed to the public due to the sensitive nature of
the habitat required for the American crocodile and
other threatened species.
Conclusion
The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) is
a patchwork of public lands specifically set aside
for the preservation of flora, fauna and habitat.
NWRS not only provides a protected area for
endangered and threatened species, but it also
provides man with educational and recreational
opportunities. NWRS is a way for children and
adults to get back into nature and learn about
wildlife, ecosystems, nature and habitat. However,
NWRS does not exist in isolation. Its boundaries
are invisible and are vulnerable to man's presence
and activity. Thus, we must be cognizant and
vigilant in our continual fight to protect these areas
by focusing on the mitigation of transboundary
pollution, poachers, consumerism, lifestyle effects
and economic activities that adversely effect
habitat/wildlife.
FIELD TRIPS TO NATIONAL MARINE
SANCTUARY OFFICE AND TO BIG PINE
WILDLIFE REFUGE
By Kerianne Gardner
Morning:
Visit National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration's (NOAA) Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary Office
Team presentation and breakfast at Montego Bay,
followed by a field trip to the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary offices in Marathon. An
overview of the National Marine Sanctuary was
presented by Joyce Newman, of National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA)
Education and Outreach Division. An informative
and entertaining slide presentation and lecture were
given by John Nazzaro, of NOAA's Key West
office, and Bill Goodwin, of NOAA's Damage
Assessment Division. An information folder and
colorful brochures were distributed. In addition,
the Interns were offered an option to have NOAA's
research report entitled "Strategy for Stewardship:
Final Management Plan/Environmental Impact
Statement for Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary (1996)" sent to the Intern's home office.
Afternoon:
Travel to Big Pine Key to meet with representatives
of the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and
visit the Big Pine Wildlife Refuge (endangered
habitat and species Key deer and others).
Jim Bell, of US FWS, along with Chris Hawkings,
also of USFWS, took the Interns on a two-stop
tour. The first stop, we saw a fire management
area within the Wildlife Refuge. On the second
stop, Jim Bell crinkled a plastic grocery bag at the
side of the road. To our amazement, two key deer
appeared from the depths of the trees that bordered
the roadway. Jim informed us that these seemingly
stunted species has become accustomed to the
presence of people, and often associate the "crinkle
sound" with their favorite food- potato chips!
Despite our sadness at the domestication of nature's
species, we were quick to take advantage of the
photo opportunity that the crinkle sound afforded
us (see photo at start of chapter).
CONCLUSION
This field studies unit has allowed us to see the
interconnectedness of the South Florida ecosystem.
We learned that activities we had previously
viewed as local impacts actually have effects for
the ecosystem as a whole. Environmental
protection at the ecosystem level is why sustainable
development, both inside and outside the
boundaries of the sanctuary, the wildlife refuge or
the Florida Keys, is important. A disturbance in a
seemingly remote and unconnected area has
potential to adversely impact resources in other
locations, as the next section demonstrates.
Chapter Three
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
INDEX OF NATIONAL MARINE
SANCTUARY HANDOUTS DISTRIBUTED
BY EIAL DUJOVNY
(Brochures published by National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA))
A Tour of the Sanctuaries (brief description of each
U.S. National Marine Sanctuary)
Channel Islands: Diving in the Channel Islands
National Marine Sanctuary (map)
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (map and
inventory of regulated activities)
Gulf of the Farallones National Marine Sanctuary
(map and informational brochure)
NOAA Fisheries: Conserving our Nation's Living
Waters (informational brochure)
Olympic Coast National Marine Sanctuary (map/
informational brochure)
Seakeys Habitat Guide to the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary: Past, Present, FutureNew
Edition (map/informational brochure)
NOAA Brochures may be obtained from
the following locations:
Via Internet:
http://kingfish.ssp.nmfs.gov/home-page.html
or
Via Mail/Phone request:
NOAA Fisheries Headquarters
1315 East-West Highway
Silver Spring, Maryland 20910-3226
(301)713-2239
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Coral Reefs and
Coastal Zone
Management
ABSTRACT:
Coral reefs are among the most biologically diverse and
productive communities on Earth. They require high
amounts of light and oxygen, low quantities of turbidity and
nutrients, stable temperature and open ocean salinity levels.
Natural factors and human disturbances can cause coral reefs
to deteriorate. The major threats to coral reefs resulting from
anthropogenic (human-based) activities include: industrial
and agricultural pollution, recreational activities, sewage,
over exploitation of fisheries and potentially global climate
change. Governmental intervention, education and
cooperation of people throughout the world is necessary for
the survival of coral reef ecosystems. Mapping, monitoring,
research, conservation, mitigation and restoration play
important roles in the challenge to manage this precious
resource for the future. Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef
Protection, U.S. Coral Reef Task Force, Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary and Protection Act are a few of
the initiatives toward sustaining coral reefs.
GROUP 4:
Sonia Altieri
Brandon Carter
Erika Clark
David Erickson
Juan Paez
Thursday, November 4, 1999
This chapter explores the intricacies of the Coral Reef
Ecosystem, from biological functions, to worldwide
political implications. Juan Paez introduces the coral reef
ecosystem, the related geography, and the importance of
this ecosystem. Brandon Carter expands on the
information presented by Juan via a detailed discussion
of the complex biological processes associated with the
coral reef ecosystem. Brandon's section includes a
technical explanation of coral anatomy and life history.
Erika Clark presents the effects of anthropogenic and
natural impacts on coral health. Sonia Altieri embarks
on a description of the ongoing coral reef protection efforts
at the national and international level. Dave Erickson
helps us to envision the future potential impacts to coral
reefs, such as effects from global climate change.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
DEFINING A CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEM
& GEOGRAPHY (WHAT & WHERE)
By Juan D. Paez
Introduction
Coral reefs are among the most diverse and
productive communities on Earth. They are found
in the warm, clear, shallow waters of tropical
oceans worldwide. Coral reefs of the western
Pacific are much more diverse than those of the
Atlantic and Caribbean. Reefs have functions
ranging from providing food and shelter to fish
and invertebrates to protecting the shore from
erosion. In addition, revenue from tourists attracted
to the beauty of coral reefs can be a significant
source of income for human communities in these
areas.
The Florida reef tract is the most extensive living
coral reef system in North American waters and
the third largest system in the world. The largest
barrier reef is Australia's Great Barrier Reef and
the second largest is the Belizean barrier reef. All
of these reefs are created by a community of
organisms which produce calcium carbonate
(CaC03).
Form and Function of Coral Reefs
Coral reefs consist of many diverse species of
corals. These corals, in turn, are made up of tiny
organisms called polyps. A coral colony may
consist of thousands of polyps. Polyps are typically
carnivorous, feeding on small particles floating in
the water. Together, these coral animals use their
calcium carbonate to build an underwater city over
the course of thousands of years. Calcium
carbonate is produced by many marine plants and
animals, including some species of algae, and many
marine invertebrates. These organisms use the
calcium carbonate as a skeleton to form a rigid,
wave resistant structure called a reef. When the
primary reef-building organisms are corals of the
phylogenetic order Scleractinia and certain algal
species, the structure is called a coral reef.
Under ideal conditions, some species of coral form
boulders which can be taller than an adult human.
This process takes decades as boulder-type corals
grow less than one centimeter per year. Thinner,
branching corals grow as quickly as ten centimeters
per year. The age of corals can be determined by
examining coral growth rings, similar to counting
rings in the trunk of a tree or through the use of
radioisotopes. Coral can reproduce asexually or
sexually.
Virtually all reef dwelling corals have a symbiotic
(mutually beneficial) relationship with an algae
called zooxanthellae. This plant-like algae live
inside the coral polyps and perform photosynthesis,
producing food which is shared with the coral. In
exchange the coral provides the algae with
protection and access to light, which is necessary
for photosynthesis. The zooxanthellae also lend
their color to their coral symbionts. Coral
bleaching occurs when corals lose their
zooxanthellae, exposing the white calcium
carbonate skeletons of the coral colony. There are
a number of stresses or environmental changes that
may cause bleaching including disease, excess
shade, increased levels of ultraviolet radiation,
sedimentation, pollution, salinity changes and
increased temperatures.
Where can Coral Reefs be Found?
Coral reefs can be found in waters surrounding land
masses that fall within a narrow range of physical
parameters. Generally, reef-building corals are
restricted to the tropics, the area between the Tropic
of Cancer (23.5 degrees north latitude) and the
Tropic of Capricorn (23.5 degrees south latitude).
Tropical waters are generally warm, clear, low in
nutrients and have a stable temperature and salinity.
Coral reefs are the net result of thousands of years
of growth. As such, many are among the planet's
oldest living communities. The total area inhabited
by coral reefs is unknown, although it probably
exceeds 600,000 square kilometers.
Physical Requirements of Coral Reefs
Coral reefs require high amounts of light and
oxygen, low quantities of turbidity and nutrients,
stable temperature and open ocean salinity levels.
Following are the numerical data on the ideal
physical environment requirements for coral reefs.
High light - surface irradiance of 2,000 uE /sq m/s
High oxygen - 5.0-7.0 milligrams per liter
Low turbidity - 0.01 - 0.10 milligrams per liter
Low nutrients - 0.01 - O.lOuM [Nitrogen or Phosphorus]
Stable temperature -18 - 30 degrees Celsius
Stable open ocean salinity - 33 - 36 parts per thousand
Chapter Four
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Classification of Coral Reefs
Reefs are generally classified in three types.
Fringing reefs, the most common type, project
seaward directly from the shores of islands or
continents. Barrier reefs are platforms separated
from the adjacent land by a bay or lagoon. The
longest barrier reefs occur off the coasts of
Australia and Belize. Atolls rest on the tops of
submerged volcanos. They are usually circular or
oval, with a central lagoon. Parts of the atoll may
emerge as islands. Over 300 atolls are found in
the south Pacific. The maximum depth for actively
growing coral and algae is approximately 70
meters.
Ecologic and Economic Benefits of Coral
Reefs
The rigidity of coral reefs helps protect the
shoreline from destructive tropical storm waves.
Reefs provide habitats for hundreds of species of
marine organisms, including commercially
important finfish and shellfish. Scuba diving,
snorkeling and sport fishing dominate the Keys'
economy, producing millions of dollars annually
in revenue for local businesses. Ecologically
speaking, coral reefs are diverse places, containing
22 of the 23 animal phyla found on the planet. Coral
reefs are among the most productive habitats,
producing 2,000 decagrams of carbon per square
meter per year, and are the oldest habitat, dating
400 million years old in some areas.
Detrimental Impacts on Coral Reefs
The deterioration of the marine environment in the
Keys is no longer a matter of debate. There is a
decline of healthy corals, an invasion by algae into
seagrass beds and reefs, a decline in certain
fisheries, an increase in coral diseases and coral
bleaching. In Florida Bay, reduced freshwater flow
has resulted in an increase in plankton blooms,
sponge and seagrass die-offs and fish kills.
Storms, heat waves and other natural events can
be blamed for some of the deterioration, but the
activities of people are also responsible. Over three
million people visit the Keys annually, 70 percent
of whom visit the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary. Over 80,000 people reside in the Keys
year-round. There are significant direct and
indirect effects from the high use of sanctuary
resources by residents and tourists. The damage
done by people hinders the ability of marine life to
recover from naturally occurring stresses.
Other Communities Associated with Coral
Reefs
Seagrasses are flowering plants that live underwater. Like
land plants, seagrasses produce oxygen. The
depths at which seagrasses are found is limited by
water clarity which determines the amount of light
reaching the plant. Although seagrasses occur
throughout the coastal waters of Florida, they are
often associated with coral reef communities.
Mangroves are one of Florida's true natives. They thrive
in salty environments because they are able to
obtain freshwater from saltwater. Different species
do this in a variety of ways. Some secrete excess
salt through their leaves, while other block
absorption of salt at their roots. Worldwide, more
than 50 species of mangroves exist. Three species
are found in Florida: red mangroves, black
mangrove and white mangrove.
Why Are Coral Reefs Important?
Biodiversity: Coral reefs are among the most biologically
rich ecosystems on earth. About 4,000 species of
fish and 800 species of reef-building corals have
been described to date.
Seafood: Much of the world's poor, most of whom are
located within the coastal zones of developing
regions, depend directly on reef species for their
protein needs. Globally, one-fifth of all animal
protein consumed by humans comes from marine
environmentsan annual catch valued at $50
billion to $100 billion. In developing countries,
coral reefs contribute about one-quarter of the total
fish catch, providing food, according to one
estimate, for one billion people in Asia alone.
New medicines: Coral reef species offer particular
promise because of the array of chemicals produced
by many of these organisms for self-protection.
This potential has only barely been explored.
Corals are already being used for bonegrafts and
chemicals found within several species appear
useful for treating viruses. Chemicals within reef-
associated species may offer new treatments for
leukemia, skin cancer and other tumors. According
to one estimate, one half of all new cancer drug
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Coral Reefs and
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
research now focuses on marine organisms.
Other products: Reef ecosystems yield a host of other
economic goods, ranging from corals and shells
made into jewelry and tourism curios to live fish
and corals used in aquariums, to sand and limestone
used by the construction industry. However, such
extractive activities are usually damaging to these
habitats.
Recreational value: More than 100 countries stand to
benefit from the recreational value provided by
their reefs. Florida's reefs pump $1.6 billion into
the economy each year from tourism alone.
Caribbean countries, which attract millions of
visitors annually to their beaches and reefs, derive,
on average, half of their gross national product
from the tourism industry. In 1990, the tourism
industry of Carribean countries was valued at $8.9
billion.
Coastal protection: Coral reefs buffer adjacent shorelines
from wave action and the impact of storms. The
benefits from this protection are widespread, and
range from maintenance of highly productive
mangrove fisheries and wetlands to supporting
local economies built around ports and harbors.
As is often the case in the tropics, nearby reefs
often provide shelter to ports and harbors.
What Can We Learn from Coral
Communities?
(Coral Reefs as Environmental Indicators)
Coral reefs and their associated communities of
seagrasses, mangroves, and mudflats are sensitive
indicators of water quality and the ecological
integrity of the ecosystem. They tolerate relatively
narrow ranges of temperature, salinity, water clarity
and other chemical and water quality
characteristics. Reefs thus are excellent sentinels
of the quality of their environment. Proper
monitoring of reefs can identify changes in water
quality or impacts from land-based activities.
Monitoring changes in water quality can help local
resource managers understand the implications of
actions occurring in watersheds that are associated
with particular coral communities.
What Kinds of Stress?
There are two types of stress associated with reef
systems: natural and anthropogenic (human-
induced). Reefs display a surprising adaptation to
short-term natural catastrophic events, such as
hurricanes, and usually recover to normal
community structure. These natural events can
even be considered beneficial in regards to
biological diversity. Severe storm events on land
can topple large trees. This opens up the forest to
recolonization and results in a greater diversity of
plants. This same process occurs with storm
impacts to reefs. The damaged area of the reef is
often recolonized by a greater diversity of
organisms than existed before the storm. In the
long term, these naturally occurring catastrophic
events benefit the ecological integrity of the reef.
However, reefs are not .well-adapted to survive
exposure to long-term stress. Some examples
include agricultural and industrial runoff, increased
sedimentation from land clearing, human sewage
and toxic discharges. Many land-based activities
have important implications for reefs. Agricultural
activities can introduce herbicides, pesticides,
fertilizers, and runoff from animal feed lots.
Sewage discharges can introduce nitrogen and
phosphate compounds, along with pathogens and
mixtures of toxics. Uncontrolled land clearing can
result in erosion, with resultant increases in
sediment loads to surface waters. Roadways,
parking lots and buildings consist of impervious
surfaces. These surfaces increase runoff rates and
carry with those waters mixtures of dissolved
substances to surface waters. The surface waters
in any watershed eventually discharge into, or near,
coastal waters. These waters can then impact coral
communities that are associated with these
discharge points. Thus, seemingly unconnected
land-based activities occurring in distant locations
have impacts to the health and integrity of coral
reefs.
What is the EPA doing?
The EPA has joined with National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Association (NOAA) and the state
of Florida in the establishment of the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS). This
marine sanctuary operates under a broad based
management plan intended to enhance the
sustainability of the Florida Keys reefs. Other
important efforts in coral reef conservation and
management include the U.S. Coral Reef Task
Force, and International and U.S. Coral Reef
Initiatives. EPA is in the process of developing
Chapter Four
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
guidance for a watershed approach to coral
ecosystem protection.
Conclusion
In additional to governmental intervention,
education and cooperation of people throughout
the world is necessary for the survival of coral reefs
ecosystems. The establishment of National Marine
Sanctuaries can provide opportunities to learn
about, appreciate, and protect this unique
ecosystem for future generations.
FORMATIVE PROCESSES, ECOLOGY,
AND HABITAT OF CORAL REEFS
By Brandon Carter
Introduction
Reef-building .(or hermatypic) corals are of the
order Scleractinia in the class Anthozoa of the
phylum Cnidaria. Approximately 6,000 species
of Anthozoans exist, all of them are marine. Reefs
are formed by calcium carbonate produced by tiny
coral polyps. While corals are the chief architects
of reef structure, they are not the only builders.
Coralline algae cement various corals together with
compounds of calcium. Other organisms, such as
tube worms and molluscs, donate their hard
skeletons to the reef structures. Together, these
algae and other organisms construct many different
types of reefs. Reefs are important land builders
in tropical areas, forming islands and altering
continental shorelines.
Coral Anatomy
Coral reefs consist of many diverse species of
corals, which are made up of tiny organisms called
polyps. The structure of the polyps and the skeleton
of the coral is a rather simple. A polyp is made up
of two cell layers: the epidermis, or external cell
layer, and the gastrodermis, or the stomach cell
layer. The non-tissue layer between the
gastrodermis and the epidermis is called the
mesoglea.
The polyp contains mesentery filaments (thread-
like appendages located at the mouth), which
contain nematocysts (stinging organelles that stun
prey) used in food capture, a pharynx, endothecal
dissepiments (horizontal layers of skeletal material)
and the columella (the central axis of the corallite
found below the mouth). The corallite is the part
of the skeleton deposited by one polyp. The
skeletal wall around each polyp is called the
"theca". The coral anatomy also includes
calcareous plate-like structures known as "septa".
The septa radiate from the wall to the center of the
corallite. There are two types of septa: insert septa,
which lie below the corallite wall and exsert septa,
which protrude above the corallite wall.
Corals are consist of two types: perforate and
imperforate. Perforate corals have porous
skeletons with connections between the polyps
through the skeleton. Imperforate corals have solid
skeletons.
Coral Reproduction
Corals exhibit both sexual and asexual
reproduction. The coral colony expands in size
by budding, where a new coral arises from a part
of the parent coral. Budding may be intratentacular,
in which the new bud forms from the oral discs of
the old polyp, or extratentacular in which the new
polyp forms from the base of the old polyp.
Another common type of asexual reproduction in
corals is fragmentation. Broken pieces of corals
that land on a suitable substrate may begin growing
and produce a new colony.
Mass spawning is one means of sexual
reproduction employed by many coral species. In
the mass spawning process, all the corals from one
species, and often the same genus, simultaneously
release their eggs and sperm within a 24-hour
period. Intraspecies spawning is common, but
mass spawning raises the possibility for
hybridization by congeneric species. Congeneric
breeding involves different species from the same
genus joining to potentially form hybrid species.
The zygote resulting from mass spawning develops
into larvae, called planula, which attaches itself to
a suitable substrate and grows into a new colony.
Some species of coral, such as Acropora, brood
their larvae. The sperm fertilizes the egg before
both are released from the coral. The larvae float
to the top, settle, and become another colony.
Symbiosis & Primary Production
Zooxanthellae are unicellular yellow-brown
(dinoflagellate) algae which live symbiotically in
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
the gastrodermis of reef-building corals. The
nutrients supplied by the zooxanthellae make it
possible for the corals to grow and reproduce
quickly enough to create reefs. Zooxanthellae
provide the corals with food in the form of
photosynthetic products. In turn, the coral provides
protection and access to light for the zooxanthellae.
Because of the need for light, corals containing
zooxanthellae only live in ocean waters less than
100 meters (or 328 feet) deep. They also only live
in waters above 20 degrees Celsius (68 degrees
Fahrenheit) and are intolerant of low salinity and
high turbidity.
It was once believed that all zooxanthellae
belonged to the species, Symbiodinium
microadriaticum. However, recently,
zooxanthellae of various corals have been found
to belong to at least 10 different algal taxa.
Interestingly, zooxanthellae found in closely related
coral species are not necessarily closely related
themselves, and zooxanthellae found in distantly
related coral species may, in fact, be closely related.
This suggests that coral and zooxanthellae
evolution did not occur in permanently associated
lineages. Rather, symbiotic recombination
probably shaped the evolutionary process, allowing
both symbionts to evolve separately.
Feeding
Corals can obtain food in a variety of ways. Reef-
building corals rely on the photosynthetic products
of zooxanthellae for the majority of their nutrients.
However, corals can also capture zooplankton for
food. Corals are suspension feeders utilizing two
main methods of prey capture: nematocyst
adhesion and mucus entrapment. Nematocysts on
the tentacles and mesentarial filaments can be used
to sting prey and move it into the mouth. Some
corals will trap prey in sticky mucus on their
tentacles and move the prey into the mouth using
the mucus and cilia. Prey size is correlated to polyp
size.
Most corals feed at night. This may be because
night is when the zooplankton travel into the water
column and become available for capture. Keeping
the tentacles retracted during the day may also help
corals avoid predation, protect themselves from UV
light and avoid shading their zooxanthellae.
Prey can be brought into contact with the tentacles
by direct interception (the flow of water moves the
particles toward impact with the tentacles), inertial
impaction (momentum of dense particles makes
them deviate from the water flow and impact the
tentacles) and by gravitational deposition (gravity
causes heavy particles to fall into the tentacles).
Regardless of the method of capture, prey is moved
through the mouth, down the pharynx, to the
gastrovascular cavity for digestion.
Habitat
Coral reefs provide habitats for a large variety of
organisms. These organisms rely on corals as a
source of food and shelter. Some organisms, such
as those within the taxonomic groups Porifera,
Polychaeta, Gastropoda, Crustacea, Echinodermata
and Pisces, use corals through mutualism (both
organisms benefit), commensalism (one organism
benefits from another without damage or benefit),
and parasitism (one organism benefits at the
expense of another).
Sponges (Porifera) are found inhabiting cavities
in the reef for the purpose of protection from
predators. They remove small chips of calcium
carbonate causing bioerosion in corals.
Polychaetes such as Hermodice carunculata and
Gastropods in the family Trochidae feed on corals.
Decapod crustaceans, such as shrimps and crabs,
depend on corals for shelter. Some fish, such as
the parrot fish (Scaridae), depend on corals for
protection against predators. Echinoderms, such
as Acanthaster planci, are coral predators.
There are many other species of fungi, sponges,
sea worms, crustaceans and molluscs that bore into
coral skeletons. Other organisms that inhabit the
coral reefs include sea urchins, jellyfish, oysters,
clams, turtles and sea anemones.
Conclusion
As demonstrated, coral reefs are complex systems
that provide a vast array of important ecological
services. Exceedingly diverse and productive
ecosystems, coral reefs teem with an abundance
of organisms that rely on them for food, shelter
and breeding grounds. Up to three thousand
organisms may coexist on a single reef. The density
of fish is, on average, one hundred times greater
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on the coral reef than in the average open ocean.
Coral reefs are havens of biodiversity. As they
grow, reefs attract more organisms. This bounty
in turn attracts larger predators, such as dolphins,
sharks, and sea turtles. Millions of seabirds
throughout the world also depend on these
ecosystems, nesting on tiny coral islands and
relying on the reefs for food.
CORAL REEFS: ANTHROPOGENIC
DISTURBANCE AND THREATS
By Erika Clark
Introduction
Coral re'efs are among the world's richest
ecosystems, second only to tropical rain forests in
land and animal diversity. However, they are
extremely sensitive environments that have special
temperature, salinity, light and oxygen and nutrient
requirements. .If environmental conditions fall
outside the acceptable range of these requirements,
the health and dynamics of a coral reef community
can be severely disrupted (U.S. EPA Coral Reef
Fact Sheet 1998).
Coral Reef Health
Healthy coral reefs are typically bathed in waters
that are warm, shallow, clear and relatively free of
nutrients. The actual physical conditions that limit
the geographic distribution of coral reef growth in
the oceans are subtle. Temperature is clearly
important at the global scale, with average annual
minimum temperatures more important than
summer maximums. Regional and local effects of
sedimentation, changes in salinity due to flooding
and river flow, and nutrients are also important.
When conditions are suitable, healthy reefs are
characterized by a dominant assemblage of benthic
organisms, mostly corals, which are especially
efficient at growth and reproduction when nutrient
concentrations are low. This efficiency gives the
corals an advantage over other benthic organisms
that grow more quickly, but require higher
concentrations of dissolved nutrients or plankton.
Natural factors and human disturbances can cause
coral reefs to deteriorate. Natural factors include
severe storms, changes in water temperature, rising
sea level, population explosions of predators, and
disease-induced die-offs of species that are
beneficial to the reef. Coral reefs recover from
natural disturbances differently than they do from
human impacts. For example, large waves
generated by storms cause severe short-term
damage to reefs that does not appear to have
negative long-term consequences. Indeed, cycles
of disturbance and recovery from storm damage
help to shape the dynamics of healthy coral reefs.
However, when storm damage is combined with
injury caused by pollution or overfishing, harm
can be more severe and long lasting. In some cases,
coral reefs may not recover (NOAA State of the
Coast Website).
Anthropogenic Threats to Coral Reefs
The major threats to coral reefs resulting from
anthropogenic (human-based) activities include:
industrial and agricultural pollution, recreational
activities, sewage and over exploitation of fisheries.
Pollution
Air and land based pollution have negative effects
on coral reef habitats. As globalization has
demanded more international and domestic
movement of people and products, coastal areas
are being more heavily accessed. They serve as
points of exchange for various transportation
modes and offer prime locations for industrial
operations.
Air Pollution: The increase in transportation and
industrial output is creating more air pollution,
which eventually reaches coastal watersheds
through wind deposition and acid rain. As the air
particles interact with the coral reef habitat, they
change the chemical balance of the water and
generate unhealthy conditions for marine species.
Land-based Pollution: Land-based pollution, such as
agricultural runoff and industrial discharges, also
introduce nutrients which offset the natural balance
of the coral reef ecosystem. Worldwide, there is
increased usage of fertilizers and pesticides in
agricultural practices. When these products are
not used efficiently, the excess indirectly or directly
flows to waterways and, eventually, to the ocean.
Fertilizers and pesticides add excessive nutrients
to the coral reef ecosystem and overstimulate
aquatic plant and algae growth. Industry is also
responsible for discharging by-products, such as
toxic substances, directly into coastal waters. Toxic
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substances cause scarring, bioaccumulation in fatty
tissue, reproductive failure or death in fish, shellfish
and other marine organisms.
Industrial Pollution Impact Example: Hawaii The reefs
in Hawaii are in relatively good shape. However,
coral is damaged by sugar mill discharges,
agricultural runoff, and sedimentation from
development. In addition, overfishing and anchor
damage cause problems for the reef ecosystem.
Recreation
Coastal areas are very popular spots for tourism.
Development projects for cities, hotels, housing
and recreation areas seem to be an increasing trend.
Many coastal areas are already overdeveloped and
are supporting an ever increasing population of
residents and visitors, often more than the area can
sustainably maintain. The drain on fresh water
resources affects coral reefs because without the
flow of freshwater from various waterways into
the ocean, coastal waters become too saline for
marine life to survive. Recreational activities in,
or near, coastal waters also disturb coral reefs and
marine life. An overwhelming presence of beach
and sea visitors can scare away marine species,
such as turtles and seals, and trample nesting areas
in the sand. Boaters damage the reef and marine
mammals when they carelessly speed in shallow
areas, and/or drop their anchor in reef areas. Divers
often unintentionally knock the reef with their fins
and equipment, and capture coral and species for
their collections.
Recreation Impact Example: Australia The Great Barrier
Reef Marine Park helps to protect the world's
largest coral reef, which stretches 1,240 miles
(2,000 km) in length. But, heavy recreational use,
such as camping, fishing, diving and boating has
resulted in reef damage from anchors, trash, coral
and shell collecting, and decreased fish
populations. In some areas, the reef has been
dredged and blasted to provide boat access. A
resort on Heron Island is believed to have caused
a drop in live coral cover from 41% to just 8% due
to tourists walking on the reef (Reef Relief
Website).
Recreation Impact Example: Florida The Florida Keys
host several million snorkelers, divers, fisherman
and boaters every year. Florida coral reefs are so
captivating that they have become the most popular
dive destination in the world. Florida reefs receive
ten times the number of divers as Australia, the
second highest rated diving area with ten times as
much reef. The Florida coral reefs are being
destroyed by the sheer numbers of visitors.
Sewage
As people continue to migrate to the coasts, sewage
treatment becomes an ever increasing problem. In
developed countries, larger coastal cities often have
tertiary sewage treatment plants which treat the
sewage, transport it through pipes and then deposit
it into ocean waters. Unfortunately, many
developing nations and smaller cities have
undeveloped or under capacitated sewage systems
which fail to properly treat sewage before
depositing it into ocean waters. Improperly treated
sewage contains pathogens, which are disease-
causing microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria
and parasites. Pathogens are harmful to coral and
other marine species because they cause disease
and sickness.
Sewage Impact Example: Puerto Rico Coastal mangroves
have been depleted and island deforestation has
significantly increased soil runoff, burying reefs
and smothering corals. Sewage, oil-related
pollution and industrial wastes are also significant
threats to Puerto Rican reefs.
Overfishing
Coral reefs, offer numerous marine species habitat
for protection, feeding, and safe reproduction. The
diversity of life that coral reef ecosystems sustain
is amazing. Naturally, fishing fleets capitalize on
these known areas of abundance. Using modern,
technologically-advanced fishing equipment and
boats, they have pushed most fish populations to
the brink. Unfortunately, over 20 million tons of
fish and other marine animals (a quarter of the
global catch) are killed and discarded yearly
because fishermen indiscriminately capture
everything in the span of their huge nets, multi-
mile-long lines, and other gear. Overfishing
disrupts the balance of species by removing
important predators which maintain the health and
balance of the coral reef ecosystem. Fishermen
also damage coral reefs by dragging nets and
equipment over the reef, abandoning drift nets and
dropping anchors directly on the reef which further
entangle species.
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Overfished Species: Atlantic swordfish, sharks, Atlantic
sea scallops, bluefin tuna, Nassau grouper, jewfish
and several other species of snapper and groupers
(Center for Marine Conservation Website).
Fishing Industry Impacts Example: Indonesia In
Indonesia, food fish and aquarium fish are caught
using the poison, sodium cyanide. Sometimes
poison is shot directly at the target fish to stun them
and make them easier to catch alive. Other times,
entire 55-gallon drums of cyanide are dumped onto
the reefs, turning them into aquatic graveyards.
The chemical kills living coral, invertebrates and
non-target fish. Dynamite is also used for fishing
in Indonesia. Fishermen blast reefs with dynamite,
or other explosives, which ruptures fish air
bladders. When the air bladders are ruptured, the
fishermen can simply scoop the fish up as they float
to the surface. The explosions destroy reef
formations, kill non-target fish (by-catch) and often
kill or maim the fishermen themselves.
Conclusion
Coral reefs in the United States and around the
world are in serious decline, especially those near
shallow shelves and dense populations. It has been
estimated that 10 percent of the Earth's coral reefs
have already been seriously degraded, and about
60% of the remainder are seriously threatened
(Reef Relief Website). If this decline goes on
unchecked, it will lead to the degradation of most
of the world's reef resources during the next
century. The major challenge for countries with
coral reefs is to protect and manage their reefs in a
way that sustains their value. The following section
discusses the actions that the United States is taking
to protect coral reefs.
CORAL REEF PROTECTION &
MANAGEMENT
By Sonia Altieri
Introduction
The reef biome is less than one percent of the
earth's surface, and is the richest type of ecosystem
in the ocean, and the second richest on earth, after
tropical forests. Coral reefs provide essential
habitat to one-third of marine fish species, build
tropical islands, protect coasts from waves and
storms, create sand, contain potential
pharmaceutical value and support the U.S. tourism
and fishing industries. Coral reefs are also an
integral part of some cultures, providing a source
of food, materials, and traditional activities. These
highly valued, fragile, and biologically diverse
systems require adequate protection and
management on a domestic and global scale.
The Challenges of Managing Reefs
There are many variables which explain the
challenges of managing coral reefs. First, most of
the nation's coral reefs have not been mapped,
assessed, and characterized. Evidence suggests that
coral reefs are deteriorating worldwide; about 10
percent of the world's reefs may already be
degraded beyond recovery. Scientists and policy
makers are still lacking the essential data to
determine the causes of this deterioration. Second,
there is not one particular activity that produces a
negative effect among the coral reefs. Cumulative
effects of human activities, such as population,
shoreline development, increased sediments in the
water, trampljng by tourists and divers, ship
groundings, poor water quality from runoff and
inadequate sewage treatment, overfishing and
fishing with poisons and explosives have the
potential to harm reefs. Hurricanes, storms and
diseases add to the complexity of this mix. Third,
coral reefs may be impacted by the destruction of
other ecosystems, including mangroves, wetlands,
seagrass beds and other essential habitats of reef
species. Mapping, monitoring, research,
conservation, mitigation and restoration will help
meet the challenges of managing this precious
resource in the future.
Mapping, Monitoring, and Research
Programs
Currently, a nationally coordinated effort does not
exist to determine the status of coral reefs, the
causes of coral reef decline, or the impact of natural
and anthropogenic stress on coral reefs and
associated ecosystems (Research and Monitoring:
Proposed Actions, U.S. Coral Reef Task Force,
Working Group on Ecosystem Science and
Conservation, March, 1999).
Several monitoring programs are attempting to
address some of the unanswered questions about
coral reefs. The National Ocean Service and the
Florida Department of Environmental Protection's
Florida Marine Research Institute are involved in
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a seven year cooperative effort to map the type
and extent of benthic habitats within the Florida
Keys. National Undersea Research Program
(NURP), the MacArthur Foundation, and the
National Science Foundation continue to lead
major research and monitoring efforts at the Florida
Keys Marine Sanctuary.
Some of the other cooperative efforts include:
Flower Garden Banks Sanctuary. NOAA, in
partnership with Mineral Management Service,
Mobil Oil Corporation and Texaco, supports a
monitoring program that annually collects coral
population and growth data at the Flower Garden
Banks Sanctuary.
The Carribean Coastal Marine Productivity
Program(CCMPP) is a regional monitoring effort
which addresses fisheries, pollution and scientific
problems related to coral reefs.
The Atlantic and Gulf Reef Assessment Project,
sponsored by the University of Miami, maps coral
reef health.
AQUANET, a program created by the International
Center for Living Aquatic Resources, trains
divemasters to lead reef assessment teams.
Reef Check, a global volunteer monitoring
program, utilizes basic assessment methods to
document exploitation of reef resources throughout
the world.
Monitoring Methods Several coral reef
monitoring methods and techniques were
developed during the ASEAN-Australia Living
Coastal Resources project between 1984-1994.
Some of these methods and techniques, along with
others being utilized include the following.
Manta-low Method involves towing a diver behind
a boat for a series of two-minute intervals. Transect
tapes are laid on the reef to assess categories on
the bottom and to obtain counts of fish.
Spatial Variability and Temporal Change
Monitoring distinguishes "normal" changes
attributed to geographic differences in evolutionary
history, biogeographic processes, and
environmental settings from those changes which
are attributable to human impacts.
Measuring Percentage Cover of living corals is a
method that records the presence of key indicator
species, such as lobster, clams and major fish
species.
Restoration, Mitigation, and Management
The range of coral reef restoration projects includes
re-cementing damaged reefs, applying antibiotics
to diseased reefs and using technology to protect
coral reef ecosystems. The National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) is involved
with reef restoration in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary. The Columbus Iselin Reef
Restoration site is one of NOAA's most recent
projects. In 1994, a research vessel owned by the
University of Miami, went aground on an ancient
coral reef in Looe Key National Marine Sanctuary.
This grounding resulted in extensive damage to
the reef, as well as significant marine debris. The
University of Miami settled with NOAA for 3.76
million dollars in natural resource damage claims.
Innovative techniques and approaches have been
developed to restore coral reef systems. Harold
Hudson, a regional biologist for the Florida Keys
National Marine Sanctuary in Key Largo, re-
cements overturned or broken coral to the reef. He
developed a technique using a natural aspirator to
vacuum coral diseases, such as Black Band. Many
Pacific Island cultures have developed traditional
conservation and management systems that control
over-exploitation. In an effort to save diminishing
fish stocks, the island of Apo, located off the
southern coast of Negros, Philippines, had
developed a new strategy to protecting their coral
reefs. The islanders voted in 1986 to set aside eight
percent of their entire reef as a reserve where no
human activity, except scuba diving and snorkeling,
would be permitted. Within two years, stocks of
edible fish and shellfish had recovered to such an
extent that they could catch all the fish needed.
As a result, other island nations have utilized Apo's
strategy as a model.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Coral Reef Protection Efforts
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
began its effort to survey, develop a methodology,
and to gather data on coral reefs in 1994. Ken
Potts, coral reef expert for EPA, noted that 1996
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was a good year to collect data. The first time that
EPA was able to compare the coral reef data was
M998/1999. He noted that it will take about ten
years of data collection and analysis to gain a better
understanding about coral reefs.
The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and
Protection Act (HR5909) designated over 2,800
square nautical miles of coastal waters as the
Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary. The Act
requires the U.S. EPA and the State of Florida to
implement a Water Quality Protection Program in
cooperation with NOAA. As a result, programs
involving the monitoring of seagrass habitats, coral
reef and hardbottom communities, and water
quality were implemented. The purpose of this
effort is to recommend priority corrective actions
and compliance schedules that address point and
nonpoint sources of pollution. The goal is to restore
and maintain the chemical, physical and biological
integrity of the sanctuary.
The Florida Keys Coral Reef Monitoring Project This
project is a large-scale, multiple-investor project
funded by the EPA. It is designed to assess the
status and trend of Florida's offshore reefs, patch
reefs and hardbottom communities over a five year
period. The objective of the coral reef/hardbottom
monitoring program is to evaluate progress toward
protecting and restoring the living marine resources
of the sanctuary. EPA has sampled approximately
42 reefs.
The EPA uses video transect sampling at these sites.
This monitoring process involves the use of video
units, anchor pins, set pins, cross bars, floating
polypropylene lines and brass chains. There are
four video units at each site. A video unit is
composed of two marking stakes separated by
approximately 20 meter distance. One anchor pin
marks the starting point, while the other anchor
pin marks the finishing point for a set of video
transects. At each transect, a diver goes into the
water to obtain data on species with a video camera.
Three passes are made through each video station
with a video camera held vertically in the water
column at a distance of approximately 50
centimeters from the reef surface. As result of this
project, a software program (PointCount) was
created to assist with image analysis. It is now
possible to analyze a large number of underwater
images with this important tool.
Other EPA Coral Reef Projects
There has been an increase of coral reef diseases
in recent years. Many diseases have been
identified, although there is still a demand for more
knowledge at this point. For this reason, the EPA's
Gulf Breeze Office has been conducting a coral
disease monitoring project.
The EPA supports public education and outreach
in the Florida Keys. The EPA entered into an
interagency agreement with NOAA to emphasize
this goal. The Coral Reef Classroom informs
students about water quality and other
environmental issues in the Keys. In the past, EPA
has provided $20,000 for a Coral Reef Awareness
Campaign.
United States Coral Reef Protection Efforts
Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef Protection. President
Clinton issued "Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef
Protection in 1998" to preserve and protect the
biodiversity, health, heritage, and social and
economic values of U.S. coral reef ecosystems and
the marine environment. This Executive Order
stipulates that all federal agencies, whose actions
may affect the U.S. coral reef ecosystems, shall:
(a) identify their actions that may affect U.S. coral
reef ecosystems; (b) utilize their programs and
authorities to protect and enhance the conditions
of such ecosystems and (c) to the extent permitted
by law, ensure that any actions they authorize, fund
or carry out will not degrade the conditions of such
ecosystems.
U.S. Coral Reef Task Force was created to develop and
implement a comprehensive research and mapping
program to inventory, monitor and "...identify the
major causes and consequences of degradation of
coral reef ecosystems," as stipulated in Executive
Order 13089. The task force was established as
part of the 1998 National Ocean Conference in
Monterey, California. Senior leaders from eleven
federal agencies and representatives of seven states
and territories participate on this task force. Several
workgroups were created by the task force to
develop immediate actions and longer-term
strategies to fulfill the requirements of this
Executive Order. The. following is a listing of such
groups and lead agencies:
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Water and Air Quality (EPA lead)
Coastal Uses (NOAA lead)
Ecosystem Science and Conservation (DOI lead)
Mapping and International Synthesis (NASA lead)
International (DOS lead)
This task force announced a series of actions in
March 1999 to begin an effort to strengthen
protection of natural coral reefs around the world,
such as:
Launch a comprehensive effort to map and assess
U.S. coral reefs in the Pacific.
Establish a coordinated network of coral reef
protected areas.
Implement a coordinated coral reef monitoring
program.
Coordinate efforts among federal, state, territory
and other partners to build emergency response
capabilities and restore injured reefs.
Strengthen local and regional efforts to protect
coral reefs.
U.S. Ocean Report. This past September, U.S. federal
agencies submitted the first National Ocean Report
to the President entitled "Turning to the Sea:
American's Ocean Future". The report from the
cabinet responds to President Clinton's request at
the National Ocean Conference (June 1998) for
recommendations on a coordinated, focused and
long-term federal ocean policy. This report
contains about 150 recommended actions to
protect, restore and explore America's ocean
resources (including coral reefs).
International Cooperation
In the early 1990's, international organizations
recognized that reefs were declining and formed
the United Nations Environment Programme,
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission of
UNESCO, World Conservation Union, World
Meteorological Organization (UNEP-IOC-IUCN-
WMO) Global Task Team on the implications of
climate change on coral reefs. A group of coral
reef experts were tasked with selecting the basic
methods and protocols for monitoring reefs and
reporting on the implications of global climate
change for reefs.
International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI). The
International Coral Reef Initiative (1994) was
founded by the U.S to establish reef management
policy that protects, manages, monitors and restores
fragile reef ecosystems worldwide. In May 1995,
100 participants from 44 nations representing
governments, international organizations,
multilateral development banks, non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), scientists and the private
sector met in Dumaguete (near Apo Island) and
launched an action plan for saving the world's
reefs. At this meeting, it was explicitly expressed
that reefs need to be managed place by place, and
coastal communities with coral resources need to
be actively engaged in all aspects of planning and
management.
Currently there are 73 countries participating in
this international effort. International activities
under this Initiative include a major diplomatic
campaign and a series of global and regional
workshops convened in the Pacific, the Tropical
Americas, the South and East Asian Seas, East
Africa and the Western Indian Ocean.
A Call to Action and Framework for Action are
two documents developed through the 1994
International Coral Reef Initiative. Another prime
accomplishment of this initiative is the
establishment of the Global Coral Reef Monitoring
Network (GCRMN). This network will gather
baseline data on coral reefs around the world to
enable more efficient management and long-term
conservation of coral reefs.
International Year of the Reef (1997). This event was a
major assessment, education and collaboration
effort for coral reef systems. Several outcomes
arose from this effort, including diagnosis of
representative reef conditions throughout the
tropical seas, production of a variety of courses,
video tapes, brochures, other educational materials
and creation or revision of coastal management
plans.
International Year of the Ocean (1998). The United
Nations declared 1998 the International Year of
the Ocean as a means for organizations and
governments to increase public awareness and
understanding of the oceans.
Conclusion
The "First Biennial Report to Congress: Water
Quality Protection Program" for the Florida Keys
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
National Marine Sanctuary (1996) reports that the
variety and magnitude of recent ecological
problems in the Sanctuary and adjacent areas
indicate that existing management actions are not
adequate to prevent continuing environmental
degradation.
If present trends continue, some coral reef experts
believe that seventy percent of coral reefs may
disappear within forty years. Presently, thirty
percent of the world's reefs are considered to be in
critical condition. Therefore, it is imperative that
efforts to protect and restore reefs continue in the
future.
POTENTIAL FUTURE RISKS TO
CORAL REEFS: GLOBAL WARMING,
POPULATION PRESSURES,
INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS
By David Erickson
Introduction
As you have learned from the previous sections,
coral reefs are among the world's most fragile and
endangered ecosystems. Coral reefs face a variety
of natural and human induced threats. Human
activities that potentially threaten the health of coral
reefs include: industrial and agricultural pollution,
recreational activities, sewage, sedimentation,
dredging, damage from freight vessels in shipping
lanes adjacent to reef sanctuaries and over-
exploitation of fisheries. As these are human-based
threats, they can be addressed though a variety of
laws and regulations specially tailored to protect
the reefs and restrict human activity in the
environment surrounding the reefs. While many
of these issues can be addressed by local
governments, there is substantial evidence that
suggests-coral reefs face major threats which may
be global in nature. Most of these new threats can
be attributed to a change in the global climate over
the last few decades.
Global Warming
In the late 1970s, climatologists warned that the
Earth would begin to experience rapid changes due,
in part, to air pollution. The burning of fossil fuels,
coupled with increased land usage and a substantial
reduction in forest cover, would create an increase
in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse
gases. The altered radiative balances caused by
increased greenhouse gases would contribute to a
warming of the atmosphere over the coming
decades. Scientists theorized that once ocean and
air temperatures started to rise, the biological
systems especially sensitive to temperature would
be the first to suffer losses. Since coral reefs are
projected to be the most sensitive to long-term
climate change, the effects of increased
temperatures could be devastating.
In 1998, a year recorded by several government
and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) as
the warmest year on record, coral reefs around the
world suffered the most extensive and severe
bleaching and subsequent mortality in modern
records. Recent statements issued by the U.S.
Department of State and the International Society
for Reef Studies suggest that there is a link between
global warming and coral bleaching.
(Environmental News Network article entitled
"Coral Bleaching Events Expected to Multiply").
Coral Bleaching: An Inevitable Effect of
Global Warming and Other Stressors
Coral bleaching is how corals respond to
physiological stress. The coral loses the symbiotic
algae which live within its cells and provides corals
with their color and nutrition. As coral expels the
algae, the coral turns transparent, pale or unusual
colors and enters a state of starvation. At this point
the coral is unable to grow or reproduce. The term
"coral bleaching" comes from the fact that one can
see the white limestone skeleton through the
transparent or semi-clear tissue. Upon removal
of the stressor, most coral can recover in as little
as a few days to a year or more, though the reef
itself may require decades for recovery. The
amount of time required for recovery is dependent
upon the magnitude and duration of the stress.
Prolonged bleaching can cause irreversible damage
and eventually death.
During the 1980s, bleaching spread from a few
localized areas to expansive tracts of the ocean,
covering thousands of miles. There were a variety
of physiological stresses which were present at
various locations throughout these vast areas and
each could be responsible for contributing to the
outbreak of mass coral bleaching within a given
area. These stresses include: excessively hot or
cold temperatures, salt concentrations and light
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concentrations which are too high or too low and
a high concentration of suspended sediment in the
surrounding waters. Despite the many potential
stressors, scientists at the Global Coral Reef
Alliance have concluded that only one potential
stress, excessively high temperature, was present
in all the mass coral bleaching cases since the early
1980s. In each case, the temperatures present at
the time of the bleaching were one degree Celsius
or more above the average values of the warmest
month that the coral reefs are usually subject to.
Corals have been around for a long time, existing
in past geological periods when the temperatures
were higher than those experienced today. Most
of those coral species died off at the Start of the
ice age and the corals that survived were those that
were the most tolerant to cold conditions. The
ancestors of current corals adapted to gradual rising
ocean temperatures over millions of years. Modern
corals have not shown the ability to adapt to
temperatures which may increase substantially over
the course of a few years.
While the cause of global warming is the subject
of intense debate, the global temperature record
has shown that the temperatures increased sharply
at the end of the 1970s and have remained at
consistently higher levels ever since. If the current
trend continues, the cases of coral bleaching in the
future may become more frequent and severe.
Many people who share concern for the
environment fear that the resulting coral reef losses
may be difficult or impossible to reverse.
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) and Reduced
Calcium Carbonate Availability
Not only is carbon dioxide a greenhouse gas that
may potentially contribute to global warming, but
it is also a direct stress to the vitality of coral reefs.
In section 2 of this chapter, we learned about the
biological formation of coral reefs via the build up
of calcium carbonate that is produced by corals
and other calcium-secreting organisms. This
section focuses on the chemical reactions that
enable the aforementioned biological functions to
occur. Ongoing calcium production depends on
the saturation state of calcium carbonate in the
surrounding surface waters. This saturation state
may decline as CO2 enters tropical surface waters.
The source for this CO2 that enters tropical surface
waters is excessive atmospheric carbon dioxide,
which is caused by burning coal, gas, and other
fossil fuels. (Environmental News Network article
entitled "Carbon Dioxide Threatens Tropical Coral
Reefs")
Scientists at the National Center for Atmospheric
Research have theorized that as C02 is dissolved
into the ocean, it produces an acid which lowers
the pH in seawater. The lowered pH decreases the
level of calcium carbonate saturation in seawater,
thus slowing the production of calcium by corals.
Coral and algae skeletons will weaken as calcium
production declines and reefbuilding will abate.
In its weakened state, the reef becomes more
susceptible to erosion by ocean wave action.
Erosion is a constant concern for coral reefs, but
now, as the reef erodes, the corals have insufficient
calcium production capability necessary to rebuild
themselves.
For the moment, the effects of CO2 on coral reefs
are purely speculative. This is a new theory and
most of the research to date has been done on a
small scale in the controlled environment of a
laboratory. However, as the world population
increases, the use of coal, gas and fossil fuels also
increases and the effects of CO2 dissolving in the
earths oceans may become more and more evident.
Conclusion
In his report to the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force
("Coral Bleaching, Coral Mortality, and Global
Climate Change"), Rafe Pomerance, Deputy
Assistant Secretary of State for the Environment
and Development, stated that "Trends of the past
century suggest that coral bleaching events may
become more frequent and severe as the climate
continues to warm, exposing coral reefs to an
increasingly hostile environment. Furthermore,
they imply that any strategy to maintain coral reefs
must include reduction of greenhouse emissions.
For, even those reefs granted well-enforced legal
protection as marine sanctuaries, or areas for
sustainable use, are threatened by global climate
change."
When one considers all the potential threats facing
our coral reefs, the effects of long-term global
climate change may be the most difficult to deal
with. While local governments can work
independently to create safe havens for coral reefs
within their jurisdiction, the potential effects of
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global climate change must be addressed by all
world leaders working toward a common goal.
Since all of us contribute to the problem, we must
all work together to find solutions. This is not an
easy task, as any civil service employee can tell
you. Failure to act now, while the effects are still
reversible and economially viable, could result in
substantial losses to one of the Earth's most
productive ecosystems.
NATIONAL MARINE SANCTUARY FIELD
TRIP DESCRIPTION
By Kerianne Gardner
MORNING:
7:30 a.m. Team presentation
9:00 a.m. Meet boat at Looe Key dock to go out to the
coral reef for snorkeling and coral reef study.
Today's weather was a bit overcast, 70 degrees
Fahrenheit, windy, and the water was choppy.
While the conditions were not ideal to view the
coral, nearly all of the interns donned snorkeling
gear to appreciate the unique ecosystem we spent
the morning learning about. We saw quite a few
fish, some brain coral, fire coral and a few other
species. The highlight (or perhaps, the low point)
of the field trip was seeing a ship that recently went
aground and appeared to be in the process of
sinking. Evidence of an all too common threat to
the coral reef habitat.
LATE AFTERNOON:
Dynamic speaker and internationally acclaimed
expert on coastal zone management John Clark
started off his presentation with a quiz, as follows.
1. What uses do coastal zones play?
Recreation, transport, fisheries, sport (commercial
and recreational) fishing, subsistence fishing,
aesthetics, waste disposal, aggregates/minerals
(mining: sand, oil), missile testing, shore protection
(jetties, seawalls), reverse osmosis plants for
drinking water, wildlife appreciation (whales, seals,
birds). Coastal Zones may provide renewable and
non-renewable resources.
2. What kind of degradation could happen?
Excessive sedimentation, disease, heavy metal
toxicity, degraded wildlife, reduced dissolved
oxygen, degraded wildlife populations, increased
3.
temperatures, economic impacts (beach closures),
industrial pollution, loss of habitat, introduction
of invasive species (bilge waters, external fauna
attached to ships), overfishing, uncontrolled
fishing, agricultural runoff (pesticides, herbicides,
nutrients, and resulting algal blooms).
How can these problems be fixed? What are
corrective action that can be taken? Attitude
correction (how much by education? how much
by regulation?), waste treatment (tertiary system,
secondary treatment), scientific research,
innovative technology, integrated coastal zone
management, international/ universal approach,
international trade (sale of illegally obtained coral),
fishing restrictions (latest methods are too accurate
and allow the catch of too many fish), treaties for
off-shore dumping, stormwater/ land runoff
controls from the headwaters to coast, growth
management
According to John Clark, there are
two major ways to protect the coastal zone:
1. Regulation: have rules and enforce them.
2. Establishment of protective areas: preferably
government owned.
A major dichotomy in the management of coastal
zones is that there are two separate ways of
assigning values to natural services.
1. Material Value: Things that can be sold or
consumed.
2. Spiritual/Inherent Value: Landscape beauty,
recreation, endangered species, scenic sunrise, a
bird in flight.
John discussed how important coordination,
planning, motivating people, and providing
information is to managing the coastal zone well.
He presented the potential impact global warming
might have on the coral reef ecosystem and the
worldwide implications of rising sea levels. He
also discussed the grave importance of protecting
upland areas far from coastal zones and stressed
the interconnectedness of ecosystems. His
discussion was accompanied by a slide show of
important and impacted ecosystems.
4-15
Coral Reefs and
Coastal Zone Management
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
EVENING DEBRIEF SESSION
Participated in a facilitated evaluation of week's
activities and lessons learned. The results of this
exercise may be seen in the last section, entitled
"Suggestions for Improvement".
CONCLUSION
Coral reefs, complex systems that provide a vast
array of important ecological services, are faced
with adversity on a daily basis. Potential threats
range from global climate change to physical
impacts caused by human activities, such as boating
and diving. The prevalent message from this
chapter is that coral reefs in the United States and
around the world are in serious decline and a large
scale, joint effort is necessary for the survival of
coral reefs. As this chapter has described, EPA
and other federal agencies are making an effort to
address these issues. In the future, it will be
important for world leaders, federal, state and local
governments and local community groups to work
independently, as well as in cooperation with one
another. In the next chapter, we will learn about
and observe a forum where community groups,
local politicians and media may interact with the
federal government.
Chapter Four 4-16
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Community Meeting:
Local Stakeholders
Discuss Environmental
and Economic
Development Issues
ABSTRACT
This chapter is a short course to educate the 1998 EPA
Intern Class on the environmental, social and political
issues that residents of the Florida Keys face on a daily
basis. A Floridian environmental group, called Reef
Relief, puts the problem of wastewater in the Florida Keys
into these blunt terms: "If you flush a toilet in the Keys.
you may be swimming in it in a very few hours." The
increased nutrient loading and nitrification of surface
waters has been directly linked to accelerating
urbanization in South Florida and the Keys. There is
strenuous disagreement between local stakeholders as to
how these problems might be solved within the Florida
Keys.
EPA Reps
o
o
o
Stakeholders
Politicians
Locals
O
O
O
o o o o o
GROUP 5
Carlton Eley
Marshelle Howard
Kara Mckoy-belle,
Juan Parra
Margaret Schneider
Friday, November 5, 1999
This chapter intends to illuminate the environmental,
political, and social conditions experienced by the
residents of the Florida Keys. Carlton Eley and Juan Parra
explain wastewater, sewerage, and other environmental
woes from a technical standpoint. Kara McKoy-Belle
shares a historical account of the foundation of the Florida
Keys from the tourism industry perspective. Margaret
Schneider This background understanding of the issues
and residential perspective will prepare us for the mock
public meeting that this group organized.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to hold a public
meeting and to enlighten our Intern group about
the history, population, and environmental issues
the residents in the Florida Keys face. To prepare
our group to converse with local residents,
politicians and press, Juan and Carlton will discuss
potential adverse effects of sewage disposal in
Florida Bay and the Upper and Middle Keys, Kara
will give a historical account of the tourist industry
in the Florida Keys, Margaret will present the view
of the local population and Marshelle will present
guidance for hosting a public meeting. One issue
we will explore is whether polluted groundwater
seeps into the surrounding marine ecosystems as
result of sewerage disposal and, if so, when, where
and how much. Since corals require clean, nutrient-
free waters to thrive, the over-abundance of
nutrients in the ocean are a threat to the health of
coral reefs. High levels of nutrients are believed
to be the single largest threat to the health and
vitality of coral communities. Every year,
approximately 33 tons of nutrients are contributed
to the Keys ecosystem by land-based sources of
pollution. The primarily source of these nutrients
is inadequately treated sewage.
SEWERAGE WOES IN THE FLORIDA
KEYS: ATECHNICAL GLANCE ATTHE
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES FACED BY
THE FLORIDA KEYS
By Carlton Eley And Juan Parra
Introduction (Carlton Eley)
As risk managers, we need to inform ourselves
about the environmental concerns of local
communities in and around Key West. Obtaining
some sensibility regarding these concerns will help
us in determining what can be done politically,
legally and effectively.
The Keys are known to have many well-educated
local environmental groups. These groups have
formed an opinion that the living coral reef located
six miles off Key West's shore is in a declining
trend. This finding has initiated a movement to
identify the reasons for this die-off and to begin
taking corrective actions. Causes of death for coral
reefs may be attributed to many things, including
disease such as black-band and 'yellow-band,
increased turbidity of near-shore waters and
elevated nitrogen and phosphorus levels in the
water at the reef. Each of these items have been
indicated as major contributors in the decline of
the reefs.
The relief group called Reef Relief puts the
problem of wastewater more bluntly; "If you flush
a toilet in the Keys, you may swimming in it in a
very few hours." There is a need to determine if
this risk is objective or subjective. Objective
studies have concluded coral reefs are fragile
ecosystems that are particularly susceptible to
nutrient loading and to perturbation by
anthropogenic activities. Subjective risks, which
conform with public opinion, identify wastewater
discharge from the wastewater facility at Key West
as another major source of nitrogen and phosphorus
to the reef. The increase in nitrification and nutrient
loading of surface waters is directly linked to
accelerating urbanization in South Florida, and
particularly Keys especially. A potential source of
such nutrient loading and anthropogenic activities
may be the waste disposal systems operating in
such areas.
Wastewater Treatment in the Florida Keys
(Carlton Eley)
(extracted from a PowerPoint Presentation)
Except in Key West and Key Largo, which have
municipal waste treatment centers, the sewage
generated by the Keys' 80,000 residents and
millions of tourists is disposed in one of three ways:
1. Its treated somewhat then shot in the limestone via
an injection well
2. It flows directly into a septic tank
3. Raw sewage is illegally dumped into a big hole in
the ground, called a cess pit, and covered with
wood.
Cess pools are not legal. They lie over porous
ground with a low water table, so percolation is
low. They are very susceptible to overflow. Cess
pits are blamed for being sources of bacteria that
have been detected in nearby channels and near-
shore surface waters. The bacterial content of these
near shore waters have forced the closure of many
beaches. Outbreaks of hepatitis, gastroenteritis,
and dysentery have been attributed to groundwater
Chapter Five
5-2
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
contamination. There are roughly 750 injection
wells in the keys at onsite treatment facilities; 5,000
to 7,000 illegal cess pits and more than 25.000
septic tanks.
All three disposal methods are believed to be
polluting the once-pristine water surrounding the
islands. Studies have demonstrated this to be a
problem in the Lower Keys, as well as the upper
keys. Before we may understand the extent of this
issue, we must educate ourselves about some basic
facts of waste water treatment in Florida.
Facts About Domestic Wastewater
(Juan Parra)
(Extracted from a PowerPoint presentation)
"Domestic Wastewater" means derived from
dwellings and business buildings.
Each person generates 100 gallons of wastewater
each day
Domestic wastewater is derived from residential
areas or industrial buildings. Each person in
Florida generates approximately 100 gallons of
waste water each day. 73 % of wastewater
generated in Florida is treated in centralized
municipal treatment facilities. 27% is treated in
on-site treatment facilities and septic tanks. Over
55% of that 27% of wastewater treated in on-site
facilities or septic tanks is located in Key West.
Onsite treatment consists of non-sewered waste
disposal systems, which yield secondary treatment
to produce effluents that meet State of Florida
standards for disposal into G-III ground water
injection wells. G-III ground water injection wells
are wells drilled to 90 feet and cased with PVC
pipe to 60 feet.
Secondary treatment includes activated sludge,
followed by sand filtration and chlorination and
finally injection into boreholes. This treatment
method removes about 90% of the constituents.
The treated sewage is then discarded in a series of
as many as 1,000 shallow disposal wells (Class G-
III injection wells). The nutrient-rich disposal
water is released at depths ranging from 30 to 90
feet and it is believed to migrate seaward towards
the corals. These wells have been linked to
elevated levels of coliform detected in canals and
coastal waters around the Florida Keys.
One major concern with shallow injection wells is
that they can contaminate drinking water sources.
Since all of the drinkable water is piped into the
Keys, microbial contamination ofgroundwaterthat
may be used for drinking is not an issue. As well,
existing state rules prohibit contamination of
drinking water by injection wells. The major issue
in the Florida Keys is the potential for sewage to
contaminate the island's surface waters, canals, and
the ocean, which may impact America's only
continental coral reef Since the water table is very--
near the land surface and the subsurface strata is
quite porous, there is much uncertainty about the
holding capacity and migration of ground water
carrying high nutrient loads. Ground water
transport systems will be discussed in greater detail
in a later section. To understand these concerns
about nutrient loading of surface and sub-surface
waters, we must look first at the geology of the
Florida Keys.
Geology of the Florida Keys (Carlton Eley)
HI Area* with limeatime lyintf «t or near the
ground »urfacc with thin overburden;
we II-developed leant ] prevent. In some
area* deep devaterlng ha* occurred and
. alnkhoie coUapie IB present.
CD Area* with llne«tone covered by moderate
to thick owrburdvh with the water table
andXor piexniwtHc surface lying below
the top of rock bajtin*; -well-developed
karat I* prevent.
CjlAr*a» with |bne*tone covered by moderate to
thick overburden with the water table and/or
piecomtrtric aurface lying near or at ground
urface.
Florida emerged from the sea as recently as 20 to
30 million years ago. For eons, its bedrock base
lay beneath the warm waters of the southern sea.
Slowly this base collected sediment and built
limestone deposits that would eventually rise above
the ocean surface. Thus, the Florida Keys lie on a
thick layer of limestone. The rock is covered by
an ancient coral reef. The high elevation point on
the islands is 18 feet, which was measured on
Windley Key. For the most part, however, the
islands that make up the keys are very flat. The
ground water aquifer (i.e.., the water table), lies
very near the land surface. In the Keys, there are
over 800 islands that are large enough to appear
on government charts.
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
Cross section of the Floridian stratigraphy
USGS geologic cross sections indicate that water
from disposal wells could significantly impact
specific areas of the Florida reefs. Most of the
bedrock underlying the Keys is highly porous
limestone, the remains of ancient reefs through
which contaminated waters can easily flow. Much
of the disposed wastewater is released at a depth
below a relatively impermeable layer, known as
the Q3 unconformity. Contaminated water does
not readily penetrate this layer. In those areas
where the Q3 layer is absent, or poorly developed,
an equally impermeable layer of lime mud can trap
ground water below and allow it to migrate
laterally. Leakage is more likely where this mud
is absent.
Problem: What Might the Impact Be On
Coral Reefs?
Changing Tidal Level Effects on Coral
Reefs (Juan Parra)
The USGS drilled numerous cores on the Keys and
in the coral reef tract to study how geology
controlled movement of well water. In total, 21
wells were drilled for this study. The project was
designed to track any flow of nutrient-rich water
from areas surrounding the disposal wells to the
offshore reefs.
Schematic #2 (Cross section of the Florida reef tract
off Key Largo) shows onshore treated-sewage
effluent-injection wells (grey) and offshore
monitoring wells (black). Water level in all wells
fluctuates with the tides, causing flow of water from
the underlying limestone, as shown by arrows.
Young sediments (mud shown in brown and lime
sands in yellow) retard flow of water from the
underlying limestone. Reefs (shown in red) are
extremely porous and are likely to provide outlets
for ground water forced from the limestone by
changing tidal levels. Should injected sewage
water migrate laterally offshore, it may eventually
encounter live corals through the process of tidal
pumping.
Measurement of pressure heads in monitoring wells
. indicates that tidal pumping, combined with higher
average sea level in Florida Bay than Oceanside,
is the major cause of cross-Keys ground water
movement and dispersal. Low tide east of the Keys
(Atlantic side) results in a 1 m or more head on the
bay side of Key Largo. Under these conditions,
ground water head pressure under Florida Bay is
negative (even though surface water head is
positive), causing eastward "downhill" flow toward
the Atlantic. Negative head pressure develops
because the upper meter or two of the limestone
under Florida Bay is relatively less permeable than
the underlying rock. Thus, water in the permeable
zone can flow "downhill" toward the Atlantic faster
than water can leak through the relatively
impermeable surface zone. High tide on the
Atlantic side of the Keys produces the opposite
situation. Under these conditions, subsurface flow
is generally "downhill" toward Florida Bay.
Because mean sea level in Florida Bay is 10 to 20
cm above mean Atlantic sea level, net flow is
toward the Atlantic. The exception is during
periods of sustained easterly winds combined with
high spring Atlantic tides.
Effect of Winds Combined with Tidal Action Water is
"blown" westward in Florida Bay, reducing water
level by as much as 30 cm along the west side of
the Florida Keys while water is piled 30 cm or more
on the eastern side of the Keys. During these
events, which can last several days to weeks,
ground water flow is mainly westward into Florida
Bay.
Ground Water Seepage and Leakage Because the upper
1 to 2m of limestone are relatively impermeable
compared to the underlying limestone, tidal springs
Chapter Five
5-4
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
occur wherever there are small sinkholes, fractures,
or manmade breaks in the upper surface, such as
our monitoring wells, canals, or dredged channels.
These, salic tidal springs are often reported as
freshwater boils. Boils occur on both sides of the
Florida Keys, but they occur only during the 6-
hour period when tidal phase produces positive
ground water heads. Slower seepage, not visible
as boils, also occurs through smaller pores. This
slower seepage only occurs where an impermeable
blanket of modern sediment is absent.
In a USGS Study, leakage was shown to be limited
to 1) shallow water in a 0.5 mile wide nearshore
belt of exposed Key Largo limestone, 2) Holocene
patch reefs, which grow on mud free topographic
rock, and 3) along the seaward side of the outermost
reef, in 35 to 65 feet of water.
To the east of the Florida Keys lies the only living
coral reef in the continental United States. It is
located between four and seven miles offshore,
running parallel to the Keys from Key Largo to
the Dry Tortugas. This living marine marvel, rising
as high as a few feet below the surface of the water
and descending to depths near the Gulf Stream,
protects the Keys from the waves of the pounding
Atlantic surf. Hence the development of sand
beaches is retarded, much to the surprise of many
first-time visitors.
Other Non-Sewerage Causes of Reef
Mortality
Hurricanes
Adverse human activity
Over-harvesting of fish that control algae
Virus attack on algae-eating urchin
Increase in the temperature of Atlantic waters
Other contributing causes of reef morbidity are
natural events that may have recurred frequently
in the past. Some natural events like hurricanes
can have a more severe impact on the health of
coral reefs in a shorter period of time than adverse
human activity.
Other events not related to sewage disposal include
a mysterious epidemic that has nearly eliminated
the algae-eating urchin, Diadema. Harvesting has
reduced certain fish species that control algae on
the coral reefs. A slight increase in the temperature
of Atlantic waters during the 1980's may have
placed many coral species at risk. However, the
temperature of Gulf of Mexico waters as they flow
through tidal passes to the Atlantic side of the Keys
periodically tend to be more saline during dry spells
and are generally too cold for corals to tolerate well.
The waters are often laden with silt. In these areas,
the slightly higher elevation of Gulf waters may
produce a hydraulic gradient sufficient to create a
net flow toward the Atlantic across significant
portions of the reef tract.
Alternative Solutions (Juan Parra)
A few options to consider as a means to solve the
aforementioned problems may include:
Encourage development of deep injection wells
Build additional municipal sewerage treatment
plants on the various keys, like Key West
Mandate management & development on site
treatment, cluster, or alternative technologies
Deep Injection Wells are a proposed form of disposal of
wastewater that may be practiced instead of direct
outfall into oceans and channels. Deep injection
wells are not new in Florida, 98 wells have been in
operation since 1970. Approximately 40 million
gallons a day of this highly treated effluent is
discharged into deep injection wells, into a
cavernous region of unusable saltwater, called the
"boulder zone," 3,000 feet below the land surface.
It is important to note that the effluent is treated to
treatment standards before injection into these deep
injection wells.
Deep well injection provide the greatest separation
between the treated wastewater and the drinking-
water aquifer near the surface. Surface discharge
would mix with our shallow Biscayne Aquifer,
even if the wastewater were further treated. It
seems that wells drilled deep underground and used
to "bury" sewage in a spongy layer of limestone
are leaking, posing a possible, long-term risk to
Florida's drinking water supply. The leaks were
detected at 20 of the 98 "injection wells" in Florida,
including 17 in Miami-Dade County and one in
northern Palm Beach County. Deep-well injection
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
has become a major means of sewage disposal. In
the tri-county South Florida region, it is used to
dispose of nearly half the area's daily volume of
265 million gallons of sewage.
Treated, but still-impure, sewage effluent is
pumped from city and county wastewater treatment
facilities into the wells. There, the sewage is
pumped under high pressure to about 3,000 feet
underground. In theory, the sewage is supposed to
remain trapped in a porous layer of limestone rock
along with saltwater already located there.
However, officials are dismayed to learn that
samples taken from monitor wells show the sewage
is "leaking" upwards, indicating buoyancy effects.
The pollution has reached the edge of the Floridian
Aquifer, a potential source of fresh water located
1,200 to 2,200 feet below ground. The Floridian
Aquifer is below the Biscayne Aquifer, the current
source of the region's fresh water supply.
Regulations protect aquifers below 10,000 ppm
dissolved solids.
Municipal Sewage Treatment PlantsAnother proposed
solution could be to create municipal sewage
treatment plants on various keys, as was done in
Key West. Such an undertaking may be invasive
and has potential to detrimental to habitat for the
Key deer and many other animals. The rise in costs
and changes has potential to infuriate Florida Keys
taxpayers.
Mandate Management & Development for On-site
Treatment, Cluster, or Alternative Technologies
Communities may treat their wastewater using
publicly-owned sewers, decentralized systems, or
both. Decentralized treatment systems include
individual onsite septic systems, cluster systems,
and alternative wastewater technologies.
Proper system care entails day-to-day management
as well as periodic maintenance, such as pumping
of septic tank solids. Unfortunately, without such
maintenance, systems can fail, thus polluting water
resources and threatening public health.
Establishing a management program for onsite/
decentralized systems can help to ensure that the
systems are properly managed and provide
effective treatment of wastewater for a community.
Florida Keys Costs and Benefits
(Juan Parra)
Cost: Sewer rates increase, $22.5 million bond
debt will be incurred to finance improvements
Benefit: Key West Facility will replace leaky pipes
and install deep injection wells as mandated by
State.
County will enact cess pool ordinance
Leaking sewage is so much concern that, over the
next 10 to 15 years, the County plans to spend
$450 million to eliminate 11,000 septic tanks,
replace 400 miles of aging sewer and water lines
and construct storm-water drains. Congressman
Deutsch is introducing a bill in Congress to get
appropriation funds to build a 4.3 million central
collection system in Marathon, Florida, in the upper
Keys. Federal assistance, in conjunction with the
county's issuance of bonds, are means by which
these new sewerage systems might be funded.
However, many residents are reluctant to give
approval for the county to issue bonds to finance
this new initiative.
Discussion Questions
What is the effect of nutrient-rich, oxygen-
depleted ground water seepage on Benthonic
biota?
How does tidal pumping affect seepage rate
and water quality?
Are deep injection wells indeed a better for
treated waste water disposal?
Will the Key West community support these
new initiatives, or will it fuel hostility against
government intervention?
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OFTHE
FLORIDA KEYS
By Kara Mckoy-Belle
The Federal government played a central role in
laying the groundwork for the tourist industry in
the Florida Keys. Julius Stone, of the Federal
Relief Administration, was instrumental in
replacing the railroad that had previously extended
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
the length of the keys, but had been destroyed by a
hurricane in 1935. In place of the railroad,
Highway U.S. 1 was constructed. In addition, a
volunteer workforce was organized to prepare and
market the Florida Keys for commercial tourism.
In the late 1960's, the Keys were opened for tourist
enjoyment. In 1982, Highway U.S. 1 was widened
because some found the previous bridge to be scary.
Also in the early 1980s, a new tie line from the
mainland was built to make electricity more reliable
and cable TV more accessible. As a result, new
resorts and hotels where built in the Keys. These
improvements led to the acceleration of tourism in
the 1980's.
In 1989, after the Exxon-Valdez oil spill occurred
in Alaska, the Governor of Florida directed his staff
to develop an agreement with the Coast Guard to
declare coral reefs an area to be avoided. At a
later time, three freighters ran aground on the reefs
within a 17 day time frame. This created national
attention, which prompted Congressman Fascell
to propose the creation of the National Marine
Sanctuary in reefs surrounding the keys.
A mandate was issued that directed National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) to
develop a plan to engage in a cooperative planning
process with state, local and federal agencies. A
feature of this cooperative plan incorporated zoning
restrictions, which caused hot debates. For
example, one of the zoning restrictions prohibits
commercial sport fishing in certain areas. Since
tourism, of which sport fishing is a component,
composes 60% of the Florida Keys economy, one
can see where a point of contention may arise.
Another concern involves the potential for boat
anchors to destroy the coral reefs.
Once Congress designated the Florida Keys as a
National Marine Sanctuary, immediate authority
to ban oil and gas development was implemented.
The Sanctuary Advisory Council was created to
solicit suggestions about possible management
strategies. The Sanctuary Advisory Council's
relationship with local environmental groups has
grown closer. There are still some unresolved
issues among local environmental groups, the
tourist industry, and local, State and Federal
government. However, all groups are working
strongly toward achieving common goals and
establishing agreements that would benefit all
parties.
PROTECTED HABITAT IN AND AROUND
THE FLORIDA KEYS AND
TRANSITION TO PUBLIC MEETING
SEGMENT
By Margaret Schneider
During our South Florida field studies unit, we had
opportunity to visit a number of protected habitats,
including Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary,
Key Deer Wildlife Refuge and Everglades National
Park. Throughout this week, we have heard about
the vital ecological functions that unique
ecosystems, such as mangrove wetlands and coral
reefs, provide for the overall health of the South
Florida environment. A number of threatened and
endangered species, including 4 species of fish, 4
invertebrates, 15 species of birds and 13 mammals,
are dependant on this environment that the protected
areas intend to protect. Both terrestrial and marine
environments are pressured by the conflicting
desires to develop and preserve the natural resources.
The environmental problems suffered by the
Florida Keys seem to originate from the following
three factors: rapid growth of population and
human activity; declines in water quality from
pollution within the Keys; or pollution that has
migrated from remote sources. Pollution from
remote sources might include agricultural runoff
from South Florida, or it may be more global in
scope, such as increasing ocean temperatures and
rising sea levels.
Currently, the human population of the Florida
Keys is at approximately 800,000 people, with a
variable influx of millions of additional people due
to the tourism industry. Each resident brings his
or her own perspective on how to best protect the
Keys, and a few residents feel that they are one of
the most heavily regulated communities in the
country. This population lives in a highly regulated
area. Federal, state and local regulations abound
to. protect endangered species, habitat, coral reef
and a multitude of other natural aspects of the
resident's environment. Frustrations run high as
they grapple with what is and is not allowed in
their own backyard. Today, we are going to hear
from residents and political figures what it is like
to live under such conditions. In the following
section, Marshelle Howard describes EPA
guidelines and procedures for hosting public
meetings. Following our presentation, we will host
a staged public meeting.
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GUIDELINES FOR PUBLIC MEETINGS,
PRESENTED BY MARSHELLE HOWARD
Synopsis By Kerianne Gardner (Based On
A Draft EPA Guidance)
What is a Public Meeting?
The public meeting is a public forum that is fairly
structured and formal in nature, open to anyone
from the general public, including media, attorneys,
citizens and activists. Public meetings are
frequently held in association with site-specific
issues.
What is the Purpose of a Public Meeting?
There are two primary purposes for holding a
public meeting: 1) to present information, and 2)
to receive information. In an ideal setting, this
forum allows large amounts of information to be
distributed to a large number of people in a uniform
manner. It is hoped that community members will
be allowed to voice their concerns, thoughts and
ideas and be able to be heard by their neighbors
and government entities.
What are the Potential Pitfalls in Holding a
Public Meeting?
In a setting where large numbers of people are
gathered, opportunity for information to be
misinterpreted, misconstrued, misunderstood, or
misheard may arise. More aggressive people may
be allowed to impede those less aggressive
participants from vocalizing their concerns. The
forum may be at risk for being overtaken by a more
aggressive and well-organized activist party who
wishes to advance their own agenda.
When Should a Public Meeting Not be
Used?
If there is not genuine interest in hearing what the
participants have to say, or when there lacks intent
to actually consider the citizens' input, a public
meeting should not be held.
What Logistical Concerns Should Be
Considered When Scheduling a Public
Meeting?
What time are people likely to attend (i.e., don't
hold during the dinner hour, or at a time when most
citizens are at work.
What other events or holidays are scheduled? A
public meeting should not compete with local
special events or holidays. Tax week (April 15) is
another week that should be avoided.
Where will the meeting be held? The location
should be convenient and easily accessible to the
audience you wish to target.
How Should a Public Meeting be
Conducted?
The key to a successful public meeting is planning.
Other important components include knowing why
you are having the meeting, having a clear message,
giving advance notice, and preparing an agenda.
In addition, it is important for the meeting to be
kept on track and focused. It is advised that each
individual presentation be less than 30 minutes in
length and it is preferable for a dry run to have
been conducted before the day of the actual
meeting. "The Draft Guidance on Public
Meetings," published in 1997 by the Office of
Communications, includes a check list that may
be used to ensure that all steps have been completed
in the preparatory stages of organizing a public
meeting.
On the actual day of the meeting, the meeting
coordinator should arrive well before the meeting
is set to begin to arrange the room and mentally
prepare themselves to act in a facilitative capacity.
The coordinator should greet the audience and
participant as they arrive, be prepared for media
presence, and start on time.
Agenda
An agenda should be handed out to each participant
as they enter the room. Also, the coordinator
should review the agenda at the start of the meeting.
The following agenda was handed out at our mock
public meeting:
Chapter Five
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Meeting with Local Stakeholders
(2.5 Hours)
Agenda
Novembers, 1999
I, Opening of Public Meeting (30 minutes)
A. Welcome
B. Introductions (20 minutes)
C. Explanations/Rules for session (10
minutes)
II. Wastewater Treatment in the Florida Keys (1
Hour)
A. Introduction and Background (7
minutes)
B. Public Session (40 minutes)
C. Open Discussion (20 minutes)
III. Protected Habitats Wetlands (1 Hour)
A. Introduction and Background (7
minutes)
B. Public Session (40 minutes)
C. Open Discussion (20 minutes)
IV. Close of Meeting
Ground Rules
An important component to any meeting is
establishing the ground rules that will govern the
meeting. At the mock public meeting that our
group hosted, the following ground rules were
established:
1. State your first name & who you are with
2. Be polite to everyone
3. Do not speak until called upon
4. Be mindful/considerate of others
5. Listen
6. Give everyone their time on the floor
7. Relax and have fun
CONCLUSION
Our group presentation concluded with a staged
public meeting. Several distinguished local
stakeholders agreed to participate, including
Executive Director of the Lower Keys Chamber
of Commerce, the Deputy Executive Director of
the Florida Keys Aqueduct Authority, reporters
from the Lower Keys and Key Largo, a Board
member of the County Commissioners Office of
Marathon, the Director of the Marine Resources
Department from the Monroe County Government
and a interested local property owner. The public
meeting allowed the local representatives to
express their genuine concerns and discuss their
views on wastewater issues and protected habitats.
Since the great coral reefs of the Florida Keys are
the only true coral reefs in the continental waters
of the United States, their health is of great concern
to locals and tourists, alike.
5-9
Community Meeting
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
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Facilitated
Evaluation
Exercise for
EPA Intern Field
Studies Unit
November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Thursday, November 4. 1999
Facilitator: Kerianne M. Gardner
On the closing eve of our EPA Intern Program Field
Studies Unit, a few Interns took the initiative to develop
an impromptu facilitated exercise to evaluate the week.
Kerianne Gardner, an Intern trained in the art of
facilitation, acted in the role of facilitator. Eileen Hermiger
acted in the role of recorder for this exercise. The entire
group of Interns present participated in this group exercise,
either orally or manually.
6-1
Facilitated Evaluation Exercise
for EPA Intern Field Studies Unit
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
REASON FOR THE EXERCISE
A number of factors lead to this exercise being
suggested. Foremost, this was the first time that a
field studies unit had occured and Interns had many
ideas about what worked well and what might work
better the next time a field studies unit is planned.
A second reason was to provide the Interns with
an open and safe environment to channel the
experiences of the week via positive and
constructive channels. This communication forum
identified and met a resounding need for the Interns
to feel heard, acknowledged, and validated.
OUTCOME OFTHE EXERCISE
The original intent of this facilitated session was
to provide direct and timely feedback to the EPA
Intern Program coordinator staff. The suggestions
were intended for use in improving future field
studies units. Unfortunately, the discomfort felt
by the majority of the Interns prevented an oral
presentation of the suggestions at the time of
creation. Instead, by consensus decision, the
Interns agreed to develop a "Suggestions for
Improvement" section to be included in the final
report. A subcommittee was formed to draft the
recommendations. This subcommittee, composed
of Jen Fisher, Kara McKoy, Margaret Schneider,
Dawn Tesorero and Kerianne Gardner, worked via
e-mail in the weeks following the Field Studies
Unit to draft the initial recommendations.
PROCESS OFTHE EXERCISE
The Interns were seated in a semi circle, with a
makeshift flipchart at the front of the room. The
facilitator played a neutral role, though had the
option to participate when they handed off the
"facilitator pen". The questions that were asked
were: 1) What about this week did you enjoy or
find valuable? 2) What about this week would
you like to see changed or made different next
time? The facilitator recorded the ideas on the
"flip chart" and repeated the ideas back after they
were written, in order to verify that they had
captured the idea and to modulate the pace at which
the ideas flowed. Order and peace were maintained
as the participants contributed their suggestions one
person at a time. There was much head-nodding
in agreement, though the participants were asked
to hold their discussion of the ideas until after the
facilitated evaluation exercise. The flip charts were
typed in "raw form", and then the subcommittee
grouped the suggestions by topical headings to
enhance the readability and presentation of the
suggestions.
PRODUCT OFTHE EXERCISE
1) What did you enjoy about the field
studies unit?
Overwhelmingly, the Interns agreed this field
studies unit was an excellent development
opportunity and a well-rounded learning
experience. Aspects of the trip that were enjoyed
included the opportunities to learn about and see
environmental issues in context of the location in
which they occur, the prospect for professional
networking with other Interns and other agencies
and the chance to see the aforementioned issues
from perspectives that differ from their own. Some
Interns appreciated the degree of autonomy with
which they could plan site visits, guest speakers,
research, and present their information to the Intern
class. Last, but not least, the relationship-building
dimension of the trip was valued by many.
As a large policy-oriented agency with primarily
an oversight role, there is much opportunity for
the new employee to feel removed from the
environment and communities we are striving to
protect. This trip was an excellent reminder of why
EPA is in existence and where improvements can
be made in the way the Agency operates.
2) In what ways would you like to the field
studies unit to be different in the future?
Planning and Decision-making Process:
Create a Steering/ Design Committee. Intern
program coordinators, headquarter Interns, and
regional Interns might consider collaborating to
plan the next field study unit. Opportunity for
participation has the potential to enhance
stakeholder buy-in.
Establish a method for decision-making early in
the trip planning process. Group consensus might
be considered as a means to decide upon essential
details, such as accommodations, meals and
additional expenses. Consensus will give the group
an opportunity to express their inability to live with
a decision that might be made. Consensus does
Chapter Six
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not necessarily mean that all will agree, but that
all will have the opportunity to voice their
concerns/suggestions.
Plan for the divergent perspectives of the Intern
group. In a large group of people, there will be a
broad spectrum of comfort and tolerance levels,
as well as skills, ideas and motives to take into
account during the planning process. One idea is
to provide an opportunity for each person to
express their expectations of the trip in a facilitated
session at the start of the trip
Institute an atmosphere of respect. Ensuring that
people feel heard and validated as individuals, as
well as a part of a group, will assist in bridging the
aforementioned divergent perspectives. In
addition, the establishment of respectful attitudes
will go a long way in maintaining a harmonic group
dynamic over the course of a physically and
mentally exhausting week.
Clearly define mission and goals. Prior to
traveling, a clear and forthright mission statement
will set the tone for the whole trip. Having clearly
outlined goals will foster a sense of purpose and
accomplishment when those goals are met. Those
goals and mission should be visible and referred
to frequently.
Explicitly identify roles prior to departure. With
travel comes a departure from the norm, which will
alter group dynamics in both positive and negative
ways. Removal from familiar surroundings has
potential to foster an excellent learning
environment. The drawback is that roles,
responsibilities, and boundaries may become hazy
with the new surroundings. Communicate openly
about the roles and responsibilities expected of each
person. Decide who will lead depending on the
situation and environment. Communicate roles and
responsibilities to Interns and staff members.
Circulate a draft agenda. Approximately one
month prior to departure for the field studies unit,
a draft agenda should be circulated to the Interns
and time should be allowed for Interns to provide
input. Multiple perspectives and a number of eyes
seeing the agenda will enrich the quality of the
agenda and provide a sense of ownership to all
participants.
Provide a detailed final agenda prior to departure.
To accommodate the differing planning needs of a
diverse group of Interns, a final agenda distributed
prior to departure may help to ease travel-related
anxiety. In addition, a well-planned, detailed
agenda will provide information about the trip from
which Interns may begin to formulate questions
about a specific topic. Having some pre-
knowledge about the planned events will allow
opportunity for independent research on topic areas
of interest prior to arrival.
Develop and distribute a detailed trip itinerary. An
itinerary containing professional commitments,
personal time, and related expense information will
alleviate confusion about the finer details of the
trip. Without a written reference, there is a
propensity to become confused by verbally
communicated instructions.
Field Studies Logistics Upon Arrival:
Identify how introductions will be made. Since
the field studies unit provides numerous
opportunities for introductions, a pre-determined
strategy will prevent unintentional exclusions and
the misconstrued messages that may result.
Assorted introduction tactics might be considered,
from "Round Robin" to choosing one person to
introduce the whole group.
Involve more regional EPA experts. Presentations
from fellow EPA employees who work directly
with the issues will give us a sense of how the issues
are relevant to the Agency.
Manage time wisely: The field studies unit was
outstanding in the variety and quality of
information presented. However, processing such
a large amount of information and excitement is
physically and mentally exhausting. Our
suggestion is for planners to pace the meetings
throughout the week, including breaks and
adequate meal times provided. It is not so
important to end early as it is to take small breaks
and have the time to appreciate each segment of
the presentation schedule.
Diversify the cultural representation. Ensure a true
representational cross-section of the population is
invited to participate in the presentations, such as
Native American, people of color, low income,
industry and environmental groups.
Keep in mind the divergent perspectives of the
Intern group. In a large group of people, there will
6-3
Facilitated Evaluation Exercise
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EPA Intern Program (EIP) Class of 1998
be a broad spectrum of comfort and tolerance levels
to take into account during the planning process.
In addition, it is important to listen to and be
respectful of the multitude of opinions and
suggestions that may be voiced over the course of
the trip.
Suggested Changes to the Field Study Week's Curriculum:
Facilitated "Expectations" session. Provide an
opportunity for each person to express their
expectations of the trip in a facilitated session at
the start of the trip. Record the ideas expressed.
Review the "Expectations" at the end of the week
and verify if they were met. This exercise adds an
element of accountability between and among
leadership and Interns.
Concurrent presentation sessions. As a week is
limited in the amount of hours available and the
interest levels of the Interns are quite diverse, a
choice of presentation topics might be offered to
maximize the captivation of the audience.
Vary presentation styles: Interspersing lecture-type
presentations with "hands-on"/ interactive
activities will aid in retaining group interest and
will allow for relationship building through shared
activities. An example would be: Coral reef
classroom, as mentioned by the Fish and Wildlife
Service.
Broaden the field studies unit topics. This past
field studies unit, while interesting, seemed very
focused on water. A number of Interns expressed
an interest in having a greater variety of EPA
programs and media represented.
Incorporate a training component. As the focus of
this Intern program is to develop future leaders of
agency, the field studies unit would be an excellent
vehicle to provide a variety of training
opportunities, from career enhancement to
interpersonal skills building. Following is a non-
exhaustive list of the possible training topics:
management and leadership training, sensitivity
training, communication skills training and dispute
resolution skills training. Concurrent training
might be offered for leaders and Interns, thus
providing opportunities for both groups to
experience renewed inspiration.
Daily Assessment/ Evaluation. Facilitate an
evaluative session at the end of each day, with
Interns and leadership present. This will allow
.opportunity for direct and timely feedback to be
provided. Gathering this data at the end of each
day will help the leadership to make program
adjustments as necessary.
Award a certificate upon completion. The field
studies unit provided a well rounded learning
experience, which might merit continuing
education credits at a college or university. One
idea to is award a certificate of completion for
participating in the Field Studies Trip. The
certificate may act as a participation incentive, as
well as a morale booster.
Chapter Six
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November 1 - 6,1999 Field Studies Unit
Conclusion
One Intern's Experience
The agenda for South Florida Field Studies Unit was
abounding with educational presentations and field visits.
This week provided an excellent opportunity to see EPA's
mission to "protect human health and the environment"
at work. Following is one Intern's personal account of
what this field studies unit meant to them:
"The field studies exercise gave me the opportunity
to inquire about a specific environmental concern
regarding domestic waste water treatment. It was
important to me to understand the ecological impact
on the local ecosystem and community. I had to
explore and leam a new technical area regarding
groundwater flow and its intrinsic parameters.
Although 1 developed a conceptual model of the
nutrient loading phenomenon prior to my arrival to
Key West, actually seeing the natural elements and
gaining an understanding of the entire environment
made me recognize that local environmental issues
are usually connected to more holistic environmental
management practices and policies. I am now able
to visualize the environmental impact of ground water
from the Everglades to South Florida on the Coral
System at Key West. It is a satisfying experience to
be able to better understand the complexity of our
natural environment."
As the trip drew to a close, each Intern came away from
the South Florida Field Studies trip with a new perspective
on interpersonal relations, environmental issues, and the
interconnectedness of these two arenas. For their
experiences, these Interns will be wiser and more
cognizant of the multiple facets of every environmental
issue. From interactions with other federal, state, and
local governments to interaction with communities and
the media, the 1998 Intern Class is well equipped to listen
with a less assuming ear and see with more lucid vision.
7-1
Conclusion
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