EPA
United States
Environmental Protection
Agency
Office of
Research and
Development
Office of Energy, Minerals and
Industry
Washington, D.C. 20460
EPA-600/7-78-022
February 1978
FIRST ORDER ESTIMATES
OF ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
Interagency
Energy-Environment
Research and Development
Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, have been grouped into nine series. These nine broad cate-
gories were established to facilitate further development and application of en-
vironmental technology. Elimination of traditional grouping was consciously
planned to foster technology transfer and a maximum interface in related fields.
The nine series are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
8. "Special" Reports
9. Miscellaneous Reports
This report has been assigned to' the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from the
effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment Research and
Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's mission to protect the public
health and welfare from adverse effects of pollutants associated with energy sys-
tems. The goal of the Program is to assure the rapid development of domestic
energy supplies in an environmentally-compatible manner by providing .the nec-
essary environmental data and control technology. Investigations include analy-
ses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health and ecological
effects; assessments of, and development of, control technologies for energy
systems; and integrated assessments of a wide range of energy-related environ-
mental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical Informa-
tion Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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October, 1977
FIRST ORDER ESTIMATES OF
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
by
James L. Barker, Kenneth Maddox, James D. Westfield
and Douglas Wilcock
Development Sciences, Inc.
P.O. Box 144
Sagamore, Massachusetts 02561
Contract No. 68-01-4150
Project Officer
Steven E. Plotkin
Industrial and Extractive Processes Division
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
Office of Energy, Minerals, and Industry
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Washington, D.C. 20460
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Office of Energy, Minerals, and
Industry, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
When this study began, we assumed that sufficient data and analysis
would be available for the contractor to collect and integrate into a
useful report showing the energy costs of the federal environmental
protection program. We were swiftly disabused of this notion, for the
following reasons:
1. Most estimates of pollution control energy costs that
were examined by the contractor are difficult to accept;
assumptions are not stated, methodology is poorly
described, and, when the analyses could be followed,
we felt that many were inadequate.
2. The federal, state and local roles in pollution
control are intertwined to such an extent that it
is virtually impossible to convincingly break out
the federal share. In this report, therefore,
energy costs are given as the total costs of all
controls in a single medium (air or water) rather
than for a single federal statute.
3. The longer term industry response to pollution controls
is complex and involves process changes, material sub-
stitutions, and lack of compliance as well as installation
of "end-of-pipe" treatments. Analyses of energy costs of
pollution control, including this one, typically assume
end-of-pipe treatment for most industries. This produces
a conservative (high) estimate of energy costs, since process
changes may allow satisfaction of environmental standards
with zero energy costs and possibly with energy savings.
4. Differences in pollution control energy use from plant to
plant can be large, suggesting that a disaggregated approach
would greatly improve accuracy. This type of approach is
beyond the resources of this study.
5. Data on the energy costs of various control alternatives is
not uniformly available or is quite variable.
6. Designs of some important controls - such as flue gas
scrubbers - are changing so rapidly that energy costs for
future systems are highly uncertain.
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The implication of these analytical difficulties is that the estimates
presented here must be treated with caution. The estimates for the total
national energy cost for stationary point source control are probably
reasonably indicative of what will actually occur. Since the estimates are
based on conservative assumptions (from EPA's viewpoint), the actual cost
may be somewhat lower. On the other hand, the energy cost estimates for
a single industry are subject to such substantial potential for error that
they are not presented in the text. EPA's Office of Planning and Evaluation
is now conducting more detailed studies of those industries that appear to
be incurring, or that will incur, large energy costs for environmental
controls. These industries include electric utilities, iron and steel,
petroleum refining, copper and aluminum, pulp and paper, and a "miscellaneous"
category covering S.I.C. codes 21 through 30. Completion of these studies
should upgrade the national estimates as well as shed light on any potential
for reducing these energy costs.
The estimated energy required for water and air pollution control of
stationary point sources in the U.S. is two percent of the nation's energy
consumption in 1977 and three percent in 1983 (Recent changes in both the
Clean Air Act and the Federal Water Pollution Control Act are not considered
in the analysis). This is an enormous amount of energy, over three
quadrillion BTU (the equivalent of 150 million tons of coal) per year by 1983.
However, to put this into perspective, the nation's energy budget is growing
by about this percentage every year. Thus, if environmental controls on air
and water pollution were eliminated, the net decrease in energy use would be
swallowed up by growth in demand in one year.
Steve Plotkin
Office of Energy, Minerals,
and Industry
iv
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PREFACE
This study is a continuation of an earlier effort* to estimate the energy
required to meet pollution standards for stationary point sources. One ob-
jective of this investigation was to develop forecasts of national energy de-
mands both to operate pollution control devices and to manufacture and supply
materials used to build the devices. The other goal was to make it possible
for others to modify or update the estimates without having to redo the entire
study.
The analysis presented here used information obtained since the earlier
report was published. Significant changes have occurred in the expected costs
of pollution control, and these changes are reflected in the energy estimates.
Furthermore, this study does not (for the most part) attempt to differentiate
between the total cost for pollution control and that increment of cost di-
rectly attributable to specific federal regulations, as did the earlier study.
Consequently, forecasts of energy needed to support pollution control generally
are larger in this report than they were in the earlier one.
The report is divided into three major sections and two appendices:
Section 1.0 is a summary of energy requirements to control air and water
pollution from industrial plants, electric power plants, and
municipal wastewater treatment plants. The summary presents
study results and some key assumptions and limitations that
influence the results.
Section 2.0 presents the calculations by which estimates of energy to
control water pollution were determined. The section is
subdivided into three parts, examining energy needed for
control of industrial water pollution, electric power plant
thermal pollution and municipal wastewater.
Section 3.0 contains a discussion of how the estimated energy require-
ments for air pollution were developed. It is subdivided
into an analysis of the reduction of industrial air pollution
and a study of electric power plant air pollution control.
Appendix A compares the energy estimates of this report with those of
the earlier study and with estimates made by other organizations.
Appendix B is a bibliography of the articles, reports, books and other
source material used for the analysis.
* First-Order Estimates of Potential Energy Consumption Implications of
Federal Air and Water Pollution Control Standards for Stationary Sources,
prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency by Development Sciences
Inc. July 1975, Contract No. 68-01-2498.
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ABSTRACT
This report presents estimates of the energy demand attributable
to environmental control of pollution from "stationary point sources."
This class of pollution source includes powerplants, factories,
refineries, municipal waste water treatment plants, etc. but excludes
"mobile sources" - automobiles, trucks, etc. - and "non-point sources"
- sources which do not produce individual effluent streams, such as
some types of farms, mines, etc.
The energy requirements of pollution control arise from several
sources. Energy is required to operate components of the control
devices - fans, pumps, reheaters, etc. In some cases, the equipment
degrades the efficiency of the process it controls, requiring additional
fuel to maintain the product stream. Energy is required to mine, refine,
and assemble the material components of the control equipment, transport
them to the site, and install the equipment. Finally, energy is required
to produce and transport materials used up in the control process - such
as limestone, chlorine, etc. The calculations in this report include
estimates of all of these energies, although with varying degrees of
accuracy.
This report was submitted in fulfillment of Contract 68-01-4150 by
Development Sciences, Inc. under the sponsorship of the'U.S'. Environmental
Protection Agency.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
1.0 SUMMARY 1
2.0 ENERGY REQUIRED FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL 6
2.1 Industrial Water Pollution Control 6
2.2 Control of Thermal Pollution from Electric Power Plants 15
2.3 Municipal Wastewater Treatment 20
3.0 ENERGY REQUIRED FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL 33
3.1 Industrial Air Pollution Control 33
3.2 Control of SOX and Particulate Emissions from
Electric Power Plants 40
APPENDIX A: COMPARISON OF POLLUTION CONTROL-RELATED
ENERGY CONSUMPTION ESTIMATES 57
APPENDIX B: BIBLIOGRAPHY 72
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LIST OF FIGURES
No. Page
2-1 Activated Sludge With Anaerobic Digestion 25
2-2 Oxidation Ponds 27
2-3 Trickling Filter With Coarse Filtration 29
2-4 Activated Sludge with Nitrification, Chemical
Clarification, Filtration and Carbon Absorption 31
viii
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LIST OF TABLES
No. Page
1-1 Stationary Point Sources; Energy Required for 2
Water and Air Pollution Control
2-1 Annual Direct Energy Required for Industrial 11
Water Pollution Control
2-2 Energy Equivalents of Selected Chemicals 12
2-3 Annual Indirect Energy Required for Industrial 13
Water Pollution Control
2-4 Construction: Annual Indirect Energy Required 14
for Industrial Water Pollution Control
2-5 Annual Total Energy Required for Industrial Water 15
Pollution Control
2-6 Direct and Indirect Annual Energy Required for
Power Plant Forced Draft Cooling Towers: 1977-1983 20
2-7 Estimates of New Wastewater Treatment Units by
Size and Level of Treatment 22
2-8 Annual Energy Requirements for Municipal Wastewater
Treatment: 1983 24
2-9 Activated Sludge With Anaerobic Digestion: 30 njgd
Plant Capacity 26
2-10 Oxidation Ponds! 30mgd Plant Capacity 28
2-11 Trickling Filter (Rock Media) with coarse
Filtration: 30 mgd Plant Capacity in Southern
United States 30
2-12 Activated Sludge - Tertiary 30 mgd Plant Capacity
in Northern United States 32
3-1 Total Capital Investment for Air Pollution Control 35
3-2 Investment by Industry in Air Pollution Control
Devices 36
IX
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LIST OF TABLES (continued)
No. Page
3-3 Direct Energy Required for Industrial Air
Pollution Control 38
3-4 Indirect Energy Required for Industrial Air
Pollution Control 39
3-5 Total Energy Requirement for Industrial Air
Pollution Control 40
3-6 Coverage Assumptions and Control Strategy
for Compliance with Clean Air Act: 191/7 45
3-7 Coverage Assumptions and Control Strategy
for Compliance With Clean Air Act: 1983 45
3-8 Percent of Domestically Refined Residual
Oil by Weight Percent Sulfur §1
3-9 Barrels of Domestically Refined Product
by Weight Percent Sulfur 51
3-10 Energy Requirements for Residual
Desulfurization,1977 52
3-11 Percent of Product and Barrels Refined, by
Weight Percent Sulfur, 1977 52
3-12 Energy Requirements for Residual Desulfurization 53
3-13 Domestic Residual Desulfurization Operating
Energy 53
3-14 Residual Desulfurization Operating Energy 54
3-15 Summary of Results for Energy Costs of Meeting
Air Pollution Regulations, 1977 55
3-16 Summary of Results for Energy Cost of Meeting
Air Pollution Regulations, 1983 56
A-l Previous Studies of the Energy Requirements
for Air Pollution. Control 58
A-2 Comparison of Estimates of Energy Consumption
for Pollution Abatement 61
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
' The Project Officer for this effort has been Mr. Steven Plotkin. His ad-
vice, guidance and constructive criticisms, both of the earlier report and
during this work, have been invaluable to the project team. Dr. Edwin Clark,
of the Council on Environmental Quality, has been helpful throughout the study.
Among many useful suggestions provided by the Municipal Construction Division
of EPA, the advice of Malcolm Simmons has been particularly beneficial.
The Development Sciences Inc. Project Team Members are:
James L. Barker
Kenneth Maddox
James D. Westfield
Douglas Wilcock
The Project Team hopes that the information resulting from this study
contributes positively to understanding the issues of the price and value of
environmental protection.
XI
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1.0 SUMMARY
Pollution control is dependent upon the commitment of resources, and
energy is among the resources necessary to install and operate devices that
reduce air and water pollution. Because energy is an important resource
currently in short supply in the United States, there has been concern among
many regarding the energy necessary for pollution abatement. The purpose of
this study was to estimate the amount of energy required to control pollution
from stationary point sources.
The energy needs reported in this study are first order approximations.
Although they are as accurate as existing data and time limitations would
allow, the estimates do not substitute for detailed analyses of individual
pollution control systems and their energy characteristics. This is particu-
larly true in those instances where several alternative pollution control
systems are being considered for a specific application. Accordingly, the
results should be regarded as representing the proper magnitude of energy re-
quirements rather than as precisely determining those requirements.
The findings of the study are that more than 1,500 trillion Btu of energy
will be needed in 1977 for control of air and water pollution from stationary
sources. This amounts to approximately two percent of the estimated 1977
national energy use. Within the next decade energy used for control of pol-
lution from stationary sources is expected to nearly double to approximately
3,100 trillion Btu, which at that time will be on the order of three percent
of the national energy budget.
Table 1-1 displays the results. More than two-thirds of the total
energy required for pollution control, both for 1977 and 1983, will be used
to mitigate the environmental impacts of industrial processing. The largest
demands will be energy for industrial air pollution control, followed by de-
mands associated with industrial water pollution. The third largest require-
ments will be for the control of air pollutants from electric power plants.
Control of water pollution at electric power plants and new municipal waste-
water treatment plants will use smaller amounts of energy.
i
The results of Table 1-1 include both direct and indirect energy re-
quirements. Direct energy, in the form of fuels and electricity to operate
pollution control devices, accounts for about 80 percent of the total. In-
direct energy, including the energy equivalent of chemicals used in pollution
control and energy used to manufacture and install pollution abatement de-
vices, is the remaining 20 percent.
The findings presented in the table result from data and assumptions
that should be carefully studied. For the most part, data were derived
from estimates of pollution control costs and from projections of the numbers
1
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of facilities that would be required to meet environmental standards. Neither
kind of estimate yields "hard" information that can precisely define the ex-
tent to which pollution control equipment will be installed and operated in
the future. Consequently, assumptions and data sources are presented in each
following section so that they can be examined directly.
TABLE 1-1. STATIONARY POINT SOURCES:
ENERGY REQUIRED FOR WATER AND AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Energy Required
(1012 Btu)
Sector 1977 1983
Water Pollution Control
Industrial 479 1,079
Power Plant (Thermal) 93 156
Municipal Wastewater * 151
Subtotal 572 1,396
Air Pollution Control
Industrial
Power Plant
Subtotal
TOTAL STATIONARY POINT SOURCES
(APPROXIMATE % OF U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION)**
676
305
981
1,553
(2%)
1,179
500
1,679
3,075
(3%)
* No estimate for 1977. See discussion in Section 2.3.
** Percentages of sector (e.g., industrial) energy consumption for pollution
abatement are not presented here. This is because the estimates which ap-
pear in this report include "indirect" energy, some of which is consumed by
sectors other than the one reported.
Energy estimates are the major objective of this report; however, their
development led to many other important findings. These discoveries concern
both the process of making energy estimates and the features of pollution con-
trol sectors- They are listed below.
General
Statistical data on energy use in technological processes usually
are not available, and this is particularly so of the new and changing
technologies used for pollution control. Where energy data exist,
they are often incomplete. Moreover, the rules and assumptions by which
energy information is reported are often incompatible from one study to
another and comparison of results is difficult.
2
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2. The estimates made for this report are highly dependent on fore-
casts of pollution control costs. Various organizations and
agencies disagree as to both the extent and the types of pollution
control that will be required to satisfy environmental legislation,
and they project different costs. As a result, energy estimates
can vary, depending on underlying assumptions of the cost estimates.
3. Although pollution control energy estimates have been reported for
1977 and 1983 to correspond with the principal target years of en-
vironmental legislation (e.g. PL 92-500), maximum energy require-
ments may occur during other years. For example, new municipal
wastewater treatment plants constructed to meet federal standards
will be built throughout the 1980s and major expenditures for in-
dustrial air pollution control are expected before 1983, as are
those for industrial water pollution control.
4. Indirect energy is a significant fraction of the total energy needed
to support pollution control. The indirect energy is mainly due to
the chemicals required as input to the abatement techniques used by
the various sectors.
Water Pollution Control
5. The numbers of electric power plants that will need cooling towers
is uncertain, and the uncertainty fundamentally determines the re-
liability of the thermal pollution control energy estimates.
6. Energy consumption to operate cooling towers at electric power
plants varies with plant size, efficiency and kind. For equal
units of electrical output, larger plants (with larger cooling
towers) consume less energy than do smaller plants, more effi-
cient plants are less energy consumptive than less efficient
plants, and fossil fueled plants need less cooling and are less
energy intensive than nuclear plants.
7. The energy intensities of municipal wastewater plants increase
significantly from primary to secondary treatment levels and
from secondary to tertiary treatment levels.
8. The energy cost for certain advanced methods of treating the
chemical sludges from wastewater treatment plants can be partially
offset by savings in indirect (chemical) energy if the method re-
covers useful chemicals (e.g. in the recalcination of chemical
sludges to recover lime).
9. The wide variation of treatment techniques and waste stream compo-
sitions within industry (e.g. across subsectors and plant sizes)
makes it difficult to develop a reliable measure of energy con-
sumption for water pollution control. Imposition of end-of-pipe
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treatment assumptions on industries which may change their production
processes to reduce pollutants, to recover valuable materials, and/or
to conserve energy is not always reasonable and may cause the energy
estimates to be overstated.
10. There does not exist across industrial sectors a general and system-
atic relationship among investment in pollution control equipment,
costs to operate and maintain the equipment, and energy consumption
by the equipment. However, for any given sector, a coefficient re-
lating energy consumption to capital investment is the best available
basis for developing energy estimates from aggregate cost data.
11. The chemical industry will consume much more energy for water pollution
control than any other industrial sector. The paper and machinery in-
dustries are the next most energy consumptive sectors.
12. The energy consumption associated with producing chemicals for in-
dustrial water pollution control devices is significant compared to
the direct operating energy required.
Air Pollution Control
13. The amount of energy consumed by coal-burning power plants for
stack gas scrubbers depends critically on: (a) availability of
low sulfur coal; (b) the timing and extent of compliance with
federal air quality standards; and (c) the timing and scope of
the State Implementation Plans. There does not appear to be
general agreement among federal agencies on how much low sulfur
coal can be made available to the utilities by the latter 70s and
early 80s.
14. The majority of the energy consumption by power plants for air
pollution control will be for operation of stack gas scrubbers.
15. On a unit basis, stack gas scrubbing and using low-sulfur coal are
equally energy intensive.
16. Desulfurization of residual oil at the refinery is up to 40 per-
cent more energy intensive than stack gas scrubbing. However,
for equivalent amounts of sulfur removal stack gas scrubbers cost
two to three times as much as oil desulfurization units.
17. The operating energy for removal of SOX (by limestone scrubbers)
and particulates (by electrostatic precipitators) depend very
little on the amount of sulfur or particulates in the stack
gases (over the "normal" range of fuel qualities).
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18. The energy consumed in disposing of sludges from stack gas scrubbers
and in producing the limestone used by the scrubbers is insignificant
compared to the energy consumed in operating the scrubbers.
19. Wet collectors are very energy intensive; their application by in-
dustry to control air pollution may result in major energy consump-
tion/environmental quality inefficiencies.
These findings supplement the energy estimates themselves. Like the
estimates however they should be reevaluated after having considered the
assumptions heeded to perform the analysis.
The findings indicate that detailed sector analyses are needed in order
to determine more fully the energy to support pollution control. It is
particularly important that the industrial sectors be studied since (a) they
are the ones requiring the most energy»and (b) they have the largest variety
of possible responses to effect reduction in air and water pollutants. For
water pollution the chemical, paper and machinery industries are the most
energy consumptive and should therefore be most closely studied; while for
air pollution the primary metals, chemical and petroleum industries are the
most important sectors for which to determine energy requirements.
Analyses should be made in enough depth to include accurate information
on indirect energy requirements. The data on chemicals used for pollution
control processes are especially critical. Indirect energy can, in some
cases, significantly add to the energy requirements for pollution control.
Discussions with members of the EPA staff have revealed that efforts to
refine energy data are currently underway and should result in improved
estimates of the energy needed to control air and water pollution. The first
order approximations reported here can therefore be compared with the findings
of the more detailed study when it is finished. Until then these data serve
as useful indicators of the energy resource commitments that must be made to
protect air and water from stationary point source emissions.
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2.0 ENERGY REQUIRED FOR WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
The 1972 Amendments to the Water Pollution Control Act mandated action
to produce major reductions in the pollution of United States water resources.
Since the passage of the Amendments, the EPA has been developing standards
and guidelines to affect the legislative intent.
The sections that follow present the methodology, assumptions and results
of investigations to determine energy required to control water pollution.
Three major divisions are covered. They are:
t Water pollution abatement by industries
• Thermal pollution control by electric utilities
§ Wastewater treatment by municipalities
Where possible, both direct operating and indirect energy have been determined
and the results are divided accordingly.
Summary estimates for water pollution control were presented in Table 1-1.
2.1 Industrial Water Pollution Control
Since the 1972 Amendments to the Water Pollution Control Act, industry
has been planning its response to the effluent guidelines published by EPA.
The demands on industry to utilize by 1977 the "best practicable" technologies
for controlling water pollution, and by 1983 to use the "best available" tech-
nology economically achievable, will have cost industry over $15 billion in
new plant and equipment investments by 1977 and will cost $34 billion by 1983.
These investments will result in major reductions in the amount of pollutants
annually discharged by industry into water bodies.
Industry can reduce water pollution in one or more of three ways:
t Traditional end-of-pipe treatment of effluent to remove or reduce
harmful pollutants; and/or
t Changes in production processes to reduce the quantity or types of
pollutants generated; and/or
• Reuse of effluents in the production process or as inputs to another
production process.
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The method chosen by any particular manufacturer depends on many factors
including his current production process, the age of his equipment, the size
of his plant, the actions of his competitors, access to financing, the health
of his business, and the characteristics of the marketplace. Although there
is considerable evidence that many producers are responding to pollution reg-
ulations by altering their production processes rather than by installing
relatively expensive and nonproductive end-of-pipe treatment processes, the
paucity of comprehensive information about both the creative responses of
some producers to pollution problems, and the unique circumstances of others
who face regulations which may or may not be sensitive to their particular
business situation, have caused most analysts of the impacts of the regulations
to assume that all (or most) producers will install end-of-pipe treatment
processes in order to meet the guidelines established for their industries.
The following subsections develop estimates of the energy consequences
which accompany estimates of industrial investments for water pollution con-
trol . The data are derived largely from studies done by EPA; and because
those studies focus on end-of-pipe treatment processes, the energy estimates
are also primarily for end-of-pipe treatment. As such, there may be over-
statements of what may actually occur once industry finalizes its responses
to the 1983 standards and to the pressures of raw materials shortages and
price increases.
Methodology and Assumptions
The methodology used to develop estimates of the direct and indirect
energy demands for control of industrial water pollution includes five steps:
Step 1:
Direct Energy
Consumption
Coefficients
From available data on the cost (by industry) of
water pollution controls, determine direct energy
consumption coefficients based on capital costs
for the control techniques.
Step 2: Indirect
Energy Consumption
Coefficients
From the same data, determine the indirect energy
consumption coefficients based on capital costs and
annual consumption of chemicals.
Step 3: Investments
in Water Pollution
Control
From data developed by CEQ, determine expected in-
vestments for water pollution control by industry
sectors.
Step 4: Direct Energy
Consumption for Water
Pollution Control
Using the information developed in Steps 1 and 3,
estimate the direct energy consumed by all in-
dustries by multiplying the energy coefficient by
the forecasted investments in control devices.
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Step 5: Indirect Using the information developed in Steps 2 and 3,
Energy Consumption estimate the energy consumed in the production of
for Water Pollution chemicals and in the construction of industrial
Control pollution control devices by multiplying the energy
coefficients by the forecasted investments in
control devices.
Thus, the methodology is based on the development of coefficients which
express energy consumption as a function of investment in pollution control
equipment. Although imperfect, this relationship is reasonable for making
first-order estimates of energy requirements. The methodology also considers
two sources of indirect energy consumption—the energy required to produce the
chemicals used by pollution control devices and the energy used in the con-
struction of control devices.
The assumptions which are necessary in order to develop the energy
estimates include:
1. The detailed estimates of capital, energy and chemical costs for water
pollution control by industry made by Vanderbilt University* for EPA
are reasonable at least in terms of the relationship between capital
cost and the two categories of operating costs.
2. The energy costs reported by Vanderbilt University are all costs for
electric power.
3. Averaging of the energy coefficients from the mostly seven-digit SIC
data developed by Vanderbilt to a two-digit level, and across plant
sizes, produces macro energy coefficients which are representative of
the industry. Industries for which Vanderbilt does not report energy
costs will have energy coefficients similar to the average of all
industries for which data are reported.
4. Industries for which Vanderbilt does not report types of chemicals
consumed will use a mix of equal amounts of the various chemicals
reported for other industries.
5. Industry will primarily employ end-of-pipe treatment for the control
of water pollution.**
* Vanderbilt University's study of water pollution control costs was used
by EPA for the 1975 "Cost of Clean Environment" report.
-•—
** Although this assumption is necessary for this analysis, evidence is
mounting that some industries are moving toward process change as a
method for both reducing pollutant generation and improving production
efficiency and/or production economics.
8
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6. CEQ's estimates, by industry, of investment for water pollution con-
trol are reasonable.
7. Capital expenditure is the best single indicator of energy consumption
for the mix of control techniques within a particular industry.
8. Investments made through a given year (e.g. 1976) realize operating
costs in the following year (e.g. 1977). Thus, investments in pollution
control devices through 1976 are the basis for calculating energy con-
sumption in 1977.
9. Capital equipment will last 20 years, and therefore the energy equiva-
lent of capital equipment is "amortized" over a 20-year period.
Energy Demands for Industrial Water Pollution Control
The energy consumption coefficients used for this analysis were derived
after a detailed analysis' of typical plant data for 81 industrial sectors
(at the seven-digit SIC level) and three different plant sizes. The objective
of the detailed analysis of the 243 data points was to determine whether a
statistically valid relationship among energy cost, capital cost and O&M cost
for water pollution control existed across the industrial sectors. Because
of constantly changing estimates of industry expenditures for abatement of
water pollution, and because of the paucity of energy data, it was hoped that
a general equation could be developed which would permit the prediction of
energy cost given O&M and capital cost estimates.
The analysis proved that energy consumption for water pollution control
is sector (or even plant) specific, and that generalization across sectors
does not accurately predict the energy usage of any of the sectors. This
finding reflects the variabilities which exist in industrial approaches to
pollution control. These variabilities, in turn, reflect differences among
many parameters, including waste stream composition, plant size and age,
local conditions, behavior of individual decision-makers and plant engineers,
and production process mixes within specific manufacturing facilities. The
finding from this analysis lends support to the argument for gathering better
data on the energy consumption characteristics of various abatement techniques
being used or developed by industry, and for developing better forecasts of
the population and processing throughput of the techniques.
The analysis of data on the 81 sectors did produce information which
was useful for developing the energy estimates contained in this report.
First, it was determined that, when the data on the 81 sectors were collapsed
to the roughly two-digit SIC level used by CEQ for its pollution control cost
estimating, the average of the individual energy cost to capital cost ratios
provided forecasts of energy cost from the aggregated capital cost which were
reasonably close to forecasts developed from the individual components.
Second, statistical analysis showed that information on total O&M cost did
not improve the predictive accuracy of the energy to capital cost ratio.
-------
For the purposes of this study, then, it was decided to base the energy
estimates on forecasts of capital expenditures by major industrial sectors
and on average energy to capital ratios for the various sectors. Although
this approach is crude, the results produced are likely to at least reason-
ably represent (in the total) the magnitude of energyiconsumption associated
with given industrial investments in water pollution control.
The estimates of energy requirements for water pollution control are
derived by converting energy cost/capital cost ratios for the industrial
sectors to coefficients of the form Btu/$ capital. These coefficients are
then used to calculate the sector energy consumption associated with CEQ's
investment forecasts.
The investments for water pollution control by industry will be,
according to CEQ:
- $15.334 billion through 1976
- $34.260 billion through 1982
Over 80 percent of these investments will occur in five (of twelve)
industries:
- Chemicals (27% of total)
- Petroleum refining (17%)
- Paper and allied products (15%)
- Primary metals (12%)
- Food & kindred products (11%)
The investments in water pollution control for each industry signifi-
cantly affected by Amendments to the Water Act are shown in Table 2-1. The
table also shows the energy coefficients used for each industrial sector,
and the resultant forecasts of direct energy consumption for 1977 and 1983.
The most notable feature of the energy consumption forecasts is that although
the chemicals industry is estimated to spend 27 percent of the total water
pollution control investment by industry, its energy consumption is 53 per-
cent of the total.
Direct operating energy is not the only energy requirement for water
pollution control. In addition to operating energy there is energy "contained"
in the chemicals and other materials used to build and supply pollution con-
trol devices. These indirect energies can sometimes be major contributors
to the total energy required for pollution control.
Table 2-2 .lists the energy equivalents of chemicals used for water pol-
lution control. In order to determine the indirect energy due to chemicals,
the conversion coefficients relating energy to. costs (last column) were used.
They were multiplied by the cost of chemicals as a fraction of total capital
investment. This process is illustrated in Table 2-3. For most industries
annual chemical costs are three cents per dollar of investment and the
average energy/cost coefficient of 311,000 Btu/$ is used. The resulting in-^
direct energy required for chemicals is in some industries larger than the
10
-------
TABLE 2-1. ANNUAL DIRECT ENERGY REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
Industry
Primary Metals
Machinery
Transportation Equipment
Stone, Clay and Glass
Other Durables
Chemicals
Texti les
Rubber
Paper
Petroleum
Food
Other Nondurables
TOTALS
Cumulative
Capital Investment
(millions of 1975 $)
1977
1,852
809
500
154
637
4,198
374
60
2,289
2,558
1,665
238
15,334
1983
4,074
4,809
1,108
243
1,656
9,561
589
120
4,976
4,599
2,126
339
34,260
Direct Energy
Coefficient
(1000 Btu/$)*
4.75
17.54
17.54
16.85
17.54
40.61
17.54
17.54
16.85
8.64
22.03
21.65
Direct Energy
Required
(1012 Btu)
1977
9
14
9
3
11
170
7
1
39
22
37
5
326
1983
19
84
19
4
29
388
10
2
84
40
47
9
736
* Fuel equivalent of electricity equals 10,660 Btu per kwh.
-------
direct operating energy (compare Tables 2-2 and 2-3). The average indirect
chemical energy of all industries is 37 percent of direct operating energy,
and therefore it is an important part of the total energy required for water
pollution control.
TABLE 2-2. ENERGY EQUIVALENTS OF SELECTED CHEMICALS
Chemical Btu per Pound Btu per 1975 $
Activated Carbon
Lime
Sulfuric Acid
Soda Ash
Chlorine
Methanol
Polymer
Ammonia
12,100
2,500
1,400
19,000
14,500
14,000
47,800
25,000
173,000
342,000
107,000
155,000
397,000
599,000
268,000
450,000
AVERAGE 311,000
The other kind of indirect energy, construction energy, was estimated
from capital investment also. Using dollar-to-Btu conversion coefficients
derived for capital equipment, and assuming 20-year life for pollution con-
trol equipment, an annual energy equivalent for construction was developed.
Table 2-4 lists the indirect energy associated with construction. It can be
seen by comparison with Table 2-1 that indirect energy due to construction
does not add significantly to energy needed for direct operation.
Total energy requirements are obtained from the sum of direct and in-
direct energy for water pollution control. Table 2-5 summarizes energy re-
quirements for the industrial sectors. According to its results, in 1977
some 479 trillion Btu will be needed to reduce industrial water pollution,
and that total will more than double to 1,079 trillion Btu in 1983.
12
-------
TABLE 2-3. CHEMICALS: ANNUAL INDIRECT ENERGY REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
Industry
Primary Metals
Machinery
Transportation Equipment
Stone, Clay and Glass
Other Durables
Chemicals
Textiles
Rubber
Paper
Petroleum
Food
^
Other Nondurables
TOTALS
Capital Investment
(millions of 1975 $) 1
1977
1,852
809
500
154
637
4,198
374
60
2,289
2,558
1,665
238
15,334
1983
4,074
4,809
1,108
243
1 ,656
9,561
589
120
4,976
4,599
2,126
399
34,260
Chemical Cost
Coefficient
[$/$ Investment)
0.030
0,030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.030
0.136
0.030
0.030
0.015
0.030
Chemical Energy Chemicals:
Coefficient Energy Required
(1000 Btu/$)* (1012 Btu)
311
311
311
311
311
173
311
173
311
311
433
311
1977
17
8
5
1
6
"22
3
1
21
24
11
2
122
1983
38
45
10
2
15
50
6
3
46
43
14
4
276
-<
* Fuel equivalent of electricity equals 10,660 Btu per kwh.
-------
CONSTRUCTION:
TABLE 2-4.
ANNUAL INDIRECT ENERGY REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIAL HATER POLLUTION CONTROL
Industry
Primary Metals
Machinery
Transportation Equipment
St«ne, Clay and Glass
Other Durables
Chemicals
Textiles
Rubber
Paper
Petroleum
Food
Other "Nondurables
TOTALS
Construction Energy Construction:
Capital Investment Coefficient Energy Required
(•millions of 1975 $) (1000 Btu/$)* (1012 Btu)
1977
1 ,852
809
500
154
637
4,198
374
60
2,289
2,558
1,665
238
15,334
1983
4,074
4,809
1,108
243
1,65.6
9,561
589
120
4,976
4,599
.. 2,126
399
34,260
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1977
4
2
1
-
1
8
1
-
5
5
3
1
31
1983
8
10
2
-
3
19
1
-
10
10
4
1
68
* Assumed 20-year life for pollution control devices.
-------
TABLE 2-5. ANNUAL TOTAL ENERGY REQUIRED
FOR INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
Total Energy Required
(1012 Btu)
Industry 1977 . 1983
Primary Metals
Machinery
Transportation Equipment
Stone, Clay and Glass
Other Durables
Chemicals
Texti 1 es
Rubber
Paper
Petroleum
Food
Other Nondurables
30
24
15
4
18
200
11
3
65
51
50
9
TOTAL 479
65
139
32
7
49
456
16
5
140
92
65
14
1,079
2.2 Control of Thermal Pollution from Electric Power Plants
Studies by the EPA indicate that by 1977 almost $800 million will have
been spent by members of the electric utility industry on methods for con-
trolling thermal water pollution. By 1983 it is estimated the cost will have
increased to over $1.2 billion. The expenditures will be made to conform to
the final guidelines on thermal pollution abatement, published by EPA. These
guidelines exempt plants of certain sizes, ages, and locations, but most plants
covered by the regulations will require elaborate equipment to reduce thermal
impact on nearby bodies of water.
Estimates of energy that will be used to manufacture, install and operate
cooling equipment are developed in the following pages. Mechanical forced-
draft cooling towers have been selected as the typical control method that will
be used to meet the guidelines. Plants for which cooling towers will be em-
ployed for economic rather than environmental reasons are not included in the
energy estimates.
Methodology and Assumptions
The methodology employed for arriving at estimates of energy consumption
by power plants for control of thermal pollution follows five steps:
15
-------
Step 1: Cooling
Tower Operating
Energy
Determine the operating energy required for
mechanical forced-draft cooling towers as a
function of pi ant size and type.
Step 2: Capacity
Requiring Cooling
Towers
Step 3: Direct
Energy Consumed for
Controlling Thermal
Pollution
Step 4:
Penalty
Capacity
Step 5: Materials
Energy Penalty
Determine the total generating capacity which
requires cooling towers in terms of plant size
and type.
Using the information from the previous step,
calculate the energy consumed by electric
utilities in meeting the thermal pollution re-
regulations.
The electricity to run the thermal pollution control
equipment is supplied by the power plant. Using
the estimates obtained in Step 3, estimate the
capacity additions necessary and the "energy
cost" of those additions.
From the estimates of capacity requiring cooling
towers (Step 2), estimate the energy cost of
constructing cooling towers.
The key assumptions used in the analysis include:
;
1. Mechanical forced-draft cooling towers are representative of devices
used by utilities to control thermal pollution.
2. The operating efficiency of cooling towers increases with the size of
the tower (and therefore with plant size). Consequently, energy for
cooling, per unit of electricity generated, decreases as the plant size
increases.
3. The energy required to operate a cooling tower is directly proportional
to the amount of cooling required, which, in turn, is directly related
to plant efficiency, load factor and heat loss to the atmosphere.
4. Fossil and nuclear power plant operating efficiencies, 34 percent and
32 percent respectively, will not change between 1977 and 1983. Load
and capacity factors will be as was published by EPA.*
5. Estimates of generating capacity requiring cooling towers are derived
from the publication listed in Step 4.
Temple, Barker & SI pane, Inc. Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976.
16
-------
6. Generating capacity will have to be added to replace that which is used
for thermal pollution control. The additional generating capacity re-
sults in an energy equivalent for construction of new generating
facilities.
i
7. The published estimated cost of cooling towers is reasonable.* The
energy for cooling tower construction is 36,925 Btu/$ (I/O Sector 1103,
Public Utility Construction).**
Requirements for Mechanical Forced-Draft Cooling Towers
As a result of the effluent guidelines, in 1977 some 17.21 x 106 kw of
nuclear capacity and 56.49 x 10b kw of fossil capacity will have installed
cooling towers. By 1983, 29.03 x 106 kw of nuclear capacity will require
cooling towers, while 91.1 x 106 kw of fossil will be impacted by the guide-
1i nes.
Energy Demands for Mechanical Forced-Draft Cooling
Evaluation of the operating characteristics of forced-draft cooling
towers suggests that, with 15 percent and 5 percent heat loss to the atmos-
phere for fossil fuel and nuclear plants respectively, the energy penalty
associated with operating the devices will be (by plant size):***
ENERGY FOR OPERATING MECHANICAL FORCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWERS
(kwh per Megawatthour)
Plant Capacity Fossil Fuel Plants Nuclear Plants
50 Megawatt 34.2 42.2
150 Megawatt 33.2 41.0
500 Megawatt 27.0 33.4
900 Megawatt 24.0 29.6
1500 Megawatt 21.4 26.4
3000 Megawatt ( 18.3 22.7
* Temple, Barker & Sloan, Inc. Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976.
** Development Sciences Inc., Application of Net Energy Analysis to Consumer
Technologies. Report to U.S. ERDA, Contract E(49-l)-3847, Dec. 1976.
*** Jimeson, R.M; G.G. Adkinsi"Waste Heat Disposal in Power Plants," Chemical
Engineering Progress, Vol. 67, No. 7 (July 1971), 64.
17
-------
Data on the distribution of expected cooling tower installations by plant
capacity are not readily available. However, it can be assumed that the dis-
tribution of installations by size of plant will follow closely the projected
distribution of new thermal power plant capacity. Analysis of Edison Electric
Institute's 59th Electric Power Survey (April, 1976) indicates a plant dis-
tribution of:
DISTRIBUTION OF PROJECTED NEW
THERMAL POWER PLANT CAPACITY
(Approximate Percentages of Total New Capacity by Type of Plant)
Plant Capacity Fossil Fuel Plants Nuclear Plants
50 Megawatt
150 Megawatt 6%
500 Megawatt 62%
900 Megawatt 24% 58%
1,500 Megawatt and Greater 8% 42%
100% 100%
The weighted average operating energy for cooling towers, calculated by
combining the two previous tables, is 26.2 kwh per megawatt hour for fossil
plants, and 28.3 kwh per megawatt hour for nuclear plants. These estimates
include the energy required to operate the cooling equipment as well as some
losses in turbine efficiency caused by back pressure. Given the generation for
each plant type in 1977 and 1983, the operating energy penalty is 91 x 10'2 Btu
in 1977 and 153 x 1012 Btu in 1983.
Energy Demands for Capacity Replacement
In the case of nuclear generation the operating energy penalty is 2.8
percent of input energy while for fossil fuel generation the energy penalty
is 2.5 percent. Consequently, the capacity penalty is assumed to be 2.8 per-
cent and 2.5 percent for nuclear and fossil plants, respectively.
Given the required capacity additions (equal to the percent capacity
penalty multiplied by capacity affected), the 1975 cost of that additional
capacity, the energy intensity of construction [measured in Btu/$(1975)], and
an assumed 20-year life for the equipment, the capacity penalty is estimated
for 1977 to be 0.9 x 1012 Btu and for 1983 to be 1.5 x 1012 Btu.
18
-------
Materials Energy Estimate
The materials energy estimate is based on cooling tower installation costs
of $5.77 per kilowatt capacity (1975 dollars).* Using the energy intensity of
construction, the materials energy equivalent is 16 x 10^2 Btu for 1977 and
26 x 10^2 Btu for 1983. Amortizing over 20 years, the annual materials energy
total for 1977 is 0.8 x 10^2 Btu and for 1983 is 1.3 x 1Q12 Btu.
Summary of Results
The energy for meeting thermal water pollution regulations both in 1977
and 1983 is summarized in Table 2-6. Major energy requirements are those for
direct operating energy; the capacity penalty and materials energy equivalents
make up only a small fraction of the total. The energy for controlling thermal
water pollution from electric power plants increases by 67 percent, from 93
trillion Btu in 1977 to 156 trillion Btu in 1983.
Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976, page 111-24. The $5.77 per kilowatt
is the cost for new units. While the cost for retrofits is more than four
times as great, it was assumed that the new unit cost is most representative
for the energy calculation.
19
-------
TABLE 2-6. DIRECT AND INDIRECT ANNUAL ENERGY REQUIRED FOR
POWER PLANT FORCED-DRAFT COOLING TOWERS; 1977 AND 1983
Energy Required
(1012 Btu)
Type
Fossil Fuel
Operating Energy
Capacity Penalty
Materials Energy
Subtotal
Nuclear Fuel
Operating Energy
Capacity Penalty
Materials Energy
Subtotal
All Plants
Operating Energy
Capacity Penalty
Materials Energy
Total
1977
67
1
_L
69
24
-
_L
24
91
1
1
93
1983
107
1
1
109
46
1
^^^ ^^
47
153
2
1
156
2.3 Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Local governments have been collecting and treating sewage as a matter
of course for many years. In 1976, approximately 75 percent of the United
States' population was served by sewer systems, and more than 90 percent of
the collected sewage was treated in either a primary or secondary treatment
plant before discharge to the water or land. However, the Amendments to the
Water Pollution Control Act require higher average levels for treating sewage
wastes so that additional facilities will be needed.
According to estimates derived from EPA's 1976 Survey of Needs for Munic-
ipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities, almost $27 billion will have to be spent
to bring all treatment plants into conformity with the standards called for by
the Amendments. Nearly $10 billion will be spent to build secondary treat-
ment plants, and the remaining $17 billion will be used to construct tertiary
treatment facilities.* As the complexity of treatment increases from secondary
to tertiary processes, costs and operating energy go up dramatically.
* The basis for these estimates is an unpublished analysis by CEQ of the 1976
"Needs" data. DSI recognizes that results of the Needs Survey are difficult
to interpret and that certain of the data appear to contradict actual and
likely practices at the local level. Some of these data problems will be
alleviated when EPA has received and analyzed the plans prepared under
Section 208 of PL 92-500.
20
-------
In the pages that follow estimates are developed to determine both
direct and indirect energy associated with improvement in municipal waste-
water treatment.
Methodology and Assumptions
Energy estimates were made using a four-step methodology.
Step 1: Amount of
Treatment Required
Step 2: Mix of
Treatment Plants
Step 3: Treatment
Unit Energy
Characteristics
Step 4: Total Energy
Required to Meet
Wastewater Treatment
Standards
Determine the number and size of new treatment
facilities that will be required to meet water
pollution standards. Calculate total flow rates
through new plants.
Determine the distribution of levels and types
of treatment that will be added in order to con-
form to the standards.
Determine the direct and indirect energy required
to treat a unit flow of wastewater for each type
of treatment in Step 2.
From the flow rates through new plants (Step 1)
and the energy characteristics for unit flow
(Step 3), calculate total direct and indirect
energy for wastewater treatment.
The methodology is based on simplifying the mix of plant sizes, designs,
levels and types of treatment, and costs to a few representative units. It
requires five key assumptions. They are:
1. "Needs Survey" data give good estimates of communities requiring added
treatment faci1i ti es.
2. Plant size can be estimated from the population of the community served,
using a flow rate of 100 gallons per person per day.
i
3. The energy requirements of sewage treatment facilities are directly
proportional to the plant size, so that unit treatment characteristics
apply to all plants regardless of size.
4. Unit processes can be determined from standard 30 million gallon per
day plants described in a recent EPA report.*
* Energy Conservation in^Municipal Wastewater Treatment, prepared for EPA
by Culp, Wesner and Culp, 1976.
21
-------
5. Future secondary treatment processes will be activated sludge,
oxidation ponds and trickling filter, in the ratio of 5/3/2,
respectively.*
The DSI staff is concerned about the validity of these assumptions. For
example, it is not clear that the "Needs Survey" accurately projects future
sewage treatment requirements (assumption 1) nor can much confidence be
placed in a linear relationship between plant size and energy characteristics
(assumption 3). However, within the constraints imposed by this project, the
assumptions are thought to be acceptable. Numbers of new treatment plants
are probably overestimated; the energy required per unit of wastewater flow,
using a large 30 MGD plant that is likely more efficient per unit than is the
average mix of plants, is probably underestimated. Thus, the errors resulting
from these assumptions at least partly cancel each other, and energy estimates
are probably in the proper range of magnitude.
Needs Survey data are not exactly attributable to the year 1983. Many
of the plants listed may be built later in the 1980s. However, it has been
assumed that energy estimates for all new facilities apply to 1983.
The number and size of new treatment facilities were estimated from data
of the 1976 Survey of Needs for Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities.
Table 2-7 shows approximations for populations of communities served by new
treatment facilities, for numbers of new facilities needed by treatment level,
and for costs of those additions.
TABLE 2-7. ESTIMATES OF NEW WASTEWATER TREATMENT UNITS
BY SIZE AND LEVEL OF TREATMENT
Community Size
(thousands)
0
2.5
5.0
15
25
50
- 2.5
- 5.0
- 15
- 25
- 50
- 100
100
Number of Units
Primary
9,670
800
800
210
180
100
80
Secondary
13,070
1,620
1,830
500
410
240
220
Tertiary
3,570
520
650
170
130
90
90
Costs
(billions of
12
2
3
2
2
2
5
1976 $)
TOTAL
11,840
17,890
5,220
27*
* Individual costs do not sum to total cost due to independent rounding.
Average community sizes were assumed to be half the range shown in the
table, and plant size in gallons per day was estimated as 100 times the
* This ratio of treatment methods is based on the aforementioned unpublished
analysis by CEQ of ,1.976 "Needs Survey" data.
22
-------
community population. So, for example, it is estimated that 9,670 commu-
nities of 1,250 people each will need new 125,000 gallon per day primary
treatment units, for a total requirement of (9,670 x 125,000 gallons per
day) 1.2 billion gallons per day of new primary treatment capacity. Similar
calculations for each size and type of treatment yield the following results:
New Treatment Capacity
Required
Treatment Level (billion gallons per day)
Primary 5.4
Secondary 11.7
Tertiary 4.2
i
The 11.7 billion gallons per day of secondary treatment capacity is
divided into 5.85 billion gallons per day of activated sludge treatment,
3.51 billion gallons per day of oxidation pond treatment, and 2.34 billion
gallons per day of trickling filter treatment, according to the assumed dis-
tribution 5/3/2, respectively.
The end of this section contains four process schematics (Figures 2-1
through 2-4) and four tables (Tables 2-9 through 2-12) that describe standard
30 million gallon per day treatment plants. The tables were used to obtain
operating and chemical energy estimates for wastewater treatment. Data from
the four tables were divided into primary, secondary and (for Activated Sludge
with Nitrification, Chemical Clarification, Filtration and Carbon Adsorption)
tertiary treatment level processes. Operating and chemical energy require-
ments were then scaled to meet the capacity needs listed above.
Energy is used in the construction and maintenance of wastewater treat-
ment facilities. An estimate of the "indirect" energy requirements can be
obtained by converting the costs of facilities to energy equivalents. Esti-
mating techniques have been developed to make cost-to-energy conversions,*
and these were applied to the costs reported in Table 2-7.
The conversion factor for wastewater treatment facilities was determined
to be 34,830 Btu per dollar in constant 1976 dollars. Multiplying by the
facilities' cost ($27 billion) results in total energy requirements of approxi-
mately 940 trillion Btu. Facilities were "amortized" over 20 years, yielding
a yearly energy requirement of 47 trillion Btu.
Table 2-8 shows both direct ;and indirect energy required for wastewater
treatment. Although the indirect energy from the use of chemicals is not
large compared to direct operating energy, the energy equivalent of treatment
plants and equipment contributes substantially to the total. Together the
chemical and "construction" energies are 57 percent as large as the direct
energy. The total annual energy required for new wastewater treatment facil-
ities will be 151 trillion Btu, according to the estimates reported in
Table 2-8.
A discussion of the estimating techniques can be found in Application of
Net Energy Analysis to Consumer Technologies, prepared for ERDA by DSI,
December 1976. Appendix A contains dollar-to-energy conversion factors
for each of 357 economic sectors, including the public utility construction
sector used for estimates in this study.
23
-------
TABLE 2-8. ANNUAL ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
FOR MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT: 1983*
Treatment Level
Primary
Secondary
Trickling Filter
Activated Sludge
Oxidation Ponds
SUBTOTAL
Tertiary
TOTAL, OPERATING
Energy Requirements
(1012
Btu**)
Direct Chemical Construction Total
6
4
23
6
33
57
96
4
-
-
4
8
***
***
***
***
***
***
***
10
4
23
6
33
61
104
Energy Equivalent of Facilities
47
47
GRAND TOTAL
96
8
47
151
* Nominal date
** Electricity was converted to Btu at 10,660 Btu per kwh
*** Estimated for grand total only
24
-------
FIGURE 2-1. ACTIVATED SLUDGE WITH ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
LAND DISPOSAL
PROCESS SCHEMATIC
WASTEWATER
SOLIDS
Source: Culp, Wesner and Gulp.
25
-------
TABLE 2-9. ACTIVATED SLUDGE WITH ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
30 mgd PLANT CAPACITY
Process
Primary
Energy Required
Secondary
Energy Required
Thousand Million
kwh/yr Btu/yr
Thousand
kwh/yr
Treatment Processes
Raw Sewage Pumping*
Preliminary Treatment*
Bar Screen*
Comminutor*
Grit Removal Aerated*
Primary Sedimentation-Circular*
Aeration-Mechanical
Secondary Sedimentation
Chlorination*
SUBTOTAL*
Gravity Thicken**
Air Flotation Thicken**
Anaerobic Digestion**
Sludge Drying Bed**
Land Disposal-Truck
SUBTOTAL
Building Heat*
Building Cooling*
SUBTOTAL
TOTAL TREATMENT PROCESSES
470
102
30
4,900
250
290
6,04?
8
1,250
1,500
15
2,773
100
31,755
150
1 ,400
33,305
500
100
500
1,828
1,828
8,915 33,805
1,828
* Primary treatment
** Fifty percent primary, 50 percent secondary treatment
Source: Culp, Wesner, and Gulp
26
-------
FIGURE 2-2. OXIDATION PONDS
INFLUENT
TOCATXD
PROCESS SCHEMATIC
Source: Gulp, Wesner and Gulp.
27
-------
TABLE 2-10. OXIDATION PONDS
30 mgd PLANT CAPACITY
Process
Primary Energy
Raw Sewage Pumping
Preliminary Treatment
Bar Screen
Comminutor
Aerated Pond
Chlorination
TOTAL PRIMARY ENERGY
Secondary Energy
Chlorine
TOTAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY
Total Energy Required
Thousand Million
kwh/yr Btu/yr
470
22
7,400
290
8,182
1,828
10,010
Source: Gulp, Wesner and Culp.
28
-------
FIGURE 2-3. TRICRLING FILTER WITH COARSE FILTRATION
-BICYCLE
PROCESS SCHEMATIC
Source: Gulp, Wesner and Gulp.
29
-------
TABLE 2-11. TRICKLING FILTER (ROCK MEDIA) WITH COARSE FILTRATION
30 mgd PLANT CAPACITY IN SOUTHERN UNITED STATES
Treatment Processes
• Primary
Energy Required
Secondary
Energy Required
Raw Sewage Pumping*
Preliminary Treatment *
Thousand
kwh/yr
470
23
Mi 1 1 i on
Btu/yr
Thousand
kwh/yr
Bar Screen*
Commi nutor*
Grit Removal--Nonaerated*
Primary Sedimentation Circular*
Trickling Filter—High Rate,
30
Rock Media
Secondary Sedimentation
Coarse Filter
Chi ori nation*
SUBTOTAL
Gravity Thicken**
Aerobic Digestion**
Drying Bed**
Land Disposal --Truck**
SUBTOTAL
j
Building Heat*
Building Cooling*
SUBTOTAL
TOTAL TREATMENT PROCESS ENERGY
1,500
35
930
290
3,278
8
1,000
15
1,023
100
100
4,401
31 ,755
150
1,400
33,305
500
1
500
33,805
1,828
1,828
1,828
* Primary Treatment
** 50 percent Primary, 50 percent Secondary Treatment
Source: Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater Treatment.
for EPA by Culp, Wesner and Culp, 1976..
Prepared
30
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FIGURE 2-4. ACTIVATED SLUDGE WITH NITRIFICATION,
CHEMICAL CLARIFICATION, FILTRATION AND CARBON ADSORPTION
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT
PRIMARY SEDIMENTATION
AERATION
SECONDARY SEDIMENTATION
MTRIFKATION
SEDIMENTATION
CHEMICAL CLARIFICATION (UM
RECARBOMATION
FILTRATION
OtANULAR ACTIVATED OMON
CHUMINATKM
CARBON REGENERATION
OTAVITY THCKEN
MM FLOTATION TMCKHI
MUEIIOBIC nOESTON
SLUDOE ORYim MO
LAND DISPOSAL
PROCESS SCHEMATIC
Source: Gulp, Wesner and Gulp.
31
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TABLE 2-12. ACTIVATED SLUDGE - TERTIARY
30 mgd PLANT CAPACITY IN NORTHERN UNITED STATES
Process
Primary Energy
Raw Sewage Pumping
Preliminary Treatment
Bar Screen
Comminutor
Grit Removal --Aerated
Primary Sedimentation—Rectangular
Aerati on--Mechani cal
Secondary Sedimentation
Nitrification—Suspended Growth
Nitrification Sedimentation
Chemical Clarification (Lime) & Recarbonation
Fi 1 trati on— Gravi ty
Chi ori nation
SUBTOTAL
Thicken—Primary Sludge
Flotation Thicken
Anaerobic Digestion
Sludge Drying Bed
Land Disposal— Truck
SUBTOTAL
Thicken— Chemical Sludge
Centrifuge
Lime Recalcination
SUBTOTAL
Building Heating
Building Cooling
TOTAL PRIMARY ENERGY
Secondary Energy
Lime
Chlorine
TOTAL SECONDARY ENERGY
TOTAL PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENERGY
Total Energy
Thousand
kwh/yr
470
102
52
4,900
250
4,500
330
6,700
670
290
18,264
8
1,250
1,500
15
2,773
15
2,121
900
3,036
7
24,080
1,828
1,828
27,736
Requi red
Million
Btu/yr
57,000
150
1,400
58,550
150,000
150,000
1,500
210,050
25,080
25,080
235,130
Source: Gulp, Wesner and Gulp
32
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3.0 ENERGY REQUIRED FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
The 1970 Amendments to the Clean Air Act call for actions to reduce air
pollution in the United States. The two sections that follow present esti-
mates of energy needed to comply with provisions of the Amendments. They
are divided into:
• Control of industrial air pollution
t Control of SOX and particulate emissions from electric power plants.
Only stationary point sources of pollution are considered in these sections
and in this report.
3.1 Industrial Air Pollution Control
It is estimated that by 1977 members of industry will have spent more
than $16 billion on air pollution control equipment and that by 1983 more
than $28 billion will have been committed. These investments are intended to
result in major reductions in air pollution by industrial processes.
As in their approaches to water pollution control, industrial firms are
seeking other than end-of-pipe techniques for meeting air quality standards.
In-plant process changes, including reuse of recovered pollutants and gener-
ation of valuable by-products from components of emission streams, are in
competition with end-of-pipe techniques when and where economic conditions
favor them.
The following pages develop estimates of the energy consumption impli-
cations of forecasts of investments for control of industrial air pollution.
These estimates are imprecise, first because the cost estimates on which they
are based generally assume end-of-pipe control of pollutants; and second, be-
cause of scarcity of detailed operating data to support the cost estimates.
Methodology and Assumptions
The methodology employed for arriving at estimates of the direct energy
requirements for industrial air pollution control includes five steps:
Step 1: Mix of From available (preliminary) data developed by
Control Devices Battelle for EPA,* determine the mix of pollution
control devices to be invested in by industry.
Battelle provided EPA with total O&M and capital cost data by control de-
vice and air regulation for a number of industrial sectors as part of
EPA's efforts in improving estimates of the cost of environmental regula-
tions.
33
-------
Step 2: Operating For the major air pollution control techniques,
Energy/Capital Cost develop information on the annual operating energy
of Devices required by a typical device and on the installed
(capital) cost of the device.
Step 3: Energy For each of the devices analyzed in Step 2, cal-
Consumption culate energy consumption coefficients, using
Coefficients annual operating energy and capital cost as the
bases for the coefficients.
Step 4: Investments Using the results of Step 1 and data published by CEQ*
in Air Pollution on the investments by industry in air pollution control
Control equipment, determine the pattern of investments for
air pollution control by control device.
Step 5: Direct Using the data developed in Steps 3 and 4, esti-
Energy Consumption mate the direct energy consumption by all industries
for Air Pollution for air pollution control by multiplying the energy
Control coefficients by the forecasted investments in each
device.
Thus, the methodology uses operating data from typical devices, and a
forecast of device population, to arrive at a national estimate of energy
requirements for industrial air pollution control.
The assumptions used to develop the energy estimate are:
1. The preliminary data developed by Battelle on investments by device
are representative of the mix of air pollution control devices which
will be employed by industry in the 1977-1983 time frame.
2. The data published in 1969 by HEW (National Air Pollution Control
Administration) on the operating characteristics and costs of various
devices for controlling particulates is relevant to the time frame
for this analysis, with appropriate adjustments for inflation. The
relationships among energy consumption, capital costs (adjusted to
current prices), and device capacity presented in the HEW report are
thus assumed to be stable into the early 1980s, and technological
change in control devices is thus assumed to have a minimal impact
on the energy consumption and the first cost of the devices.**
3. The CEQ forecasts of investments for pollution control by industry
are reasonable.
4. Industry will control air pollution primarily through end-of-pipe
control techniques.
* See Environmental Quality - 1976, the Seventh Annual Report of the Council
on Environmental Quality.
** See Control Techniques for Particulate Air Pollutants, U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, January 1969.
34
-------
5. The energy coefficients of devices other than those for which co-
efficients were developed from engineering data can be reasonably
set at the average of those analyzed.
6. Capital investments made through the end of one year are the basis
for operating costs in the next year. Thus, investments through
1976 are used to calculate energy consumption from operations in
1977.
Investments in Industrial Air Pollution Control
Table 3-1 lists CEQ's estimates of the capital investments for industrial
air pollution control for 1977 and 1983. The investments are spread over a number
of industries, although the primary metals, chemicals and petroleum sectors
will require the largest investments at 34 percent, 17 percent and 13 percent,
respectively, af the total industrial investment.
TABLE 3-1. TOTAL CAPITAL INVESTMENT FOR AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
(Millions of 1975 Dollars)
1977 1983
Primary Metals
Machinery
Transportation Equipment
Stone, Clay and Glass
Other Durables
Chemicals
Texti 1 es
Rubber
Paper
Petroleum
Food
Other Nondurables
5,601
728
545
1,643
838
2,803
-
150
1,294
2,183
573
142
9,026
1,488
1,012
2,947
1,848
4,257
-
300
2,543
3,739
1,078
475
TOTAL 16,500 28,749
Analysis of Battelle data indicates that almost 86 percent of industries'
investments in air pollution control will be for five devices:
- Lime/limestone scrubbers (38.5% of total investments)
- Baghouses and fabric filters (25.5%)
- Wet collectors (13.2%)
- Electrostatic precipitators (5.8%)
- Acid plants (2.9%)
35
-------
The remaining investment is divided among various other control tech-
niques, including CO boilers, interstate adsorption, tail gas scrubbers,
etc. Table 3-2 shows the investments of Table 3-1 divided among the five
major control devices. It has been assumed that all industrial investments
can be approximated by the five major devices.
TABLE 3-2. INVESTMENT BY INDUSTRY IN AIR POLLUTION CONTROL DEVICES
Electrostatic Precipitators
Wet Collectors
Lime/Limestone Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Acid Plants
Other
TOTAL
Fraction
of Total
0.058
0.132
0.385
0.255
0.029
0.141
1.000
Capital Investment
(Millions of 1975 Dollars)
1977
957
2,178
6,353
4,208
478
2,326
16,500
1983
1,667
3,795
11,068
7,331
834
4,054
28,749
Energy Demands for Industrial Air Pollution
Analysis of data from HEW, as well as data developed for other sections
of this study, yields the following representative direct operating energy co-
efficients for the five major air pollution control techniques:
Electrostatic
Precipatators
Wet Collectors
Limestone
Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Acid Plant
AVERAGE
Capacity or
Flow Rate
Through
Col 1ector
100,000 acfm
20,000 acfm
Based on in-
stallations on
power plants
ranging from
200 to 1000 MW
300,000 acfm
Based on
100,000 ton
per year
copper plant
Typical Typical
(or Average) (or Average)
Installed Btu/vear
Cost ($ IP3) (1Q9)
265
32
7288
466
19695
1.46
3.03
233.20
13.15
808.00
Energy/
Capital Cost
(1976)
1Q3 Btu/$
5.49
93.41
32.00
28.23
41.03
40.03
36
-------
Table 3-3 shows the results when these coefficients are combined with
the investment forecasts. Wet collectors, with 13 percent of the investment
consume about 30 percent of the annual operating energy. Lime and limestone'
scrubbers are less energy intensive, but because they are a larger share of
total investment (38.5 percent), they also consume approximately 30 percent
of all direct energy. Total direct operating energy will be 643 trillion
Btu in 1977 and 1,121 trillion Btu in 1983.
Indirect energy for air pollution control consists of the energy re-
quired to fabricate and to build pollution control devices. According to DSI
estimates,* approximately 40,000 Btu are required for every (1976) dollar of
capital investment for pollution control devices. The equipment is assumed
to last 20 years, which results in an annual coefficient of 2,000 Btu/$.
Table 3-4 shows the indirect energy needed to support air pollution
control by industry. The energy is small compared to direct operating
energy.
Table 3-5 summarizes the energy required to manufacture, install and
operate industrial air pollution control devices. The totals are 676 trillion
Btu and 1,179 trillion Btu for 1977 and 1983, respectively.
Estimates of the energy equivalents of equipment are discussed in Appli-
cation of Net Energy Analysis to Consumer Technologies, Appendix A, pre-
pared for ERDA by DSI, December 1976. Pollution control devices were
assumed to have average Btu/dollar conversion factors.
37
-------
TABLE 3-3. DIRECT ENERGY REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
CO
00
Control Technique
Electrostatic Precipitators
Wet Collectors
Lime/Limestone Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Acid Plants
Other
Fraction
of Total
0.058
0.132
0.385
0.255
0.029
0.141
Capital Investment
(Millions of 1975 $)
1977
957
2,178
6,353
4,208
478
2,326
1983
1,667
3,795
11,068
7,331
834
4,054
Direct Energy
Coefficient
(1000 Btu/$)
5.49
93.42
32.00
28.23
41.03
40.03
Direct Energy
Required
(10T2 Btu)
1977
5
203
203
119
20
93
1983
9
355
354
207
34
162
TOTAL 1.000 16,500 28,749 643 1,121
-------
TABLE 3-4. INDIRECT ENERGY REQUIRED FOR INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
co
Control Technique
Electrostatic Preci pita tors
Wet Collectors
Lime/Limestone Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Acid Plants
Other
Construction:
Construction:
Capital Investment Energy Coefficient Energy Required
(Millions of 1975 $) (1000 Btu/$) (1012 Btu)
1977
957
2,178
6,353
4,208
478
2,326
1983
1,667
3,795
11,068
7,331
834
4,054
2
2
2
2
2
2
1977
2
4
13
8
1
5
1983
3
8
22
15
2
8
TOTAL
16,500 28,749
33
58
-------
TABLE 3-5. TOTAL ENERGY REQUIRED FOR
INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
Total Energy Required
(1012 Btu)
Control Technique 1977 1983
Electrostatic Preci pita tors
Wet Collectors
Lime/Limestone Scrubbers
Fabric Filters
Acid Plants
Other
TOTAL
7
207
216
127
21
98
676
12
363
376
222
36
170
1,179
3.2 Control of SOX and Particulate Emissions from Electric Power Plants
The Council on Environmental Quality estimates that, as a result of the
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1970, the electric utility industry will have in-
vested about $8.9 billion in new plant and equipment for air pollution control
by the end of 1982. These incremental capital expenditures will be for de-
vices which limit the amount of particulates and sulfur oxides (SOX) which
escape into the atmosphere from the burning of oil or coal in utility boilers.
Oil- and coal-burning utilities will control particulates primarily
through the use of electrostatic precipitators. SOx emissions control is more
complicated:*
1. SOX can be removed from the power plant stack gases by scrubbers; and/or
2. The utilities can burn low sulfur fuels; and/or
3. Fuel producers can remove sulfur from their output at the point of
mining or refining.
Any air pollution control method which requires a utility (or a refiner)
to install and operate additional equipment as part of his production process
will result in additional consumption of energy to operate the equipment and
to provide any chemicals needed for the control process.
Not included are methods such as tall stacks, intermittent control systems
and supplementary control systems—none of which (alone) satisfy the
ultimate requirements of the Clean Air Act.
40
-------
The following subsections develop estimates of the additional energy
required to make it possible for electric utilities to meet federal stan-
dards for SOX and particulate emissions.
Methodology and Assumptions
The methodology used for estimating the energy consumed in order to re-
duce power plant-generated air pollutants to acceptable levels has twelve
major steps:
Step 1: Precipitator
and Scrubber Operating
Energy as Percent of
Plant Output
Step 2:
Removal
Required SOX
from Flue Gas
Step 3: Chemicals
Required/Sludge
Produced by Scrubber
Step 4: Energy Per Ton
to Produce Limestone
and Dispose of Sludge
Step 5: Residual Oil
Desulfurization
Operating Energy per
Barrel
Step 6: Power Plant
Capacity and Fuel Mix
in 1977 and 1983
Step. 7: Coal and Oil
Supply and Quality in
1977 and 1983
For the two power plant-based pollution control
techniques (electrostatic precipitation and stack
gas scrubbing), determine the energy required to
operate the devices as a function of plant gener-
ating capacity.
Determine the required fraction of SOx removal from
the flue gas as a function of fuel heating value
and weight percent sulfur.
Determine the limestone and water needed, and sludge
produced, by scrubbers as a function of fuel heating
value and weight percent sulfur.
Determine the energy needed to produce and trans-
port a unit (ton) of lime or limestone, and the
energy consumed per ton to transport and dispose of
sludge in a landfill.
Determine the operating energy required per barrel
of residual oil desulfurized (including the energy
needed to produce the required amount of hydrogen
for the desulfurization unit) as a function of
weight percent sulfur in the residual oil and the
resultant required fraction of sulfur removal.
Determine the predicted characteristics of power
plants in 1977 and 1983, including generating
capacity by type of fuel used.
Determine the predicted supply, source and quality
(sulfur content, heating value) of residual oil and
coal for electric utilities in 1977 and 1983.
41
-------
Step 8: Population of
Control Devices
Step 9: Direct and
Indirect Energy Consumed
for Controlling Power
Plant Air Pollution
Step 10:
Penalty
Capacity
Step 11: Capacity
Penalty, Low Sulfur
Coal
Step 12;
Energy
Materials
From the information produced in Steps 6 and 7,
determine for 1977 and 1983:
a. the total megawatts of power generating capacity
which will have to burn coal that exceeds the
maximum acceptable sulfur content and therefore
require stack gas scrubbers;
b. the total coal-burning capacity that will re-
quire western low sulfur coal;
c. the total amount of residual oil that requires
desulfurization;
d. the total megawatts of fossil fuel burning
capacity which will require electrostatic pre-
cipitators.
Using the unit data developed from Steps 1-5 and
the requirements forecasts developed in Step 8,
determine the energy consumed in 1977 and 1983 for:
a. operating power plant electrostatic precipi -
tators and limestone scrubbers;
b, oroducing limestone for the stack gas scrubbers;
c. disposing of the sludges produced by the
scrubbers;
d.. transport of western low sulfur coal;
e. desulfurizing residual oil.
The operation of scrubbers and precipitators re-
quires electricity that must come from capacity
additions. Using the estimates obtained in Step 9,
estimate the necessary capacity additions and then
determine the energy cost of those additions.
Because of the lower heating value of low sulfur
coal (supplied principally from the Northern Great
Plains) power plant capacity is derated. Estimate
the capacity derating and the energy cost of re-
placing that capacity.
From the estimates of capacity requiring scrubbers
and precipitators (Step 8) estimate the energy cost
of constructing scrubbers and precipitators.
Thus, the methodology employed is based on developing a set of unit data
for the various air pollution control techniques, and then applying the data
to predicted requirements for each technique. Although the methodology falls
far short of a more comprehensive materials flow approach, it does include con-
sideration of energy consuming activities which occur prior to, and after, the
operation of a control device itself.
42
-------
Various assumptions are made at each step of the analysis. Some of the
more important assumptions are:
1. Limestone scrubbing will be the dominant technique for removing SOX from
power plant flue gases over the time frame of 1975-1983. Low sulfur
coal use will emerge by 1983 as the second most used control technique.
2. Electrostatic precipitators and Venturi scrubbers will be used for re-
moving particulates from power plant flue gases over the 1976-1983
period. It is assumed that when V/enturi scrubbers are used in combination
with SO? scrubbers, the operating energy requirements over and above the
energy for the S02 scrubbers are negligible. It is further assumed that
all oil-fired capacity will use electrostatic precipitators.
3.*0ver the range of sulfur and particulate removal normally required for
power plants, neither scrubber nor precipitator operating energy varies
significantly as the percent SOX of particulates change.** (The validity
of this assumption has not been verified for low-sulfur coal with high
ash content. Thus, operating energies for precipitators on plants burning
low-sulfur coal may be somewhat understated. This understatement is
partly offset by the assumption that all oil-fired capacity will have
preci pitators. )***
4.*Scrubber and precipitator operating energies are direct (but different)
functions of plant generating capacity. The ratios of operating energy
to plant capacity for the devices are constant over the range of capa-
cities covered in this analysis.
5. Limestone is the only chemical required in significant quantities for
power plant air pollution control.****
* These assumptions were verified in part through analysis of available
data from other studies.
** TVA report PB No. 183908, Sulfur Oxide Removal from Power Plant Stack
Gas: Use of Limestone in Wet-scrubbing Process.
*** A further source of overstatement of the energy consumed for removing
pollutants from flue gases is the assumption that the control device
will be sized to handle the entire flow of gases. In practice, many
control systems will be designed so that part of the gases will bypass
the scrubber or precipitator. The feasibility of this design practice
depends on the particular circumstances at a specific site.
**** DSI studies of operating scrubbers indicate that the predominant scrub-
bing technique uses limestone. Hittman Associates (Intermittent Versus
Constant SO,, Controls for Retrofit of Existing Coal-Fired Power Plants)
similarly conclude that "the limestone slurry scrubbing system was
chosen because it presently (1976) accounts for the largest percentage
of installed megawatt capacity with FGD systems."
43
-------
6. The sludge from limestone scrubbers will be disposed of (without drying)
in a sanitary landfill at some distance from the power plant.*
7.**The operating energy for desulfurizing residual oil should include the
energy needed to produce hydrogen for the desulfurization unit. The
total operating energy increases nonlinearly as the sulfur content of
the residual oil increases.
8. The efficiencies of fossil fuel plants will be constant over the 1975-
1983 time frame, with fossil fuel plant efficiency at 34 percent and
nuclear plant efficiency at 32 percent.
9. Total power generation, generating capacity by fuel type, and consumption
of fuels by electric utilities in 1977 and 1983 will be as reported by
EPA.***
10. The published estimated cost of scrubbers and precipitators is reason-
able.*** The energy for scrubber and precipitator construction is
40,256 Btu/$ (1975).****
11. Total energy requirements attributable to United States air pollution
regulations should be estimated. Consequently, energy used to desulfurize
residual oil refined in foreign countries is included as well as energy
required for domestic operations.
Coal-Fired Power Plants' Control Strategies
The energy penalties for three different control strategies for coal-
fired power plants are presented in the following pages. Estimates were made
for construction, installation and operation of limestone scrubbers, transpor-
tation and utilization of low sulfur coal, and construction, installation and
operation of electrostatic precipitators. In the case of the precipitators, the
estimates cover some coal-burning capacity and all oil-burning capacity.
The control strategies for coal-fired power plants are given in Tables
3-6 and 3-7 for 1977 and 1983, respectively. The coverage assumptions are
derived from Economic and Finanaical Impacts of Federal Air and Water Pollu-
tion Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Technical Report, Exhibit
III-9 and a personal communication from James Ferry, U.S. EPA, on October 4,
1976. Estimates of the capacity utilizing coal are from the same report,
Exhibit II-4.
According to information from TVA (James Crowe, Tennessee Valley Autho-
rity, Personal Communication, November 1976), sludge is frequently dis-
posed of in clay-lined ponds. However, this disposal technique will
likely be unacceptable except as a short-term measure. Because of the
uncertainties concerning improved methods for sludge disposal, this re-
port does not include provisions for the energy required for (for ex-
ample) sludge drying, recalcination, land reclamation or incineration.
** The assumptions were verified in part through analysis of available
data from other studies.
*** Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976, Page 111-24.
**** Development Sciences Inc., Ibid.
44
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TABLE 3-6. COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT COVERAGE ASSUMPTIONS
AND CONTROL STRATEGY FOR COMPLIANCE WITH CLEAN AIR ACT: 1977
(106 kw)
Problem/ Control Strategy
Parti cul ate Control
Preci pita tors
Venturi Scrubbers*
S02 Control
Scrubbers
Washing and Blending
Medium Sulfur Coal
Western Low Sulfur Coal
Pre-1974
Units
61.3
21.1
42.9
37.2
21.8
1.4
1974-76
Units
18.2
11.5
11.5
-
11.4
2.2
1977
Units
5.0
6.7
6.7
-
-
5.0
Total
84.5
39.3
61.1
37.2
33.2
8.6
* Venturi scrubbers are installed in combination with S02 scrubbers
Sources: Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Ibid, Table III-9; Personal Communi-
cation from J. Ferry, EPA, October 1976.
TABLE 3-7. COAL-FIRED POWER PLANT COVERAGE ASSUMPTIONS
AND CONTROL STRATEGY FOR COMPLIANCE WITH CLEAN AIR ACT: 1983
(1Q6 kw)
Problem/Control Strategy
Parti cul ate Control
Preci pi tators
Venturi Scrubbers*
S02 Control
Scrubbers
Washing and Blending
Medium Sulfur Coal
Western Low Sulfur Coal '
Pre-1 974
Units
61.3
21.1
42.9
37.2
21.8
1.4
1974-76
Units
18.2
11.5
11.5
-
11.4
2.2
Post-1976
Units
54.6
52.4
52.4
-
-
54.6
Total
134.1
85.0
106.8
37.2
33.2
58.2
* Venturi scrubbers are installed in combination with S02 scrubbers
Sources: Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Ibid, Table III-9; Personal Curanuni-
cation from J. Ferry, EPA, October 1976.
45
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Low Sulfur Coal - 1977
In 1977 power plants of 8.6 x 106 kw capacity will burn low sulfur coal.
With a load factor of 55 percent for coal-fired power plants,* plants burn-
ing low sulfur coal will generate 41.4 x 10$ kwh. Assuming a power plant
efficiency of 34 percent, input energy to the power plants is 417.4 x 10'2
Btu.
One of the energy penalties for utilizing western low sulfur coal is the
operation of precipitators for control of particulates. The operating energy,
capacity and materials energy penalties for those precipitators are calculated
in a later section of this report.
There is a five percent capacity penalty** for pre-1977 power plants due
to boiler derating associated with burning low sulfur western coal. Applying
this penalty to the 3.6 x 10^ kw burning low sulfur coal at a replacement
cost (1975 dollars) of $211/kw* and using an energy cost of 36,925 Btu/$ gives
a capacity penalty of 1.4 x 10^2 Btu. When amortized over 20 years, the capa-
city penalty converts into an annual energy cost of .07 x 10^2 Btu. Note that
this is an upper limit on the capacity penalty, if excess capacity exists it
can be brought online and the capacity penalty is diminished.
The major energy penalty associated with the utilization of low sulfur
coal is the energy to transport the coal from the Northern Great Plains to
the areas of consumption. Most coal-burning utilities in the United States
are located in four regions: the Middle Atlantic region, the East North
Central region, the South Atlantic region and the East South Central region.
Transportation of coal from the Northern Great Plains to these regions implies
a substitution of the low sulfur coal for traditional supplies. It is esti-
mated that average transportation distances for the low sulfur coal will be
1,575 miles, and that the coal will supplant the traditional average trans-
portation distance of 575 miles. Approximately 76 percent of the ton-miles
of delivered western coal will be by rail (at an energy cost of 680 Btu/ton-
mile); the remaining 24 percent will be by water (at an energy cost of 378
Btu/ton-mile), to give a weighted energy cost of 607.5 Btu/ton-mile.*** This
compares with a weighted energy cost of 595.4 Btu/ton-mile for the current
transport mix.
* Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976.
** Pedco-Environmental Specialists, Inc., Particulate and Sulfur Dioxide
Emission Control Cost Study of the Electric Utility Industry, Preliminary
Draft for U.S. EPA, Contract 68-01-1900.
*** Mahoney, James et al; Energy Consumption of Environmental Controls:
Fossil Fuel, Steam Electric Generating Industry, Draft Report prepared by
Environmental Research & Technology, Inc., for U.S. Department of Commerce,
January 1976.
46
-------
In 1977 22.44 x TO6 tons of low sulfur coal will be burned. Because of
its relatively low heating value (9,300 Btu/lb, vs. 11,800 Btu/lb average for
the, high sulfur coal it replaces), the 22.44 x 106 tons will be substituting
for 17.69 x 10° tons of high sulfur coal that would have been burned in the
absence of air pollution regulations. This western low sulfur will be trans-
ported 1,575 miles at an energy cost of 607.5 Btu/ton-mile, giving a trans-
portation energy cost of 21.47 x 1012 Btu.
The net transportation energy cost is found by subtracting the cost of
transporting high sulfur coal from the gross energy cost of 21.47 x 10 Btu
for low sulfur coal. The 17.69 x 10°" tons of high sulfur coal is transported
a distance of 575 miles at a cost of 595.4 Btu/ton-mile. Thus the transport
energy for traditional supply sources is 6.06 x 1012 Btu. The new transport
cost for substituting low sulfur coal for high sulfur is 21.47 x 1012 minus
6.06 x lO^2 Btu, or 15.41 x lO^2 Btu.
The major energy penalty associated with using low sulfur coal will again
be the energy to transport coal. In 1983, 151.33 x 10°
Low Sulfur Coal - 1983 •.
In 1983, 58.2 x 10^ kw of coal-fired capacity will burn western low sulfur
coal, generating 280.4 x 109 kwh. Power plant fuel input will be 2814.7 x lO^2
Btu.
As in the 1977 case, the capacity penalty applies only to those units con-
structed prior to 1977. Thus the capacity affected is 3.6 x 106 kw, implying
a capacity penalty of 1.4 x lO^2 Btu, or .07 x lO^2 Btu per year.
sulfur coi _.„_....
tons (at 9,300 Btu/lb)
will have to be transported 1,575 miles, implying an energy cost of 144.79 x
1012 Btu. This supplants the shipment of 119.27 x 106 tons shipped 575 miles
at an energy cost of 40.83 x 10^2 Btu. The transportation increment is thus
103.96 x 1012 Btu.
Flue Gas Desulfurization - 1977
Energy penalties for flue gas desulfurization are divided into three
categories:
1. An "energy penalty" associated with operating the scrubber. This con-
sists of both the direct energy consumed in scrubber operation and the
indirect energy to mine and transport limestone and to transport sludge
to a disposal site.
2. A capacity penalty to reflect the additional capacity required to re-
place capacity used to generate the electricity to run the scrubber.
It has been assumed that this penalty will equal the direct operating
energy penalty. This places an upper bound on the capacity penalty
47
-------
which may be reduced by, for example, using excess steam for stack gas
reheat or using oil to run a fan or pump. The capacity penalty in this
case may be less than the energy penalty.*
3. A materials energy penalty associated with the construction of the
scrubbers.
Data on the operating characteristics of limestone scrubbers indicate that
their energy requirements are approximately 3.5 percent** of a coal burning
power plant's fuel input. This percentage has been found for a range of plant
sizes from 200 to 1000 megawatts and for coal sulfur content of from 2 to 5
percent. In 1977 61.1 x 10& kw will use scrubbers. Assuming a load factor
of 55 percent and an efficiency of 34 percent, input energy is 2,955.05 x 10'2
Btu. Thus the direct operating energy penalty is 103.48 x lO^2 Btu.
The indirect energy consumption consists of limestone extraction and
transportation and sludge disposal. In 1977 5.778 x 106 tons of limestone will
be required. At an extraction energy of 75,000 Btu/ton,*** the energy penalty
is 0.43 x 10^2 Btu. The 5.778 tons are assumed trucked an average distance of
100 miles, at 1,165 Btu/ton-mile, incurring an energy penalty of 0.67 x lO^2
Btu. For sludge disposal it was assumed that truck transportation to a land-
fill site twenty miles from the power plant would consume an average of 1,165
Btu/ton-mile, or 46,600 Btu/ton of sludge. Equipment oeprations at the fill
site are assumed to consume 129,000 Btu/ton of sludge. Sludge generation in
1977 is 13,045 x 10^ tons, implying a disposal energy consumption of 2.29 x
1012 Btu.
The capacity penalty is assumed equal to the energy penalty of 3.5 per-
cent. If 61.1 x 106 kw will require scrubbers in 1977, capacity loss will
total 2.14 x Ifl6 kw. The energy requirement to replace this lost capacity
will be 16.67 x lO^2 Btu, based on a 1975 replacement cost of $211 per kilo-
watt**** and an energy cost for public utility construction (I/O Sector 11.03)
of 36,925 Btu/$.***** When this replacement energy cost is amortized over
twenty years, the annual cost is 0.83 x 10'2 Btu.
* Pedco-Environmental Specialists, Inc., Particulate and Sulfur Dioxide
Emission Control Cost Study of the Electric Utility Industry, Preliminary
Draft of U.S. EPA, Contract 68-01-1900.
** As indicated in the text, 3.5 percent is derived from Development Sciences
Inc. data on power plant operation. There is a considerable variation in
the range of estimates. PEDCO gives a direct operating energy penalty of
1.8 percent, with a range of 1.1 to 4.4 percent. Energy Consumption of
Environmental Controls: Fossil Fuel, Steam Electric Generating Industry
Draft Report uses 5.5 percent, with a range derived from a literature
survey, of 1.5 to 9.5 percent. The 3.5 percent penalty is supported
primarily from data developed by TVA.
*** Colorado School of Mines Research Institute, Mineral Industries Bulletin,
V. 18 Number 4, July 1975, p.12, Table 5.
**** Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Mater Pollution Control on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976.
*****Development Sciences Inc., Application of Net Energy Analysis to Consumer
Technologies, Report to U.S. ERDA, Contract E(49-1J-3847, December 1976.
48
-------
Of the 61.1 x 106 kw using scrubbers in 1977, 42.9 x 106 kw will be
retrofits. The average cost of the retrofits (based on $86.83/kw for com-
bined S02 and Venturi scrubbers, and $70.27/kw for S02 scrubbers only) is
estimated to be $78.40/kw.* The remaining scrubbed capacity will have
scrubbers installed at a cost of $72.06/kw. Construction energy, at 40,256
Btu/$, will be 188.2 x lO1^ Btu. Amortizing over 20 years gives a value of
9.41 x 10'^ Btu as the annual materials energy penalty.
Flue Gas Desulfurization - 1983
The analysis of the energy penalty associated with flue gas desulfuri-
zation is analagous to that for 1977. Capacity of 106.8 x 10° kw will be
scrubbed, with 42.9 x 106 kw being retrofits and the remaining 72.8 x 106 kw
being new installations.
The direct operating energy penalty (3.5 percent), applied to an input
energy of 5162.3 x 10'^ Btu, is 180.79 x 1012 Btu. Limestone extraction
(9.95 x 10b tons) requires 0.75 x 1012 Btu, while transport requires 1.16 x
ID12 Btu. Sludge disposal (22.47 x 106 tons) requires 3.95 x 1012 Btu.
Replacement of 3.5 percent of the scrubbed 106.8 x 106 kw at a cost of
$211 kw implies a capacity energy penalty of 29.14 x 10^2 Btu, or 1.46 x 10"I2
Btu annually when amortized over 20 years. Materials energy for the construc-
tion of scrubbers, 42.9 x 106 kw of which will be retrofit at a cost of
$78.40/kw, will be 320.76 x 10'2 Btu. Amortizing this value over 20 years
gives an annual materials energy penalty of 16.04 x 1012 Btu.
Preci'pita tors - 1977
As noted at the beginning of the section, all oil capacity and some coal
capacity (See Table 3-6) will use precipitators. For 1977, 84.5 x 106 kw of
coal capacity and 87.4 x 106 kw of oil capacity will be equipped with pre-
cipitators. As in the scrubber analysis, there are three sources of energy
penalties associated with using a precipitator:
1. A direct energy penalty to run the precipitators.
2. A capacity penalty because of electrical consumption to run the
precipitators.
3. A materials energy penalty associated with the construction and in-
stallation of the capital equipment.
Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry, Tech-
nical Report for U.S. EPA, May 1976.
49
-------
Analysis of precipitator operation indicates that there is a direct
energy penalty of approximately 0.2 percent to operate a typical device.
Given an efficiency of 34 percent for both the oil- and coal-fired plants
and load factors of 51.3 percent for oil and 55 percent for coal, the oper-
ating energy penalty is 16.06 x lO^2 Btu.
Capacity derating of 0.2 percent will be applied to 84.5 x 10& kw of
coal capacity and 87.4 x 10$ kw of oil capacity. At a replacement cost of
$211/kw for coal and $220/kw for oil, the capacity penalty will be 2.70 x
10^2 Btu. Amortizing this amount over 20 years gives an annual energy cost
for capacity additions of 0.14 x 10^2 Btu.
In 1977, 79.5 x 106 kw of coal capacity and 83.8 x 106 kw of oil capa-
city will be retrofit with precipitators. An additional 5.0 x 106 kw of new
coal capacity and 3.6 kw of new oil capacity will also require precipitators.
At a capital cost of $45.50/kw for retrofits and $56/kw for new installations
and an energy cost of 40,256 Btu/$, the materials energy penalty in 1977 will
be 318.5 x 1012 Btu. Amortizing over 20 years gives an annual charge, appli-
cable to 1977, of 15.93 x 1012 Btu.
Precipitators - 1983
As for 1977, all oil capacity (93.2 x 106 kw) and 134.1 x 106 kw of coal
capacity (Table 3-7) will require precipitators.
An operating energy penalty of 0.2 percent applied to the affected oil
and coal capacity implies a penalty of 21.38 x 10'2 Btu. .A similar capacity
penalty of 0.2 percent, with coal construction cost of $211/kw and oil con-
struction cost of $220/kw, carries an energy penalty of 3.64 x 1012 Btu, or
0.18 x 10l2 Btu per year. A materials energy penalty of 443.39 x 1012 Btu,
amortized over 20 years, gives an annual penalty for the construction of
precipitators of 22.17 x 1012 Btu.
Residual Oil Desulfurization - 1977
For both years, two residual oil desulfurization cases are developed.
Case I considers only domestically refined oil, while the second case esti-
mates the energy cost of desulfurization of all residual oil, whether foreign
or domestically refined. In both cases estimates are made of operating energy
requirements for the desulfurization process.
Case I: Data from Mineral Industry Surveys (June 1976) indicates that
for the first half of 1976 50.8 percent of all residual oil will be domes-
tically refined. Of the domestic product, the following breakdown by weight
percent sulfur holds:
50
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TABLE 3-8. PERCENT OF DOMESTICALLY REFINED RESIDUAL OIL
BY WEIGHT PERCENT SULFUR
Weight Percent Sulfur Percent of Product
0 - 0.5 26.26
0.51 - 1.0 23.29
1.01 - 2.0 24.48
>2.0 25.97
For 19Z7, utility consumption is 644.4 x 10^ bbls of residual oil,
327.36 x 10° bbls of which will be domestically refined. For the domestically
refined product the following breakdown by weight percent sulfur will hold:
TABLE 3-9. BARRELS OF DOMESTICALLY REFINED PRODUCT
BY WEIGHT PERCENT SULFUR
Weight Percent Sulfur Average Percent Sulfur 10^ Barrels
0 -
0.51 -
1.01 -
^>2.(
0.5
1.0
2.0
3
0.25
0.75
1.5
3.5
85.96
76.24
80.14
85.02
TOTAL 327.36
TOTAL REQUIRING
DESULFURIZATION 241.40
Given desulfurization operating energies* of 0.072 x 10^ Btu per barrel
for residual oil with sulfur content between 0.5 and 1.0 percent, of 0.336 x
10° Btu per barrel for residual with sulfur content between 1.0 and 2.0 per-
cent, and 0.516 x 10° Btu per barrel for residual with sulfur content greater
than 2 percent, the following energy is required for domestic residual
desulfurization in 1977:
Sources from which operating energies were derived are: Van Dressen,
R.P. and Rapp, L.M. Residual Oil Desulfurization in the Ebullated Bed,
Seventh World Petroleum Congress Proceedings, Vol. 4, p. 261-274;
Hydrocarbon Processing. September 1970, pp 210, 211, 213, 214, 224, 226;
Blume, J.H. et al. Remove Sulfur from Fuel Oil at Lowest Cost,
Hydrocarbon Processing. Sept. 1969, p . 131; Alpert, S.R., et al. Oil
and Gas Journal, Feb. 7, 1966.
51
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TABLE 3-10. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
FOR RESIDUAL DESULFURIZATION: 1977
(xlO12 Btu)
Weight Percent Sulfur Energy Requirements
0.51 - 1.0 5.49
1.01 - 2.0 26.93
^2.0 43.87
TOTAL 76.29
Case II: Case II assumes that the energy penalty for desulfurization of
both domestically refined and foreign refined residual oil is relevant to
an analysis of the impact of U.S. environmental regulations. Mineral Industry
Surveys (June 1976) gives the breakdown, by weight percent sulfur, for
all residual refined in the first half of 1976. Those percentages are
assumed to hold for 1977. The following table presents both the
percentage breakdown and actual quantity refined, by category, in 1977:
TABLE 3-11. PERCENT OF PRODUCT AND BARRELS REFINED,
BY WEIGHT PERCENT SULFUR: 1977
Weight Percent SulfurPercent Product in CategoryBarrels Refined
(xlO6 1977
0 - 0.5 31.61 203.76
.51 - 1.0 22.42 144.47
1.01 - 2.0 19.86 127.98
>2.0 26.10 168.19
TOTAL 644.4
TOTAL REQUIRING
' DESULFURIZATION 440.64
Given desulfurization operating energies equal to those of Case I,
Table 3-12 presents operating energy requirements for 1977 for
desulfurization of all high sulfur residual fuel oil.
52
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TABLE 3-
12. ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR RESIDUAL DESULFURIZATION: 1
(x 10'^ Btu)
977
Weight Percent Sulfur
Operating Energy
(106 Btu/bbl)
0.51 - 1.0
1.01 - 2.0
^2.0
Energy Requirements
(10T2 Btu)
0.072
0.336
0.516
TOTAL
10.40
43.00
86.79
140.19
Residual Oil Desulfurization 1983
As for 1977, two cases are developed. Case I presents the operating
energy requirements for desulfurization of domestically refined residual,
while the second case treats all residual oil.
Case I: For 1983 it is posited that utility consumption will be
TO6" barrels.* Of this total 50.8 percent, or 345,54 x 106
The same breakdown, by weight
Thus, the following
630.2 x
barrels, will be domestically refined.
percent sulfur, as given for 1977 is assumed to hold,
table presents operating energy for residual desulfurization in 1983:
TABLE 3-13.
DOMESTIC RESIDUAL DESULFURIZATION OPERATING ENERGY: 1983
(x 1012 Btu)
Weight
Percent Sulfur
Barrels Refined
(xlO6)
Operating Energy
(106 Btu/bbl)
Operating Energy
Requirements (x!0'z Btu)
0 - 0.5
0.51 - 1.0
1.01 - 2.0
>2.0
90.73 ,
80.48
84.59
89.74
345.54
—
.072
.336
.516
TOTAL
_
5.79
28.42
46.31
80.52
Temple, Barker & Sloane, Inc., Economic and Financial Impacts of Federal
Air and Water Pollution Controls on the Electric Utility Industry,
Technical Report for U.S. EPA, Me.y 1976
53
-------
Case II: The percent of product by category that was given in
Case II for 1977 is assumed to hold in 1983. Table 3-14 summarizes
the 1983 results.
TABLE 3-14.
RESIDUAL DESULFURIZATION OPERATING ENERGY: 1983
(xlO12 Btu)
Weight Percent Sulfur
Barrels Refined
(xlO6)
Operating Energy Operating Energy
(10b Btu/bbl) Requirements (x!0lzBtu)
0 - 0.5
0.51 - 1.0
1.01 - 2.0
215.01
152.50
135.09
177.53
.072
.336
.516
10.98
45.39
91.61
TOTAL 147.98
Summary of Energy Estimates for Power Plant Air Pollution Control
The energy requirements of meeting air pollution regulations are
summarized in Tables 3-15 and 3-16 for 1977 and 1983, respectively. Of
particular interest are the relative energy requirements for meeting
sulfur regulations: the energy penalty for low sulfur coal is about
1.8 x 10^ Btu per kilowatt, while the energy penalty for flue gas
desulfurization is about 2.2 x 10^ Btu per kilowatt. For comparative
purposes, the desulfurization of residual oil in 1983 will require about
1.6 x 106 Btu per kilowatt (excluding materials energy penalties).
The summary figures presented in Table 1-1 include all the energy
associated with desulfurizing residual oil for use in United States
power plants. This conforms to the assumption that all energy attributable
to air pollution control should be estimated. Foreign oil desulfurization
accounts for nearly 20 percent of the energy estimate of Table 3-15 for
1977 and for approximately 13 percent of the estimate of Table 3-16 for
1983. The effects on the totals of Table 1-1 are approximately four percent
and two percent for 1977 and 1983, respectively.
54
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TABLE 3-15. SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR ENERGY COST OF
MEETING AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS: 1977
Control Strategy Energy Penalty (1012 Btu)
Low Sulfur Coal (8.6 x 106 kw) 15.48
Capacity Loss .07
Transportation 15.41
Flue Gas Desulfurization (61.1 x 106 kw) 117.06
Capacity Loss .83
Operating Energy Penalty 103.43
Limestone Extraction .43
Limestone Transport .67
Transport Sludge to Landfill 2.29
Lime
Materials Energy (Scrubber) 9.41
Precipitators (84.5 x 106 kw) 32.13
Capacity Loss .14
Operating Energy Penalty 16.06
Materials Energy (Precipitator) 15.93
Residual Desulfurization (Domestic Only) 76.29
Residual Desulfurization (All Residual) 140.19
TOTAL (Domestic Only) 240.96
TOTAL (All Residual) 304.86
55
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TABLE 3-16. SUMMARY OF RESULTS FOR ENERGY COST OF
MEETING AIR POLLUTION REGULATIONS: 1983
Control Strategy Energy Penalty (1012 Btu)
Low Sulfur Coal (58.2 x 106 kw) 104.03
Capacity Penalty .07
Transportation 103.96
Flue Gas Desulfurization (106.8 x 106 kw) 204.15
Capacity Penalty 1.46
Operating Energy Penalty 180.79
Limestone Extraction .75
Limestone Transportation 1.16
Transport Sludge to Landfill 3.95
Lime
Materials Energy (Scrubber) 16.04
Precipitators (227.3 x 10^ kw) 43.73
Capacity Loss .18
Operating Energy Penalty 21.38
Materials Energy (Precipitators) 22.17
Residual Desulfurization (Domestic Only) 80.52
Residual Desulfurization (All Residual) 147.98
TOTAL (Domestic Only) 432.43
TOTAL (All Residual) 499.89
56
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APPENDIX A: COMPARISON OF POLLUTION CONTROL-RELATED ENERGY
CONSUMPTION ESTIMATES
Before developing the estimates presented in the main body of this
report, the work of others on the same problem was reviewed in depth.
The review proved frustrating, for few of the written reports provided
information on assumptions, rationale, or methodology which was
sufficient for purposes of judging the validity of the estimates.
Table A-l lists some of the studies which have attempted to develop
national-level estimates of the energy requirements for pollution control.
Table A-2 presents a comparison of the estimates produced by these studies
with those developed during this project. To a large degree, the various
results cannot be compared—basic data from EPA and CEQ has changed
since all of the studies were completed, and differing assumptions (many
of which are unknown) among the studies would naturally lead to diverse
results. However, the comparison shows that although analysts disagree
on the distribution of energy penalties for pollution control among
sectors, most would peg the overall penalty for control of pollutants
from stationary sources at about 2 percent of national energy consumption.
The following pages contain brief comments on each of the other
studies. To appreciate the contribution of each effort, however, the
final reports themselves should be reviewed and evaluated.
57
-------
TABLE A-l
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF THE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
Short Title
DSI (old) Study
en
oo
Michigan Study
Full Document Title
First-Order Estimates
of Potential Energy
Consumption Implication
of Federal Air and
Water Pollution Control
Standards for Stationary
Sources, July 1975
Energy Costs of Limiting
the Degradation of the
Environment; Report to the
Energy Policy Project by
A. Crampton, et al, Physics
Department, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbon, Michigan
January, 1974.
Brief Description
This is an earlier report by DSI using
data from 1974. The methodology and
assumptions are basically the same as
for the new study, with the exception
of those for municipal wastewater
treatment. National energy estimates
are derived for control of industrial air
and water pollution control, for abatement
of air and thermal water pollution from
electric power plants, and for improving
municipal wastewater treatment plants to meet
federal water quality standards.
A careful review of the energy implications
of controls in five sectors: transportation,
stationary source air pollution, waste heat
from steam power plants, industrial waste-
water, and both liquid and solid aspects of
agricultural and municipal wastes. Conceptually
the approach covers direct fuels and electricity
plus energy behind raw materials and capital
construction. Energy penalties are given in
Btu for each control, but are not always given
at the national level due to further assumptions
needed about implementation and timing. Use is
made of energy conversion factors for materials
and construction from Herendeen's input/output
analysis based upon the 1963 economy.
-------
TABLE A-l (continued)
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF THE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
Short Title
RPA Study
en
Heller Data
Full Document Title
A Brief Analysis of the Impact
of Environmental Laws on
Energy Demand and Supply;
prepared for Federal Energy
Office, Environmental Policy
Analysis Division, by Resource
Planning Associates, Inc.,
June, 1974.
Economic Impact, Energy
Requirements and Effluent
Reductions in Phase I
Industries Due to Best
Practical Control Technology
Commercially Available;
prepared by James Heller,
Office of Water Programs,
Environmental Protection
Agency, Washington, D. C.;
early 1973.
Brief Description
Discusses five sectors which add to energy
demand (stationary sources air pollution
control, mobile sources, lead restrictions,
water quality in both thermal and waste
content, and municipal solid wastes) and
also five sectors which tend to restrict
new energy supply (delays in refinery
expansion, nuclear power plants and Alaska
pipeline; restrictions on offshore oil
leases and surface mining). Presents data
for 1973 and 1980. Nature of impacts of
regulations and the penalties or savings
resulting are expressed in brief summary
fashion, and the basis of numbers used is
not always clear.
An assembly of data on 30 industries listing
numbers of plants and possible investment
and operating costs needed for implementation
of best practicable control technology
commercially available; an estimate of the
added energy involved both in kwh and as a
percentage increase; and percentage of plants
currently meeting standards. The timing of
the application of the abatement procedures is
in effect 1977 - 1983. The methods by which
energy and costs of clean-up were estimated are
not described, but are based on EPA Effluent
Guidelines Limitations documents.
-------
TABLE A-l (continued)
PREVIOUS STUDIES OF THE ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR POLLUTION CONTROL
Short Title
Hirst Study
Full Document Title
Energy Implications of
Several Environmental Quality
Strategies; Eric Hirst, ORNL-
NSF-EP-53, ORNL-NSF Environ-
mental Program, Oak Ridge
National Laboratory, Oak Ridge
Tennessee; July, 1973
Economics of Clean Water The Economics of Clean Water -
1973, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Washington,
D. C., December 1973, a report
to the Congress from the
Russell E. Train
National Commission Staff Report: National
Study Commission on Water Quality,
1976.
Brief Description
Subjects covered are mass transit, automotive
controls, wastewater treatment, solid waste
management, air pollution, and waste heat, as
well as recycling and energy recovery. The
intent is to find operating energy for the
control systems. The data cover only direct
energy, not that of raw materials and disposal.
The procedure is to evaluate energy implications
of stringent standards upon 1970 emissions
levels. The report contains limited explanatory
or interpretive remarks on how energy costs were
derived or multiplied to the national level.
Municipal, industrial, and electric utility
wastewater and thermal discharges are discussed-
Estimates are given for capital and operating
costs to meet 1977 effluent standards, including
needs for new municipal sewage treatment plants.
Direct energy costs are presented for power
plant cooling towers.
A full investigation of all aspects of achieving
the goals set forth for 1983 in the Federal
Water Pollution Control Amendments of 1972.
Energy estimates are not emphasized in this study.
-------
TABLE A-2
COMPARISON OF ESTIMATES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION FOR POLLUTION ABATEMENT
PnTlntirm P.nntrnl Mf^2 Btu) Air Pollution Control MO12
Study
DSI (new)
DSI (old)
Michigan
CD
-1 RPA
Heller
Economics of
Clean Water (EPA)
National
Commission
Power Plant Thermal Municipal Waste- Industrial Water Power Plant Air Industrial Air
Year Pollution Control water Treatment Pollution Control Pollution Control Pollution Control
1977
1983
1977
1983
1977
1981
1985
1980
1977
1977
1983
1977
1983
93
156
86
205
250
274
-
432
792
294*
181
36
253
236
80
-
-
137
269**
479 305 676
1079 500 1179
228 103 - 342 503
285 282 - 406 510
400 - 124
800
85 213
82
_
376
822
* The higher of two estimates published by the National Commission on Water Quality. The lower estimate is
45 x 1012 Btu.
** Estimate for 1990.
-------
COMMENTS ON OTHER ESTIMATES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FOR CONTROL OF
AIR AND WATER POLLUTION BY POWER PLANTS
DSI (old)
The methodology and assumptions used in the earlier DSI study
are very similar to those of the current study. The old study did
not fully consider the energy equivalent of new capacity required
to replace the electrical generation needed for pollution control
devices. Also, the old study used different estimates of the amount
of generating capacity affected by environmental regulation.
RPA Study
The estimates developed by RPA include only direct energy
requirements for pollution abatement and do not include energy cost
for the disposal of residues or the supply of chemicals, or required
capital energy expenditures for construction of equipment. The
estimates were based on reported energy penalties for abatement
procedures and estimates of the national energy requirements from
projections of the Department of Interior and the National Petroleum Council
Abatement for meeting air standards includes a 6 percent of plant
output penalty for stack gas scrubbing in 1973 and 5 percent in 1980
(reflecting improvements in technology). 1980 installed scrubbing
capacity is assumed to be 90,000 MW with a 65 percent power plant load
factor, 98 percent particulate removal and 95 percent SO removal. The
1980 energy penalty is estimated as 213 x 1012 Btu for atr pollution
control.
Water abatement procedures assume a 3 percent energy penalty of
total plant power output. This amounts to 274 x 1012 Btu in 1980.
Economics of Clean Air
The report estimates the total direct energy required to operate
mechanical forced draft cooling towers to abate thermal emissions in
1977 and 1983. The report in general gives costs in dollars, except
to predict coal requirements for abatement for power plants. No
back-up information on the .source of the numbers is given. The .._
estimated energy penalty for thermal pollution is given as 432 x 10l*
Btu in 1977, and 792 x 1012 Btu in 1983.
62
-------
Michigan Study
This report recognizes and includes most of the factors required
for total energy accounting. It neglects energy for transporting raw
materials or waste because these are dependent upon the location of
the abatement procedure, and the raw material source or the residue
disposal source.
This total accounting procedure leads to some errors in the
estimates because many of the numbers required are unavailable. In
these cases, the study used the results of the Herendeen input-output
analysis, which provides coefficients to determine the dollar cost
associated with segments of the national economy. Unfortunately,
these coefficients were determined based upon the 1963 national economic
activity. Thus, the estimates to not include changes in national
economic activity between 1963 and the projected year 1985, nor do
they include effects of technological change. The report thus uses the
factors 200,000 Btu/1963 $ operating and maintenance costs and 75,000
Btu/1963 $ of capital expenditure amortized over the life of the
equipment to estimate process energy requirements when data is
unavailable. These coefficients may not be appropriate for specific
activities.
Fortunately, these coefficients were not used extensively to
estimate power plant abatement energy requirements. Instead, a detailed
survey was made of power plant generating capacity and abatement needs.
Thus, the estimates are probably more realistic than estimates presented
by other investigators. For meeting air standards, the report assumed:
• A 6.5 percent energy penalty of total plant output for SOX
and particulate removal
• Thirty percent of national energy is tsed for electric
power generation
0 Forty-two percent of power plant fuels are coal and 13
percent oil
• For coal, 30 percent low sulfur coal, 50 percent high
sulfur coal, and 20 percent synthetic fuels derived from
coal
• For oil, 50 percent low sulfur oil and 50 percent high
sulfur oil
• 0.01 percent of national energy requirements required for
control of particulate emissions
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• Energy requirements for SOX scrubbing pump power based upon
installed rather than operating horsepower
• 40-60 percent of abatement energy required for stack gas
reheat in wet scrubbing operations
t For water pollution control, a 3 percent penalty of total
plant output was assumed for cooling towers.
Michigan's estimate of the 1985 energy penalties for pollution
abatement by power plants is 800 x 1012 Btu for water pollution
control.
National Commission Study
The National Commission on Water Quality was created by the
Congressional Act of Public Law 92 500, the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act Amendments of 1972, to thoroughly investigate "...all
aspects of the total economic, social, and environmental effects..."
of the law. The study was not intended to emphasize energy requirements,
and it did not do so. However, the Commission's findings include
estimates of the energy necessary to meet the standards of PL92 500.
Energy for thermal pollution control is taken from Table 11-38
of the National fomm'ssion study. It is not clear from the report
how energy estimates were developed. The estimates appear to have
been made from contractors' technology assessments.
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COMMENTS ON OTHER ESTIMATES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FOR
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT
DSI (old)
The earlier DSI study employed methodology and assumptions
different than those used in the revision. The old study developed
energy requirements from estimates of:
1. "Incremental" costs of new municipal wastewater
treatment plants
2. Distribution between 10 million gallon per day (MGD) and
100 MGD plants
3. Costs and energy consumption of 10 MGD and 100 MGD plants
There were several data anomalies that affected results. First, the
incremental costs did not increase monotonically between 1977 and
1983 as expected. Consequently, the numbers of tertiary treatment
plants estimated for 1983 were incompatible with the projected
funds needed for their construction.
A second problem was the assumed distribution between 10 MGD
and 100 MGD plants. Most (more than 80 percent) of the existing plants
in the U. S. are smaller than one MGD, and the distribution of new
plants is not projected to deviate dramatically from the existing one.
A third and probably most important aberration resulted from the
combination of costs, plant distribution, and per-plant costs and
energy consumption. In the old study the total capacity of new plants
was approximately equal to all the existing capacity of the United States.
Since close to 75 percent of the population is now served by municipal
sewage plants, it is not expected that new capacity will equal old.
Energy estimates in the earlier study exceeded those presented in
the current report, due mainly to larger estimates of new capacity.
Hirst Study
This paper surveys a broad field of abatement and presents some
quick conclusions without explaining the assumptions or methods of
calculation. The only national energy total given is 290 x 10'2 Btu
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for electricity for a hypothetical situation of secondary treatment
of all wastewater (both industrial and municipal) in 1970. The
estimate is the product of:
41 kwh/person (secondary level)
x3 (factor to include industrial wastes on BOD basis)
x 205 million total population
x 11,600 Btu/kwh
RPA Study
This survey quotes several other sources as to electricity use in
treatment; it does not attempt to quantify other energy consumed in the
treatment - disposal process. RPA assumes that all expenses of
treatment after 1968 (quoted as 13.5 MB/D oil equivalent) are due to
EPA regulations. Their estimates of wastewater treatment energy for
1977 and 1980 are 50 x 10 Btu/year, respectively.
Michigan Study
This is an ambitious effort that rec^rnizes and attempts to
quantify the entire range of operating energies. Some of the findings
are supported by original research. Unlike the other studies, which
report only the electricity used by treatment plants, the Michigan
work included analysis of other fuels, as well as the energy associated
with producing chemicals for treatment plants plus the energy consumed
in fabricating and constructing the plants themselves. These data
were used for "building-up" an estimate of direct and indirect energy
consumptions for wastewater treatment in 1971. For forecasting
purposes, Michigan used coefficients from input/output analysis to
calculate operating energy demands. As a result, their energy estimates
are higher than the others—for 1981 they forecast 236 x 101Z including
"capital" energy. The paragraphs below comment on some aspects of
the Michigan approach.
Chemical Energy. Michigan utilizes a coefficient relating value of
industrial chemicals to the energy implicit in the whole process of
producing them, including manufacture and shipment to a representative
pattern of locations. These coefficients were derived by Robert A.
Herendeen based on 1363 input/output^data for the United States economy.
The coefficient chosen was 0.24 x 10b Btu/$ 1963, representing a rough
average of several specific chemicals. The uncertainty in the appli-
cability of the coefficient to the wastewater treatment chemical pattern
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actually used is considerable, but the crossover to energy equivalents
is at least indicative of magnitude.
Other Direct Fuels. A limited amount of natural gas, and of gasoline
and other oils, are used in treatment plants. These were extrapolated
up to national levels on the basis of volumes of water used per capita,
but the applicability of the sample data to the national census of
plants is weak.
Total Operating Energy. As an approach to forecasting operating energy
estimates, Michigan utilized a factor of 117,000 Btu/$ 1963 developed
by Herendeen for the category of "Water and Sanitary Services"
operations. This was devalued to $ 1972 and applied to certain
wastewater treatment plant costs estimated by CEQ.
No attempt was made to forecast 1977 and 1983 using built-up
costs. Using the Herendeen factor, energy costs in the future (based
on constant 1972 dollars) are directly proportional to dollar costs
of operations and, for example, are expected to double by 1981. The
problem with the coefficient is that it is based on the structure of
the economy in the 1960's, whereas in the 1970's the trend toward tertiary
treatment brings much more intensive use of electricity and chemicals
(and probably much more automation) than has yet been experienced.
Hence, the use of the coefficient introduces basic uncertainties as to
its real application.
Total Capital Energy. The acts of construction involve considerable
energy expenditure, and a Herendeen factor of 75,000 Btu/$ 1963 to
represent construction of public utilities is suggested. One problem
with this coefficient is that a significant portion of municipal
wastewater system costs are for sewer pipe and excavations for gathering
lines and storm drains, which are lower in energy consumption than
treatment plant construction. The Michigan Study, however, applied the
factor to the entire expected capital investment. Furthermore, the
investment base used (from CEQ sources) included interest and depreciation
on total installed sewage plant at the given dates rather than cost of
actual construction over a meaningful period.
National Commission
Table 11-19 of the National Commission report lists energy for the
operation and maintenance of publicly owned treatment works. Energy
given in thousand of barrels of oil equivalent per day has been converted
to trillions of Btu in Table A-l of this Appendices.
There is no discussion of the energy estimates for municipal
wastewater treatment in the National Commission study.
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COMMENTS ON OTHER ESTIMATES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FOR
INDUSTRIAL WATER POLLUTION CONTROL
DSI (old)
The methodology employed in the earlier DSI study was nearly
the same as that used for the new one. The major causes of different
results are revised estimates of the investments needed for industrial
water pollution control.
Heller Data
One of the Heller Data summaries is a tabulation listing the
"annual energy increase expected" for 1977 BPCTCA. Neither the source
of these data nor the method of estimation is provided with these
summaries. The major consumers, excluding steam-electric power plants,
are listed below, converting from kwh/year to Btu/year using an overall
electric thermal efficiency of 32.5 percent, or 10,500 Btu/kwh:
TO
Annual Energy Increase 10lt-Btu/year
Pulp and,Paper
Fertilizer
Non-ferrous (aluminum)
Petroleum
Organic Chemicals
Iron and Steel
Inorganic Chemicals
Total all Industries
(excluding steam-electric power plants) 82.0
It is assumed that the above represent the direct energy consumption
(fuel and electricity) only and do not include the energy associated
with chemical consumption, residuals disposal, and capital construction.
RPA Study
RPA's study gives a 1977 national total for 26 proposed effluent
guidelines of 40,000 BPD (85 x 10'2 Btu/year). Details on the data and
estimation methods are not included. It is noted that it compares
almost exactly with Heller's figure.
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Michigan Study
The Michigan Study presents an estimate of total energy—defined
as fuel, electricity, and the energy associated with chemical
consumption, material flow, and capital construct. This is done by
examining a few examples of end-of-pipe pollution control technology
to determine the relationship between total energy and the operating
and maintenance (O&M) cost and then projecting this to the national
level. The method is described briefly below.
Electricity is converted to thermal units using an efficiency
of 30 percent (11,400 Btu/kwh). Fuel energy values are used directly
without adding the energy required by the energy-producing industries.
Lime was determined as representing two-thirds of the total chemical
usage and, thus, its energy value of 0.17 x 106 Btu/$ (1968) was used
for all chemicals. Capital construction was charged with an energy
consumption of 60,000 Btu/$ capital (1968), subject to 15-year
depreciation. Two examples were then developed from activated sludge
treatment plant data. One for sewage treatment gave 0.14 x 10° Btu/$
O&M (1968),plus fuel, and a mixed sewage-paper mill treatment plant
gave a value of 0.19 x 106. For an organic chemical industry example,
they report a value obtained from the Dow Chemical Company of 0.2 x 106
Btu/$ O&M (1968), excluding capital construction energy, but no
supporting data are included. They conclude from these few examples
that a large, well-operated treatment plant will expend in total energy
0.2 x 106 Btu/$ O&M (1968) and recommend that this be applied to all
Phase I industries. While this approach has considerable appeal
because of its simplicity, an inadequate number of different industries
were examined to permit its application on a national scale with any
degree of reality.
A second point of criticism is their estimation of the operating
and maintenance cost as being 1/6 of the capital cost of a pollution
control facility. This was determined from the figures given in the
1972 Economics of Clean Water, which reports $12 billion (1971) total
industry expenditure to meet the effluent guidelines and $2.4 billion
annual costs. The Michigan Study treats the latter as almost all O&M
costs ($2 billion), stating that part, but not the major part, of this
is interest and depreciation (a review of the 1972 Economics of Clean
Water shows that this assumption is incorrect).
The Michigan Study has thus estimated the national energy usage
from this $2 billion O&M costs, and an energy,,coefficient of
0.2 x 106 Btu/$ O&M (1968), to give 400 x 1012 Btu/year in 1977 for all
industries except steam-electric power plants.
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National Commission Study
The National Commission study lists energy requirements by
industrial sector, as was done in this report. However, assumptions
and methodology used to obtain the data are not reported. The
information is apparently taken from contractors' technology
assessments of each sector, and analytical procedures (and quality)
may vary widely. There is no way to assess the accuracy of the
findings. Estimates of energy for industrial water pollution control
are found in the National Commission report Table 11-35.
70
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COMMENTS OF OTHER ESTIMATES OF ENERGY CONSUMPTION
FOR
INDUSTRIAL AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
DSI (old)
The methodology for the earlier DSI study was nearly the same as
for the new one. The differences between results of the old and
new study are almost entirely due to different projections of
industrial investments for air pollution control.
Michigan Study
The Michigan Study, in which particulate removal was taken as
the major control process other than industrial fuel combustion, gives
a figure of 6 x 108 kwh/year (6.9 x 1012 Btu/year) for the national
energy requirement for industrial air pollution control.
This is based on electrostatic precipitators, cyclones, and
baghouse filters, a total industry particulate emission for 1970 of
13.3 x 10b tons/year, an average loading of 5 gr/SCF, and 1.3 BHP/1000 CFM.
The estimate is very much on the low side, for it considered only
low energy control equipment; whereas, in fact, many industries require
high pressure drop scrubbers to meet the air standards. It also
ignores scrubber pumps and the requirements of absorbers and adsorbers,
which are characteristically large energy users.
For the energy required for industrial fuel combustion, the Michigan
Study gives 0.17 percent 9f 1970 national total of 69 x 1Q15 Btu/year or
117 x 10^2 Btu/year. Adding their estimate for particulate removal then
gives a total of 124 x 10'2 Btu/year.
For comparison, Hirst gives a total national energy usage for
plants, furnaces, c
cleaning facilities of 39
power plants, furnaces, cement olants, incinerators, and fossil fuel
- 9 x 109 kwh/year, or 410 x 10'* Btu/year.
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U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Draft Final Report, First Order
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