U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Industrial Environmental Research c D A _ 600/7-76-0346
Office of Research and Development Laboratory
Cincinnati,Ohio 45268 December 1976
ENVIRONMENTAL
CONSIDERATIONS OF
SELECTED ENERGY
CONSERVING MANUFACTURING
PROCESS OPTIONS:
Vol. V. Pulp and Paper
Industry Report
Interagency
Energy-Environment
Research and Development
Program Report
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RESEARCH REPORTING SERIES
Research reports of the Office of Research and Development, U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, have been grouped into seven series.
These seven broad categories were established to facilitate further
development and application of environmental technology. Elimination
of traditional grouping was consciously planned to foster technology
transfer and a maximum interface in related fields. The seven series
are:
1. Environmental Health Effects Research
2. Environmental Protection Technology
3. Ecological Research
4. Environmental Monitoring
5. Socioeconomic Environmental Studies
6. Scientific and Technical Assessment Reports (STAR)
7. Interagency Energy-Environment Research and Development
This report has been assigned to the INTERAGENCY ENERGY-ENVIRONMENT
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT series. Reports in this series result from
the effort funded under the 17-agency Federal Energy/Environment
Research and Development Program. These studies relate to EPA's
mission to protect the public health and welfare from adverse effects
of pollutants associated with energy systems. The goal of the Program
is to assure the rapid development of domestic energy supplies in an
environmentallycompatible manner by providing the necessary
environmental data and control technology. Investigations include
analyses of the transport of energy-related pollutants and their health
and ecological effects; assessments of, and development of, control
technologies for energy systems; and integrated assessments of a wide
range of energy-related environmental issues.
This document is available to the public through the National Technical
Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22161.
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EPA-600/7-76-034e
December 1976
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED
ENERGY CONSERVING MANUFACTURING PROCESS OPTIONS
Volume V
PULP AND PAPER INDUSTRY REPORT
EPA Contract No. 68-03-2198
Project Officer
Herbert S. Skovronek
Industrial Pollution Control Division
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory - Cincinnati
Edison, New Jersey 08817
INDUSTRIAL ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH LABORATORY
OFFICE OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
CINCINNATI, OHIO 45628
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DISCLAIMER
This report has been reviewed by the Industrial Environmental Research
Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and approved for publica-
tion. Approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the
views and policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, nor does
mention of trade names or commercial products constitute endorsement or
recommendation for use.
11
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FOREWORD
When energy and material resources are extracted, processed, converted,
and used, the related pollutional impacts on our environment and even on our
health often require that new and increasingly more efficient pollution con-
trol methods be used. The Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory -
Cincinnati (lERL-Ci) assists in developing and demonstrating new and im-
proved methodologies that will meet these needs both efficiently and
economically.
This study, consisting of 15 reports, identifies promising industrial
processes and practices in 13 energy-intensive industries which, if imple-
mented over the coming 10 to 15 years, could result in more effective uti-
lization of energy resources. The study was carried out to assess the po-
tential environmental/energy impacts of such changes and the adequacy of
existing control technology in order to identify potential conflicts with
environmental regulations and to alert the Agency to areas where its activi-
ties and policies could influence the future choice of alternatives. The
results will be used by the EPA's Office of Research and Development to de-
fine those areas where existing pollution control technology suffices, where
current and anticipated programs adequately address the areas identified by
the contractor, and where selected program reorientation seems necessary.
Specific data will also be of considerable value to individual researchers
as industry background and in decision-making concerning project selection
and direction. The Power Technology and Conservation Branch of the Energy
Systems-Environmental Control Division should be contacted for additional
information on the program.
David G. Stephan
Director
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Cincinnati
iii
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study deals with process modifications within the pulp and paper
industry and their potential impact upon environmental considerations. It
is part of a broader study in which the Environmental Protection Agency
commissioned Arthur D. Little, Inc., to examine how emerging technologies in
thirteen process industries affect energy consumption and the environment.
This industry sector study consists of two distinct segments:
A preliminary, qualitative analysis of some 60 process changes
and their corresponding stage of commercial development, and
A quantitative technical/economic analysis of four changes judged
to have significant energy/environmental impact within the near-
term future.
In interpreting this analysis and associated results, the reader should
recognize that the quality of the data is influenced by the stage of devel-
opment of the associated process. That is, while the technical/economic
information pertaining to current practices the "base line" may be
considered firm, that for the emerging technology consists of "best
estimates" by informed individuals.
Nevertheless, although some of the study results relative to the impli-
cations of these emerging technologies must be qualified as "preliminary"
or "tentative," the study provides a convenient framework within which to
(a) judge the relative importance of the various industry sectors with
regard to their energy/environment characteristics, and (b) assess the
status of various experimental projects and their potential influence on
energy consumption and environmental pollution.
For purposes of this report, the pulp and paper industry is defined as
starting with the raw materials delivered to the manufacturing facility and
extending through to paper and paperboard manufacture. The harvesting of
wood (or collection of waste paper) is not included in this analysis, nor
is the downstream conversion of paper and paperboard into industrial and
retail products.
The four process changes selected for detailed analysis include the
following: alkaline-oxygen (A-0) pulping, the Rapson effluent-free kraft
process, thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP), and the deinking of old newspapers
iv
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for the manufacture of newsprint. Other process changes and changes in
industrial practice have been considered and evaluated in a qualitative man-
ner with respect to their potential effect on energy usage and emissions.
The alkaline-oxygen pulping process is presently in the commercial
development stage. The first commercial operation was started in December
1975. If it is successful and the process is adopted by the industry, its
widespread use could alleviate much of the air and water effluent problems
caused by conventional kraft mills. The A-0 process would not only eliminate
the sulfur and odor emanating from the conventional kraft recovery process
but also ameliorate the color problem associated with the conventional
caustic/chlorine bleach system that is typically used with the kraft process.
However, it would not reduce air emissions from the power boilers of the
kraft mill nor significantly affect the solid waste problem.
Because commercial sample material is not available for testing, there
is some uncertainty about the strength characteristics of the A-0 pulp and,
hence, the degree to which it might replace kraft pulp. Initially, bleached
softwood pulp from the A-0 process appeared to be weaker than kraft; therefore,
its primary application was expected to be as a replacement for bleached hard-
wood pulp, where strength properties would not be a major consideration. More
recent (but unconfirmed) reports indicate that bleaching does not degrade the
strength of A-0 softwood pulp as much as originally believed. Development of
this process should be followed and government participation in its evaluation
should be considered.
The Rapson effluent-free kraft process is also in the commercial develop-
ment stage. It is designed to eliminate the BOD, suspended solids, and color
that characterize effluents from the chlorine/caustic bleaching system used
with the conventional kraft process. It does not affect solid waste or air
emissions; however, should the first commercial installation prove technically
and economically successful, broad adoption of the process by U.S. kraft mills
could greatly alleviate the water pollution problems that confront this large
segment of the industry. The Rapson process would also use much less energy
and be less costly than conventional kraft pulping and bleaching. In fact, it
is the most significant and imminent process change in the industry from the
standpoint of saving energy and reducing pollution. The development of this
process should be encouraged and, if necessary, assisted in its commercialization.
Thermo-mechanical pulping has been developed commercially only within
the past five years. Although it produces a stronger pulp, it uses about as
much energy and causes about as much pollution as conventional processes do.
A modified version of this process, chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping, could
reduce energy requirements and could expand the available supply of pulpwood
(because both hardwoods and softwoods can be treated by this process). How-
ever, the water effluent from the latter process would contain more BOD and
suspended solids than is the case with thermo-mechanical pulping and thus
would likely require additional treatment.
v
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Since thermo-mechanical pulping is now in commercial use, it merits
less attention than the alkaline-oxygen and Rapson processes. Chemi-thermo-
mechanical pulping, however, deserves to be watched closely, because it
is in the early development stage and its full impact with regard to energy
and environmental considerations has not been established.
The deinking of old news (waste newspapers) for newsprint manufacture
is a well-established commercial practice. The process uses significantly
less energy than the substituted materials (mechanical and kraft pulps),
and since it is a recycling operation it conserves the virgin fiber needed
for other applications. The water emissions from old news deinking opera-
tions have been demonstrated to be manageable and in compliance with water
effluent regulations. Also, since the pulping operation uses no sulfur,
it creates no odor. Finally, as waste paper comprises the largest segment
of household trash and old news makes up a major portion of that waste
stream, recovery and reuse of old news would significantly reduce the
quantity of municipal solid waste.
Because the deinking of old news offers such a unique opportunity to
conserve energy without any apparent adverse effect on the environment, the
practice should be encouraged by EPA wherever it is economically feasible.
Two other developments warrant governmental attention, not so much because
of effects on pollution as for the significant energy savings: (1) the energy
that might be saved by alternative paper-drying methods is large enough to
justify pilot-plant evaluation of the more promising techniques, and (2)
potential energy savings through the use of displacement washing should be
quantified. These processes were not studied in depth in this analysis,
because they did not meet a criterion established for selection namely,
to have a significant energy/environmental impact within the near-term
future. Nevertheless, developments in these areas could have a profound
effect on energy conservation and thus are worthy of support.
This report was submitted in partial fulfillment of contract 68-03-2198
by Arthur D. Little, Inc. under sponsorship of the U.S. Environmental Protec-
tion Agency. This report covers a period from June 9, 1975 to February 9, 1976.
vi
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ii
FOREWORD iii
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY iv
List of Figures x
List of Tables xi
Acknowledgments xv
List of Abbreviations and Symbols xvii
Conversion Table xviii
I. INTRODUCTION 1
A. BACKGROUND 1
1. General 1
2. Pulp and Paper Industry 2
B. SCOPE 4
C. APPROACH 5
II. FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8
A. FINDINGS 8
1. Alkaline-Oxygen (A-0) Pulping 8
2. Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Process 11
3. Thermo-Mechanical Pulping 12
4. Deinking of Old News for Newsprint Manufacture 13
B. CONCLUSIONS 13
C. RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR RESEARCH/DEMONSTRATION 15
III. INDUSTRY OVERVIEW 17
A. INTRODUCTION 17
B. GENERAL ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS 20
1. Demand 20
2. Supply 23
VI1
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCT SECTORS
1. Market Pulp u
2. Containerboard 25
3. Folding Boxboard 27
4. Newsprint and Uncoated Groundwood Paper 28
5. Printing, Writing, and Related Papers 29
6. Tissue and Related Papers 30
7. Industrial Packaging and Converting Papers 31
8. Construction Paper and Paperboard 32
D. PROCESS/PRODUCT RELATIONSHIPS 32
E. ENERGY USAGE BY PROCESS/PRODUCT CATEGORY 35
1. Pulping 35
2. Papermaking 38
3. Total Energy Requirement 38
IV. PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY 47
A. IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR UNIT OPERATIONS 47
B. SUMMARY OF PRELIMINARY EVALUATION 49
C. WOOD PREPARATION 51
1. Current Practice 51
2. New Technology 52
D. PULPING, BLEACHING, AND RECOVERY 54
1. Standard Technology 54
2. New Process Technology 63
3. Impact on Energy Consumption and Pollution Load 72
E. PAPERMAKING 74
1. Standard Technology 74
2. New Technology 75
3. New Technology: Energy and Pollution Considerations 81
F. INDUSTRIAL PRACTICE 82
1. All-Kraft Newsprint 82
2. Coated Unbleached Kraft Board 82
3. Lower-Brightness Pulp 83
4. Increased Use of Secondary Fiber 83
viii
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cent.)
Page
V. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ALTERNATIVES 84
A. ALKALINE-OXYGEN PULPING 84
1. Process Description 84
2. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load 85
3. Quality and Cost Comparison 89
4. Summary 95
B. RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE KRAFT PROCESS 95
1. Process Description 95
2. Advantages 96
3. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load 98
C. THERMO-MECHANICAL PULPING 98
1. Process Description 98
2. Advantages 105
3. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load 106
D. DEINKING OF OLD NEWS FOR NEWSPRINT MANUFACTURE 113
1. Background 113
2. Process Description 114
3. Comparison of Current and Alternative Technology 115
APPENDIX A - SUPPLY/DEMAND BY PRODUCT SECTOR 120
APPENDIX B - BASE LINE ENERGY USAGE 152
APPENDIX C - CURRENT POLLUTION LOADS, TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY, AND COSTS
TO MEET PROPOSED GUIDELINES 159
IX
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LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
III-l Unit and Total Annual Purchased Energy for Slush Pulp
Production for Selected Pulping Processes
39
III-2 Energy Intensivity for Selected Pulp and Paper Process/
Product Combinations (New Mill Basis) 45
IV-1 Standard Kraft Technology Material and Energy
Balance 57
IV-2 Energy Requirements and Hydraulic Effluent Loads for Bleached
Kraft Paper and Board Production 62
V-l Material and Energy Balance for A-0 Slush Pulp 86
V-2 Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Process Material
Balance 99
V-3 Schematic Flow Diagram of Alternative Mechanical Pulping
Techniques 107
V-4 Raw Material and Energy Requirements and Pollution for Deinked
Newsprint Furnish (New Mill Basis) 115
B-l Manufacture of Kraft Liner From Virgin Fiber 153
B-2 Manufacture of Corrugating Medium From Kraft Liner 154
B-3 Manufacture of 18-PT Clay-Coated Boxboard From Secondary Fiber 155
B-4 Manufacture of SBS Board From Virgin Fiber 156
B-5 Manufacture of Bond Paper From Virgin Fiber 157
B-6 Manufacture of Bond Paper From Secondary Fiber 158
C-l Alternative Treatment Systems 162
x
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LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
1-1 Summary of 1971 Energy Purchased in Selected Industry Sectors 3
II-l Comparison of A-0 and Rapson Process With Standard Kraft
Slush Pulp (New mill basis) 9
II-2 Comparison of Newsprint Slush Pulp Furnish From Deinking, RMP,
and TMP (New mill basis) 10
III-l Largest Industry Consumers of Fuels and Electric Energy for
Heat and Power, 1971 18
III-2 Largest Industry Consumers of Fresh Water,
1973 18
III-3 Sales to Assets Ratios for Selected Manufacturing Industries
(Second quarter, 1974) 19
III-4 Number of Pulp and Paper Mills by Pulp Manufacturing Process 21
III-5 Projected U.S. Demand for Paper and Paperboard 22
III-6 Commercial Processes for Pulping Wood 33
III-7 Process/Product Relationships - Woodpulp Consumed, by Type,
1973 (Type of pulp consumed divided by U.S. product production) 36
III-8 Energy Usage for Slush Pulp Production, by Major Pulping
Processes 37
III-9 Energy Usage for Forming and Drying, by Major Product Grade 40
111-10 Total Energy Usage, by Major Process and Product Grade 41
III-ll Comparison of ADL Energy Usage Estimates with API Reported Data 43
111-12 Regional Patterns of Fuel Use in the U.S. Paper Industry 44
IV-1 Major Unit Operations in Paper and Paperboard Manufacture 48
IV-2 Preliminary Ranking of Process Changes or Changes in
Industrial Practice 50
XI
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
Number
IV-3 Energy Requirements and Pollution Loads for Bleached Slush Pulp 58
IV-4 Energy Requirements for a New, Integrated Bleached Kraft Pulp
Mill 59
IV-5 Energy Requirements and Pollution Loads for Bleached Kraft
Paper and Board Production 61
V-l Energy Requirements for A-0 Slush Pulp (47% Yield), by Major
Process Step 87
V-2 Summary - Energy Consumption and Pollution Loads, A-0 Process 88
V-3 Standard Bleached A-0 Slush Pulp Investment and Production
Costs 90
V-4 Comparison of A-0 and Standard Kraft Slush Pulp 92
V-5 Standard Bleached Kraft Slush Pulp Investment and Production
Costs 93
V-6 Energy Requirements for Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Slush Pulp,
by Major Process Step 100
V-7 Summary - Consumption and Pollution Loads for Rapson Effluent-
Free Slush Pulp Production, by Process Step 101
V-8 Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Process - Investment and Production
Costs 102
V-9 Comparison of Rapson Effluent-Free Process With Standard Kraft
Slush Pulp 104
V-10 Energy Requirements and Pollution Loads for Slush Pulp From
Mechanical Processes 107
V-ll RMP Slush Pulp Investment and Production Costs 108
V-12 TMP Slush Pulp Investment and Production Costs 110
V-13 Comparison of Newsprint Slush Pulp Furnish From RMP and TMP 112
V-14 Comparison of Newsprint Slush Pulp Furnish From Deinking, RMP,
and TMP 116
V-15 Deinked News Investment and Production Costs 118
XII
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
Number Page
A-l U.S. Bleached Market Pulp End Uses, 1973 121
A-2 Concentration in North American Market Pulp Supply 123
A-3 U.S. Capacity, Production, Trade, and Consumption of Bleached
Paper-Grade Pulp, 1969-1974 124
A-4 World Capacity Trends for Softwood Bleached Kraft Pulp 126
A-5 World Capacity Trends for Hardwood Bleached Kraft Pulp 126
A-6 Average Annual Increase In World Pulp and Paper Capacities 127
A-7 Free-World Bleached Paper-Grade Pulp Demand, 1975-1980 127
A-8 Major Containerboard Producers 128
A-9 Containerboard Supply/Demand Trends 129
A-10 Leading U.S. Solid Bleached Board Producers 132
A-ll Leading U.S. Recycled Boxboard Producers 132
A-12 Boxboard Supply/Demand Trends 133
A-13 Capacities of Major North American Newsprint Suppliers, 1974 135
A14 Capacities of Major U.S. Uncoated Groundwood Paper
Suppliers, 1974 136
A-15 Groundwood Paper Supply/Demand Trends 138
A-16 U.S. Production of Printing, Writing, and Related Paper
Products, 1973 139
A-17 Concentration in U.S. Printing and Writing Paper Supply 140
A-18 Printing, Writing, and Related Paper Supply/Demand Trends 141
A-19 1974 Tissue Production by Product 143
A-20 Major U.S. Tissue Producers 143
A-21 Tissue Paper Supply/Demand Trends, 1973-1977 144
A-22 Production of Industrial Packaging and Miscellaneous
Converting Papers, 1973 146
Xlll
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LIST OF TABLES (Cont.)
Number
A-23 Capacities of Major Producers of Unbleached Kraft and Other
Packaging and Industrial Converting Paper Products, 1973 147
A-24 Capacities of Major Producers of Special Industrial Paper, 1973 147
A-25 Supply/Demand Trends for Industrial Packaging, Converting, and
Miscellaneous Papers 148
A-26 Major Producers of Construction Paper 149
A-27 Major Producers of Gypsum Linerboard 149
A-28 Capacities of Major Producers of Hardboard and Insulation Board 150
A-29 Construction Paper and Board Supply/Demand Trends 151
C-l BATEA Effluent Limitations in kg/kkg (Ib/ton) 160
C-2 Identification of Internal Technology Items 161
C-3 State Standards for Emissions from Pulp Mills 170
C-4 Summary of Proposed Standards and Monitoring Requirements 171
C-5 Standards of Performance for New Steam Generators Having
Capacity Greater than 250 Million Btu/Hr 172
C-6 Air Emissions Loads for Kraft (Standard and Rapson) and
Alkaline-Oxygen Pulping (New Mill Basis) 172
C-7 Control Costs for Recovery Boilers 174
C-8 Control Costs for Lime Kiln System 177
C-9 Control Costs for Smelt Tank System 178
C-10 Control Costs for Digester and Multiple-Effect Evaporators 179
C-ll Control Costs for the Brown Stock Washers 180
C-12 Control Costs for Black Liquor Oxidation System 180
C-13 Control Costs for the Condensate Stripper 181
C-14 Control Costs for Power Boilers 182
C-15 Wisconsin Ambient Air Standards 183
C-16 Air Control Costs, New Mill Sources 185
xiv
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study could not have been accomplished without the support of a
great number of people in government agencies, industry, trade associations
and universities. Although it would be impossible to mention each individual
by name, we would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the particular
support of a few such people.
Dr. Herbert S. Skovronek, Project Officer, was a valuable resource to us
throughout the study. He not only supplied us with information on work
presently being done in other branches of EPA and other government agencies,
but served as an indefatigable guide and critic as the study progressed. His
advisors within EPA, FEA, DOC, and NBS also provided us with insights and
perspectives valuable for the shaping of the study.
During the course of the study we also had occasion to contact many
individuals within industry and trade associations. Where appropriate we
have made reference to these contacts within the various reports. Frequently,
however, because of the study's emphasis on future developments with compara-
tive assessments of new technology, information given to us was of a confiden-
tial nature or was supplied to us with the understanding that it was not to be
credited. Therefore, we extend a general thanks to all those whose comments
were valuable to us for their interest in and contribution to this study.
Finally, because of the broad range of industries covered in this study,
we are indebted to many people within Arthur D. Little, Inc. for their parti-
cipation. Responsible for the guidance and completion of the overall study were
Mr. Henry E. Haley, Project Manager; Dr. Charles L. Kusik, Technical Director;
Mr. James I. Stevens, Environmental Coordinator; and Ms. Anne B. Littlefield,
Administrative Coordinator.
Members of the environmental team were Dr. Indrakumar L. Jashnani,
Mr. Edmund H. Dohnert and Dr. Richard Stephens (consultant).
Within the individual industry studies we would like to acknowledge the
contributions of the following people.
Iron and Steel: Dr. Michel R. Mounier, Principal Investigator
Dr. Krishna Parameswaran
Petroleum Refining: Mr. R. Peter Stickles, Principal Investigator
Mr. Edward Interess
Mr. Stephen A. Reber
Dr. James Kittrell (consultant)
Dr. Leigh Short (consultant)
xv
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Pulp and Paper:
Olefins:
Ammonia:
Aluminum:
Textiles:
Cement:
Glass:
Mr. Fred D. lannazzi, Principal Investigator
Mr. Donald B. Sparrow
Mr. Edward Myskowski (consultant)
Mr. Karl P. Fagans
Mr. G. E. Wong
Mr. Stanley E. Dale, Principal Investigator
Mr. R. Peter Stickles
Mr. J. Kevin O'Neill
Mr. George B. Hegeman
Mr. John L. Sherff, Principal Investigator
Ms. Nancy J. Cunningham
Mr. Harry W. Lambe
Richard W. Hyde, Principal Investigator
Anne B. Littlefield
Charles L. Kusik
Edward L. Pepper
Edwin L, Field
Mr.
Ms.
Dr.
Mr.
Mr.
Mr, John W, Rafferty
Dr. Douglas Shooter, Principal Investigator
Mr.. Robert M. Green (consultant)
Mr.. Edward S, Shanley
Dr, John Willard (consultant)
Dr.. Richard F. Heitmiller
Dr, Paul A. Huska, Principal Investigator
Ms. Anne B. Littlefield
Mr., J, Kevin O'Neill
Dr, D. William Lee, Principal Investigator
Mr, Michael Rossetti
Mr* R. Peter Stickles
Mr, Edward Interess
Dr, Ravindra M. Nadkarni
Chlor-Alkali:
Phosphorus/
Phosphoric Acid;
Primary Copper:
Fertilizers:
Mr. Roger E. Shamel, Principal Investigator
Mr. Harry W» Lamhe
Mr, Richard P. Schneider
Mr. William V. Keary, Principal Investigator
Mr. Harry W. Lambe
Mr. George C. Sweeney
Dr., Krishna Parameswaran
Dr. Ravindra M. Nadkarni, Principal Investigator
Dr, Michel R. Mounier
Dr, Krishna Parameswaran
Mr. John L. Sherff, Principal Investigator
Mr. Roger Shamel
Dr. Indrakumar L. Jashnani
xvi
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ABBREVIATIONS
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
ADL
ADP
ADT
AEP
A-0
API
BATEA/BAT
BD
BOD
BPTCA/BPT
CMC
CTMP
ESP
fpm
g/dscm
gr/dscf
IGCI
MDT
NSPS
NSSC
OCC
PPRIC
P/S
RMP
R.O.I.
SBS
SCF
S/F
SW
TMP
tpd
tpy
TRS
TSS
WG
SYMBOLS
C102
H2S04
NaOH
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
air-dried pulp
air-dry ton
ammonia explosion process
alkaline-oxygen
American Paper Institute
best available technology economically achievable
bone-dry (0% moisture)
biochemical oxygen demand
5-day biochemical oxygen demand
best practical control technology currently available
sodium carboxymethyl cellulose
chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping
electrostatic precipitator
feet per minute
grams per dry standard cubic meter
grains per dry standard cubic foot
Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute
machine-dry ton
New Source Performance Standards
neutral sulfite semi-chemical
old corrugated containers
Pulp and Paper Research Institute of Canada
pulp substitute
refiner mechanical pulping
return on investment
solid bleached sulfate
standard cubic foot
secondary fiber
softwood
thermo-mechanical pulping
tons per day
tons per year
total reduced sulfur
total suspended solids
water gauge
chlorine
chlorine dioxide
sulfuric acid
sodium chlorate
sodium carbonate (soda ash)
sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)
sodium sulfate (salt cake)
xvii
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ENGLISH-METRIC (SI) CONVERSION FACTORS
To Convert From
Acre
Atmosphere (normal)
Barrel (42 gal)
British Thermal Unit
Centipoise
Degree Fahrenheit
Degree Rankine
Foot
3
Foot /minute
Foot3
Foot2
Foot/sec
Foot2/hr
Gallon (U.S. liquid)
Horsepower (550 ft-lbf/sec)
Horsepower (electric)
Horsepower (metric)
Inch
Kilowatt-hour
Litre
Micron
Mil
Mile (U.S. statute)
Poise
Pound force (avdp)
Pound mass (avdp)
Ton (assay)
Ton (long)
Ton (metric)
Ton (short)
Tonne
To
2
Metre
Pascal
Metre
Joule
Pascal-second
Degree Celsius
Degree Kelvin
Metre
Metre /sec
Metre
2
Metre
Metre/sec
2
Metre /sec
3
Metre
Watt
Watt
Watt
Metre
Joule
Metre
Metre
Metre
Metre
Pascal-second
Newton
Kilogram
Kilogram
Kilogram
Kilogram
Kilogram
Kilogram
Multiply By
4,046
101,325
0.1589
1,055
0.001
t° = (t° -32
t° = tj/1.8
0.3048
0.0004719
0.02831
0-09290
0.3048
0.00002580
0.003785
745.7
746.0
735.5
0.02540
3.60 x 106
1.000 x 10~3
1.000 x 10~6
0.00002540
1,609
0.1000
4.448
0.4536
0.02916
1,016
1,000
907.1
1,000
Source: American National Standards Institute, "Standard Metric Practice
Guide," March 15, 1973. (ANS72101-1973) (ASTM Designation E380-72)
xviii
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I. INTRODUCTION
A. BACKGROUND
1. General
With an annual consumption of about 27 quads*, industry accounts
for approximately 40% of U.S. energy consumption.** This energy is
used for heating and cooling process materials, space heating, drying, sup-
plying the energy for chemical reactions, and other miscellaneous uses.
The fractional usage in these categories varies widely from industry to
industry, as well as from plant to plant.
In many industrial sectors significant reduction in energy use can be
achieved by better "housekeeping" (i.e., by shutting off standby furnaces,
better temperature control, elimination of steam leaks, reducing heat
losses, etc.) and greater emphasis on optimization of energy usage. Further
improvements in energy conservation can be expected from new industrial
practices or processes that are introduced because of shortages (or risk
of shortages) of a specific chemical feedstock or fuel form, economic
pressures, etc.
»
Such changes in industrial practices may result in changes in air,
water, and solid waste discharges. Within the scope of the present assign-
ment, the EPA is interested in identifying the pollution loads of new
industrial practices or processes and determining where additional research
and development efforts are needed to characterize the effluent streams .
and to develop technology to control the effluents.
In the first phase of the study, we identified industry sectors having
a potential for change, with an emphasis on changes having an environmental/
energy impact. After discussions with the EPA Project Officer and his
advisors, we selected industry sectors for in-depth study using two basic
criteria:
Quantitative factors based on gross amounts of energy (fossil
fuel and electric) purchased by industry sector, as found in U.S.
Census figures and industry sources;
Qualitative factors relating to probability and potential for
process change, and the energy and effluent consequences of such
changes.
*1 quad = 1015 Btu
**Purchased electricity valued at an approximate fossil fuel equivalence
of 10,500 Btu/kWh
1
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After considering both the quantitative and qualitative factors, we
obtained a ranking of industries which we believe identifies those sectors
showing the greatest probability of energy conservation via process change.
This listing was then reviewed to incorporate less quantitative factors
which were not easily accommodated in any other fashion (e.g., including
industries of different technological or business character so that results
of the study would form a pattern by which other industries could be assessed)
By this ranking method, the pulp and paper industry (which consumes
2.4 quads per year*) appears in third place among the 13 industrial segments
considered in this study. In terms of purchased energy, the industry is in
third place (Table 1-1).
2. Pulp and Paper Industry
The pulp and paper industry is extremely diversified, employing numer-
ous manufacturing techniques for the production of over two thousand primary
products. In some instances, alternative processes may be used to make the
same product; in other instances, a particular process is used because the
properties (and cost) of the product best suit the needs of the end-use
application.
Wood of various forms provides about 80% of the total cellulosic raw
material; most of the remainder comes from waste paper. A minor amount
(less than 1%) consists of other raw materials such as agricultural residues
(bagasse), rags, and synthetic or inorganic (asbestos) fibers.
Although there are numerous manufacturing processes, in general the
same unit operations are involved in each, namely:
Raw material harvesting, collection, and transportation;
Wood preparation (i.e., the conversion of wood delivered to a
plant site into a form suitable for subsequent processing);
Pulping (i.e., the conversion of wood chips or other raw material
into papermaking fiber via chemical and/or mechanical means);
Bleaching, where applicable;
Stock preparation (i.e., size reduction and "hydration" of the
fiber to improve its papermaking properties);
*J.M. Duke, "Patterns of Fuel and Energy Consumption in the U.S. Pulp and
Paper Industry," American Paper Institute, March 1974, p. 2-3. (Figure
includes purchased energy and residue fuels such as bark and black liquor.)
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TABLE 1-1
SUMMARY OF 1971 ENERGY PURCHASED IN .SELECTED INDUSTRY SECTOR
SIC Code
In Which
Industry Sector 10 Btu/Yr. Industry Found
1. Blast furnaces and steel mills 3.49 ^ 3312
(?">
2. Petroleum refining 2.96^ ' 2911
3. Paper and allied products 1.59 26
4. Olefins 0.984<-3) 2818
5. Ammonia Q.63^ 287
6. Aluminum 0.59 3334
7. Textiles 0.54 22
8. Cement 0.52 3241
9- Glass 0.31 .3211, 3221, 3229
10. Alkalies and chlorine 0.24 2812
11. Phosphorus and phosphoric , ,
acid production 0.12( ' 2819
12. Primary copper 0.081 3331
13. Fertilizers (excluding ammonia) 0.078 287
Estimate for 1967 reported by FEA Project Independence Blueprint, p. 6-2,
USGPO, November 1974.
(2)
Includes captive consumption of energy from process byproducts (FEA Project
Independence Blueprint)
(3)
Olefins only, includes energy of feedstocks: ADL estimates
(4)
Ammonia feedstock energy Included: ADL estimates
ADL estimates
Source: 1972 Census of Manufactures, FEA Project Independence Blueprint,
USGPO, November 1974, and ADL estimates.
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Sheet formation (actually the separation of fiber from a dilute
aqueous slurry onto a continuous screen via gravity and vacuum);
Pressing (i.e., further mechanical removal of water); and
Drying.
These basic process steps are modified to produce the varied paper and
paperboard products that are used in numerous end-use applications.
This study deals with some of the major manufacturing processes and
the specific process steps which have significant energy/pollution
characteristics.
B. SCOPE
Within each of the 13 industry sectors, a variety of potential process
changes could normally be identified. We focused on changes in the primary
production processes that had clearly defined pollution consequences, either
of a desirable or undesirable nature. Process changes selected for detailed
analysis included:
Alkaline-oxygen pulping
Rapson effluent-free kraft process
Thermo-mechanical pulping
Deinking of old newsprint
Other process changes and changes in industrial practice have been
discussed in a qualitative manner and ranked according to their relative
stage of commercial development.
In selecting the changes to be included in this study, we considered
the needs and limitations of the EPA as discussed in our "Industry Priority
Report." Specifically, energy conservation is defined broadly to include
conservation of the form value of energy by a process change (e.g., con-
serving natural gas while using more energy units of coal) or a feedstock
change. Energy conservation resulting from changes in industrial practice
or pollution control methods is included within the scope of this study.
Emphasis was placed on process changes with near-term (up to 8- years)
rather than long-term (8-15) potential.
Because of work being funded under other contracts and our desire to
focus this study on "process changes," the following were generally not
considered to be within the scope of the overall study:
Better waste heat utilization;
Energy conservation as a result of policing or "housekeeping"
(e.g., shutting off standby furnaces);
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Power generation;
Steam generation by alternative fuels (e.g., use of coal in place
of oil or gas);
Carbon monoxide boilers (however, unique process vent streams
yielding recoverable energy should be mentioned);
Fuel substitution in fired process heaters;
Mining and milling (except where an integral part of the process) ;
Substitution of scrap, such as iron, aluminum, glass or paper;
Production of synthetic fuels from coal (low- and high-Btu gas,
synthetic crude oil, synthetic fuel oil, etc.);
All aspects of transportation.
For the pulp and paper industry sector, however, two exceptions to the
above were made:
(1) Although we did not evaluate the use of alternative fossil fuels,
we did identify the quantity of energy supplied to the pulp and
papertnaking process via the burning of residue fuels such as
"black liquor," bark, wood waste, and other hogged fuels.
(2) Since waste paper supplies over 20% of the total fiber required
by the industry, and because its use has a profound effect upon
energy consumption, the substitution of this form of "scrap" was
considered within the scope of our analysis.
C. APPROACH
In each of the studied product/process areas, we begin with cellulosic
raw material delivered to a plant site and conclude with product shipped
from the mill. The growth, harvesting (or, in the case of waste paper,
collection), and transportation of the raw materials are not included in
this analysis. Nor are possible changes in product specification, such as
reduction of basis weight (weight per unit area), brightness (change in
the bleaching requirements), or strength (change in the selection of fiber
used to make a product).
Energy and pollution considerations related to secondary converting
operations (box or bag manufacture, printing, coating, etc.) are not
included in this analysis because (a) these process steps are neither
energy- nor pollution-intensive and (b) the converting operations are so
numerous that they would be difficult to address within the scope of this
program.
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Because the industry is so diversified in terms of alternative process
options as well as in the number of process steps required to make a
finished product, we have used the following approach:
(1) Characterize the entire industry in terms of its energy usage and
pollution characteristics;
(2) Identify within the major manufacturing processes those steps
that are most energy- and pollution-intensive;
(3) Evaluate the status of emerging technology and changes in industry
practice to determine in a qualitative manner their energy/
pollution impact;
(4) Study in detail some of the more important developments that
could significantly affect energy use and/or pollution conse-
quences; and finally,
(5) Assess the implications of the analysis with respect to possible
EPA programs.
The time and scope limitations of this study precluded the development
of an all-inclusive list of process options and possible changes in industry
practice. Rather, we relied upon our industry background and experience,
industry contacts, and the guidance of the Project Officer and EPA tech-
nical advisors subjectively to select reasonably promising process options,
with emphasis on near-term potential for adoption.
The analysis of the industry sectors and processes (steps 1 and 2
above) with regard to their energy usage and pollution characteristics pro-
vided some guidance in reducing the subjective nature of the selection
process. Nevertheless, we recognize that the selection of process options
for detailed analysis was ultimately subjective.
Possible alternatives for detailed technical/economic evaluation were
subjected to the above criteria, and the following were recommended for
consideration in this study:
Alkaline-oxygen pulping
Rapson effluent-free kraft process
Thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP)
Deinking of waste newsprint as a substitute for mechanical
pulping
Air drying and vapor recompression
Displacement washing
Oxygen bleaching
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Vapor-phase, high-consistency bleaching
Solvent deinking
Coated unbleached kraft board as a substitute for solid bleached
sulfate (SBS) and recycled board
All-kraft newsprint
Dry forming of selected paper and paperboard products
After these process options had been discussed with the Project Officer
and the EPA technical advisors, the first four were chosen for in-depth
analysis.
In each studied example, the costs, energy requirements, and pollution
characteristics of the current manufacturing techniques were identified
as a basis for comparing its merit and, hence, the likelihood that the
alternative process will be adopted. Energy and pollution characteristics
of other processes that did not receive in-depth analysis are included in
Appendix B of this report.
The overview of the pulp and paper industry is based on data for 1974,
the last representative average year for the industry for which we had good
statistical information. Recognizing that capital investments and energy
costs have escalated rapidly in the past few years and have greatly dis-
torted the earlier bases for making cost comparisons, we believe that the
most meaningful economic assessment of the process technology can only be
made by using 1975 cost data to the extent possible. Consequently, in
estimating comparative operating costs of new and current processes, we
have developed costs representative of the first half of 1975 using con-
stant 1975 dollars. We have selected locations for modeled production facil-
ities based on current representative industry geography. Note that regional
variations in unit costs for labor, energy, etc., are reflected in the cost
computations. Also note that wage rates may not agree with other published
data, since we have used rates which are specific to operation or main-
tenance in the paper industry, and which are a composite of direct labor
and shift supervision.
Furthermore, because site-specific conditions at an existing plant are
likely to obscure the energy/pollution aspects of alternative technology,
all economic cost comparisons between current and alternative technology
are based on the assumption that a new plant is to be built. A scale of
operation typical of current new-capacity installations has been used, which
represents the constraints of technology, product demand, and material
availability. Since the scale of operation has a significant effect on the
unit cost allocation of fixed costs such as factory overhead, unit costs
for fixed-cost items are not uniform for every process.
Finally, note that all operating cost comparisons include an entry for
"return on investment." In this study we used a 20% pretax return on total
capital (fixed plus working capital) to reflect the cost of capital to
finance the studied processes.
7
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II. FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This section summarizes the findings, conclusions, and recommendations
for the pulp and paper industry sector. The findings primarily concern
the four process changes selected for detailed analysis (Section V), while
the overall conclusions and recommendations are based upon the qualitative
(Section IV) and quantitative (Section V) analyses of the process changes
which are occurring in the industry.
In presenting the results of the analysis, we recognize that the
quality of the reported estimates is highly variable; it is influenced by
the commercial status of the emerging technology, and hence the amount of
operating experience that has been accumulated. In reviewing each process
change, we have reported its stage of commercial development as an implicit
indication of the quality of the reported data.
A. FINDINGS
The quantitative findings of this study with respect to the four
process changes that were analyzed in detail are summarized in Tables
II-1 and II-2.
1. Alkaline-Oxygen (A-0) Pulping
The first commercial installation of the A-0 pulping process is cur-
rently in the startup stage; if it is successful, its adoption by the
industry could have some long-range beneficial effects, particularly the
alleviation of much of the air and water effluent problems presently con-
fronting conventional bleached kraft mills. Although it would have no signif-
icant effect upon solid waste characteristics, the TRS (total reduced sulfur)
and the odor problem typically associated with the conventional kraft process
would be eliminated, and the color problem associated with the conventional
kraft pulping and chlorine/caustic bleaching processes would be reduced by
about 50%.
On the basis of available data, the A-0 process is not a direct sub-
stitute for the kraft pulping process, because the resultant product has
inferior strength characteristics." More promising areas of possible product/
process substitution would be in applications for bleached chemical pulp
*While this report was in press, we learned that some initial mechanical
difficulties during startup had been overcome and that current results
are very encouraging. Bleached softwood A-0 pulp may be strong enough
to replace bleached kraft.
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TABLE II-1
COMPARISON OF A-0 AND RAPSON PROCESS WITH
STANDARD KRAFT SLUSH PULP
(New mill basis)
Item
Plant Investment^ incl. pollution control
($ million)
Operating Cost, incl. pollution control
($/ADT)
Purchased Energy (10 Btu/ADT)
Pollution Loads
3
Water - Volume (10 gal/ton)
BOD5(lb/ton)
TSS (Ib/ton)
Color (Ib/ton)
Air Emissions
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
A/0
146
256
4.3
31
33
66
150
146
0
Standard
Kraft
154
290
7.4
31
66
66
300
200
24
Rapson
Process
140
259
2.1
20
None
None
None
200
24
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TABLE II-2
COMPARISON OF NEWSPRINT SLUSH PULP FURNISH
FROM DEINKING, RMP, AND TMP
(New mill basis)
Item
Plant Investment
($million)
Operating Cost ($/ADT) - Mechanical
Purchased Energy
Pollution Loads
Kraft
Total
(106 Btu/ADT)
Water Volume (10 gal/ADT)
BOD (Ib/ADT)
TSS (Ib/ADT)
Color (Ib/ADT)
Air Emissions
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
Deinked
(330 tpd)
24
159
-
159
6.1
4
25
180
170
0
0
80% RMP
20% Kraft
1000 tpd)
81
86
58
144
13.5
8.6
46
85
60
40
5 -
95% TMP
5% Kraft
(1000 tpd)
67
106
15
121
14.7
4.4
49
89
15
10
1
10
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(both kraft and sulfite) in which high strength properties are not
essential. These potential applications comprise less than 50% of the
total bleached chemical pulp usage.
In view of its current stage of commercial development, sufficient
"hard" data are unlikely to be available within 2 or 3 years to assess the
technical and economic viability of the A-0 process. The single installa-
tion presently in the startup stage constitutes less than 0.5% of the
total U.S. bleached pulp capacity; accordingly, any beneficial impact from
its commercial development will not be felt within the next 3 years. Further-
more because of the extended lead time needed for the design and construc-
tion of a mill using new technology, the successful development of A-0
pulping is likely to have only a minimal impact upon the industry within
the next decade.
2. Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Process
The first commercial installation of the Rapson effluent-free kraft
process is presently under construction at the Great Lakes Paper Company
in Thunder Bay, Ontario. The process is designed to produce none of the
BOD, suspended solids, and color that characterize effluents from the
chlorine/caustic bleaching system used with the conventional kraft process.
(It does not affect the solid waste or air emissions, however.) The
process maintains all the desirable physical characteristics of the product
and reportedly can be retrofitted into existing kraft mills.
The technical/economic evaluation of the Rapson process indicates that
it would provide significant energy and cost savings over conventional
kraft pulping and bleaching methods. Further, since much of the overall
water effluent associated with bleached kraft pulp manufacture originates
in the bleach plant, the elimination of effluents from this source, as
contemplated by the Rapson process, would cause a major reduction in the
overall water effluent from an integrated kraft pulp and paper mill.
Should the first installation prove to be technically and economically
successful, the new process could greatly alleviate the water pollution
problems confronting a large segment of the U.S. pulp and paper industry.
It might well be included in the design of all new bleached kraft pulp
mills and retrofitted into existing ones as a more convenient and less
costly way to avoid the color produced by traditional kraft pulp bleaching
processes. The alternative color removal technique, lime treatment, entails
a lower initial investment, but the potential annual savings with the
Rapson process could return the additional capital expenditure in 1 or 2
years.
Results from the first commercial installation should be available
within 2 or 3 years to validate the postulated benefits of the Rapson
process. If the experimental results are confirmed, the process could be
adopted by a significant portion of the bleached kraft industry within the
next decade.
11
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3- Thermo-Mechanical Pulping
Thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP) is one of three methods by which
mechanical techniques (grinding) are used to reduce wood raw material to
papermaking fiber; the other two are stone groundwood and refiner mechanical
pulping (RMP).
TMP, a recently developed alternative technique, has been success-
fully demonstrated in a few commercial installations. Its greater applica-
tion is assured because of overall cost savings in the manufacture of
finished product. This results from the fact that the physical strength
properties of TMP pulp are superior to those of conventional RMP. Most
paper products are made from a blend of chemical and mechanical pulps;
chemical pulps are stronger but more expensive than mechanical pulps, so
papermakers use as much of the latter as they can without unduly weakening
the product. The substitution of TMP for RMP permits a higher percentage
of mechanical pulp and thus a lower cost.
The picture from an energy standpoint is somewhat different. In terms
of energy intensivity, TMP and RMP are about equal, but both are higher than
chemical pulp. As a result, the higher proportion of mechanical pulp that
is made possible by the TMP process also slightly increases the amount of
energy used in making the finished product.
Water pollution resulting from the manufacture of the finished product
(made from a combination of chemical and mechanical pulps) is little
affected by TMP, although the BOD load is slightly higher (about 20%) than
with the conventional RMP process. Air emissions are not a problem with
any of the mechanical pulping processes, so the industry's acceptance of
the TMP process would not affect the characteristics of the mechanical
pulping operation. However, as less chemical fiber would be required in
the finished product, a smaller volume of air emissions would be produced
in its manufacture.
The wider use of TMP could alter the disposal pattern of sawdust and
shavings, which are part of the solid waste from a lumber manufacturing
operation. These materials are presently burned for their heat value, sold
as animal litter or, in some cases, used as cellulosic raw material in pulp
manufacture. The higher pulp strength properties attainable via TMP vs RMP
would permit greater use of these byproducts in higher-added-value
applications.
Water pollution effluents could be affected by a significant modifica-
tion of the TMP processchemi-thermo-mechanical pulping (CTMP). In this
process, small amounts of chemicals (1 to 2% caustic and sodium sulfite)
are added to the wood chips prior to their mechanical attrition. The pur-
pose of the chemical is to solubilize some of the organic adhesive that
binds the papermaking fibers, thus facilitating their separation and main-
taining maximum strength characteristics.
12
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While there is little commercial experience to quantify the effect of
CTMP on energy and pollution, it is reasonable to postulate that there
would be a reduction in energy usage in the defibering operation and that
additional dissolved organic material would appear in the water effluent
stream. Further, it seems probable that the low quantity of organic mate-
rials (5-10%) and chemicals (1-2%) appearing in the water effluent would
make it economically unattractive to burn the "spent liquor" to recover its
heat and chemical value, as is normally done in "full chemical pulping."
Unfortunately, sufficient data are not available at this time to quantify
more precisely the pollution consequences of this variation of the IMP
process.
4. Deinking of Old News for Newsprint Manufacture
The deinking of old news for newsprint manufacture is a well-established
commercial practice. It uses only about 25% as much energy as that required
for the alternative manufacturing processes used to produce the combination
of chemical and mechanical pulps present in deinked pulp. Our contacts
with mills that plan to install deinking facilities indicate that they
expect no problems in complying with water effluent emission regulations;
thus, there appears to be no potential conflict with the regulations as
the result of broader application of deinking. Further, since the amount
of chemical fiber that is added to the deinked fiber in the manufacture
of recycled news may be reduced or entirely eliminated, air emissions
associated with the production of kraft pulp* would be much less of a prob-
lem in recycled newsprint manufacture.
With regard to solid waste, the use of deinking would entail no signifi-
cant change at the plant site; the benefit that would accrue from recycling
newsprint would be to alleviate the solid waste problem facing major metro-
politan areas. Waste paper constitutes 30-40% (by weight) of our total
municipal solid waste, and about 15% of the waste paper is newsprint.
Accordingly, the deinking of old news could make a measurable reduction in
the amount of solid waste in cities.
B. CONCLUSIONS
(1) The unit energy** requirements for the manufacture of the industry's
products are being reduced through a variety of means. These
include simple monitoring and closer attention to energy usage
(housekeeping), as well as the application of well-established
process techniques which were not economically feasible when
energy costs were significantly lower.
*There are alternative methods for making chemical fiber that do not have
an air emission problem, but the quantity of these materials used is much
smaller than that of kraft pulp in this application.
**Unit energy, as used here, means the energy required per ton of the
industry's finished or interim products.
13
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(2) The unit energy requirements for purchased energy are likely to
decrease faster than the total unit energy for the production of
the industry's products. The sharper decline of purchased energy
results from (a) greater utilization of residue fuels, such as
bark, forestry waste, and "black liquor," (b) more on-site power
generation, and (c) the decline of products made in nonintegrated
paper mills, where there is little opportunity for energy recovery
from the combustion of residue fuels. On-site power generation
has always been practiced by major producers; at today's high
cost for purchased power, on-site power generation by smaller pro-
ducers has become more attractive.
(3) Major process changes being implemented (or contemplated) by the
industry will alleviate many of its air, water, and solid waste
emission problems. This is not a coincidence; the process changes
and/or changes in industrial practice have often been prompted by
the industry's effort to comply with effluent regulations in the
past decade. Thus, major process changes, such as alkaline-oxygen
pulping and the Rapson effluent-free kraft process, which are in
the commercial development stage, are the result of developmental
work begun 5 to 10 years ago in anticipation of effluent regulations.
(4) Few, if any, process changes have been instituted simply to save
energy, although this has often been a result. Some process
changes are implemented by industry even though they may be more
energy-intensive than the current practice, so long as the total
delivered cost is reduced by the new technique. The growing use
of thermo-mechanical pulp (TMP) instead of conventional mechanical
pulp in the manufacture of newsprint is an example of an alterna-
tive process technique that is more energy-intensive than current
practice; TMP is being adopted because it results in a lower
delivered cost for the finished product. Because TMP is stronger
than refiner mechanical pulp, less chemical fiber would be required
in the manufacture of the finished product; therefore, adoption
of TMP would conserve wood.
(5) A number of process changes with significant potential for energy
saving have not been included in the changes selected for detailed
analysisnotably alternative drying techniques and displacement
washing.
Drying is by far the single largest consumer of purchased energy
in the entire pulp and paper manufacturing process. A number of
new drying techniques are in the development stage, but we have
discussed them in only a qualitative way because (a) the develop-
ments are not likely to reach large-scale commercial use within
the next decade, and (b) we believe that the process change would
not have a significant effect on the environment.
14
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Displacement washing has also been discussed in a qualitative
manner but not included for detailed analysis, because other
developments in pulping and recovery were judged to be more
significant from an energy/pollution standpoint. This process
has achieved commercial status in a few installations, and its
use during the next decade is likely to be significant.
Similarly, we have identified and evaluated other process changes
in a qualitative manner. The above two are singled out because
the potential energy savings realized by their commercial develop-
ment would be significant.
Other process changes may also have important energy-saving
potential and beneficial impact upon the environment, but their
early stage of development does not permit us to predict the
results as confidently as for the more advanced developments.
C. RECOMMENDED AREAS FOR RESEARCH/DEMONSTRATION
(1) The Rapson effluent-free kraft pulping process is the most signifi-
cant and imminent process industry change from the standpoint of
major energy and pollution implications. Therefore, EPA should
encourage its development by participation and, if necessary,
providing support in bringing it to commercial fruition.
(2) The alkaline-oxygen (A-0) process would apply to a much smaller
segment of the industry and thus lacks the potential impact of
the Rapson process in terms of reducing the industry's pollution
problems. However, the Rapson process would alleviate only the
water effluent problems, while the A-0 process would alleviate
both the air and water pollution problems presently associated
with the major alternative manufacturing methodnamely, kraft
pulping and bleaching. We believe that EPA should participate
in joint evaluation of this process.
(3) The thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP) process is well established.
While it may be beneficial to obtain more precise analytical data
on its energy usage and pollution characteristics, all reports
to date indicate that (except for a 20% higher BOD load than with
the conventional RMP process) there is no significant difference
between the current and "new" technologies with regard to energy
usage or pollution.
Hence, the TMP process does not warrant as much encouragement
and assistance in commercial evaluation as the two previously
listed process changes or the modification of the TMP process
(chemi-thermo-mechanical pulpingCTMP). Because CTMP offers both
significant advantages in increasing the available supply of
pulpwood and an inherently greater pollution problem than any of
the other mechanical pulping processes, an accurate evaluation of
its commercial potential appears appropriate.
15
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The deinking of old news for the manufacture of newsprint pre-
sents an opportunity to save energy with no potential pollution
problem. Broader commercial application should be supported,
because it could reduce the amount of municipal solid waste.
(5) Alternative drying techniques and displacement washing appear to
offer possibilities for significant energy savings with beneficial
effects on industry emissions. The potential energy savings
appear to be sufficiently attractive in paper drying to warrant
further pilot evaluation of the more promising techniques.
Displacement washing has reached commercial operation in a few
installations, so it does not require further development effort;
nevertheless, its impact upon energy and pollution considerations
should be quantified to verify the postulated benefits.
(6) Other process changes that have been evaluated only qualitatively
may also have significant potential for saving energy and benefit-
ing the environment. We recommend that EPA and other appropriate
government agencies determine the status of these emerging tech-
nologies through periodic reviews and encourage the more promis-
ing developments by participation.
16
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III. INDUSTRY OVERVIEW
This section describes the various business and product sectors that
comprise the overall U.S. pulp and paper industry. It provides some general
information on the characteristics of the product sectors and their past and
future growth patterns. An understanding of the fundamental business
characteristics and possible future growth is important, since these factors
influence the likelihood and rate of implementation of the changes in
processes and industry practices that are discussed in Sections IV and V of
this report.
Together with the description of each product sector, the principal
factors that affect energy use and pollution control in that sector are men-
tioned. This subject is treated only briefly here, as the purpose is
primarily to guide the reader to related portions of Sections IV and V where
the effects of new technology on energy use and pollution are explored in
greater depth.
Subsection D, which is an additional bridge between the product-oriented
information of this chapter and the process-oriented information of Sections
IV and V, describes the individual pulping processes and indicates the products
made by each method.
Finally, Subsection E compares the amounts of energy used to make various
pulp and paper products on both a unit and total annual basis, to indicate
where the bulk of the energy is consumed and the relative efficiencies of
the processes.
The information presented here has been compiled from related work
performed by ADL for government agencies, published information, and "in-
house" data. Further details of these aspects of the industry are given in
Appendix A, "Supply/Demand by Product Sector."
A. INTRODUCTION
The pulp, paper, and allied products industry encompasses the production
and sale of pulp derived from wood and other fibrous raw materials, the
manufacture of paper and paperboard products from pulp and waste paper, and
their conversion into end products such as boxes, writing paper, and sanitary
tissue. Among all U.S. industries, it is the fourth largest purchaser of
electricity and fuels (Table III-l) and the third largest user of water
(Table III-2).
17
U.S EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
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TABLE III-l
LARGEST INDUSTRY CONSUMERS OF FUELS AND ELECTRIC ENERGY FOR HEAT AND POWER, 1971
purchased Fuels and
Major Industry Group Electric Energy
(billion kWh equiv.)
Chemicals and Allied Products 814.2
Primary Metal Industries 717.8
Petroleum and Coal Products 467.0
Paper and Allied Products ...385.5
Stone, Clay and Glass Products " 382.4
Food 302.2
Transportation Equipment 113.7
Machinery, excl. Electrical 101.6
Textile Mill Products 106.6
Fabricated Metal Products 103.1
Source: 1972 Census of Manufactures
TABLE III-2
LARGEST INDUSTRY CONSUMERS OF FRESH WATER, 1973
(billions of gallons)
Major Industry Group Annual Consumption
Primary Metal Industries 4396
Chemical and Allied Products 2927
Paper and Allied Products 2295
Petroleum and Coal Products 639
Food and Kindred Products 628
Transportation Equipment 220
Stone, Clay and Glass Products 179
Textile Mill Products ^175
Machinery, excl. Electrical 158
Rubber and Miscellaneous Plastics Products 150
Source: "Water Use in Manufacturing," 1972 Census of
Manufactures, U.S. Dept. of Commerce
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Most of the water used by the industry is for processing of wood pulp:
it is the medium for carrying the pulp to produce paper and paperboard.
Since this water is intermingled with the products made by the mills, water
pollution is a concern. Odors from kraft pulp mills also create a signifi-
cant air pollution problem, and the power boilers used in many installations
are large enough (over 250 million Btu/hr) to be affected by the EPA
restrictions on particulate emissions.
The paper industry is also characterized by extensive vertical inte-
gration and is highly capital-intensive; as shown in Table III-3, it ranked
ninth in capital intensity among all U.S. industries in 1974. Because of
these facts, and because such large sums are required for new facilities,
the industry is slow to change its practices and processes. Minor process
changes are made if they can be retrofitted into existing facilities without
large expenditures of fixed capital, but opportunities for major changes
usually arise only when new capacity is added.
TABLE III-3
SALES TO ASSETS RATIOS FOR SELECTED MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES
(Second quarter, 1974)
Major Industry Group
Petroleum and Coal Products
Instruments and Related
Machinery, except Electrical
Chemicals and Allied Products
Stone, Clay and Glass Products
Nonferrous Metals
Electrical and Electric Equipment
Iron and Steel
Paper and Allied Products
Sales/Assets
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
15
16
28
30
35
36
42
42
43
Transportation Equipment 1.51
Source: Quarterly Financial Report for Corporations,
Federal Trade Commission, July 1974.
1,9
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The first U.S. mills were in New England; thus, the older, smaller, and
nonintegrated mills tend to be located in the Northeastern and North Central
states, while the newer, larger, and integrated mills are in the South and
Pacific Northwest. About 64% of the industry's pulping capacity and 49% of
its papermaking capacity are now located in the South. Table III-4 more
specifically indicates the geographic distribution of U.S. mills by process
category in 1973.
B. GENERAL ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS
The future growth of the paper industry directly affects the extent of
changes that are made in processes and practices, because the installation
of new capacity provides the principal opportunity for such changes. This
section briefly discusses the future growth in terms of growth opportunities
for major product sectors; subsequently, we relate these to the relevant
manufacturing processes. This translation is necessary because effluent
guidelines and control measures vary according to the process involved,
whereas growth opportunities are viewed on a product basis.
1. Demand
As a whole, the pulp and paper industry is mature, in that the demand
for its products has grown at about the same rate as the GNP in real terms.
There are some indications that the industry may grow slower than the GNP in
the future because of recent rapid price increases, saturation of per capita
consumption potential, and substitution by competing products. At the same
time, entry to the industry and expansion of capacity are becoming more
difficult, making it more likely that demand will be constrained by capacity
and that paper prices will rise more rapidly than the all-commodity average.
Demand is best measured by U.S. consumption of paper and paperboard
products (i.e., domestic production plus imports less exports). For most
products, inventories are relatively small; in any case, there is little
accurate information on inventory changes for paper products.
Table III-5 shows demand data for market pulp and the principal categories
of paper and paperboard.* Data for 1973 are listed to illustrate the relative
magnitude of the product categories, and projections to 1977 and 1983 show
expected relative growths. Growth in the demand for paper and paperboard
products is expected to drop to 3%, in contrast to 4.5% in 1960-1970, because
of a slowdown in GNP growth, a tight supply/demand balance, and rapid price
escalation.
*The product categories are not as numerous as those used by the American Paper
Institute: we have combined or reaggregated some of the latter to facilitate
the transformation from products to processes described in subsection D and
in Table III-7 of this chapter.
20
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TABLE II1-4
NUMBER OF PULP AND PAPER MILLS BY PULP MANUFACTURING PROCESS
, 1
CO
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TABLE II1-5
PROJECTED U.S. DEMAND FOR PAPER AND PAPERBOARD
1973
Product Sector (10^ tons)
Market Pulp
Paper and Paperboard
Container board
Folding Boxboard
Newsprint & Uncoated Groundwood Paper
Printing, Writing & Related
Tissue & Related
Industrial Packaging & Converting Papers
Construction Paper & Paperboard
TOTAL PAPER AND PAPERBOARD
5
17
7
12
11
4
7
5
67
.0
.7
.7
.2
.9
.0
.6
.9
.0
Average Growth 1977
(%/yr) (106 tons)
4.
3.
2.
2.
3.
3.
2.
3.
3.
3
0
0
6
5
0
9
5
0
5
20
8
13
13
4
8
6
75
.9
.0
.3
.6
.6
.5
.5
.9
.4
Average Growth 1983
(%/yr) (106 tons)
3.
3.
2.
2.
3.
2.
2.
3.
3.
8
8
0
6
5
5
9
5
0
7.
25.
9.
15.
16.
5.
10.
8.
90.
4
0
4
8
8
2
1
5
8
Source: 1973, "Quarterly Industrial Report: Pulp, Paper, and Board," U.S. Department of
Commerce, Domestic and International Business Administration, Bureau of Domestic
Commerce, July 1974.
1977, 1983j Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates.
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2. Supply
The short-term supply potential in this industry can be measured-by
published capacity data for each major product group and for almost each pulp
and paper mill. The product-group data are derived by the American Paper
Institute (API) through annual surveys of current capacity and planned
expansions. Comparisons of the capacity data with the industry's production
data indicates average mill operating rates in each sector.
Some nuances must be recognized when interpreting capacity figures:
Very few product sectors can operate at 100% of reported annual
capacity, not only because capacity and demand fluctuate during the
year, but also because the mills often fail to achieve the number
of annual operating days on which their capacity figure is based.
Reported capacity is also based on a specific mix of products;
effective capacity can be increased by producing fewer grades
(which lengthens production runs and cuts downtime for grade changes),
or by increasing the thickness of the sheet (which reduces the
operating time needed to produce a given tonnage).
Operating rates in most sectors generally vary between 85% and 96%
from year to year; many mills become unprofitable at annual rates
below 85%.
Because of the time and costs associated with mill shutdowns and startups,
all pulp and paper mills operate on a three-shift basis, and most run seven
days a week. Over the short term, the supply can be increased by deferring
maintenance downtime, or by concentrating on heavier weight products (which
effectively increases production tonnage). Over the longer term, however,
companies must either expand existing mills or build new ones.
The capital investment per employee has been rising rapidly and
exceeded $60,000 in 1975. As a result, few new firms have entered the
industry over the past ten years other than by acquisition of existing
facilities. Also, the amount of capital now needed to build a new facility
has served to inhibit the rate of growth of industry capacity. Most of the
current expansion is being undertaken by the larger, more profitable firms
that have the necessary capital resources and control sufficient woodlands to
assure a continuing supply of wood raw materials.
C. CHARACTERISTICS OF PRODUCT SECTORS
This subsection provides a brief description of the major product sectors
that make up the pulp and paper industry: market pulp, containerboard, folding
boxboard, newsprint, writing paper, tissue, industrial packaging, and con-
struction paper (board). More detailed information is given in Appendix A.
23
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1. Market Pulp
a. Product Description
Market pulp is pulp that is sold rather than used internally by the
producer. There are two principal kinds dissolving pulp and bleached
paper-grade pulps. Market sales of other types of pulps (unbleached
chemical pulps, groundwood pulp, and deinked wastepaper) are relatively small.
Dissolving pulps consist of highly refined, bleached sulfite or sulfate
pulps with a high content of alpha or pure cellulose fiber. These pulps are
used primarily as the raw material for rayon and acetate fibers, cellophane,
and a variety of cellulose chemicals and specialty papers. This must be
extremely free from dirt and other impurities. Many applications compete
strongly with synthetic fibers and plastics.
The bleached and semi-bleached grades of kraft and sulfite pulp currently
constitute about 86% of the total pulp purchased by U.S. mills that are not
integrated or only partially integrated to on-site pulp production. The
primary products produced by such mills are printing and writing papers,
sanitary tissue, and related papers, mainly of a specialty nature. Part of
the supply of bleached papermaking pulps is produced by some of the dissolving
pulp mills. The paper-grade pulp mills, however, are not able to produce
dissolving pulp without substantial reinvestment.
The chief function of the paper-grade pulps is to provide a white surface
and sufficient strength to make the product usable. In both printing and
tissue papers, hardwood and softwood pulps are blended to provide the desired
properties of surface smoothness, opacity, softness, and strength. The short
hardwood fibers are used to provide a smooth printing surface and opacity,
while the long-fiber softwood pulps provide most of the required strength.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
Within the bleached market pulp sector, several significant developments
will affect future energy use and pollution control. These are mainly
technological changes, such as the use of oxygen and closed systems, which are
discussed in Sections IV and V.
The total energy consumed in pulp processes is expected to remain at or
near the present level. However, the amounts of external or purchased energy
used should decrease over time. Approximately 50% of the energy used in
market pulp manufacture is now supplied by combustion of bark, wood wastes,
and the organics extracted during pulping. Within the constraints of present
technology, it appears possible to increase the contribution to about 70% by
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collecting more waste wood, increasing on-site generation of power*,
using recovery boilers, and adopting other conservation programs.
The largest source of pollution within this product sector is bleach
plant effluents; these consist of dissolved organics, some liquor and
cellulose, and concentrations of chemical salts. Changes in the basic system
to reduce pollution loads, such as the use of oxygen bleaching systems, have
been demonstrated. At least two are in commercial operation, and another
one or two are scheduled to come on stream shortly.
Also, the technology for a completely closed, no-water-discharge bleaching1
system has been developed by Rapson and others. The first commercial
installation of this system is being constructed in Canada. If the commercial
operation performs as expected, it will significantly reduce bleach plant
effluents. Rather than add color removal as an end-of-pipeline treatment
step, companies may elect to make internal revisions (such as included in
the Rapson process) that would alleviate the color removal problem.
2. Containerboard
The corrugated box (or shipping container) and its components are the
principal products manufactured from containerboard. Most corrugated boxes
are made from a sandwich of linerboard and corrugating medium: the latter is
fluted and glued between layers of linerboard to help increase the overall
structural strength of the box.
Containerboard is one of two primary paperboard product categories in the
U.S. paper industry, the other being folding boxboard. Its production
exceeded 16 million tons in 1974, which was more than half the tonnage of all
paperboard produced in the United States.
a. Product Description
The containerboard sector includes all the paperboard materials used in
the manufacture of corrugated shipping containers namely, linerboard (made
either from unbleached kraft pulp, waste paper, or a combination of both),
corrugating medium (made from a combination of semi-chemical pulp and waste
paper, or entirely from waste paper), and container chip and filler board
(made entirely from waste paper). Unbleached kraft paperboard used in folding
boxboard applications is discussed below in subsection 3. The characteristics
and end-use criteria for each of these products are described below.
*0n-site power generation typically uses a back-pressure turbine with two or
three high-pressure steam extraction stages for power generation. The low-
pressure ("back-pressure") steam may then be used in various process appli-
cations. Heat-to-power conversion efficiencies in a back-pressure turbine
are typically about 4,000 Btu/k₯h, whereas they are about 10,000 Btu/kWh in
a condensing-type turbine. Utility companies that supply purchased power
typically operate condensing turbines.
25
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Since it is the surface layer of the corrugated sandwich, the chief
function of linerboard is to provide the strength characteristics required
of a corrugated container, chiefly resistance to bursting and crushing.
Unbleached kraft linerboard produced in the United States (typically at a
basis weight of 42 lb/1000 sq ft) fully meets accepted national standards for
corrugated containers that are shipped by rail or truck across state borders.
The pulp furnish for recycled linerboard usually consists of recycled
corrugated containers and container converting plant clippings. The short-
fiber corrugating medium component of these containers (about 30% of the
furnish), coupled with the fiber degradation which takes place in repulping,
makes it necessary to increase the basis weight of recycled linerboard
somewhat above 42 lb/1000 sq ft if it must match the strength of the typical
42-pound kraft linerboard.
The chief function of corrugating medium is to provide a low-cost
material for imparting rigidity. Minimal tearing resistance and folding
properties are required, since these properties are provided by the liner-
board layers.
Semi-chemical corrugating medium is made from a high-yield, partially
cooked pulp that employs a neutral sodium- or ammonia-base sulfite pulping
liquor.
Recycled corrugating medium, as defined by the API, is fluting material
containing more than 25% waste paper. In fact, most recycled corrugating
medium is made entirely from waste paper of various grades, including waste
news, old corrugated containers, and mixed waste paper. The most common
basis weight for corrugating medium is 26 lb/1000 sq ft.
Container chip and filler board is used to form the partitions or to line
the inside of a corrugated box. Chipboard is the major product in this cate-
gory: consisting of paperboard that is lighter than 26 lb/1000 sq ft. It is
employed either as single sheets or as the facing of corrugated materials
used for interior packaging such as partitions, dividers, pads, and cushioning.
The only real competitive threat to corrugated containers has come from
the use of heavy-gauge shrink plastic film. This film can be wrapped around
a pallet of packages and then shrunk by the application of heat to hold the
load securely. However, shrink film now competes only in limited applications.
Little substitution of other products for corrugated containers has been
achieved.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
Within the containerboard sector, the manufacturing processes are
standardized, and energy use and pollution control patterns are well estab-
lished. Internal plant conservation programs are being implemented within
the industry to reduce both energy consumption and the amounts of effluent
requiring end-of-pipe treatment.
26
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Mills that produce virgin-fiber-based materials are tending to increase
their use of recycled fiber in"the manufacture of linerboard. As they do so,
energy use per ton of board in pulping will decrease. Also, the total
pollution load from a given plant/product cycle should decrease.
As with other board products, drying on the paperboard machine consumes
large quantities of energy. While significant efforts have been devoted to
reducing this, no breakthroughs have yet been achieved.
3. Folding Boxboard
Folding boxboard is one of the two primary paperboard product categories
in the U.S. paper industry, the other being containerboard. This product
sector accounted for nearly 30% of 1973 paperboard production and about 15%
of the total tonnage of paper and paperboard made in that year.
a. Product Description
The folding boxboard sector consists of two dissimilar products:
(1) bleached paperboard or solid bleached sulfate (SBS) board and (2) recycled
paperboard. Each of these products is made by a different process and gen-
erally serves specific segments of the folding boxboard market. In those
limited applications where SBS board and recycled board compete, the choice
usually depends on the strength-to-weight ratio and its impact upon
competitive costs.
SBS board and bristols* have been combined for this report because, while
they are sold to totally different markets, they are generally produced in
the same mills. Thus, the capacity utilization rates of the suppliers
reflect the demand levels for both products.
SBS is by far the larger volume and faster growing product; its pro-
duction totalled about four million tons in 1973 and 1974. It is used almost
entirely to produce folding cartons and paper cups, plates, and trays. SBS
board is produced from a combination of fully bleached hardwood and softwood
pulps made by the sulfate or kraft process. Most of this board is coated
with clay pigment and/or polyethylene film to enhance its printing character-
istics and/or barrier properties.
Production of bleached bristols amounted to about 1.1 million tons in 1973
and 1974. Principal applications are tabulating and index cards, file folders,
and tags. In contrast to SBS, these products are usually made from semi-
bleached pulp and are uncoated. Demand for bristols has been essentially static
since 1969, primarily because of declining use of tabulating cards as newer
business machines make greater use of tape input/output and have larger
internal memory banks.
*A broad range of bleached or semi-bleached paperboards 6 mils or more in
thickness. Unlike SBS, bristols can be made on a cylinder machine as well
as a Fourdrinier and may contain some secondary fiber.
27
-------
Recycled paperboard is generally made from mixed grades of waste paper.
The folding type is usually pigment-coated or lined with bleached or deinked
pulp to enhance its appearance and printing characteristics. The setup or
nonfolding type, which is heavier and stiffer, is seldom coated or made with
a white liner but often has a coated paper outer liner. Its principal
applications are shoe boxes, department store boxes, and hardware boxes.
Solid bleached board and recycled board are by far the most important
boxboard grades, accounting for about 95% of total 1973 production.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
Energy use and pollution control in the boxboard sector must be con-
sidered within the context of the two primary products, SBS and recycled. SBS
uses bleached or semi-bleached pulp as its primary raw material, and recycled
uses waste fiber; hence, two different manufacturing processes are involved.
The major factors affecting energy use and pollution control in the SBS
subsector are technological changes in pulping and bleaching, which are
discussed in detail in Sections IV and V.
Within the recycled subsector, the drying of the paperboard is the
largest energy-consuming process. As mentioned earlier in this section, there
is limited opportunity to reduce this consumption except by in-plant con-
servation efforts.
The use of waste fiber implies less overall pollution load on the total
environment. Within the mill, the trend is toward greater reuse of water
and hence less end-of-pipe treatment.
4. Newsprint and Uncoated Groundwood Paper
a. Product Description
Newsprint and uncoated groundwood paper are grouped in this sector because
they utilize a substantial proportion (usually greater than 50%) of ground-
wood pulp in their fiber makeup, and they are often produced in the same mill.
In addition, both products are uncoated and are used in printing applications
that do not require archival properties, since groundwood pulp discolors when
exposed to ultraviolet light. Thus, they are used for products such as
newspapers, telephone directories, some mail order catalogs, and other printed
articles that are generally discarded within one year.
Newsprint is by far the largest major grade in this category; total U.S.
consumption was about eleven million tons in 1974. It is generally made from
a pulp furnish consisting of about 80% unbleached groundwood (West Coast
groundwood pulp is often lightly bleached) and 20% semi-bleached kraft or
unbleached sulfite pulp.
28
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Three U.S. newsprint mills now produce newsprint entirely from waste news-
papers. As a result of their successful market penetration, this recycling
trend is likely to grow in areas with high population and plentiful supplies
of waste paper.
Uncoated groundwood paper is generally made from a furnish consisting of
30-50% bleached chemical pulp and 50-70% bleached groundwood pulp. Its prin-
cipal applications are for telephone directories, catalogs, paperback books,
low-prices magazines, comic books, and general commercial printing.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
The basic pulp used in the manufacture of newsprint and uncoated ground-
XTOod paper is mechanical pulp made by grinding wood against a stone or by
refining chips to pulp in a thermomechanical or chip refiner system. Pulp
yields from these processes typically exceed 95%; thus, the pollution load
due to dissolved organics and bleaching chemicals is relatively minor, and the
energy consumption per ton is higher than for the chemical pulps used in
containerboard and market pulp.
The increasing use of recycled news in making newsprint is reducing the
overall energy usage of the industry and the pollution loads resulting from
the process. Both standard groundwood and thermomechanical pulps require
large inputs of energy.
The use of recycled fiber requires deinking of the old newspapers before
they can be reformed into new paper. Thus, although waste paper is removed
from the overall environment, the paper mill must contend with an increased
pollutant load from inks and the chemicals needed to remove them.
In the virgin-fiber-based newsprint or uncoated groundwood mills, inplant
water reuse and conservation programs are the most practical methods for
reducing end-of-pipe pollution costs.
5. Printing, Writing, and Related Papers
a. Product Description
The printing, writing, and related papers sector consists of four product
groupings: coated printing paper, uncoated book paper, converting paper, and
writing and related papers. Bleached bristols, which are normally included in
this sector, have been included in the boxboard sector, since they are
produced in bleached paperboard mills. All of the printing-writing papers
employ bleached pulp and are used primarily for printing, publishing,
stationery, and a variety of paper converting applications.
Two-side-coated printing and converting paper is used primarily for
magazine and textbook printing. The kind used in magazines, which constitutes
about 70% of the volume, utilizes a groundwood-content base paper containing
about 50% groundwood and 50% chemical pulp. Textbooks and publications such
29
-------
as corporate annual reports and advertising brochures generally utilize a
100% chemical pulp base sheet. The coated-one-side papers are generally
used for labels and packaging wraps, such as on cans; these generally
utilize a 100% chemical pulp base sheet.
Uncoated book paper is used for many applications in addition to book
printing. These include a wide variety of commercial printing applications
that require uncoated paper as well as the paper used to produce envelopes and
tablets. These papers are differentiated from the uncoated groundwood papers
in that they contain no more than 25% groundwood pulp in their furnish.
Writing and related papers are primarily used for business writing
papers, stationery, and business forms. Forms bond for computer printing
and a variety of other business forms is the largest grade in this category,
accounting for over 25% of 1973 production. The cotton-fiber papers have
furnishes containing 25% or more of cotton, rags, linters, flax, or similar
fibers; they are more expensive than the chemical wood pulp writing papers
and hence are used in higher-value specialized applications, such as chart
papers and special stationery. Thin papers include carbonizing tissue,
condenser tissue, cigarette paper, pattern paper, and the like.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
In addition to the factors discussed under market pulp, the printing and
writing paper mills must deal with the pollution loads associated with starch
and other paper machine additives as well as wastes from coating and other
surface treatments.
Aside from the energy usage factors in the pulp mill, the drying of
paper is the most significant energy consumption process: more than two pounds
of steam are needed to dry each pound of paper. While such improvements as
"through dryers" have been discussed for use by the industry, no technological
developments are currently anticipated which will change the well-established
patterns of energy use in this product sector.
6. Tissue and Related Papers
a. Product Description
The tissue sector of the pulp and paper industry includes both sanitary
and nonsanitary grades of tissue paper that are sold to consumer and industrial
market sectors. Sanitary tissue grades include bathroom and facial tissue,
napkins, towels, and wipers. Nonsanitary tissue grades including waxing,
wrapping, and cellulose wadding tissues. Sanitary tissues accounted for about
94% of total 1974 tissue production.
All of the above tissue grades are usually made from a combination of
various bleached pulps, including sulfite and kraft (both softwood and hard-
wood), small amounts of groundwood pulp, and deinked or high-grade waste paper.
Thin papers, such as carbonizing tissue and condenser tissue, are not included
in the tissue paper sector but rather in the printing, writing, and related
papers sector.
30
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k Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control^
Once again, the most significant factors affecting energy usage and
pollution control are the drying of the paper and the water used in
processing.
Through drying is beginning to replace drying against steam-heated
cylinders within the tissue sector, and this could result in some energy
savings. However, as with other sectors, better housekeeping and water
conservation practices are providing substantial savings.
7. Industrial Packaging and Converting Papers
a. Product Description
The industrial packaging and miscellaneous converting paper sector
consists of three major categories:
Unbleached kraft paper, used primarily for wrapping paper,
shipping sacks, multi-wall bags, and grocery sacks and bags;
Bleached kraft packaging papers, which are utilized for a variety
of specialty wrapping, bag, and food carton inner-wrap applications;
and
Other converting paper and paperboard applications, including
special industrial paper, tube, can and drum paperboard, and
other specialty recycled paperboard applications.
Unbleached kraft paper is closely tied to the containerboard sector,
since these products use the same type of pulp, i.e., primarily unbleached
softwood kraft. Plastic film has made some penetration into the markets
traditionally served by unbleached kraft sack paper.
Bleached packaging and industrial converting papers have highly frag-
mented end uses. Products such as glassine, greaseproof, and vegetable
parchment are used as inner linings for packages (e.g., dry cereal and cake
mixes), specialty bags, and many other products. They are produced from a
variety of bleached and unbleached softwood kraft and softwood sulfite pulps.
Substitution by plastics has been even more substantial here than with
unbleached kraft paper and is likely to continue.
The special industrial paper category comprises many paper and paper-
board grades designed for specialized end uses such as abrasive paper,
absorbent paper, cable paper, electrical insulation, vulcanized fiber, and
resin impregnating stock. The tube, can, and drum paperboard category con-
sists of products made from recycled fiber. The special combination paper-
board category includes tags, file folders, match stems, table backs, etc.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
The factors affecting this sector are similar to those discussed under
the bleached pulp and containerboard sectors.
31
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8. Construction Paper and Paperboard
a. Product Description
The construction paper and paperboard product sector consists of a
number of fibrous materials that are primarily used in the building industry.
For the purposes of this discussion, the group is divided into three
categories - construction paper, gypsum linerboard, and hardwood/insulation
board.
Construction paper includes sheathing paper, felts (roofing, floor
covering, automotive, sound deadening, industrial, pipe covering,
refrigerator, etc.), asbestos and asbestos-filled paper, and
flexible wood-fiber insulation. Except for asbestos paper, these
materials are usually made entirely of waste paper. Almost all
forms of construction paper are intermediate products that are
further converted before use.
Gypsum linerboard, another intermediate product, is the facing
material on gypsum wallboard. It is made entirely from waste paper.
Gypsum wallboard is used chiefly for interior walls and as a base
for plaster.
Hardboard and insulation board are quite dissimilar to the other
products in this sector^BoTh use a defibrated wood pulp that is
formed into mats or pressed to a Pre-determined density. Insulation
board (low density) is used for sheathing and similar applications;
hardboard (medium to high density) is used in paneling and cabinet
backing.
b. Factors Affecting Energy Use and Pollution Control
In the construction paper and paperboard sector, the paper mills generally
operate with a nearly closed water system. Although the pollution loads are
high in BOD, suspended solids, and the like, the volume is lower than in the
rest of the paper industry. Depending on product mix, there does seem to be
opportunity to recycle all the water used.
Once again, the energy consumed in drying the product is the most signifi-
cant use; little change is expected in this area.
D. PROCESS/PRODUCT RELATIONSHIPS
Because the energy and pollution considerations for each alternative
pulp and paper manufacturing process are different, an understanding of the
process-to-product transformation is essential. Table III-6 summarizes the
key characteristics of the alternative pulping processes and the products
produced by each. The production figures reveal the dominant role of the
kraft pulping process in relationship to the total industry production.
Clearly, any significant change in kraft pulping technology would affect the
characteristics of the industry. The soda pulping process, on the other
hand, constitutes a minor segment of the industry's production; changes in this
32
-------
TABLE III-6
COMMERCIAL PROCESSES FOR PULPING WOOD
Pulp
Classification
Chemical
Semichemical
Dissolving8
Name
of
Process
Sulfite
Kraft
Soda
Neutral
sulfite,
bisulfite,
acid sul-
fite,
kraft
Process
Description
Woodchips reduced under steam
pressure to pulp with an acid
chemical (calcium, magnesium,
sodium, or ammonium bisulfite
plus sulfurous acid)
Woodchips reduced under steam
pressure to pulp with alkaline
chemicals (sodium hydroxide and
sodium sulf ide) .
Woodchips reduced under steam
pressure to pulp with an alkaline
chemical (caustic soda) .
Woodchips, partially softened under
steam pressure with chemicals, are
reduced to pulp by mechanical
action.
Woodchips reduced under steam
pressure to pulp with acid or
alkaline chemicals
Woods
Used
Softwoods:
Spruce
Balsam
Hemlock
Southern pine
Hardwoods :
Eastern and
Lake States
Softwoods
Hardwoods
Mostly Hardwoods:
Aspen
Cottonwood
Basswood
Beech
Birch
Maple
Tupelo (gum)
Oak
Hardwoods :
Same as for soda
pulp
Red Alder
Often pulped in
mixtures
Softwoods:
Small amounts of
Douglas fir,
Ponderosa pine
and sugar pine
Softwoods:
Spruce
Hemlock
Southern Pine
Yieldaof
Pulp by
Weight ,
bl/unbl
(Z)
44/49
44/49
42/49
44/49
40/48
-/60-80
60/80
30-35
Strength
of
u
Pulp
Softwoods ,
medium high
Hardwoods ,
medium low
Softwoods
high to
very high,
hardwoods
medium to
medium
high
Medium to
medium low
Medium to
medium low
Low
How Pulp
is
Used
Usually mixed
with other pulps.
When purified,
used for
cellulose
products .
Higher yield pulp
used for con-
tainer board.
Lower yield pulp
used for numer-
ous grades of
paper. Often
mixed with
other pulps.
Often mixed with
sulfite and
other pulps
Alone in corru-
gating and some
other boards.
Bleached pulps
mixed with
softwood pulps
for other
products.
Pre-hydrolysis
sulfate pulp used
for rayon
Final
Product
Book and magazine
Wrapping
Bond
Tissue
Newsprint
Glassine
Writing
Cellulose deriva-
tives
Strong wrapping
and bag paper
Container board
Book
Newsprint
Highest grade mag-
azine and
other printing
papers
Bond
Writing
Book and magazine
Lithograph
Other printing
Envelope
Blotting paper
Corrugating board
Food and other
specialty boards
Glassine
Magazine
Newsprint
Insulating and
sheathing
board
Rayon
U.S.
Production
a c
1973 '
(000 tons)
2,300d
32,443d'e
136
3,868
1,672
Minimum
mill
capacity
(tpd)
400
Bleach-
able
grade,
600
Kraft
grade,
400
-
300
600
Cost of
Pulpmill3
($000/tpd)
150-180
100-180
-
80-100
200
Number
of pulp-
mills2
in U.S.
1973
28
114
3
40
10
OJ
LO
-------
TABLE III-6
COMMERCIAL PROCESSES FOR PULPING WOOD (Cont.)
Pulp
Classification
Chemimechanical
Mechanical
Name
Process
Mason
(exploded)
(defiber-
ated)
Cold soda
Hot Sulfite
Hroundwood
Process
Description
Woodchips treated with steam or
hot water at high temperatures
followed by mechanical
f iberization.
Woodchips given mild treatments
with sodium hydroxide solutions
and then mechanically fiberized
to pulp
Woodchips given mild treatments
with sodium sulfite solutions
and then mechanically fiberized
to pulp.
Wood bolts reduced to pulp by
pressing on a revolving grind-
stone, or chips mechanically
fiberized to pulp.
Woods
Used
Softwoods and
hardwoods
Hardwoods :
Birch
Maple
Beech
Oak
Sweetgum
Aspen
Often pulped in
mixtures
Softwoods :
Balsam Fir
Hemlock
Spruce
Hardwoods :
Birch
Aspen
and others
Softwoods:
Spruce
Balsam
Pine
Hemlock
Hardwoods :
Aspen
Cottonwood
Yield3
of Pulp
by
Weight,
bl/unbl
-/80-95
80/95
80/95
93/93
93/93
Strength
of
Pulp
Low to
very low
Medium low
to low
Medium to
medium low
Low
Low
How Pulp
is
Used
Coarse pulps com-
posed of a mix-
fibers and fiber
bundles used
alone and mixed
with wastepaper
and other pulps
Often mixed with
other pulps
Mixed with ground-
wood and sulfite
pulps
Usually mixed
with
chemical pulp
Final
Product
Hardboard
Insulating board
linoleum felts
Corrugating board
Boxboard and
molded products
Book paper and
newsprint
Book paper
Newsprint
fogazine-book
Catalog
Tissues
Toweling
Carton board
Container board
Building board
Insulating board
U.S.
Production
1973 3'C
(000 tons)
2,930
100
70
4,813
Minimum
mill
capaci ty
(tpd)
50
~
50
100
Cost of
Pulpmilla
($000/tpd)
60-80
-
60-80
50-80
Number
of pulp-
mills
in U.S.
1473
61
3
4
65
ADL estimates
A very general rating based on the full range of pulp strengths. Good strength in a pulp
is desirable though not necessarily essential to its usefulness. Between two pulps
otherwise comparable, the one with the better strength would he preferred.
CExcept for Kraft and sulfite, nearly every kind of pulpmill must be integrated with
a paper or board mill, with excess production being offered for sale. Purified pulp-
mills and some large kraft mills produce pulp for market only. One or two small ground-
wood pulpmills produce market pulp only, but sales are limited to the local area.
Does not include rayon and cellulose derivative grades.
Does not include kraft semichemical.
Recovery of spent sodium sulfite liquors now under commercial development. Minimum
size of these new recovery plants not known; probably not less than 100 tpd of pulp.
If semichemical pulp plants are integrated with kraft mills, their spent liquors
can be processed in the kraft chemical recovery plant. Probably no limitation on
the si?,e of a kraft semichemical pulp plant if so integrated. A neutral sulfite
semichemical pulp plant would be limited to a size equivalent to about 1/3 the
liquor recovery capacity of the kraft mill. In either case, the integrated recovery
system must have sufficient capacity to process the combined spent liquors from
both plants.
Source: "Commercial Processes for Pulping Wood," Forest Products Laboratory, Forest Service,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1966, updated by Arthur D. Little, Inc.
-------
process would have a minimal effect upon the overall industry structure.
Energy and pollution considerations in the major industry sectors are
discussed in Section IV.
Table III-7 indicates in a quantitative manner (expressed as a per-
centage of the total industry production) the role of each pulping process in
the industry's production. The dominant role of the kraft pulping process in
each of the product sectors is again emphasized. The table also shows that
there are alternative processes for making products in all the sectors.
These two tables give an indication of both the variety of technology which is
standard in the pulp and paper industry, and the considerable overlap between
product lines and different types of technology.
E. ENERGY USAGE BY PROCESS/PRODUCT CATEGORY
In this discussion of energy usage, we consider pulping and papermaking
separately. The reason is that the alternative pulping processes that can be
used to make a given product may differ considerably from an energy standpoint
but the papermaking processes do not. For example, the energy needed to pulp
virgin fiber is much more than that needed to pulp secondary fiber (deinking),
but the energy consumption in the papermaking operation is about the same
regardless of which kind of pulp is used.
1. Pulping
The energy used in each of the major pulping processes is shown in
Table III-8. As significant as the unit energy requirements is the total
annual usage, which is a function of the amount of product made by each
process.
Note also that some of the processes have greater potential than others
for obtaining part of their energy requirements from residue fuel, i.e., by
burning bark and "spent liquor." The heat obtained from the combustion of
these oncediscarded byproducts is called "recovered energy" and reduces
the amount of energy that must be purchased. Thus, while the total unit
energy requirement for kraft pulp manufacture is significantly greater than
for either semi-chemical or mechanical pulp, the portion that is purchased per
ton of product is significantly less in the kraft process. However, because
the kraft process is by far the largest sector in the industry in terms of
total production, it is also largest with respect to total annual purchased
energy.
Within the kraft pulping process, the integrated and market pulp segments
of bleached kraft are the largest; other segments, notably unbleached kraft
and dissolving kraft, are comparatively minor.
35
-------
TABLE III-7
PROCESS/PRODUCT RELATIONSHIPS - WOODPULP CONSUMED, BY TYPE, 1973
(Type of pulp consumed divided by U.S. product production)
Pulp Type
Bleached Kraft
Unbleached Kraft
Bleached Sulfite
Unbleached Sulfite
Groundwood
Semi-Chemical
Dissolving
Soda and Other Woodpulp
Wastepaper
Other Fibers
Newsprint & Un
Coated Groundwood
17.5%
>ulp
Small
Small
5.1
66.3
Small
-
Small
11.3
Small
Printing &
Writing Paper
54.6%
2.7
8.9
Small
6.3
3.2
Small
6.2
8.2
Small
Tissue
Paper
40.0%
5.5
20.8
1.5
3.9
2.3
Small
1.6
29.2
1.0
T31 oarlu'd TCoa rd
And Bristols
100.5%
2.3
1.4
Small
Small
Small
-
Small
-
Small
Packat'in-
Unbleached
7.8%
94.6
-
-
Small
Small
-
Small
2.3
_
Papers
Bleached
86.2%
7.7
7.4
1.8
-
Small
Small
Small
Small
Small
Unbleached NSSC
Paperboard Paperboard
5.2% -%
94 . 0 7.0
Small
Small
Small
69.1
-
1.1
2.9 2'j . 5
_
Recycl ed
Paperboard
3.9%
1.7
Small
Small
1.1
Small
Small
Small
107.3
Small
Note: Most columns total over 100%, because it takes more than a ton of pulp to make a ton of paper.
There are two principal reasons for this: (1) some fiber is lost during manufacture, and (2) a
ton of air-dried pulp contains 10% moisture, but a ton of machine-dried paper contains only
5-8% moisture.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates based upon private correspondence with industry contacts
-------
TABLE III-8
ENERGY USAGE FOR SLUSH PULP PRODUCTION, BY MAJOR PULPING PROCESSES
Basis: 1974 Production
Unit Consumption (10 Btu/ton)
T. WOOD PULP
A. Chemical Pulo Kraft
Bleached and Semi-Bleached
Integrated
Market Pulp & Dried Transfers
Dissolving Pulp
Sub-total, Bleached and Semi-Bleached
Unbleached
TOTAL KRAFT PULPING
B. Chemical Pulp - Other
Sulfite
Integrated
Market Pulp & Dried Transfers
Dissolving Pulp
Sub-Total, Sulfite
Semi-Chemical
TOTAL OTHER CHEMICAL PULPING
C. Mechanical Pulp
Groundwood (Bleached & Unbleached)
Def ibrated/Exploded & Other
TOTAL MECHANICAL PULP
II. WASTE PAPER
A. De-inking
B. Non-deinking
Old Corrugated Containers
News, Mixed, Pulp Substitute
TOTAL WASTE PAPER
TOTAL ALL WOOD PULP i WASTE PAPER
Production
000 tons/yr)
10,800
4,700
800
16,300
16,980
33,280
1,610
700
970
3,280
3,790
7,070
4,490
3,380
7,870
2,200
5,700
6,300
14,200
62,420
Total
Unit
Energy3
27.0
27.0
32.0
27.0
18.0
23.0
21.0
21.0
28.0
23.0
15.0
19.0
15.0
4.0
10.3
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.6
16.3
Recovered
Energy^
15.0
15.0
17.0
15.0
14.0
15.0
10. 0C
10. Oc
17.0
12.0
1.0
6.0
1.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8.5
Purchased
Energy
12.0
12.0
15.0
12.0
4.0
8.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
11.0
14.0
13.0
14.0
4.0
8.6
4.0
4.0
3.0
3.6
7.8
Annual Total (10 Btu)
Total
292
127
26
445
306
751
34
15
27
76
57
133
67
14
81
9
23
19
51
1,016
Recovered
162
71
14
247
238
485
16
7
16
39
4
43
4
0
4
0
0
0
0
532
Purchased
130
56
12
198
68
266
18
8
11
37
53
90
63
14
77
9
23
19
51
484
NOTES:
HTotal unit energy based on estimated existing industry average 10% higher than new mill requirements.
The purchased fuel equivalent of steam and power generated from spent pulping liquors, bark, and hogged wood.
Recovery efficiency for existing industry average estimated at 90% of new mill efficiency.
CRecovered energy for Sulfite mills based on heat recovery for 75% of existing paper-guide capacity and 100% of
existing dissolving capacity.
dNo drying included. Dried transfers refer to intra-company pulp shipments of market pulp.
Source: 1974 production, "Statistics of Paper and Paperboard,", American
Paper Institute,1975; energy consumption, ADL calculations (see
Section V and Apoendix C for supporting energy balances)
37
-------
Sulfite chemical pulping is the second largest user of energy. However,
no new installations using sulfite pulping processes are now being made or
contemplated. Moreover, related work that we have done for EPA* indicates
that some of the existing sulfite mills will close for various market,
technological, or economic reasons. Accordingly, we have not selected any
of the process changes in sulfite pulping manufacture for detailed analysis;
rather, we have concentrated upon the more significant and faster growing
segments of the industry - the kraft and mechanical pulp sectors.
Figure III-l is a graphical representation of the energy usage estimates
in Table III-8 to facilitate comparison of the pulping processes.
2. Papermaking
Table III-9 shows the energy used in converting the intermediate product
pulp, regardless of type, into paper and paperboard products. Note that the
energy required to convert any of the various kinds of pulp into a specific
grade of paper or paperboard does not vary significantly on a unit basis.
3. Total Energy Requirement
Table 111-10 lists total energy requirements for both pulping and paper-
making operations. It combines the process/product relationships previously
listed in Table III-7 with the energy usage requirements from Tables III-8
and -9.
Industry reports of total energy usage are compared with ADL estimates,
in Table III-ll. For the sectors included in this analysis,** figures are in
sufficient agreement with the ADL estimates (considering that they apply to
different years) to indicate that the 1974 estimates and the realigned
process/product relationships are not unreasonable. Regional patterns of
fuel use in the paper industry are shown in Table 111-12.
The unit energy intensivities of selected process/product combinations
are shown graphically in Figure III-2. These estimates are based on new
mills. When existing mills were built, less effort was made to conserve
energy: therefore, we estimated the unit energy usage in existing mills to be
10-15% higher. The new-mill basis assumes the average energy utilization
obtainable with current technology, not necessarily the best possible. These
data are intended to provide a fair basis for comparison with new technology.
The most important points to note are the following:
The high purchased-energy requirement of nonintegrated paper
production is due primarily to double-drying (i.e., drying of
market pulp, rewetting, and drying of product).
*U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Economic Analysis of Proposed and
Interim Final Effluent Guidelines for the Bleached Kraft, Groundwood,
Sulfite, Soda, Deinked and Non-Integrated Paper Sectors of the Pulp and
Paper Industry," EPA-230/2-76-045, January 1976.
**Reported estimates of industry energy consumption typically include paper
converting operations, which are not considered here.
38
-------
14 _
12
c
o
CD
O
LU
R
3 0
0.
^
C
Z)
- 150 £V
210
180-3-
CD
CM
_
CD
c
LU
o
O)
- 120S
90 -
to
+-*
O
- 60
- 30
Legend:
LU
Bleached
Kraft
Papergrade
Unbleached
Kraft
Bleached
Sulfite
Papergrade
Groundwood
Wastepaper
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates.
Figure III-l. Unit and Total Annual Purchased Energy for Slush Pulp
Production for Selected Pulping Processes
-------
o
TABLE III-9
ENERGY USAGE FOR FORMING AND DRYING, BY MAJOR PRODUCT GRADE
Newsprint & Uncoated Groundwood
Printing and Writing
Packaging & Industrial Converting
Tissue and Toweling
Linerboard
Corrugating Medium
SBS Board
Recycled Boxboard
Construction Paper and Board
All other Paperboard
TOTAL PAPER AND BOARD
Dissolving Pulp
Market Pulp and Transfers
Nonintegrated and Waste Paper,
various products
TOTAL PAPER, BOARD, AND MACHINE
DRIED PULP
TOTAL PURCHASED ENERGY FOR SLUSH
PULP, PAPER, BOARD AND MACHINE
DRIED PULP
1974
Production
(000 tpy)
4,800
12,000
5,940
3,900
13,200
5,260
3,660
5,540
5,130
1,060
60,490
1,770
5,400
8,400
67,660
67,660
Unit Consumption, (10 Btu/ton)
Steam &
Extracted
Power
12.0
14.0
15.0
11.0
13.0
12.0
14.0
14.0
10.0
12.0
12.8
8.0
8.0
Incl.
above
12.3
18.0
Purchased
Power
0.7
0
0
1.5
0.5
1.0
0
4.0
4.0
4.0
1.3
0
0
4.0
1.9
3.4
Total
Unit
Energy
12.7
14.0
15.0
12.5
13.5
13.0
14.0
18.0
14.0
16.0
14.1
8.0
8.0
4.0
14.2
21.4
Annual Total (30 Btu)
Steam &
Extracted
Power
58
168
89
43
172
63
51
78
51
13
786
14
43
-
843
1,209
Purchased
Power
3
-
-
6
7
5
-
22
21
4
68
-
-
34
102
220
Total
Energy
61
168
89
49
179
68
51
100
72
17
854
14
43
34
945
1,429
Source: 1974 Production, "Statistics of Paper and Paperboard," American Paper Institute, 1975;
other data derived from energy and material balances in Section IV and Appendix C.
-------
TABLE 111-10
TOTAL ENERGY USAGE, BY MAJOR PROCESS AND PRODUCT GRADE
Product Grade and Pulping Process
1. Newsprint and Uncoated Groundwood
(80% Groundwood)
Integrated to Kraft & Groundwood
Integrated to Sulfite & Groundwood
Integrated to Groundwood only
Waste Paper
TOTAL
2. Printing & Writing Papers
Integrated to Kraft
Integrated to Sulfite
Integrated to Groundwood (65% Gwd)
Waste Paper
Nonintegrated (market pulp)
TOTAL
3. Packaging, Converting & Special
Integrated to Bleached Kraft
Integrated to Unbleached Kraft
Waste Paper
Nonintegrated
TOTAL
4. Tissue and Toweling
Integrated to Bleached Kraft
Integrated to Sulfite
Waste Paper
Nonintegrated (market pulp)
TOTAL
5. Linerboard
Integrated to Unbleached Kraft
Waste Paper
TOTAL
1974
Production
000 tons)
2,700
600
1,000
500
4,800
5,500
1,000
1,100
1,200
3,200
12,000
300
4,200
500
900
5,900
800
500
900
1,700
3,900
12,800
400
13,200
Energy Usage, (106Btu/t on) Annual Total, (10 Btu)
Slush Pulp
Recov'd. Purch.
3.6
2.8
3.6
3.3
15.0
10.0
6.0
15.0
12.7
15.0
14.0
15.0
13.2
15.0
10.0
15.0
11.0
14.0
13.6
13.6
13.6
13.6
4.5
12.0
11.0
13.3
4.5
12.0
12.0
4.0
4.0
12.0
12.0
11.0
4.5
12.0
4.0
4.5
Drying
(incl.
Mkt. Pulp)
Purch.
12.7
12.7
18.3
16.7
14.0
14.0
19.5
18.0
26.0
15.0
15.0
19.0
27.0
12.5
12.5
16.5
24.5
13.5
17.5
Total
Purch.
26.2
26.3
31.9
21.2
27.1
26.0
25.0
32.8
22.5
38.0
29.4
27.0
19.0
23.0
39.0
23.4
24.5
23.5
21.0
36.5
29.0
17.5
22.0
17.7
Recovered
10
2
4
16
83
10
7
48
148
5
59
14
78
12
5
26
43
179
179
Purchased
71
16
32
11
130
143
25
36
27
122
353
8
80
12
35
135
20
12
19
62
113
224
9
233
Total
81
18
36
11
146
226
35
43
27
170
501
13
139
12
49
213
32
17
19
88
156
403
9
412
-------
TOTAL 111-10
TOTAL ENERGY USAGE, BY MAJOR PROCESS AND PRODUCT GRADE (Cont.)
12
Energy Usage, (10 Ecu/ton)
1974
Production
Product Grade and Pulping Process (00° tOTls^>
|
6. Corrugating Medium
Semi-chemical 3,800
Wastepaper 1,500
i
TOTAL 5 , 300
7. SBS Board
Integrated to Bleached Kraft 3,700
8. Recycled Boxboard :
Wastepaper 5,500 ;
9. Construction Paper & Board i
65% Defibrated, 35% Wastepaper 5,100
10. Other Combination Board
(Groundwood, Market Pulp, Wastepaper) 1,100
11. Dissolving Pulp 1,800
GRAND TOTAL 62,300
Slush P
Recov' d
1.0
-
0.8
15.0
-
-
4.4
17.0
9.0
ulp
Purch.
14.0
4.0
12.0
4.0
4.0
9.0
12.8
Drying
(incl.
Met. Pulp)
Purch.
13.0
17.0
14.0
18.0
14.0
18.0
8.0
Total
Purch.
27.0
21.0
25.5
26.0
22.0
18.0
27.0
20.8
23.5
Annual Total, (10 Btu)
Recovered
4
4
56
-
-
5
31
560
Purchased
103
32
135
96
121
92
30
37
1,475
Total
107
32
139
152
121
92
35
68
2,035
Source: Tables III-7, 8, and 9
-------
TABLE III-ll
COMPARISON OF ADL ENERGY USAGE ESTIMATES WITH API REPORTED DATA
(1012 Btu/year)
Source of Energy
Recovered Energy
Spent Liquor
Bark and Hogged Wood
Purchased Power0
Purchased Fuel
Sub-Total, Purchased
Power and Fuel
Total Energy Consumption
1972
Reported
707
148
104
1,195
1,299
2,154
API
Adjusted
482
148
305
1,195
1,500
2,148
ADL, 1974
532
220
1,209
1,429
1,961
a"Patterns of Fuel and Energy Consumption in the U.S. Pulp and Paper
Industry," American Paper Institute, March 1974.
Reported figure was apparently based on assumption that entire heat
content of spent liquor solids was recovered. Adjusted figure assumes 75%
recovery, less another 10% to reflect the lower efficiency of existing
mills.
CReported figure was the theoretical Btu equivalent of kWh of purchased
power (3412 Btu/kWh). Adjusted figure reflects approximately 30%
conversion of heat input to delivered power (10,000 Btu/kWh).
43
-------
TABLE II1-12
REGIONAL PATTERNS OF FUEL USE IN THE U.S. PAPER INDUSTRY
(Basis: 1972 data by percent)
1972 Year End
Capacity
Region
N.E./Mid Atlantic
South
North
Mtn.
Central
Pacific /Alaska
Natural
Gas
5
20
33
22
.5
.6
.8
.9
Oil
56.
20.
8.
13.
1
2
8
3
Coal
13.6
6.9
40.7
0
Purch.
Elect.
7.3
2.8
6.1
9.8
Process
Wastes
14.6
47.9
9.6
40.6
Other
Fuels
2.9
1.6
1.0
13.4
Paper &
Board
18.4
48.6
18.9
14.1
Pulp
8.7
63.9
8.9
18.5
TOTAL U.S.
20.9
22.0
11.1
37.1
3.5
100.0
100.0
Source: American Paper Institute, Patterns of Fuel and Energy Consumption, March 1974
-------
Legend:
50
40
30
en 20
10
i <
o
§
Recovered Energy
Purchased Energy
Newsprint & Uncoated
Groundwood
Printing & Writing
Papers
Folding
Boxboard
Linerboard
(Unbleached)
Figure III-2.
Energy Intensivity for Selected Pulp and Paper Process/Product
Combinations (New Mill Basis)
Newsprint has a high purchased-energy requirement, even when
fully integrated to both kraft and groundwood pulps.*
Bleached kraft products require high total energy and relatively
high purchased energy.
Waste paper products require less total energy than any virgin
fiber product, and the only products requiring less purchased
energy are those integrated to unbleached kraft pulp.**
*For the groundwood portion of the fiber furnish used in newsprint, little
or no steam is used, so no extraction power is available.
**See also E.L. Graminski, "Problems and Potentials in Paper Recycling,"
ASTM Special Publication 592, 1975, pp. 132-139-
45
-------
NOTES TO TABLES III-8, -9, and -10
1. Fuel equivalent of process steam at 1,300 Btu/lb.
2. Fuel equivalent of extracted power at 4,000 Btu/kWh (conversion
efficiency of back-pressure turbine).
3. Fuel equivalent of purchased power at 10,000 Btu/kWh (conversion
efficiency of condensing turbine).
4. Purchased energy includes fossil fuel for process steam and
extraction power, as well as purchased electric power.
5. Recovered energy from spent pulping liquors is based on an average
of 12,000 pounds of process steam available per ton of slush pulp
(air-dry equivalent at 48% unbleached yield, 42% overall yield)
at maximum recovery boiler heat efficiency of 75%. In actual
practice, a smaller quantity of higher energy steam could be
generated for both extraction power and process steam. However,
total fuel equivalent would be the same at 16 million Btu per air-
dry ton of pulp.
6. Recovered energy is adjusted for average unbleached pulp yield in
the various processes.
46
-------
IV. PRELIMINARY EVALUATION OF PROCESS TECHNOLOGY
This section presents a preliminary evaluation of current and alternative
process technologies used in the pulp and paper industry. A variety of manu-
facturing techniques are used to make dissimilar products, and alternative
techniques are used to make similar products, each with the same basic unit
operations; therefore, to avoid repetition, the discussion is organized by
major unit operation. Each major process step is described with particular
emphasis on its energy and pollution characteristics. The status and
technical/economic implications of each technique are also discussed.
This analysis was carried out qualitatively to facilitate coverage of
the maximum number of alternatives. The results of the analysis formed the
basis for selecting the candidate options for detailed technical/economic
evaluation in Section V.
Some of the process changes discussed in this section could have a signi-
ficant effect on energy conservation and the environment. Within the frame-
work of this analysis, however, only a few of these changes could be studied
in depth; therefore, the latter were chosen with an eye toward those which
are likely to be of significant commercial importance within the next 10 years.
Other developments are discussed here to call attention to important experi-
mental work that EPA, ERDA, and other government agencies may wish to support
or watch closely.
A. IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR UNIT OPERATIONS
Table IV-1 illustrates the major unit operations in the various pulp and
paper manufacturing processes. Each major unit operation includes a variety
of methods by which to carry out the intended function; the alternative
methods use either basically different techniques or different equipment to
implement the same technique. Depending upon the type of raw material, the
selected process, and the requirements of the product, some of these process
steps may be eliminated. The discussion of the process options and the status
of the new technology is organized according to the arrangement shown in
Table IV-1.
The diagram also shows the energy usage and pollution characteristics of
each process step. Obviously, this ranking of energy usage and contribution
to pollution is qualitative and varies significantly from one technique to
another. Nevertheless, the diagram puts into proper perspective the relative
importance of the operations to these two variables.
47
-------
TABLE IV-1
MAJOR UNIT OPERATIONS IN PAPER AND PAPERBOARD MANUFACTURE
oo
PREPARATION
Barking
Chipping
ENERGY
USAGE
Low
PULPING
Chemical
Chemi-Mech.
Mechanical
Deinking
Non-de-
inking
High
HEAT &
CHEMICAL
RECOVERY
(for chemical
& chemi-mech
only)
High
WASHING &
BLEACHING
(BLEACHING STOCK
OPTIONAL) PREPARATION
High
Moderate
PAPER & BOARD
MANUFACTURE
Sheet formation,
mechanical water
removal, and drying
High (in drying)
POLLUTION
Moderate
High
High
High
Low
Moderate
-------
B. SUMMARY OF PRELIMINARY EVALUATION
Table IV-2 lists the process changes and changes in industrial practices
discussed in this section. The energy and pollution impact of each change
are indicated by the letters H, M, and L. Obviously, this ranking is only
qualitative and is influenced by our general knowledge of the industry; never-
theless, it suggests the potential importance of each change with respect to
its energy and pollution aspects.
Note, also, that the information is organized on the basis of the current
state of development of the changes. Because it takes about three years to
evaluate, design, and build a new facility, a process must be presently
demonstrated to be commercially viable if it is to make a significant impact
upon the industry within that time period. Isolated commercial installations
with one or two processes in the start-up stage are three to eight years away
from having any significant impact. Developments in the pilot or laboratory
stage are more than eight years from broad commercial application.
Accordingly, on the basis of the two major criteria established to select
candidate processes for detailed analysis (i.e., to have a significant impact
upon energy/pollution characteristics either beneficial or detrimental
and to have the potential for an impact within the near-term future), we
selected the following process options for consideration:
Alkaline-oxygen pulping
Rapson effluent-free kraft process
Deinking of waste news as a substitute for mechanical pulping
Thermo-mechanical pulping (TMP)
Air drying and vapor recompression
Displacement washing
Oxygen bleaching
Vapor-phase, high-consistency bleaching
Solvent deinking
O Coated unbleached kraft board as a substitute for SBS and recycled
board
All-kraft newsprint
Dry forming of selected paper and paperboard products
49
-------
TABLE IV-2
PRELIMINARY RANKING OF PROCESS CHANGES OR CHANGES IN INDUSTRIAL PRACTICE*
On
O
ProceatSttp
Status:
Laboratory
Pilot Flint
Commarcial
(Isolated Imtatlatiora)
Commercial
(Possible Greater
Applications!
Wood Preparation
Pipe Line Chip L/M
Transportation H/M
Steam impreg.
Bark Removal
L/L
1 . Whole Tree
Chipping
H/L
2. Dry Debarking
L/H
Pulping end Recovery
1. Alcohol Pulping L/H
2. Amine Pulping L/H
3. Hydrotropic Pulping L/H
4. Ketone Pulping L/H
5. DioxanePulping L/H
6. Biological L/H
7. Hydrogenation L/H
8. Paraceiic Acid L/H
1. 8iol-TMPH/H
2. Biol-O2 H/H
4. Alk9line/O2 L/H
5. Nitric Acid L/H
6. Hydrosulfide/SO3
L/L
7. Pyrolysis Kraft
Liquid L/H
1. Polysulfide L/L
2. S-Free Semi-
Chem L/H
3. Green Liquid L/L
4. FluidizedBed
Recovery L/H
5. Rapson- Closed
System H/H
1. TMPL-H/M
2. Bisulfite H/M
3. Solvent Deinking/
Cleaning H/H
Wwhingend Cleaning
1. Displacement
Washing/Bleaching
H/H
01 oa chlnu
1. Electrolytic H/H
2. Ozone Bleaching of
Groundwood H/H
3. Ozone Bleaching of
Hardwood Kraft
H/H
1. Vapor Phase Bleaching
at High Consistency
1. Oxygen Bleaching
end Racovery of
0-2 H/H
Stock Preparation
1. Chemical Beating
M/L
Sheet Formation
1. Dry Forming
H/H
Mechanical Water Remove!
1 . High Intensity Pressing
H/L
Drying
1. Thru- Drying
H/L
including: Twin Wire Former; Gas Turbine Drive;
Through Drying; Vapor Recompression
1. RAD-FOAM
H/L
2. High Density
H/L
1. Twin Wire M/L
2. Conver. Flovfl
H/H
1. Vac-Drying H/L
3. Fluidized Bed
H/L
1. FlBJh Drying
H/L
2. Thru-Drying
H/L
3. Air Drying
H/L
Industrial Practice
1. All Kraft Newsprint
H/H
2. Coated Unbleached
Kraft Board H/H
3. Lower Bright.
Pulp H/H
4. Increase Usage S/F
for:
Newspr int
Container board
H/H
Ranking of Potential Impact upon Energy/upon Pollmton: H ~ Hiflh
M - Medium
L - Low
-------
Following a review of the candidate options by the EPA Project Officer
and EPA technical advisers, ADL agreed to make an in-depth analysis of the
first four listed options. The analysis is presented in Section V.
Improvements in drying techniques could have a significant beneficial
effect on energy usage, and developments in this area were initially con-
sidered for in-depth analysis. However, they were subsequently omitted
because any significant commercial impact from such improvements would not
be realized within the near-term future.
C. WOOD PREPARATION
1. Current Practice
Pulpwood may be delivered to the "mill yard" as:
whole logs with or without bark in 4-foot, 8-foot, or tree length,
chips with or without bark, or
manufacturing residue, i.e., sawdust and shavings from a lumber
manufacturing operation.
Frequently, a mill will receive all three forms of pulpwood.
Traditionally, bark was removed from the 4- or 8-foot logs ("sticks") by
tumbling them in a rotating cylinder. Water was applied during this operation
to flush away the loosened bark as the logs were moved to the next operation.
Of course, some bark and wood particles were carried along with the water
effluent and contributed to its BOD and suspended solids load. The bark was
used for landfill, because fuel prices were too low to make heat recovery
from the wet bark economically attractive. On the West Coast the historical
method was to use high-pressure water jets to remove bark; this technique is
seldom used any longer, because the bark carried out to the river is not only
unsightly but also creates a major water pollution problem.
Today, with energy so expensive and landfill areas increasingly difficult
to find, the larger mills have discarded these historical practices. Either
"dry" (waterless) debarking techniques are used or, if water is used, the
excess water is removed by pressing, and the recovered bark is burned for its
heat value. These new practices have eliminated the water erfluent and solid
waste problem associated with barking, but burning does increase air particu-
late emissions. Since the particulate is organic, electrostatic precipitators
are not effective.
An alternative barking technique is to pass each log separately through
mechanical scraping devices. In this case, no water is used.
51
-------
Once the bark is removed, the logs are reduced to "chips", if they
are to be used for chemical, chemi-mechanical, or refiner ground-wood
pulping. If they are to be used for stone groundwood pulping, they are
left whole. (See Section IV-D.)
Wood chips (without bark), sawdust, and shavings do not require further
processing, except washing of the chips, before they enter the pulping
operation. The bark is collected either at the lumber yard or at the wood har-
vesting site. Unless the collection point is close to the pulp mill, however, the
low fuel value of bark does not justify transportation to the pulp mill boilers.
2. New Technology
a. Pipeline Chip ^Transportation
As the name implies, the aim of this technique is to transport chips
from the point of origin typically a sawmill to the point of end use
a pulp mill. Some ten years ago there was considerable interest in this
technique (particularly on the West Coast, where practically all the pulpwood
is derived from sawmill waste) to reduce hauling costs. At that time, there
was also talk of "pipeline pulping." The proposed concept was to add cooking
chemicals to the water that carried the chips through the pipe.
Some pilot experimental work with pipeline chip transport was done on the
West Coast. It was found technically feasible to transport chips in this
manner, but water disposal at the end of the pipeline was a problem. Some
of the organic materials in the wood chips were solubilized or dispersed during
transport, creating a significant BOD and suspended solids load. No further
work is being done on this technique, to our knowledge.*
b. Steam Impregnation and Bark Removal
In the past five to ten years, there has been growing interest in chip-
ping rough wood (i.e., with the bark still on the log) and "whole tree chipping"
(using the entire tree with bark and foliage). In each case, bark appears
along with the wood chips. For a variety of technical and economic reasons,
it is desirable to remove the bark from the wood chips. Steam impregnation
and compression is one of the more promising separation techniques.
Pilot work is in process at Michigan Technological University, at
Houghton, Michigan, under the direction of Professor John Erickson. In this
process, the mixture of chips and bark is impregnated with steam for about
10 minutes and then passed between two rotating steel rolls. The difference
in the compression resistance between the wood chips and the included bark
causes the bark to adhere to the roll surface but leaves the wood chips
^Because pipeline transport does not account for much energy consumption, we
relied on in-house information on this subject.
52
-------
relatively unaffected. The chips fall into a collection bin directly below
the nip opening, while the bark remains on the roll until scraped off into
a separate collection bin.
Apparently, no one is using this technique on a commercial scale, but it
has attracted considerable interest as a more convenient (and economical)
means of bark removal. It should have no adverse effects upon emission control
regulations, because the ultimate aim is still to burn the recovered bark for
its heat value.
There are other techniques for bark separation. In one, the vac-sink
process, the bark/chip mixture is first placed in a vacuum chamber, and the
entrained air is exhausted. When the treated mixture is placed in water,
the bark floats to the surface and the chips sink to the bottom. The two
fractions are then recovered separately. At one time there was considerable
interest in this process, but that interest appears to have diminished. The
vac-sink process is not a major energy user or polluter.
c. Whole-Tree Chipping
In this process, as the name implies, the entire standing tree is har-
vested, and the fibrous portions of the trunk, branches, leaves, and bark are
reduced to raw material for pulping. The objective is to increase the yield
of wood extracted from a harvested area and to use less labor than is required
in more conventional techniques of pulpwood harvesting, transport, and wood
preparation.
A number of firms are using this technique on a commercial basis, but
they do not entirely agree on its technical and economic merit. It is most
successful in harvesting hardwoods that will be used to make unbleached kraft
pulp. Whole-tree chips can also be used in bleached pulp applications, but
here they generally make up only 10-15% of the total pulpwood; the remainder
consists of chips prepared in the more conventional manner.
The bark, leaves, and other debris are extracted along with the spent
liquor in the washing operation and ultimately end up in concentrated black
liquor burned in the recovery boiler. The presence of these additional
organic materials in the black liquor stream necessitates larger process
equipment to produce the same amount of product that would have been obtained
from bark-free chips.
Whole-tree chipping has two characteristics that are of particular
importance to EPA: (a) it recovers more forest residue which can be used to
supplement fossil fuel, and (b) burning more organics in the recovery boiler
may increase the particulate emissions from that source. The latter objection
is partly offset by the fact that less fossil fuel must be burned in the
power boiler.
53
-------
At present, whole-tree chips are used only in a few mills, and then
only as a small portion of the total pulpwood supply. In addition, most of
the whole-tree chip usage has been confined to hardwoods. However, a num-
ber of organizations are studying ways of separating the bark, twigs, leaves,
extraneous dirt, etc. from the good pulpwood. Successful development of an
economic classification process would produce significant changes in methods
of harvesting and transporting pulpwood.
The yield of usable pulpwood per acre would increase considerably with
widespread use of an effective whole-tree chip classification process.
Assuming that classification would be done at the pulp mill, there would
be less wood residue left in the forest, more energy generated via burning of
the reject material in residue burners, and a greater value of particulate
emissions from the residue burners. We do not know of any successful whole-
tree chip classification processes that are in early commercial operation or
even exploratory pilot stages.
d. Summary
Wood preparation uses comparatively little energy and causes little
pollution. Although a number of process techniques are of interest from a
technical/economic point of view, none appears to be significant enough as an
energy saver or source of pollution to warrant close EPA attention.
D. PULPING, BLEACHING, AND RECOVERY
1. Standard Technology
Wood is made up of fibers imbedded in a matrix of lignin. The fibers
are largely a mixture of carbohydrate polymers, and the lignin is similar
chemically to a partially condensed, B-state phenol formaldehyde resin. The
percentage of lignin varies from 15% to 30%, depending upon the wood species.
About 30-40% of the wood is a high-molecular-weight polymer (alpha cellulose);
the remainder is a mixture of polymers of lower molecular weight.
Basically, wood is reduced to pulp in three ways chemical reaction,
which dissolves a portion of the lignin; mechanical, in which the whole wood
is ground up to fibers; and a combination of these two called chemi-mechanical
or semi-chemical. Sulfite was once the most widely used chemical pulping
process, but today the kraft process is by far the most important. In the
mechanical process, logs are held against a grindstone (stone groundwood)
and reduced to fibers, or chips are subjected to attrition in a disc mill to
produce pulp (refined mechanical pulp, or RMP). The most important of the
combined chemical and mechanical processes is the neutral sulfite semi-
chemical (NSSC) process, in which chips are treated for a brief time with a
sodium sulfite solution and then reduced to pulp in a disc refiner. The
NSSC process is used for 80-90% of all the pulp produced in the United States
by chemi-mechanical means.
54
-------
Pulp yields vary from almost the theoretical maximum (97%) in the
mechanical process to 70-80% in the chemi-mechanical process and 35-65% in the
chemical process. In the last case, yield level depends upon the end-use
application for the pulp: it is 53-35% for dissoving pulp, 42-45% for fully
bleached paper-grade pulps, 48-54% for unbleached pulp for linerboard, and
60-64% for the high-yield bisulfite pulp used in newsprint. These "standard"
pulping processes are described in more detail below.
a. Kraft Pulping
In 1974, U.S. production of bleached kraft pulp was 14 million tons,
versus 1.9 million tons produced by the sulfite process, the nearest
competitor. Except for minor evolutionary changes, the process has remained
the same, since the commercial development of bleached kraft in the early
1930's.
In the kraft process, wood chips are heated at elevated temperature and
pressure (340 F top temperature, 150 psi pressure) with a solution of sodium
hydroxide and sodium sulfide. In this cooking step the major portion of the
lignin in the wood and some of the carbohydrate materials are dissolved; the
yield of unbleached pulp (the undissolved material) is around 48%.
The contents of the cooking vessel are then discharged to atmospheric
pressure, and the crude pulp is separated (in countercurrent washers) from
the solution of lignin, carbohydrate materials, and inorganic cooling chemi-
cals. This solution (black liquor) is evaporated to 60-65% solids and then
burned in a smelting-type furnace for recovery of heat and cooking chemicals.
The bottom section of the furnace is operated under reducing conditions to
convert all of the sulfur compound to sulfide. The molten mixture of
inorganic sodium carbonate and sodium sulfide flows into dissolving tanks
to make the so-called green liquor.
The green liquor is then treated with lime (calcium oxide) to convert the
carbonate to hydroxide. The separated calcium carbonate is burned in a kiln,
once again converting it to lime, and the clarified solution (white liquor)
is recycled to the cooking vessel. The make-up chemical, sodium sulfate,
is added with the concentrated black liquor to the furnace; alternatively,
sodium hydroxide (either alone or mixed with sodium sulfate) can be added
directly in the causticizing step, depending upon the desired sulfur balance
in the white liquor.
The unbleached, washed pulp is bleached in a multi-stage sequence. The
objective of this treatment is to remove the residual lignin as well as other
colored impurities in the pulp while maintaining as much as possible of the
pulp yield and pulp strength. A typical sequence (C-E-D-E-D) employs
chlorination, caustic extraction, chlorine dioxide, caustic extraction, and
55
-------
chlorine dioxide, with vacuum washing after each stage.* These five-stage
bleach sequences on softwood give a 90-92% brightness pulp with a yield
of about 41.5%.
As far as possible countercurrent flow is used in the bleach plant to
keep water consumption and effluent to a minimum. Even with the best practice,
however, substantial bleach plant liquid effluent must be treated to remove
both BOD, TSS and color. The concentration of the dissolved solids in the
bleach plant effluent is such that evaporation and burning of the collected
organics are uneconomic, nor can the effluent be used in the pulp mill; the
high chloride content would introduce equipment corrosion and process problems.
Figure IV-1 is a summary material and energy balance for a conventional kraft
pulping process.
Table IV-3 summarizes the energy requirements and pollution loads for
bleached kraft slush pulp production. Note that while the total energy
requirement is about 24 million Btu per ton of slush pulp, almost three-
fourths of this is provided by "recovered energy" - i.e., it is obtained by
burning bark and organic materials recovered in the pulping operation. The
net purchased energy is 7.2 million Btu per ton of product. Note also that
the recovery and bleaching process steps are by far the most significant
energy users and contributors to air and water effluents.
Since slush pulp is simply an interim product, we have "added" a paper
machine to the pulping operation for the manufacture of a finished product.
Although many products can be made from bleached kraft pulp, the energy/
pollution characteristics of the conversion step do not vary greatly from
one product to another.
Table IV-4 summarizes the energy requirement for the manufacture of
bleached kraft paper or board in an integrated pulp and paper mill. Note that
pulping, bleaching, and chemical recovery again stand out as the key energy-
consuming process steps. Note also that papermaking, i.e., paper and board
production, by itself uses half as much energy as the entire pulping opera-
tion. The 36.8 million Btu per ton represents the total energy requirement;
of this, about 17 million Btu is supplied by the combustion of residue fuels,
as was shown in Figure III-2.
As previously indicated in the analysis of slush pulp manufacture, most
of the energy required for its manufacture is obtained from the combustion of
residue fuels. Furthermore, more than 50% of the total purchased energy is
used in the papermaking operation.
*In recent modifications of this traditional bleach sequence, some of the
chlorine dioxide is incorporated in the first chlorination step.
56
-------
38 Ib NaCI
(21 4
n 77 remit SW Thips
»_
66 Ib H SO4 45 Ib CIO2
71 Ib Na CIO.
24
,, 36 1
Wood
60lbCI2
70 Ib NaOH ».
V
I (2233)
°'8° 1 Wood (2143VI4286) (2056) (1800) 1.0 AD ton
SW Round- \ Preparation *" pu|M'n9 * Bleaching
-------
TABLE IV-3
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND POLLUTION LOADS FOR BLEACHED SLUSH PULP
(New mill basis, by process step)
Energy Consumption (10^ Btu/ton)
Fuel (Lime Reburning)
Steam
Power
Total Energy
Recovered Energy
Net Purchased Energy
Water Effluent Loads
Total Flow, (000 gal/ton)
TSS (Ib/ton)
BOD5 (Ib/ton)
Color (lb/ton)a
Air Emission Loads
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
Wood
Preparation
_
-
0.4
0.4
(2.0)
(1.6)
1
8
2
15
0
0
Pulping
_
4.9
0.4
5.3
-
5.3
6
17
23
65
0
9
Bleaching
_
9.1
0.4
9.5
-
9.5
19
14
31
210
0
0
Chem. Recovery,
Liquor Prep. &
Lime
Reburning
1.4
5.8
0.7
7.9
(16.0)
(8.1)
5
27
10
5
200
15
Misc .
and
Auxiliaries
-
0.7
1.2
1.9
-
1.9
_
_
-
-
_
-
Water
Effluent
Treatment
_
-
0.4
0.4
-
0.4
_
-
-
-
_
-
Total
1.4
20.5
3.5
25.4
ns.ni
7.4
31
66
66
300
200
24
Ul
00
As defined in EPA Development Document.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
-------
TABLE IV-4
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR A NEW, INTEGRATED BLEACHED KRAFT PULP MILL
(Pulp Yield = 42% (BD Basis)
Steam
Wood Preparation
Pulping
Bleaching
Chemical Recovery
Liquor Preparation
Water Treatment and Effluent
Disposal
Shops, Stores and Miscellaneous
Lime Reburning
Total Energy Usage for Slush Pulp
Paper or Board Production
Total Energy Usage, Slush Pulp and
Paper or Board
Recovered Heatc :
Spent liquor: 12,000 Ib steam/ADT = 16
Bark and sawdust: 800 Ib steam/ADT = 1
Ib/ADT
0
3,800
7,000
3,800
700
0
500
-
15,800
8,500
24,300
.0 x 10|
.0 x 10
Equivalent
106 Btu/ADTa
4.9
9.1
4.9
0.9
-
0.7
-
20.5
11.0
31.5
Btu
Rtu
kWh/ADT
110
115
95
150
25
70
15
-
580
400
980
Power
Equivalent
106 Btu/ADTb
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.1
0.3
0.1
-
2.3
1.6
3.9
Total
Equivalent
10^ Btu/ADT
0.4
5.3
9.5
5.5
1.0
0.3
0*8
1.4
24.2
12.6
36.8
Process steam estimated at 1100 Btu/lb net (steam heat content less condensate credit)
and 85% boiler efficiency = 1300 Btu fuel/lb steam.
Extracted power estimated at 4000 Btu fuel/kWh
Recovered heat based on steam @ 1300 Btu fuel equivalent/Ib.
boiler heat efficiency of 75%.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
This represents a recovery
-------
Table IV-5 summarizes the energy requirements, water effluent, and air
emissions loading for an integrated bleached kraft pulp and paper mill. It
indicates that the main water and air emissions originate in the same process
steps that are energy-intensive: pulping, recovery, and bleaching. The
amount originating in the paper mill is small in comparison to these sources.
Figure IV-2 shows the above information graphically and emphasizes the
characteristics of the major unit operations from an energy and pollution
viewpoint.
b. Mechanical Pulping
The stone grinding process has changed little in the past hundred years.
A log is held under pressure against a grindstone and reduced to pulp. The
screening rejects are recycled through a disc refiner, so the only yield loss
is the dissolved organic material generally around 3%. The process suffers
from one major limitation chips and other residue such as sawdust and
shavings cannot be used successfully.
The advent of refiner mechanical pulp (RMP) has removed this limitation
from mechanical pulps. Depending upon the wood species, RMP requires 10-20%
more energy than stone groundwoood, but pulp strength is significantly higher.
Yield is about the same in both processes.
Mechanical pulps are bleached with non-delignifying reagents either
reducing chemicals such as sodium hydrosulfite or oxidizing agents such
as peroxides. There is little or no yield loss in the bleaching reaction,
and brightness gains of 8-10 points (from 60% brightness to the low 70's)
are typical of commercial operations.
Chemical dosage is typically about 1% zinc hydrosulfite or 1% hydrogen
peroxide. In recent years some of the hydrosulfite used commercially is
made by reacting sodium borohydride with sulfur dioxide just before it is
added to the groundwood stock.
Total purchased energy requirements for a typical stone groundwood mill
are 13.3 million Btu/ADT and 15.1 million Btu/ADT for a RMP operation. The
water effluent load from a typical stone groundwood mill is 3000 gallons with
a BOD loading of 38 Ib/ADT and TSS of 36 Ib/ADT. The water effluent load
for RMP is the same as for stone groundwood, but the BOD load is somewhat
higher (41 Ib/ADT) and total suspended solids are considerably higher (90 Ib/ADT)
These energy- and pollution-related factors are considered in more detail in
Section V.
c. Chemi-Mechanical Puljjing
In the most widely used chemi-mechanical pulping process, chips
(generally hardwoods) are cooked under pressure with a mildly alkaline solu-
tion of sodium sulfite. The chemically treated chips are then disintegrated
60
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TABLE IV-5
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND POLLUTION LOADS FOR BLEACHED KRAFT PAPER AND BOARD PRODUCTION
(New mill basis)
>, 00 . -H
Energy Consumption
(106 Btu/ton)
Fuel (Lime Returning'
Steam
Power
Total Energy
Recovered Energy
Net Purchased Energy
Water Effluent Loads
c
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0.4
0.4
(1.0)
0.6
Total flow (000 gal/ton) 1
TSS (Ib/ton)
BOD (Ib/ton)
Color (Ib/ton)
Air Emission Loads
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
8
2
15
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60
c
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6
17
23
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27
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PH S
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5
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1.4
31.5
3.9
36.8
(1LJD)
19.8
39
100
78
300
200
24
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
-------
C
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CO
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CT
QJ
EC
TO
o3
Wood
Preparation
Pulping
Bleaching
Chemical
Recovery
and
Liquor
Preparation
Paper or
Board
Misc. and
Auxiliaries
Water and
Effluent
Treatment
Figure IV-2. Energy Requirements and Hydraulic Effluent Loads for Bleached Kraft Paper
and Board Production
-------
in disc refiners to form NSSC pulp, which is particularly suitable for
corrugating medium. This yield is about 75%.
The effluent that is separated from the pulp contains dissolved organies
and cooking chemicals. These are treated in a variety of ways. In some
mills which have adjacent kraft facilities, the recovered liquor is combined
with the black liquor from the kraft system and becomes sodium-sulfur makeup
for the kraft system. Because of the quantity of chemicals in the NSSC system
and the makeup requirements of the kraft system, the allowable ratio of pulp
production generally is four tons of kraft to one ton of NSSC.
Where the kraft system is not available, the recovered solution is
evaporated and burned. In some mills the furnaces are operated to produce
a sodium sulfite/sodium carbonate smelt, which is treated to separate the
sodium-sulfur values, convert the sulfur to sulfur dioxide, and then recombine
it with the sodium to produce a regenerated cooking chemical solution. In
other mills the burning is conducted to separate the sodium-sulfur in the
furnace; an example of this is the SCA-Billerud system, which is being
installed in a new Mead Corporation NSSC mill in Alabama.
Since the NSSC recovery system goes through a sulfide step, in a manner
rather similar to that which occurs in the kraft recovery system, it intro-
duces some air pollution. However, this problem is less severe than with
kraft, because few obnoxious volatile organic sulfur compounds are produced in
the pulping reaction. Moreover, the quantity of dissolved organic and pulping
chemicals consumed is much less.
2. New Process Technology
A number of new processes which are in various stages of development are
reviewed below in terms of the technology, current status, and possible effects
on energy consumption and pollution load. Alkaline-oxygen pulping, thermo-
mechanical pulping, the ERCO-Rapson effluent-free kraft mill system, and
deinking of waste news are not covered here, as these four technologies are
analyzed in detail in Section V.
a. Pulping_and Recovery
(1) Solvent Pulping
Solvent pulping is a misnomer, in the sense that lignin in the natural
state is not readily soluble in any known liquid medium. An appreciable
quantity of lignin cannot be removed by solution unless it is degraded when
the wood is being extracted by the solvent. Thus, most of the organic solvent
pulping processes, such as those based on ethyl alcohol, methyl alcohol,
methyl ethyl ketone, or dioxane, involve the use of acid such as hydrochloric
acid along with the organic solvent to degrade the lignin and make it soluble.
U-s £PA Headquarters Library
19nnD Mail code 3404T
1^00 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
... "',?' "I na f
63 Washington, DC
202-566-0656
-------
Unfortunately, the acid also has an unfavorable effect on cellulose,
decreasing the yield of carbohydrate material; hence, the products of the
alcohol pulping agents are characterized generally by low yield and inferior
pulp strength. In addition, since large quantities of solvent are required
to treat the wood (usually at least six pounds of solvent per pound of pulp),
the efficiency of solvent recovery is critical to the economics of these
processes.
Solvent pulping must be done at temperatures comparable to those used in
kraft pulping, so the digester equipment is no less complicated than in the
kraft process. The high-capital-cost kraft recovery system is replaced with
an equally high-cost system for solvent recovery, lignin recovery, and
disposal. Because of their relatively low yield, low pulp-strength properties,
and high capital costs, the solvent pulping processes are not considered
further in this report.
(2) Amine Pulping
Pulping with amines such as diethanol amine has gained prominence
recently. This solvent pulping process differs from those previously des-
cribed, because the solvent is alkaline. It acts as a lignin degradation
agent as well as a lignin solvent. Superior pulp strength, especially tear
strength, is claimed with amine pulp. Reaction time, temperature, and yield
are similar to those of the conventional kraft process. As with the other
solvent pulping processes described in (1) above, recovery of the amine
solvent in high yields is essential if the process is to be economical.
Although the amine odor is different, it is just as offensive to many people
as the kraft odor, so air pollution is also a problem here. Because of
potential air and water pollution problems, the anticipated high capital
investment per ton of production, and the anticipated solvent recovery
problems, we have not given further consideration to amine pulping.
(3) Hydrotropic Pulping
Another solvent approach - hydrotropic pulping - is periodically
resurrected, re-evaluated, and discarded. This intriguing process, invented
by Professor McKee at Columbia University in the 1940's, is based on the
observation that a concentrated (i.e., 40%) solution of an inorganic salt
such as sodium xylene sulfonate is an effective solvent for organic compounds
and, at elevated temperatures, can dissolve lignin.
The process attracts attention from time to time because of the unique
recovery process. After pulping, the hydrotropic solvent is simply diluted
to a point at which it is no longer an organic solvent; the dissolved lignin
then separates and is collected. The filtrate is reconcentrated to 40%
solids, and the pulping agent is recovered.
In addition to the usual problems encountered with solvent pulping reac-
tions (i.e., necessity for an extremely high degree of solvent recovery for
favorable economics), hydrotropic pulping suffers from the fact that the lignin
-64
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is not dissolved very effectively. Under neutral conditions only minor
amounts of lignin are dissolved, and the cellulose is also attacked if acid
or alkaline conditions are used to accelerate the degradation of lignin into
smaller, soluble fragments. Yield as well1 as pulp properties are degraded.
Accordingly, we doubt that this process will reach commercialization within
the next 5-10 years.
(4) Hydrogenation Pulping
Lignin can be made soluble by treatment with hydrogen over a suitable
hydrogenation catalyst in aqueous solvent at elevated temperatures and pres-
sures. The advantage of this approach to pulping is that the cellulosic
material is obtained in high yield and with little damage. In addition, the
lignin is recovered in low-molecular-weight fragments, which can serve as raw
material for further conversion to commercial chemicals.
Much theoretical attention has been given to hydrogenation pulping over
the years, with occasional attempts at commercialization. The most recent of
these commercial approaches was the work conducted at Pressure Chemical
Company in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In this work, which was sponsored by a
group of forest products companies, a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide
was used; cobalt carbonyl served as they hydrogenation catalyst in the aqueous
solution. With carbon monoxide as a feed gas, the catalyst was retained in
the carbonyl (i.e., soluble) form and so, in theory, was recycled and
recoverable.
A pulp was obtained at high yield and with properties described as super-
ior to those of kraft. However, pressures of 2000-4000 psi were used in the
hydrogenation phase. Because pulping equipment for such high pressures would
require high capital costs, and because the expensive catalyst would probably
be difficult to recover efficiently, the process does not look promising at
this time.
(5) Peracetic Acid Pulping
Peroxygen compounds, such as hydrogen peroxide, sodium peroxide, and
peracetic acid, react with lignin at relatively low temperatures under the
proper conditions. Much of the peroxygen pulping work has been done with
peracetic acid. Publications describe the process as giving a high yield of
pulp with superior physical properties, and the pulping reaction can be con-
ducted at atmospheric pressure. The problem is that peracetic acid is
expensive, so commercial use of the process must await a method for success-
fully recovering the acetic acid and regenerating peracetic acid.
The most recent peracetic work, conducted by the Wood Sciences Department
of Colorado State University, is directed at the regeneration of peracetic acid
from the pulping effluent. In January 1975, after two years of internally
funded work on this project, the University obtained some industry sponsorship
for its continuation.
65
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If the problems of regenerating the peracetic pulping agent can be
solved, such a process offers many desirable features: high yield, high
pulp strength, low air and water pollution, and (because high temperature
and pressure are not used) the promise of low capital cost per ton of
production and smaller economic-sized units.
(6) Biological Pulping Process
It has long been known that certain microorganisms have some degree of
specificity toward lignin, but they have not been used commercially for pulp-
ing because the reactions are too slow and not specific enough to avoid some
attack on the cellulose. Nevertheless, the possibility of using microorgan-
isms to bring about a pulping reaction is attractive from the standpoint of
pollution abatement, high yield, low capital cost, and potential recovery of
valuable byproducts. Therefore, biological pulping is being pursued with
increasing interest at such research institutions as the Forest Products
Laboratory, Swedish and Finnish Cellulose Research Institutes, and the
University of Washington, Department of Forestry.
These programs generally have two objectives. One is to alter the lignin
sufficiently so that in a subsequent pulping reaction it can be removed under
much less severe conditions (i.e., with regard to time, temperature, pH, and
quantity of chemical required). The second objective is to make the lignin
completely soluble so that it can be removed as part of the biological attack
step and without additional pulping reactions. At this time only tentative
laboratory results are available; pilot-plant processes probably will not be
ready for evaluation for several years.
(7) Ammonia Explosion Process (AEP)
Kimberly-Clark has developed and patented a novel fiberizing process,
AEP, in which liquid ammonia and chips are placed in a high-pressure vessel,
the temperature is raised until the pressure reaches about 1000 psi, and the
contents of the pressure vessel are then blown into a cyclone. Ammonia, in
combination with the moisture in the chips, plasticizes the lignin; as a
result, when the contents of the vessel are blown out, the wood chips literally
explode, with almost complete separation of the individual fibers and with
very little fiber damage. The pulp yield approaches the theoretical maximum.
The raw product from the digester might be used as starting material for
a number of pulp products: e.g., high-yield mechanical pulp, a corrugating-
medium-grade pulp (after extraction with caustic) or a fully bleached kraft-
like pulp with a full-scale bleaching operation. However, the reaction
between lignin and ammonia creates a major problem: the pulp is dark, and
it is difficult to bleach because the lignin is highly condensed. Kimberly-
Clark has abandoned its development efforts.
66
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(8) Nitric Acid Pulping
Concentrated nitric acid reacts.rapidly with the lignin in wood at
atmospheric pressures and has been considered as a pulping agent for many
years. Unfortunately, pulp yield is generally similar to, or lower than,
that of kraft pulp and its properties inferior. In addition, as concentrated
nitric acid is highly corrosive, construction materials in the cooking area
of the pulp mill must be corrosion-resistant; this drastically increases
material costs and makes this a high-capital cost system. The anticipated
capital investment per ton of production is no lower than for kraft pulp.
The effluent from such a pulping process would have nitrogen values as
well as dissolved organics, and so might be used as a fertilizer. For this
reason, nitric acid pulping is periodically rediscovered as a process which
not only gives a nonpolluting effluent but has positive values in agriculture.
However, the pulp yield, pulp properties, and capital investment have dis-
couraged commercial investment.
(9) Hydrosulfide/Sulfite Pulping
If wood is cooked with an alkaline mixture of sodium hydrosulfide, carbon-
ate, and sulfite, it is possible to produce linerboard grades of unbleached
pulp with yields 6-10% higher than those obtained by conventional kraft pulp-
ing. The hydrosulfide-sulfite process gives a stronger pulp than conven-
tional kraft at the same lignin content; alternatively, it can produce pulp of
equivalent strength and ease of defibering at a higher yield and higher lignin
content.
The principal motivation for using the hydrosulfide-sulfite process is
the possibility of obtaining the properties of unbleached kraft at a higher
yield. P.E. Shick of Owens-Illinois has compared kraft with the hydrosulfide-
sulfite pulp at a 10% higher yield (i.e., 62% versus 52%); he found that the
conventional kraft refining time was somewhat shorter than that of
hydrosulfide-sulfite, and burst values were almost identical. Ring-crush and
brightness levels were higher for the hydrosulfide-sulfite, but its tear
resistance was lower by about 15%.
Because the hydrosulfide-sulfite cooking process subjects the fiber to
less severe conditions, there is less degradation. The result is satisfactory
burst and ring-crush properties at a higher yield level. Like other high-
yield pulps, however, these have comparatively less fiber per unit weight;
consequently, tear strength suffers. Since burst and crush are the more
significant properties with linerboard products, the higher-yield hydrosulfide-
sulfite pulp should compare favorably with the conventional kraft pulp in
unbleached pulp applications.
The major problem with this process has been the amount of sulfur
required in the pulping reaction. Probably because of pollution problems
arising from the high sulfur content of the pulping liquor, the hydrosulfide-
sulfite process is not (to our knowledge) in commercial use.
67
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(10) Pyrolysis of Kraft Liquors
St. Regis has developed and patented a process for recovering kraft
black liquor by treating the concentrated liquor in the furnace under
pyrolysis conditions. A gaseous stream of volatile organics and inorganic
sulfur compounds is recovered, and the sodium values remain with a carbona-
ceous char. The char is extracted to recover sodium carbonate and then
burned to recover its heat value or treated further to make an activated
carbon. The gas stream is stripped of sulfur compounds and then burned for
additional heat recovery.
The process is undergoing pilot-plant trials at the St. Regis Pensacola
mill. In addition, pilot-plant evaluation of the use of the activated carbon
made from the char in decolorizing pulp mill effluent has been carried out
under an EPA contract.
(11) Hydrogen Sulfide Pretreatment-Kraft Pulping
Pulp yield, at a fixed lignin content, can be increased by treating the
wood with reducing agents prior to an alkaline pulping reaction. The reducing
agents stabilize alkali-sensitive points in the carbohydrates. Without the
reducing action the alkali-sensitive groups are degraded, uncovering other
sensitive groups and leading to the so-called unzippering or peeling reaction
by which carbohydrate material is dissolved. One of the more promising
reducing agents is hydrogen sulfide.
MacMillan Bloedel Ltd. has constructed a continuous pilot plant at the
site of its Harinac mill. According to Hans Worster of MacMillan Bloedel,
pilot-plant work has confirmed published laboratory results about the sub-
stantial yield (up to 15%) with hydrogen sulfide pretreatment. No commercial
plants utilize the process, however, one reason being the problems of handling
and recovering large quantities of a poisonous, flammable, offensive-smelling
gas. We doubt that the process will be widely accepted in commercial
practice.
(12) Polysulfide Pulping
The unzippering or peeling effect can be controlled with oxidizing agents
such as polysulfides, as well as with reducing agents like those used in
hydrogen sulfide pretreatment. A yield increase is observed when polysulfide
is added to the cooking liquor and the excess sulfur is vented to the air.
Recently, Mead Corporation developed a recovery system for the polysulfide
solution and has installed it at its Chillicothe mill. The process is
reported to be operating satisfactorily, and Mead is seeking to license its
recovery process.
Aside from a few installations in Scandinavia, we know of no other com-
mercial examples of polysulfide pulping. One of the weaknesses of the process
appears to be that the black liquor must be processed through a conventional
kraft recovery system before entering the polysulfide recovery unit.
68
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Excessive sulfur losses in the kraft recovery system reduce the effective
sulfide content of the black liquor. We expect that polysulfide pulping
will have only limited commercial applicability.
(13) Sulfur-Free Semi-Chemical Pulping
A disadvantage of the previously-described NSSC pulping and recovery
system is that sulfur is one of the active pulping agents. Two companies,
Westvaco and Owens-Illinois, have announced the development of sulfur-free
semi-chemical systems. Both companies have installed the system in a com-
mercial unit and are seeking licensees for their process. Process details
are considered proprietary, and we have not had an opportunity to evaluate
either system. To our knowledge, there are no commercial installations
beyond those at the mills of the companies developing the process.
(14) Green Liquor Semi-Chemical Pulping
It has recently been discovered that a corrugating-medium grade of pulp
can be produced satisfactorily utilizing kraft green liquor as the cooking
reagent rather than alkaline sodium sulfite. The attractiveness of the
process lies in the availability of an efficient, proven kraft recovery
system or the co-recovery possibilities in conjunction with a kraft mill.
With green liquor cooking of semi-chemical pulp, there are no limitations on
the kraft-semi-chemical pulp ratio in the combined operation. Several
commercial installations use a green liquor kraft system, and we expect an
increasing number of mills to use kraft green liquor for semi-chemical
pulping.
(15) Sonoco Recovery of NSSC Pulping Liquors
Sonoco Products Company in Hartsville, South Carolina, has recently
announced a sulfite recovery system which would be used to treat NSSC liquors.
It utilizes the fact that certain silicate and aluminate salts are strongly
acidic at the temperatures encountered in a recovery furnace and are highly
insoluble in relatively dilute water solutions. Thus, the NSSC pulp digestor
effluent is combined with the silicate-aluminate salt prior to its combus-
tion in the recovery furnace. Sulfur dioxide is recovered directly from the
furnace, and sodium values are recovered when the smelt from the recovery
furnace is dissolved in water and silicate-aluminate compounds precipitate.
These precipitated salts are recovered and recycled.
Sonoco is offering to license the process to interested parties. From
the standpoint of pollution abatement, the advantage of the system lies in
the recovery of sulfur dioxide directly without going through the sulfide
stage. To date the only installation is the one in Hartsville, but Sonoco
is said to be negotiating with several pulp mills.
69
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b. Washing and Bleaching
(1) Displacement Washing
One reason the bleach plant effluent is so difficult to handle from a
pollution point of view is that large quantities of water must be added to the
pulp after each bleaching stage. This water greatly dilutes the dissolved
organics and inorganics. A recent development by Kamyr, a Swedish firm, could
permit the bleach plant operator to use less water and discharge a. consider-
ably more concentrated effluent. In the Kamyr process, the pulp is washed by
displacement rather than by dilution. A number of these displacement washers
are in commercial operation in bleach plants in North America and Europe.
A 150-tpd pilot bleach plant in Finland adds bleach chemicals as well as
water in the diffusion washers. The pilot plant uses a single tower for three
stages of bleaching, including washing between each stage. We understand that
a substantial reduction in water usage, as well as higher concentration of
dissolved solids in the mill effluent, has been achieved. At least one com-
mercial unit based on the three-stage-bleach, single-tower principle is being
constructed in the United States.
(2) Oxygen Bleaching
Oxygen is being used commercially in pulp bleaching as a substitute for
the chlorination and extraction stages of conventional kraft bleaching. The
advantages and results, from the standpoint of pollution, are similar to those
experienced with oxygen pulping. The comparative economics of oxygen and
conventional bleaching are similar. Thus, the major incentive for oxygen
pulping is pollution abatement. Because oxygen pulp strength is sometimes
lower than that of krafts, we expect that commercial use of the process will
be limited unless process changes result in pulp strength improvements.
(3) Replacement of Chlorine with Chlorine Dioxide^ _in_Bleaching
Kraft pulp is conventionally bleached in four to six stages. A typical
sequence would be chlorination followed by alkaline extraction, chlorine
dioxide, alkaline extraction, and chlorine dioxide. The effluents from the
first two stages (chlorination and alkaline extraction) contain substantial
quantities of inorganic and organic chlorine compounds as well as nonchlorin-
ated organics; these two effluent streams constitute a major pollution problem
for the bleached kraft industry.
It has been found that if chlorine dioxide is added along with chlorine
in the first stage, or if dioxide is added in an initial stage, followed by
chlorination, the quantity of chlorine consumed can be reduced. The quantity
of chlorine which can be eliminated is directly related to the quantity of
chlorine dioxide used. (In principle, it is possible to substitute all of the
chlorine with chlorine dioxide, but present economics permit only a partial
substitution.) Chlorine dioxide has a much greater oxidizing power per
70
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chlorine atom than chlorine; also, the mechanism of the chlorine dioxide action
produces a smaller amount of chlorinated organics than does chlorine. Thus,
the effluent from a chlorine dioxide stage is much less offensive than that
from a chlorination stage. There has been a significant trend to replacement
of chlorine with chlorine dioxide, and we expect this to continue.
(4) High-Consistency, Gas-Phase Bleaching
Similar reductions in water consumption and an increase in dissolved
solids concentration in the mill bleach effluent can be achieved with gas-
phase bleaching of high-consistency pulp. This concept has been developed at
Paprican Laboratories in Montreal in cooperation with Impco and Ingersoll-Rand.
The use of an Impco press enables the bleach plant operator to press the pulp to
a solids content of 35-40%. A bleaching chemical such as chlorine is then
applied in the gas phase. After the reaction has taken place, the pulp is
dilution-washed by adding water to bring the pulp slurry to a 10% solids level
and then repressing to 35-40% solids. Weyerhaeuser is operating a single-
stage pilot plant on this principle; the results have not yet been made public.
(5) Ozone Bleaching of Mechanical and Chemical Pulps
The Norwegian Pulp and Paper Institute and others have found that appli-
cation of ozone increases considerably the strength properties of mechanical
pulps as well as their brightness. The treatment is carried out on pulp of
30-50% consistency by contacting the fluffed pulp with gaseous ozone; no other
additives are used. In an alternative approach developed at the Pulp and
Paper Research Institute of Canada, the high-consistency pulp is first treated
with peroxide and then ozone.
Both processes claim to double the tensile strength of mechanical pulps
and significantly increase brightness. The Norwegian workers have applied
ozone to RMP and TMP and obtained tensile strength increases as well as sub-
stantial increases in tear strength. They have also observed a yield loss of
about 2% for every 1% ozone added.
Both the Norwegian and the PPRIC ozone processes are still in the labora-
tory stage. One of the problems in commercializing ozone bleaching has been
difficulties in duplicating some of the PPRIC results; the presence of some
trace metals, such as aluminum, seems to have unexpected and deleterious
effects.
The Norwegians have also experimented with ozone in a kraft bleaching
sequence. When bleaching pulp to 90% brightness, they report the pulp is
weaker than conventional kraft bleached pulp. However, when the pulp was
bleached to 70% brightness, they were able to get equivalent strength
properites.
Scott has published the results of its use of ozone as one of the stages
in a multistage bleaching sequence for kraft hardwood pulps. Pilot-plant
trials were conducted on that process. There are no commercial installations
to our knowledge.
71
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3. Impact on Energy Consumption and Pollution Load
a. Pulping and Recovery
The solvent pulping systems alcohol, dioxane, ketone, amine,
hydrotropic would probably have only a small effect on energy consumption,
assuming that dissolved organic material (chiefly lignin) could be recovered
and burned for heat generation. The air and water pollution load would cer-
tainly be different from that of kraft and would vary with the particular sol-
vent used. In general, there would be less airborne particulate matter and no
sulfur compounds in the air or water. However, large quantities of solvent
are required, and even in the best recovery system some solvent would escape
to the air and to the liquid effluent; the effect on pollution load would have
to be investigated for each proposed process. We have already discussed the
possibility that amine pulping would pose a severe odor problem. Thus, we see
no compelling reason, either from the standpoint of energy or pollution load,
to pursue any of the solvent pulping systems.
Peracetic acid could have a major effect on energy consumption as well
as pollution load. A much higher yield than in the standard kraft process
is possible, so dissolved organics (hence, recovered energy per ton of pulp)
would be substantially lower. This is partially offset by the fact that the
process could be carried out at atmospheric pressure, which would permit some
reduction in process energy requirements. Since no sulfur is used, there
would be no air pollution problem from S0« or TRS, but potential pollution of
the water effluent by peracetic acid would have to be considered carefully.
Finally, the problem of regenerating peracetic acid economically is not yet
solved; a successful regeneration process could have a large effect on energy
and pollution.
Hydrogenation pulping and biological pulping are probably the least
polluting of any of the new processes under consideration. The biological
approach would consume less energy, whereas hydrogenation pulping might be a
much higher energy consumer because of the need to conduct hydrogenation at
extremely high pressures. Both of these processes, however, are still in the
early laboratory stages.
The ammonia explosion process suffers from one major disadvantage the
use of large amounts of ammonia and the potential problem from the chemical in
the pulp mill effluent. This, plus the technical difficulties in further treat-
ment of the exploded pulp, have greatly diminished interest in the process.
The proposed kraft pulping modifications hydrogen sulfide pretreatment,
polysulfide, hydrosulfide/sulfite would have only a minor influence on
energy consumption but could increase sulfur emissions because of the larger
quantities of sulfur used in these processes.
The sulfur-free NSSC pulping systems offer obvious advantages of freedom
from air and water contamination by sulfur compounds, but they should not alter
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energy consumption dramatically. The green liquor in NSSC pulping probably
has little effect on energy consumption or pollution load, assuming that the
NSSC recovery process used for comparison goes through the sulfide stage.
The Sonoco recovery system for sulfite liquors offers promise of reduced
pollution load, because it does not take the sulfur through the reduced
sulfide form. It should have little effect on energy consumption.
b. Washing and Bleaching
We expect that displacement washing will save energy as well as reduce the
effluent load on pollution control facilities. Energy consumed in handling
the pulp (pumping diluted stock, rethickening, etc.) will be considerably
reduced, as will the volume of liquid handled, because there is no need to
dilute the stock between bleach stages.
Oxygen bleaching could have a major impact on pollution load, since the
effluent from the oxygen bleach stage can be recycled into the kraft mill
and the dissolved organics are eventually burned in the recovery furnace.
The net impact on energy consumption, however, is small. Most of the energy
consumed in making the chemicals for either conventional or oxygen bleaching
is for the sodium chlorate used for on-site generation of chlorine dioxide;
substitution of oxygen for chlorine therefore has very little effect on the
overall energy consumed.
Replacement of chlorine with chlorine dioxide has an important effect on
pollution load. The effluent from the chlorine dioxide stage is less trouble-
some in this respect. Not only will there be a lower concentration of chlorin-
ated organics, but the color of the effluent from the succeeding extraction
stage will be lowered. It has been reported that a 50-50 substitution of
chlorine by chlorine dioxide followed by an alkaline extraction stage with
some hypochlorite in it will reduce the color of the second-stage effluent by
as much as 80%.*
Although sodium chlorate, the starting material for chlorine dioxide,
is a high energy consumer, the chlorine dioxide has' a much higher oxidizing
power than chlorine. When these two chemicals are compared on an oxidizing
basis, the power consumption is equivalent; thus, the substitution of chlorine
dioxide for chlorine has little effect on energy consumption in bleaching.
High-consistency vapor-phase bleaching will result in a lower volume of
effluent to be treated, although the BOD loading will be the same as in con-
ventional bleaching. The energy saved in not having to pump large quantities
of water may be balanced by the increased energy consumed in pressing the
pulp to high consistencies.
*J.L. Morrison, "Bleach Modifications to Reduce Pollutants," Weyerhaeuser
Co., Pulp Development Laboratory, Everett, Washington. (Undated)
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Ozone bleaching of groundwood could reduce the pollution load from
mechanical pulping, but the energy requirement would be higher. In either
case, the impact on industry energy consumption and pollution load would be
small.
E. PAPERMAKING
1. Standard Technology
Most pulps must be beaten (i.e., subjected to mechanical action in dilute
water suspension) to develop the desired paper or board properties. In the
beating step the pulp fiber becomes much more flexible as the result of being
plasticized by water of hydration. In addition, the fiber surfaces are
abraded, which enormously increases the available surface area- The degree of
beating varies according to the desired product properties. In sanitary
tissues a low degree of bonding is required, so the pulp fibers are beaten
lightly; with dense, highly bonded products such as glassine, the fibers
must be beaten heavily.
The basic papermaking process has changed little in the past 100 years.
A dilute, aqueous suspension of fibers is poured onto a moving, endless
screen belt, and the free water is drained off with the aid of suction boxes.
Consistencies* of 0.2-0.8% are conventionally used for the dilute slurry,
and the consistency of the web at the end of the wire is 12-14%. Thus, for
every pound of fiber leaving the end of the forming section, about 190 pounds
of water must be removed on the wire and recycled for reuse.
The sheet which comes off the wire at 14% consistency next goes through
a series of presses that remove another 5 pounds of water per pound of fiber,
raising the consistency to 40-45%. The remaining water (about 2-1/3 pounds
per pound of fiber) is removed by running the paper over a series of heated
drum rolls, or in some cases by running the sheet through ovens with high-
velocity hot-air jets Impinging on the surface. Taking into account all water
that is reused within and between processes, the net water usage is about
8-10,000 gallons per ton of paper produced.
Many of the complexities of papermaking are due to the necessity for
handling large quantities of water and then removing it from the fibers. In
addition, the drying is the major energy-consuming step in the pulp and paper
industry. Thus, there is much interest in removing water more efficiently in
the papermaking process and in making paper without the use of water.
Process developments on alternative methods of water removal and drying
were not selected for in-depth analysis in this study, because the experi-
mental xrork (see below) is at such an early stage that new techniques are
unlikely to reach commercial use within the next 5-10 years. Moreover,
we do not believe that any detrimental impact will result from developments in
this area.
*Ratio of fiber to water (by weight).
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2. New Technology
a. Stock Preparation
Because energy consumption can be high in the beating step, and also
because the fibers are severely cut by heavy beating, attempts have been made
to achieve the effects of beating by adding certain chemicals. Some of these,
such as starch or carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), are simply adhesives that
bind the pulp fibers together. Others are true cellulose plasticizing agents
and help to flexibilize the fiber; urea is one chemical that has been
suggested for this purpose.
Unfortunately, neither of the above chemical approaches significantly
increases the fiber surface, which is probably the major benefit of the
beating step. A number of years ago, DuPont developed a polymeric bonding
agent made up of fine particles with a very high surface area. These
"fibrids" were promoted as strength additives for unbeaten pulp. However,
despite successful commercial experience in the bonding of high-value
specialty webs with "fibrids," the materials were withdrawn from the market
by DuPont, apparently because of unfavorable economics.
At present, the use of additives is combined with beating to promote
higher strength levels in certain products. A high-molecular-weight CMC
which swells but does not completely dissolve is used in some cases. In
others, cationic substances (either modified starches or synthetic polymers)
are used. The cationic materials are deposited onto the fiber surfaces,
so chemical economy is achieved with only minor quantities of dissolved
organics appearing in the effluent. However, no economical ways have been
found to obtain the combination of fiber softening and surface area develop-
ment achieved by beating.
b. Forming
(1) Dry Forming
There are a number of potential advantages in using air to replace
water in paper and paperboard formation. In addition to the obvious lack
of water pollution and freedom from the need for process water, these
advantages include much smaller economic-sized units that can (a) locate
in urban areas close to the markets, (b) handle slow-draining fibers, and
(c) have the potential to create unique product properties which are not
obtainable with a wet system. On the other hand, there are certain major
negatives: (a) the problem of attaining sufficient strength and other
physical properties with economic quantities of binder, (b) unsuitability
of slush pulp as a starting material, and (c) difficulties in dispersing,
cleaning, and bleaching secondary fiber.
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ADL conducted a study of dry forming technology in 1970* and has
recently updated this study.-* The findings of the more recent study indi-
cate that there are no ready solutions to the above problems and that the
technique will not be important in production of commodity grades until
these technical difficulties have been removed.
(2) RAD-FOAM Formation
An ingenious new approach to formation of paper at higher consistencies
has been developed by Wiggins Teape Ltd. In the process, the pulp-water
slurry is mixed with a foaming agent to form a thixotropic foam. The result-
ing semi-liquid mass is metered onto a wire subjected to agitation (high
frequency pulses) . The agitation causes the thixotropic foam to break
down and release the water. The sheet is then dewatered and processed in
the conventional fashion while the drained effluent containing the foaming
agent is recycled.
The technique was developed originally to enable the formation of wood
pulp long-fiber mixtures without the fiber entanglement and clotting
usually encountered with such fiber blends. It also gives an unusually
bulky sheet with good formation and with higher headbox consistency than
in the conventional papermaking system.
One paper machine in the U.K. has been converted to the RAD-FOAM
process. The machine is said to be making filter papers, for which bulk
and uniformity are especially desirable. Wiggins Teape is actively seeking
to license its process, but to our knowledge no one in the United States is
utilizing the process commercially.
(3) High-Consistency Former
Headboxes that permit forming at a higher consistency have been
developed recently by the Swedish Cellulose Research Institute of Stockholm
and by Dr. Otto Kallmes-Lodding in the United States. In both instances,
the objective has been to raise headbox consistency into the 2-4% range.
The secret of attaining this consistency is to disperse the fibers well at
the higher consistency prior to jetting the fiber suspension onto the wire,
since there is little or no opportunity to improve uniformity after the
fiber has gone onto the wire. Expected advantages of the high-consistency
approach are substantial reductions in capital equipment (pumps, tanks,
pipes, etc.), much better retention of fines and fillers, and a reduction
in the net consumption of water by the paper machine.
*Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Dry-Forming Processes for the Manufacture of
Paper and Paperboard," Cambridge, Massachusetts, December 1970.
**Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Commercial Status of Dry-Forming Processes,"
Cambridge, Massachusetts, January 1976.
7.6
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The Finnish firm Ahlstrom has been licensed to manufacture and sell
the Swedish Cellulose Research Institute high-consistency headbox. The
company had been operating the headbox on one of its own pulp machines but
was forced to remove it because of the lack of uniformity of the pulp sheet.
The headbox failed, according to Swedish Cellulose Research personnel,
because all of the dimensions had been scaled up to accommodate the heavy-
basis-weight pulp sheet. In the scaling up, the flow path just prior to
the slice had been enlarged excessively. The proper design of the headbox
requires a channel prior to the slice small enough to prevent the refloc-
culation of pulp fibers. Another headbox, properly designed, is being
installed on a fine paper machine by Ahlstrom and will start up soon.
The Kallmes-Lodding headbox is installed on a newsprint machine at
MacMillan Bloedel and on a tissue machine at Patrician. Our industry con-
tacts report that the headbox has not operated satisfactorily on the news-
print machine. Results of the headbox on the tissue machine appear to be
more favorable, although we have not had an opportunity to inspect the
installation. We believe that considerable development work will be needed
before the high-consistency headbox can match the formation and uniformity
obtainable from conventional headboxes.
(4) Twin-Wire Formers
Until very recently, all paper machines were of the Fourdrinier design
that is, the dilute stock from the headbox was jetted through the headbox
slice onto a single, horizontal, moving wire. Downward drainage of the
water was assisted with table rolls or foils on the underside of the wire
and finally by suction boxes. This system is assumed in our base line
model.
In the 1960's the concept of forming between two wire screens, so that
water could be drained from both sides, was introduced to commercial opera-
tion. Some of the sought-after advantages of twin-wire formation in news-
print are avoidance of the two-sided sheet, better formation, less linting
or fewer unbonded particles on the sheet surface, higher machine-speed
capabilities, and more trouble-free operation. A number of variations on
the twin-wire theme are now in use, and many of the expected advantages of
this new forming concept are being realized. The Papriformer, described
below, is one example of these twin-wire machines.
The pioneering design work for the Papriformer was done at the PPRIC,
and the commercial design was developed in cooperation with Dominion
Engineering. The headbox ("Floset"), a bunched-tube design with no air
pad, delivers the stock through a tapered header to the slice. The jet
goes horizontally between two wires, which then go up and over an open
forming roll, from which it is transferred to a couch roll in an 'S' pattern.
The open-surface forming roll utilizes a vacuum box. The drilled couch
roll uses a pressure box and then vacuum boxes to force water from the
sheet. Finally, the sheet leaves the former on top of the front wire as
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in a conventional Fourdrinier. As this design is completely free of
stationary elements in the forming area, there are no sliding contacts
with the wires.
(5) Multi-ply Formation on a Fourdrinier
Beloit has developed the concept of applying different pulp stocks to
a single headbox with provisions for keeping the different types of fiber
separate (Strata-Flow Headbox). This headbox has been installed on the
linerboard machine at the Oppala Mill built by Svenska Cellulose-St. Regis.
The machine is supplied with virgin unbleached kraft linerboard-grade pulp
for the outer plies and secondary fiber for the inner ply. It is said to
be operating satisfactorily and making a good quality linerboard.
The concept has applicability both in surfacing secondary fiber stock
with virgin pulp having desirable properties for specific applications and
in constructing a sheet with strength elements in the interior and functional
elements, such as pulp with good printability, on the surface.
(6) ECHO Machine
As shown in section C-l of this chapter, the papermaking step is by
far the single largest consumer of purchased energy in an integrated kraft
pulp and paper mill; the energy required in the pulping step comes primarily
from residue fuel. More specifically, paper drying is the most important
segment of energy usage in the papermaking operation; the amount required
in sheet formation and mechanical water removal is small in comparison.
Recently, Mr. Eli Cowan of E&B Cowan Limited (Montreal) and Holder
Associates (Bury, England) have proposed an interesting new concept to
reduce energy usage in the papermaking operation. Their proposed "ECHO"
machine (an acronym for Eli Cowan-Holder) would include a twin-wire forming
section and special drying techniques for more efficient water removal.
Substantial energy savings would be realized by the use of a gas turbine
drive on the machine and vapor recompression of the exhaust from the dryers.
Mr. Cowan earlier claimed that this integrated use of energy would
reduce consumption by 15-30% compared with conventional techniques of
papermaking, the range reflecting variations in the point of comparison
(different grades of paper have different energy usage efficiencies) and
possible inaccuracies in the estimated energy requirements for the ECHO
machine. However, more recent information developed by Cowan and his asso-
ciates indicates that the potential savings may have been overestimated.
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c. Mechanical Water Removal
Despite many improvements in press design and press materials, the design
press moisture of paper machines has decreased only modestly over the past
15 years. Data on the design press moisture of Canadian newsprint machines
from 1956 to 1970* indicate that the average moisture dropped from about 66%
to 61% during this period.
To increase paper machine speed, it will be necessary to find ways of
reducing the moisture in the newly formed sheet before the first open draw
(i.e., the point in the papermaking process where it is unsupported by
either a wire or a felt). The conventional nip-felt system has a major draw-
back that limits the percent moisture attainable the paper is rewetted
by excess water on the surface of the felt when the paper and the felt
separate.** One approach to solving this problem is the extended nip, which
provides time for the moisture to flow away from the felt surface and so
reduces opportunities for rewetting when the felt and paper separate. Beloit
has obtained encouraging results with a laboratory model of an extended-nip
press, but it has not yet been commercialized; one of the problems may be
in obtaining mechanical reliability in a high-speed, wide commercial press.
A device based on another approach has been described by a Polish
research worker.*** This device consists of a suction roll and an air chamber
formed by positioning three rolls with end seals over the air chamber. The
air cavity is pressurized to about two atmospheres. The press is reported
to achieve a substantially lower moisture content than the conventional
nip-felt arrangement.
Other possibilities have been suggested, including the use of a Yankee
dryer (with a textured surface to prevent two-sidedness on the newsprint
sheet), which would take the sheet directly from the last press without a
draw and reduce the moisture to 35-45% before it is transferred in an open
draw to the dryer cans.
*Pulp & Paper Magazine of Canada, Vol. 73, No. 3 (March 1972), pp. 40-45.
**Wahlstrom, Pulp & Paper Magazine of Canada, Vol. 70, No. 19 (1969), p. 76.
***Krapkowice, Przeglad Papier, Vol. 28, No. 11 (November 1972), pp. 81-88.
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d. Drying
Heated drums or cans with dryer felts have been standard in the paper
industry for many years. Improvements in dryer felt design and materials,
use of pocket ventilation techniques, and higher headbox temperatures have
improved the efficiency of dryer cans considerably over the years. Never-
theless, the dryer section of a paper machine remains one of the major
capital cost items in the process train.
The Papridryer represents one approach to reducing the number of dryer
cans and improving heat economy. This dryer was developed at PPRIC, and
a pilot unit has been installed at the Three Rivers mill of Canadian Inter-
national Paper Co. The sheet wraps around a grilled dryer roll operated
under vacuum and is contacted by high-temperature air that is circulated
to the unit in a hood. The pilot operation of the Papridryer was success-
ful, and laboratory results were confirmedhigh drying rates were achieved,
and it was possible to level out the moisture profile. However, energy
consumption was high, and capital costs were not substantially lower than
for conventional dryer cans. Successful commercial use of the Papridryer
appears to depend on the availability of a source of waste heat, such as
the tail gases from a gas turbine.
Microwave drying of paper has been studied extensively. Its effective-
ness varies with the electrical properties of the wet sheet; for maximum
efficiency it is sometimes necessary to add an electrolyte. The principal
incentive for the use of microwave drying appears to be its ability to
selectively dry out wet streaks in the sheet. However, the zoned, electri-
cally heated dryer roll marketed by Valmet of Finland can do the same thing
at much lower cost.
Float drying has been developed (and commercialized) by Svenska Flakt
to dry pulp and other heavy sheets. In float drying, the sheet is supported
by air jets through the entire drying zone and is contacted by hot air.
This technique has been applied to newsprint on an experimental basis.
Because it dried with almost complete lack of restraints, the sheet showed
a higher stretch, tear, and bulk.
Svenska Flakt representatives have stated that the present Flakt dryer
design will not allow a lightweight sheet to be dried at over 2000 fpm
without its breaking down in the dryer. The company is redesigning the
dryer to accommodate a lightweight, relatively weak sheet, such as news-
print, at higher speed.
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3. New Technology: Energy and Pollution Considerations
The paper and board portion of the industry consumes the largest por-
tion of the industry's purchased energy requirementsclose to 80%. The
drying step, removal of retained water after the press section, is the
largest single energy-consuming step in paper and board production.
Two developments which could produce a major change in energy consump-
tion in drying are dry-forming of paper and new press techniques which
would allow a higher consistency before the paper goes into the heated
dryer can. Various evolutionary-type improvements in each of these areas
could bring about some reduction in energy usage, but major technological
breakthroughs are required for significant savings. Because of the extended
time required to translate R&D objectives to commercial reality in this
industry, we do not expect major changes within the next several years.
This is not to imply that the industry is indifferent to the energy (hence
cost) savings to be achieved in these areas; rather, it reflects two basic
facts:
The industry is so capital-intensive that it is unlikely to aban-
don existing equipment readily.
Massive, high-speed equipment is used in water removal and paper
drying; hence, the development and commercialization of new tech-
nology and equipment is an expensive, time-consuming process.
Other developments in the forming area are evolutionary and would pro-
duce only minor changes in energy consumption. These include chemical
additives to simulate the effects of beating, high-consistency forming by
the RAD-FOAM process or others, twin-wire formers, and multi-ply formation
from a single headbox.
No developments in drying show promise of becoming commercially impor-
tant for the next 5-10 years and/or of changing the energy consumption
pattern of the paper and board industry. A possible exception is flow-
through drying, which is being used on lightweight tissues and might be
used for other lightweight papers. Its use in tissues, however, is directed
at improved physical properties (bulk, softness, etc.) rather than at
energy savings. In fact, it is the practice in some machines to press to
a lower consistency and thus go into the flowthrough dryer section with a
bulkier although wetter sheet than is normal.
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Application of flowthrough drying to such lighter weight sheets as
newsprint is technically feasible, but economics and energy savings depend
upon having a low-cost source of hot air. One such source would be the
off-gases from a gas-turbine-driven paper machine. While there has been
considerable interest in this area and some development work has been
carried out, we do not expect the new technology to be used to such an
extent that it will have a major effect on the industry's energy require-
ments within the next 5-10 years.
F. INDUSTRIAL PRACTICE
1. All-Kraft Newsprint
One of the largest applications for the high-energy-consuming mechanical
pulps is newsprint. In making newsprint from Southern Pine, for example,
70% mechanical pulp and 30% semi-bleached kraft is used. Semi-bleached
kraft pulp is a low net energy consumer, but the manufacture of mechanical
pulp consumes about 2000 kWh per ton.
It has been proposed* that the newsprint industry might significantly
reduce its energy consumption by making a lightweight newsprint with an
all-kraft hardwood/softwood pulp mixture. The kraft pulp would have a
substantially higher tensile strength than the mechanical pulp and so make
it possible to make a newsprint sheet with desired functional properties
at a lower basis weightsay 20 poundsthan the more conventional 30-pound
mechanical-kraft newsprint. Such an all-kraft newsprint sheet would con-
sume substantially less energy. Interestingly enough, it also would
consume no more wood (assuming a 50-50 mixture of hardwood and softwood
and 20-pound sheet) than the conventional southern newsprint. Technical
work is required to develop a sheet of paper with the required functional
properties from an all-kraft furnish.
2. Coated Unbleached Kraft Board
The coating of unbleached kraft board as a substitute for recycled
paperboard and solid bleached sulfate (SBS) board is a demonstrated commer-
cial practice. Olinkraft and Mead presently make this product. It is
being used only as carrier board to replace recycled paperboard, but if it
were used as a replacement for SBS board, it would have significant energy
and pollution reduction implications.
As noted earlier, the bleaching of kraft pulp requires a significant
amount of energy and contributes significantly to the total water effluent
volume and pollutants. The manufacture of an SBS replacement that needed ,
no bleaching would thus provide a significant benefit.
*Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Threats and Opportunities Within the Newsprint-
Newspaper Industry," Cambridge, Massachusetts, October 1974.
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Although we do not have hard data to compare the properties of coated
unbleached kraft board to SBS board, we believe its physical and printing
properties would be suitable in many applications presently served by SBS.
Thus, while there is no potential conflict between energy saving techniques
and pollution regulations, this may be an area of interest to EPA.
3. Lower-Brightness Pulp
Brightness standards for most bleached market pulps are in the 90-92%
range, and brightness levels in mills making pulp for an integrated opera-
tion are similar. Bleach chemical consumption could be lowered if the
brightness standards were relaxed. Obviously, the magnitude of the chemi-
cal savings would depend upon how much reduction was adopted.
We do not see any U.S. trend toward lower brightness levels in any
products. Even if the pulp manufacturers were to offer an 80-brightness
pulp at a discount, the pulp cost, and hence the magnitude of the savings,
is such a small part of the delivered price of a product such as facial
tissue that the marketer of the tissue would have very little economic
incentive to buy it. The consumer appeal of high brightness, on the other
hand, is such that the seller has enormous incentive to seek the higher-
brightness pulp. Thus, we see no chance of a consumer or paper industry
move to lox^er brightness levels. The only effective way of bringing about
such a change would be via federal legislation.
4. Increased Use of Secondary Fiber
The increased use of secondary fiber in newsprint manufacture is dis-
cussed in detail in section D of the next chapter. In summary, however,
the use of old newsprint as a partial or complete replacement for mechanical
pulp results in substantial energy savings without any significant impact
upon pollution from the paper mill either beneficial or adverse.
In containerboard, on the other hand, a comparison of energy usage
shows the converse relationship: the use of secondary fiber as a complete
replacement for unbleached kraft linerboard requires more purchased energy.
Thus, while the energy needed to make unbleached kraft pulp and board is
significantly higher than that for recycled (jute) linerboard, the sub-
stantial amount of energy recovered from residue fuels results in a lower
net amount of energy than that required for recycled linerboard. Pollution
considerations do not appear to conflict with the broader application of
recycled fiber.
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V. DETAILED ANALYSIS OF SELECTED ALTERNATIVES
This section deals with the technical, economic, and energy/pollution
characteristics of the four process changes selected for detailed analysis.
Much of the technical and energy/pollution-related information was obtained
in interviews with industry personnel working in the respective areas. However,
the economic analyses of the processes are based upon ADL estimates.
The characteristics of process effluents and the associated cost of treat-
ment are discussed in Appendix C, both for the processes analyzed in this
Section and for other major processes used in the industry.
While the technical/economic information pertaining to current practices
may be considered "hard data," that for three out of the four studied alterna-
tives consists of "best estimates" by informed individuals:, only in the case
of newsprint from recycled old news is there sufficient commercial experience
to support the data used in this analysis.
The costs that are used reflect current conditions for the particular
type of pulping process involved. Reasonable assumptions about size, location,
and certain economic factors have been made for individual processes. Thus,
while the examples may not be consistent overall, each is internally consistent.
Appendix B presents information pertinent to the energy usage and material
balances for the other major processes that have not been included here.
A. ALKALINE-OXYGEN PULPING*
1. Process Description
The alkaline-oxygen (A-0) pulping process is receiving intense industry
interest because of its potential for a nonsulfur cooking step, which would
eliminate the air pollution from malodorous sulfur compounds and greatly
alleviate the bleach plant effluent problem.
A wide variety of process steps could be used, but the sequence
presently receiving the greatest commercial interest involves an alkaline
treatment to soften the wood chips, mechanical disintegration, and treatment
with oxygen under alkaline conditions to remove most of the remaining lignin;
this is followed by the last three stages of the conventional multi-stage
sequence chlorine dioxide, caustic extraction, and chlorine dioxide.
*Information on A-0 pulping was obtained, in part, from discussions with
representatives of Weyerhaeuser Co., E.D. Jones Division of Beloit Corp.,
and ErA (Corvallis, Ore.).
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The wood chips are first treated under conditions similar to those of the
kraft cooking process. The softened chips are discharged to disc refiners and
disintegrated mechanically while still under pressure. The resulting pulp is
washed and separated from the black liquor, as in the kraft process. The pulp
is then treated with high-purity oxygen under alkaline conditions at about
250°F and about ten atmospheres pressure. Continuous process towers are used
so that the net consumption of oxygen is about 2.5% per ADT, based on ingoing
pulp.
At the end of the oxygen reaction time the pulp is washed again in counter-
current washers and sent to the remaining three bleach stages. The overall
yield of pulp is somewhat greater than with the kraft process (47% versus
42%).
In contrast to the standard kraft process, black liquor from the oxygen
stage can be recycled to the recovery unit, since it does not contain chlo-
rides. Thus, a portion of it can be used as process water in the pulp mill;
the remainder can be combined with the effluent from the alkaline-oxygen stage
and then evaporated and burned in the recovery boiler to recover heat and
sodium carbonate. The carbonate is treated with lime, which regenerates
sodium hydroxide for recycle to the first (wood-softening) and second (oxygen-
ation) stages.
2. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load
There are many differences in both energy consumption and pollution load
between A-0 pulping and kraft pulping. However, the energy generated in the
recovery boilers in the two processes should be about the same, since the
lower overall dissolved organic yield (i.e., higher pulp yield) from A-0 pulp-
ing should be offset by a somewhat higher quantity of recovered dissolved
organics as a result of using the oxygen delignification effluent in the recov-
ery unit. Energy consumption in the pulping stage itself would probably be
higher in an A-0 system because of the energy consumed in the pulp disintegra-
tion stage.
A generalized material and energy balance for the A-0 pulping and bleach-
ing process is shown in Figure V-l. Table V-l, where energy usage by process
step is derived, indicates that about 20 million Btu of purchased energy is
required to make a ton of bleached slush pulp by this new process. By com-
parison, about 24 million Btu of energy is required in the conventional kraft
pulping and bleaching process (see Table IV-2 in preceding section). As dis-
cussed previously, the energy requirements for converting the interim product
(pulp) into paper or paperboard are about the same for the alternative types
of pulp.
Table V-2 summarizes energy requirements as well as air and water emis-
sion characteristics for the A-0 process. Note that the energy requirements
do not include the preparation of either oxygen in the A-0 process or chlorine/
caustic in the standard kraft process. These are not considered here, because
this analysis concerns the energy used in the direct manufacturing process,
not the related energy used in either chemical preparation or transport of
85
-------
£ 4
1.0 gal Methanol
40.2 Ib Na ClOj
0.68 Cunit SW Chips (18861
CIO, 25lbCI02
Generation
^
30 Ib
Wood 1 V T
0.70 Cunit I Msnnl
SW ) _ Wood 1896)^37821 pu| (1892)_^ ^.^ ^ , .0 AD ,on
Roundwood \ Preparation ~~ * ^ , ^
f Bark Muistuie
(275)
4%
Wood
Losses
(79)
Dissolved 1 11
Solids Dissolved '
46% Solids '/;n/o Loss '.'.%
(1726) ,. (164) y Rejects Dissolved Reiects
..^ HO) Solidr (10)
(1890) (82)
Bark
10,170 Ib Steam
^ *" I J.4UU Ib Steam
Steam *
Power Boiler / V
Steam i
To Process
, r ^^^[ 560 kWh
^. ,,^^"^ J .
Power
Lime Pcburning ^ack- Extractec^
0.6 x 10b Btu Turbine'
^^^~--^ ^
50 kWh
ClHI I
Basis: 1.0 ADT slush pulp
( ) Indicates bone-dry (BD) Ib; 1.0 air-dry (AD) ton = 1800 BD Ib
1 cunit = 100 ft^ of solid wood; weight per BD cunit ranges from about 2200 Ib to 3400 Ib, depending on wood species.
* Heat-to-power conversion in this type of turbine is typically about 4000 Btu/kWh.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates
Figure V-l. Material and Energy Balance for A-0 Slush Pulp
86
-------
TABLE V-l
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR A-0 SLUSH PULP (47% YIELD), BY MAJOR PROCESS STEP
Steam
Power
Total
(Ib/ADT)
-
3,800
5,600
3,200
300
-
500
-
13,400
8,500
21,900
(106 Btu/ADT
-
4.9
7.3
4.2
0.4
-
0.7
-
17.5
11.0
28.5
(kWh/ADT)
97
200
57
127
10
57
15
-
563
400
963
HO6 Btu/ADT)
0.4
0.8
0.2
0.5
0.1
0.2
0.1
-
2.3
1.6
3.9
CIO6 Btu/ADT)
0.4
5.7
7.5
4.7
0.5
0.2
0.8
0.6a
20.4
12.6
33.0
Wood Preparation
Pulping
Bleaching
Chemical Recovery
Liquor Preparation
Water Treatment &
Effluent Disposal
Shops, Stores, Misc.
o
Lime Reburning
TOTAL (Pulp Manufacture)
Paper or Board Prod.
TOTAL
This is fuel burned directly in lime reburning step and not converted to either steam or electric power,
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
-------
TABLE V-2
SUMMARY - ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND POLLUTION LOADS, A-0 PROCESS
Chemical
Wood
Preparation
Energy Consumption
(106 Btu/ton)
Fuel (Lime Reburning) -
Steam
Power 0 . 4
Total Energy 0.4
Recovered Energy (1.0)
Net Purchased Energy (0.6)
Water Effluent Loads
Total flow (000 gal/ton) 1
TSS (Ib/ton) 8
BOD (Ib/ton) 2
Color (Ib/ton) 14
Air Emissions
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
Pulping
4.9
0.8
5.7
-
5.7
6
17
10
32
0
0
Bleaching
7.3
0.2
7.5
-
7.5
19
14
13
100
Recovery &
Liquor
Preparation
4.6
0.6
5.2
(15.1)
(9.9)
5
27
8
4
146
0
Misc .
and
Auxiliaries
0.6
0.7
0.1
1.4
-
1.4
-
Water
Effluent
Treatment
-
0.2
0.2
-
0.2
-
Total
0.6
17.5
2.3
20.4
(16.1)
4.3
31
66
33
150
146
0
Co
CO
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates.
-------
raw materials and finished goods. The reader is referred to the industry
sector reports on copper and chlor-alkali, which show the derivation of
energy used in the preparation of oxygen and chlorine/caustic.*
Comparison of Table V-2 with similar information for the standard
bleached kraft process (Table IV-1) clearly indicates that the principal
advantages of the A-0 process over standard kraft would be the reduction of
color emitted from the bleach plant** and the complete elimination of TRS
from the chemical recovery step. The calculations also indicate a signifi-
cant energy saving with the A-0 process, not only in terms of the total
amount (20.4 versus 25.4 million Btu/ADT) but, more importantly, in the
portion that must be purchased (4.3 versus 7.4 million Btu/ADT). However,
we must emphasize that the energy usage for standard kraft is based on years
of commercial operating experience, while data for A-0 are relatively tenta-
tive, the first commercial installation being only in the start-up stage.
Since sulfur is not used, there is no problem of TRS in the air emissions.
In addition, although no odor-control standards have been set for kraft mills,
the odors associated with that process are sulfur-related and thus should be
eliminated with A-0. With regard to water pollution, total flow is about the
same for either process; however, elimination of two of the standard kraft
bleach stages should result in a 50% reduction in both BOD and color for A-0
compared with kraft.
Estimated process economics for the A-0 process are shown in Table V-3.
A summary comparison of A-0 with standard kraft (Table V-4) indicates that
there would be a substantial reduction in initial plant investment and operat-
ing costs with the A-0 process. Thus, in addition to potential reductions in
purchased energy and effluent emissions, A-0 has potential economic advantages
over the standard kraft process. The comparison is not precise, however,
because the A-0 process may not be a direct substitute for kraft pulping, as
explained below. Table V-5 provides supporting data pertaining to the process
economics of the standard kraft pulping and bleaching process.
3. Quality and Cost Comparison
The relative quality of A-0 and kraft pulps is not yet clearly established.
With softwoods, the A-0 pulp strength levels appear to be somewhat lower than
those of the kraft process at high (i.e., 90%) brightness levels. If bright-
ness specifications are relaxed somewhat, the A-0 pulp strength becomes more
competitive with kraft. As more is learned about A-0 pulping, these differ-
ences are decreasing.
^Energy consumption per ton of oxygen = 360 kWh, or about 3.6 x 10 Btu; con-
sumption per ton of chlorine/caustic = 40 x 10° Btu (1 ton C19 + 1.055 ton
NaOH).
**An alternative method for eliminating color from the bleach plant is dis-
cussed under the Rapson effluent-free kraft process.
89
-------
TABLE V-3
STANDARD BLEACHED A-0 SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product: Slush pulp
Byproducts: Turpentine
Annual/Deslgn ; 286,000 ADT
Capacity'
Annual Production: 276,000 ADT
Process: Std. Bl. Kraft
Fixed Investment: $124 x 10
Working Capital: S9 * 10
Stream Davs/Yr.: 345
Location: Southeast
Depreciation
Period (yr) : JJL
Year Used for
Costing Purposes:1975
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS PER UNIT OF
PRODUCTION
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Pulpwnod
Chemicals
byproduct Credits
Turpentine
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits
Electric Power
h
Water
Process (Consumption)
Cooling (Circulating rate)
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp.
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
Operating Supplies
Royalty Payments
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes (; Ins.
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working capital)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
Cunit
£
10 Btu
kWh
103 gal
103 gal
Man-hr
Man-hr
@ 32% Direct & Main
@ 50% Direct and Ma
@ 27, Fixed Capital
@ 6-1/4% Fixed Capi
@ 207, Total (Fixed
$/Unit
34
1.90
0.018
-
-
6.1
7.0
tenance Wages
intenance Wages
tal
& Working) Capi
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
1.38
4.3
0
(50)
11
20
0.7
0.6
al
$/ADT of
Product
47.0
16.0
(1.0)
8.0
(1.0)
-
-
4.0
4.0
4.0
3.0
1.0
4.0
9.0
28.0
126.0
96.0
34.0
256.0
Based on manufacturing process only.
The costs of supplying and treating process and cooling water are included in details of investment and
operating costs; i.e., these costs include pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply but not
effluent treatment. /-.
-------
TABLE V-3
STANDARD BLEACHED A-0 SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
OSHA
c
Air Control
c
Water Control
$ million
118.0
1.5
2.6
2.0
124.0
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
Water - Color Removal
Air
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COSTS:
Operation & Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I. @ 20%
2.0
12.0
5.0
2.4
22.0
$ /APT
13.0
5.0
16.0
$34.0
"The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
91
-------
TABLE V-4
COMPARISON OF A-0 AND STANDARD KRAFT SLUSH PULP
(New mill basis)
Item
Alternative Current
Process Process
A/0
Standard
Kraft
Plant Investment incl. pollution control
($/million)
146
154
Operating Cost, incl. pollution control
($/ADT)
256
290
Purchased Energy (10 Btu/ADT)
4.3
7.2
Pollution Loads
Water - Volume (10 gal/ton)
BOD5(lbs/ton)
TSS (Ibs/ton)
Color (Ibs/ton)
Air Emissions - Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
31
33
66
150
146
0
31
66
66
300
200
24
92
-------
TABLE V-5
STANDARD BLEACHED KRAFT SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product! Slush Pulp Process: Std. Bl. Kraft, Location; Southeast
Byproducts; Turpentine
Annual/°eSlgn :_286,OOP APT
Capacity
Annual Production! 276,000 APT
Fixed Investment: $130 x 10
Working Capital; S10 x 10
Stream Days/Yr.: 345
Depreciation
Period (yr): 16
Year Used for
Costing Purposes: 1975
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Pulpwood
Chemicals
Byproduct Credits
Turpentine
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits
Electric Power
Waterb
Process (Consumption)
Cooling (Circulating rate)
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp .
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
Operating Supplies
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes & Ins.
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working capital)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
Cunits
106 Btu
kWh
10^ gal
103 gal
Man-hr
Man-hr
@ 327, Direct & Mair
0 50?: Direct & Mair
@ 27. Fixed Capital
(3 6-1/471 Fixed Capi
@ 20% Total (Fixed
$/Unit
34
1.90
0.018
-
6.1
7.0
tenance Wages
tenance Wages
tal
& Working) Capi
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
1.57
7.4
0
140
11
20
0.7
0.6
al
$/ADT of
Product
5 J . 0
30 . 0
(2.0)
14.0
(3.0)
:
4.0
4 . 0
5.0
3.0
1 .0
4.0
9.0
29.0
151.0
101.0
38.0
290.0
Based on manufacturing process only.
The cost of supplying and treating process and cooling water are included in the details of investment
and operating costs, i.e., these costs include pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply,
but not effluent treatment.
93
-------
TABLE V-5
STANDARD BLEACHED KRAFT SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
OSHA
Q
Air Control
c
Water Control
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
Water - Color Removal
Air
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COSTS:
Operation and Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I. @ 20%
Use
Use
Use
$ million
125.0
1.5
2.6
2.0
130.0
2.0
12.0
7.0
3.0
24.0
$/ADT
15.0
5.4
17.4
$38.0
"The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
-------
The first alkaline-oxygen kraft pulp mill has been installed by
Weyerhaeuser in Everett, Washington. The mill was built on an experimental
basis with kraft pulping capabilities and provisions to convert to alkaline-
oxygen. The mill began operation in 1975 and was recently switched over to
the A-0 process.
4. Summary
In comparison with the kraft process, preliminary results indicate that
the A-0 process could substantially alleviate water effluent problems and
appreciably reduce the amount of purchased energy. Capital requirements for
a grassroots mill also appear to be somewhat lower for the A-0 process.
The major uncertainty with alkaline-oxygen is the quality of the pulp.
At high brightness levels, quality appears to be lower than that of kraft.
A commercial size, experimental A-0 pulp mill has begun operation. With
additional technical and operating experience, Weyerhaeuser may be able to
improve the pulp quality; its success will strongly affect future acceptance
of the process. Clearly, EPA should watch the results of this operation
closely and participate in their evaluation.
B. RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE KRAFT PROCESS*
1. Process Description
Professor W.H. Rapson of the University of Toronto has developed process
plans for a completely effluent-free bleached kraft pulp mill. A joint
venture company, Erco Envirotech Limited, was formed in 1972 to develop various
elements of this mill. The Great Lakes Paper Co. is utilizing the results of
the development work in the construction of an effluent-free kraft pulp mill
at Thunder Bay, Ontario.
A number of changes in the conventional kraft pulping process are being
made to eliminate effluents. The major ones are the following:
Replacement (with chlorine dioxide) of about 70% of the chlorine
normally used in the first-stage chlorination step. This stage is
followed by the conventional sequence of caustic extraction, chlorine
dioxide, etc. The overall bleach chemical input is adjusted so that
the chlorine/chlorine dioxide ratio is the same as the output from
an R-3 chlorine dioxide generater,** and the caustic is sufficient
to combine with all the chlorine going into the bleach plant to
form sodium chloride.
*Information on the Rapson process was obtained, in part, from discussions
with representatives of Great Lakes Paper Co. and Erco Envirotech Ltd.
**A proprietary process, one of three alternative techniques used for generat-
ing chlorine dioxide.
95
-------
Countercurrent washing in the bleach plant. It is possible to
reduce the total amount of fresh process water into the pulp mill
from 25,000 to 4,000 gallons per ton. Fresh water in the closed
system is used primarily for make-up to the bleach plant counter-
current washing process.
Reuse of all bleach-plant effluent in the pulp mill. This is uti-
lized in countercurrent brown-stock washers. In this manner, all of
the bleach plant chemicals and dissolved organics eventually go to
the recovery furnace.
Removal of sodium chloride from the white liquor (i.e., recovered
cooking liquor). This is accomplished by evaporating the recovered
white liquor and filtering off the crystallized sodium chloride.
The latter can then be used as make-up for chlorine dioxide genera-
tion and could be used as make-up for chlorate production.
Use of the R-3 process for chlorine dioxide generation. In this
process, byproduct sodium sulfate is crystallized from the aqueous
sulfuric acid used as a reaction medium, and the sulfuric acid is
recylced to the chlorine dioxide generator. Thus, the only by-
product output from the chlorine dioxide generator is solid sodium
sulfate (saltcake). A portion of this recovered saltcake can be
used as make-up chemical in the kraft pulp mill; however, most of it
will be sold or discarded, since production will exceed make-up
demand. Thunder Bay proposes to dissolve it in large quantities of
clean sewer water (mainly cooling water and white liquor evaporator
condensate) and discharge it to the sewer. An alternative is to
utilize the so-called R-4 chlorine dioxide generation process,
which differs from the R-3 only in that some of the sulfuric acid
is replaced with hydrochloric acid to reduce the net quantity of
saltcake effluent.
Making various mill process changes to facilitate closing up the
water system (condensate stripping to remove methanol, closing up
the screen room, increased washing capacity, installation of spill
tanks, etc.). As a result of these moves, a somewhat larger recovery
furnace is required to accommodate the organics recycled from the
bleach plant, and somewhat larger black liquor evaporation facilities
are needed to handle the intermittent return of dilute effluent
streams from the spill tanks.
2. Advantages
A number of advantages are expected with the Rapson process, in addition
to the elimination of water effluent. These include a 1% higher pulp yield,
better brightness stability, and better pulp strength as a result of the use
of chlorine dioxide in the first stage, another 1% overall yield increase due
to the higher percentage of recovered fiber, lower saltcake losses, a reduction
96
-------
of steam consumption in the bleach plant (function of countercurrent wash-
ing) , and an increase in steam generation as a result of the recovered
organics from the bleach plant.
Erco estimates that bleach-plant steam requirements would be 30,000 Ib/hr
for a 900-tpd mill (800 Ib steam/ton), compared with a minimum of 180,000
Ib/hr (4800 Ib/ton) for conventional kraft pulping. Actual savings may be
even higher, since Great Lakes estimates 20,000 Ib/hr for 750 tpd, and conven-
tional kraft steam requirements can be substantially higher than 4800 Ib/ton.
Additional steam requirements for white liquor evaporation (not required
with conventional kraft) are about 2300 Ib/ton. Additional organics recovered
from bleach plant effluent and burned are estimated at 260 Ib/ton of bleached
pulp (5% reduction in yield on bleaching i.e., 48% yield unbleached, 43%
bleached 5000 Btu/lb, and 65% efficiency of heat recovery). This repre-
sents close to 800 Ib steam/ton bleached pulp, or approximately equal to
closed-system bleach plant requirements. Thus, net steam savings are equiva-
lent to conventional bleach plant requirements less the closed-system white
liquor evaporator consumption. As estimated by Erco, this means a minimum
net steam saving of 2500 Ib/ton.
Erco representatives estimate that the cost of the salt recovery system
is about $5 million for a 900-tpd mill. They quote Thunder Bay personnel as
saying that the cost of their installation is about $8 million more than for
the conventional kraft mill; however, they believe that water pollution con-
trol facilities for the effluent from the standard kraft mill x^ould also cost
$8 million. They estimate that the annual savings to the Thunder Bay mill
would be in the order of $5 million. This is broken down as follows:
Steam savings $ 840,000
Energy recovery 270,000
Increased fiber recovery 775,000
Yield increase 636,000
Chemical savings 1,000,000
Treatment of effluent 1,500,000
$5,021,000
Neither Rapson nor Erco representatives anticipate any problems when the
Great Lakes mill at Thunder Bay starts up in about one year. They discount
the possibility of problems from the build-up of trace elements in the system.
In fact, Rapson believes that there will be a positive effect from the build-up
of potassium ions in the system. (Potassium hydroxide is a more effective
pulping reagent than sodium hydroxide.) There will be a higher level of salt
recycle than is normally found in an inland mill away from salt-water-borne
logs. Erco representatives point out that coastal mills normally experience
a build-up of salt, in some cases substantially higher than anticipated in the
-------
Thunder Bay mill.* As far as they know, there is no need to use special
materials of construction in the furnaces or to redesign them to accommodate
this salt content. Special materials must be used in the washer, however.
3. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load
The information obtained from Erco was translated to our common capacity
basis (800 tpd) . A generalized material balance is shown in Figure V-2.
Energy requirements are derived in Table V-6 and are summarized along with
water effluent and air emissions loadings in Table V-7. The Rapson process
economics, estimated from the data received from Erco, are indicated in
Table V-8.
Energy requirements, pollution loads, and process economics for the pro-
cess are compared with those for standard kraft pulping technology in Table
V-9. This comparison clearly indicates the theoretical superiority of the
Rapson process on all points. If operating experience confirms that the pro-
cess performs as designed, it is reasonable to expect that it would become
the chosen technology for new kraft pulping capacity. In addition, it would
offer a cost- and energy-effective alternative to external effluent treatment
for existing kraft mills to meet BAT (1983) effluent guidelines. It would
probably receive substantial acceptance by existing mills.
C. THERMO-MECHANICAL PULPING**
1. Process Description
Mechanical pulp (i.e., wood reduced to fiber for grinding) is typically
combined with chemical fiber and used primarily in the manufacture of news-
print. It is also used in combination with chemical fiber in the manufacture
of catalog paper, construction paper, and other so-called groundwood papers.
The choice between mechanical pulp and chemical pulp (such as kraft pulp, in
which heat and chemicals are used to solubilize the adhesive found in wood
and reduce the wood to papermaking fiber) partly depends on the properties of
the fiber. Cost is another factor: the total operating cost for mechanical
pulp is in the order of $80 to $90 per ton, while that for chemical pulp is
about $150-$180 per ton.
*P.O. Karjalainen, J.E. Lofkrantz, and R.D. Christie, "Chloride Buildup in
Kraft Liquor Systems," Pulp & Paper Magazine of Canada, Vol. 73, No. 12
(December 1972), p. 95.
^Information on TMP was obtained, in part, from discussions with representa-
tives of Publishers Paper Co., Blandin Paper Co., E.D. Jones Division of
Beloit Corp., Diamond National Corp., British Columbia Research Laboratories,
and Bowaters Paper Co.
-------
27 Ib
Sodium Sulfate Losses
Wood
4100lb
White ^
Liquor
1970 Ib
t InhlparhpH ,
Digesters
and Washers
60 Ib
Lime
Stone
^^
Pulp
Bleach
Effluent
1 1 /(J Ib Urganics a
Black 0
Liquor ~
2300 Ib 1 ° ^ »
Organ ics Sewer ° ~ '§
or Sales .5 <° g
106 Ib |
O
Recovery Unit
1
1800lb
Bleached Pulp
Plant >- PM|P Marhino
1 1
s| ©
CO
99 Ib
27 Ib sodium Chlor ne Sodium Chlorate
(Make- Sulfate DlOXlde Chlorate fBy Others)
up) 133 Ib R 3 f£\
,
White 64 Ib
Liquor Salt
Salt Removal
Salt (Primarily NaCI)
-
Sulfuric
Acid
92 lb Salt
(p) 64 Ib
_ . 1
128 Ib
= Purchased
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates from Erco Envirotech data
Figure V-2. Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft Process Material
Balance (Basis: 1.0 ADT to pulp dryer)
99
-------
TABLE V-6
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS FOR RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE KRAFT SLUSH PULP, BY MAJOR PROCESS STEP
(New mill basis)
Wood Preparation
Pulping
Bleaching
Chemical Recovery
Liquor Preparation
Salt Recovery
Water Treatment and Effluent Disposal
Shops, Stores, and Miscellaneous
Lime Reburning
(Ib/ADT1)
-
3,800
800
4,300
700
2,300
-
500
-
Steama
(106 Btu/ADT)
-
4.9
1.0
5.6
0.9
3.0
-
0.7
-
Power
(kWh/ADT)
105
115
95
170
25
90
20
15
-
(106 Btu/ADT)
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.7
0.1
0.4
0.1
0.1
-
Totai Knergy_
(106 Btu/ADT)
0.4
5.3
1.4
6.3
1.0
3.4
0.1
0.8
1.4
o
o
Total Energy Usage for Slush Pulp
12,400
16.1
635
2.6
20.1
Recovered Heat
Spent liquor (incl. bleach plant): 13,000 Ib steam/ADT =
Bark and hogged fuel: 800 Ib steam/ADT
17.0 x 10" Btu
17.0 x 10b Btu
Process steam estimated at 1100 Btu/lb net (steam heat content less condensate credit)
, and 85% boiler efficiency = 1300 Btu fuel/lb steam
cExtracted power estimated at 4000 Btu fuel/kWh
Recovered heat based on steam @ 1300 Btu fuel equivalent/Ib. This represents a
recovery boiler heat efficiency of 75%.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates from Erco Envirotech data
-------
TABLE V-7
SUMMARY - CONSUMPTION AND POLLUTION LOADS FOR RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE SLUSH PULP
PRODUCTION, BY PROCESS STEP
(New mill basis)
Chemical
Recovery and Miscellaneous
Energy Consumption,(10 Btu)
Lime Reburning
Steam
Power
Total Energy
Recovered Energy
Net Purchased Energy
Water Effluent Loads3
Total Flow (000 gals/ton)
TSS (lb/ton)
BOD (lb/ton)
Color
Excess Saltcake, (lb/ton)
Air Emissions
Particulates (lb/ton)
TRS (lb/ton)
Wood Liquor Salt
Preparation Pulping Bleaching Preparation Recovery
& Btu)
4.9 1.0 6.5 3.0
0.4 0.4 0.4 0.8 0.4
0.4 5.3 1.4 7.3 3.4
(1.0) - - (17.0)
/ (0.6) 5.3 1.4 (9.7) 3.4
i/ton)
i/ton)
,n) 0 200
9 15
and Effluent
Auxiliaries Treatment Total
1.4
0.7 - 16.1
0.1 0.1 2.6
0.8 0.1 20.1
0.8 0.1 2.1
20
None
None
None
133
200
24
Aqueous effluent is "clean water" only; i.e., distilled water from
white liquor evaporators (salt removal), and cooling water from evap-
orators, boilers, turbines, and chemical production. Excess saltcake
discharged or sold.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates from Erco Envirotech data
-------
TABLE V-8
RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE KRAFT PROCESS INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product: Slush Pulp
Byproducts: Turpentine
Annual/DeSlg" : 296^000 ADT
Capacity '
Annual Production: 276.000 ADT
Process:Rapson Effluent-Free Kraft.
Continuous
Fixed Investment: $135 x 10 ^_
Working Capital: $10 x 10
Stream Davs/Yr.: 345
Location:
Depreciation ^
Period (yr):_
Year Used for
Costing Purposes:
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Pulpwood
Chemicals
Byproduct Credits
Turpentine
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits (Specify form)
Electric Power
Waterb
Process (Consumption)
Cooling
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp .
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
Operating Supplies
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes & Ins .
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working captial)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
Cunits
106 Btu
kWh
103 gal
Man-hr
Man-hr
0 32% Direct *. Main
@ 50% Direct & Main
@ 27, Fixed Capital
1? 6-1/4% Fixed Capi
? 20% Total (Fixed
$/Unit
34
1.90
0.018
-
6.1
7.0
tenance Wages
tenance Wages
tal
!* Working) Capi
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
1.50
2.1
none
20
0.8
0.7
al
S/ADT of
Product
51.0
30.0
(2.0)
4 . 0
-
5.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
] .0
5.0
10.0
3] .0
14H.O
105.0
5.0
259.0
Based on manufacturing process only.
The costs of supplying and treating process and cooling water are included in the details of investment and
operating costs; i.e., these costs include pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply but not
effluent treatment. o^j_
102
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TABLE V-8
RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE KRAFT PROCESS - INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process (incl. $0.5 million royalty)
OSHA
Air Control
Water Control
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
Air
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COSTS:
Operation and Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I. @ 20%
_$_ million
130.0
1.5
2.6
2.0
135.0
2.0
0.0
3.0
5.0
$/ADT
1.0
1.0
4.0
6.0
°The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
103 U.S EPA Headquarters Library
Mai! code 34Q4T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
-------
TABLE V-9
COMPARISON OF RAPSON EFFLUENT-FREE PROCESS WITH STANDARD KRAFT SLUSH PULP
(New mill basis)
Rapson Standard
Item Process Kraft
Plant Investment, Pollution Control 140 154
($million)
Operating Cost ($/ADT) incl. 259 290
Pollution Control
Purchased Energy (106 Btu/ADT) 2.1 7.4
Pollution Loads
Water Volume (103 gal/ton) 203 31
BOD (Ib/ton) none 66
TSS (Ib/ton) none 66
Color (Ib/ton) none 300
Air Emissions 20° 20°
Particulates (Ib/ton) 24
TRS (Ib/ton)
aAqueous effluent is "clean water" only; see Table v-7
In the oldest process, stone groundwood, whole logs (generally four feet
long and almost entirely of the softwood species) are held under pressure
aganist a grinding stone. The wood is reduced to individual papermaking fibers
by the tearing action of the rotating grindstone. Wood chips, sawdust, and
shavings from sawmills or plywood mills can be used as raw materials for the
RMP and TMP mechanical pulping techniques; when sawdust is used, however, it
is normally blended with mechanical pulp made from chips.
In the TMP process, the wood particles are preheated to 130°C for a short
period and then reduced to fibers in a pressurized disc refiner which consists
of two circular metal plates generally rotating in opposite directions. In
the RMP process, the size reduction of the wood particles to fiber is carried
out at atmospheric conditions.
104
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2. Advantages
The incentive to switch from stone grinding to RMP and then more
recently to IMP has been the improved fiber properties and an expansion of
the wood source base i.e., the ability to use chips and residual wood.
These newer methods of preparing mechanical pulp therefore help to dispose of
solid waste that has historically created a major problem in lumber
manufacture.
The strength properties of RMP product are superior to those of stone
ground, and those of TMP are dramatically superior to those of RMP. The
strength improvement is associated with the ability of TMP pulp to develop
bonding strength through "beating" (i.e., subsequent mechanical treatment),
much the way chemical pulps do. Stone and RMP pulps lack this characteristic.
Because of the superior strength properties, the TMP process has gained rapid
acceptance in the industry. Over 40 commercial installations of TMP are in
various stages of construction in the United States and Canada.
The pulp yield from all three mechanical processes is about the same
96-97%. Modern mills recycle and recover screening rejects; therefore, the
yield losses are largely attributable to organic materials that are dissolved
during the pulping process.
In the stone and RMP processes, these losses would be about 3% to 3-1/2%
(i.e., a yield of 96.5% to 97%); in the TMP process these losses would be
about 1% higher (i.e., a yield of 95.5% to 96%). The difference can be attri-
buted to the elevated temperature used in the TMP process, which causes
slightly more organic material to dissolve and eventually appear in the water
effluent as additional BOD loading.
Because of the higher temperatures used in the TMP process versus stone
or RMP, there has been considerable discussion of the possibility of greater
toxicity of the water effluent from this newer process. Studies by the
British Columbia Research Corporation indicate that there is no great differ-
ence in the toxic characteristics of the effluent stream. The only signifi-
cant dissimilarity between TMP and the current processes is its additional
BOD loading, which has been reported by one mill with considerable experience
to be about 20% higher (i.e., 48 Ib BOD/ton for TMP versus about 41 Ib for
RMP). Using the widely accepted oxygen transfer efficiency factor of 2 pounds
of oxygen per horsepower hour, and the relationship that 1 pound of oxygen is
required to reduce 1 pound of BOD, we can calculate that the additional 7 Ib/ton
BOD load from TMP corresponds to about 3 kWh/ton, or roughly 1/1000 of the
energy requirement for the entire pulping operation.
Energy consumption in the preparation of mechanical fiber varies signifi-
cantly with the type of wood. With stone groundwood pulping, the northern
species such as spruce, balsam fir, and jack pine require about 1100 kWh/ton
to make usable fiber, while the coarse southern pine species require about
1500 kWh/ton. These figures are, of course, approximations and are based upon
mechanical pulp for newsprint. In practice, energy consumption varies widely,
depending upon the "level of freeness," a measure of the degree of size reduc-
tion achieved. With the RMP process, the energy consumption is generally
105
-------
20% higher for the northern softwood species and is so high for the southern
species that the process is seldom used. Commercial experience with IMP
indicates that its energy consumption on the northern softwood species is
about the same as that for RMP, i.e., about 1300 kWh/ton; on southern pine
it is about the same as stone groundwood, i.e., about 1500 kWh/ton.
Although steam is generally used to heat the wood particles in the TMP
process and not in the other two mechanical pulping processes, there is no
net increase in energy requirements for TMP compared with RMP, because the
requisite heat generated in the first (pressured) step of the TMP process is
used for this purpose. Accordingly, the only net increase in energy require-
ment associated with TMP compared with the other mechanical processes is the
3 kWh/ton required to reduce the additional 20% BOD load normally accompany-
ing the new process.
3. Energy Consumption and Pollution Load
Figure V-3, a schematic material and energy balance for the alternative
mechanical pulping processes, and Table V-10 summarize the respective energy
and pollution characteristics. The energy requirements shown in this summary
differ somewhat from the previously reported estimates because (a) a different
wood species is considered namely, Pacific Northwest softwood and (b)
the total power requirement reported includes auxiliary operations to the
actual mechanical pulping, such as chip conveying, washing, and pulp cleaning.
Tables V-ll* and V-12 indicate the process economics for manufacturing
mechanical pulp via the RMP and TMP processes respectively. We have not con-
sidered stone groundwood, since it is highly unlikely that a new grassroots
mill would use this method. (Existing mills with stone groundwood facilities
might, however, elect to expand incrementally in this manner.) Note that the
investment and operating costs, which refer here to slush pulp, are about the
same for TMP and RMP. Slush pulp is an interim product used in the paper-
making operation.
The real economic incentive for using TMP is the superior strength of
the pulp compared with other types of mechanical pulps. This is indicated in
Table V-13, which compares the economic, energy, and pollution characteristics
of newsprint slush pulp furnish from both RMP and TMP. Refiner pulp would
normally comprise about 80% of the furnish, with 20% semi-bleached kraft added
for strength. However, initial results indicate that as much as 95% TMP may
be used for newsprint, with only 5% kraft required. Thus, the real value of
TMP is not in a direct comparison with RMP but in the ability of TMP to reduce
significantly the chemical fiber requirements (kraft or sulfite) in ground-
wood paper furnishes.
Two costs for purchased electric power have been used in this study
$O.Ol8/kWh and $0.006/kWh. The latter is a weighted average cost used
when power is normally obtained from plant-owned hydroelectric facilities,
which is often the case with mechanical pulp mills.
106
-------
Figure V-3. Schematic Flow Diagram of Alternative Mechanical
Pulping Techniques
TABLE V-10
ENERGY REQUIREMENTS AND POLLUTION LOADS FOR SLUSH PULP
FROM MECHANICAL PROCESSES
(New mill basis)
Energy per ADT:
Purchased fuel (106 BtriO
Purchased power (kWh)
(10rl Rrua)
Total Purchased Energy (106 litu/AUT
Water Effluent Loads per ADT:
(Ib)
(Ib)
Stone
Croundwood
1
)
0.3
1300
13.0
13.3
3.0
38
36
0
RKP
0.3
1475
14.8
15.1
3.0
41
90
0
IMP
0.3
1475
14.8
15.1
3.
48
90
0
roximate 30Z efficiency
107
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TABLE V-ll
RMP SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product: Slush Pulp
Byproducts: None
Annual/Deslgn ; 290,000 APT
Capacity
Annual Production: 280,000 ADT
Process; RMP,Continuous
$40 x 10
Fixed Investment
Working Capital; $5 x 10
Stream Days/Yr.: 345
Northwest
Location:
Depreciation
Period (yr) :_JJL
Year Used for
Costing Purposes:
1975
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Pulpwood
Chemicals
Byproduct Credits
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits
b
Water
Process
Cooling
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp.
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
» Operating Supplies
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes & Ins.
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working capital)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
Cunits
106 Btu
kWh
Man-hr
@ 32% Direct & Mair
@ 66% Direct & Mair
@ 2% Fixed Capital
@ 6-1/4% Fixed Capi
@ 20% Total (Fixed
$/Unit
40
1.85
0.006
6.8
7.8
tenance Wages
tenance Wages
tal
& Working) Cap!
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
0.81
0
0.3
1475
0
0.4
0.4
:al
$/ADT of
Product
32.8
2.0
1.0
9.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
3.0
9.0
72.0
32.0
3.0
107.0
Rased on manufacturing process only.
The costs of supplying and treating process and cooling water are included in the details of investment
and operating costs; i.e., these costs include pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply but
not effluent treatment.
108
-------
TABLE V-ll
RMP SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
OSHA
c
Water Control
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
No color removal or air control
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COSTS:
Operation and Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I. @ 20%
$ million
40.0
. 0.2
0.2
40.0
0.2
1.8
2.0
$/ADT
1.2
0.4
1.4
3.0
"The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
109
-------
TABLE V-12
IMP SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product: Slush Pulp
Byproducts: None
Annual/Design : 362,000 APT
Capacity
Process: TMP, Continuous
Fixed Investment :$55 x 10
Location: Northwest
Depreciation
Period (yr) :_16_
Working Capital: $7 x 10
Annual Production! 350,000 APT a Stream Days/Yr. :_j!45_
Year Used for
Costing Purposes: 1975
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Pulpwood
Chemicals
Byproduct Credits
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits
WaterC
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp .
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
Operating Supplies
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes & Ins.
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working capital)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
Cunit
106 Btu
kWh
Man-hr
Man-hr
@ 32% Direct & Main
@ 66% Direct & Main
@ 27. Fixed Capital
@ 6-1/4% Fixed Capi
@ 20% Total (Fixed
$/Unit
40
1.85
0.006
6.8
7.8
tenance Wages
tenance Wages
tal
& Working) Capi
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
0.82
0
0.3
1475
0
0
0.4
0.4
al
S/ADT of
Produc t:
33.0
2.0
1.0
9.0
3.0
3.0
3.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
3.0
10.0
75.0
35.0
2.0
112.0
aBecause a proportionately greater amount of TMP than RMP can be used in
the fiber furnish, production of TMP is greater for a given amount of
product.
Based on manufacturing process only.
°The costs of supplying and treating process and cooling water are included
in the details of investment and operating costs; i.e., these costs include
pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply but not effluent treat-
ment.
110
-------
TABLE V-12
IMP SLUSH PULP INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
OSHA
Water Control
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
No color removal or air control
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COSTS:
Operation and Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I @ 20%
$ million
55.0
0.2
0.2
55.0
0.2
1.3
2.0
$/ADT
1.0
0.1
1.0
2.0
"The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
Ill
-------
TABLE V-13
COMPARISON OF NEWSPRINT SLUSH PULP FURNISH FROM RMP AND TMP
(New mill basis - 1000 tpd newsprint)
80% RMP 95% TMP
Item _ 20% Kraft 5% Kraft
Plant Investment ($ million)
Mechanical 42 57
Kraft 39 10
Total 81 67
Operating Cost ($/ADT)
Mechanical 86 106
Kraft 58 15
Total 1*4 121
Purchased Energy (10 Btu/ADT) 13.5 14.7
Pollution Loads
Water Volume (103 gal/ton) 8.6 4.4
BOD (Ib/ton) 46 49
T3S (Ib/ton) 85 89
Color (Ib/ton) 60 15
Air Emissions
Particulates (Ib/ton) 40 10
TRS (Ib/ton) 5 1
NOTE: The furnish costs for RMP and TMP are based on the costs previously
presented for standard bleached kraft pulp. Actual kraft pulp costs
in the Northwest would be significantly higher (perhaps 20% or more)
because of higher labor costs.
There is considerable industry interest in the possibility of using
chemicals in the pretreatment stage to improve the strength properties and
reduce the energy requirement of TMP.* This chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping
(CTMP) is a variation of the current commercial practice (now used by Appleton
Paper Co. and Diamond International) of combining chemical pretreatment with
RMP; the latter involves soaking the wood chips in a dilute solution (about
1% caustic and 1/2% sodium sulfite) for 1/2 to 1 hour at atmospheric conditions
before they enter the refining operation. Precise data are not available on
the energy usage, pollution, and product characteristics of this process;
however, pulp yield is reported to be somewhat lower (85 - 92%) and the resul-
tant fiber stronger than with the conventional process.
Pulp yields for chemi-mechanical are lower than with conventional mechan-
ical pulp, and we deduced from discussions at Blandin Paper Co. that the
additional losses, principally organic materials, appear in the water effluent
stream as greater amounts of BOD and suspended solids. If improved strength
characteristics are attained with the addition of chemicals to the RMP process,
the same is likely to happen with the TMP process.
Blandin Paper Company of Grand Rapids, Minnesota, reports the only known
commercial installation of chemi-thermo-mechanical pulping. The company's
principal reason for using it is to enable the mill to pulp hardwood (Aspen)
species. Typically, only softwood species are used in mechanical pulping, but
Blandin indicates that the strength characteristics of the CTMP from Aspen are
^Information on this subject is based on discussions with representatives of
Blandin Paper Co., Diamond National, and Appleton Paper Co.
112
-------
equivalent to those of softwood pulped with the conventional RMP process.
Data on the mill's energy usage are not available, but we would guess that it
requires perhaps 10 - 20% less energy than the TMP process.
One drawback to chemical pretreatment is the potential for increased
water pollution. The chemicals increase the amount of lignin that is extracted
from the wood, and although the percentage is still only 5 - 10%, it is much
larger than with IMP alone; as a result, BOD loading could conceivably double.
In contrast to chemical pulping, however, the amount of chemicals and organic
material in the spent liquor is not enough to make recovery of heat and chem-
icals economically attractive.
Considering the experience required to advance a project from the labo-
ratory stage, we doubt that chemical addition will be reduced to commercial
practice within the next 2 to 3 years. Nevertheless, this area of activity
appears to warrant EPA assessment, since it could have significant future
effects on both energy usage and pollution control.
As stated previously, one of the major applications for mechanical pulps
is newsprint. The TMP process may be used to process lower-value residue
woods such as sawdust and shavings, producing a pulp with properties equiva-
lent to those of stone groundwood; alternatively, it can be used to process
high-quality chips to make a superior pulp. In the latter case, it might be
possible to reduce or eliminate entirely the 20 - 30% of long-fiber chemical
pulp needed with stone groundwood. The unit consumption of purchased energy
would be increased only slightly if TMP were used for low-value residue woods
but significantly if 100% TMP pulp were used. We believe that the trend will
be toward the former rather than toward the production of "single-fiber-
furnish" newsprint. Therefore, the impact on energy consumption of the
expected acceptance of the TMP process will be small.
D. DEINKING OF OLD NEWS FOR NEWSPRINT MANUFACTURE*
1. Background
The deinking of old news for newsprint manufacture is a well-established
commercial practice. Currently, four U.S. mills make newsprint entirely from
deinked news. Three of these are operated by Garden State Paper Company and
have a combined capacity in excess of 400,000 tpy. The fourth, which was
recently built by New England Pulp and Paper Mill of Lincoln, New Hampshire,
has a 50,000-tpy capacity.
Although the concept of blending recycled fiber with virgin mechanical
fiber is not new, it has only recently been introduced for the manufacture of
newsprint on a large scale. Previously, Manistique Paper Company was combin-
ing these fibers to make newsprint, but only on a modest scale and along with
other groundwood papers produced at the plant site. More recently, South-
west Paper Company in Snowflake, Arizona, started a 100,000-tpy newsprint
^Information on deinking was obtained, in part, from discussions with
representatives of Publishers Paper Co., Garden State Paper Co., and
Manistique Paper Co.
113
-------
operation using about 50/50 virgin groundwood and deinked pulp. Publishers
Paper Company at Oregon City, Oregon, has started a 10,000-tpy deinking opera-
tion and announced plans to increase its capacity to 100 tons per day for
blending with its mechanical and chemical pulps for the manufacture of news-
print. Garden State has also announced plans to build a new mill in the South-
east using a blend of thermo-mechanical pulp and deinked news to produce about
150,000 tpy of newsprint.
Accordingly, the partial or full substitution of deinked pulp for both
mechanical and chemical fibers in newsprint manufacture is not a new develop-
ment. It was chosen for in-depth technical/economic analysis because the
production of newsprint containing deinked news now accounts for less than
5% of the total newsprint consumed in the United States, and its broader
application could significantly reduce both energy usage and pollution. It
would be an ideal option for EPA and other federal agencies to encourage.
2. Process Description
Two methods can be used to separate ink from fibersflotation and wash-
ing. Few deinking installations in the United States use flotation techniques,
and none of these are involved in the large-scale production of recycled news-
print. Accordingly, our discussion will concern washing, which is used in all
the large-scale deinking operations, including those planned to be built or
scheduled for expansion.
Pulping, the first process step, can be either batch or continuous.
Each has its advantages:
Batch pulping enables an operator to segregate a quantity of old
news containing an abnormal amount of poor-quality material and
either gradually feed it into the system or dispose of it entirely.
« Continuous pulping improves the utilization of the equipment; hence,
it reduces the initial investment per daily ton. It is also likely
to provide a more uniform feed to the next process step.
The deinking chemicals (typically sodium peroxide, sodium silicate, and
a detergent) are added during the pulping operation and are largely recover-
able. The precise composition of the deinking chemicals is generally propri-
etary. Garden State, which licenses its technology, provides its proprietary
deinking chemicals to licensees.
Heat is needed to help disperse the old news in the pulping operation;
it is generally provided via recirculated "white water" which has been
treated in its previous application.
Washing i.e., the actual separation of the ink particles from the
papermaking fibers can be carried out either in a cylinder washer
("decker") or on "side hill" screens. The stock is then often passed through
a thickener to increase its consistency from about 2 - 3% to 12 - 14%. This
114
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is done to: (a) recover the liquor removed from the pulp slurry and (b)
concentrate the fibers in the aqueous, slurry so that the subsequent opera-
tion is more efficient.* A screw extractor is generally used for this purpose.
In Garden State's operations, which currently produce 400,000 tpy, the
resultant deinked fiber then goes to the papermaking operation, where it is
treated much like conventional virgin fiber.
Figure V-4 shows a material and energy balance and effluent character-
istics for a typical deinking operation. As in previous examples, the unit
energy requirements and effluent loads are for a new mill installation; the
values can be as much as 50 to 100% greater for an existing mill.
3. Comparison of Current and Alternative Technology
Table V-14 summarizes the costs, energy, and pollution characteristics
of alternative pulping processes for the manufacture of a newsprint fiber
furnish. Clearly, the purchased energy requirements for deinked pulp are
substantially less than those for either of the virgin pulp compositions.
Special-pack Old' News*
4,000 gal water
) Ib Steam (3.3 X 106Btu)
280kWh(2.8X 106Btu)
Total Purchased Energy
= 6.1 X 106Btu
Pulping and
Deinking
1
36 Ib
Discards
and
Solid
Waste 1
(1.0 ADT)
4,000 gal Effluent
180 IbTSS
25 Ib BOD5
f
Basis: 1.0 ADT (1,800 BD Ib) Slush Pulp
*Since some old news is purchased wet, average moisture content is 10%.
Figure V-4. Raw Material and Energy Requirements and Pollution
For Deinked Newsprint Furnish (New Mill Basis)
*A.M. Altieri and J.W. Wendell, "Deinking of Waste Paper," TAPP1 Monograph
31, 1967
115
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TABLE V-14
COMPARISON OF NEWSPRINT SLUSH PULP FURNISH FROM DEINKING,
RMP, AND TMP (New mill basis)
Itei
Plant Investment (Smillion)
Operating Cost ($/ADT) - Mechanical
Kraft
Total
Purchased Energy (Id6 Btu/ADT)
Purdiased Energy Ccst CS/ADT)
Pollution Loads
Water Volume (10 gal/ADT)
BOD (Ib/ADT)
TSS (Ib/ADT)
Color (Ib/ADT)
Air Emissions
Particulates (Ib/ton)
TRS (Ib/ton)
Deinked
(330 tpd)
24
159
159
6.1
8.0
4
25
180
170
0
0
80Z RMP
20% Kraft
(1000 tpd)
81
86
58
144
13.5
10.2
8.6
46
85
60
40
5
95% TMP
5% Kraft
(1000 tpd)
67
106
15
121
14.7
10.1
4.4
49
89
15
10
1
While the raw waste load of suspended solids (TSS) is significantly
greater for deinked pulp than for the virgin pulps, Garden State management
reports no major problem in complying with water effluent control regula-
tions.* In fact, in one of their existing operations, the TSS has been
reduced to about 45 Ib/ton. The difference between this and the 180 pounds
per ton listed in Table V-14 appears as a solid waste. Accordingly, the
greater use of deinked old news in the manufacture of newsprint would not
adversely affect the water effluent control problem and would substantially
alleviate the problem of disposing of old news (although it might initially
create a secondary solid waste).
The process economics for the alternative processes show substantially
lower costs for the conventional pulping combinations, but the comparison
is somewhat misleading because of the low power cost used ($0.006 per kWh) .
This rate is reasonable for a plant site in the Pacific Northwest, but it
would be considerably higher in the Northeast and South. Since conventional
mechanical pulping processes require more energy than does deinking, higher
energy costs would affect them more than deinking.
*Frank Lorey, Vice President, Garden State Paper Co,
-------
In general, the operating cost and profitability of newsprint manufacture
from deinked pulp and virgin pulp are about the same. The constraint in
broader application of deinking old news for newsprint manufacture is the
number of metropolitan locations with a sufficiently large population to
generate the volume of old news needed to support a recycling operation. In
related work we have done in this area, we estimated that about five additional
sites might be available.*
Table V-15 shows supporting data for the process economics of deinking.
The process economics for the combination of RMP and TMP were presented
previously in Section V-C.
*ADL report to EPA, "Analysis of the Demand and Supply for Secondary Fiber in
the U.S. Pulp and Paperboard Industry," 1975. The present sites (all Garden
State Paper Co. plants) are Pomona, California; Alslip, Illinois; and
Garfield, New Jersey.
117
-------
TABLE V-15
DEINKED NEWS INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS
Product! Newsprint slush pulp furnish Process:Wastepaper Deinking. Continuous T.nr.ation! West Coast,,
Byproducts; None ^ Depreciation
Fixed Investment
$22 x 10
' 118'000 ADT
Annual Production] 112,000 APT
Period (yr):__li_
Working Capital; $3 x 10
Stream Davs/Yr. : 340
Year Used for
Costing Purposes :_197JL
A. MANUFACTURING COSTS
VARIABLE COSTS
Raw Materials
Old News
Chemicals
Byproduct Credits
Energy
Purchased Fuel
Electric Power Purch.
Energy Credits
b
Water
Process (Consumption)
Cooling
Direct. Operating & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Labor & Supv. Wages
Maintenance Materials & Supp.
Labor Overhead
Misc. Variable Costs/Credits
Operating Supplies
FIXED COSTS
Plant Overhead
Local Taxes & Ins.
Depreciation
TOTAL PRODUCTION COSTS
Return on Investment (pretax)
(incl. working capital)
POLLUTION CONTROL
TOTAL
Units Used in
Costing or
Annual Cost
Basis
ton
106 Btu
kWh
}
10 gal
Man-hr
Man-hr
@ 32% Direct & Mair
@ 66% Direct 5. Mair
@ 2% Fixed Capital
@ 6-1/4% Fixed Capi
@ 20% Total (Fixed
$/Unit
43.0
various
1.85
0.006
-
6.8
7.8
tenance Wages
tenance Wages
tal
& Working) Capi
Units Consumed
per Ton of
Product
1.12
0
3.3
280
4.0
0.6
0.3
:al
$/ADT of
Product
48.0
11.0
6.0
2.0
-
4.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
4.0
4.0
13.0
103.0
45.0
11.0
159.0
Based on manufacturing process only.
The cost of supplying and treating process water is included in the details of investment and operating
costs; i.e., these costs include pumps, filters, power, labor, etc., for water supply, but not effluent
treatment.
118
-------
TABLE V-15
DEINKED NEWS INVESTMENT AND PRODUCTION COSTS (Cont.)
B. Derivation of Fixed Capital Costs and
Pollution Control Operating Costs
FIXED CAPITAL COSTS:
Direct Manufacturing
Manufacturing Process
OSHA
c
Water Control
Pollution Control
Water - Internal
Water - External
No air or color removal
POLLUTION CONTROL OPERATING COST:
Operation and Maintenance
Depreciation @ 6-1/4%
Pretax R.O.I. @ 20%
$ million
21.0
0.5
0.2
$22.0
0.2
2.0
2.0
$/ADT
6.0
1.1
3.0
11.0
"The amount that is economically justified, in that the value of the recovered
product offsets the investment and operating cost of the installed equipment.
119
-------
APPENDIX A
SUPPLY/DEMAND BY PRODUCT SECTOR
This appendix presents information on supply and demand for each of
the principal product sectors in the pulp and paper industry. It also
describes the structure of the industry in each sector. As such, it aug-
ments the material given in Chapter III describing the products made in
each sector and the factors that affect energy use and pollution control.
For ease of reference, the page number on which each subsection begins
is listed below.
Market Pulp 120
Containerboard 125
Folding Boxboard 130
Newsprint and Uncoating Groundwood Paper 131
Printing, Writing and Related Papers 137
Tissue and Related Papers 141
Industrial Packaging and Converting Papers 145
Construction Paper and Paperboard 148
1. MARKET PULP
a. Demand
U.S. consumption of dissolving pulp grew at an apparent average rate
of 1% per year between 1960 and 1973. However, examination of the trend
shows that U.S. consumption peaked in 1968 and by 1973 had declined by a
total of 13%. World demand appears to have peaked in 1970 but is declining
at a slower rate than U.S. demand. Thus, dissolving pulp represents a
product that appears to have reached full maturity and is now declining.
The total U.S. consumption of bleached market pulp has grown at a very
steady rate of nearly 6% per year since 1960 with only a slight reduction
in the growth rate during the five years prior to 1973. There has been a
modest tapering of the growth rate in printing and fine paper and a more
pronounced slowdown in tissue paper, but this has been offset by the
extremely rapid growth in fluffing pulp, which is used for disposable dia-
pers and bed pads. This historic growth trend makes bleached pulp one of
the fastest growing areas in the pulp and paper industry. In 1973,
bleached market pulp amounted to 21% of the total bleached pulp consumed
in the United States.
120
-------
While total demand for bleached market pulp has grown at a fairly
steady rate, there has been a dramatic shift in consumption from sulfite
to kraft grades. Between 1960 and 1973, consumption of bleached sulfite
pulp dropped 50% while that of the bleached and semi-bleached kraft grades
tripled. This was mainly caused by the fact that bleached sulfite pulp
capacity has remained static and increasing amounts have been diverted to
captive use. Thus the shift does not represent an overwhelming preference
for kraft pulp. The softwood grade of kraft pulp does offer superior
strength properties in comparison with softwood sulfite; however, sulfite
has superior softness and somewhat better opacity and thus is desirable in
many tissue paper and some writing paper applications.
Table A-l shows our estimates of the consumption of bleached market
pulp by end use in 1973. It indicates the importance of the printing-
writing paper and tissue paper markets, which together constitute about
80% of the demand for this product. The tight supply of bleached pulp
which occurred in 1973 and 1974 caused difficulties for many of the small
and nonintegrated printing-writing paper and tissue paper mills; some had
to curtail production because of a lack of sufficient pulp. This shortage
has now been overcome, but it may reverse if new capacity is not built to
meet future needs.
TABLE A-l
U.S. BLEACHED MARKET PULP END USES, 1973
Consumption
Application thousands of tons Percent of Total
Printing-Writing Papers 2000 51
Tissue 1200 31
Other Paper Products 300 8
Fluffing Pulp 400 10
3900 100
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
b. Supply and Industry Structure
Canadian imports currently account for 53% of U.S. consumption of
bleached market paper pulps. However, they supply only about 12% of the
dissolving pulp consumed in the United States. Most of the Canadian pulp
mills specialize in market pulp rather than being integrated to on-site
paper or paperboard production.
121
-------
In 1970 and 1971, Canadian pulp producers operated at about 85% of
capacity but were able to meet the needs of the U.S. market. In 1973 and
1974, however, the Canadians operated at near-full capacity, except during
mill and railroad strikes, which retarded Canadian exports during 1973.
The U.S. domestic supply of bleached market pulp comes from two
sources. One of these is the mills that specialize in producing market
pulp, but most of these primarily produce dissolving pulp. A larger por-
tion of the bleached market pulp supply comes from mills that are inte-
grated to paper and paperboard. Often during an expansion program, the
pulp mill is built larger than the paper or paperboard mill to take advan-
tage of economies of scale; the company then sells market pulp until it
expands its paper mill to equal the pulp mill capacity. Thus, there is a
continual shifting in and out of the bleached paper pulp market as com-
panies become more or less integrated to pulp.
The prospect of increasing the degree of forward integration at the
plant site is not present with dissolving pulp, because this pulp is more
economically converted into rayon closer to the market. All North American
dissolving pulp mills are dedicated to this product or a combination of
dissolving and bleached paper pulp. Two of these mills are partially
owned by companies that produce rayon fiber; thus, while they are not inte-
grated at the plant site, they are presently integrated forward in rayon
manufacture. There may be more of this financial integration of pulp and
rayon manufacture in the future.
Table A-2 shows the shares of North American capacity for dissolving
pulp and bleached paper-grade pulp held by the major producers. It indi-
cates that the dissolving pulp capacity is particularly highly concentrated.
There is also a fair degree of concentration on the part of several
bleached paper-grade pulp producers, namely, Weyerhaeuser, Parsons and
Whittemore, ITT Rayonier, and Canadian Cellulose.
A number of factors have constrained pulp mill capacity expansion in
the United States. These include: (1) price controls (until they were
removed in mid-1974), (2) increasingly stringent and costly pollution con-
trol regulations, (3) a growing scarcity of suitable and available mill
sites that have an adequate supply of wood and water, (4) concern over the
future supply and costs of energy, (5) uncertainty over future operating
cost inflation, and (6) the increasing capital investment required to
expand or build new pulp mill capacity.
Vertical integration is important in this industry, mainly from the
standpoint of backward integration to control a portion of the woodlands
required to support the mill. This backward integration has also led com-
panies to integrate horizontally into lumber and plywood production in an
effort to obtain optimum fiber utilization and maximum return from land.
122
-------
TABLE A-2
CONCENTRATION IN NORTH AMERICAN MARKET PULP SUPPLY
(Percent of North American capacity)
Company Dissolving Pulp Bleached Paper Palp
ITT Rayonter 44% 6.8%
International Paper 14 4.2
Ketchikan Pulp 10
Alaska Lumber and Pulp 9,5
Procter & Gamble 9
Subtotal 86.5%
Other Producers (3) 13.5
TOTAL
Weyerhaeuser 11.3
Parsons & Whittemore 7.0
Canadian Cellulose 6.7
B. C. Forest Products 5.7
MacMillan Bloedel 5.3
Georgia Pacific 4.3
Northwood Pulp & Timber 3.4
T;ihsis Co. 3.2
Domtar 3.2
Cariboo Pulp & Paper 3.2
Subtoal 64.6%
Other Producers (10-15) 35.4
TOTAL 100.OX
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates based on Lockwood's
Directory, 1975.
As noted earlier, there is virtually no forward integration from the
dissolving pulp mills, and relatively little from the bleached paper-grade
pulp mills that specialize in this product area. It is important to be
vertically integrated back to pulp in producing most paper and paperboard
products, as noted elsewhere in this section, but it is not particularly
advantageous to be integrated forward from pulp, particularly when pulp is
in short supply as in 1973-1974.
c. Supply and Demand Trends
Table A-3 shows trends in U.S. capacity, production, imports, exports,
and apparent consumption of bleached paper-grade pulps over the past five
years. During this period, the capacity for bleached sulfite pulp declined
and then grew modestly, while the rate of capacity expansion for bleached
kraft pulp slowed appreciably to a 3.3% annual average between 1971 and
1974. In contrast, bleached pulps grew 5.7% per year between 1969 and 1971
and 7.9% per year during the previous ten years. The recent slower growth,
coupled with a strong surge in U.S. and world consumption of bleached pulps
in 1972 and 1973, created shortages in 1973 and the first half of 1974, even
after the Canadian rail strike ended.
Market pulp current accounts for 32% of the total U.S. consumption of
bleached paper-grade pulp; the remaining 68% is produced and consumed by
paper and paperboard mills integrated to pulp.
123
-------
TABLE A-3
U.S. CAPACITY, PRODUCTION, TRADE, AND CONSUMPTION OF BLEACHED PAPER-GRADE PULP, 1969-1974
(thousands of tons, except as noted)
Is:
-P-
Capacity
1969
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974°
Bleached
Sulfite
2,001
1,968
1,949
1,949
1,977
1,991
Bleached
Kraft3
12,706
13,538
14,206
14,744
15,436
15,647
Capacity
Utilization
Total
14,707
15,506
16,155
16,693
17,413
17,694
Production
13,939
14,983
14,650
15,766
16,783
17,462
94.8
96.6
90.7
94.1
96.4
98.7
Apparent .
Imports Exports Consumption
2,965 1,210 15,694
2,611 1,926 15,668
2,599 1,216 16,033
2,796 1,376 17,186
3,057 1,524 18,315
3,214 1,548 19,128
Includes semi-bleached kraft pulp
Production plus imports minus exports
°First-half annual rate
Source: Capacity - "Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity," American Paper Institute
(published annually)
Production - "Statistics of Paper and Paperboard," American Paper Institute
(published annually)
Imports & Exports - "Quarterly Industrial Report: Pulp, Paper, and Board," U.S.
Department of Commerce, Domestic and International Business Administration,
Bureau of Domestic Commerce
-------
There is a substantial amount of world trade in bleached papermaking
pulps. Kraft pulp mills currently have about an 82% share of the world
market for bleached paper-grade pulp. However, the rate of capacity expan-
sion for bleached kraft pulp through 1978 will drop appreciably from past
trends: the 1974 FAO* Capacity Survey indicated a growth rate of 4.6% per
year for 1973-1978, in contrast to 10.4% per year for 1965-1972. The slow-
ing growth of supply will be particularly critical for softwood pulp, where
capacity will increase 24% in 1973-1978 compared with a 28% growth over the
same period for hardwood kraft pulp.
Tables A-4 and A-5, which show world bleached kraft capacity growth by
region, indicate that one of the principal reasons for the slowing trend is
a comparatively slow rate of capacity expansion in the United States, which
currently accounts for about 43% of the total world supply.
Because of the obstacles mentioned earlier to major pulp and paper
mill capacity expansion, most of the new capacity plans will call for
incremental additions to existing mills. As part of this incremental
expansion, many pulp producers are integrating their pulp mills by adding
paper machines. Thus, while paper and paperboard capacity is being
expanded much slower than the historical trend, it is increasing faster
than pulp capacity (Table A-6).
The chief conclusion we draw from these trends is that a relatively
tight supply will be re-established with the recovery of the world economy
that is expected in 1976 and will remain tight at least through 1978.
Table A-7 shows the major applications for bleached paper-grade pulp
and our projections of each through 1980. This analysis points to an
average annual growth in demand of 4% over the five-year period, compared
with 6% per year in 1968-1973. Bleached kraft pulp will fill most of this
increased demand, since sulfite pulp capacity will rise slowly, if at all.
Thus, bleached kraft pulp demand should increase at an average of about 5%
per year between 1975 and 1980.
Beyond 1978, an oversupply condition is likely to develop, possibly in
1979 and 1980, as producers respond to the recent rapid rise in pulp prices
and profitability.
2. CONTAINERBOARD
a. Industry Structure
Containerboard is the largest single product category in the U.S.
paper industry. Demand for the products in this group is directly related
to the shipping container requirements of the full spectrum of American
industry; thus, it is strongly influenced by the national economic activity.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
125
-------
TABLE A-4
WORLD CAPACITY TRENDS FOR SOFTWOOD BLEACHED KRAFT PULP
(thousands of tons)
Increase
Country or Region
United States
Canada
Sweden
Finland
Other Western Europe
Japan
U.S.S.R.
Eastern Europe
Latin America
Other
TOTAL
Source: FAO Capacity
1973
7,448
5,352
2,114
1,016
273
460
408
100
242
197
17,610
Survey, 1974
TABLE
1978
8,376
6,068
3,016
1,397
401
552
862
346
365
386
21,769
A- 5
Tonnage
928
716
902
381
128
92
454
246
123
189
4,159
Percent
12.5
13.4
42.7
37.5
46.8
20.1
111.1
246.4
50.6
95.9
23.6
WORLD CAPACITY TRENDS FOR HARDWOOD BLEACHED KRAFT PULP
(thousands of tons) Increase
Country or Region 1973
United States
Japan
Canada
Sweden
Finland
Other Western Europe
Latin America
Eastern Europe
Other
5,441
2,924
766
762
617
1,216
377
99
226
1978
5,718
3,511
943
794
962
1,729
1,766
186
313
Tonnage
277
587
177
32
345
513
1,389
87
87
Percent
5.1
20.1
23.1
4.2
55.9
42.2
368.0
88.0
38.6
TOTAL 12,427
Source: FAO Capacity Survey, 1974
15,922
126
3,495
28.1
-------
TABLE A-6
AVERAGE ANNUAL INCREASE IN WORLD PULP AND PAPER CAPACITIES
(percent)
1963-1968 1968-1973 1973-1977
Total Paper and Paperboard 5.8 4.7 4.1
Total Paper Pulp 6.2 4.2 3.7
Printing and Writing, J 4.0
excl. Newsprint f
> 6.0 5.2
Other Paper and Paperboard ) 4.4
Semi-Chemical Wood Pulp \ 4^5
> 7.4 4.8
Chemical Wood Pulp j 3.8
Bleached Pulp 4.3
Source: FAO 1974 Capacity Survey
TABLE A-7
FREE-WORLD BLEACHED PAPER-GRADE PULP DEMAND, 1975-1980
(thousands of tons)
Average
Application 1975 1980 Annual Growth
~~ '
Printing & Writing Papers 20,700 25,200 4.0
(exc. Newsprint)
Tissue
Bleached Paperboard
Newsprint
Fluffing Pulp
TOTAL
Kraft
Sulfite
4,100
4,500
4,400
700
34,400
29,000
5,350
4,700
5,400
4,900
1,200
41,400
36,300
5,200
2.9
3.7
2.3
11.5
3.8
4.6
-0.7
127
-------
There are no significant imports of any of the containerboard mate-
rials. Large amounts of linerboard are exported, however. Domestic kraft
linerboard producers are in a favorable export position, because they have
generally cheaper wood and larger, more efficient mills than competitive
producers.
While about 70 U.S. companies produce linerboard, corrugating medium,
or both, the 13 largest account for nearly 80% of the U.S. production capa-
city for these materials, as shown in Table A-8.
In terms of geographical distribution, about 85% of U.S. kraft liner-
board production is in the South and the remainder is in the West. Pro-
duction of semi-chemical corrugating medium is distributed roughly 60% in
the Northeast and North Central regions, 35% in the South, and 5% in the
West, in approximate relationship to the distribution of the hardwood tim-
ber used for this product. Recycled corrugating medium, linerboard, and
chipboard production is located close to the major population centers.
TABLE A-8
MAJOR CONTAINERBOARD PRODUCERS
1973 Linerboard and
Corrugating Medium Capacity
International Paper
Container Corporation
Weyerhaeuser
St. Regis
Westvaco
Union Camp
Owens-Illinois
Mead
Inland Container
Crown Zel. °rbach
Continent; 1 Can
Great Noi^hern-Nekoosa
Hoerner-Waldorf
Total
Tons /Day
5,605
5,105
4,400
3,940
3,435
3,100
2,970
2.890
2,540
2,440
2,410
2,100
1.625
42,560
% of U.S. Capacity
9.9
9.0
7.8
7.0
6.1
5.5
5.3
5.1
4.5
4.3
4.3
3.7
2.9
75.4
Source: Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades, 1974
128
-------
b. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-9 compares our projections of containerboard demand with
producers' expectations of capacity expansion through 1977. This indicates
that unbleached kraft paperboard (mainly linerboard) was in extremely tight
supply in 1973 and should be in equally tight supply as the economy fully
recovers from the effects of the recession. The capacity for recycled
linerboard is expected to grow rapidly from a very small base, and its
producers should continue to enjoy relatively high operating rates through
1977, in light of the tight supply which we foresee for kraft linerboard.
If it were not for the capacity constraint in unbleached kraft paperboard,
exports of kraft linerboard would probably grow at a higher rate than we
have projected, since there has been a similar slowdown in linerboard capa-
city expansion throughout the world.
Corrugating medium was in tight supply in 1973, but has been in over-
supply during the recession. Since announced capacity expansions indicate
a rate of growth significantly higher than our demand projections, the
oversupply is likely to continue through 1977.
TABLE A-9
CONTAINERBOARD SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS
UNBLEACHED KRAFT PAPERBOARD
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
RECYCLED LINERBOARD
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
CORRUGATING MEDIUM
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
CONTAINER CHIPBOARD
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
Preliminary
1973
(000 tons)
13,560
13,898
98%
284
306
93%
5,303
5,564
95%
247
349
Average
Growth
(%/Year)
3.0
3.0
18.0
18.9
3.0
6.1
3.0
5.4
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
15,300
15,623
99%
550
612.
90%
5,915
7,050
85%
230
430
71%
54%
aExcludes tube, can, and drum paperboard
Source: Capacity - "Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity," American
Paper Institute, 1974
Production - "Statistics of Paper and Paperboard," American Paper
Institute, 1974
1977 Projections - Arthur D. Little, Inc.
129
-------
However, it is possible for some producers of semi-chemical corrugating
medium to make linerboard on their machines; similarly, those who make
recycled corrugating medium can shift to linerboard or folding boxboard.
Such shifts in product mix may entail some economic sacrifice, but perhaps
not as much as if the producers continued to make only corrugating medium
at a low operating rate.
Container chipboard was in plentiful supply in 1973 and should remain
so through 1977. This product is generally made on relatively old, slow
cylinder machines; economical production does not require as high an oper-
ating rate as does linerboard or corrugating medium. Here again, producers
could shift to other recycled paperboard products; this contributed to a
relatively tight supply condition in 1973 and should help to alleviate the
low operating rate projected for 1977.
3. FOLDING BOXBOARD
a. Demand/Consumption Trends
Apparent domestic boxboard consumption was about 8.2 million tons in
1973. Total domestic consumption increased at the rate of about 1% per
year from 1968 to 1973. Solid bleached paperboard consumption increased
at the rate of about 3% per year from 1968 to 1973, while consumption of
recycled paperboard declined at the rate of about 2.1% per year during this
period. SBS board gained market share at the expense of recycled board,
primarily because its performance/cost relationship is superior to that of
recycled board in many of the applications where they compete directly.
Boxboard markets have been seriously penetrated by plastics.
b. Production/Capacity Trends
Total 1973 U.S. boxboard production was about 8.5 million tons. SBS
board capacity was approximately 3.39 million tons in 1973, and the appa-
rent SBS board capacity utilization ratio was about 98%. Total recycled
paperboard capacity (including recycled boxboard and other recycled paper-
board grades) was about 8.3 million tons in 1973, and the industry's capa-
city utilization ratio was about 95%. Announced expansion plans indicate
that SBS board capacity will be expanded at the rate of about 2.7% per
year through 1977, while recycled board capacity will be expanded at the
rate of about 4.5% per year. (Allocating total recycled paperboard capa-
city to specific products, e.g., recycled boxboard, is an arbitrary process,
since a recycled paperboard machine can readily switch to a variety of
recycled board grades. Thus, total production and capacity of recycled
paperboard are the most meaningful numbers to use in estimating capacity
utilization ratios.)
Most of the bleached paperboard mills are located near their fiber
resources in the South and West. Most recycled boxboard mills are located
in major population centers so that they can obtain sufficient supplies of
waste paper raw material and can be near the major folding carton and set-
up box converting plants.
130
-------
Imports of both bleached paperboard and recycled boxboard are insig-
nificant. There are no significant exports of recycled boxboard, since
the wastepaper furnished is economically available in all industrialized
regions. However, there are some exports of bleached paperboard (about 7%
of 1973 production) to markets where U.S. producers are competitive by vir-
tue of their large scale and relatively low-cost fiber resources.
c. Industry Structure
Table A-10 shows that there are only about twenty SBS board producers
in the United States. The six largest accounted for approximately 52% of
1974 U.S. bleached paperboard capacity. Thus, bleached paperboard is a
concentrated market sector. The recycled board sector is much more frag-
mented. Table A-ll shows that while seven recycled board producers
accounted for about 50% of total recycled board capacity in 1974, at least
45 other producers accounted for the remaining capacity.
d. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-12 shows projected supply/demand trends to 1977 for bleached
paperboard and folding and set-up recycled paperboard. Both bleached
paperboard and folding recycled paperboard were in extremely tight supply
in 1973; hence these should be similarly tight in 1977 as the economy
recovers from the recession. However, a number of recently announced
bleached paperboard expansions due to come on stream in 1978 could cause a
modest oversupply in that year. Demand for set-up recycled paperboard is
declining slowly, partly due to competition from folding cartons and
plastics; this trend is likely to cause an oversupply of set-up recycled box-
board by 1977 unless the equivalent of one mill is closed or shifted to
other products by that time.
In years past, bleached paperboard displaced recycled paperboard in
a number of folding carton applications. Because of this and the growth
of its other markets, bleached paperboard demand grew about 5% per year
during the 1950's and 1960's while the demand for recycled paperboard
hardly grew at all. Now, however, the extremely rapid cost/price increase
for bleached pulp has made bleached paperboard less cost-competitive with
recycled paperboard in folding applications. Also, we expect renewed com-
petition between plastics and bleached paperboard in milk cartons, cups,
plates, and trays. Therefore, we project that bleached and recycled
paperboard will grow at about the same rate, albeit a relatively slow one
(roughly 2% per year).
4. NEWSPRINT AND UNCOATED GROUNDWOOD PAPER
a. Demand
Most newsprint is sold direct to the daily newspaper publishers and
the multiple-newspaper printing plants. A small portion (less than 5%) is
distributed to paper merchants and to small users, such as small weekly
newspaper publishers, shopping newspaper publishers, and general commer-
cial printers.
131
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TABLE A-10
LEADING U.S. SOLID BLEACHED BOARD PRODUCERS
(percent of U.S. 1974 capacity)
Producer
International Paper 18.7
Westvaco 9.4
Potlatch 6.4
Continental Can 6.2
Eastex 5.8
Weyerhaeuser 5.7
Top six producers 52.2
Others (roughly 15 companies) 47.8
TOTAL 100
Source: Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and
Allied Trades; Industry Contacts;
Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates
TABLE A-11
LEADING U.S. RECYCLED BOXBOARD PRODUCERS
(percent of 1974 U.S. capacity3)
% of Total
Federal 13.9
Container Corporation of America 11.2
Packaging Corporation of America 6.3
Whippany 5.3
Brown Paper Company 4.9
Michigan Carton (St. Regis) 4.7
Simkins Industries 4.5
Top Seven Producers 50.8
Others (roughly 45 companies) 49.2
Total 100
Includes folding and se.t-up boxboard.
132
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TABLE A-12
BOXBOARD SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS
Product Category
BLEACHED PAPERBOARD
Domestic demand
Exports and other
Total demand for U.S.
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
FOLDING RECYCLED PAPERBOARD
Total Demand for U.S.
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
SET-UP RECYCLED PAPERBOARD
Total demand for U-S.
Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
Preliminary
1973
(000 tons)
3,655
265
3,920
3,928
100%
2,763
2,664
100.5%
465
518
Average
Growth
(%/yr)
2.0
3.0
2.1
1.9
2.0
1.6
-1.0
0.4
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
3,960
300
4,260
4,237
100.5%
2,990
2,836
105%
450
527
90%
85%
OTHER COMBINATION BOARD - NONBENDING
Total demand for U.S.
Production 526
Capacity 584
Apparert Operating Rate 90%
2.0
1.6
570
620
92%
Sources: Capacity and 1973 Demand - American Paper Institute; Demand
Projections Arthur D. Little, Inc.
133
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Most uncoated groundwood papers are distributed directly to large end
users, such as catalog and directory publishers and the large paperback
book publishers; however, a substantial amount (probably more than 25/0 is
distributed through paper merchants to small users as the smaller magazine
publishers and general commercial printers.
U.S. newsprint consumption has increased at an average rate of 2.5%/
year since 1964. This puts it in one of the slower growth categories in
the industry. As consumption is highly related to population, all metro-
politan newspapers have shown relatively slow growth, and many large
metropolitan dailies have ceased publication in recent years. However,
growth in the suburbs has counteracted this trend.
Advertising space is the key determinant of newspaper size or lineage
and thus also significantly affects newsprint consumption. Newspaper
advertising has faced stiff competition from radio and particularly TV
advertising media.
Recently, a few new applications for newsprint have begun to develop
in areas where no more than short-term use is required. The increasing
price differential between newsprint and groundwood-free papers which
occurred in 1964 provided increased incentive to shift to newsprint. One
such relatively new application is in business forms, where approximately
100,000 tons of newsprint and uncoated groundwood paper was substituted
for the traditional register bond paper in 1974.
U.S. consumption of uncoated groundwood papers grew at the average
rate of 4.2%/year (1964-1974), making it a somewhat higher growth area than
newsprint. However, uncoated groundwood papers have been replaced by coated
papers in catalogs and magazines, and their consumption has also suffered
from the demise of low-cost pulp magazines and comic books. The major
recent growth areas have been telephone directories and paperbacks. Demand
appears to be currently bolstered by the fact that the price differential
with groundwood-free printing papers has widened appreciably during 1975.
For example, there is currently a $205/ton differential between No. 3 off-
set uncoated book and catalog-grade groundwood paper; in January 1974, the
differential was about $100/ton. This should increase uncoated groundwood
paper use in a number of commercial printing applications.
b. Supply and Industry Structure
Canadian newsprint mills play a pivotal role in supplying U.S. needs
and, hence, are of prime importance in the industry's competitive structure.
In 1974, Canadian mills supplied about 70% of the U.S. demand for newsprint,
and U.S. mills supplied the remaining 30%.
Table A-13 lists the capacities of the major North American newsprint
suppliers. This does not necessarily reflect their share of the U.S. mar-
ket, since many Canadian producers also have substantial overseas exports.
The recent acquisition of the Price Company by Abitibi Paper Company has
given it a dominant 17% share of North American capacity. International
Paper, with a 10% share, traditionally was the major supplier.
134
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TABLE A-13
CAPACITIES OF MAJOR NORTH AMERICAN NEWSPRINT SUPPLIERS, 1974
Capacity (OOP tons/yr)
Percent of North
Company
Abitibi-Price
International Paper
MacMillan-Bloedel
Consolidated Bathurst
Bowaters
Ontario Paper
Kimberly-Clark
Boise Cascade
Southland Paper Mills
Crown Zellerbach
Great Lakes Paper
Garden State & FSC Paper
Great Northern - Nekoosa
Publishers Paper
Total
U.S.A.
235
243
437
420
212
474
217
372
360
360
Canada
2,179
1,156
1,380
1,043
603
731
174
317
256
439
Total American Capacity
2,414
1,399
1,380
1,043
1,040
731
594
529
474
473
439
372
360
360
17.0
9.9
9-7
7.4
7.4
5.2
4.2
3.7
3.3
3.3
3.1
2.6
2.5
2.5
78.5
Source: "Newsprint Statistics," American Newspaper Publishers Assn., April 12, 1974
135
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North American newsprint supply is relatively concentrated. The top
14 firms have a nearly 80% share of the total North American capacity and ^
about an equal total share of the North American market. The flow^of news-
print from Canada to the United States, as well as to other countries, is
facilitated by the fact that most countries have no import duties on this
product.
Table A-14 lists the capacities of the major U.S. uncoated groundwood
paper producers. Imports of groundwood paper from Canada or elsewhere are
not significant (117,000 tons in 1974); an import duty, coupled with the
freight advantage enjoyed by U.S. producers in shipping this product, make
it difficult for nondomestic suppliers to compete.
Traditionally, the uncoated groundwood paper market has been viewed as
an alternative use for old newspaper machines that are no longer competi-
tive in the newsprint market. This is the route of entry used by all
current suppliers. Recently, however, Great Northern-Nekoosa and Fraser
Paper have installed new machines to increase their market share. These
two companies, along with Bowaters and St. Regis, are the major U.S.
producers.
TABLE A-14
CAPACITIES OF MAJOR U.S. UNCOATED GROUNDWOOD PAPER SUPPLIERS, 1974
Rank Capacity % Total No. Mills
(tons/day)
Great Northern Nekoosa 1 1,132 27.4 2
Bowaters 2 695 16.8 1
St. Regis 3 512 12.4 2
Fraser 4 356 8.6 1
Appleton 5 236 5.7 1
Crown Zellerbach 6 220 5.3 2
Total 76.2
Source: Lockwood's Directory, 1975.
136
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All of the virgin fiber newsprint producers and all but a few of the
smaller uncoated groundwood paper producers control, via ownership or lease,
at least a portion of the woodlands needed to supply their mills and are
vertically integrated to the production of groundwood and often chemical
pulp. The two major recycled newsprint suppliers, Garden State and FSC
Paper, operate their own waste paper collection organizations to assure a
continuing supply of waste paper.
c. Supply/Demand
Table A-15 shows projections of U.S. supply/demand trends for news-
print and uncoated groundwood papers through 1977. Both products had
extremely high operating rates in 1973. (A 95-97% average operating rate
is considered maximum capacity for newsprint mills over a full year.) The
104% apparent operating rate for uncoated groundwood paper suggests that
some was made on newsprint machines in that year. In part, the tight sup-
ply of newsprint in 1973 was caused by newsprint-mill and railroad strikes
in Canada, particularly during the third quarter.
Our projections of U.S. demand and net imports of newsprint and
uncoated groundwood papers indicate that, in light of the capacity expan-
sion plans reported by the American Paper Institute, a tight supply situa-
tion will again be reestablished by 1977 as the economy continues to improve.
We have also examined the capacity expansion plans of the Canadian pro-
ducers, as reported by the Canadian Pulp and Paper Association; these indi-
cate that the Canadian producers will be hard-pressed to supply the U.S.
demand for newsprint over the next decade. In the past few years the
Canadian producers changed their product specification from a 32-pound basis
weight sheet to stretch the available fiber resources and thereby facilitate
incremental expansion of existing mills.
While the markets for newsprint and uncoated groundwood paper are
extremely mature, demand is currently being bolstered by the fact that the
price differential between groundwood-free printing papers and groundwood
papers has widened appreciably over the past year with the rapid increase in
bleached pulp prices, as was discussed above.
5. PRINTING, WRITING AND RELATED PAPERS
a. Demand
Printing and writing papers are used in a variety of applications; hence
consumption is influenced by a number of different demand patterns. For
example, coated printing paper, particularly the publication grade, is influ-
enced not only by the business-cycle effect on advertising expenditures but
also upon competition among the media. Textbooks use uncoated book, offset
paper, and coated paper with a non-groundwood base sheet; thus, these grades
are heavily influenced by federal and state aid to education programs. The
diversity of end uses for printing paper causes its consumption to correlate
well with the GNP. The consumption of register bond or forms bond, one of
the largest components of the writing paper grade category, fluctuates
closely with the industrial production index.
137
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TABLE A-15
GROUNDWOOD PAPER SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS
Preliminary
1973
(000 tons)
Average
Growth_
(%/yr)
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
NEWSPRINT
U.S. Demand3
Less: Net Imports
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
UNCOATED GROUNDWOOD PAPERS
Demand
Less: Net Imports
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
U.S. consumption of newsprint in 1973 was reported as 10,504,000 tons by
the American Newspaper Publishers Association ("Newsprint Statistics,"
April 1974)
Tonnage figures are based on 31.5 pound/ream newsprint; data should
be reduced by about 5% to reflect 30 pound/ream newsprint, which is
now the predominant basis weight.
Source: Capacity - "Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity," American Paper
Institute, 1974
Demand - "Quarterly Industrial Report: Pulp, Paper, and Board," U.S.
Department of Commerce, Domestic and International Business Admin-
istration, Bureau of Domestic Commerce, July 1974, and Arthur D.
Little, Inc. projections.
10,726
7,313
3,413
3,597
95%
1,560
99
1,461
1,403
104%
2.6
2.4
2.7
2.2
2.2
19.2
0.7
1.0
11,900
b
8,100
b
3,800
b
3,925°
97%
1,700
200
1,500
1,462
103%
138
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On a tonnage basis, U.S. consumption for the total of all printing and
writing paper grades grew at the rate of 5.5% per year in 1960-1973 and
5.2% per year in 1968-1973. Within this grade spectrum, forms bond grew
about 10% per year, while coated-one-side paper grew about 2% per year.
b. Supply and Industry Structure
Printing and writing papers are produced by an extremely wide variety
of processes. These include paper mills integrated to all of the bleached
chemical pulps (kraft, sulfite, soda, and cotton fiber), to groundwood pulp,
and to deinked wastepaper, as well as mills not integrated to pulp. In gen-
eral, the producers of the large-volume commodity grades are fully integrated
to kraft, groundwood, or sulfite pulp mills, while the producers of higher
priced specialty papers are either not integrated or partially integrated to
chemical fiber or deinked pulp. Table A-16 shows the 1973 production volume
for the principal products in this sector.
Table A-17 lists the 15 major U.S. printing and writing paper producers
and their share of U.S. capacity in 1974. The market is relatively frag-
mented compared with most other paper industry product sectors; the 15
largest producers, all of whom are integrated to pulp, account for only 66%
of U.S. capacity, and nearly 60 other firms also compete in this product
sector.
TABLE A-16
U.S. PRODUCTION OF PRINTING, WRITING, AND RELATED
PAPER PRODUCTS, 1973
Product Category
Coated Printing and Converting
Coated, two sides
Coated, one side
Subtotal
Uncoated Book Paper
Publication and Printing
Body Stock for Coating
Other
Subtotal
Writing and Related Papers
Writing, Chemical Wood Pulp
Writing, Cotton Fiber
Cover and Text
Thin Paper
Subtotal
TOTAL
Production
(000 tons)
3,389
457
3,846
2,011
27
1,024
3,062
3,091
124
221
345
3,781
10,689
1-39
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TABLE A-17
CONCENTRATION IN U.S. PRINTING AND WRITING PAPER SUPPLY
(percent of U.S. capacity)
Company Approximate Share
Champion 8
Inernational Paper '
Mead 6
Boise Cascade 5
St. Regis 4
Westvaco 4
Consolidated 4
Crown Zellerbach 4
Hammermill 4
Great Northern Nekoosa 4
Scott Paper 4
Fraser 3
Weyerhaeuser 3
Potlatch 3
Allied 3_
Subtotal 66
Other Suppliers (59) 34
TOTAL 100
Sources: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates based on
Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied
Trades (1975), and corporate annual reports
c. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-18 shows 1973 operating rates for major product categories
within the printing, writing, and related paper sector and projects their
operating rates to 1977. It indicates that as the economy recovers, the
coated paper, uncoated book, chemical writing, and thin paper product cate-
gories should reestablish by 1977 the extremely high operating rates they
enjoyed in 1973.
Cotton fiber writing paper is the only category that is likely to exper-
ience a drop in operating rates by 1977; however, the mills in this category
characteristically maintain relatively low operating rates compared with
other categories in the printing and writing paper sector.
We expect the highest rate of growth in demand to occur in the uncoated
book, chemical writing, and thin paper category, although only slightly above
that of our assumed growth of real GNP of 3.5%/year. Within this category,
computer forms bond is growing at an above-average rate; uncoated book and
stationary paper are growing at about an average rate, and thin papers are
below average. In the coated papers sector, magazine applications are grow-
ing only about 3% per year, but somewhat higher growth is expected in text-
books and other coated paper applications.
140
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TABLE A-18
PRINTING, WRITING, AND RELATED PAPER SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS
Preliminary Average Projected
1973 Grouch 1977
Product Category (000 tons) (Z/yr) (000 tons)
COATED PRINTING & CONVERTING
Total demand for U.S.
Production 3,846 3.5 4,410
Capacity 4,045 3.4 4,621
Apparent Operating Rate 95% 96%
UNCOATED BOOK, CHEMICAL WRITING,
AND THIN
Total demand for U.S.
Production 6,719 4.0 7,860
Capacity 6,883 4.4 8,162
Apparent Operating Rate 98% 97%
COTTON FIBER WRITING PAPERS
Total demand for U.S.
Production 124 - 120
Capacity 149 0.6 153
Apparent Operating Rate 83% 78JE
Source: Capacity - "Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity," American Paper
Institute, 1974
Demand - "Quarterly Industrial Report: Pulp, Paper, and Board," U.S.
Department of Commerce, Domestic and International Business Admin-
istration, Bureau of Domestic Commerce, July 1974, and Arthur D.
Little, Inc. projections
6. TISSUE AND RELATED PAPERS
a. Demand
Total domestic U.S. tissue consumption increased at the rate of about
6% per year from 1963 to 1968 and about 3.2% per year from 1968 to 1973.
The recent slower growth rate indicates that this market is maturing. In the
1950's and 1960's, consumer sanitary tissue displaced reusable fabrics in the
napkin and towel product categories. The tissue market was then one of the
fastest growing markets in the pulp and paper industry. Within the last few
years, however, most of this displacement has been completed, and consumer
tissue consumption has increased at a lower rate.
The consumption of tissue in the industrial (non-sanitary) market also
increased rapidly in the 1960's as the fast-food industry proliferated and
the demand for paper disposables increased accordingly. While the consump-
tion of industrial tissue has increased at a higher rate than that of con-
sumer tissue in recent years, the rate of growth in industrial tissue
consumption has decreased as a result of slowing of the growth rate of the
fast-food/institutional food businesses.
141
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The demand for tissue products in the future is expected to be related
to a larger degree to such factors as consumer disposable income and popula-
tion growth, since tissue displacement of reusable fabrics has subsided.
Thus, the tissue market will probably grow more slowly than real GNP over the
next five years. However, the consumer segment of the tissue industry will
also probably be more recession-proof and less subject to cyclical swings in
consumption levels than the pulp and paper industry or the economy as a
whole.
b. Production/Capacity Trends
Table A-19 shows 1974 U.S. tissue production by major product. Capacity
in 1974 was approximately 4.3 million tons. Thus, the apparent 1974 indus-
try operating rate was about 93%-94%. Announced plans indicate that tissue
capacity will be expanded at the rate of about 2.7% per year through 1977.
Unlike other paper industry sectors, tissue production is spread
evenly throughout the country(concentrated near major metropolitan areas),
rather than being centered near the fiber resource areas of the South and
West.
The import/export balance is not an issue as far as productive tissue
capacity is concerned. There have been no significant imports of any tissue
materials to the United States in the last 10 years. Exports of tissue prod-
ucts have been less than 1% of total U.S. production over this period. The
reason for this low level of international trade is the high bulk of tissue,
which makes it very expensive to ship over long distances.
c. Industry Structure
Compared with other pulp and paper industry markets, tissue is a rela-
tively concentrated market sector. Table A-20 shows that the four largest
producers accounted for more than 50% of total U.S. tissue productive
capacity in 1974.
In addition to having substantial financial resources, the leading
tissue producers are largely vertically integrated. They are integrated
to pulp on a company basis, although not necessarily on a mill-site basis;
more than half of the output of this industry comes from tissue mills not
integrated on-site to tissue converting. The practice of these industry
leaders implies that substantial vertical integration is an important com-
ponent for success in the tissue industry.
d. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-21 shows our projection of the operating rate in the tissue
paper sector through 1977. The operating rate is likely to be very high in
1977 because of slow capacity expansion and an assumed recovery from the cur-
rent recession in 1976. In this sector of the industry, an average 95%
operating rate over a full year is a practical maximum.
i42
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TABLE A-19
1974 TISSUE PRODUCTION BY PRODUCT
Sanitary
Bathroom Tissue
Towels
Napkins
Facial Tissue
Wipers
Other Sanitary
Total Sanitary Tissue
Non-Sanitary (Industrial)
Wrapping
Waxing
Industrial Cellulose Wadding
Miscellaneous Tissue
Total Non-Sanitary Tissue
TOTAL
OOP Tons
1474
1332
439
355
43
176
3819
66
52
32
108
% of Total
36
33
11
1
4
258
4077
94
1.5
1.3
0.7
2.5
6
100
Source: "Statistics of Paper and Paperboard," American Paper
Institute, 1975 (Data are preliminary)
TABLE A-20
MAJOR U.S. TISSUE PRODUCERS
(percent of 1974 U.S. capacity)
Scott
Procter and Gamble
American Can
Kimberly Clark
Crown Zellerbach
Fort Howard
Georgia Pacific
Other (44 companies)
TOTAL
24.1
12.8
9.0
8.6
6.7
6.6
6.0
26.2
100.00
Sources: Derived from Lockwood's 1975 Directory of the Paper and
Allied Trades: industry contacts; Arthur D. Little,
Inc., estimates.
143
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TABLE A-21
TISSUE PAPER SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS, 1973-1977
Preliminary
1973
(000 tons)
Average
Growth
(%/Year)
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
Demand for U.S. Production
Sanitary Tissue
Non-Sanitary Tissue
Total Demand
3
2
2.9
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
4,303
93%
2.2
4,697
95%
Source; American Paper Institute (1973 shipments and capacity data)
and Arthur D, Little, Inc., demand projections.
Our demand projections might be optimistic, in light of current econ-
omic conditions, the rapid price increase for tissue products, and the slow-
ing of population growth. However, even if the sanitary tissue sector were
to grow only 2% annually, the tissue industry operating rate would average
around 92% of capacity in 1977, which is still relatively high.
Both the sanitary and non-sanitary tissue product categories have
reached nearly full maturity and are now growing at only slightly above
the population growth rate. In the 1950's and the 1960's, sanitary tissue
demand grew an average of 5% per year, when it was still displacing cloth
products. There are no cheaper substitues for sanitary tissue products,
but rising prices are likely to cause consumers to economize on their use;
i.e., there is some elasticity to the demand. However, demand for indus-
trial tissue products is likely to be more price-elastic than that for sani-
tary tissue.
In the non-sanitary tissue area, waxing tissue is being displaced by
plastic films and foil packaging materials. However, consumption of waxed
paper has already declined to such an extent that the substitution trend has
probably nearly run its course. The growth of wrapping tissue and industrial
cellulose wadding is likely to parallel industrial production.
144
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7. INDUSTRIAL PACKAGING AND CONVERTING PAPERS
a. Industry Structure
Table A-22 lists the 1973 production of the major products comprising
the industrial packaging and miscellaneous converting paper functional group.
Table A-23 lists the 1973 capacities of the ten largest producers of un-
bleached kraft and other packaging and industrial converting papers. These
firms concentrate on the production of unbleached kraft grades as opposed to
the other packaging and converting grades. Together, they account for over
50% of U.S. unbleached kraft paper capacity. All are vertically integrated
from woodlands to the converting and marketing of multi-wall grocery and
other bags.
Thilmany Pulp and Paper Company is the largest producer of packaging
and converting papers other than unbleached kraft and is one of the few that
specializes in this product line. This industry sector, however, is much
more highly fragmented than the unbleached kraft papers sector; many com-
panies produce these grades as a small part of their total production. In
addition, there is a much lower incidence of complete vertical integration
of woodlands to converted product.
Table A-24 shows the major producers of special industrial paper.
Although the average producer is relatively small (under 100,000 tons/year),
there is a fair degree of concentration in this sector; the top ten firms
account for over 60% of the total capacity in this highly specialized pro-
duct line. Most producers are not integrated to pulp production but rely
on purchased pulp or waste paper for their fiber requirements.
Tube, can, and drum paperboard and special combination paperboard are
often produced as a relatively small portion of the product lines of the
recycled boxboard companies. Sonoco Products Company is one of the few
major firms to concentrate the production of several of its mills in this
product area. The market is relatively fragmented. In most respects, it
has the same characteristics as the recycled folding boxboard sector,
except that there is little or no forward integration to converting.
b. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-25 shows the projected 1977 supply/demand balances for each of
the major grades that make up the industrial packaging and converting
papers functional group. In each case, 1977 operating rates are expected
to be about equal to the fairly high rates that prevailed in 1973.
The rate of growth in demand for unbleached kraft and other packaging
papers is very low, as we have noted earlier, primarily because of displace-
ment by plastic films. However, since the rate of capacity expansion for
these papers is also low, a tight supply/demand balance should be re-
established as the U.S. economy improves.
145
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TABLE A-2 2
PRODUCTION OF INDUSTRIAL PACKAGING AND MISCELLANEOUS
CONVERTING PAPERS, 1973
Production
Grades OOP tons % of Total
Unbleached Kraft Packaging and
Industrial Converting
Wrapping 248
Shipping sack 1,133
Bag and sack, excluding
shipping 1,987
Other converting 643
Subtotal 4,011 50.6
Packaging and Industrial
Converting, Excluding
Unbleached Kraft
Wrapping 168
Shipping sack 102
Bag and sack exc, shipping 254
Other converting 497
Glassine, greaseproof, and
vegetable parchment 236
Subtotal 1,258 15.9
Other Converting Paper and
Paperboard
Special industrial paper 564 7.1
Tube, can and drum
paperloard (recycled) 901 11.4
Special combination
paperboard 1,191 15.0
TOTAL 7,925 100.0
Source: Bureau of the Census, Industry Division, Pulp, Paper and Board
and American Paper Institute (tube, can and drum and special
combination paperboard )
146
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TABLE A-23
CAPACITIES OF MAJOR PRODUCERS OF UNBLEACHED KRAFT AND OTHER
PACKAGING AND INDUSTRIAL CONVERTING PAPER PRODUCTS, 1973
Capacity
Company
International Paper
St. Regis
Union Camp
Crown Zellerbach
Longview Fibre
Hudson Pulp and Paper
Gulf States Paper
Hoerner Waldorf
Georgia-Pacific
Thilnany Pulp and Paper
Subtotal
Other Producers
TOTAL
(OOP tons)
568
441 .
320
411
2210
195
177
177
156
142
2,817 +
2.613
5,430
(% o£ Sector Total)
10.5
8.1
5.9
7.6
4.2
3.6
3.3
3.3
2.9
2.6
51.9 +
48.1
100
Source: "Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades," 1974;
"Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity, 1973-1976," American
Paper Institute, 1974
TABLE A-24
CAPACITIES OF MAJOR PRODUCERS OF SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL PAPER, 1973
Homosote Company
Riegel Products Corporation
Standard Packaging
Hollingsworth and Vose
Pitchburg Paper
Schoeller Technical Division
of Mead
Allied Paper
Nicolet Industries
Beverage Paper
Rochester Pcper
Subtotal
Other Produr? cs
TOTAL
Source: "Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades," 1974;
"Paper and Paperboard Wood Pulp Capacity, 1973-1976," American
Paper Institute, 1974
(000 tons)
113
55
42
39
32
24
24
23
23
23
398
231
629
(Z of Sector Capacity)
17.9
8.7
6.7
6.2
5.1
3.8
3.8
3.7
3.7
3.7
63.3
36.7
100.0
-------
TABLE A-25
SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS FOR INDUSTRIAL PACKAGING, CONVERTING, AND
MISCELLANEOUS PAPERS
Preliminary
1973
(000 tons)
UNBLEACHED KRAFT PAPER
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
OTHER PACKAGING PAPER
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
SPECIAL INDUSTRIAL PAPER
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
SPECIAL RECYCLED PACKAGING PAPERBOARD"
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
4,011
4,138
97
1,258
1,292
97
564
629
90
1,540
1,637
94
Average
Growth
(Z Year)
1.2
1.0
0.2
0.3
3.5
3.2
4.0
3.7
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
4,200
4,303
98
1,270
1,306
97
650
713
91
1,800
1,895
95
aIncludes tube, can, ana drum stock; 1973 data from API
Because of its specialty product nature and the highly fragmented lines
of most producers, special industrial paper is not a typical pulp and paper
commodity product: a 90-92% operating rate is about the practical maximum
for this grade over the course of a year. Here again, the growth in capacity
approximates the projected growth in demand between 1973 and 1977, indicating
that a relatively tight supply/demand balance will prevail. A similar pro-
jection holds for special recycled packaging and converting paperboard.
8. CONSTRUCTION PAPER AND PAPERBOARD
a. Industry Structure
Tables A-26 and A-27 show the capacity shares of the major producers of
construction paper and gypsum linerboard respectively. Both markets are
highly concentrated from a supply standpoint. All of the construction paper
producers are integrated forward to the conversion of final products such as
shingles, tar paper, and sheathing paper; their plants are generally near
major metropolitan areas, which provide a supply of waste paper as well as
the primary market for the end product. Similarly, all the gypsum liner-'
board producers make gypsum wallboard in plants that are close to a source
of gypsum.
148
-------
TABLE A-26
MAJOR PRODUCERS OF CONSTRUCTION PAPER
1973 Capacity
Company (OOP tons) % of Sector Total
Celotex Company 358 17.0
GAF Corp 367 17.5
Lloyd A. Fry Roofing 240 * 11.4
Certain-Teed Product;; 218 10.4
Bird & Son 175 8.3
Johns Manville 195 9.3
Subtotal 1,533 73.9
Other Producers 549 26.1
TOTAL 2,102 100.0
Sources: Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades,
1974, and American Paper Institute Capacity Survey,
1974.
TABLE A-27
MAJOR PRODUCERS OF GYPSUM LINERBOARD
1973 Capacity
Company (OOP tons) % of Sector Total
National Gypsum 411 37.6
U.S. Gypsum 259 23.7
Georgia Pacific 121 11.1
Celotex 104 9.5
Subtotal 895 81.9
Other Producers 198 18.1
TOTAL 1,093 100.0
Sources: Lockwood's Directory of the Paper and Allied Trades, 1974
and American Paper Institute Capacity Survey, 1974
149
-------
Table A-28 lists the major producers of hardboard and insulation board
and their share of total production capacity. The hardboard market is highly
concentrated, as the five top producers account for about 52% of total capac-
ity. The insulation board sector is almost as concentrated, with the five
top producers accounting for 48% of capacity.
The largest centers of hardboard and insulation board production are in
the North Central, Western, and Southern regions. Most of the major pro-
ducers are integrated back to woodland control, although not specifically
for these products, since they are made primarily from sawmill and plywood
mill wood residues.
b. Supply/Demand Trends
Table A-29 shows projections of supply and demand for the various sec-
tors of the construction paper and paperboard functional group. In all of
these sectors, 1977 operating rates are likely to be about as high as those
that prevailed in 1973. Demand in all sectors is highly sensitive to con-
struction industry activity, and our demand projections assume that housing
starts will return to an annual level of about two million by 1977.
TABLE A-28
CAPACITIES OF MAJOR PRODUCERS OF HARDBOARD AND INSULATION BOARD
Percent of Total
Company Industry Capacity
A. Hardboard
Masonite 34
Abitibi 8
Superwood 6
D.S. Plywood (Champion International) 5
Georgia-Pacific 5
U.S. Gypsum 5
Celotex (Jim Walter) 5
Evans Products 4
B. Insulation Board
Celotex 19
Boise Cascade 13
Armstrong Cork 12
Weyerhaeuser 8
U.S. Gyp=um 8
Temple Industries 7
Sources: a. Annual reports, company data, and contractors'
estimates
b. Arthur D. Little, Inc., "Economic Analysis
of Proposed Effluent Guidelines,"
EPA 230/2-74-029. August 1974.
ISO
-------
TABLE A-2 9
CONSTRUCTION PAPER AND BOARD SUPPLY/DEMAND TRENDS
CONSTRUCTION PAPER
Demand for U.S.
Capacity
Production
Apparent Operating Rate
Preliminary
J973
(000 tons)
1,812
2,102
86%
Average
Growth
(%/yr)
3.2
1.8
Projected
1977
(000 tons)
2,060
2,258
91%
GYPSUH LINERBOARD
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
HARD PRESSED BOARD
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
1,050
1,093
96%
1.2
0.9
1,100
1,135
97%
2,087
2,247
93%
3.6
2.2
2,400
2,452
98%
INSULATING BOARD
Demand for U.S. Production
Capacity
Apparent Operating Rate
1,659
1,837
90%
3.6
3.8
2,000
2,136
94%
151
U.S EPA Headquarters Library
Mail code 3404T
1200 Pennsylvania Avenue NW
Washington, DC 20460
202-566-0556
-------
APPENDIX B
BASE LINE ENERGY USAGE
This appendix presents energy and material balances for six major
processes within the pulp and paper industry that were not included in
the examples selected for detailed analysis. The six processes are as
follows:
Fig. B-l Manufacture of Kraft Liner from Virgin Fiber
Fig. B-2 Manufacture of Corrugating Medium from Virgin Fiber
Fig. B-3 Manufacture of 18-Point Clay-Coated Boxboard from Secondary
Fiber
Fig. B-4 Manufacture of SBS Board from Virgin Fiber
Fig. B-5 Manufacture of Bond Paper from Virgin Fiber
Fig. B-6 Manufacture of Bond Paper from Secondary Fiber
These energy and material balances are included to permit a more compre-
hensive analysis of the entire industry. Although all pulping and paper-
making processes have not been included, these six examples plus those
discussed in the body of the report account for perhaps 80-85% of the
industry's production. Figures B-l through B-6 provide base-line information
that would be useful in future EPA assessments of the impact of technological
changes (i.e., changes in energy usage) that may occur in these other major
manufacturing processes.
152
-------
Roundwood
Softwood
Wood (1486) 0.56cunit
Bark (246)
Hardwood
Wood (372) 0.14cunit
Bark (63)
Chips
Softwood (1426) 0.46 cunit
Hardwood (357) 0.11 cunit
(1783)
Additives"
(16)
Wood (1858) I Bark (309)
Wood
Preparation
4%
Wood
_osses
(74)
Bark
(309)
Fuel Oil
I indicates
(1784) '
RD
(383)
I
1 (3567) _
Pulping
\
1.07 MM kcal
[4.3 MM Btu]
0.36 MM kcal
[1.45 MM Btu]
b
(1837) _
Paperboard <1840> '-0 MDT
Making »- @ 8% Moisture
48% D ssolved T
Solids Fiber i
'/2% Rejects Losses Additive
(1730) @%% Losses
f (5) @ 50%
Recovery
Power
Boiler
Lime
Reburning
(8)
10,280 Ib
Steam
3060 Ib
Steam
2660 Ib
Steam
1
^^lb,uuu lobteam
1
t
1 Power
i L, i [
--"^ Extracted »
726 kWh To Process
L
^ |
(30 MW) T
^ 771 |
kWh
Purchased Power 45 kWh
*2% loss on barking, suitable for fuel
recovery, + 2% loss on chipping,
suitable for fuel or fiber recovery
* Rosin 6 Ib, alum 10 Ib
Figure B-l. Manufacture of Kraft Liner From Virgin Fiber
153
-------
320 Ib
kraft clippings
as rec'd
@ 10% Moisture
5% Losses: Soluble
^ and Cleaning Rejects
0.36 cunit
Chips
0.36 cunit
Roundwood
Wood Bark
1.7% Wood
Loss
(36)
Bark
(104)
25% Dissolved
Solids
(530)
240 Ib Salt Cake
530 Ib
Fossil Fuel
(140)
Power
Boiler
^
13,470 Ib
Steam
Extracted
Power
635 kWh
(1860) 10MDT@
7% Moisture
7
14,000 Ib
Steam
"Including washing and acid making
( ) Indicates BD Ib
[12 MW]
Purchased Power 91 kWh
To Process
726 kWh
Figure B-2. Manufacture of Corrugating Medium From Kraft Liner
154
-------
Top Liner
(460 Ib ledger)
Filler Liner
(1349 Ib news
+ 337 IbOCC)
Clay (100)-
Binders (26) -
Rosin, Alum (4)
214615
Waste
@ 1 0%
Moisture
(1932)
Pulping
1
r
(1739)
1
t
Paperboard
Making
i
r
(1860)
1.0MDT@
7% Moisture
10% Fiber Losses
and discards
(193)
Fiber Loss
(9)
Indicates BD Ib
Fossil Fuel
10 MM Btu
Power
Boiler
11,000 Ib Steam
Power
Extracted
454 kWh ,
To Process
[6.8 MW]
Purchased Power 136 kWh
590 kWh
Figure B-3. Manufacture of 18-PT Clay-Coated
Boxboard From Secondary Fiber
155
-------
Additives*
(50)
Bl SW Kraft
Bl. HW Kraft
0.41 ADT
1.02 ADMT
Slush Pulp
(1837)
1
r
Paperboard
Making
(1860) _
1.0 MDT@
7% Moisture
Fiber
loss @ Y4%
(4)
Additive
Loss @ 50%
(25)
I ) Indicates BD Ib
"Rosin 20 Ib, alum 30 Ib
Fossil Fuel
7.7 MM Btu
Power
Boiler
6,800 Ib
Steam
To Process
Power
Extracted
308 kWh
Figure B-4. Manufacture of SBS Board From Virgin Fiber
156
-------
Additives*
(50)
Bl. SW Kraft
0.466 ADT
Bl. HW Kraft
0.466 ADT
Slush Pulp
(1678)
Filler (PCC)
(200)
Paper
Making
(1860)
1.0 MDT
@ 7% moisture
'/*% Fiber loss (4)
20% Filler loss (40)
50% Additive loss (24)
( ) Indicates BD Ib
*Rosin 20 Ib, alum 30 Ib
Fossil Fuel
6.3 MM Btu
Power
Boiler
6400 Ib
Steam
A
Power
Extracted
290
Purchased Power 36 kWh
To Process
326
kWh
Figure B-5. Manufacture of Bond Paper From Virgin Fiber
157
-------
2192 Ib Waste Paper
@ 10% Moisture
(877 Ib IBM Card
+ 877 Ib Ledger +
438 IbNo. 1 News)
Additives
(50)
(1974)
' ^*~
Pulping
&
De-inking
(1678)
^*
i
Filler (PCC)
1 (200)
' t
Paper
Making
(1860)
1.0 MDT
@ 7% Moisture
15% Fiber Losses
and Other Rejects
(296)
%% Fiber Loss (4)
20% Filler Loss (40)
50% Additive Loss (24)
(Basis: 1 machine-dry ton of bond paper, rolls)
( ) Indicates BD Ib
*Rosin 20 Ib, alum 30 Ib
7.6X 106Btu
Steam
Generation
7600 Ib
Steam L
To Process
Purchased Power 634 kWh
j
Figure B-6. Manufacture of Bond Paper From Secondary Fiber
158
-------
APPENDIX C
CURRENT POLLUTION LOADS, TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY, AND COSTS
TO MEET PROPOSED GUIDELINES
1. BASIS OF COST CALCULATIONS
ADL used end of second quarter 1975 as the dollar base for this report,
and all costs are indicated at that level. Further, because of the uncer-
tainty of future prices, all of the analyses are based on mid-1975 dollars
without any escalation for further inflation.
The cost models have been developed for a typical scale of operation.
All cost models are developed for new mill installations, typical of good
technical practice in 1975. None of the models is intended to represent
the cost of an actual mill.
2. WATER EFFLUENT STANDARDS AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
a. Industry Categorization and Standards
Tables C-l and C-2, and Figure C-l outline the effluent control levels
recommended in the Development Document* for new sources and for alterna-
tive treatment systems designed to meet these standards.
The standards presented are the EPA-NSPS proposed guidelines, except
that we have also included color removal for bleached kraft pulp and paper
products, since it is required for BAT (1983).
Costs are presented in Section 8 of the Development Document. The
reader is referred to the Development Document for a detailed discussion of
the estimated effluent control costs and technology; this section only high-
lights the key points necessary to understand the interpretation and appli-
cation of the cost data.
*A11 "Development Document" references in this appendix are to Group I,
Phase II, "Development Document for Advanced Notice of Proposed or Pro-
mulgated Rule Making for Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source
Performance Standards for the Bleached Kraft, Groundwood, Sulfite, Soda,
Deinked, and Nonintegrated Paper Mills Segment of the Pulp, Paper, and
Paperboard Mills Point Source Category," U.S. E.P.A., August, 1975.
159
-------
TABLE C-l
Subcatetory
Dissolving Kraft
Market Kraft
BCT Kraft
Fine Kraft
Papergrade Sulfite
Dissolving Sulfite
GW-Chemi-Mechanical
GW-Thermo-Mechanical
GW-CMN Papers
GW-Fine Papers
Soda
Deink
NI Fine Papers
NI Tissue Papers
NI Tissue (FWP)
BATEA EFFLUENT LIMITATIONS
in kg/kkg (Ib/ton)
Maximum 30-Day Average
Maximum Day
BOD 5
5.45
3.35
2.85
1.9
6.45
8.35
1.25
1.1
1.75
1.65
2.4
2.5
1.25
2.0
2.0
(10
( 6
( 5
( 3
(12
(16
( 2
( 2
( 3
( 3
( 4
( 5
( 2
( 4
( 4
.9)
.7)
.7)
.8)
.9)
.7)
.5)
.2)
.5)
.3)
.8)
.0)
.5)
.0)
.0)
3
2
1
1
3
4
1
0
1
1
1
2
0
0
0
TSS
.45
.25
.85
.55
.15
.05
.2
.65
.3
.2
.55
.4
.65
.95
.95
(6
(4
(3
(3
(6
(3
(2
(1
(2
(2
(3
(4
(1
(1
(1
.9)
.5)
.7)
.1)
.3)
.1)
.4)
.3)
-6)
-4)
-1)
-8)
.3)
.9)
.9)
11
6
5
4,
13
17
2
2.
3
3.
5,
5,
" 2.
4,
4,
BOD 5
.25
.9
.9
.0
.3
.3
.6
.25
.65
.45
.0
.2
.6
.15
.15
(22
(13
(11
( 8
(26
(34
( 5
( 4
( 7
( 6
(10
(10
( 5
( 8
( 8
.5)
.8)
.8)
.0)
.6)
.6)
.2)
.5)
.3)
.9)
.0)
.4)
.2)
.3)
-3)
TSS
7.6 (15.2)
4.95 ( 9.9)
4.05 ( 8.1)
3.35 ( 6.7)
6.9 (13.8)
8.85 (17.7)
2.65 ( 5.3)
1.4 ( 2.8)
2.8 ( 5.6)
1.0 ( 2.0)
3.35 ( 6.7)
5.3 (10.6)
1.4 ( 2.8)
2.1 ( 4.2)
2.1 ( 4.2)
pH for all subcategories shall not exceed 6.0 to 9.0
Color
Subcategory
Dissolving Kraft
Market Kraft
BCT Kraft
Fine Kraft
Soda
Subcategory
Maximum 30-Day Average
kg/kkg (Ib/ton)
GW: Chemical-mechanical
GW: Thermo-mechanical
GW: CMN Papers
GW: Fine Papers
125
95.0
65.0
65.0
65.0
(250)
(190)
(130)
(130)
(130)
Zinc
Maximum 30-Day Average
kg/kkg (Ib/ton)
0.115 (0.23)
0.065 (0.13)
0.120 (0.24)
0.115 (0.23)
Maximum Day
kg/kkg
250
190
130
130
130
(Ib/ton)
(500)
(380)
(260)
(260)
(260)
Maximum Day
kg/kkg (Ib/ton)
0.23 (0.46)
0.13 (0.26)
0.24 (0.48)
0.23 (0.46)
Source: Development Document
160
-------
TABLE C-2
IDENTIFICATION OF INTERNAL TECHNOLOGY ITEMS
Item No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Description
Replace Flume with mechanical conveyor.
Use of steam in drum barkers.
Knots collection and disposal.
Fourth stage brown stock washer.
Decker filtrate for brown stock washer showers.
Close-up screen room.
Pulp mill spill collection from washers.
Pulp mill spill collection from tanks, equipment
and drains.
Jump stage countercurrent washing.
Evaporator surface condenser.
Steam stripping condensates and reuse.
Evaporator boilout tank.
Black liquor storage tank spill collection.
Green liquor dregs filtering.
Causticizing area spill collection system.
Evaporator condensate for causticizing makeup.
Lime mud storage pond.
Alarms on chemical tanks.
Prehydrolysate disposal by burning.
MgO recovery system.
Paper machine vacuum saveall.
Paper machine flotation saveall.
Paper machine high pressure showers.
Paper machine white water showers.
Cylinder former white water showers.
Cooling water segregation and reuse.
Felt hair removal.
Vacuum pumps seal water reuse.
Paper mill stock spill collection system.
Source: Development Document
161
-------
Spill Storage
Mill Raw
Waste
Coarse
Screenina
i Alternatives 1
Stationary
Traveling
Suspended /
Solids )
Removal |
Sludge to Disposal
BOD Removal
Alternatives
TT71-
Sedimentation
Lagoon
.1.
Clanfier
Aerated
Stabilization Basin
Alte'rnatives 1
r-t-4:
Filtration or
Floatation Unit
L.
J
Activated
Sludge Unit
BOD Removal
Solids
Sedimentation
or Seasonal
Discharge
Post Storage
Sludge
Return
R.B.S. or
Trickling Filter
Clarifier
Excess Sludge
to Disposal
Alternatives
Alternative
Foam Trap
Legend:
Waste Flow
Sludge
Alternatives
Chemical
Defoamer
Diffuser
Outfall
Source: Development Document.
Figure C-l. Alternative Treatment Systems
162
-------
Various pulping and nonintegrated paper-making process categories were
defined in the Development Document"to characterize the entire U.S. pulp
and paper industry. In some instances (e.g., bleached kraft) the categories
were further divided into appropriate sub-categories. Typical small,
medium, and large plant sizes were selected within each sub-category to
indicate the effect of scale of operations on the effluent control cost
estimates. Thus, a range of hypothetical models was obtained which repre-
sents typical sizes of "pure" pulping or papermaking processes.
b. Treatment Technology
An engineering approach was used in the Development Document to specify
effluent control treatment technology to be used in estimating costs. Both
internal (process modification) and external "end of pipe" control measures
were used. A generalized flow diagram for external treatment alternatives,
reproduced from the Development Document, is shown in Figure C-l. A list
of the applicable internal control measures is shown on page 376 of the
Development Document and is reproduced as Table C-2.
Typical effluent loadings were specified for each process sub-category,
including total flow, TSS (total suspended solids), and BOD5 (five-day
biochemical oxygen demand). A treatment train was then specified for each
sub-category to meet the proposed standards.
Each item in the treatment train was sized according to plant size,
hydraulic load, BOD and TSS reduction requirements, etc. The technologies
chosen and the design parameters used are typical of those that would be
expected in the pulp and paper industry. Thus, the treatment technologies
are reasonable for the conditions specified for each sub-category model.
Day-to-day variations in effluent from typical mills are discussed in the
Development Document, beginning on page 246. This daily variability has
been accounted for by the application of daily peaking factors to both the
design effluent loading and to the allowable daily average effluent
limitations relative to 30-day averages.
Mill-to-mill variations from the specified typical technology can be
largely due to factors unique to each mill. Sources of variability are
noted in this section of the report, but we have not attempted to assess
any variations quantitatively.
c. Cost of Effluent Control
The general methodology used for estimating capital and operating
costs for the treatment technology specified is contained in Section VIII
of the Development Document. A discussion is included for each item of
internal treatment technology. Internal treatment items are primarily
process modifications which often result in cost savings through economies
in materials and/or energy.
163
-------
Therefore, it is difficult to make an exact determination as to whether any
particular item is mainly a process improvement or an effluent control step.
In the Development Document it was assumed that the capital cost for all
items listed as internal control technology is charged to effluent control,
but that operation and maintenance charges are offset by material and
energy savings. Thus, there are no operation and maintenance charges to
effluent control for internal control technology. The one exception to
this assumption is for sulfite liquor incineration and recovery included
in the MgO recovery process (Table C-2, Item 20).
The cost estimates for external treatment are described in the Develop-
ment Document, starting on p. 465. The key assumptions are described as
follows:
"Cost curves have been developed for each treatment tech-
nology outlined in this report. The cost curves and resultant
unit costs are based on 'model' effluent treatment facilities
sized for several flow capacities. These 'model' effluent
treatment facilities are based on assumed unit processes, yard
piping layouts, methods and materials of construction, site
and soil characteristics, unit construction costs, and opera-
tional practices. Detailed design for each unit, process, and
mechanical layout is beyond the scope and time limitations of
this report."
"The construction costs presented are those defined as the
capital expenditures required to implement the control tech-
nology. Included in these costs are the traditional expendi-
tures for such items as mechanical and electrical equipment,
instrumentation, yard and process piping, earth-work, unit con-
struction, site preparation and grading, equipment installation
and testing, and engineering. Items such as electricals,
instrumentation, process piping, site preparation, and engineer-
ing are included as a percentage of the base capital costs,
which varies for each applicable control technology. A 15
percent contingency is also included with each control technology
to cover miscellaneous work items not included in the estimates."
Note that the cost of land is not included in the estimates.
Costs have been estimated separately for treatment trains using an
aerated stabilization basin (ASB) or activated sludge for biological treat-
ment. It is anticipated that some mills may desire or need activated
sludge for increased efficiency during cold weather or because of limited
land availability for ASB construction. While activated sludge is typically
the more costly of these two options, the exact relationship would be
different if the cost or value of land were included in the estimates.
164
-------
Land requirements for various treatment technologies are indicated on
page 536 of the Development Document. These requirements are based on
sludge disposal to an on-site lagoon for BPT, and dewatering and offsite
landfill disposal for BAT. In either case, the cost of land for a lagoon
or disposal site is not included.
ADL has not attempted to estimate what the cost of land might be,
whether actually purchased or only transferred from company holdings, nor
made any quantitative evaluation of the implication of omitting land costs.
This cost is only noted as a possible source of variability in the cost
estimates.
Operating costs -are discussed on page 467'of the Development Document.
Annual operating costs are presented in three categories: (1) Total
operating costs, (2) Depreciation and interests, and (3) Operation and
Maintenance. Operation and maintenance "are the sum of the annual costs
for operating labor, maintenance labor, energy requirements, and chemicals."
(Development Document, p. 467) Note that the cost of maintenance materials
is not included.
The following comments on cost variability are quoted from the Develop-
ment Document:
"It should be recognized that actual treatment costs vary
widely from mill to mill, depending upon the design and opera-
tion of the production facilities and local conditions. Further-
more, effluent treatment costs reported by the industry vary
greatly from one installation to another depending upon book-
keeping procedures. The estimates of effluent volumes and
treatment methods described in this section are intended to
represent those of the sub-categories covered by this report.
However, the industry is extremely heterogeneous in that almost
every installation has some uniqueness which could be of impor-
tance in assessing effluent treatment problems and their
associated costs." (p. 373)
"It should be remembered that actual external treatment
costs may vary significantly from mill to mill, depending upon
the climate, topography, soil conditions, unit locations, and
the design and operation of the particular waste treatment
facility." (p. 465)
The cost estimates we have used for water effluent control are basically
those presented for NSPS, with adjustments as noted in the following
section. As mentioned previously, we have added the cost of color removal
to the kraft pulping estimates. Color removal was estimated as the dif-
ference between cost of compliance for BAT (1983) guidelines versus NSPS
guidelines. While this results in an estimated cost of bleached kraft
pulp color removal which is substantially higher than estimates from other
165
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sources, we have used this estimate for the sake of data consistency; that
is, the Development Document remains the source of all effluent control
cost data. Since the absolute level of pollution control cost is a contro-
versial and imprecise issue, we have not evaluated the accuracy of the
Development Document cost estimates, but have used them as a recognized
and accepted data source.
The cost data contained in the Development Document could not be used
"as is" because they were based upon:
1974 dollars
Year-end 1973 level of compliance
Incomplete pollution control operating costs
It was therefore necessary to modify the costs in the Development
Document to reflect mid-1975 dollars and incorporate the additional items.
Process economic cost estimates of the cost of construction and
operating costs of new mills were necessary for economic comparisons.
A unit process basis was used in the development of all cost estimates.
The Development Document defined major pulping and papermaking process
categories and, in some instances, appropriate sub-categories. Typical
or average mill sizes were specified within each sub-category for both
existing and new mills. In general, small, medium, and large sizes were
specified for existing mills, with new capacity at the medium and large
sizes only. The result is an array of unit process models which can be
used to characterize the entire pulp and paper industry, both as it exists
and as new capacity is added.
The Development Document specified effluent loads for each sub-category,
independent of mill size. Effluent treatment control levels were specified
for each sub-category, also independent of mill size, for three levels of
control: Best Practical Control Technology Currently Available (BPT, pro-
posed for 1977), Best Available Technology Economically Achievable (BAT,
proposed for 1983), and New Source Performance Standards (NSPS, proposed
for all new capacity which comes on line after acceptance of the guidelines) .
Unit process control technology was specified for each sub-category and
mill size model. The specified technology included both internal process
controls and modifications, and external (end-of-pipe) treatement. Spec-
ification of technology included the individual items in each treatment
train (internal and external) as well as the parameters for sizing each
item. The capital and annual operating costs for each unit process treat-
ment train were estimated in the Development Document. ADL made minor
additions to the operating costs in the Development Document and updated
all capital and operating cost estimates to mid-1975 dollars.
166
-------
The cost estimates published in the Development Document are expressed
in second-quarter 1974 dollars. To adjust these to mid-1975 dollars, ADL
increased both investment and operating costs by 20%. The increase in
investment is significantly higher than that reported in typical engineer-
ing cost indices, but specific Information on cost increases in the pulp
and paper industry* indicates that the value ADL used is more appropriate.
ADL believes that this would also apply to pollution control equipment at
paper mill sites, particularly new mill installations. The increase in
operating costs is a weighted average of the estimated increases in indi-
vidual cost items ranging from 10% on labor to 60% on chemicals.
In addition to revising the Development Document cost data for infla-
tion, ADL has added the following operating cost items, which were excluded
from the Development Document but which ADL believes are legitimate
effluent control operating charges:
Factory overhead and general administration at 12% of the esti-
mated direct labor costs for pollution abatement. The Develop-
ment Document operating costs include overhead for direct labor
supervision only.
Professional administration for monitoring and reporting, includ-
ing relations with regulatory agencies. This is estimated as an
essentially fixed cost at $23,000 per installation, regardless
of size or category. The Development Document estimates include
the direct costs of measuring, sampling, analysis, and compila-
tion of data.
Insurance and local property taxes at 1-1/4% of total investment.
This is somewhat lower than typical of pulp and paper facilities,
and reflects the probability that some level of local property-
tax relief will be allowed for effluent control installations
and process modifications. Taxes and insurance are not included
in Development Document estimates.
Maintenance materials at 1% of total investment, which are not
included in the Development Document.
ADL has not attempted to adjust the Development Document figures to include
the cost of land, since this is such a highly variable cost item.
These refinements did not affect the estimated total capital costs
and added about 5% to the Development Document annual operating costs.
For virgin fiber pulping, ADL has used a relatively large capacity,
one that is considered economical by 1974 standards but not the largest
possible. For papermaking operations integrated to virgin pulping, ADL
*In-house information on recent construction projects.
167
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selected the largest practical size for a single machine, as this is typical
of current installations. For nonintegrated secondary fiber operation, a
single machine capacity lower than the largest practical was selected; this
is representative of the existing industry, since the economic availability
of secondary fiber rather than machine size alone is the limiting factor
in plant capacity.
Mill capacity was defined on a daily tonnage basis, and annual capacity
as daily capacity multiplied by net operating days per year. The latter
are total days of actual mill operation per year after subtracting scheduled
down-time for holidays and estimated maintenance shutdowns, giving a net
on-stream time of 354 days per year. Seven total paid holidays were
allowed, and it was assumed that the mill would operate on three of them.
On the 354 on-stream days, it was estimated that commodity grades (news-
print, board products, corrugating medium, and market pulp) would have a
total productive operation of 340 to 345 days. For noncommodity grades,
ADL estimated 330 productive days to reflect more frequent clean-up and
grade changes.
Plant size selections have been consistent with existing paper industry
patterns. For products where a number of geographic areas could be con-
sidered typical, ADL concentrated the models in one area to emphasize
fiber furnish and product grade as the primary variables in deriving cost
and profitability estimates.
3. AIR EMISSIONS STANDARDS AND TREATMENT TECHNOLOGY
Capital and operating costs to meet Federal Air Control Regulations
(kraft mill TRS and particulate limits, power boiler particulate limits)
were estimated separately and added to the base-level manufacturing cost.
a. Emissions Standards
(1) Cost Models for Air Pollution Control in the Kraft Mills
Particulate emissions from the kraft process occur primarily from the
recovery furnace, the lime kiln, and the smelt dissolving tank. These
emissions consist mainly of sodium salts but include some calcium salts
from the lime kiln. They are caused primarily by the carry-over of solids
plus sublimation and condensation of the inorganic chemicals.
The characteristic odor of the kraft mill is caused in large part by
the emission of hydrogen sulfide. The major source is the direct-contact
evaporator, in which the sodium sulfide in the black liquor reacts with the
carbon dioxide in the furnace exhaust. The lime kiln can also be a poten-
tial source, as a similar reaction occurs involving residual sodium sulfide
in the lime mud. Lesser amounts of hydrogen sulfide are emitted with the
noncondensible off-gases from the digesters and multiple-effect evaporators.
168
-------
The kraft process odor also results from an assortment of organic
sulfur compounds, all of which have extremely low odor thresholds. Methyl
mercaptan and dimethyl sulfide are formed in reactions with the lignin in
wood. Dimethyl disulfide is formed through the oxidation of mercaptan
groups derived from the lignin. These compounds are emitted from many
points within a mill; however, the main sources are the digester/blow tank
systems and the direct-contact evaporator.
(2) Air Pollution Control Standards
Under the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1970, air quality standards
have been established for the whole country. Each state is required to
adopt and to submit implementation plans to the Administrator of the
Environmental Protection Agency for its emission reduction strategy and
enforcement thereof to achieve national standards for particulates, sulfur
oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide.
The concentration of kraft pulp mills is high in Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Maine, Oregon, and Wisconsin. The air pollution control standards
for kraft pulp mills in the above states are given in Table C-3.
The EPA is planning to establish air pollution control standards for
the new kraft pulp mills. These standards (see Table C-4) are presently
at the proposed stage and are likely to be approved in the future, perhaps
with some modifications.
The EPA has established air pollution control standards for the new
steam generating boilers. These standards (Table C-5) limit the emissions
of particulates, sulfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The standards for
steam generating boilers are applicable to the power boilers in the kraft
pulp industry, as well as other power boilers that fall in the classifica-
tion of 250 million Btu/hr capacity.
The federal standards are generally more stringent than the state
standards for kraft pulp mills. Thus, the federal standards will be appli-
cable to new kraft mills and the state standards will be applicable to the
existing kraft mills.
b. Control Technology and Costs
The capital cost and annual operating cost for the control devices
necessary to meet the standards are discussed in the following paragraphs.
The estimated emission loads from chemical pulp sources are shown in
Table C-6.
The cost to achieve various levels of control is presented for each of
the affected facilities for three sizes of kraft mills: 500, 1000, and
1500 tons per day of air-dried pulp. The credit represents the value of
recovered material.
The dollar values used in this report are June 1975 dollars.
169
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TABLE C-3
STATE STANDARDS FOR EMISSIONS FROM PULP MILLS
Kraft
Sulfitec
Oregon
Recovery Boiler
Lime Kiln
Noncondensible
Stripping
Smelt Tank
Blow System
Alabama
Recovery Boiler
Smelt Tank
Lime Kiln
Florida
Recovery Furnace
Georgia
Maine
Recovery Boiler
Smelt Tank
Lime Kiln
Wisconsin
Recovery Boiler
Particulate
4
1
0.5
4
0.5
1
40*
31
4
0.5
1
so2
TRS
Particulate
300 (15, 0.45*)b'c
(40, 0.2*)b,d
e
f
1.2
17.5
*,h
40
(17.5, 0.5
* h
NOTES
'r
so2
20*
800
TRS
0.2§
40
a - The following units are used:
Particulate: Ib/ton of unbleached air-dried pulp or opacity
(denoted by asterisk)
Ib/ton of unbleached air-dried pulp (denoted by
asterisk) or ppm (dry basis)
TRS: Ib/ton of unbleached air-dried pulp (denoted by
asterisk) or ppm (dry basis)
b - The quantity shown is Ib sulfur/ton of unbleached air-dried pulp
c - Starting July 1, 1978 (10, 0.3*)b
d - Starting July 1, 1978 (20, 0.1*)t>
e - Noncondensibles from digester and multiple-effect evaporator to be burned
in lime kiln
f - Steam or air stripping to be burned in lime kiln
g - Ib/min/ton of unbleached pulp charged to digester
h - Expressed as I^S (total TRS only)
i - Lbs per each 3,000 Ibs black liquor solids fed to furnace
j - ppm
Source: Develooment Document
1-70
-------
TABLE C-4
SUMMARY OF PROPOSED STANDARDS AND MONITORING REQUIREMENTS
Total Reduced Sulfur
Particulate Matter
ppm8 Ib/T ADP g/kg ADP
Recovery Furnace
System 5 0.15 0.075
Lime Kiln 5b 0.025 0.0125
Smelt Tank 5 0.025 0.0125b
Brown Stock
Washer System 5 0.01 0.005
Black Liquor
Oxidation System 5 0.01 0.005
Condensate Strip-
ping System 5 0.01 0.005
Digester System 5b 0.01 0.005
Multiple-Effect
Evaporator -
Qwot-om 5 0 01 0 005
gr/d cf g/dscm Ib/T ADP
0.044 O.lb 2.0
0.067 gas 0.15b gas 0.55
0.13 oil 0.30 oil 1.07
0.052 0.119 0.3
K, c d
N.fi. -
g/kg ADP Opacity Monitoring Requirements Comments
1.0 15 Opacity, TRS, & 0 Particulate & TRS corrected to
8% Or
0.0275 None TRS & 0 Particulate & TRS corrected to 10% 02
0.536 None TRS & 02 Particulate & TRS corrected to 10% 02
0.15 None Fresh water will insure com-
pliance.
bustion air in the recovery
furnace.
bustion air in the recovery
furnace.
lime kiln.
lime kiln.
. - --te- TRS or Temperature Likelv to be oxidized in the
lime kiln.
By volume, dry basis, A hr average
Indicates units of recommended standard
In most instances monitoring will not be required since these sources will be oxidized in the lime kiln or recovery furnace. If they are oxidized in
separate incineration or power boilers, only the temperature and oxygen content will be monitored.
No standard
Source: Development Document
-------
TABLE C-5
STANDARDS OF PERFORMANCE FOR NEW STEAM GENERATORS
HAVING CAPACITY GREATER THAN 250 MILLION BTU/HR
Particulate - 0.18 g/106 cal (0.1 lb/106 Btu)
- Opacity less than 20%
- 1.4 g/106 cal (0.8 lb/106 Btu)
for liquid fuel
- 2.2 g/106 cal (1.2 lb/106 Btu)
for solid fuel
- 0.36 g/10 cal (0.2 lb/106 Btu)\
for gaseous fuel
0.54 g/106 cal (0.3 lb/106 Btu)
for liquid fuel
- 1.26 g/106 cal (0.7 lb/106 Btu)
for solid fuels except lignite
Measured as NO,
Source: Development Document
TABLE C-6
AIR EMISSIONS LOADS FOR KRAFT (STANDARD AND RAPSON) AND
ALKALINE-OXYGEN PULPING - NEW MILL BASIS
Brown Stock Washing
Bleaching
Recovery Boiler
Smelt Tank
Power Boiler
Lime Kiln
Digester and Seal Tank
Lime Slaker
TOTAL
Pulping
Recovery
Kraft Fulpin;
Alka 1 ine-Oxygen Pulping
Flow
(103 SCF/T)
180
-
460
0.48
180
46
0.40
0.01
870
180
690
Particulate
(Ib/T)
-
Neg.
130
5
18
45
0
0
200
0
200
IRS
(Ib/T) (
1.0
Neg.
15
0.1
0
Trace
8
0
24
9
15
Flow
166
-
391
0.
153
19
0.
0,
730
166
564
Particulate
'I) (Ib/T)
-
Neg.
110
2 2
15
19
4 0
,01 0
146
0
146
TRS
(Ib/T)
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
0
0
0
SOURCE: Arthur D. Little, Inc., estimates.
172
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(1) Recovery Boiler
There are two types of recovery boilers: conventional and noncontact.
The conventional recovery furnace system employs a direct-contact evap-
orator that uses the hot flue gas from the furnace to evaporate water
from the black liquor feed to the furnace. The direct-contact evaporator
removes some of the particulates from the flue gas. In addition, the
physical properties of the particulates are somewhat different from the
noncontact furnace case. As a result, a larger (and more expensive)
electrostatic precipitator is needed on the noncontact furnace to achieve
the same exit particulate concentration.
Capital costs, annual costs, and credits for recovered particulates
are shown in Table C-7 for three different cases: (1) economic recovery,
(2) particulate emission control to meet state standards, and (3) particu-
late emission control to meet federal standards.
Since the particulates (mainly salt cake) are valuable, it is economi-
cal to recover at least a portion of them. Beyond that level, the value
recovered is not enough to justify the additional investment; that is, the
incremental return on the incremental investment drops below the acceptable
level for that company. Although this break-point varies, an economic
recovery level of about 97.5%* control efficiency is used here. The figure
is based on a survey of existing control devices on recovery furnaces.
The capital cost of the ESP is based upon recent quotations and the
cost information given in the IGCI report.**
The credit for the recovered particulate is calculated on the assump-
tion that all the particulate is salt cake with a value of $35/ton. The
air pollution control cost is actually the incremental cost of the particu-
lar device over that used for economic recovery. The incremental capital
cost, the incremental annual operating cost, and the incremental operating
cost per ton of pulp are given in Table C-7.
TRS emissions from conventional recovery furnaces are reduced by
(1) close monitoring and control of the process variables and (2) oxidizing
the black liquor to eliminate the compounds that cause TRS emissions when
the black liquor contacts the furnace flue gas in the direct-contact evap-
orator. No costs are assessed to the closer control of the process variables.
*"Particulate Matter Reduction Trends in the Kraft Industry," Technical
Bulletin No. 32, National Council of Pulp and Paper Industry for Air and
Stream Improvement, Inc., April 4, 1967.
**"Air Pollution Control Technology and Costs in Eight Selected Industries,
Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, EPA Contract No. 68-02-1091, draft
report, 1974.
173
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TABLE C-7
CONTROL COSTS FOR RECOVERY BOILERS
Mill Size
(tons per day)
500 1,000 1.500
Economic Recovery
Conventional Boiler ESP (97.5%)
Capital Cost, $ 1,836,000 2,783,000 3,550,000
Gross Annual Cost, $ 459,000 696,000 888,000
Credits, $/yr (612,000) (1,225,000) (1,835,000)
Noncontact Boiler ESP (97.5%)
Capital Cost, $ 2,720,000 4,122,000 5,258,000
Gross Annual Cost, $ 571,000 866,000 1,104,000
Credits, $/yr (1,198,000) (2,397,000) (3,595,000)
Compliance with State Standards
Existing Conventional Boiler ESP (99%)
Capital Cost, $ 2,040,000 3,092,000 3,944,000
Gross Annual Cost, $ 510,000 773,000 986,000
Credits, $/yr (623,000) (1,246,000) (1,868,000)
Incremental Capital Cost, $ 204,000 309,000 394,000
Incremental Operating Cost, $/yr 40,000 56,000 65,000
$/ton 0.246 0.172 0.133
Existing Noncontact Boiler ESP (99%)
Capital Cost, $ 3,022,000 4,580,000 5,842,000
Gross Annual Cost, $ 635,000 962,000 1,227,000
Credits, $/yr (1,216,000) (2,434,000) (3,649,000)
Incremental Capital Cost, $ 302,000 458,000 584,000
Incremental Operating Cost, $/yr 46,000 59,000 69,000
$/ton 0.283 0.182 0.142
Compliance with Federal Standards
New Noncontact Boiler ESP (99.7%)
Capital Cost, $ 3,400,000 5,153,000 6,573,000
Gross Annual Cost, $ 714,000 1,082,000 1,380,000
Credits, $/yr (1,225,000) (2,451,000) (3,676,000)
Incremental Capital Cost, $ 680,000 1,031,000 1,315,000
Incremental Operating Cost, $/yr 116,000 162,000 195,000
$/ton 0.714 0.498 0.400
174
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TABLE C-7 (cont'd)
CONTROL COSTS FOR RECOVERY BOILERS
Mill Size
500
New Conventional Boiler ESP (99.5%)
Capital Cost, $
Gross Annual Cost, $
Credits, $/yr
Incremental Capital Cost, $
Incremental Operating Cost, $/yr
$/ton
(tons per day)
1,000
1.500
2,448,000
563,000
(621,000)
612,000
95,000
0.585
3,710,000
853,000
(1,243,000)
927,000
139,000
0.428
4,733,000
1,089,000
(1,864,000)
1,183,000
172,000
0.353
Basis: $35/ton is used for recovered chemicals. The ESP cost estimates are
based on recent quotations.
The economic recovery level of 97.5% and the weight of the recovered
materials were obtained from EPA Air Regulation, 1974.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
175
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The control technique for reducing TRS emissions is the basic design
of the noncontact furnace system. The direct-contact evaporator is not
used in the noncontact furnace. Several methods are used to accomplish
the function previously performed by the direct-contact evaporator, such
as enlarging the economizer section to recover more heat from the flue gas,
adding a steam-heated concentrator to evaporate water from the black liquor,
or using combustion air heated by the furnace flue gas to evaporate water
from the black liquor in an air-contact evaporator. In general, the heat
from the noncontact furnace flue gases is less than that recovered from
conventional furnace flue gases. The odor control cost is the cost of the
incremental loss of heat energy in the flue gas and the incremental oper-
ating cost of the noncontact furnace over the operating cost of the conven-
tional furnace. These costs are not included in Table C-7.
(2) Lime Kiln
The most common type of air pollution control device for the lime
kiln is the venturi scrubber. As with the recovery boiler, the most
favorable recovery level depends on the process economics. For the systems
considered in Table C-8, the economic recovery level is assumed to be that
achieved by a venturi scrubber with 37.5 cm (15 inches) of water pressure
drop.* Two other venturi scrubbers with higher pressure drops are shown
as alternative control devices. The capital costs are based on recent
quotations and on a study done for EPA by the Industrial Gas Cleaning
Institute.**
The cost attributed to air pollution control is the difference between
the device in question and the 37.5-cm pressure drop venturi scrubber.
These incremental costs are presented in Table C-8.
Proper process conditions such as the cold-end temperature, oxygen
content in the kiln, the sulfide content in the lime mud, and the pH and
sulfide content of the scrubbing water are necessary to reduce TRS emis-
sions from the lime kiln. Cold-end temperature control is a well-defined
process to control the TRS emissions. The costs given in Table C-8 are
based on increasing the cold-end temperature by 100° (from 350°F to 450°F).
Scrubbing with a caustic solution will absorb some of the TRS emission
from the lime kiln. For most mills the caustic is part of the ordinary
makeup caustic to the mill; therefore, no cost is associated with this
alternative.
*EPA, Air Regulations, 1975
**"Air Pollution Control Technology and Costs in Seven Selected Areas,"
Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, EPA Contract No. 68-02-0289,
December 1973.
176
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TABLE C-8
CONTROL COSTS FOR LIME KILN SYSTEM
Capital Cost, S
Cross Annual Cost, S
Credits, S/yr
Incremental Capita] Cost, S
m)
19f>,000
S 66,500
(66,200)
109,000
22, 300
0.137
S/yr
(3) Smelt Dissolving Tank
Three control techniques are presented in Table C-9 for the smelt dis-
solving tank. Demisters provide an economic recovery level. The cost of
demisters includes the mesh pad and a water spray system and is based on
the Sirrine report.* Credits are based on $35/ton for the recovered
particulate. The weight of the recovered material is based on the emission
factor given in the MRI report** and a collection efficiency of 80% for
the mesh pad.
The packed tower with associated fan, liquid circulation pump, and
control is used as an alternative control device for the smelt dissolving
tank. Credits for recovered particulate are calculated in the same manner
as for the demister case, except that the recovery efficiency is 96%.
The other alternative device is the orifice scrubber with associated
fan, liquid circulation pump, and control. The costs of this type of con-
trol system are based on recent quotations. The collection efficiency of
the orifice scrubber (20-25 cm WG) will be greater than 97%.
*"Control of Atmospheric Emissions in the Wood Pulping Industry," Environ-
mental Engineering Inc. and J.E. Sirrine Company, EPA Contract No.
CPA-22-69-18, March 1970.
**"Handbook of Emissions, Effluents and Control Practices for Stationary
Particulate Pollution Sources," Midwest Research Institute, EPA Contract
CPA-22-69-104, November 1970.
-------
TABLE C-9
CONTROL COSTS FOR SMELT TANK SYSTEM
Mesh Pad (80X1
Capital Cost, S
Capital Cost, S
Capital Cost, S
The control technique for reducing TRS emissions from the smelt dis-
solving tank is to use fresh water in the smelt dissolving tank scrubber.
This feature can be designed into a new mill at essentially no cost. There-
fore, no control costs are presented for control of TRS emissions.
(4) Digesters and Multiple-Effect Evaporators
The vent gas streams from the digesters and the multiple-effect evap-
orators are similar; both contain TRS compounds that create an odor
problem. It is common practice to combine and treat the emissions from
both affected facilities together; the control costs are presented for a
combined treatment system. The costs in Table C-10 are for an incinerator
in the lime kiln. The system consists of the necessary piping and blowers
to collect the gas streams and delivery piping and controls to inject the
gases into the lime kiln. The spare incinerator would handle the gases
when the lime kiln is not operating. The type of digester affects the
cost of the control system. The control cost for both cases (batch or
continuous digester, and multiple-effect evaporator) based on the Sirrine
report are shown in Table C-10.
178
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TABLE C-10
CONTROL COSTS FOR DIGESTER AND MULTIPLE-EFFECT EVAPORATORS
(Incineration in the lime kiln)
Mill Size
Batch Digesters
Capital Cost, $
Operating Cost, $/yr
$/ton
(tons per day)
500 1,000
162,000
35,000
0.216
235,000
54,000
0.165
1,500
318,000
73,500
0.151
Continuous Digesters
Capital Cost, $
Operating Cost, $/yr
$/ton
102,000
25,000
0.155
156,000
39,500
0.121
205,000
54,000
0.110
A separate incinerator is included.
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
(5) Brown Stock Washers
The gas stream from the brown stock washers is relatively large and
has a low concentration of TRS. The only control technique is incinera-
tion in the recovery furnace. Estimates from the EPA are given in Table
C-ll. The control equipment consists of the necessary hoods, connecting
piping, and controls to collect the gases and piping and controls to inject
them into the recovery furnace.
(6) Black Liquor Oxidation System
One method of reducing TRS emissions from conventional recovery
furnaces is to oxidize the black liquor to eliminate the compounds that
cause TRS emissions when the black liquor contacts the furnace flue gas in
the direct-contact evaporator.
Black liquor oxidation may be carried out to reduce the TRS emissions
f-rom the recovery boiler. The effluent gases from the black liquor oxida-
tion with air represent an emission source. (No emissions are generated
with black liquor oxidation using oxygen.) It will be necessary to treat
these gases if it is a new source. The control method is to incinerate
the gases in the recovery boiler. Since the offgas stream has a high
moisture content, a condenser is necessary. The control costs are shown
in Table C-12.
179
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TABLE C-ll
CONTROL COSTS FOR THE BROWN STOCK WASHERS
(Incineration in the recovery furnace)
Mill Size
(tons per day)
500 1,000 1,500
Capital Cost, $ 164,000 252,000 318,000
Operating Cost, $/yr 29,500 46,000 58,000
$/ton 0.182 0.142 0.119
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
TABLE C-12
CONTROL COSTS FOR BLACK LIQUOR OXIDATION SYSTEM
Mill Size
(tons per day)
500 1,000 1,500
A. Air Oxidation of Black Liquor
Capital Cost, $ 333,000 484,000 649,000
Operating Cost, $/yr 113,000 168,000 231,000
$/ton 0.695 0.517 0.474
B. Incineration of Off-Gases in
Recovery Boiler3-
Capital Cost, $ 175,000 267,000 347,000
Operating Cost, $/yr 47,000 78,000 107,000
$/ton 0.290 0.239 0.220
New sources only
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
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(7) Condensate Stripper
In mills that have condensate strippers, the TRS compounds vented
from the stripper can be controlled by incineration. The cost estimate
shown in Table C-13 is based on a system including a fan, duct, seal pot,
and flame arrester. The duct begins at the overhead condenser on the
stripper and ends at the point where it connects with the noncondensible
gas header that leads to the lime kiln and the spare incinerator.
(8) Power Boiler
Combination boilers (bark and oil, or bark and coal) or bark boilers
are used as power boilers in the pulp industry. The discharge from a
bark boiler consists of gaseous products of combustion containing partic-
ulate bark char and sand. Unlike most other stacks on a kraft mill, no
significant gaseous air pollutants are emitted, and unlike most coal-fired
boilers, there is no SC>2 problem, since there is little or no sulfur in
the bark.
TABLE C-13
CONTROL COSTS FOR THE CONDENSATE STRIPPER
(Incineration in lime kiln)
Mill Size
Capital Cost, $
Operating Cost, $/yr
$/ton
500
13,000
4,700
0.029
(tons per day)
1,000
18,600
5,800
0.018
1,500
23,000
6,700
0.014
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
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The cost of electrostatic precipitators for bark boilers and combina-
tion boilers having different capacities is given in Table C-14. The cost
for the bark boilers was obtained from the IGCI report,* and the cost for
the combination boilers was obtained from recent quotations. The boiler
with a rated steam capacity of 350,000 Ib/hr was for a 600-tpd (bleached)
air-dried pulp mill.
The S02 problem in the combination boilers will depend on the fraction
of the coal or oil used in the boiler and the sulfur content of the fuel.
There are no S02 control systems installed in the pulp industry. The cost
of such a system is not discussed here.
Bark fly ash, unlike most fly ash, is primarily unburned carbon; with
collection and reinjection, it can increase boiler efficiencies from 1 to 4%,
The air pollution control system for boilers consists of a mechanical
collector followed by an electrostatic precipitator or a scrubber. The
cost of a mechanical collector is not included in the incremental cost
shown in Table C-14, since it is considered economical to recycle the char
recovered from the mechanical collector.
All of the states have established air quality standards that are the
same as, or more stringent than, the federal standards. For illustrative
purposes, the ambient air standards for the State of Wisconsin are given
in Table C-15-
TABLE C-14
CONTROL COSTS FOR POWER BOILERS
Bark Boilers
Rated Steam Load, Ib/hr
ESP Capital Cost, $
Operating Cost, $/yr
100,000
440,000
110,000
300,000
886,000
221,000
Bark/Oil Boilers
(1/3 Bark, 2/3 Oil)
Rated Steam Load, Ib/hr
ESP Capital Cost, $
Operating Cost, $/yr
250,000
1,062,000
266,000
350,000
1,300,000
325,000
Source: Arthur D. Little, Inc. estimates
*"Air Pollution Control Technology and Costs in Nine Selected Areas," EPA report
63-02-0301 by Industrial Gas Cleaning Institute, September 1972.
182
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TABLE C-15
WISCONSIN AMBIENT AIR STANDARDS
Primary Secondary
Pg/m iig/m3
(ppm) (ppm)
SOX
Annual Arithmetic Mean 80 (0.03) 60 (0.02)
24-hr Concentration3 365 (0.14) 260 (0.1)
3-hr Concentration 1,300 (0 5)
Particulate
Annual Geometric Mean 75 60
24-hr Concentration' 260 150
CO
8-hr Concentration3 10,000 (9) 10,000 (9)
1-hr Concentration3 40,000 (35) 40,000 (35)
Photochemical Oxidants
1-hr Concentration 160 (0.08) 160 (0.08)
Hydrocarbons
3-hr Concentration 160 (0.24) 160 (0.24)
N02
Annual Arithmetic Mean 100 (0.05) 100 (0.05)
Not to be exceeded more than once a year.
Each state is required to adopt and to submit implementation plans to
the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency for its emission
reduction strategy and enforcement thereof to achieve air quality standards
for particulates, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, and carbon
monoxide. Also, the Environmental Protection Agency has established emis-
sion standards to achieve ambient air quality standards for new sources.
The federal and the state standards for pulp mills were presented earlier.
(9) Nondegradation of Air Quality
The requirements regarding nondegradation of air quality are applicable
to the new sources. Under the proposed regulation, if the ambient air
quality is better than the primary and secondary air quality standards, a
new source would not be allowed to degrade the air quality significantly.
The following factors should be considered in applying the principle of
nondegradation of air quality:
The quantity and characteristics of air contaminants which may
cause air pollution in a particular area of the state and the
duration of their presence in the atmosphere;
183
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Existing physical conditions and topography;
Prevailing wind directions and velocities;
Temperatures and temperature-inversion periods, humidity, and
other atmospheric conditions;
« Possible chemical reactions between air contaminants or between
such air contaminants and air gases, moisture, or sunlight;
The predominant character of development of the area of the
state (residential, highly developed industrial, commercial,
etc.);
Priority of location in the area involved;
Availability of air-cleaning devices;
Economic feasibility of air-cleaning devices;
Effect on normal human health of particular air contaminants;
« Effect on efficiency of industrial operation resulting from use
of air-cleaning devices;
Probable effect of air contaminants on property in the area;
« Interference with reasonable enjoyment of life by persons in the
area and conduct of established enterprises which can reasonably
be expected from air contaminants;
The volume of contaminants emitted from a particular class of
air contaminant source;
e The economic and industrial development of the state and .the
social and economic value of the source of air contaminants; and
The maintenance of public enjoyment of the state's natural
resources.
(10) Application of Air Control Cost Estimates
Using the economic models for the investment and operating costs for
selected products of the kraft pulping process, ADL added the estimated
cost for air control developed in the previous tables. Table C-16 summa-
rizes the control costs for new kraft mill sources (excluding power boiler)
producing 500 and 1,000 tpd; also listed are costs applicable to an 800-tpd
bleached kraft pulp mill and a 1,000-tpd unbleached kraft pulp mill. New
mill sources were based on a conventional recovery boiler with black liquor
oxidation for TRS control.
184
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TABLE C-16
AIR CONTROL COSTS, NEW MILL SOURCES
(thousands of dollars, mid-1975)
(
A. iOOO-cpd Bleached Kraft
Recovery Boiler
Smelt Tank
Brown Stock Washers t, Cnnd.
Stripping
TOTAL
TOTAL
3,700
300
160
270
4 , H60
:OSTS
Annual
(946)
( 53)
23
38
-
(922)
ECONOMIC
3,780
120
30
|
_
j '2, 930
LEVEL
Annual
(94ft)
( 22)
_
(1.036)
(429)
( 35)
( ID
(475)
(830)
(930)
4. ALLOCATION OF POLLUTION-RELATED COSTS
Many of the capital costs associated with pollution control show net
operating savings which make them potentially attractive investments. How-
ever, the exact profitability generally cannot be evaluated; it is a func-
tion of a number of variables, including scale of operation, type of process,
regional labor and power rates, etc.
We obtained air and water pollution abatement costs estimates from
published or accepted sources. For air control costs, we updated and
revised information originally published by EPA. These costs were appor-
tioned between those investment and operating costs for economic recovery
of byproduct (namely, 97.5% particulate recovery) and the incremental
investment and operating costs specifically required for compliance with air
control regulations.
The percentage of investment and operating costs that would be asso-
ciated with economical reuse of water within the manufacturing operation
is not specifically cited in the Development Document. However, subsequent
discussion with the engineering firm that prepared the cost estimates for
that report indicated that about 50% of the investment for internal treat-
ment would be for economic operation.
We have accepted these generalizations with the understanding that
they are only rough approximations; the exact allocation is highly judg-
mental and cannot be generalized. We have presented our cost calculations
so that the economic levels of control for both water and air are included
in the basic manufacturing costs. These items are identified separately
so that the reader can conveniently make alternative judgments.
185
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
. REPORT NO.
EPA-600/7-76-034e
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSI ON- NO.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS OF SELECTED ENERGY
CONSERVING MANUFACTURING PROCESS OPTIONS. Vol. V.
Pulp and Paper Industry Report
5. REPORT DATE
December 1976 issuing date
6. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
7. AUTHOR(S)
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO.
9. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Arthur D. Little, Inc.
Acorn Park
Cambridge, Massachusetts 02140
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
EHE624B
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
68-03-2198
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Industrial Environmental Research Laboratory
Office of Research and Development
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
EPA-ORD
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES Vol. III-IV, EPA-600/7-76~034c through EPA-600/7-76-034d, and
Vol. VI-XV, EPA-600/7-76-034f through EPA-600/7-76-034o, refer to studies of other
industries as noted belowj Vol. I, EPA-GOO/7-76-034a is tne Industry Summary Report anc
is. ABSTRACT Vol. II, EPA-600/7-76-034b is the Industry Priority Report.
This study assesses the likelihood of new process technology and new practices being
introduced by energy intensive industries and explores the environmental impacts of
such changes.
Specifically, Vol. V examines four options in the pulp and paper industry in depth:
(1) alkaline-oxygen pulping, (2) Rapson effluent-free kraft process, (3) thermo-
mechanical pulping, and (4) deinking of old newsprint; all in terms of relative
economics and environmental/energy consequences.
Vol. Ill and IV and Vol. VI-XV deal with the following industries: iron and steel,
petroleum refining, olefins, ammonia, aluminum, textiles, cement, glass, chlor-
alkali, phosphorus and phosphoric acid, copper, and fertilizers. Vol. I presents the
overall summation and identification of research needs and areas of highest overall
priority. Vol. II, prepared early in the study, presents and describes the over-
view of the industries considered and presents the methodology used to select
industries.
17.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.IDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS c. COS AT I Field/Group
Energy; Pollution; Industrial Wastes;
Pulps: Papers
Manufacturing Processes;
Energy Conservation
13B
13. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
204
20. SECURITY CLASS (Thispage)
unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
186
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