APTD-1521
CONTROL OF EMISSIONS FROM
LIGHT PISTON-ENGINE AIRCRAFT
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Mobile Source Air Pollution Control Program
Emission Control Technology Division
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
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APTD-1521
CONTROL OF EMISSIONS FROM
LIGHT PISTON-ENGINE AIRCRAFT
Prepared By
W. F. Datwyler
A. Blatter
S. T. Hassan
The Bendix Corporation
Research Laboratories
Southfield, Michigan 48076
CONTRACT NUMBER: 68-04-0045
EPA Project Officers
William H. Houtman
Charles Gray, Jr.
Barry D. McNutt
Prepared For
U. S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
Office of Air and Water Programs
Mobile Source Air Pollution Control Program
Emission Control Technology Division
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105
May 1973
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The APTD (Air Pollution Technical Data) series of reports is issued by the Office of Air and
Water Programs, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, to report technical data of interest
to a limited number of readers. Copies of APTD reports are available free of charge to
Federal employees, current contractors and grantees, and non-profit organizations - as
supplies permit - from the Air Pollution Technical Information Center, U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27711 or may be obtained, for a
nominal cost, from the National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of Com-
merce, 5285 Port Royal Road, Springfield, Virginia 22151.
This report was furnished to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency by The Bendix
Corporation, Research Laboratories, Southfield, Michigan 48076 in fulfillment of Con-
tract Number 68-04-0045. The contents of this report are reproduced herein as received
from the contractor. The opinions, findings, and conclusions expressed are those of the
authors and not necessarily those of the Environmental Protection Agency.
Office of Air and Water Programs Publication Number APTD - 1521
ii
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FOREWORD
This is the final report on an investigation of the control of
emissions from light piston-engine aircraft conducted at the Bendix
Research Laboratories for the Environmental Protection Agency under
Contract No. 68-04-0045.
The work was administered under the direction of the Emission
Characterization and Control Development Branch, Mobile Source Air Pol-
lution Control Program, Office of Air and Water Programs, at Ann Arbor,
Michigan. Project officers for initial through final phases of the
program were Messrs. Barry D. McNutt, Charles Gray, Jr., and William H.
Houtman,
Work was conducted in the Vehicle Controls Department of the
Bendix Research Laboratories, Southfield, Michigan. Project supervisors
for the initial and final phases of the contract were Messrs. A. Blatter
and W. F. Datwyler, respectively; Mr. S. T. Hassan was Responsible
Engineer throughout the contract.
The significant technical contributions to this effort by Messrs.
McNutt, Gray and Houtman of the Environmental Protection Agency are
acknowledged.
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ABSTRACT
This final report was prepared by the Bendix Research Laboratories
of The Bendix Corporation for the Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Air and Water Programs, under Contract Number 68-04-0045. Work was
conducted during the period July 1971 through March 1973. The objective
of the work described in this report was to help establish information^
bearing on the technical and economic feasibility of controlling emissions
from light piston-engine aircraft. The study was primarily of an exper-
imental nature directed at observing and evaluating the results of apply-
ing existing automotive emission control techniques to aircraft piston
engines. Attention was restricted to the emissions of major importance
in spark-ignition piston-engine operation, i.e., unburned hydrocarbons,
carbon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Control techniques considered
were those primarily used to reduce hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide,
since the rich mixtures normally used in aircraft operation inherently
lead to low levels of oxides of nitrogen. The general program approach
was to select two typical engine configurations, design and implement
selected emission control provisions, establish baseline emissions out-
puts for the standard engines, and determine the effect of the various
emission control techniques and systems relative to the baseline values.
A Continental 0-200 carbureted engine and a Lycoming 10-540 fuel-
injected engine were selected for evaluation. Emissions control techni-
ques and systems selected for evaluation were (1) variations of air-fuel
ratio and ignition timing, (2) exhaust treatment by air injection, thermal
reaction, and catalytic conversion, and (3) return of crankcase gases
to the intake manifold, commonly termed, "positive crankcase ventilation"
or PCV. Air-fuel ratio and ignition timing were varied using existing
mixture control and magneto setting provisions. Exhaust systems were
modified as required to incorporate air injectors, thermal reactors, and
catalytic convertors. Thermal reactors were specially designed and fabri-
cated since no existing reactors were available. Commercially available
catalytic convertors were purchased and used. Tests were conducted on
an engine dynamometer with measurement of all pertinent engine variables
and exhaust emission components.
The report describes the control approaches selected and tests con-
ducted. Results are presented and discussed. Pertinent data are included
for reference.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION 1 - INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Objective and Scope 1-1
1.2 Program Approach 1-1
1.3 Summary of Test Results I-3
1.4 Comments and Conclusions 1-5
SECTION 2 - SELECTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF EMISSION
CONTROL APPROACHES 2~1
2.1 General Approach 2-1
2.2 Aircraft Piston Engine Emissions 2-3
2.3 Selection of Control Techniques 2-4
2.4 Implementation of Test Configurations 2-5
2.4.1 Engine Variables 2-5
2.4.1.1 Air-Fuel Ratio Variation 2-5
2.4.1.2 Ignition Timing 2-6
2.4.2 Positive Crankcase Ventilation 2-7
2.4.3 Exhaust Treatment Systems 2-8
2.4.3.1 Continental 0-200 2-8
2.4.3.2 Lycoming 10-540 2-13
SECTION 3 - TEST EVALUATION PROGRAM 3-1
3.1 General Approach and Test Setup 3-1
3.2 Continental 0-200 Evaluation 3-2
3.2.1 Effect of Engine Variables 3-2
3.2.2 Effect of PCV 3-8
3.2.3 Effect of Exhaust Treatment Systems 3-10
3.3 Lycoming 10-540 Evaluation 3-22
3.3.1 Effect of Engine Variables 3-22
3.3.2 Effect of PCV 3-29
3.3.3 Effect of Exhaust Treatment Systems 3-29
SECTION 4 - FEASIBILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS 4-1
4.1 General Scope of Evaluation 4-1
4.2 Comparative Performance Evaluation of
Control Approaches 4-1
4.3 Considerations of Practical Implementation 4-6
4.3.1 Fuel Management 4-7
4.3.2 Positive Crankcase Ventilation 4-9
4.3.3 Exhaust Treatment Systems 4-12
SECTION 5 - REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 5-1
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Page,
APPENDIX A - DETAILS OF THE TEST AND EVALUATION PROGRAM A-l
APPENDIX B - DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES FOR CONTINENTAL
0-200 ENGINE B-l
APPENDIX C - DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES FOR LYCOMING
10-540 ENGINE C-l
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No. Title Page
2-1 Effect of A/F on Piston-Engine Emissions and
BSFC 2-3
2-2 Simulated PCV Installation - Schematic 2-7
2-3 Continental 0-200 Standard Exhaust System 2-9
2-4 Continental 0-200 Secondary-Air Installation 2-9
2-5 Air Pump Drive on Continental 0-200 Engine 2-11
2-6 Continental 0-200 Thermal Reactor Installation 2-11
2-7 Typical Thermal Reactor Design 2-12
2-8 Continental 0-200 Catalytic Converter Installation 2-12
2-9 Typical Catalytic Converter Design 2-13
2-10 Lycoming 10-540 Standard Exhaust System 2-14
2-11 Lycoming 10-540 Secondary-Air Installation 2-14
2-12 Lycoming 10-540 Thermal Reactor Installation 2-16
2-13 Lycoming 10-540 Catalytic Converter Installation 2-16
3-1 Emissions versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-4
3-2 Temperature versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-4
3-3 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Air-Fuel
Ratio - Continental 0-200 Engine 3-5
3-4 Emissions versus Ignition Timing - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-5
3-5 Temperature versus Ignition Timing - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-7
3-6 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Ignition
Timing - Continental 0-200 Engine 3-7
3-7 Simulated PCV Installation for Test 3-9
3-8 Secondary-Air Test Installation - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-11
3-9 Thermal Reactor Test Installation - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-12
3-10 Catalytic Converter Test Installation - Continental
0-200 Engine 3-12
3-11 Exhaust Treatment System: Effectivity Matrix
for Continental 0-200 Engine 3-15
3-12 THC Reduction versus Power Mode (RPM) 3-16
3-13 CO Reduction versus Power Mode (RPM) 3-18
3-14 NOX Effect versus Power Mode (RPM) 3-18
3-15 Temperature versus Power Mode (RPM) 3-21
3-16 Emissions versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Lycoming
10-540 Engine 3-21
3-17 Temperature versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Lycoming
10-540 Engine 3-25
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Figure No. Title
3-18 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Air-Fuel
Ratio - Lycoming 10-540 Engine 3-25
3-19 Emissions versus Ignition Timing - Lycoming
10-540 Engine 3~26
3-20 Temperature versus Ignition Timing - Lycoming
10-540 Engine 3~27
3-21 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Ignition
Timing - Lycoming 10-540 Engine 3-27
3-22 Effect of Retarded Timing and Degraded Spark
Plug Conditions 3-28
3-23 Basic Test Assembly - Lycoming 10-540 Engine 3-30
LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Title Page
3-1 Effect of PCV on Emissions - Continental 0-200
Engine 3-10
3-2 Effect of PCV on Emissions - Lycoming 10-540
Engine 3-28
4-1 Proposed Emissions Allowance for Continental
0-200 and Lycoming 10-540 Engines 4-2
4-2 Modal Powers and Durations 4-3
4-3 Nominal Modal Emissions from Continental 0-200
Engine 4-4
4-4 Nominal Modal Emissions from Lycoming 10-540
Engine 4-4
4-5 Cycle Emissions with Various A/F and Exhaust
Treatment Conditions 4-5
viii
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SECTION 1
INTRODUCTION
This final report was prepared by the Bendix Research Laboratories
of The Bendix Corporation for the Environmental Protection Agency, Office
of Air and Water Programs, under Contract Number 68-04-0045. Work was
conducted during the period July 1971 through March 1973.
1.1 OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE
The objective of this effort was to help establish information
bearing on the technical and economic feasibility of controlling emis-
sions from light piston-engine aircraft.
The study was primarily of an experimental nature directed at ob-
serving and evaluating the results of applying existing automotive emis-
sion control techniques to aircraft piston engines.
Attention was restricted to the emissions of major importance in
spark-ignition piston engine operation, ie., unburned hydrocarbons, car-
bon monoxide, and oxides of nitrogen. Control techniques considered
were those primarily used to reduce hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide,
since the rich mixtures normally used in aircraft operation inherently
lead to low levels of oxides of nitrogen.
The effort was divided into three task areas:
Technique Survey and Selection - A survey of available automotive-
type emission control techniques, consideration of the special light-
aircraft problem, and selection of hardware and control techniques for
experimental evaluation.
Experimental Implementation and Evaluation - Implementation (design
and fabrication, or procurement where possible) of experimental emission
control methods and their test and evaluation on two representative air-
craft engine models.
Preliminary Feasibility Evaluation - A general evaluation of the
light piston-engine aircraft emission control problem, incorporating
information from the survey, hardware implementation, and test evaluation
efforts.
1.2 PROGRAM APPROACH '
The general program approach was to select two typical engine con-
figurations, design and implement selected emission control provisions,
establish baseline emissions outputs for the standard engines, and
determine the effect of the various emission control techniques and
systems relative to the baselines values.
1-1
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The Continental 0-200 carbureted engine and Lycoming 10-540 fuel
injected engine were selected for evaluation as high-utilization con-
figurations representative of a broad spectrum of light aircraft use.
The Continental 0-200 is rated at 100 HP and powers the Cessna 150,
widely used as a two-passenger training aircraft. The Lycoming 10-540
is rated at 260 HP and is used in such aircraft as the Piper PA-24 four-
passenger Comanche.
Emission control techniques and systems selected for evaluation
were (1) variation of air-fuel ratio and ignition timing, (2) exhaust
treatment by air injection, thermal reaction, and catalytic conversion,
and (3) return of crankcase gases to the intake manifold, commonly termed
"positive crankcase ventilation" or PCV.
Air-fuel ratio and ignition timing were varied using existing
mixture control and magneto setting provisions. Exhaust systems were
modified as required to incorporate air injectors, thermal reactors, and
catalytic converters. Thermal reactors were specially designed and fab-
ricated since no existing reactors were available. Commercially avail-
able oxidizing catalytic converters were purchased and used. A pair of
air pumps of a type widely used for secondary air in automotive applica-
tions were added to the Continental 0-200 and belt-driven from the crank-
shaft. An aircraft turbocharger of sufficient capacity to provide the
maximum secondary air required by the test matrix was incorporated in
the Lycoming 10-540 exhaust system. Control of crankcase gas was
achieved for each engine by returning the crankcase gas to an injector
plate added downstream of the throttle body with a manually adjusted
valve to control the crankcase gas flow rate.
Designs for secondary air injection, thermal reaction, and catalytic
conversion systems were such to provide preliminary information on con-
trol performance as well as on practical implementation. No attempt was
made to implement provisions for automatic air-fuel ratio, ignition
timing, or PCV control.
Tests were conducted with the engines installed on an engine dyna-
mometer, with load power points (speed and torque combinations) selected
to represent the five modes of the Proposed Federal LTO (Landing-Takeoff)
cycle. Cooling air was provided by a blower which forced air over the
engine in a manner similar to that used by the engine manufacturers.
Induction air and fuel flows were measured to establish fuel con-
sumption and air-fuel ratio (A/F), and A/F calculations were subse-
quently verified by analysis of exhaust gases using a carbon balance
method. Oil, cylinder head, and exhaust gas temperatures were observed
to monitor engine status.
In order to facilitate the measurement of exhaust gas emissions
the Continental 0-200 exhaust manifolds were interconnected at a "T"
approximately two feet downstream of the normal individual exhaust sys-
tem outlets and were vented to atmosphere through a single common pipe
Paragraph 87.102, page 26497. (References are listed in Section 5).
1-2
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into the test cell scavenge system. Exhaust gas was sampled by a probe
located in the common path downstream of the "T". The exhaust manifolds
on the Lycoming 10-540 engine connect into a common heat muff, and ex-
haust gas composition was measured at the outlet pipe from the heat muff.
Gas analyzers were used to measure total hydrocarbons (T1IC) carbon
monoxide (CO), and oxides of nitrogen (NO ) as required to evaluate
emissions and control performance. Carbon dioxide (C0?) and oxygen (02)
were also measured as crosscheck indicators of engine and system behavior
and for use in the carbon balance analysis of air-fuel ratio.
1.3 SUMMARY OF TEST RESULTS
The following tests were conducted on the respective engines and
systems.
Continental 0-200 Engine - Laboratory test at five power settings
of the effect on performance and emissions over a suitable matrix of:
o Variations in Engine Variables (A/F and Ignition Timing)
o Positive Crankcase Ventilation
o Exhaust Treatment Systems
o Secondary Air Injection
o Thermal Reaction
0 Catalytic Conversion
Lycoming 10-540 Engine - Laboratory test at four power settings
of the effect on performance and emissions over a suitable matrix of:
o Variations in Engine Variables (A/F and Ignition Timing)
o Positive Crankcase Ventilation
0 Exhaust Treatment Systems
o Preliminary tests using a turbocharger as a secondary air
pump
Effect of Engine Variables
The effects of engine variables (air-fuel ratio and ignition timing)
on exhaust emissions, temperatures, and brake specific fuel consumption
(BSFC) are presented in Sections 3.2.1 and 3.3.1 for the Continental
0-200 and Lycoming 10-540, respectively.
The effects of varying air-fuel ratio follow the classical pattern
in that THC and CO decrease and NO increases as A/F is increased toward
stoichiometric. Cylinder head temperatures (CHT) and exhaust gas temper-
atures (EGT) increase, and BSFC decreases for increased A/F in the range
tested (10 - 13).
1-3
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Retarding the ignition timing by 5-degree and 10-degree increments
from the factory settings is shown to have negligible useful effect on
reducing THC and CO. The reduction in NO observed for the same condi-
X
tions is also not significant.
Retarding the timing results is increased EGT and some slight re-
duction in CHT for the range tested. BSFC tends to increase because of
the less effective combustion within the cylinders.
Effect of Exhaust Treatment
Detailed evaluation of exhaust treatment approaches was limited to
the Continental 0-200 engine. Results of that evaluation are presented
in Section 3.2.3 with all significant data and computed values tabulated
in Appendix B.
The catalytic converter approach provides the best overall per-
formance at all modes; even at taxi/idle powers where exhaust gas temp-
erature is inadequate for effective simple secondary air or thermal
reactor operation. The secondary air and thermal reactor approaches did
not "light off" (i.e., initiate significant combustion) at taxi/idle
modes with standard ignition timing.
An apparent slight superiority of the secondary air approach over
the thermal reactor approach is felt to be a consequence of the longer-
than-standard exhaust configuration used to allow single-point measure-
ment of exhaust gas emissions. A more realistic secondary air configura-
tion using conventional exhaust system lengths may have significantly
less effectiveness because the exhaust would be vented to atmosphere
before substantial combustion could occur.
Evaluation of secondary air injection using a turbocharger on the
Lycoming 10-540 engine was limited to preliminary runs because of con-
trollability problems experienced with the test configuration implemented.
Effect of PCV
The return of crankcase gas to the intake manifold to eliminate
the release of crankcase gas to the atmosphere was found to have a re-
latively small effect on engine performance and exhaust stack emissions.
Crankcase flow is only about 1-2 percent of the induction air flow and
tends to be rich in hydrocarbons. Other studies2 indicate that up to
25 percent of the total engine hydrocarbon emissions are composed of the
vented crankcase gases. The potential icing problem inherent in crank-
case gas control systems was graphically demonstrated during the tests
in that the line from the crankcase to the intake manifold had to be
electrically heated to prevent significant condensation in that line
and flow meter even in the +100°F ambient temperature test area.
2p. 7-44
1-4
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1.4 COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS
All experimental evaluations were conducted on a comparative rather
than an absolute basis. That is, the effect of PCV and the various ex-
haust treatment systems were tested for performance relative to a non-
modified engine, over a general matrix of conditions.
The proposed federal standards for emissions from aircraft engines
were issued December 1972, essentially at the end of the experimental
study effort. With the publication of the proposed standards it became
possible to compare the effect of various emission control approaches to
the standards, and such a comparison is made in Section 4.2 of this report,
A set of air-fuel ratios was selected for the various modes in
the range of 10 to 11.5 depending upon the mode, as shown in Section 4.
Using those assumed values for air-fuel ratio, nominal LTO cycle emissions
for the two engines were calculated from emissions data measured in the
study. Recommended factory ignition timings of 28 degrees BTDC and 25
degrees BTDC were used for the 0-200 and 10-540 baseline conditions, res-
pectively. Mass emissions derived for the two engines are shown in
Tables 4-3 and 4-4.
As tested, and for the air-fuel ratios assumed, the THC values are
close to the proposed standard values, NOX is below by an approximate
factor of ten, and CO is greater by a factor of two. A leaner set of
air-fuel ratios would tend to reduce CO and THC and increase NOX.
The emissions can be modified by selectively varying air-fuel ratio
or by the application of exhaust treatment systems. To give a general
indication of conditions which result in emissions levels which meet
the proposed standard levels, several air-fuel ratio combinations were
derived which give suitably reduced emissions. An example was also
derived for each of the three exhaust treatment approaches. For simpli-
city, ignition timing was left at the factory settings for all cases
calculated.
The assumed conditions and the resultant emissions are presented
in Table 4-5.
The calculations indicate that various combinations of air-fuel,
ratio and mode exist which result in emissions values at or below the
proposed standards. For example, if all modes are uniformly leaned to
achieve the required emissions reductions, air-fuel ratios in the order
of 13.5 are required. If the lower power modes (i.e., taxi and approach)
are leaned to stoichiometric, the takeoff and climbout modes can be en-
riched for cooling purposes.
Each of the exhaust treatment approaches can reduce the emissions
as required, with the 100 percent secondary air condition and for the
average 11.5:1 air-fuel ratio assumed.
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It should be noted that, for the examples cited, emissions (in
particular CO) were only required to be no greater than the proposed
standard value. Any factor applied to new engines to allow for manu-
facturing tolerances and aging effects between overhauls would, of course,
increase the air-fuel ratios and secondary air numbers shown in the
examples.
Control of air-fuel ratio is a direct method for controlling emis-
sions. Increased air-fuel ratio also generally results in greater fuel
economy and in some cases would require only relatively simple modifica-
tions to existing fuel management systems. Since fuel injection systems
already incorporate means for scheduling mixture against throttle set-
ting, only minor changes in the existing basic configuration could pro-
vide a form of emission control for those models. For simple carbureted
engines, air-fuel ratio control might require more mechanical refinement
to ensure that the desired air-fuel ratio is maintained over the opera-
tional range.
If cylinder head temperature or other considerations do not allow
simple revisions of air-fuel ratio to adequately achieve the requisite
emission levels for a given engine/airframe system, an additional step
short of exhaust treatment would be to improve air-fuel preparation and
distribution for more precise control of the mixture in the individual
cylinders. This would allow increased average leanness with minimum
increased individual cylinder and exhaust port temperatures.
Considerable effort is currently being made to reduce exhaust
emissions in automobiles by improving air-fuel mixture preparation and
combustion, as with stratified charge techniques and various fuel pre-
paration devices. Such technology might well be available and useable
for aircraft engines produced in 1979.
As indicated by data obtained on the Continental 0-200 engine with
simple air injection, thermal reactors or catalytic converters, it was
possible to reduce THC and CO to the proposed levels or less with each
of the experimental exhaust treatment systems. The three exhaust treat-
ment approaches vary in effectiveness and in cost of implementation.
Simple secondary air injection into a nominally standard exhaust system
is the simplest and potentially the least expensive exhaust treatment
system. A thermal reactor is, in effect, a specialized exhaust manifold
but would cost and weigh more than a standard exhaust manifold. At cur-
rent state of the art and utilization, catalytic converters would be
more expensive than thermal reactors and are more subject to heat damage
and pollution by leaded fuel.
All three require a source of air for operation. In performance
the secondary air and thermal reactor approaches are limited to use at
power levels where exhaust gas temperature is in the order of 1100 to
1200°F. At lower temperatures combustion will not start, even though
air is injected and mixed with the exhaust gas, and no reduction in ex-
haust emissions will result. For the Continental 0-200 engine as tested
1-6
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this ruled out the use of simple secondary air injection for the idle/
taxi modes and, in fact, required spark retardation for functionality
of the thermal reactor at those modes. Once exhaust gas temperature
has reached the required level for combustion, a well-designed thermal
reactor ordinarily would provide greater emission reduction than simple
secondary air injection.
By virtue of its physical properties, a catalytic converter offers
the advantages of starting and maintaining combustion at exhaust gas
temperatures experienced at idle/taxi conditions and achieving generally
more effective conversion of THC and CO.
None of the three approaches have a material effect on the amount
of NOX generated by the engine.
Considering the limited scope of this investigation, it would not
be appropriate to draw broad general conclusions as to the feasibility
of applying one type of control or another to all light-aircraft piston
engines. However, the results of the study do provide an example of
emission control technology as applied to two representative engines.
Although only two engines were tested, they were selected to span
a large part of the light-aircraft, piston-engine power spectrum and
include both carbureted and injected fuel control systems.
Tests were conducted on a dynamometer which allowed good control
of conditions and accurate measurement. Since the original emphasis
of the test program was to obtain comparative data, such a laboratory
approach should not be a substitute for subsequent investigation of
flightworthy systems, including flight test.
On the basis of this study, it would appear that further investiga-
tion of piston engine emissions should initially emphasize fuel and air
management over exhaust treatment as the most promising approach to the
control of emissions from light piston-engine aircraft.
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SECTION 2
SELECTION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF EMISSION CONTROL APPROACHES
2.1 GENERAL APPROACH
The objectives of the initial phase of the program were to:
(1) Determine the state of the art of existing automotive
emission control techniques which may be suitable for
aircraft piston engines.
(2) Conceive implementation methods and techniques for
the various emission control systems.
(3) Estimate the consequences of applying those systems
to general aviation piston-engine aircraft.
(4) Select the most suitable system for subsequent
detailed investigation.
To accomplish these objectives the following activities were
performed.
Literature Survey
A variety of papers, reports, manuals, books and other pertinent
technical publications were surveyed and reviewed. Areas covered spe-
cifically included automotive emissions and control technology, I.C.
engine performance and combustion technology, aircraft operations and
piston engine characteristics, and aircraft emissions studies as spon-
sored by EPA up to that time. A bibliography is included at the end
of this report.
Contacts with Technical Personnel and Organizations
Many manufacturers were contacted for technical information and
operating limitations of the various emission control hardware and power
plants. The interpretation and application of such information to this
project remained the responsibility of EPA and the contractor.
Airframe Manufacturers - Piper Aircraft Corporation (Lock Haven,
Pennsylvania) was visited and telephone contacts were held with
Cessna Aircraft (Wichita, Kansas) for pertinent technical back-
ground information on the Piper PA-24 and Cessna 150 aircraft.
Aircraft Engine Manufacturers - Continental Motors Corporation
(Muskegon, Michigan) and AVCO-Lycoming Division (Williamsport,
Pennsylvania) were visited early in the program to establish
personnel contacts, observe test facilities, and discuss the
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general impact of emission control systems on aircraft engine
performance. Contacts were maintained throughout the program
for miscellaneous technical inputs relative to the operation
of the engines during the test phase.
Catalyst Manufacturers - American Cyanamid Company, Universal
Oil Products, W. R. Grace-Davison Division, Arvin Industries,
and Englehard Corporation were contacted for technical infor-
mation and availability data on suitable catalytic converters.
Englehard Corporation subsequently was visited to discuss the
design and procurement of catalytic converters for the Con-
tinental and Lycoming engines to be tested.
Secondary-Air Device Manufacturers - Telephone and mail contacts
were made with Rajay Industries, Inc., and Piper Aircraft Corpo-
ration regarding the procurement, installation and performance
of aircraft turbochargers. GM-Saginaw Steering Division and
Bendix Brake & Steering Division were contacted regarding conven-
tional automotive secondary air sources.
Thermal Reactor Developers - Dupont Petroleum Chemical Division
was contacted for various technical information and background
relating to the use and design of thermal reactors. No source
for procuring suitable existing thermal reactors was found since
the aircraft requirements are considerably different from
automotive.
Government Agencies - The FAA Flight Standards District Office
was contacted for background relative to flight tests of emission-
control-equipped engines. Potential operational site requirements
were also discussed.
Fuel Sources - The procurement of aviation fuel in standard grades
(80/87) and (100/130) and the possibilities of obtaining low or
unleaded fuel for the test program were discussed with Shell,
American Standard and Texaco.
Special Studies and Reviews
Several special analyses and preliminary design studies were con-
ducted for guidance in the selection and subsequent implementation and
test phases. These included aircraft performance, secondary air require-
ments and pump sizing analyses, and propeller load tests. Work in pro-
cess at the Bendix Research Laboratories under EPA Contract EHS 70-122,
"Control of NOX Emission from Mobile Sources," was also monitored for
suitable specialized inputs.
Information thus derived was used as background in the evaluation
and final selection of engine models, emission control techniques and
test approach and matrices in the program.
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2.2 AIRCRAFT PISTON ENGINE EMISSIONS
Typical light aircraft and automotive piston engines are basically
Otto-cycle engines and therefore have quite similar combustion and perform-
ance characteristics. They exhibit the same general output characteris-
tics (power, emissions, etc.) for changes in inputs such as air flow,
air-fuel ratio, ignition timing, load, speed, etc. Exhaust emissions
and specific fuel consumption for both engine types are strongly in-
fluenced by air-fuel ratio, as shown in Figure 2-1. Given these facts,
a major portion of automotive emission control technology is pertinent
to the control of emissions from light piston-engine aircraft.
Different detailed considerations exist, however, which require
that aircraft emission controls be analyzed and treated within the spe-
cial constraints of aircraft usage. Factors bearing on cost, weight,
reliability, safety and maintainability are traded off differently in
the automotive and aircraft industries.
Two functional differences between the two types of engines re-
late to the number of engine input controls under direct control of the
operator and the use of fixed ignition timing (except for starting) in
aircraft as compared to variable ignition timing used in automotive en-
gines. On an automotive engine the operator generally has direct control
CARBON
MONOXIDE
(CO)
TOTAL
HYDROCARBONS
(THC)
12:1
AIR-FUEL RATIO
Figure 2-1 - Effect of A/F on Piston-Engine Emissions and BSFC4
on Figure 11, p. 64.
2-3
-------
only over the engine throttle, whereas in an aircraft the operator has
direct control over the throttle, inlet air temperature, and air-fuel
ratio (mixture).
The major difference between aircraft and automotive engines in
terms of direct effect on emissions and their control arises because
aircraft engines are air cooled and, as currently designed and rated,
depend significantly upon rich air-fuel mixtures to limit engine temper-
ature to specified levels. Although ratios can range widely within a
given sample of engines in the field, piston engines for light aircraft
generally operate at air-fuel ratios from 10:1 to 12:0 for operations
within the landing-takeoff cycle. Automotive engines are routinely
operated at air-fuel ratios in the range of 13:1 to 16:1, except for
transient conditions requiring special enrichment (e.g., startup, ac-
celeration, and at high speeds).
For an aircraft without an altitude-compensated fuel management
system (i.e., most general aviation aircraft), the rich mixture used
for takeoff and climb becomes even more rich as altitude increases be-
cause of the reduced density of induction air. Even though engine mix-
ture is normally leaned by the pilot for economical cruise conditions,
engine operation on the ground and near the airport is currently con-
ducted in a rich condition relative to the automobile engine.
Considering the rise of hydrocarbons (HC) and carbon monoxide (CO)
below air-fuel ratios of approximately 15:1 (Figure 2-1), exhaust emis-
sions from aircraft in the airport area are characteristically rich in
HC and CO. They are, however, low in oxides of nitrogen (NOX) so that,
with existing proposed emission standards, the aircraft emission control
problem is primarily one of reducing the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon
levels for those flight modes defined by the LTO (Landing-Take Off) cycle
without increasing the NOX to an unacceptable level.
2.3 SELECTION OF CONTROL TECHNIQUES
In recent years the automobile industry has been intensively study-
ing methods to reduce automotive exhaust emissions of hydrocarbons, car-
bon monoxide and NOX. The various control methods or techniques can be
grouped into three categories.
(1) Those varying engine design and operating parameters such
as compression ratio, ignition timing, valve overlap, com-
bustion chamber shape, etc.
(2) Those employing exhaust treatment devices such as secondary
air, thermal reactors, catalytic converters and various com-
binations of these devices.
(3) Those employing induction system devices such as heated inlet
air, various fuel atomization schemes, exhaust gas recircula-
tion,inlet manifold changes for better distribution and more
exact control of the air-fuel ratio for various operating modes,
2-4
-------
A review of the known automotive emission control techniques was
performed. From all of the various possibilities, certain systems were
selected and recommended for experimental evaluation. Within the con-
straint that no systems which required engine modifications were to be
considered, the following emission control systems were selected:
(1) Variation of air-fuel ratio
(2) Retardation of ignition timing
(3) Secondary air injection into the exhaust manifolds
(4) Thermal reactors (with secondary air)
(5) Catalytic converters (with secondary air)
(6) Positive crankcase ventilation
Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) was included as a candidate
control because of the contribution of crankcase flow to engine hydro-
carbon emissions.
Exhaust treatment system concepts simultaneously employing both
thermal reactors and catalytic converters were rejected out of hand as
not being suitable on the basis of size and weight.
Note that all exhaust treatment approaches for THC and CO require
additional air. Contrary to automotive practice, aircraft engines are
normally operated at air-fuel ratios much richer than stoichiometric,
resulting in essentially no oxygen in the exhaust gas. Thus, additional
oxygen (air) must be provided to facilitate the combustion process in
the exhaust system.
2.4 IMPLEMENTATION OF TEST CONFIGURATIONS
2.4.1 Engine Variables
The only parameters which could be varied on the engines
were the air-fuel ratio and the ignition timing. The aircraft engines
both had normal mixture control devices which readily permitted the air-
fuel ratio supplied to the engine to be controlled. The mixture controls
provide air-fuel ratio control from "full rich" to complete fuel cutoff.
Thus, air-fuel ratio control for the test program was easily accomplished.
The aircraft engines tested both use fixed spark timing.
No automatic spark variation with speed or load is provided. Timing
variations for test purposes were accomplished by repositioning the mag-
netos to provide the desired retardation from the manufacturers' recom-
mended settings.
2.4.1.1 Air-Fuel Ratio Variation
The Continental 0-200 engine is a carbureted
engine fitted with a Marvel Schebler MA-3 carburetor. This carburetor
2-5
-------
is a single barrel float type, contains an accelerating pump and uses
an externally controllable orifice in the fuel circuit to provide the
fuel cutoff capability. Only two mechanical controls are required by
the carburetor: the throttle position and the mixture control push
rods. Initial baseline tests indicated that the carburetor, as installed
in the test circuit, would not provide a 10 to 1 air-fuel ratio at higher
power modes. Discussions with the manufacturer resulted in a slight mod-
ification of the carburetor which then allowed the air-fuel, ratio to be
enriched to 10 to 1. The modification consisted of drilling an 1/8 inch
diameter hole in the cover of the float bowl to allow ambient pressure to
reach the fuel surface. The resulting slightly higher pressure differen-
tial across the main fuel metering orifice permitted the necessary fuel
flow rates to be achieved.
The Lycoming 10-540 engine is equipped with a
fuel injection system manufactured by Bendix. The fuel injection system
is the Bendix RS-5 system,5which is a constant flow system providing the
desired amount of fuel for the engine air flow rate. The system has in-
dividual fuel injectors (nozzles) located in each cylinder intake elbow.
Each nozzle is vented to ambient (or throttle body air inlet) and the
throttle body contains the necessary fuel metering servos, air pressure
sensors and throttle plate. Only two external controls are required:
the throttle and mixture control push rods. Discussions with the manufac-
turers indicated that the injection system as delivered with the engine
would have to be modified slightly to provide the desired 10 to 1 air-
fuel ratio over the full power range. The necessary work was provided
by the manufacturer and subsequent tests verified that 10 to 1 air-fuel
ratio could be obtained with the modified system. The mixture control
provided full control of the air-fuel ratio, including complete fuel
flow cutoff.
2.4.1.2 Ignition Timing
The Continental 0-200 engine was equipped with
Slick magnetos set at the factory to 28 degrees before top dead center
(BTDC). A standard magneto timing box was used to verify spark timing.
The magneto case and engine crankcase were marked to provide easy refer-
ence and retiming when necessary. Marks were provided which corresponded
to spark timings of 28 degrees BTDC, 23 degrees BTDC and 18 degrees BTDC
as required by the test matrix. Both magnetos were marked in this manner.
The Lycoming 10-540 engine was equipped with
Bendix magnetos set at 25 degrees BTDC by the engine manufacturer. As
above, the magnetos and crankcase were marked to provide easy reference
and setting of the magnetos to 25 degrees BTDC, 20 degrees BTDC and 15
degrees BTDC as required by the test matrix. Spark timing was preset
for either engine as desired and remained fixed for the data point under
observation.
2-6
-------
2.4.2 Positive Crankcase Ventilation
Aircraft engine crankcases are normally designed to have a
single opening to atmosphere to allow the blowby gases to escape from the
engine. Positive ventilation (continuous flow from the atmosphere)
through the crankcase is not provided as with automobile engines. The
higher engine temperatures, longer operating times at high temperature
and better maintenance of the aircraft engine is not as conducive to
promoting oil contamination as is the case with the automobile engine.
Factors requiring special consideration in the design of
crankcase gas control systems for aircraft piston engines include (1)
the possible freezing of water present in the blowby gases, (2) tight
limitations of crankcase-to-ambient pressure differential in a non-vented
system with current seal designs, and (3) the fact that the pressure in
some aircraft induction systems may exceed ambient pressure because of
ram air increase or supercharging.
For the above reasons, no simple existing automotive PCV
valve could be procured and adapted for the experimental program. A
simulated PCV valve and circuit was assembled to permit the acquisition
of PCV system data for an aircraft engine. This system is not flyable
and was built strictly for evaluation on the engine dynamometer.
A schematic of the circuit is shown in Figure 2-2. The
crankcase vent was communicated to a flow meter, through a control valve,
CRANKCASE GAS
HEATED LINE
ENGINE
PCV PLATE
THROTTLE BODY
OIL FILLED
MANOMETER
VENT
FLOW METER
Figure 2-2 - Simulated PCV Installation - Schematic
2-7
-------
and then back to the induction system. A special plate, approximately
1.5 inches thick was located between the induction manifold and the car-
buretor or throttle body for admission of the blowby gases. The connect-
ing line was heated by electrical tape to approximately 150°F to prevent
excessive water condensation in the line and flow meter.
An oil manometer, which was filled just enough to provide
a maximum of +4 inches of oil differential pressure, was used as a
combination crankcase pressure sensor and safety valve. If the engine
crankcase-to-ambient pressure exceeded four inches of oil, the engine
would either inhale the oil or blow the oil out depending on the sign
of the differential pressure. In either event no damage would be done.
In normal operation the manual valve was closed and the vent opened.
After the engine operating point was adjusted, the manual valve was
slowly opened and the vent valve slowly closed while observing the oil-
filled manometer. The process was continued .until the vent valve was
fully closed and the oil filled manometer read essentially zero. In
this condition all the blowby gases were being admitted to the induction
manifold with the manual valve providing the correct impedance for crank-
case pressure control.
A photograph of the test setup is presented in Sec-
tion 3.2.2 (Figure 3-7). The same setup was used for both the Contin-
ental and Lycoming engines.
2.4.3 Exhaust Treatment Systems
2.4.3.1 Continental 0-200
The Continental 0-200 engine is a four-cylinder
opposed engine.5 Each bank of cylinders exhausts through essentially a
"Y"-shaped exhaust stack. Each exhaust stack contains a heat muff
arrangement, one of which provides cabin heat while the other provides
carburetor heat. The standard exhaust stacks used for this program are
the ones supplied by Cessna on their Model 150 airframe. A schematic
of the standard exhaust stack system is shown in Figure 2-3. While the
stacks are separate in the airplane, in the test configuration they were
collected by another "Y" to provide a single exhaust to the dynamometer
cell scavenge system. A single exhaust gas sampling probe was used down-
stream of the "Y" so that the sample was the average of all four cylinders.
Secondary air was provided by two automotive vane-
type pumps. The pumps were experimental units provided by Saginaw Divi-
sion of GM. It was necessary to use two pumps to provide a sufficient
quantity of air for the combustion of the fuel-rich exhaust gas over the
full test matrix. As shown in Figure 2-4, the output of each pump was
collected, passed through a flow meter, and then manifolded to each cy-
linder exhaust stack. The air injector was a 1/2 O.D. tube welded into
the standard exhaust stack as close to the exhaust port flange as prac-
tical. The area of the secondary air manifolding was made large compared
to the effective areas of the injectors to ensure uniform distribution
2-8
-------
H/M=HEAT
MUFF
P-8 5-1 247-2
Figure 2-3 - Continental 0-200 Standard Exhaust System
PG =PRESSURE
GAGE
HM =HEAT
MUFF
P = VANE
PUMP
FM =FLOW
METER
FM
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
P-85-1247-2
EXHAUST
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE
t
VENT
Figure 2-4 - Continental 0-200 Secondary-Air Installation
2-9
-------
to the individual cylinders. Since the pumps were mechanically driven
by the engine, a vent valve was provided to dump excess air from the
system. The method of driving the pumps was through an arrangement of
"V" belts and a jack shaft as shown in Figure 2-5. The pulley ratios
were such that the pumps were driven at 2.1 times crankshaft speed. The
entire arrangement was attached to the engine by bolting to the lower
accessory drive pad on the crankcase.
The thermal reactor installation consisted of
replacing the standard exhaust stacks with a thermal reactor on each
bank of cylinders. As shown in Figure 2-6, the arrangement is the
same as the straight secondary air system with the exception of the
addition of the thermal reactors. The thermal reactors were designed
by Bendix to fit the particular engine since no standard components ex-
isted for the experimental study. The designs were based on published
techniques and guidelines,8"11 and an attempt was made to keep them realis-
tic in terms of weight and size for an aircraft application. As shown in
Figure 2-7, the reactor consisted of an internally insulated pressure
vessel with several concentric tubular liners which required the exhaust
gas to recirculate back and forth before escaping out the exhaust stack.
The exhaust gas from each cylinder was conducted to the center of the
liners by tubes from each exhaust port.
The illustration indicates three exhaust ports,
which is correct for the Lycoming installation. The Continental reactors
had two exhaust port inlets as required by that engine. The secondary
air was introduced into the exhaust collectors as far upstream into the
exhaust port of the engine as possible. In fact, the entrance was flush
with the cylinder exhaust flange. The thermal reactor pressure vessel
was fabricated from 300-series stainless steel. The liners were fabri-
cated from Armco 18-SR stainless (18 Cr, 0.5 Ni, 2 Al) which has demon-
strated good high-temperature corrosion resistance. The insulation used
was Johns-Manville "Fiberchrome" 12 Ib stock. Suitable thermocouple
ports were provided to indicated gas/liner temperatures during operation.
The catalytic converter installation used the
standard exhaust stacks with the two converters installed in the exhaust
lines downstream of the two heat muffs (Figure 2-8). The catalytic con-
vertors were obtained from C.A. Englehard Co. and were their Model PTX-4
size. As shown in Figure 2-9, the catalytic converter is a very simple
design, being essentially a tubular container with means for retaining
the proprietary catalytic material. A wire mesh was used for some thermal
impedance and thermal expansion control with the pressure vessel. The
converters were easily installed and performed well throughout the test
when operated within their specified design limits.
Photographs of the secondary air, thermal reactor
and catalytic converters test installations on the Continental 0-200 are
presented in Section 3.
2-10
-------
0-200
VANE
PUMP
JACK SHAFT 'VANE PUMP «P
Figure 2-5 - Air Pump Drive on Continental 0-200 Engine
PG =PRESSURE
GAGE
TR =THERMAL
REACTOR
P = VANE
PUMP
FM =FLOW
METER
P-8 5-1 247-2
EXHAUST
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE
VENT
Figure 2-6 - Continental 0-200 Thermal Reactor Installation
2-11
-------
EXHAUST GAS FROM CYLINDERS
• SECONDARY AIR TUBES
PRESSURE VESSEL-
/f===^====^#tti
f i^-K^Y^nVVTrev^y;
• INSULATION
I X. TO EXHAUST
STACK
Figure 2-7 - Typical Thermal Reactor Design
CATALYTIC
CONVERTOR
EXHAUST
VENT TO
ATMOSPHERE
H/M = HEAT
MUFF
P = = VANE
PUMP
FM = FLOW
METER
PG =PRESSURE
GAGE
VENT
Figure 2-8 - Continental 0-200 Catalytic Convertor Installation
2-12
-------
THERMAL IMPEDANCE
CORRUGATED
STRUCTURE
Figure 2-9 - Typical Catalytic Converter Design
2.4.3.2 Lycoming 10-540
The Lycoming 10-540 engine is a six-cylinder op-
posed engine with mechanical fuel injection.12 In the Piper PA-24 air-
frame installation, exhaust gases from each bank of cylinders are col-
lected into a single tube, which is a combination heat muff and muffler.
A single exit tube exhausts the gases to atmosphere. Such arrangement
is shown in Figure 2-10. The actual exhaust stacks and muff used for
this program are those supplied for the Piper PA-24 airframe. The ex-
haust outlet was connected to the dynamometer scavenge system and the
exhaust gas sampling probe was located in the outlet section. Thus,
the exhaust gas sample was the average of all six cylinders.
The secondary air installation was somewhat sim-
ilar to the Continental in that 1/2 inch O.D. injector tubes were welded
into the standard exhaust stacks as close to the exhaust port flange as
practical. The injectors were all manifolded back to a common inlet port
as shown in Figure 2-11. The secondary air pump selected for use in this
installation was an exhaust-driven turbocharger. The turbocharger sel-
ected was a Raj ay RJ-0080-102 unit which is one of the two units used
on a turbocharger installation in the PA-24 airframe. The test config-
uration used a single turbocharger for secondary air only and was in no
way communicated to the induction system. The turbocharger was controlled
by a typical waste gate or bypass valve which diverts the necessary ex-
haust through the turbocharger to provide the desired output flow of
air. The output air from the turbocharger was communicated through a
flow meter to the secondary air manifolding on the engine as shown. Be-
cause control of the turbocharger was expected to be somewhat coarse, a
vent valve was provided for fine trim. A shutoff valve was provided to
2-13
-------
P-85-1247-2
HM= HEAT
MUFF
EXHAUST
TO ATMOSPHERE
Figure 2-10 - Lycoming 10-540 Standard Exhaust System
H/M =HEAT
MUFF
FM = FLOW
METER
T/C = TURBO
CHARGER
PG = PRESSURE
GAGE
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
VENT
EXHAUST SAMPLE
I
Figure 2-11 - Lycoming 10-540 Secondary-Air Installation
2-14
-------
prevent back flowing the flow meter and turbocharger when no secondary
air flow was required. The exhaust sample probe was located downstream
of the turbocharger exit port so that during secondary air tests, any
effect the turbocharger may have had on the exhaust gases would have been
present. Suitable thermocouple ports were provided to monitor secondary
air injection temperature as well as turbocharger inlet and outlet
temperatures.
The thermal reactor installation was as shown in
Figure 2-12. The thermal reactors replaced the standard exhaust stacks
while all other apparatus remained the same. The thermal reactors were
similar to the ones designed for the Continental 0-200 as shown in Fig-
ure 2-7. The reactors were designed to minimize the distance the exhaust
had to travel before reaching the center of the reactor. In addition,
the experimental reactors were designed to be as practical as possible
in terms of size and weight. Suitable thermocouple ports were provided
to monitor thermal reactor gas/liner temperatures.
The catalytic converter installation design for
this engine was primarily the secondary air system with standard exhaust
stacks, but with the heat muff replace by two catalytic converters. A
schematic of the system is shown in Figure 2-13. The catalytic conver-
ters used were obtained from C. A. Englehard and were their PTX-5 model.
The converters were identical in construction to the ones used on the
Continental 0-200 except that they were larger. Thermocouples were in-
stalled to monitor exhaust gas temperatures at the catalytic converter
inlets and outlet.
As indicated in Section 3.3.3 below, installation
of the turbocharger in the exhaust path downstream of the injection and
reaction regions led to significant regenerative effects and resultant
control difficulties in the test configuration. Mounting the reactor(s)
downstream of the turbocharger and locating the air injector(s) at the
reactor inlet would eliminate the regenerative effect. The much-reduced
inlet temperature to the reactor(s), caused by the thermal drop in the
turbocharger and the increased distance from the exhaust port, would,
however, probably eliminate the application of simple secondary air and
thermal reactor approaches. Such an arrangement would probably be suit-
able and advantageous with catalytic converters, since they can function
at low inlet gas temperatures, and the lower initial temperature would
allow for greater exhaust gas combustion without exceeding the maximum
temperature limit of the converter(s).
In view of the above, the location of the turbo-
charger should be considered thoroughly in implementing exhaust treatment
systems with such devices.
2-15
-------
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
C/C = CATALYTIC
CONVERTOR
T/C = TURBO
CHARGER
FM = FLOW
METER
PG =PRESSURE
GAGE
P-85-1247 2
VENT
EXHAUST SAMPLE
Figure 2-12 - Lycoming 10-540 Thermal Reactor Installation
SHUT-OFF
VALVE
T/R =THERMAL
REACTOR
H/M= HEAT
MUFF
FM = FLOW
METER
PG = PRESSURE
GAGE
VENT
EXHAUST SAMPLE
Figure 2-13 - Lycoming 10-540 Catalytic Converter Installation
2-16
-------
SECTION 3
TEST EVALUATION PROGRAM
3.1 GENERAL APPROACH AND TEST SETUP
To evaluate systematically the various emission control concepts,
a general matrix of conditions was selected to cover a representative
combination of the variables of interest. A set of power points was
selected to correspond to key portions of assumed landing-takeoff pro-
files for the Continental 0-200 and Lycoming 10-540 engines tested.
The selection of the ranges of air-fuel ratio and timing retarda-
tion was made primarily on the basis of a review of other aircraft engine
research data publications, and discussion with the engine manufacturers.
Power points (RPM's and torque levels) were selected from operator's man-
uals for aircraft using the subject engines where provided and were
based on nominal propeller loading calculations where numbers were not
published.
The following evaluations were conducted on the respective engines
and systems.
Continental 0-200 Engine
Evaluation at five power settings of the effect on performance and
emissions of:
• Variations in Engine Variables (A/F and Ignition Timing)
- A/F 10, 11.5, 13
- Ignition Timing 28°, 23°, 18°
• Positive Crankcase Ventilation
• Exhaust Treatment Systems
- Secondary Air In-jectionA Secondary Air Injected
IB*." for 90%, 100%, 110%
- Thermal Reaction \ ,. „ . ' . * . ... ^
of Stoichiometric Mixture
- Catalytic Conversion ) in the Exhaust Gas.
Lycoming 10-540 Engine
Evaluation at four power settings of the effect on performance
and emissions of:
• Variations in Engine Variables (A/F and Ignition Timing)
- A/F ' 10, 11.5, 13
- Ignition Timing 25°, 20°, 15°
3-1
-------
• Positive Crankcase Ventilation
• Exhaust Treatment Systems
- Preliminary tests in which an exhaust-driven
turbocharger was used as a secondary-air pump.
A description of those tests and their results is presented in
the following sections. A detailed description of the test setup, in-
strumentation, and procedures is presented in Appendix A.
3.2 CONTINENTAL 0-200 EVALUATION
3.2.1 Effect of Engine Variables
Data were recorded for steady-state operating conditions
with nominal air-fuel ratios of 10.0:1, 11.5:1 and 13.0:1 and ignition
timing of 28° (factory setting), 23° and 18° BTDC. The following load
rpm and torque conditions were used:
Mode
Represented
Idle/Taxi (Out)
Idle /Taxi (In)
Runup
Approach
T.O./Climbout
Engine
Speed
(RPM)
900
1100
1700
1950
2750
Brake
Torque
(ft-lbs)
21
31
73
96
Full Throttle
Power
(BHP
3.5
6.4
23.6
35.7
86.5
Power
(% Rated)
3.5
6.4
23.6
35.7
86.5
With the magneto set to 28° BTDC and the engine warmed up, the engine
was set to the desired speed, torque and air-fuel ratio. -Sampling of
exhaust gas composition was started after the operating conditions
were stabilized. The air-fuel ratio was varied at each engine speed to
obtain the desired A/F test set points.
The following sequence of test conditions was used:
Speed - 1700, 1100, 1950, 900, 2750 rpm
Air-Fuel Ratio - 10:1, 11.5:1 and 13:1
The same conditions were repeated at ignition timings of 23° BTDC and
18° BTDC to complete the test series.
The five modes of the formal LTO cycle are represented by
the 900, 1100, 1950 and 2750 rpm points as indicated. The 1700 rpm
RUNUP mode is not part of the LTO cycle and to avoid confusion, data
at that condition are not included in the discussions and analyses of
emissions which appear in Section 3.2 and 4.3.
3-2
-------
Results
Data and computed values for all test points are presented
in Appendix Bl. Test points marked "R" on the data sheets are points
where conditions and data were repeated at a later time to establish a
measure of the repeatability of engine and instrumentation conditions.
Air-Fuel Ratio Variation
The effects of variations of air-fuel ratio on engine emis-
sions, temperature, and brake specific fuel consumption are summarized
in Figure 3-1, 3-2, and 3-3, respectively. To provide the best repre-
sentation of the engine's emission characteristics, plots of Figures 3-1
through 3-3 are averages of all appropriate data obtained for the con-
ditions noted (i.e., Appendix B2 with zero PCV and Appendices B3, B4
and B5 with zero secondary air.)
As indicated in Figure 3-1, as A/F is varied from 10 to
13, total hydrocarbons (THC) and carbon monoxide (CO) drop and oxides
of nitrogen (NOX) increase. The curves shown are consistent with known
general characteristics for piston engines operating below stoichiometric
ratios as shown on Figure 2-1. Emissions data are presented in units of
pounds per hour to best indicated the relative importance of various
modes of the LTO cycle.
As indicated in Figure 3-1, the effect on total hydrocarbons
of increasing A/F from 10 to 13 is greater at Idle/Taxi conditions than
at Takeoff-Climbout conditions. The reduced effect of a leaner mixture
at higher power conditions is believed to be caused by the generally
higher combustion temperature and the reduced effect of exhaust gas di-
lution of the fresh charge. In addition,maldistribution may be more
pronounced at part throttle settings.
The formation of carbon monoxide is largely a function of
the availablity of oxygen relative to the fuel and is thus inversely
proportional to A/F for values richer than stoichiometric. The decrease
in CO emission rate as a function of RPM shown in Figure 3-1 is caused
by the reduced fuel and air flow needed to meet the power requirements
for the respective modes. The 2750 rpm curve is at wide open throttle
(WOT) conditions and the drop off as A/F is reduced is because of re-
duced maximum power for those conditions caused by non-standard temper-
ature and pressure conditions at the inlet.
The curves for NOx show the rapid increase in NOX formation
because of increasing peak conbustion temperature as stoichiometric air-
fuel ratio is approached. Temperatures at the low power points (900
and 1100 rpm) are generally so low even with an A/F of 13 that the con-
centrations and emission rates remain relatively low.
The effect of air-fuel ratio on engine temperatures is
shown in Figure 3-2. Variations of average cylinder head temperature
(CHT) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT) are shown for A/F in the range
of 10 to 13.
3-3
-------
10.0 11.5
AIR-FUEL RATIO
TOTAL HYDROCARBONS (THC)
AIR-FUEL RATIO
CARBON MONOXIDE (COI
AIR-FUEL RATIO li
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NOx) ?
• IGNITION TIMING 28° BTDC
• AVERAGED DATA
Figure 3-1 - Emissions versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Continental 0-200 Engine
1400
1000
.
I
600
400
EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURES
AVGS OF EXHAUST GAS '
TEMPS. FOR BASELINE
AND PCV TESTS
I-T-1100RPM
<- 900 RPM
10 11.5
AIR FUEL RATIO
(IGNITION TIMING - 28 DEG BTDC)
13.0
CYLINDER HEAD
TEMPERATURES
AVG OF SA, TR, & CC TEST
CRT'S @0SEC. AIR
(LOWER PLUG TEMPS.)
AVG OF BASELINE &
PCV TEST CRT'S
(UPPER PLUG TEMPS.)
Figure 3-2 - Temperature versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Continental 0-200 Engine
3-4
-------
11.5
AIR FUEL RATIO
13.0
• IGNITION TIMING 28° BTDC
• AVERAGE OF BASELINE Si PCV RUNS
Figure 3-3 - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Air-Fuel Ratio
Continental 0-200 Engine
IGNITION TIMING IDEG. BTDCI
TOTAL HYDROCARBONS (THC1
FACTORY
SETTING
CARBON MONOXIDE (CO)
900, 1100 RPM
OXIDES OF NITROGEN
-------
The lower curve of each set of CRT's is based on averages
of upper spark plug temperature (hottest cylinder) taken during the engine
variables matrix and PCV test series (Appendices Bl and B2). The upper
curve of each set of CRT's is the average of all CRT's measured on the
lower plugs of all cylinders during the secondary air, thermal reactor,
and catalytic convertor test series with zero secondary air. The dif-
ferences in temperature are due to thermocouple location. Cooling air
conditions were the same for all similar test points.
The effect of air-fuel ratio on brake specific fuel con-
sumption for the various mode power conditions is shown in Figure 3-3.
The improvement in fuel economy as A/F is increased from 10 to 13 is to
be expected, and would normally continue for ratios approaching stoichio-
metric and slightly above.
Ignition Timing Variation
The effects of varying the ignition timing on engine emis-
sions, temperature and brake specific fuel consumption are shown in Fig-
ures 3-4, 3-5, and 3-6, respectively. Curves are based on average data
as indicated.
As shown in Figure 3-4, retarding the ignition timing from
the normal recommended value of 28° BTDC to 18° BTDC (10° retard) results
in negligible change in THC. A slight net increase in CO is indicated
for the 1950 rpm case but the effects at other power conditions are
minimal. NOX is seen to decrease with retarded timing, primarily at the
higher power conditions most conducive to NOX formation.
The effect of retarded timing on engine temperatures is
shown in Figure 3-5. Delaying the spark has the effect of moving the
peak of the combustion process in the direction of the exhaust portion
of the engine cycle. This results in a higher exhaust gas temperature
because of the delayed burning and a consequent slightly reduced cylinder
head temperature, as evidenced in the data of Figure 3-5.
The magneto setting recommended by the engine manufacturer
is normally selected for best overall BSFC and performance, and the slight
increase in BSFC with retard reflects the consequent reduction in
efficiency.
The above data indicate that retarding the timing results
in negligible effect on THC and a slight increase in CO over the range
tested. Since the NOX levels were not high enough to be of concern, the
relative reduction experienced is not immediately valuable. Since the
net effect on emissions is not significant and there are undesirable
increases in both engine temperature and BSFC, the tests suggest that
delayed ignition timing alone would not be a useful technique for ex-
haust emission control in the range tested. (As indicated in Section 3.2.3,
delayed ignition timing may be useful in extending the range of operation
of exhaust treatment systems.)
3-6
-------
_ 1000-
275(
-, • •
1950
. '
1100
RPM "
RPM -
RPM ~~
<——~—~~^^
900 RPM
\
} EXHAUST GAS
TEMPERATURES
/ EXHAUST GAS TEMPS. \
V FROM BASELINE TEST /
/
> 2750 RPM
} 1950 RPM CYLINDER HE
TEMPERATUR
1 1-1100 RPM / AVC
/ TES
L— LLA°S
\ (UPF
TEST CHT'SOO SEC AIR \
(LOWER PLUG TEMPS.I
BASELINE TEST CHT'S I
(UPPER PLUG TEMP.) /
IGNITION TIMING (DEC BTDC)
(AIR-FUEL RATIO = 11.51
Figure 3-5 - Temperature versus Ignition Timing - Continental 0-200 Engine
2.0
BSFC
(LB/BHP-HRI
0.8
0.4
900 RPM
1100 RPM
1950 RPM
2750 RPM
28 23
IGNITION TIMING (DEC. BTDC)
18
A/F= 11.5
AVERAGED DATA
Figure 3-6 - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Ignition Timing
Continental 0-200 Engine
3-7
-------
3.2.2 Effect of PCV
Test Setup and Procedure
As explained in Section 2.4.2 above, special constraints
of aircraft application prevent use of a simple automotive-type PCV valve
for venting an aircraft engine crankcase. For test purposes the effect
of PCV on the Continental 0-200 engine was observed by communicating the
crankcase vent flow to an input block inserted between the carburetor
and the intake manifold. Crankcase gas was directed to the intake mani-
fold and/or to atmosphere by an arrangement of manual valves in such a
way that crankcase pressure was maintained well within the limits of +4
inches of water recommended for the Continental engine.
A schematic and a photograph of the test setup used are
shown in Figure 3-7. The PCV lines were heated to approximately 150°F
to avoid condensation in the lines and flow meter. The remainder of the
test instrumentation was the same as for the engine variables tests of
Section 3.2.1 above.
The test procedure consisted of setting the desired engine
parameters' with the crankcase vented to atmosphere by opening valve No. 1
and closing valve No. 2 in Figure 3-7. After recording the data, the
crankcase gas was introduced into the intake system by closing vent valve
No. 1 and adjusting valve No. 2, such that the crankcase pressure was
maintained at approximately zero differential pressure as indicated by
the oil manometer. The manometer was designed to function as a pressure
relief in that the oil would be displaced out of the U-section, opening
a path to atmosphere if crankcase pressure inadvertenly exceeded +4 inches
of water. Emission data were then recorded for the case with PCV, com-
pleting the data for that test point.
Data were taken at 900, 1100, 1700, 1950 and 2750 rpm at
nominal air-fuel ratios of 10.0:1, 11.5:1 and 13.0:1 with the normal
ignition (magneto) setting at 28° BTDC. Data were taken at 900 rpm,
A/F = 10.0:1; 1700 rpm, A/F = 11.5:1 and 2750 rpm, A/F = 13.0:1 for re-
tarded magneto settings of 23 degrees BTDC and 18 degrees BTDC to observe
the effect of PCV at these ignition timings.
Engine test and reduced emissions data are presented in
Appendix B2. The test points marked "P" on the data sheets are with PCV
and the ones with "R" are repeat runs to check the repeatability of the
engine and instrumentation.
Results
In general exhaust stack emissions with and without PCV
were relatively unchanged at all operating modes. Significant effects
were noted only at 2750 rpm and A/F = 10 where hydrocarbons were approx-
imately 40 percent higher and NOX was approximately 20 percent lower
with PCV, suggesting that combustion temperature may have been reduced
at that test condition.
3-8
-------
CRANKCASE GAS
-HEATED LINE
ENGINE
PCV PLATE
THROTTLE BODY
OIL FILLED
MANOMETER
VENT
VALVE
NO. 1
FLOW METER
(a) SCHEMATIC
MLVE NO
?:;>'-'-:-. '•''
ibiTEST INSTALLATION
Figure 3-7 - Simulated PCV Installation for Test
3-9
-------
The effect of PCV on engine power was also observed to be
small in that engine output power (output torque at constant speed) re-
mained essentially at the baseline setting when PCV was introduced and
required no readjustment of the fuel and air inputs. The effect of PCV
on manifold pressure is shown in Table 3-1. The slight pressure increase
(approximately 0.5 in Hg) can be accounted for by the additional flow
into the intake manifold.
Table 3-1 also summarizes the effect of PCV on THC emissions
for various loads and air-fuel ratios at the 28° BTDC ignition setting.
Average data published by Scott Research Laboratories is included to
indicate a nominal percent of total THC emissions contributed by the
crankcase flow at the various load conditions. Assuming the Scott data
are applicable for this case, the approximate effect of PCV on reducing
total engine emissions (last column, Table 3-1) is obtained by combining
the percent change in exhaust stack emissions with the percent crankcase
THC, assuming the elimination of all direct crankcase emissions. For
such an assumption, the net effect of PCV is a reduction in total engine
THC emission for all but one of the cases calculated.
3.2.3 Effect of Exhaust Treatment Systems
Test Setup and Procedure
The test installation for evaluation of exhaust treatment
systems on the Continental 0-200 engine utilized two parallel air pumps,
belt-driven off the engine output shaft to provide the required air.
Table 3-1 - Effect of PCV on Emissions - Continental 0-200 Engine
ENGINE CONDITION
RPM
900
1100
1950
2750
A/F
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
W/O PCV
THC(PPM)
20,306
9,992
6,020
17,916
5,017
3,070
6,425
3,815
2,305
6,760
2,431
2,023
MAP
IN.HG.
12.7
11.7
11.5
13.5
12.6
12.25
21.3
19.8
19.8
28.2
28.2
28.2
W/PCV
THC(PPM)
19,889
9,789
6,069
17,234
4,706
3,059
6,769
3,757
2,297
9,558
2,621
1,918
MAP
IN.HG.
13.15
11.9
11.9
13.8
12.9
12.5
21.7
20.2
20.0
28.2
28.2
28.2
PERCENT CHANGE
IN THC W/PCV
(EXHAUST GAS)
-2.0
-2.0
+0.8
-3.8
-6.1
-0.3
+5.3
-1.5
-0.3
+41.3
+ 7.8
-5.1
PERCENT CONTRIBUTION
OF CRANKCASE TO
TOTAL EMISSIONS*
+6.4
(AVERAGE OF
IDLE/LOW AND
TAXI MODES)
+9.4
(TAXI)
+24.6
(APPROACH)
+20.3
(CLIMB)
APPROXIMATE
NET CHANGE IN
TOTAL THC
W/PCV
-8
-8
-6
-13
-15
-10
-19
-26
-25
+21
-12
-26
"BASED ON DATA FROM "FINAL REPORT- A STUDY OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANT EMISSIONS " SCOTT
RESEARCH LABORATORIES, INC. (2) SECTION 7.3, p. 7 44
-Section 7.3, p. 7-44.
3-10
-------
For evaluation of simple secondary air injection, air flow
was introduced into the engine exhaust system through injection tubes
installed in the exhaust stacks between the engine exhaust ports and
the standard engine exhaust heat muffs. For thermal reactor evaluation,
the Continental 0-200 standard heat muffs were replaced with thermal
reactors and secondary air was injected into the exhaust ports by injec-
tors incorporated in the reactor design. Reactor core temperature was
monitored by a thermocouple. For evaluation of catalytic conversion,
the standard heat muffs were reinstalled and catalytic converters were
reinstalled and catalytic convertors were inserted into the exhaust paths
downstream of the heat muffs between the muffs and the exhaust "T".
Schematic diagrams of the secondary air, thermal reactor
and catalytic converter installations are shown in Figures 2-4, 2-6,
and 2-8, respectively, of Section 2.4.3. Photographs of the setups as
implemented are shown in Figures 3-8, 3-9 and 3-10.
EXHAUST PORT
fHERMOCOUPLES
Figure 3-8 - Secondary-Air Test Installation - Continental 0-200 Engine
3-11
-------
Figure 3-9 - Thermal Reactor Test Installation - Continental 0-200 Engine
Figure 3-10 -
Catalytic Converter Test Installation
Continental 0-200 Engine
3-12
-------
As with the PCV system evaluation, the effect of the res-
pective exhaust treatment approaches was measured at each test point
by taking data without secondary air to establish a fresh baseline data
point and then immediately following that measurement with the secondary
air test. Secondary air was introduced at each test condition (RPM, tor-
que, A/F ratio, ignition setting) to bring the exhaust gas composition
to the equivalent of 90 percent, 100 percent, and 110 percent of the
stoichiometric value of 14.7:1. The method of calculating the required
secondary air flow for the various conditions is discussed in Appendix
A-4.10.
The major functional difference between the three approaches
is in the exhaust gas temperature required to effectively start the pro-
cess. In all three approaches, the process is self-sustaining once
"light-off" occurs. Theoretically, the secondary air and thermal reactor
approaches require the same exhaust gas temperature to start the process.
Practically, the improved mixing and temperature environment provided by
the more complex thermal reactor leads to "light-off" over a wider range
than achievable with straight injection into a standard manifold. A
major advantage of the oxidizing catalytic converter is that it provides
catalytic action which stimulates the combustion process, allowing "light-
off" and consequent emission reduction at much lower initial temperatures.
Since the exhaust temperature is inadequate for "light-off" at lower power
and load conditions with injected air alone, a catalytic converter extends
the range of effective emission reduction into the low-power operation
region.
In all three approaches, the burning of hydrocarbons and
conversion of CO to C02 results in heating of the system to a degree pro-
portional to the amounts of HC and/or CO converted. The upper limit of
temperature allowed for test of the secondary air and thermal reaction
approaches was established by consideration of the metals used in the
exhaust and/or thermal reactor system. Continental recommended a maximum
temperature of a 1600°F be observed in the standard "heat muff" of the
Continental 0-200 engine. A temperature limit of 1800°F was selected
by Bendix for the exhaust tubing of the test setup. The thermal reactor
was also allowed to approach 1800°F because of higher-temperature materials
used in that design.
High temperature has at least two major effects on the
catalysts used in this test evaluation. Extended operation at tempera-
tures in the range of 16-1800°F significantly raises the minimum "light-
off" temperature, reducing the temperature range of effectiveness of the
catalyst. High-temperature stresses also can result in structural failure
of the catalyst elements, which apparently occurred in one catalytic
converter.
Test evaluation of the secondary air injection was conducted
first, followed by test evaluation of the thermal reactors. Both test
series were conducted using 80/87 leaded (0.32 ml/gal) aviation gaso-
line. Since lead rapidly degrades a catalytic converter (within hours),
3-13
-------
tests of the catalytic converter were conducted on 90/100 "Alkylid", a
non-leaded test fuel (0.001 ml/gal). When review of the first secondary-
air test series indicated shortcomings in the test procedure, a second
secondary-air test was conducted in the interim between the thermal re-
actor and catalytic convertor evaluations while the engine and fuel con-
trol systems were being purged on lead-sterile fuel in preparation for
the catalyst tests. A total running time of approximately eight hours
was expended to purge the engine and test system of lead. Comparison
of baseline data confirmed that the emissions characteristics of the
two fuels were essentially identical.
Test Results
Data obtained on the three emission control approaches,
along with reduced and calculated values for emissions, are presented
in Appendices B-3, B-4, and B-5. Test points marked "RM on the data
sheets are points where conditions and measurements were repeated at a
later time to establish the repeatability of engine and instrumentation
conditions.
Data were obtained over the complete test matrix of 900,
1100, 1700, 1950, and 2750 rpm; and 10:1, 11.5:1, and 13:1 A/F; for the
28° BTDC ignition timing case, except where disallowed by excessive tem-
perature rise or backfiring. Data were limited to those conditions near
or where light-off occurred for the 23° and 18° BTDC retarded ignition-
timing cases. In addition, the test matrix for the catalytic convertor
was limited to the 28° and 23° BTDC ignition cases because of failure
of one convertor at the start of the 18° BTDC test series.
The way in which light-off is enhanced in proceeding from
simple secondary air injection, through thermal reaction, to the use of
catalytic converters is presented graphically in the matrix tables of
Figure 3-11. The dependence of light-off on adequate exhaust gas tem-
perature and available oxygen is clearly shown in that the matrix pro-
gressively fills for (1) higher power, (2) increasing ignition retarda-
tion, and (3) increasing amounts of secondary air. Referring to Fig-
ure 3-11, for secondary air, the exhaust gas temperature is too low at
the 900 and 1100 rpm cases for light-off to occur with any of the com-
binations of secondary air or spark retard used. Temperatures for 1700
rpm operation appear to be marginal and the amount of secondary air,
engine A/F, and spark retard can influence whether or not light-off
occurs. The general effects are the same for the thermal reactor data
except that there is a general increase in the number of load conditions
where light-off occurs because of the better thermal conditions provided
by the reactors at the exhaust ports. The matrix provided for the cata-
lytic convertor shows that light-off occurred for all load conditions
and ignition timing cases tested.
Once substantial "light off" occurs, the reduction of THC
and CO content is influenced by the amount of oxygen present relative to
3-14
-------
SECONDARY AIR
10:1 11.5:1 13:1
THERMAL REACTOR
10:1 11.5:1 13:1
CATALYTIC CONVERTOR
10:1 11.5:1 13:1
IGNITION
TIMING
28°
23°
18°
90 I 100 1101 90 I 100 1110 I 90 I 100 I 110
90 1 100 1 no go 1 100 | no 90 1 100 | no
DO I 100 1110 I 90 1100 110 I 90 I 100 110
ONE OF THE CATALYTIC
CONVERTORS FAILED AT
START OF TEST
Figure 3-11 - Exhaust Treatment System: Effectivity Matrix for
Continental 0-200 Engine
emissions, the temperature and general thermal profile during the com-
bustion process, the duration of the combustion procuss (residence time),
and the quality of the mixing of air (oxygen) and emissions.
The general nature of reductions achieved with the experi-
mental configurations tested is indicated by the plots of Figures 3-12
through 3-15. Those plots show comparative emissions and temperature
versus power mode (RPM) and amount of secondary air for the three ex-
haust treatment approaches. Test points at 28 degrees ignition timing,
A/F = 11.5 and 100 and 110% secondary air were selected as representative
conditions which stay mainly within the allowed temperature band.
Referring to Figure 3-12 for THC, the baseline curve at
the top was constructed by averaging the THC values measured for the
three control approaches, with zero secondary air. Data are plotted for
both 100% and 110% secondary air except for the 110% data point at 2750
RPM which was aborted for all three approaches because of excessive
temperatures.
Reduction of THC was negligible for the secondary air sys-
tem at 900 and 1100 RPM because the exhaust gas temperature entering the
system was inadequate to start an effective combustion process. The
better thermal and aerodynamic properties of the thermal reactor (e.g.,
insulation and baffling) allow some combustion of exhaust gas to be ini-
tiated even at the low power modes, as evidenced by the slight reduction
in THC at the 1100 RPM case. A major asset of a catalyst is clearly
3-15
-------
100
SA-NOT LIGHTED
TR-PARTIALLY LIGHTED
AVERAGE
BASELINE
(ZERO SEC AIR)
SANOT
LIGHTED
THERMAL
REACTOR
SECONDARY
AIR
100%
CATALYTIC
CONVERTOR
A/F = 11.
I.T. = 28° BTDC
0.02
0.01
% SEC. AIR
LIMITED TO
100% BY
TEMP. CONSIDS.
900 1100
1700 1950
ENGINE
RPM
2750
to
5
CO
ol
Figure 3-12 - THC Reduction versus Power Mode (RPM)
3-16
-------
shown in that THC is reduced by factors of 20 and 100 for 100% and 110%
secondary air even at the low-temperature case at 900 RPM (3.5% of rated
power).
The general superiority of the catalytic approach in reduc-
ing hydrocarbons is well illustrated in Figure 3-12, where THC is reduced
by almost three orders of magnitude for the approach-power case (1950
RPM, 35% rated power) with 110% secondary air. The measured THC concen-
tration level represented by that point was rapidly approaching the noise
level for those measurements, indicating essentially total effective THC
elimination at that condition. The experimental thermal reactor system
achieves a reduction factor of 30 at the same load condition, and the
experimental secondary air system as implemented provides a reduction of
100 at the 1950 RPM case with 110% secondary air.
The curves for the 100% and 110% secondary air for the
three control approaches are joined by cross-hatching for enhanced visual
presentation. The rise in the lower level of the envelopes' shading be-
tween 1950 and 2750 RPM is not caused by a decreased effectivity of the
approaches as such but reflects the fact that full 110% secondary air
could not be attained at that power level because of temperature con-
straints. Had the secondary air level been increased gradually from
100% until the maximum limiting temperature was reached, somewhat better
reduction than indicated might have been achieved at the 2750 RPM case.
The relative effectivity of the control approaches in re-
ducing CO is illustrated in Figure 3-13. As with the THC plot of Fig-
ure 3-12, the baseline curve is based on the averages of CO measured at
the zero air case for all three systems. The relative independence of
CO formation on power level (Ibs CO/1000 Ibs of fuel) is clearly shown
by the flat baseline plot.
As with THC, negligible reduction is achieved by straight
secondary-air injection at the 900 and 1100 power points because of in-
adequate exhaust gas temperature. Some noticeable but small reduction
is initiated in the thermal reactor for those points. After definite
light-off is achieved in the secondary air and thermal reactor systems
their performance is roughly equivalent, with slightly better reduction
achieved by the secondary air approach.
Performance of the catalytic convertor is again, generally,
the best of the three, with about a factor of five reduction in CO for
all power modes at 100% air injection and an order of magnitude better
(factor of 50) reduction resulting with 110% air. The most significant
advantage of the catalytic approach again is at the low power modes (900
and 1100 RPM) where the catalytic converters initiate light-off of the
exhaust products so that reduction of CO is as good or better at idle
as it is at the higher power modes representing approach, takeoff and
climbout. Measurements at 2750 RPM and 110% air were deleted because
of excessive temperature buildup. The catalyst temperature reached
approximately 1600°F for the 2750 RPM, 100% air case, indicating that
3-17
-------
10,000 — r
u
cc
:
W
i
L
(100'
•H
•f C
>--c
AVERA
BASELI
*. A
J7"~
S«.^TR (100%)
"" "^*
\TR (110%l <
.1 N- 1
t Xw
1 ^
7
C
C
ccmo%i .
)— — —•**
3E
MEIZEF
/
r~?
H
i <
f» 111! «
P
^
J
*
*•*
O SEC AIR)
I
\^< ~
I^SA (110%) Vij
'A
/
I
O^l
))-
rj
% SEC. AIR
LIMITED TO
100% BY
TEMP. CONSIDS.
S SECONDARY AIR ISA)
S —-— THERMAL REACTOR (TRI
, **" — — — CATALYTIC CONVERTOR ICC)
| A/F-11.5
I.T. = 28° BTDC
1700 1950
ENGINE RPM
Figure 3-13 - CO Reduction versus Power Mode (RPM)
the factor of ten reduction achieved was the best achievable within the
temperature limits of the test system.
The effect of exhaust treatment on NOX emissions is shown
in Figure 3-14. The major effect notable is that, in general, the sec-
ondary air and thermal reactor systems have only a small effect relative
to the normal baseline rise of NOX with power which results from increased
combustion temperature. The behavior of the catalytic converter is es-
sentially the same as the other systems with 100% secondary air. However,
the behavior of the catalytic converter for 110% secondary air is unusual
in that a substantial reduction of NOX is indicated for the 110% cases
at the 900, 1700 and 1950 RPM cases. A check of catalyst behavior at
similar points with ignition timing of 23° also indicates some reduced
values of NOX relative to the 23° baseline.
The general temperature conditions that existed for the
baseline and 100% and 110% secondary-air cases described above are shown
in Figure 3-15. The secondary- air temperature was measured by a probe
in the exhaust gas flow just downstream of the left standard heat muff,
and the values are lower than the actual exhaust port temperatures ex-
perienced. The thermal reactor temperatures were measured by a probe
inserted directly into the center core of the reactors and more closely
indicate the maximum initial exhaust gas temperature. The' catalytic
converter temperatures were measured by a probe inserted in the gas flow
within the converter envelopes just downstream of the catalyst cores.
3-18
-------
o
tx
0.2
0.1
I
f
L
C
/
/ *
'
(
•
<•*"
I
> I
]
C
t
]
i
J
\
)
_f. AVERAGE BASELINE
W (ZERO SEC. AIR)
0 SECONC
)ARYAIR
A THERMAL REACTOR
D CATALYTIC CONVERTOR
(UPPER AND LOWER POINTS ARE
FOR 110% AND 100% SEC. AIR
RESPECTIVELY)
900 1100 1700 1950
ENGINE RPM
2750
Figure 3-14 - NOX Effect versus Power Mode (RPM)
As indicated by the baseline curves for zero secondary air,
the temperatures in the secondary air system and the catalytic converters
are significantly lower than in the thermal reactors. This is as expected
in that the thermal reactor temperature is measured closer to the exhaust-
ports, and the thermal reactors are designed and insulated to provide a
high-temperature mixture region for reaction of the exhaust gas and in-
jected air.
As 100% secondary air is injected, the catalytic system
immediately starts combusting even at low power levels as indicated by
the temperature increase from 500°F to 1080°F at 900 RPM. The deficient
combustion performance of the secondary air and thermal reactor systems
at low power is shown by the lack of increased temperature at 900 RPM.
The straight secondary air system, in fact, follows the baseline (zero
air) curve until the 1700 RPM point, where exhaust gas temperature is
adequate to initiate some measurable combustion. The thermal reactor
temperatures start departing from the baseline at the 1100 RPM case,
indicating significant combustion has been initiated.
Comments
The relative performance of the straight secondary injec-
tion and thermal reaction approaches are somewhat unexpected in that the
simple secondary air injection system attains reductions comparable to
the catalytic converter under conditions of 10° ignition retardation.
3-19
-------
The emissions levels achieved with the thermal reactors are generally
higher (less reduction) than those with secondary air alone, but the
spread with retarded ignition timing is less. Referring to Figure 3-12,
the thermal reactor and catalytic converter approaches put a boundary on
the performance achieved with the exhaust treatment systems tested. The
secondary air approach varies in performance between those bounds depend-
ing upon ignition timing.
A probable explanation for this behavior is in the detailed
designs of the experimental test configurations. As indicated in Sec-
tion 2.4, to facilitate the measurement of exhaust emissions, the tubing
from the standard heat muffs were extended and joined in a "T" approxi-
mately two feet downstream from the heat muffs. Such an elongation of
the standard exhaust system actually represents a form of thermal reactor
design in that the mixing and residence times of the exhaust and secondary
air were significantly increased compared to the standard configuration,
which normally vents to atmosphere a short distance beyond each heat muff.
This allowed a much better combustion process to take place, with subse-
quent better reduction of emissions than ordinarily should have resulted
with secondary air injection. For this configuration, light-off was de-
finitely enhanced by retarded ignition timing, and excellent combustion
of the gases was possible (approaching the catalytic converters) because
of the long path and gradual burning process.
In the thermal reactor design, the heat muffs were replaced
with the reactors, and secondary air was introduced by injectors passing
through the reactors into the exhaust ports parallel to the exhaust flow.
As with the secondary injection approach, the outputs of the reactors
were joined at a "T" and exhaust gas was sampled in the common path be-
yond the "T".
Considering the two configurations and their detailed dif-
ferences, it appears that the gradual mixing and combustion in the plain
long exhaust tubing was potentially superior to the more rapid turbulent
mixing attempted in the thermal reactors. The temperatures reached in
the thermal reactor core were higher than those measured in the exhaust
system downstream of the heat muff. (Figure 3-15). It is possible that
the rapid combustion which presumably took place in the reactors resulted
in an exhaust composition which did not utilize the residence time in
the tubing as effectively as in the secondary air system.
3-20
-------
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
% SEC. AIR
LIMITED TO
100% BY
TEMP. CONSIDS.
400
200
TR TEMP.(ZERO SEC. AIR]
CC TEMP (ZERO SEC. AIR
SA TEMP (ZERO SEC. AIR)
O SECONDARY AIR
A THERMAL REACTOR
O CATALYTIC CONVERTOR
(UPPER AND LOWER
CURVES ARE FOR 110%
AND 100% SEC. AIR
AS INDICATED)
900 1100
1700 1950
ENGINE RPM
Figure 3-15 - Temperature versus Power Mode (RPM)
3.3 LYCOMING 10-540 EVALUATION
The Lycoming test series included the measurement of exhaust emis-
sions and various engine and system temperatures at idle, takeoff, climb-
out, and approach conditions (1) over an engine variables matrix consist-
ing of three variations in air-fuel ratio and ignition timing and (2)
with crankcase gas returned to the intake manifold (PCV). Evaluation
of exhaust treatment systems was limited to a preliminary investigation
of the turbocharger as a secondary-air source because of operational
difficulties of the turbocharger application described in Section 3.3.3
below.
3.3.1 Effect of Engine Variables
Baseline data were recorded for steady-state operating
conditions with nominal air-fuel ratios of 10.1:1, 11.5:1 and 13.0:1
3-21
-------
and ignition timing of 25° (factory setting), 20°, and 15° BTDC. The
following load rpm and torque conditions were used:
Mode
Represented
Idle/Taxi (Out)
Takeoff
Climbout
Approach
Idle/Taxi (In)
With the magneto set to the desired value and the engine warmed up, the
engine was set to the desired speed, torque and air-fuel ratio. Sampling
of exhaust gas composition was started after the operating conditions
were stabilized. The air-fuel ratio was varied at each engine speed
as required by the test matrix.
The basic engine variables test matrix was as follows:
Engine
Speed
(RPM)
1000
2700
2400
1900
1000
Brake
Torque
(ft-lbs)
70
410 (WOT)
400
250
70
Power
(BHP)
13.3
210.8
182.8
90.5
13.3
Power
(% Rated)
5.1
81.1
70.2
34.8
5.1
Ignition
Timing
25°
25°
25°
25°
25°
25°
25°
25°
20°
20°
20°
15°
15°
15°
Power
Setting
(RPM)
1900
1000
2400
(1900)
2700
(1900)
(2700)
(1000)
1900
1000
2400
1900
1000
2400
Air-Fuel Ratio
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
(11.5)
10, 11.5, 13
(11.5)
(10)
(10)
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
10, 11.5, 13
PCV Status
Without and With PCV
Without and With PCV
Without and With PCV
Without PCV (Repeat Point)
Without PCV
Without PCV
Without PCV
Without PCV
PCV at A/F =
PCV at A/F =
PCV at A/F =
PCV at A/F =
PCV at A/F =
PCV at A/F =
(Repeat Point)
(Repeat Point)
(Repeat Point)
= 11.5 only
= 11.5 only
: 11.5 only
=11.5 only
! 11.5 only
: 11.5 only
The 2700 RPM power points were deleted from the 20° and 15° timing runs
to minimize engine operating time at higher cylinder-head temperatures.
As discussed later in this section, selected points at low
RPM were rerun to recheck emissions with retarded ignition timing after
cleaning the spark plugs. Conditions rechecked were-
3-22
-------
1.6-
0.8-
AIR-FUEL RATIO
TOTAL HYDROCARBONS (THC)
AIR.FUEL RATIO
CARBON MONOXIDE (COI
AIR-FUEL RATIO
OXIDES OF NITROGEN (NO
Figure 3-16 - Emissions versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Lycoming 10-540 Engine
Ignition
Timing
25°, 20°, 15°
25°, 20°, 15°
Power
Setting
(RPM)
1900
1000
Air-Fuel Ratio
11.5
10, 11.5, 13.0
PCV Status
No PCV
No PCV
Appendix C.
Results
Data and computed emissions values are presented in
Air-Fuel Ratio Variation
The effects of air-fuel ratio on engine emissions, temper-
atures, and brake specific fuel consumption are summarized in Fig-
ures 3-16, 3-17 and 3-18, respectively-
The general shape and magnitudes of the emissions curves
of Figure 3-16 are consistent with known general characteristics for
piston engines operating below stoichiometric ratios as shown in Fig-
ure 2-1. The total hydrocarbons increase with richer air-fuel ratios
and are essentially proportional to rpm on a Ibs/hour basis, except that
at 1000 rpm and rich (10 to 1) air-fuel ratio, the THC was larger than
at 1900 rpm. Some roughness at 1000 rpm idle was experienced occasion-
ally during runs at 10:1 air-fuel ratio, which probably accounts for
the high value of THC for that case. It is believed that the rich limit
of ignition was beginning to take place in the form of very slow flame
propagation rates and occasional misfire. CO versus A/F is linear and
inversely proportional to A/F, as expected. NOX rises rapidly with in-
creased air-fuel ratio except for the low-power idle condition, where
the combustion temperatures required for significant NOX formation were
not attained.
3-23
-------
Plots of average cylinder head temperature (CRT) and ex-
haust gas temperature (EGT) as functions of air-fuel ratio (A/F) for the
various power modes are shown in Figure 3-17.
Figure 3-18 indicates the variation in brake specific fuel
consumption at various rpms and air-fuel ratios. The curves indicate re-
duced BSFC with increasing air-fuel ratio and rpm, which is typical pis-
ton engine performance in the air-fuel ratio range observed. Shown on
the plot are two values of BSFC as calculated from the manufacturer's
manual for 2400 rpm best economy and best power mixture settings. The
intersection of the 2400 RPM line, if extrapolated, crosses those lines
at about 15 to 1 and 13 to 1, which is close to the normal piston engine
characteristics.
The effect of ignition timing on the exhaust emission pro-
ducts is shown in Figure 3-19. The effect of ignition timing is somewhat
random except that retarded ignition timing seems to cause a slight in-
crease in THC at A/F = 10 while the leaner air-fuel ratios are essentially
unaffected by retarded timing. CO increases slightly with retarded tim-
ing for the richer, higher power cases. The curves of NOX generation
show the reduced NOX output with retarded timing which results from the
reduction of the peak cylinder temperatures. Similarly, the NOX forma-
tion at 1000 RPM is reduced, essentially to an insignificant amount,
because the peak cycle temperature is very low.
The effect of ignition timing on cylinder head and exhaust
gas temperature is shown in Figure 3-20. As expected, retarded timing
increases EGT for all observed RPM's. The cylinder head temperatures
remain essentially constant at low RPM, and there is a slight reduction
with retarded timing at high (2400) RPM.
Retarding ignition timing from the manufacturer's recom-
mended setting produces an increase in brake specific fuel consumption
for all observed RPM's as shown in Figure 3-21.
During the course of the testing, low-speed, rich operation
test points were generally alternated with high-power runs to minimize
spark plug fouling. When the THC data at 1000 RPM, A/F = 10 and 11.5,
showed a significant increase with retarded timing (Runs 21 and 30) the
test conditions were reviewed.
Since some engine roughness had been noted at rich, retard
conditions, the spark plugs were inspected, gap checked and pressure
tested. No apparent discrepancies were found, but the plugs were sand
blasted without any other change and the engine was retested. The results
of cleaning the spark plugs with a standard sand blast unit are shown in
Figure 3-22. The subsequent change in THC is shown by the curves for
the freshly cleaned spark plugs. Apparently ignition of the charge was
close to being marginal at rich, idle conditions with in-use spark plugs
and the slight plug degradation during the test series showed up in the
THC measurement. The spark plugs were delivered with the engine and were
3-24
-------
1400
1200
1000 • -
800 - -
£ 600 - -
400 • -
200 • -
1900 RPM
1000 RPM
1100 RPM
EXHAUST GAS
TEMP.
CYLINDER HEAD
TEMP.
10
11.5
AIR FUEL RATIO
13
Figure 3-17 - Temperature versus Air-Fuel Ratio - Lycoming 10-540 Engine
1.4.
0.6
0.4,
0.2
LYCOMING 051— —
PUBLISHED { ' BEST POWER '.
DATA 0.44 I
-BEST ECONOMY [
I
JT '
-/
£-
-EXTRAPOLATED
10
12 13
AIR-FUEL RATIO
14
15
Figure 3-18 - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Air-Fuel Ratio
Lycoming 10-540 Engine
3-25
-------
2.0-
1.6-
TOTAL 1.2
HYDROCARBONS
(THC)
LBS/HR °'8
0.4 H
1000 RPM
A/F = 11.5
T~
25
A/F = 13
20
1
15
1900 RPM
I
25
10
11.5
13
I
20
I
15
25
11.5
13
I
20
15
CARBON
200—1
160—1
120—1
MONOXIDE
(CO)
LBS/HR 80-
40—1
11.5 10.0 13.0
I
25
20
\
15
25
13
20
I
15
25
11.5
13
20
n
15
1.25 -,
1.0 —
OXIDES
OF 0.75-
NITROGEN
-------
EXHAUST GAS
TEMP.
CYLINDER HEAD
TEMP.
25 20 IB
IGNITION TIMING (DEC. BTDC)
Figure 3-20 - Temperature versus Ignition Timing - Lycoming 10-540 Engine
BSFC
(LB/BHP-HR)
0.4
25 20
IGNITION TIMING (DEG. BTDC)
Figure 3-21 - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption versus Ignition Timing
Lycoming 10-540 Engine
3-27
-------
2.0-
1.6-
THC
LBS/HR
1.2-
0.8-
0.4-
1000RPM
IN-USE
SPARKPLUGS
FRESHLY
CLEANED
SPARK
PLUGS x<
O 10.0
Q11.5
-
O — — —
11.5
•n*-—•——ma.o
13.0
25°
20°
15°
IGNITION TIMING
Figure 3-22 - Effect of Retarded Timing and Degraded
Spark Plug Conditions
Table 3-2 - Effect of PCV on Emissions - Lycoming 10-540 Engine
ENGINE CONDITION
RPM
1000
1900
2400
2700
A/F
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
10
11.5
13
W/o PCV
THC (PPM|
14,882
6,104
3,808
3,551
2,690
2,037
3,248
1,987
1,477
2,802
1,934
1,300
MAP
INHg
13.2
12.8
12.2
19.7
19.1
19.7
24.5
25.7
25.4
26.6
26.6
26.6
W/PCV
THC IPPM )
16,173
5,984
3,637
3,472
2,736
2,023
3,107
1,995
1,390
2,867
2,032
1,383
MAP
INHg
13.4
12.9
12.2
20.1
19.4
19.9
25.8
25.9
25.9
26.6
26.6
26.6
PERCENT CHANGE
IN THC w/PCV
(EXHAUST GASI
+8.6
-2.0
-4.7
-2.2
+1.7
-0.6
-4.5
+0.4
-6.2
+2.3
+5.0
+6.0
[PERCENT CONTRIBUTION
OF CRANKCASE TO
TOTAL EMISSIONS*
1
( (IDLE-TAXI)
J
"I
1 +24.6
/ (APPROACH)
J
-,
^
> * +22
(TAKE OFF-
CLIMB)
APPROXIMATE
NET CHANGE IN
TOTAL THC
w/PCV
+4
-7
-10
-27
-23
-25
-26
-22
-28
-20
-16
*BASED ON DATA FROM "FINAL REPORT-A STUDY OF AIRCRAFT POWERPLANT EMISSIONS", SCOTT RESEARCH LABORATORIES,
INC. (2)
3-28
-------
unused at the beginning of the test series. They had less than 20 hours
total usage at the time of sand blasting. The data plots of Figure 3-19
incorporate the rechecked data with cleaned plugs for best presentation
of the general effect of ignition timing variation. Data from the re-
check runs are presented in Appendix C-2.
3.3.2 Effect of PCV
The effect of returning crankcase gases to the intake mani-
fold is summarized in Table 3-2. Data points were taken similar to those
for the Continental 0-200 engine (Section 3.2.2) and are identified in
Appendix C-l with the suffix "P".) The effects on both exhaust THC emis-
sions and on manifold absolute pressure (MAP) tend to be slight (< +10%
for THC; < +2% for MAP). The 1-2% increase in MAP is consistent with
the general magnitude of crankcase gas flow introduced relative to in-
duction air flow. The changes in exhaust THC tend to vary somewhat ran-
domly, and undoubtedly include some component of measurement inaccuracy.
Changes in engine torque noted (Appendix C-l) also vary and are small
enough to be subject to minor changes in test conditions during the
PCV tests.
The crankcase gases can affect the actual air-fuel ratio
of the cylinder depending upon the constituents of the crankcase gases.
In general the crankcase gases will be .a fuel-rich mixture plus inert
components. Thus, a slight richening tendency should occur in the engine
cylinder. The data suggests that the tendency is small. The greatest
effect of PCV is the elimination of the direct dumping of crankcase gases
to the atmosphere. The estimated reduction in total engine THC emissions
is shown in the last column of Table 3-2. These data are based on in-
formation by Scott as indicated in reference .
3.3.3 Effect of Exhaust Treatment Systems
Test Setup
Implementation of the experimental exhaust treatment sys-
tems on the Lycoming 10-540 engine is described in Section 2.4.3.2 above.
A photograph of the basic test assembly is shown in Figure 3-23. The
thermal reactor, secondary-air manifolding, and turbocharger assembly
are indicated.
Results
Preliminary tests using the turbocharger for secondary air
injection in the test configuration demonstrated that a significantly
modified and/or more sophisticated system configuration is required to
utilize a turbocharger as a practical secondary-air source. In particular
if the turbocharger is downstream of the reactor system as desired to
utilize the exhaust gas combustion energy for turbocharger power, a
"bootstrap" effect occurs on light-off which leads to difficulty in con-
trolling the secondary air to prescribed safe levels with a manually
controlled test configuration.
3-29
-------
W WS!" SECONDARY
AIR INJECTOR
Figure 3-23 - Basic Test Assembly - Lycoming 10-540 Engine
For example, in tests performed at 1900 RPM (approach power)
it was found that as the secondary air was increased to light-off level,
a rapid (less than one second) increase in turbocharger output pressure
and flow resulted when light-off occurred. This resulted in a consequent
rapid increase in exhaust gas temperature to beyond safe limits for both
the exhaust system and the turbocharger turbine. The rise occurred too
fast to allow manually controlled reduction of turbocharger input power
or output air to safe levels before the test condition had to be abruptly
terminated as temperatures approached 2000°F. Since the initial exhaust
gas temperatures are higher for the 2400 RPM (climbout) and 2700 RPM
(takeoff) power settings (and with retarded ignition timings), a similar
temperature problem can be expected at those conditions.
The exploratory tests also demonstrated that the turbocharger
selected does not derive sufficient input power at 1000 RPM (idle) to pro-
vide the required secondary air levels, and testing of exhaust treatment
systems therefore cannot be run at those conditions with the existing
turbocharger.
3-30
-------
This experience does not imply that turbochargers are not
usable as secondary-air sources in piston engine aircraft but that their
use requires analysis and design sophistication beyond the scope of the
current contract effort.
The bootstrap effect noted can be eliminated if the turbo-
charger is inserted close to the exhaust ports and the reactor is down-
stream of the turbine. Turbocharger flow (used for secondary air) would
be injected at the reactor input, downstream of the turbine, and no posi-
tive feedback effect would occur at light-off. This would, of course,
result in lower temperature gases available at the reactor input because
of drop through the turbine and would limit the secondary-air use to
high-power cases only and/or with catalytic converters.
The limiting of turbocharger use to high power modes because
of power range limits of the turbocharger turbine itself or because of
the temperature considerations just discussed would tend to restrict the
secondary air to flight modes of the LTD cycle. Since the climbout and
approach modes are major sources of emissions within the LTD cycle be-
cause of their power levels and durations, restriction of exhaust treat-
ment to those modes might still be adequate to meet the standards ulti-
mately adopted.
3-31
-------
SECTION 4
FEASIBILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION CONSIDERATIONS
4.1 GENERAL SCOPE OF EVALUATION
The objective of this section is to compare the relative performance
of the various automotive-type emission control systems in light of the
special requirements of the aircraft engine. In addition, the test
results of the program are compared against the proposed Federal
standards as published in December, 1972. Some conclusions are
drawn as to the effectiveness of the various emission control sys-
tems tested in meeting the proposed standards.
The feasibility of applying such equipment and concepts to
flightworthy systems is also discussed. Problem areas and areas
requiring further investigation and development are delineated and
comments on the safety and economic considerations are given where
possible.
4.2 COMPARATIVE PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF CONTROL APPROACHES
Emission control techniques and systems selected as potentially
appropriate for aircraft piston engine application were (1) varia-
tion of air-fuel ratio and ignition timing; (2) exhaust treatment
by air injection, thermal reaction, and catalytic conversion; and
(3) return of crankcase gases to the intake manifold (positive crank-
case ventilation).
Positive Crankcase Ventilation
Positive crankcase ventilation (PCV) is a special case in that
it totally eliminates a significant source of hydrocarbon emissions
(up to 25% of the total) with relatively little effect on engine per-
formance. The major concerns with PCV for aircraft are in the
practical considerations of implementation, as discussed in Section
4.3 below.
Exhaust Emissions Control
The proposed standards for exhaust emissions as published in
December 1972 1 are stated in terms of pounds/rated horsepower/cycle
so that larger engines are allotted a proportionally larger emissions
allowance than smaller engines. The proposed standards as applied
to the Continental 0-200 and Lycoming 10-540 engines are as shown
in Table 4-1.
^ubpart F, para. 87.50, p. 26491.
4-1
-------
Table 4-1 - Proposed Emissions Allowance for Continental 0-200 and
Lycoming 10-540 Engines
POLLUTANT
THC
CO
NOX
PROPOSED
FEDERAL STANDARD
(LB/RATED HP/CYCLE)
0.00190
0.042
0.0015
CONT. 0-200
(100 HP)
(LB/CYCLE)
0.190
4.2
0.15
LYC. 1 0-540
(260 HP)
(LB/CYCLE)
0.494
10.92
0.39
The LTD (landing-takeoff) cycle applicable to engines of this
class (Class PI) , and the nominal power conditions used for the test
and evaluation series, are shown in Table 4-2. The values used for
the tests were derived before the proposed Federal standards were
published and were based primarily on an assumed cubic propeller
loading curve referenced to 100% power at the manufacturer's recom-
mended maximum RPM (at takeoff). The engine RPM values for the various
modes were selected from typical airframe operation manuals for aircraft
using the engines selected for this test program.
Power levels for takeoff and/or climbout test conditions were
established by actual power achieved with wide open throttle (WOT)
for the Continental 0-200 engine and as indicated for the Lycoming
10-540 engine. The actual power levels achieved at takeoff rpm are
15 to 20% below the specified 100%, but this has only a slight effect
on cycle emissions calculated below because of the short duration of
the takeoff mode. The emissions measured could be corrected to match
more closely the specified power levels by extrapolation if desired.
To indicate the general emissions performance of the two engines
tested, relative to the proposed standards, a set of nominal air-fuel
ratios was selected as follows:
Air-Fuel
Ratio
Mode
Idle/Taxi (out)
Takeoff
Climbout
Approach
Idle/Taxi (In)
10
11.5
11.5
11.5
10
4-2
-------
Table 4-2 - Modal Powers and Durations
PROPOSED FEDERAL STANDARDS (DEC. 1972)
LTD CYCLE
MODES
TAXI/IDLE (OUT)
TAKEOFF
CLIMBOUT
APPROACH
TAXI/IDLE (IN)
DURATION
(MIN.)
12.0
0.3
5.0
6.0
4.0
SPECIFIED POWER
FOR TEST
MFGR'S RECOMMENDED
POWER SETTING
100%
75-100%
40%
MFGR'S RECOMMENDED
POWER SETTING
POWER USED FOR
TEST SERIES
CONT. 0-200
3.5%
(900 RPM)
86.5%
(WOT)
(2750 RPM)
86.5%
(WOT)
(2750 RPM)
35.7%
(1950 RPM)
6.4%
(1100 RPM)
LYCOMING 10-540
5.1%
(1000 RPM)
81.1%
(WOT)
(2700 RPM)
70.2%
(2400 RPM)
34.8%
(1900 RPM)
5.1%
(1000 RPM)
Using these assumed values for air-fuel ratio, the cycle emissions for
the two engines were calculated from average emissions data measured.
Factory ignition timings of 28° BTDC and 25° BTDC were used for the
Continental 0-200 and Lycoming 10-540 engines respectively. Mass emis-
sions derived for the two engines are shown in Tables 4-3 and 4-4.
As indicated at the bottom line of the tables, as tested and for
the air-fuel ratios assumed, both engines were within approximately 25%
of the THC standard, were a factor of two over the CO standard, and were
approximately an order of magnitude below the NOX standard.
For both engines, with the air-fuel ratios assumed, the combined
idle/taxi modes produce more THC than the combined climbout and approach
modes by a factor of approximately 1.5 to 2. The climbout mode is the
largest contributor of CO, producing approximately twice the amounts of
the taxi/idle and approach modes. The NOX generated in the total cycle
is sufficiently low not to be of concern. For both engines, the mass
emissions at takeoff are negligible because of the very short duration
of that mode (0.3 minute) relative to the total cycle (1.1%).
The emissions can be modified to fall under the proposed standard
values by increasing air-fuel ratio or by the application of exhaust
treatment systems. A wide variety of air-fuel ratio and ignition timing
combinations can be assumed to the various modes if only those engine
parameters are varied. The situation becomes even more complex for
exhaust treatment systems in that the amount of secondary air is also a
variable.
To give a general indication of conditions which result in accep-
table emissions levels, several air-fuel ratio combinations were developed
which give suitably reduced emissions. An example is also given for each
4-3
-------
Table 4-3 - Nominal Modal Emissions from Continental 0-200 Engine
MODE
IDLE/TAXI (OUT)
TAKEOFF
CLIMBOUT
APPROACH
TAXI/IDLEIIN)
RPM
900
2750
2750
1950
1100
A/F
10.0
11.5
11.5
11.5
10.0
TIME
(MIN.)
12.0
0.3
5.0
6.0
4.0
EMISSIONS (IBS/CYCLE)
PROP. FED.STD. (12/72)
%OFP.F.S. (12/72)
EMISSIONS (LBS/MODE)
THC
0.116
0.003
0.048
0.039
0.033
0.239
0.190
126
CO
1.38
0.26
4.32
2.24
0.62
8.82
4.2
210
NOx
0.0002
0.0009
0.0154
0.0043
0.0001
0.0209
0.150
14
Table 4-4 - Nominal Modal Emissions from Lycoming 10-540 Engine
MODE
IDLE/TAXI (OUT)
TAKEOFF
CLIMBOUT
APPROACH
TAXI/IDLEON)
RPM
1000
2700
2400
1900
1000
A/F
10.0
11.5
11.5
11.5
10.0
TIME
(MIN.)
12.0
0.3
5.0
6.0
4.0
EMISSIONS (LB/CYCLE)
PROP. FEDSTD. (12/72)
%OFP.F.S. (12/72)
EMISSIONS (LBS/MODE)
THC
0.254
0.006
0.085
0.075
0.085
0.505
0.494
102
CO
4.14
0.67
8.71
5.65
1.38
20.55
10.92
188
NOx
0.0001
0.0014
0.0267
0.0163
0.0000
0.044
0.39
11
of the three exhaust treatment approaches. Because of its demonstrated
slight effect on emissions performance, ignition timing was left at the
factory settings for all cases treated.
The conditions assumed and the resultant emissions are presented in
Table 4-5. The effect of varying air-fuel ratio is considered for various
mode combinations in cases 1-4 and 8-11 for the Continental 0-200 and
Lycoming 10-540 engines, respectively. An example showing reduction
achieved for 100% secondary air is given for each of the three exhaust
treatment approaches used with the Continental 0-200 engine (Cases 5-7).
4-4
-------
Table 4-5 - Cycle Emissions with Various A/F and Exhaust Treatment Conditions
-P-
Ui
CASE
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
(10)
(11)
CONDITION
CONTINENTAL 0-200
VARIOUS A/F @ 28° I.T.
NOMINAL A/F (A/F)
ALL MODES UNIFORMLY LEANED (A/F)
ALL MODES LEANED EXCEPT T.O.
(TAKEOFF @ 11.0) (A/F)
TAKEOFF @ 11.0; CLIMBOUT A/F
CALCULATED W/OTHER MODES
STOICHIOMETRIC(=14.7) (A/F)
EXHAUST TREATMENT SYSTEMS
SECONDARY AIR INJECTION ALL
MODES© A/F = 11. 5 (% SEC. AIR)
THERMAL REACTOR ALL MODES®
A/F = 11. 5 (% SEC. AIR)
CATALYTIC CONVERTOR ALL MODES
@ A/F = 11. 5 (% SEC. AIR)
LYCOMING IO-540
NOMINAL A/F (A/F)
ALL MODES UNIFORMILY LEANED (A/F)
ALL MODES LEANED EXCEPT T.O.
(TAKEOFF @ 10.5) (A/F)
TAKEOFF @ 10.5; CLIMBOUT A/F
CALCULATED W/OTHER MODES @
STOICHIOMETRIC (=14.7) (A/F)
A/F OR % SEC. AIR PER MODE
(ASSUMED OR DERIVED)
IDLE/
TAXI (OUT)
10
13.4
13.5
STOICH
0
0
100
10
13.2
13.2
14.7
TAKEOFF
11.5
13.4
11.0
11.0
100
100
100
11.5
13.2
10.5
10.5
CLIMBOUT
11.5
13.4
13.5
12.4
100
100
100
11.5
13.2
13.3
12.5
APPROACH
11.5
13.4
13.5
STOICH
100
100
100
11.5
13.2
13.3
14.7
IDLE/
TAXI (IN)
10
13.4
13.5
STOICH
0
0
100
10
13.2
13.3
14.7
CYCLE EMISSIONS
(% PROP. FED. STD.)
THC
126
25
26
47
33
36
18
102
41
42
31
CO
210
100
98
100
73
88
29
188
96
100
100
NOX
14
50
55
52
16
23
11
11
34
33
60
-------
Cases 1 and 8 are for nominal conditions as discussed earlier,
repeated here for convenient reference.
Cases 2 and 9 show the level of leanness required to meet the
standards if all modes are leaned identically, resulting in air-fuel
ratios of 13.4 and 13.2 for the Continental 0-200 and Lycoming 10-540
engines, respectively.
Cases 3 and 10 show the level to which all other modes must be
leaned if the takeoff mode is left at the nominal baseline values.
Because of the very short takeoff mode duration (0.3 minute), the
increase in other-mode uniform air-fuel ratios is only approximately 0.1
air-fuel ratio.
Cases 4 and 11 show the air-fuel ratio for the climbout mode if
takeoff is left at the nominal enriched value and the taxi-idle and
approach modes are leaned to the stoichiometric value (-14.7). For
such a case, the climbout mode air-fuel ratios are 12.4 and 12.5,
respectively.
Cases 5-7 give a single example for each exhaust treatment system
of how the proposed standard values are met with combinations of air-
fuel ratio and secondary air. A wide variety of combinations of air-fuel
ratios and secondary air are possible for the various modes. For simpli-
city, an average air-fuel ratio of 11.5 was assumed, and secondary air
for 100% stoichiometric mixture at the exhaust was assumed. Since neither
the secondary air or thermal reactor systems are effective at taxi/idle
powers, the systems are assumed off (zero air) for those modes.
Cases 5 and 6 show that both secondary air and thermal reactor
systems can provide satisfactory emission values for the conditions
assumed. Since the catalytic converter is effective at low powers, it
reduces the emissions level for the taxi/idle modes and is generally
more effective at the other modes as well. Case 7 indicates the improved
performance of the catalytic converter.
The above examples are meant to provide a gross numerical indica-
tion of the performance of the various approaches relative to the stand-
ard values proposed at the time of the preparation of this report. Simi-
lar calculations can be made as desired for other combinations of air-fuel
ratio, ignition timing, and exhaust treatment with the data provided in
Section 3 or in Appendices B and C. For the examples cited, emissions
(in particular CO) were only required to be equal to or less than the
standard value. Any factor applied to new engines to allow for manu-
facturing tolerances or aging effects between overhauls would, of course,
modify the numbers shown in the examples.
4.3 CONSIDERATIONS OF PRACTICAL IMPLEMENTATION
The control of exhaust emissions from light piston-engine aircraft
can be implemented by either fuel management methods or exhaust treatment
systems. The contribution of crankcase gases to the total engine
emissions may be controlled by capturing and readmitting crankcase gases
into the engine system in various ways.
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4.3.1 Fuel Management
Various specialized methods of providing the desired mix-
ture of the fuel and air to the cylinder are known, but this study con-
siders only the carburetor and mechanical fuel injection systems commonly
used with piston engines for light aircraft.
If the fuel management system is required to provide the
bulk of the required emission control, more precise control of the air-
fuel ratio than heretofore tolerated may be required, and a variable
air-fuel ratio schedule for different operational modes may be necessary.
In addition, a particular engine/air frame combination may require one
specific, programmed, air-fuel ratio control for various operational
modes (e.g., taxi-out, takeoff, climbout), while the same engine in a
different air frame, with different flight performance, may require a
different air-fuel ratio program. Identification of the operational mode
may be accomplished from several input sources. The simplest system
approach would use throttle position only, while more complex systems
could sense air speed, power output, flap position, gear position, alti-
tude, etc., to determine the existing mode of operation in order to select
the desired air-fuel ratio.
The trend will be toward leaner mixtures. Automatic enrich-
ment control systems may be necessary to prevent cylinder head tempera-
tures from exceeding predetermined levels. Detonation sensing and possibly
engine roughness sensing may be required. Some method of ambient density
compensation may be required to provide for airport altitude variations
throughout the United States. Implied is the requirement for the best
possible cylinder-to-cylinder distribution throughout the operating range.
In most aircraft, flight mode can effectively be estab-
lished by throttle position. The desired air-fuel ratio would be estab-
lished be experimentation to find the necessary or permissible ratios
at the various flight modes which would meet the emission requirements
during the LTD cycle. If the inherent throttle versus mixture charac-
teristics of a given carburetor were not suitable, the desired fuel
management performance might be accomplished by the incorporation of a
simple mechanical programmer. Mixture command would be applied to the
mechanical programmer which would also receive an input from the throttle
control. The programmer then would command the carburetor mixture con-
trol position, and the engine would operate at the desired resultant air-
fuel ratio. Such a mechanical programmer could be designed in many ways.
In operation the pilot could apply a full-rich command to the mixture
control, but the programmer would provide the proper mixture at all
throttle positions except WOT. The pilot could lean the mixture more
than the programmer allows, back to idle cut-off for example, but he
could not enrichen beyond the programmer settings.
In the event that air density compensation is required,
the design of a good economical ambient density compensation system
may require development effort. The technical problem is the design of
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a mechanical system with essentially zero hysteresis and sufficient
damping. This means that no sliding contact between moving members
should exist. The pressure and temperature sensing elements may be com-
bined in an aneroid concept. The size and weight of a density-compen-
sated carburetor would be increased slightly over present uncompensated
carburetors.
Fuel management for an injected engine would have essen-
tially the same requirements as for a carbureted engine. Some mechani-
cal fuel injection systems in present use are pressure compensated and
some are density compensated. None are known to be programmed to pro-
vide a precise air-fuel ratio as a function of flight mode per se.
Assuming that a desired air-fuel ratio program has been established for
a particular fuel injected engine which will meet the requirements for
exhaust gas emissions, the fuel metering controls in the injection sys-
tem may be mechanically trimmed to meet the requirements. Fuel injec-
tion systems are currently supplied which can provide part throttle to
WOT air-fuel ratio control to approximately +3 percent on an engine
installation. Idle air-fuel ratios are generally not controlled this
well. Development effort could be required to provide density compensa-
tion throughout the full-idle to WOT range, if that becomes necessary.
It is not expected that a significant change in size and weight of cer-
tain fuel injection systems would be required to provide the necessary
programmed air-fuel ratio control. Unless the requirements demand better
than +3 percent accuracy of the fuel management system, implementation
would appear to be more easily accomplished with a fuel injection system.
As with the carbureted system, the better the accuracy required, the
more effort will be required to develop a suitable system.
Cost Considerations
The cost of a fuel management system is dependent pri-
marily on the required precision of the air-fuel ratio control. The
effective air-fuel ratio at a carburetor is distorted at the cylinders
because of the well-known distribution problem. Thus, a more precise
carbureted system could require work by both the fuel control manufac-
turer and the engine manufacturer.
The cost of a mechanical fuel injection system is pre-
sently much higher than a carburetor for the same engine. However, the
fuel injection system affords a more convenient means for establishing
precise air-fuel ratio schedules. In addition, ambient pressure and
density compensation features are available and implemented in some
injection systems. Therefore, less change, if any, in a fuel injection
system appears necessary to accomplish those functions, at least within
accuracy levels provided at this time. The increase in cost of attain-
ing any particular level of fuel management control would thus appear
to be less for the fuel injection system than for the carbureted system.
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Performance Considerations
The primary effects of fuel management control will be
a small weight increase and possibly a WOT power reduction. The weight
increase due directly to carburetor modifications could be in the order
of a few pounds. If the engine is operated leaner than presently done,
a reduction in rated power could be required to keep engine temperature
within a permissible level. Any reduction in power available for take-
off and climbout is undesirable, as most light aircraft are not noted
for high performance. A compensating technique may be the reduction
in gross weight which could be accomplished by reduced fuel load or
baggage/passenger load. Compensating improvements in cooling, where
possible, or other such modifications not directly affecting available
power would be preferable.
The only flight modes in which performance would be affected
would be the WOT condition, or takeoff and climbout. Other modes at
part throttle would be potentially unaffected. A density-compensated
fuel control system would result in some reduction in fuel consumption,
as would generally leaner operation during the LTD modes. Engine opera-
tion at more optimal air-fuel ratios during WOT periods, rather than
excessively rich as altitude is gained, would also result in slight
power gains.
The fuel injection fuel management system would apparently
add little weight to the aircraft installation. The effect of varying
the air-fuel ratio to the engine would be essentially the same for an
injection system as for a carbureted system, with the exception that the
injection system classically provides better distribution.
4.3.2 Positive Crankcase Ventilation
Positive crankcase ventilation has been used on automobile
engines for several years. No PCV systems are in use on light piston-
engine aircraft. Aircraft engine crankcases are classically vented
by a. simple tube connection at a point high on the crankcase. This
tube is usually routed down and out the cooling air opening in the cowl-
ing. Thus the crankcase is vented but not ventilated and crankcase
pressure is essentially the same as ambient. The crankcase gases con-
sist of unburned fuel, lubricating oil vapor, water vapor and some pro-
ducts of combustion. The high content of hydrocarbons make the crank-
case gases a significant proportion of the total hydrocarbon emissions
released to the atmosphere by the engine.
The aircraft engine has several operating conditions which
make it quite different from the automotive engine. The crankcase
pressure must be maintained within a few inches of water of the am-
bient pressure or the various crankcase seals can be dislodged, or oil
foaming and light hydrocarbon losses can occur. The low temperatures
encountered by the aircraft engine can result in freezing of the water
4-9
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vapor in the PCV circuit. Ventilation is not normally considered neces-
sary to prevent sludge buildup because the aircraft engine is usually
run long enough and hot enough to flush the crankcase, as opposed
to the automobile which is frequently not run long enough to reach
full operating temperature.
Normally aspirated engines will, in general, always have
a manifold pressure less than ambient. Pressure in the inlet box up-
stream of the throttle plate can be greater than ambient because of
the ram effect during flight. Turbocharged and supercharged engines
can have the intake manifold pressure greater than ambient. The only
way to get the crankcase gases to flow to a higher pressure region is
to provide a pump which will perform this function. Therefore, it
appears that PCV systems for aircraft engines cannot utilize a single
basic concept. The normally aspirated engine may use a system similar
to some automotive applications, but turbocharged and supercharged
engines would incorporate a pump in the PCV system. In all cases the
PCV system will have to be located in such a way that the complete cir-
cuit can be heated well above 32 °F to prevent ice formation caused by
the high water-vapor content of the crankcase gases. Fully ventilated
crankcase systems could be made to stay within the allowable pressure
differential between the crankcase and ambient pressure. However, cold
ambient air induction into the crankcase may be undesirable and could
require some preheating.
Introduction of the crankcase gases and the ventilation
air into the intake manifold would influence the actual air-fuel ratio
supplied to the cylinders. Thus, a fuel management system would have
to account for the effect of the PCV system on the desired air-fuel ratio
at the cylinders. It may be desirable to locate the PCV valve inside
the crankcase and minimize the length of the connecting tubing exposed
to the cold ambient. It appears that the PCV system should be designed
by the individual engine manufacturers to best integrate the PCV system
with each particular engine.
Possible Approaches
The development of airworthy PCV systems for normally
aspirated and turbocharged engines will require considerable develop-
mental effort. The final systems which will emerge from the develop-
ment activity may be quite different from the present automotive systems
in use. The implementation methods discussed below are considered as
concepts for illustration only and while they may appear feasible, it
remains necessary to demonstrate by actual test that such is the case.
A normally aspirated engine might be provided with a PCV
system where a conventional automotive type PCV valve sized for the
application is provided between the crankcase and intake manifold
The pressure drop between the crankcase and manifold is utilized to pull
the crankcase gases into the intake manifold. The PCV valve provides a
two-step orifice control and check-valve function, as typically is done
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on automotive engines. The PCV valve inlet must be located as high as
possible in the crankcase to minimize possible oil injection during
various maneuvers. Prolonged negative "g's" would present a problem
with the simple tube pickup. The crankcase must be vented to atmosphere
or the PCV valve would have to be sized exactly right to just pull in
the blowby gases and not change the crankcase pressure at various
throttle positions. Assuming that the crankcase is vented, the PCV
valve would be sized to pass the blowby gases and the ventilation air.
The amount of ventilation air would be kept small since this eventually
becomes a portion of the induction air.
Ventilation air could be admitted to the crankcase by means
of a two-way relief valve. The incoming relief valve could be set to
open just below ambient pressure and sized, in relation to the PCV valve,
to limit the crankcase pressure to less than a few inches of water, or
whatever is required by the seals. The only reason for the outgoing
relief valve is to prevent the crankcase pressure from exceeding a few
inches of water in the event the blowby gases suddenly increased or
the PCV valve malfunctioned and could not pass the necessary flow. The
high water content of the blowby gases may require that the PCV valve
and lines be insulated and heated. Location of the PCV valve and lines
to take advantage of available heat from the crankcase, oil sump or ex-
haust stacks may be necessary. It may be desirable to mount both the
PCV valve and relief valve integral with the crankcase to provide a
simple direct source of heat or at least the possibility of thawing in
the event that icing occurred on startup.
Implementation of a PCV system on a turbocharged or super-
charged engine is more complicated. If the crankcase gases are intro-
duced into the induction system downstream of the throttle plate, a
higher-pressure pump will be required than if the admission is upstream
of the throttle plate. Thus, for a given installation, the highest
expected ram pressure above ambient can be established and the pump can
be matched to the system. A simple diaphragm pump, similar to the typi-
cal automotive fuel pump, can be used to drive the crankcase gases into
the induction system.
The pump could be driven by a camshaft lobe or eccentric.
The pump capacity would be such that the maximum blowby gases likely to
occur and some ventilation air would be pumped into the induction system
against the highest ram pressure likely to be encountered by the particular
engine/air-frame combination. In the event of a pump malfunction, the
pump would provide a check-valve function and the crankcase would vent
the atmosphere through the two-way relief valve. The pump maximum out-
put flow rate is a function of engine rpm and the blowby gases flow rate
also varies somewhat proportional to engine speed.
The same considerations for heating of the lines to prevent
icing apply to this system as they do for the normally aspirated engine.
Blowby gases are usually in the order of 1 to 2 percent of the maximum
induction air flow rate. The total ventilation air flow plus the blowby
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gases would probably be about 2 to 3 percent of the maximum induction
air flow rate. Since the induction air flow rate has a flow range of
approximately 20 to 1 from WOT to idle and a speed range of approximately
5 to 1, the PCV pump would provide approximately 5 percent of the idle
air flow requirement for the concept discussed.
Cost Considerations
From the foregoing it is apparent that an airworthy PCV
system is considerably more complex than the automotive PCV system.
The cost of a PCV system would vary with the application. Normally
aspirated engines would probably have the simpler PCV system while turbo-
charged/supercharged engines would have the more complex and, therefore,
more costly system. The development cost of each PCV system will have
to be amortized over a fairly small quantity of engines and this cost
is likely to be the bulk of the total PCV system cost to the user.
It is not realistic to estimate any dollar value at this time for develop-
ment of the various PCV system possibilities.
4.3.3 Exhaust Treatment Systems
Exhaust treatment systems encompass those devices which
operate on the exhaust gases from the engine to change chemically the
undesirable constituents to more tolerable products. This generally
requires the presence of oxygen to convert the unburned fuel, hydrogen
and carbon products. Since aircraft piston-type engines are normally
operated richer than stoichiometric and will probably continue to be par-
tially operated that way, a source of air will be required to provide
the necessary oxygen for the exhaust treatment system.
Potential candidates for aircraft exhaust treatment
systems are: the straight secondary air system; the thermal reactor
system; and the catalytic converter system. In the straight secondary
air system, air is introduced into each exhaust port to combine with the
unburned fuel present, and the combined gases flow out through an essen-
tially standard exhaust stack system. The thermal reactor system is
essentially the same except that a thermally insulated combustion zone
with recirculating passages is provided to minimize the heat loss from
the exhaust gases and to provide longer residence time for the gases in
the high-temperature zone. Air is admitted close to the exhaust port of
each cylinder, and the thermal reactor is placed as close as possible to
cylinders to further minimize heat losses.
The catalytic convertor may be located a longer distance
from the engine exhaust ports because the catalytic element can initiate
the oxidation of the unburned fuel at lower temperatures than the secon-
dary air or thermal reactor systems. Thus, more flexibility in the~
installation is possible. The air injection point is apparently not
critical, although the closer it is to the exhaust port, the better the
mixing and consequently more complete conversion is possible.
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All of the above systems require an air source or pump.
The most reasonable air pumps at the present time appear to be the auto-
motive vane-type pumps or the centrifugal or axial flow blowers as used
for supercharging aircraft piston engines. The positive displacement
Roots-type compressor appears to be too large and heavy to be a candidate
for light piston-engine aircraft.
Possible Approaches
The secondary air system is the simplest and lightest of
the three approaches. The change in weight of the exhaust system may
be in the order of a few pounds because of the extra tubing for mani-
folding the air to the various cylinder exhaust stacks. Some radiation
shielding may be required since the stacks will be somewhat hotter than
present practice. The bulk of the system weight will be in the air pump,
associated bracketry and drive mechanism. The only known pump type which
may be suitable for small engines is the automotive vane type. It may
be possible to substitute aluminum base materials for much of the steel
parts in present-day vane pumps to provide lower weight. It is esti-
mated that an air pump for a 100 HP engine may have an installed weight
of approximately 10 Ibs. The required air pump size is reduced as the
engine air-fuel ratio approaches stoichiometric. Thus, until the air-fuel
ratio requirements are better defined it is difficult to estimate a
total system weight. Recall that the simple secondary air system re-
quires an exhaust gas temperature of approximately 1100°F, or more,
to obtain "light-off" of the reaction. The exhaust treatment matrix,
Figure 3-11, indicated the effects of various parameters on the opera-
tion of a secondary air system. No operation of a secondary air system
appears likely at low power outputs, i.e., ground operation, and over-
temperature conditions may occur at certain combinations of air-fuel
ratio, timing, power output and percent secondary air as shown in the
same figure. Thus, the simple secondary air system has a somewhat
narrow band of application in terms of an LTO cycle. It appears to be
available for flight modes, provided overtemperature-producing combina-
tions of parameters are avoided.
The weight of a secondary air system would be from one to
several times the weight of a standard exhaust system. The complexity
would be considerably greater and the expected reliability would be less
by virtue of going from a passive exhaust stack to a moving-part system.
A secondary air system could probably be added to the engine installation
in most aircraft with little interference with other equipment within
the cowling.
A thermal reactor installation on an aircraft engine would
be more difficult than the straight secondary air system. Most present
aircraft engines of opposed cylinder design have both intake and exhaust
ports on the under side of the cylinder head. The general design of the
cylinder head with the intake elbow and induction tube, cooling fins and
rocker cover would prevent mounting of a thermal reactor as close to the
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exhaust ports as would be desired, The main container of the thermal
reactor could be located somewhere in the arc from straight down below
the exhaust port to straight out to the side from the exhaust ports In
any position, it appears that the thermal reactor would likely interfere
with the existing cowling on most aircraft. In all other aspects, the
thermal reactor is quite similar to the straight secondary air system.
A source of air is required, and again the automotive-style vane pump
appears to be the best selection. The size of the pump would be depen-
dent upon the amount of secondary air required. The closer the engine
is operated to stoichiometric, the less fuel would remain in the exhaust
gases and, consequently, the smaller the pump size that would be required.
By definition, a well-designed thermal reactor minimizes
the heat loss from the exhaust gas. The result would probably be less
heat rejected under the cowling than from present exhaust stack designs.
The necessity for heat muffs for cabin and induction air heating would
remain; therefore, some form of muff would probably cover most of the
exhaust stack from the thermal reactor to the exit end of the stack.
The localized mass of the thermal reactor on the exhaust stack would
probably require some strutting to keep the mechanical natural frequency
of the exhaust stack system high enough to prevent fatigue failures
caused by engine vibration. It is estimated that the weight of each
thermal reactor would be in the order of one to three times the weight
of the air pump for fully developed systems. Referring to the exhaust
treatment system, effectivity matrix Figure 3-11, note that the thermal
reactor of the test program aided the "light-off" of the exhaust gases.
Oxidation of the exhaust gas took place at lower engine rpm's for a
wider range at secondary air percentages, which was to be expected.
The thermal reactor was almost identical to the secondary air system as
far as overtemperature conditions were concerned. In fact, at the most
retarded timing, a large percentage of the idle/taxi conditions exper-
ienced "light-off". Thus, the thermal reactor has a somewhat broader
band of operating conditions than the straight secondary air system.
It is estimated that the life and reliability of the thermal reactor
system would be practically identical to the secondary air system.
A catalytic converter exhaust system would have a gross
system weight somewhere between the secondary air system and the thermal
reactor system. It is estimated that each catalytic converter would be
about half the weight of the air pump. The same pump considerations apply
to the catalytic converter as to the other exhaust treatment systems.
Since the catalytic converter need not be located as close to the engine
exhaust ports, a good possibility exists for using nearly standard-type
exhaust stacks (with secondary air injectors) and consequently little or
no cowling changes might be required. Again referring to the effectivity
matrix of Figure 3-11, note that the catalytic converter provides "light-
off" capability at all taxi/idle conditions but has a slightly greater
propensity to overheating at higher power levels for the equipment tested.
It would appear that as engine air-fuel ratio approaches stoichiometric,
with normal ignition timing and without excessive secondary air, the
catalytic converter system could cover all flight modes of the LTO cycle.
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All the aforementioned exhaust treatment systems require a
source of air for the oxidation of the fuel in the exhaust gas. It is
likely that an air pump would be operated at some speed proportional to
crankshaft speed. In a simple way then, the pump air output would tend
to vary with engine air flow or speed. However, it is likely that the
air flow from the pump would have to be controlled more precisely to pro-
vide the required amount of air to oxidize the remaining fuel in the ex-
haust gases. Thus, some form of valving would probably be required to
meter the air flow to the exhaust treatment system. An additional con-
sideration is the safety aspect of preventing overtemperature conditions
in the exhaust system which might lead to mechanical failures or fire
hazard. All the above exhaust treatment systems must include an air
control system and some means of sensing excessive temperatures with
high enough response rates to apply corrective action before a problem
developes. The control system itself must be a "fail-safe" system. This
means that, in the event of a problem secondary air to the exhaust treat-
ment system would be reduced or cut off, thus extinguishing the reaction
in the exhaust system.
The following is a summary of the weights of the experimen-
tal exhaust treatment system components used in the test program.
Component Continental 0-200 Lycoming 10-540
Ibs (Each) Ibs (Total) Ibs (Each) Ibs (Total)
Thermal Reactor 11.5 23.0 16 32
Catalytic Converter 1.75 3.5 3.5 7
Air Pump (or)
Turbocharger 7.3 14.6 15.0 15.0
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SECTION 5
REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
(1) "Aircraft and Aircraft Engines - Proposed Standards for Control
of Mr Pollution," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Published
in Federal Register, Volume 37, Number 239, Part II, Tuesday,
December 12, 1972, Washington, D. C.
(2) A Study of Aircraft Powerplant Emissions (Piston and Turbine).
Scott Research Laboratories, Inc. Available from NTIS—PB 207-
107. Contract Number 68-04-0037. January 1971.
(3) Control of NOX Emissions from Mobile Sources, Final Report to the
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Ann Arbor, Michigan. Contract
Number EHS 70-122. April 1972.
(4) "Aircraft Emissions: Impact on Air Quality and Feasibility of
Control," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (Published in con-
junction with the Proposed Federal Standards of December 1972.)
(5) Operation and Service Manual, RSA-5 and RSA-10 Fuel Injection
Systems, Form 15-338C, The Bendix Corporation, Energy Controls
Division, South Bend, Indiana 46620, 1968.
(6) Operator's Manual, (Operating and Field Maintenance Manual), Con-
tinental Aircraft Engine Series A, C 4 0-200, Form No. X-30012,
Continental Motors Corporation, Muskegon, Michigan, Revised
August 1966.
(7) The Cessna "150" Owner's Manual, Cessna Aircraft Company, Wichita,
Kans as.
(8) "Design Factors Affecting the Performance of Exhaust Manifold
Reactors," E. N. Cantwell and A. J. Pahnke, E. I. DuPont de Nemours
& Co., Inc., May 17-20, 1965, SAE 650527.
(9) "Exhaust Manifold Reactor," Alden John Pahnke, Donald Maurice Sowards,
E. I. DuPont de Nemours and Co., February 7, 1967, United States
Patent Office 3,302,394.
(10) "A Progress Respot on The Development of Exhaust Manifold Reactors,"
E. N. Cantwell, I. T. Rosenlund, W. J. Earth, F. L. Kinnear, and
S. W. Ross, January 13-17, 1969, SAE 690139-
5-1
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(11) "Recent Developments in Exhaust Manifold Reactor Systems," E. N.
Cantwell, I. T. Rosenlond, W. J. Earth, S. W. Ross, (DuPont),
May 1970.
(12) Operator's Manual, AVCO Lycoming 0-540, 10-540 and TIO-540 Series
Aircraft Engines, Part No. 60297-10, AVCO Lycoming Division,
Williamsport, Pennsylvania, August 1969.
(13) The Comanche "C" (PA-24-260) Owner's Handbook, Part No. 753 774,
Piper Aircraft Corporation, Lock Haven, Pa., April 1969-
(14) Collection and Assessment of Aircraft Emissions - Piston Engines.
Teledyne Continental Motors. Available from NTIS—PB 204-196.
Contract Number 68-04-0035. October 1971.
(15) Air-Fuel Ratios from Exhaust Gas Analysis, Spindt, May 1965, SAE
No. 650507.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Nature and Control of Aircraft Engine Exhaust Emission. Northern
Research and Engineering Corporation. Final Report to the National
Air Pollution Control Administration. Durham, North Carolina.
Contract Number CPA 222-68-27. November 1968. (PB 187-771)
Nature and Control of Aircraft Engine Exhaust Emissions. Report
of the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare to the United
States Congress. December 1968.
A Study of Exhaust Emissions from Reciprocating Aircraft Power
Plants. Scott Research Laboratories, Inc. Scott Project Number
1136. Final Report to the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
Research Triangle Park, North Carolina. Contract Number CPA 22-
69-129. Available from NTIS—PB 192-627. December 1970.
Assessment of Aircraft Emission Control Technology. Northern Re-
search and Engineering Corporation. Final Report to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency. Research Triangle Park, North
Carolina. Contract Number 68-04-0011. September 1971. Available
from NTIS—PB 204-878.
Analysis of Aircraft Exhaust Emission Measurements. Cornell Aero-
nautical Laboratory. Available from NTIS--PB 204-879. Contract
Number 68-04-0040. October 1971.
Analysis of Aircraft Exhaust Emission Measurements: 'Statistics.
Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory. Available from NTIS—PB 204-869.
Contract Number 68-04-0040. November 1971.
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Internal Combustion Engines, 3rd Edition, Edward F. Obert, Interna-
tional Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa., 1968.
Engine Emissions, Pollutant Formation and Measurement, Edited by
George S. Springer and Donald J. Patterson, Plenum Press, New York-
London, 1973.
5-3
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APPENDIX A
DETAILS OF THE TEST AND EVALUATION PROGRAM
A.I PHYSICAL SETUP
The dynamometer evaluations of both engines were conducted at the
Bendix Research Laboratories Automotive Test Laboratory.
The dynamometer test cell contains a double-ended General Electric
Universal Engine Dynamometer rated at 500 horsepower with maximum speeds
to 5000 rpm, mechanical and electrical torque read-out, braking-
reversing capability and emergency stop provisions. The motor-genera-
tor set and starter are in a separate room within the facility for noise
and temperature isolation.
A control room is adjacent to the dynamometer cell, and contains
the necessary controls to operate the dynamometer and engine and all
the electronic readout instrumentation required for test control.
A special engine test stand was designed and fabricated for the
aircraft engines tested on this project. The test stand was designed
to accommodate both engines with minor adaptations. A motor-mount
for the Continental 0-200 engine was specifically designed and fabri-
cated. A standard aircraft motor mount was used for the Lycoming
10-540 test subassembly. Special engine-dynamometer adaptors were
fabricated to mate the engine crankshaft with the dynamometer through
coupling shafts. Flywheels of appropriate inertias were designed and
fabricated in accordance with engine manufacturers' recommendations
and installed and balanced between the engine output and the dynamo-
meter coupling shaft.
Hydraulic mixture and throttle controls were installed in the
control room.
Cooling air was provided by a medium-pressure industrial blower
coupled with a 7-1/2 HP motor which could provide approximately 4000
CFM air at 6 inches of water pressure. The blower was mounted on the
engine test stand. Necessary air ducts and engine cylinder baffles were
fabricated to route the cooling air from the blower to the engine.
A vent port was provided in the air duct to adjust the required level
of cooling air as appropriate for the engine operational mode.
An oil cooler was installed within the cooling air duct to main-
tain engine oil temperature within the operational limits.
The engine crankcase blowby gases were vented outside the test
area except for the tests with positive crankcase ventilation.
A-l
-------
A photograph of the basic engine test installation is shown in
Figure A-l (a).
A block diagram of the test setup used for both engines is shown
in Figure A-l(b).
A. 2 MEASUREMENT AND INSTRUMENTATION
A.2.1 Ambient Conditions^
Atmospheric pressure was observed at the beginning and
end of each test series in a given day. The wet and dry bulb thermo-
meter method was used to measure relative humidity. Ambient air
(induction air) temperature was measured at each test point by a thermo-
couple installed at the inlet of a Meriam Flowmeter upstream of the
engine air intake box. The temperature was read out on an appropriate
thermocouple meter .
A.2.2 Engine Speed and Torque
The dynamometer is equipped with closed-loop speed control.
A magnetic pickup and four steel slugs mounted on the dynamometer shaft
function as a pulse counter to monitor the engine speed. Desired engine
speed for a given test point was established by adjusting the dyna-
mometer speed and was readout on a digital frequency meter. Engine
torque was established by adjusting the engine throttle position.
Torque was measured by a Lebow load cell mounted at a fixed arm-length
on the dynamometer and was read out on a digital voltmeter calibrated
for direct value of torque in ft-lbs.
A.2.3 Induction Air Flow Measurement
The measurement of induction air was essentially the same
for both Continental 0-200 and Lycoming 10-540 engines. A Meriam
Laminar Flowmeter, Model 50MC2-45, with a range of 0 to 400 CFM at 8
inches of water, was used in combination with a Foxboro, Model 613DL,
pressure transducer. The output signal of the pressure transducer was
fed to a digital voltmeter system calibrated to give a direct readout
of air flow in CFM. Necessary conversions of CFM into mass flow by
appropriate temperature corrections were made at the time of test, in
accordance with the manufacturer's correction tables.
A.2.4 Fuel Flow Measurement
A Flotron Linear Mass Flowmeter, Model 10,000, Type II
(0-225 PPH range at 15-20 psig supply), was used in combination with a
Foxboro, Model 613DM, pressure transducer. The output of the pressure
transducer was read on a DVM calibrated to give a direct readout in
pounds/hr.
A-2
-------
(a) - Engine Installation
««• MFETR
INDUCTION FLOW
AIR "" METER
EXHAUST
1
1
1
1
_L
~L_^
1 — *-
TEMPERATURES
MANIFOLD/
CONVERTER
MANIFOLD/
CONVERTER
T
I
r '
THC
ANALYZER
CO
ANALYZER
i
OIL
COOLER
V
ENGINE
,
SECONDARY
AIR INJECTORS
FLOW
METERING
"• &
CONTROL
RPM
COMMAND
1
T
SPEED
CONTROL | '
ENGINE
>- TORQUE
i
SECONDARY
PUMPS
NOTES
0 SECONDARY AIR SETUP
FOR CONT 0-200
FIGURE 3-7
i ' '
co2
ANALYZER
NOX
ANALYZER
o, :
2 1 9
ANALYZER
X
(b) - Block Diagram
Figure A-l - Basic Engine Test Setup
A-3
-------
A.2.5 Air-Fuel Ratio Measurement
Electronic signals from the induction air and fuel flow
measurement systems were used to compute approximate air-fuel ratio
for real-time display and guidance in setting test points. Computa-
tions were performed by a special-purpose computer in the control room
and display was by a calibrated DVM output.
A.2.6 Temperature Measurements
In addition to induction air temperature, various other
temperatures were measured with thermocouples.
Standard cylinder head thermocouples were installed under
the spark plugs of the Continental 0-200 engine. Lycoming 10-540
cylinder head temperatures were measured with bayonet-type thermo-
couples installed at the locations provided on that engine.
Chromel/Alumel (C/A) thermocouple probes were installed
in the exhaust manifolds for both engines approximately 2 to 4 inches
away from the exhaust ports to monitor the temperatures of the indivi-
dual exhaust port gases.
A C/A thermocouple was installed just downstream of the
standard exhaust muff to record average exhaust gas temperatures.
Cowling temperature was measured at the point on the
cowling a short distance away from the cylinder cooling fins below the
engine.
Various other temperatures such as secondary air inlet
temperature and reactor core temperatures were also monitored during
exhaust treatment tests.
The various temperatures were recorded on Leads and Northrop
Multiprint and Type K Esterline Angus recorders with appropriate thermo-
couple adaptors in the 0-2000°F range.
Several of the more critical temperatures (e.g., one
cylinder head, exhaust gas, secondary air inlet, reactor core and oil
temperatures) were simultaneously monitored on meter relays to monitor
engine operation during the tests.
A.2.7 Oil Pressure and Manifold Absolute Pressure
Oil pressure was observed for both the engines to ensure
appropriate oil pressure build-up during start-up and to observe safe
limits during test runs.
Manifold absolute pressure was measured by a Meriam
Model 11A10WM, Mercury Manometer.
A-4
-------
A. 2. 8 Emissions Measurements
The procedure for the measurement of emissions was
essentially as described in the Proposed Federal Standards of December
12, 1972. A diagram of the emissions measurement setup is given in
Figure A-2 . The emission cart contained the following analyzers.
THC - (ppm-Propane) Beckman Model 108A FID with 0 to
10,000 PPM ranges and intermediate
range selections.
CO - (%) Beckman Model 315A NDIR calibrated
for a 0 to 14% range.
C02 - (%) Beckman Model 315A NDIR calibrated
for a 0 to 15% range.
NO /NO - (ppm) Thermo Electro Corp. NOX analyzer
with chemilumine scent ranges of
0 to 10, 25, 100, 250, 1000, 2500 ppm.
Beckman Model 777 oxygen analyzer.
A 1/4-inch stainless steel tube sampling probe with 1/16
inch diameter orifices spaced 1/4 inch axially was installed down-
stream of the exhaust pipe "T" and oriented perpendicular to the
exhaust flow path.
The exhaust gas sampling tube (3/8-inch in diameter) to
the chemiluminescent analyzer was heated with electrical tapes to main
tain the sample temperature above the dew point (approximately 150 °F).
No water removal devices were used for that portion of the exhaust gas
sampled by the chemiluminescent analyzer.
Sample transfer from the probe to the analytical instru-
ments was through stainless steel or Teflon lines. Sample transport
time from the engine to the instruments was less than 2 seconds.
Electric output signals from the CO, C02 , THC and NOX
analyzers were recorded on two dual-channel Texas Instrument recorders.
The data value for oxygen was read out from the analyzer meter and
manually recorded .
A. 3 PROCEDURES
A. 3.1 Engine Start-up
A routine daily inspection check of the instrumentation
and the engine was performed before starting up the dynamometer.
After calibration of the instruments (e.g., air flow,
fuel flow, torque) and emission analyzers, the dynamometer was started
with the mixture cut off and the throttle in the closed position.
Oil pressure was checked to make sure that the oil came up to the
A-5
-------
Ol
MANIFOLD
SPAN
CASES
r
^
s
J
ZERO
GAS
TO
ATMOSPHERE
ENGINE EXHAUST
Figure A-2 — Exhaust Emissions Sampling and Instrumentation Diagram
-------
recommended value within 60 seconds. After the engine was turned over
with the dynamometer, the throttle was opened slightly and the mixture
was advanced to full rich with both magneto switches on. The engine was
run to a speed slightly above idle/taxi while the oil and cylinder head
temperatures came up to a recommended level before turning the cooling
air on.
A.3.2 Cooling Air Selection
The engine cooling air flow rate was adjusted by venting
a portion of the air provided by the blower so that the desired pressure
drop existed across the engine. The pressure drop selected was based
on the dynamic pressure corresponding to an air speed representative
of the flight mode for an airframe utilizing the particular engine.
The pressure drops for the idle/taxi modes were selected arbitrarily to
provide more air f.low than ordinarily exists in an actual airframe
installation to allow for the continuous operation on the dynamometer.
Table A-l indicates the pressures used for each engine at the various
flight mode rpm's.
A.3.3 Testing and Data Collection
Dynamometer speed was adjusted to the desired values and
the throttle was opened to provide the engine torque at the desired test
speed. The desired air-fuel ratio was obtained by adjusting the mixture
setting and trimming the test torque value by adjusting throttle posi-
tion. The amount of engine cooling air was adjusted as indicated in Table
A-l above.
Sampling of the exhaust was started after the operating
conditions were stabilized. Pertinent engine data were recorded. The
air-fuel ratio was varied at the same engine speed to obtain tests
for^the other two air-fuel ratios according to the test matrix. Engine
speed was varied by alternating high and low power runs to avoid spark
plug fouling.
The test points designated by "R" in Appendices B and C
were repeat points to check the repeatability of the engine and emission
data.
A.4 DATA ANALYSIS EQUATIONS AND A SAMPLE CALCULATION
The various data collected during test runs were processed by
using the following equations. Pertinent data and calculated results
are tabulated in Appendices B and C. A sample calculation is given
to show the method of data reduction. Test points 10-1 and 10-4 from
the Continental 0-200 secondary air test (28° BTDC ignition timing) are
selected for the example, with the following data gathered during the
test run.
A-7
-------
Table A-l - Cooling Air Pressure at Test Modes
ENGINE
CONTINENTAL
0-200
LYCOMING
10-540
MODE
TAXI/IDLE (OUT)
APPROACH
TAKEOFF &
CLIMBOUT
IDLE/TAXI (IN)
TAXI/IDLE
(IN & OUT)
APPROACH
TAKEOFF
CLIMBOUT
SPEED
(RPM)
900
1950
2750
1100
1000
1900
2400
2700
PRESSURE
SELECTED
(IN. H20)
1.0
2.0
4.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
6.0
6.0
PRESSURE
ACHIEVED
(IN. H20)
1.0
2.0
4.0
1.0
1.0
3.0
4.5
4.5
Test Point
10-1
10-4
RPM
1950
1950
Recorded Data (10-1)
Ignition Timing A/F
28° BTDC 10:1
28° BTDC 10:1
RPM
1955
Brake Torque
ft-lbs
95
Baro. Pressure
psia
Secondary Air
Zero
110% of stoichio-
metric (Effective
air-fuel ratio in
exhaust of 16.2)
Air Flow (CFM)
75.1
Fuel Flow, WF
31.0 Ibs/hr
Rel. Humidity
14.35 60%
Inlet Air Temp (T) °F
90
A-8
-------
Measured Concentrations
HC-PID (ppm)
Propane
Equivalent
1540
CO (%)
11.0
NO (ppm)
27
co2(%)
5.9
02(0
0.5
A. 4.1 Induction Air
Induction air flow was measured in GEM uncorrected for
ambient conditions . The following equation corrects volume flow rate
(CFM) into mass flow rate (Ibs/hr) for 70CF ambient temperature and
standard sea level pressure of 14.7 psia.
Wa = Corrected air flow (Ibs/hr)
where
CFM [1 + 0.0033(70-1)] x fBaro. Press. N 4.52
\ 14 . 7 /
[1 + 0.0033(70 - T)] is the temperature correction factor for the
laminar flow meter.
Example
(10-1)
W = 75.1 [1 + 0.003 (70-90)] x ^7^• x 4.52 = 309.5 Ibs/hr.
a IH . /
A.4.2 Air-Fuel Ratio H
F
Measured fuel-air ratio = rT,M , ,-9, uncorrected for
t r * . • ^rllXT-*-}^
ambient conditions.
W
o
Corrected Air-fuel ratio (A/F) = —
f
where
W_ = the fuel flow rate, Ibs/hr
F
Example (10-1) AF = =9.98
A. 4. 3 Emissions Concentration
The emission concentrations are corrected for humidity
in the case of NOX. Where indicated as "corrected", measured emissions
concentrations were modified to normalize the effect of varied air-
A-9
-------
fuel ratio to allow a direct comparison of emissions on a concentration
basis. Current practice is to use mass bases of comparison, and both
methods are used in the data computations. The Dilution Factor (D.F.)
described below is used to normalize raw emissions concentration
values to the stoichiometric ratio. Raw concentration values are used
to compute mass emissions as described in A. 4. 4 through A. 4. 7 below.
• Humidity Correction Factor (K^) = 1-Q 0047^,75)
where H is humidity in grains of moisture per Ib. of dry air.
Example (10-1) H = 65 grains /Ib of dry air for ambient temperature
of 90°F and 60% relative humidity (from standard
hygrometric chart)
K_ 1
TI 1-0.0047(65-75)
= 0.955
14.5
• Dilution Factor (D.F.) = „ , ,„„. 3 x THC (propane)
A C02 + 1/2/S CO + 10,000
Example (10-1)
14.5
D.F. = . 3 x 1540
5.9 + 1/2 x 11.0 + 10>OOQ
= 1.22
Oxides of Nitrogen (NO ) Concentration
X
N0_ = NO x Ku x D.F.
C n.
where
NO = Corrected NO concentration in ppm
C x
NO = Observed NO concentration in ppm
x rr
KJ. = Humidity correction factor
D.F. = Dilution correction factor
Example (10-1) N0r = 27 x 1.22 x 0.955 = 31.4 ppm
(_»
• Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide Concentration
CO = CO x D.F.
C
C02C = C02 x D.F.
A-10
-------
where
C°C = Carbon m°noxide concentration in percent, corrected
C02C = Carbon dioxide concentration in percent, corrected
CO = Observed carbon monoxide concentration in percent
C02 = Observed carbon dioxide concentration in percent
D.F. = Dilution factor
Example (10-1) C0_ = 11.0 x 1.22 = 13.3%
Li
C02C = 5.9 x 1.22 = 7.2%
• Total Hydrocarbon Concentration
HC_ = HC x 3 x D.F.
c»
where
HCr = Total hydrocarbon concentration in ppm - carbon equivalent
L*
HC = Observed hydrocarbon propane equivalent in ppm
Example (10-1) ECr = 1540 x 3 x 1.22 = 5590 ppm C
C
A.4.4 Mass Emissions Rates
W + W .,
V = Exhaust flow rate = -~ (ft /hr)
*-* -^ 1-1
E
P = Density of exhaust = 0.0075 x -^5-
E = Exhaust molecular weight for the given A/F
m
W
= 21.2 + 0.52 —— (Equation derived from published curve
F by Continental Motors)!^
Therefore
= (309.5 + 31) x
- V->V^.J -r JJ-y A f, n7c
E 0.075
= 4980 ft3/hr
llfFigure B-5, Section 11, p. 5.
A-ll
-------
• Oxides of Nitrogen, Ib/hr
NO = _ x V_ x MN00 x
xm ,O E 2
where
NO = Oxides of Nitrogen in Ibs/hr
xm
MNQ = Density of NO- = 0.119 lbs/ft3
Example (10-1) NO - -^- 4980 x 0.119 x 0.955
xm 1Q6
= 0.0152 Ibs/hr
The exhaust gas sample (except for NO analysis) was passed
through an ice bath maintained at 32°F to remove wa?er resulting from
combustion as required by the CO and C0_ instrumentation. The CO and
THC concentration measurements were therefore recorded on a dry basis
and required the following calculations to account for the water removal
to allow proper calculation of emission rates.
Water Correction Factor, CF
w
WF
CFw = (1 -3 r>
a
where
a = Hydrogen/carbon atom ratio
=2.12 for this representative gasoline with formula C0 H- 1^
8 17
Example (10-1) CF = 1 - 2.12 x
«
= 0.788
O Carbon Monoxide, Ibs/hr
CO
CO = T?77r x v x MCO x CF
m 100 E w
lit
p. 8-1
A-12
-------
where
CO = carbon monoxide in Ibs/hr
m
MCO = Density of CO = 0.0726 Ibs/ft
Example (10-1) CO = - x 4980 x 0.0726 x 0.788
m 100
= 31.34 Ibs/hr.
• Total Hydrocarbons, Ibs/hr
HC = 3 x -^ x V,, x MHC x CF
m 6 E w
where
HC = total hydrocarbon in Ibs/hr
HC = Observed hydrocarbon propane equivalent in ppm
MHC = Density of HC = 0.0359 lb/ft3
Example (10-1) HC = 3 x i^J x 4980 x 0.0359 x 0.788
io6
= 0.651 Ibs/hr
A. 4. 5 Emissions in Ib Mass/1000 Ibs Fuel
Emissions in lbs/1000 Ibs fuel were calculated in the
following manner
Emission in lbs/1000 Ibs fuel = Emission in Ibs/hr x — —
F
• Hydrocarbon =* HC x ——
m W.
= 0.651 x
F
1000
31.0
Carbon Monoxide = CO x
= 21.0 lbs/1000 Ibs fuel
1000
m Wf
*
= 1011 lbs/1000 Ibs fuel
A-13
-------
1000
• Oxides of Nitrogen = NO x ———
6 xm W
r
=0.49 lbs/1000 Ibs fuel
A.4.6 Emissions in Ib Mass/BHP-HR
Emission in pound mass per brake horsepower per hour
were calculated in the following manner.
™ 1 TT /i_i_ N 2?r x Brake Torque x RPM
Brake Horsepower (bhp) = ^nQQQ
Example (10-1) BHP = %^5^955
= 35.71
Emissions in Ibs/BHP-Hr = (Emission in Ib/hr) * (BHP)
• Total hydrocarbon, = HC x ==^=-
m otic
1
Example (10-1) = 0.651 x
35.71
= 0.0182 Ibs/BHP-HR
• Carbon Monoxide = CO x
m BHP
Example (10-1) = 31.34 x
= 0.878 Ibs/BHP-HR
• Oxides of Nitrogen = NO x
xm BHP
Example (10-1) = 0.0152 x •—=-
j D • / J_
= 0.00042 Ibs/BHP-HR
A. 4. 7 Emissions in Lbs/Mode
Emissions in pounds per mode were calculated in the
following manner. Emission (Ibs/mode) = Emission (Ib/hr) x T
60
A-14
-------
where
T is the time in each mode as prescribed by the proposed federal
standards for piston-engine aircraft.
Mode Time (T)
Taxi/Idle (out) 12.0 min.
Takeoff 0.3 min.
Climbout 5.0 min.
Approach 6.0 min.
Taxi/Idle (In) 4.0 min.
• Total hydrocarbon (Ibs/mode) = HC x -^-
m 60
Example (10-1) = 0.651 x ~
ou
= 0.0651 Ibs/mode
• Carbon Monoxide (Ibs/mode) = CO x -^
m 60
Example (10-1) = 31.34 x -£
O(J
= 3.134 Ibs/mode
T
• Oxides of Nitrogen (lbs/mode)= NO x -r^r
xm bO
Example (10-1) = 0.0152 x ~r
bO
= 0.00152 Ibs/mode
A.4.8 Air-Fuel Ratio from the Exhaust Components
Actual air-fuel ratio was set by the mixture control on
the engine fuel control system and calculated as in A.3.2. A cross-
check of the air-fuel ratio was performed by carbon balance analysis
of exhaust gas components in the following manner.
(A/F)C =
n AQO
11.492
" V
3.5
"Air/Fuel Ratios from Exhaust Gas Analysis," R. S. Spindt,
SAE Paper 650507.1S
A-15
-------
where
(A/F) = air-fuel ratio from exhaust gas analysis
% CO + % C0n
Fb 7 Co + 7 CO + 3 X HC
/o CO + /„ tu2 -h 10>000
Example (10-1) Fb U'° + 5'^ -^ = 0.9734
11.0 + 5.9 + 10,000
F« = fraction of carbon in fuel = 0.869
_ % CO _ 11.0
E - % C0 - 5.9
(A/F)_ = 0.9734
C
% C02
= -F4 = 0.085
A
1 + 1.8644 / 3.5 + 1.8644
= 9.7
A.4.9 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)
Brake specific fuel consumption is the amount of fuel con-
sumed per brake horsepower per hour and was calculated as follows.
WF
• BSFC =
BHP
Example (10-1) BSFC = ^'!? = 0.868
-Jj»/J-
A.4.10 Exhaust Air Injection Flow Rates
The stoichiotnetric air-fuel ratio used for the representa-
tive gasolines is 14.7. The corresponding A/F values of various percents
of stoichiometric are as follows:
A-16
-------
90% of stoichiometric = 0.9 x 14.7 = 13.23 A/F
100% of stoichiometric = 1.0 x 14.7 = 14.7 A/F
110% of stoichiometric = 1.1 x 14.7 = 16.17 A/F
The following equation computes the equivalent amount of air (Ws,
percent of induction air) that needs to be injected to bring the exhaust
gas composition to the required percent of stoichiometric.
N x 14.7 - (A/F) x 100
w = e
(A/F)e
where
(A/F) = the engine A/F ratio
N = Percent of stoichiometric
The following table shows the percent of secondary air injected relative
to induction air required at 10, 11.5 and 13.0 engine A/F for 90, 100
and 110 percent of stoichiometric in the exhaust.
Exhaust Gas Composition Amount of Secondary Air
Engine A/F Ratio (% of Stoichiometric) (% of Induction Air)
10:1 90 32.3
11.5:1 90 15.1
13:1 90 1.8
10:1 100 47.0
11.5:1 100 27.8
13:1 100 13.1
10:1 110 61.7
11.5:1 110 40.6
13:1 110 24.4
A.4.11 Calculations with Secondary Air
Calculations made in connection with secondary air tests
were as follows. Pertinent data for example calculation are from
Run 10-4 of the Continental 0-200 secondary air test series.
% (CO) %(CO.)_ (NOY)QPPM (HC) (0 ) 5
Flow, CFM Temp. Press, psig s 2 S X S b 2 b
36.00 170°F 3.8 1.4 13.5 47 9 1.65
A-17
-------
• Conversion of Measured CFM into Lbs/Hr
The amount of secondary air injected into the exhaust manifolds
was calculated in the following manner.
W = Secondary air flow (Ibs/hr)
s
= 4.52 x CFM x CT x Cp
where
3
CFM = Secondary air flow (ft /min)
C = Correction factor for temperature
530
460 + t
and C = Pressure correction factor
= P + BP
14.7
where
t = Secondary air temperature, °F
P = Secondary air pressure, psig
BP = Ambient barometric pressure (psia)
ExainEle (10-4) Wg = 4.52 x (36.0) x ^170 X ^'^l^'^
= 169.01 Ibs/hr
Air-fuel ratio with secondary air is calculated by the summation of the
induction air and secondary air and dividing it by the fuel flow rate.
*
14.7 was inadvertently used in the secondary-air calculations rather
than the actual ambient pressure. This results in a maximum approxi-
mate 2 percent error in that data set.
A-18
-------
• Mass Emission Rates, Ibs/hr
W + W + WT,
3. s r
Exhaust gas velocity (VE) with secondary air = rp~l
S *• E'S
where
(Pj = 0.075 x
(E)
\ m/
•E's """" ~ 28.96
and
W + W
(E ) = 21.2 + 0.52 -~
m s W
r
Therefore,
(V ) - (309.5 + 172.2 + 31.0) 28.96 _ 3
(Vs ~ (21.2 + 0.52 x 15.54) X 0.075 " 6761 ft
Water Correction Factor (CFw)g
, ^
(CF J)_ = 1 - a|
1 - 2.121 31'°
309.5 + 172.2
\
= 0.864
• Hydrocarbon mass emission (HCM)g, Ibs/hr
(HOs
s
(HCM) = - ~ x 3 x (VE) x MHC x (CF^
S 10
= _L_ x 3 x 6761 x 0.0359 x 0.864
io6
= 0.00566 Ibs
A-19
-------
Calculated air-fuel ratio at the exhaust =
W + W
a s
W,,
Example (10-4)
309.5 + 172.2
31.0
= 15.54
Dilution Factor (D.F.) =
14.5
3 x THC
CO + 1/27 CO +
C02 + l/2/o CO + io,000
Example (10-4)
14.5
i x 1.4 +
= 1.01
Emission Concentrations
Total Hydrocarbon = 3 x (HC) x D.F.
S
= 3 x 9 x 1.01
= 27.3 ppm
• Carbon Monoxide = (CO) x D.F.
s
= 1.4 x 1.01
= 1.41 percent
Carbon Dioxide
(CO ) x D.F.
£* 5
= 13.5 x 1.01
= 13.6 percent
A-20
-------
Oxides of Nitrogen = (NO) x D.F. x
47 x 1.01 x 0.955
45.3 ppm
Carbon Monoxide Mass Emissions (COM) , Ibs/hr
s
(CO)
(COM) = - x (VE) x MCO x
= •— x 6761 x 0.0726 x 0.864
=5.93 Ibs/hr
• Nitric Oxide Mass Emissions (NO ) , Ib/hr
xm s
(NO )
(NO ) = - —• x (VE) x MNO x K.,
v xm s 1Q6 s TI
= Q-7 x 6761 x 0.119 x 0.955
io6
= 0.036 Ibs/hr
The remainder of the calculations such as emission lb/1000 Ib-fuel,
Ib/BHP-Hr and Ib/mode are treated in the same way as in the earlier
example by multiplying emission in Ib/hr by the respective correction
factors.
A-21
-------
APPENDIX B
DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES FOR CONTINENTAL
0-200 ENGINE
Bl - Baseline Engine Variables Evaluation
B2 - PCV Effects Evaluation
B3 - Secondary-Air Injection Evaluation
B4 - Thermal Reactor Evaluation
B5 - Catalytic Converter Evaluation
B-l
-------
APPENDIX Bl
BASELINE ENGINE VARIABLES EVALUATION
Bl-1
-------
O-ZOO E WC;IMG TSST PATA
- So/S7
?.rr, t>.£
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TEST CON31TI3N '. CATAiYT'
'
0-200 EN&INE EMISSION DATA
E KG IKE !! KG • _mjr. ____ /U SJLJ- _„
DATE ' _
REL. miMiniTY; .
BARO. PRESSURE •'
.*<>% X 60 %
KUM
1.
RPM -
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-------
APPENDIX C
DATA AND COMPUTED VALUES FOR LYCOMING
10-540 ENGINE
Cl - Engine Variables and PCV Effects Evaluation
C2 — Ignition Timing Recheck Runs
C-l
-------
APPENDIX Cl
ENGINE VARIABLES AND PCV EFFECTS EVALUATION
Cl-1
-------
IOS4O ENGIME TEST DATA
TEST C OMDlTlOM.. _ 6 A>e.U^ £ :+..
IGNITION TlMiK)&_. 2.S1 _i.BTDC.
DATE
REL.
_ -_«•_!- 7J-
J?l- 1"_. IN jis
FUE.V, ...
RUN!
Ng
TIME
NOMINAL
S.A.
RPM
TORQUE
FT. LES
M.A.P
MM HGt
IM&UCTIOM AIR,
TEMP.
°F
CKAHK.
TEMP
EXH.
BACK.
PRESS,
pr,i
FUEL
FLOIV
PPH
OBS.
TEMP
toil
67.S"
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Cl-2
-------
COMDITIOKI BAc.CLJfJej
IGNITION TtMtN)&_is_ ±BJCIC
HOURS 'l?i? _/.J°3J _
RUr-J
.. HEAD/EXHAUST PORT TEMP. °F
FXM.
TEMP.
"F
THC
?FM
CO
CO,
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15.4
l-p
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9.7
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11-8
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11.1
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63?
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IIZ3"
Cl-3
-------
1O54O ENGINE TEST DATA
TEST
IGNITION
_ LSI _ !_BJDC.
.L?1i •?___ ?P\.-
DATE
RE.L.
» "*
. 7. _ IN
RUts!
N2
TIME
NOMINAL.
RPM
S.A.
OBSERVED
TOROOE
FT. LBS
l/i.A.P
WM HG,
INDOCTIOM AIR.
FLOW
CFM
TEMP.
°F
CKAUK.
c /i <•, e
TEMP
3.E.
EXH.
BACK.
PE&SS.
PSI
FUF.L
FLOW
PPH
DBS.
Ol L
TEMP
P'SI
V7S-
64s-
7-P
II1S
1140
1410
6S7
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2-7?
74
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41.
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Cl-4
-------
. .&Asr,UfJ.cj p
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HOURS ll7i7_/.-2.oa,. L
RUM
HEAD/EXHAUST POR.T TEMP. °F
#-.»
TEM?.
EMISSIOMS
THC
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1-7
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Cl-5
-------
IOS4O EN&IME TEST DATA
TEST COKlDlTlOt4__ &
IGNITION TlMlK!G_
EKJCIMG HOURS ip^.
FUE.\ __ 10
_i.BJDC.
DATE
REL.
TIME
MOM1MAL
RPtvl
A/fr
S.A.
V
/£>
RPM
FT. LfeS
M.A.P
VAK HG,
IMDOCTION AIR.
CFM.
TEMP.
CFM
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BACK.
PUECS.
PSt
FUEL
FLOW
PPH
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F/A
Tewp
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P5X
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1.7.
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334
Cl-6
-------
I G.NITIOM
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RIM
POR.T TeMP.
TEMP.
op
EMlssioMs
THC
CO
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2.4
6-7
158
Cl-7
-------
IOS40 ENGINE TEST DATA
TEST
IGMITION! TIMING _ 2.0 _ i
tMUwt HOURS, l°t- i/._>osir_ _
Fue.\ L9
DATE _ _ n ^."r lz
REL. HUMioiTY_6o %/j=o_
_z3-J-_ IN _
RUSJ
NS
TIME
MOMIMAL
S.A.
RPM
FT. LBS
M.A.P
MIA Hd
INDUCTION! AIR.
CFM
TEMP
°F
c />.«•.«••
FLOW;/
°F
EXH.
B/\CK .
PEE.5S.
HJEL
FLOW
PPH
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TEMP
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7?
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Cl-8
-------
TEST CowomoM _ _BAS.CU»O.EJ pcv
IGNITION TiK4iNj&_2.o_ "BJD.C
RUM
HEA,D/EXHA!_>Vr POR.T TcMP. °P
fXH,
-------
IO54O EN&IME TEST DATA
TEST C ONDITIOM £> A>cu'J e *_ PC \/
IGNITION TIMIMG»_. !?_ _ 1.BJDC,
DATE
REL.
&AR.O.
RUNJ
TIME
MOMIMAL
S.A..
RPM
TORCJUE
FT. IBS
M.A.P
MM HCi
IMDOCTIOM AIR
Flow
TEMP.
°F
CKAtJK.
c f\ f. C
puowy
X
'TEMP
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EXH.
BACK.
fsi
FUEL
FLOW
PPM
o&s.
F/A
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TEMP
PSI
27
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52.4
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44.6
U.T
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H-P
-------
IGNITION TlMlN)&_LS"_±RJClC
Cl-11
-------
COMPUTED VALUES
RUN
NO.
1
IP
2
2P
3
3P
4
4P
5
5P
6
6P
7
7P
8
8P
9
9P
.10
.11
. IP
2
. 2P
3
3P
5
.6
7
18
19
19P
20
SI
22
23
24
25
25P
26
27
28
28P
29
30
31
31P
32
33
34
34P
35
RPM
1900
1900
1900
1900
1900
1.900
1000
.1000
1000
1000
.1000
1000
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
2400
1900
2700
2700
2700
2700
2700
2700
1900
2700
1000
1900
1900
1900
1900
.1000
1000
1000
2400
2400
2400
2400
1900
1900
1900
1900
1000
1000
1000
1000
2400
2400
2400
2400
AIR-FUEL RATIO
MOM.
10.0
10.0
11.5
1 1.5
1 3.0
13.0
10.0
10.0
11.5
11.5
13.5
13.5
10.0
10.0
1 1 .5
1 1.0
13.'0
13.0
11.5
10.0
.1.0.0
1 1..5
1 1.0
13.0
12.5
1 1 .5
10.0
10.0
10.0
1 1.5
1 1 .5
13.0
10.0
11.5
13.0
10.0
11.5
11.5
13.0
J0*0
1 1.5
1 1 .5
1 3.0
10.0
11.5
1 1 .5
13.5
10.0
11.5
1 1.5
13.0
DIRECT
10.0
9.9
1 1.5
1.5
3V0
3.0
0.0
9.9
1.4
1.4
13.3
13.3
9.8
9-8
1 1.4
11.2
13.0
13.1
11.5
10.1
.10.2
11.3
1 1-0
12.9
12.7
1 1.5
10.0
10. 1
10.0
1 1.4
1 1.4
13.0
.10.0
11.6
13.2
9.9
11.3
1 1.4
12.8
9.9
.11.5
1 1.5
13.2
10. 1
11.4
1 1.6
13.4
9-9
1 1.4
1 1.5
1 2.9
C.B.
10.3
10.2
11 -7
11.6
1 2V 9
12.8
9.9
9.9
11.3
11.3
3.2
3.2
9.9
0.0
1.3
1.3
2.6
2.8
1.3
9.7
9.5
10.9
10.5
12.3
12.0
1 1 .4
9.7
11.0
9.9
11.5
1 1 .5
12.9
10.0
11.6
12.5
9.7
11.1
1 1 V0
12.5
9.7
11.3
11.3
12.8
9.7
10.9
11.5
12.8
9.8
11.2
1 1.4
12.6
CORRECTED CONCENTRATIONS
THC
PPM-C
3551
3472
2690
2736
2037
2023
14882
16173
6104
5984
3808
3637
3248
3107
1987
1995
1477
1390
2916
2802
2867
1934
2032
1300
1383
2845
3069
1988
4063
2578
2568
1913
16877
7230
4313
3484
2217
2136
1410
3971
2530
2498
1731
22651
1 1531
7853
3897
3272
2080
1954
1344
C0%
14.42
14.77
10.01
10.01
6 . 1 8
6.34
1 1 .95
11.88
9.56
9.44
4.69
4.41
14.18
13.98
10.07
10.13
6.39
5.84
0.14
4.73
5.23
1.26
2.25
7.08
7.85
9.81
14.89
12.43
14.1 1
9.46
9. "54
5.50
11.15
8.38
5.85
14.73
10.51
10.87
6.51
14.33
9.82
9.82
5V 67
10.87
9.35
8.69
5.54
14.29
10.14
9.51
6.21
NOx
PPM
53.8
53.8
176/0
186.4
777.3
721.3
2.1
1 .0
44.8
45.7
83.8
83.3
61.5
38.5
188.0
176.1
674.2
751.8
186.3
49.8
20.2
143.6
92.8
632.4
485.1
187.6
56.9
37.6
58.6
152.0
151 .5
548.9
28.7
59.2
78V3
45.3
149- 1
125." 5
515.5
31.3
122V1
124.4
449.0
28.6
45.4
56V4
79.2
40.4
133.6
158.7
478.9
CO2%
6.78
6.61
9.07
9.07
1 1V05
10.97
6. "88
6V79
8.95
9.03
1 1.62
1 1 .78
6.93
7.04
9. 11
9.08
1 1.00
1 1 .29
8.98
6.70
.6.45
8.52
8.02
10.68
10.28
9.16
6.59
7.93
6.89
9.36
9.32
1 1.41
7.08
9.43
10.99
6.63
8.87
8.70
10.95
6.78
9. 18
9. 18
1 1.34
6.64
8.52
9.22
11.19
6.87
9.07
9.40
11.10
02%
1.61
1 .65
1.46
1V36
1 V 1 2
1.01
1 .09
IV 1 5
.94
.91
.97
.81
.68
.64
.65
.63
.64
.61
.75
.48
.53
.55
.54
.52
.52
.87
.73
1.54
.79
.74
.'74
.73
1 V04
.94
V51
.56
.56
.57
.57
.48
.54
.57
.62
1.31
."93
1 .04
i82
.56
V52
V52
.50
Cl-12
-------
COMPUTED VALUES
RUN
NO.
1
IP
2
2P
3
3P
4
4P
5
5P
6
6P
7
7P
8
8P
9
9P
10
11
1 IP
12
12P
13
13P
15
16
17
18
.19
19P
20 '
21
22
23
24
25
25P
26
27
28
28P
29
30
31
31P
32
33
34
34P
35
THC
1 .0136
.9888
.7524
.7708
.5839
_ .5905
1 .2747
1.3920
.4945
.481 6
.2947
.2891
1 .61 62
1 .6760
1 .0223
1.0318
.7404
.7345
.8469
1 .6877
1.6770
1.1337
1. 1920
.7709
.8122
.7724
1.7661
. 1 4 29
1.1749
.7283
.7357
.5473
1.3812
.5380
.3453
1.7681
1. 1252
1 .0955
.7295
1 .3308
.7610
.7580
.5144
2.0803
.9612
.6533
.3244
1 .8068
1.1412
I .0406
.7470
LB/HR
CO
83. 12
84.94
56.54
56.93
35.79
37.38
20.66
20.65
15.65
15.33
7.33
7.07
142.52
152.31
104.60
105.84
64 . 69
62.34
59.49
179. 10
179.83
133.23
145.07
84.81
93.01
53.79
173.05
18.04
82.39
53,99
55. 16
31.75
18.42
1 2.60
9.46
150.94
107.73
1 12.59
67.99
96.98
59-65
60.18
34.01
20. 16
15.74
14.60
9.31
159.32
1 12.27
'102.20
69.72
NOx
.05095
.05077
.16326
. 1 74 1 3
.73874
.69819
.00059
.00029
.01203
.01219
.02151
.02195
. 10149
.06890
.32084
.30202
1. 12054
1.31712
. 17937
.09955
.0391 1
.27913
.18057
1 .24375
.94442
. 16890
.10869
.00896
.05615
,14243
. 14388
.52084
.00778
.01460
.02078
.07625
.25089
.21354
.88433
.03476
. 12178
.12519
.44236
.00873
.01255
.01556
.02187
.07396
.24309
.'280 28
.88238
LB/1000LB FUEL
THC
15.0167
14.2270
13.4597
13.7398
1 1 .6784
1 1.6932
67.0883
73.2657
31. 1025
30.4786
23.2068
22.5828
13.4682
13.4079
9.7360
9.6430
8.2269
8. 1 162
14.3537
1 1 .7202
1 1 .9787
9-0699
9.3859
7.1383
7.4514
13.5989
12.3506
7.7242
16.4325
12.. 260 6
12.261 1
10.7742
74.2589
36.3486
24.8434
13.9774
10.4189
10. 1437
7.8436
1 6.4294
12.3533
12.2254
9.9298
CO
1231 .398
1222.191
1011 .'391
1014.741
7 15. "732
740.131
1087.536
1086.837
984 .0 1 9
970.523
576.798
552.349
1 187.658
1218.440
996. 1 78
989.130
718.748
688.866
1008.229
1243.744
1284,520
1065.853
1 142.318
785.232
853.280
946.975
1210.120
974.917
1 152.243
908.893
919-378
625.024
990.488
851 .060
680. '875
1 193. 182
997.472
1042.472
731 .065
1 197. "341
968.399
970.664
656. -489
NOx
.7548
.7305
2V9207
3. 1040
14.7747
13.8256
.0310
.0153
.7564
.7715
1.6935
1 .7150
.8458
.5512
3. '055 6
2.8226
12.4505
14.5538
3.0402
. 69 1 3
.2793
2.2330
1.4218
1 1.5162
8.6644
£.9736
.7600
.4843
.7854
2.3978
2.3979
10.2528
.4185
.9865
1 .4952
.6028
2.3231
1.9772
9.5089
V4291
1 .9769
2.0192
8.5398
103.4955 1003.216 .4341
57.5562 942.418 .7515
39.3530 879.481 .9373
22.6867 651.391 1.5295
1 3.5847
10.0987
9.5464
7.6619
1 197.932
993.540
937.587
715.032
.5561
2. 1512
2.5714
9.0501
Cl-13
-------
COMPUTED VALUES
RUN
NO.
J
IP
2
2P
3
3P
4
4P
5
5P
6
6P
7
7P
8
8P
9
.-9P
10
) 1
.1 IP
12
1.2P
13
13P
15
.16
17
18
19
19P
20 •
21
22
23
24
25
25P
26
27
28
28P
29
30
31
SIP
32
33
34
34P
35
LB/BHP HR
THC
.01 1264
.010803
.008407
.008480
.006357
.006455
.088641
.09661 1
.033001
.033521
.020556
.018882
.009439
.009612
.005823
.005785
.004203
.004134
.009170
.007928
.008040
.005217
.005594
.003569
.004007
.008360
.008291
.009363
.01 3018
.007895
.00781 7
.005927
.096337
.037521
.022580
.009993
.006105
.006024
. 004009
.014358
.008409
.008359
.005702
. 144949
.066775
.042588
.021298
.010328
.006191
.005636
.004000
CO
.924
.928
.632
.626
.390
.409
1 .437
1 .433
1 .044
1 .067
.51 1
.462
.832
.873
.596
.593
.367
.348
. 644
.841
.862
.613
. 681
.393
.459
.582
.812
1.182
.913
.585
.586
. 344
1 .285
.879
.619
.853
.584
.619
.374
1 .046
.659
. 664
. 377
1 .405
1.093
.952
.612
.91 1
.609
.554
.373
NOx
.000566
.000555
.001824
.001916
.008042
.007632
. 00004 1
.000020
.000803
.000849
.001500
.001434
.000593
.000395
.001827
.001 693
.006361
.007360
.00 1 942
.000468
.000 187
.001 285
.000847
.005758
.004659
.001828
.000510
.000587
.000622
.001 544
.001 529
.005640
.000543
.001018
.001 359
.000431
.001361
.001 174
.004860
.'000375
.001 346
.001 381
.004904
.000608
.000872
.001014
.001436
.000423
.001319
.001518
.004725
THC
. 1014
.0989
.0752
.0771
.0584
.0591
.2549
.0850
. 2784
.0928
.0989
.0330
.0963
.0321
.0589
.0196
.0578
.'0193
.1347
. 1397
.0852
.0860
.0617
.0612
.0847
.0084
.0084
.0057
.0060
.0039
.0041
.0772
.0088
.0286
.0095
. 1 175
.0728
.0736
.0547
.2762
.0921
.1076
.'0359
.0691
.0230
. 1473
.0938
.0913
.0608
. 1331
.0761
.0758
.0514
.41 61
.1387
.1922
.0641
.1307
.0436
.0649
.021 6
.1506
.0951
.0867
.0623
LB/MODE
CO
8.312
8. "4 9 4 .
5.654
5.693
3.579
3.738
4.133
1 .378
4. 130
1.377
3.129
1 .043
3.067
1 .022
1 .465
.488
1.414
.471
1 1.877
12.692
8.717
8.820
5.391
5. 195
5.949
.895
.899
.666
.725
.424
.465
5.379
.865
3. 607
1 .202
8.239
5.399
5.516
3. 175
3.685
1 .228
2.519
.840
1 .893
.631
12.578
8.977
9.382
5.666
9.698
5.965
6.018
3.401
4.033
1 .344
3. 148
1 .049
2.920
.973
1 .863
.621
13.277
9.356
8.516
5.810
NOx
.00510
.00508
.01633
.01741
.07387
.06982
.00012
.00004
.00006
.00002
.00241
.00080
.00244
.00081
.00430
.00143
.00439
.00146
.00846
. .00574
.02674
.02517
.09338
.10976
.01794
.00050
.00020
.00140
.00090
.00622
.'00472
.0 1689
Y00054
.00179
.00060
.00562
.0 1424
'.01439
.05208
.00156
.00052
."00292
.00097
.00416
.00139
.00635
.02091
.01780
.07369
.00348
.01218
.01252
.04424
=00175
.00058
.00251
.00084'
.00311
.'00 104
.00437
.00146
.00616
.02026
.02336
.07353
-------
APPENDIX C2
IGNITION TIMING RECHECK RUNS
C2-1
-------
IOS4O ENGINE Tl:.ST DATA
Te.ST CoNJDlTiOM T--T- R-ECHEC
I&M17ION '
t>JC./IJ(L He
RUN
Hg
1
a
3
4
5
&
7
fi
r
1C
! 1.
>
TJME
-
-
-
-
•
>URS
VAR. ogj^k
/i-.o Le/a-^
MO'UMMAL
/1 1,5
x
x
/
/ID.O
/
/
IOCO/
X
x
icc>X
Xs.o
/
1^
25
a.
1 5
as
?-
15
•fi
,.c
'l&
as
20
IS
-!>-__
:i< . DA.TE ^2_/J /!?___
RtL. H U W\D*T Y ^_9 %JL ^- _%_
6AR.O. PRESsU/iE 29.3S_jy_H
OBSERVED
RPW
1905
\SOO
,9oa
\O07
\004-
IOOZ
,00.
1004-
l C C. i
;«.-,
1002,
FT. LEA
»«
£55
355
SO
^
60
PC
Bo
BO
85
60
65
wiA HC,
._ — _.
llxl]>OCTIOW AIR.
FlD'A'
CFM
,^»
157.9
,«.,.
4O.Z
41.7-
44 .B
38,5
39'. 4
41, Z.
4 O,6
40,7
TE.MR
76
77
75
74
74-
71
74-
7 1-
'7 1
7 a
71
7|
O'A/JK
c /s', c
FLO'.Sx
/IT i A'r
/ f J •
x
x
x
X
/
/
/
/
/
7
tXH.
1'SI
FUEL
FLOIV
PPM
S5.B
»*
61.9
17,7
-I8.O
IS.'L
',4,45
15.1
15.8
IB. 45
l'i.6
14,9
QBE.
F/A
'
-
01 u
7t~M r3
°F
Pi I
!
C2-2
-------
TCST
I C.K1
_ .£ B.TD.C
z
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
EXHAUST pwr TCMP. V
.
*
'
/•
"
CXI/.
EMISSICFJS
THC
PPM-
870
SiO
ssoo
1S30
1300
1070
CO
T
©. 1
9.0
9.0
u,ts
10. t
4O.J
7, 1
8.O
7.5
4,1
4,1
4,6
CO.
s,e>.
&..€>•
7.6
,o
9,7
u A
36-
42.
S.8
6S
I 1 S
•1C 8
\OO
PPM.
1.2-S
I.OO
1 ,00
1. 10
\.l 0
1.10
C2-3
-------
COMPUTED VALUES
RUN
NO.
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 7
RUN
NO.
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
P! 9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 7
RUN
NO.
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 /I
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
1 0
1 1
1 2
1 7
RPM
1900
1900
1900
1000
1000
1000
1000
1002
1030
1000 '
1000
1000
1000
AIR-FUEL RATIO CORRECTED CONCENTRATIONS
NOM.
1 .5
1.5
1.5
0 . 0
0.0
0.6
1.5
1 .5
1 .5
3.5
3.0
3.0
10.0
DIRECT
1 .4
1 .5
1 .4
9.9
0. 1
0.3
1 .7
1 .5
1 .5
3.3
3.2
3. 1
0. 1
CB THC
UB> PPM -C
11.7 2806
11.6 2785
11.6 2626
10.0 16844
10.5 14183
10.6 12778
12.3 5344
11.7 6755
12.1 4793
13.5 4169
13.5 4063
13.3 3325
10.2 16366
LB/HR
THC
.755842
-800027
.779251
1 .324728
1 . 148833
1.11
0585
.389135
.504390
.378879
•31
.3!
7924
3672
.280681
1 .307926
CO
53.21
9
56.359
58.284
8.078
6.980
8.41
6
0.940
2.752
2. 1 69
6.758
6.659
8. 123
18. 1 26
NOx
. 192265
. 177191
. 14591 6
.007210
.010522
.012171
.018018
.014694
.017221
.030080
.027879
.028064
.009005
LB/BHP-HR
' THC
.008505
.008672
.008438
.086364
.0751 20
.072764
.025394
-032981
.024849
.01
9507
.020531
.01
7291
.085694
CO
.599
.61
.63
1
1
1 . 179
1.110
1.207
.714
.834
.798
.41
5
.436
.500
1. 188
NOx
.002164
.001921
.001580
.000470
.000688
.000797
.001 176
.000961
.001129
.001846
.001825
.001729
.000590
C0%
9.78
9.72
9.73
1 1 .38
10.38
10.49
7.44
8.46
7.62
4.39
4.27
4.76
1 1 .23
NOx
PPM
215.2
186.0
1
1
1
1
48.3
27.6
39.2
42.2
74.6
59.3
65.7
18.9
08.9
00.2
34.0
C02%
9.25
9'. 28
9.29
7.04
7.81
7.90
10. 17
9.52
10. 13
1 1 .81
1 1 .88
11.71
7. 17
O2%
1 .34
1.08
1.08
1.28
1.13
. 14
.26
. 1 1
.04
.25
. 15
. 14
.39
LB/1000 LB FUEL
THC
13.5456
13.4685
12.5889
74.8434
63.8240
57.8430
26.9298
33.4033
23.9797
23.6374
23.0641
18.8377
70.6988
CO
953.
948.
941 .
1021 .
943.
959.
757.
844.
770.
502.
489.
545.
979.
739
797
575
354
319
177
099
522
168
468
653
144
810
NOx
3.44562
2.98301
2.35729
.40734
.58454
.63393
1 .24695
.9731 1
1 .08991
2.23645
2.04994
1 .88351
.48677
LB/MODE
THC
.0756
.0800
.0779
.2649
.0883
.2298
.0766
.2221
.0740
.0778
.0259
. 1009
.0336
.0758
.0253
.0636
.0212
.0627
.0209
.0561
.0187
.2616
.0872
CO
5.
5.
5.
3.
1
3.
1
3.
1
2.
2.
2.
1.
1 .
1 .
3.
1
322
636
828
616
.205
396
. 132
683
.228
188
.729
550
.850
434
.811
352
.451
332
.444
625
.542
625
.208
NOx
.01923
.01772
.01459
.00144
1
00048
.00210
•
00070
.00243
•
00081
.00360
•
00120
.00294
.00098
.00344
.001 15
.00602
.00201
-00558
.00186
.00561
1
00187
.00180
.00060
C2-4
-------
|