Manual of
 INDIVIDUAL WATER
 SUPPLY SYSTEMS
      ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
         WATER SUPPLY DIVISION

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            Manual of
       INDIVIDUAL WATER
       SUPPLY SYSTEMS
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
     Office of Water Programs
       Water Supply Division
            First Printed 1973
             Revised 1974
            Reprinted 1975

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                     A cknowledgment
  This manual  follows in  general the  format of its predecessor,
Public Health Service Publication No.  24, prepared by the Joint
Committee  on  Rural  Sanitation.1 The Water Supply  Division  is
indebted to that committee for the many important contributions
that have been retained.
  The special committee charged with responsibility for preparing
this new manual was composed of the following persons:
    W. J. Whitsell (Committee Chairman), Ground Water Engineer,
       Water Supply Division, Environmental Protection Agency
    R. D. Lee,  Chief, Surveillance and Technical Assistance, Water
       Supply Division, Environmental Protection Agency
    E.  L.  Hockman, Ground  Water  Engineer,  Water Supply
       Division,  Environmental Protection Agency
    D. K. Keech, Chief, Ground Water Quality Control Section,
       Michigan State Department of Health
    G. F.  Briggs, Vice President-Engineering, U. O. P. Johnson
       Division,  St. Paul, Minn.
    Ed Norman, Marvin Norman Drilling Co., Vienna, W. Va.
It is impractical to list here all persons and organizations that have
offered valuable criticisms and suggestions for improvements. Some
30  Federal, State, and  private agencies participated in  the  final
technical review of the completed draft. Their contributions led to
a considerable number of improvements. To all of them, the Water
Supply Division  expresses its sincere gratitude.

                                   James H.  McDermott, Director
                                           Water Supply Division
   The Joint Committee on Rural Sanitation was composed of specialists from the
following  agencies:  U.S. Department of Agriculture, U.S. Department  of Health,
Education, and Welfare, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S.  Coast Guard, Federal
Housing  Administration,  Veterans'  Administration, Tennessee  Valley  Authority,
Conference of State Sanitary Engineers, Water Pollution Control Federation, Conference
of Municipal Public Health Engineers, American Public Health Association, National Water
Well Association, and Water Systems Council.

                                                               iii

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                        Foreword
  Healthful,  comfortable living  requires  the  availability of  an
adequate supply of good quality water for drinking and domestic
purposes.
  Whenever feasible, the consumer will do  well to obtain his water
from  a public  water system in order to enjoy the advantages of
qualified supervision under  the  control of a  responsible public
agency. It is usually his best assurance of an uninterrupted supply
of safe water.
  It is not  always possible, or economically feasible, to obtain
water from  a community water system, and the consumer is then
faced with the  need to choose an alternative supply.  It is to the
individual or institution faced with this need that  this manual is
primarily directed.
  This manual is a revision of PHS Publication No. 24,  Individual
Water Supply Systems,   published in 1962. The revision was begun
by the Bureau of Water Hygiene of the U.S.  Public Health Service in
1969.  In  late  1970, the Bureau's activities and personnel  were
transferred by law to the newly created Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). Work on the manual was completed within EPA.
  The Water Supply Division hopes the manual  will be useful to
Federal agencies concerned  with the development of individual
water  supplies, and to State and local  health departments, well
drillers, contractors,  and individual  homeowners  as well  as  to
owners and operators of private and public institutions.
  Persons familiar  with PHS Publication  No.  24  will note that
extensive  rewriting and expansion of certain portions have taken
place. This is especially notable in the sections dealing with ground
water and wells. The changes reflect  primarily the experiences of
the past 10  years, and  especially the advent of new equipment,
methods, and materials. Totally new sections, new illustrations, and
new tables have been added to  provide more complete coverage of
the subjects.  Color has been used to clarify illustrations. Particular
attention  has been  paid  to the  need for keeping recommendations
on  construction  as practical as possible  without  compromising
quality and basic principles of sanitation.

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   Since a  considerable portion of the manual deals with ground
 water and  wells  — over 90 percent of individual systems - the
 special  committee  organized  to assemble  the  new  manual  was
 reinforced  appropriately  with persons who  have had  extensive
 practical experience in water well construction. Their contributions
 were in turn reviewed by individuals and organizations whose work
 keeps them in close contact with the field application of practices
 recommended in this manual.
   Changing times and  changing living habits have  imposed greater
 and greater pollution loads on our  environment.  It is imperative
 that  all  water  systems  be  constructed  in  accordance  with
 recommended practices known to provide effective defenses against
 contamination.  In  addition,  each  recommendation  has been
 carefully studied  to  make  sure that it meets  the  following other
 important requirements:
      1. It must be practical, yielding results with equipment  and
          techniques currently available.
     2. Its cost must be consistent with the benefits to be expected
          from its execution.
     3. It must make an important contribution to the useful life of
          the installation.
   Assistance in the planning of individual water systems usually can
 be obtained from  State or local health departments. The health
 department  may in  turn  suggest  other  agencies  -  health
 departments and  departments  of geology  and water  resources.
 These agencies should be the first contacts.
   If any question  of water rights is involved,  the owner should seek
 legal  advice. Departments  of  geology  and  water resources  can
 frequently advise  as  to whether  water  rights are likely to be a
 problem.
VI

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                               Contents
                                                                          Page
Acknowledgment  	    iii
Foreword	    v
Part   I. Selection of a Water Source	    1
     II. Ground Water	   21
    III. Surface Water for Rural Use	   61
    IV. Water Treatment 	   73
     V. Pumping, Distribution, and Storage	   93
Bibliography: List of References on Individual Water Supply Systems	  129
Appendixes:
   A.  Recommended Procedure for Cement Grouting of Wells for
        Sanitary Protection  	  133
   B.  Bacteriological Quality  	  137
   C.  Emergency Disinfection  	  139
   D.  Suggested Ordinance	  143
Index	  151
                          List  of  Tables
Table                                                                     Page
1. Planning guide for water use  	   15
2. Rates of flow for certain plumbing, household and farm fixtures  	   17
3. Suitability of well construction methods to different geological conditions  	   31
4. Steel pipe and casing, standard and standard line pipe 	   43
5. Quantities of calcium hypochlorite and liquid bleach required for water
    well disinfection	   52
6. Recommended mechanical analysis of slow sand filter media  	   75
7. Information on pumps	  100
8. Allowance in equivalent length of pipe for friction loss in valves and
    threaded fittings 	  122
                                                                             Vll

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                        List  of Illustrations
 Figure                                                                     Page
   1.  The hydrologic cycle	    2
   2.  Pumping effects on aquifers	   29
   3.  Dug well with two-pipe jet pump installation 	   34
   4.  Different kinds of drive-well points	   35
   5.  Well-point driving methods  	   36
   6.  Hand-bored well with driven-well point and "shallow well" jet pump	   37
   7.  Drilled well with submersible pump	   40
   8.  Well seal for jet pump installation	   46
   9.  Well seal for submersible pump installation	   47
 10.  Spring protection	   57
 11.  Yield of impervious catchment area	   63
 12.  Cistern	   65
 13.  Pond	   68
 14.  Schematic diagram of pond water-treatment system	   69
 15.  Exploded view of submersible pump	   95
 16.  "Over-the-well" jet pump installation	   97
 17.  Determining recommended pump capacity	   99
 18. Components of total operating head in well pump installations	 102
 19.  Vertical (line shaft) turbine pump mounted on well casing	 105
 20. Pumphouse 	 108
 21. Clamp-on pitless adapter for submersible pump installation	 Ill
 22. Pitless unit with concentric external piping for jet pump installation	 112
 23. Weld-on pitless adapter with concentric external piping for "shallow well"
       pump installation 	 113
 24. Pitless adapter with submersible pump installation for basement storage	 114
 25. Pitless adapter and unit testing equipment 	 117
 26. Head loss versus pipe size	 121
 27. Typical concrete reservoir	 127
 28. Typical valve and box, manhole covers, and piping installations	 128
viii

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             Parti
                      Selection of a
                      Water Source
  The planning of an individual water  supply system requires a
determination of the quality of the water and available sources. In
addition, it is desirable for one to have a basic knowledge of water
rights and  the hydrological,  geological,  chemical,  biological, and
possible radiological factors affecting the water. These factors are
usually  interrelated because of the continuous circulation  of the
water or water vapor from the oceans to the air, over the surface of
the land and underground, and back to the oceans. This circulation
is called hydrologic cycle. (See fig. 1.)
RIGHTS TO THE USE OF WATER
  The right of an individual to use of water for domestic, irrigation,
or other purposes varies in different States. Some water rights stem
from  ownership of the land bordering or overlying the source, while
others are acquired by a  performance of certain acts  required by
law.
  There are three basic types of water rights. They are:
    7?iparian. -Rights that are acquired together with  title  to the
      land bordering or overlying the source of water.
    Appropriate.-Rights that are acquired by following a specific
      legal procedure.
    Prescriptive. -Rights that are acquired by diverting and putting
      to use,  for a period specified by statute,  water to  which
      other parties may or may  not  have  prior claims.  The
      procedure   necessary  to obtain  prescriptive rights must
      conform with the conditions established by the water rights
      laws of individual States.
  When there  is any question regarding the right to the  use of
water, the property owner should consult the appropriate authority
in his State and clearly establish his rights to its use.
SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY
  At  some  time in its history, water  resided  in  the  oceans. By
evaporation, moisture is transferred from the ocean surface  to the
atmosphere,  where the  winds carry the moisture-laden air  over
landmasses. Under certain conditions, this water vapor condenses to
form  clouds, which release their moisture as precipitation  in the
form  of rain, hail, sleet, or snow.

                                                              1

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WATtR TABU (UNCONFINED» AQUIFER
                                                                                  ATION
        FIGURE 1.  The hydrologic cycle.

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  When rain falls toward the earth, a part may evaporate and return
immediately  to the atmosphere.  Precipitation  in excess of the
amount that wets a surface or supplies evaporation requirements is
available as a potential source of water supply.
Ground Water
  A part of the precipitation may infiltrate into the soil.  (See fig.
1.)  This water  replenishes the soil moisture or is used by growing
plants and returned to the atmosphere by transpiration. Water that
drains  downward below the root zone  finally  reaches a level at
which all of the openings or voids in the earth's materials are  filled
with water. This zone is known as the "zone of saturation." Water
in the zone of saturation  is referred to  as "ground water." The
upper  surface  of the  zone  of saturation, if not  confined  by
impermeable  material,  is  called  the  "water  table." When  an
overlying impermeable formation confines the water in the zone of
saturation under a pressure greater than atmospheric pressure, the
ground water is under artesian pressure. The name "artesian" comes
from the ancient province of Artesium in France, where in the days
of the Romans water flowed to the surface of the ground from a
well. Not  all water from wells that penetrate artesian formations
flows above the surface of the land. For a well to be artesian, the
water in the well must stand above the  top of  the aquifer. An
aquifer, or water-bearing formation,  is an  underground  layer of
permeable rock or soil that permits the passage of water.
  The porous material just above the water table may contain water
by capillarity in the smaller void spaces. This zone is referred to as
the "capillary fringe." It is not a source of supply since the water
held will not drain freely by gravity.
  Because  of the irregularities  in underground deposits and in
surface  topography, the water  table occasionally  intersects the
surface of the ground or the  bed of a stream, lake, or ocean. As a
result, ground water moves to these locations and out of the aquifer
or ground water reservoir. Thus, ground water is continually moving
within the aquifer even though  the movement may be slow. The
water  table  or artesian pressure  surface  slopes  from  areas of
recharge to areas of discharge. The pressure differences represented
by these slopes cause the flow of ground water within the aquifer.
At  any point the slope is a reflection of the rate of flow and
resistance to movement of water through the  saturated formation.
Seasonal variations in  the  supply of water  to the underground
reservoir cause  considerable changes in the elevation and slope of
the water table  and artesian pressure level.
Wells
  A well  can be used  to  extract  water from  the  ground  water
reservoir. Pumping will  cause a lowering of the water table near the

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 well. If pumping continues at a rate that exceeds the rate at which
 the  water may be replaced  by the water-bearing formations, the
 sustained yield of the well is exceeded. If wells extract water from
 an aquifer over a period of time at a rate such that the aquifer will
 become  depleted or  bring about other undesired results, then the
 "safe yield" of the aquifer is exceeded. Under these conditions, salt-
 water encroachment  may occur where wells are located near the
 seashore or other surface or underground saline waters.
 Springs
   An opening in the ground surface from which ground water flows
 is a spring. Water may flow by force of gravity (from water-table
 aquifers), or be forced out by  artesian pressure. The flow from a
 spring may vary considerably.  When the water-table  or  artesian
 pressure  fluctuates,  so  does  the  flow  of springs.  For further
 discussion, see part II.
 Surface Water
   Precipitation that does not enter the ground through infiltration
 or is not returned to  the atmosphere by evaporation flows over the
 ground surface and is classified as direct runoff. Direct runoff is
 water that moves over saturated or impermeable surfaces,  and in
 stream channels or other natural or artificial storage sites. The dry
 weather  (base) flow  of  streams is derived from ground water  or
 snowmelt.
   In some areas, a source of water for individual development is the
 rainfall intercepted by roof surfaces  on homes, barns, or other
 buildings. Water from such impermeable  surfaces can be collected
 and  stored in  tanks  called  cisterns.  In some instances, natural
 ground surfaces can  be  conditioned to  make  them impermeable.
 This conditioning will increase runoff to  cisterns or large artificial
 storage reservoirs, thereby reducing loss by infiltration into the
 ground.
   Runoff from ground surfaces may be collected in either natural
 or artificial reservoirs. A portion of  the water stored in surface
 reservoirs is lost by evaporation and from infiltration to the ground
 water table from the pond bottom.  Transpiration from vegetation
 in and adjacent to ponds constitutes another means of water loss.
 Ground and Surface Water
  Ground  water may become surface  water at  springs or  at
intersections of a water  body and a water table. During extended
dry  periods, stream   flows  consist largely  of  water from  the
ground water reservoir. As the ground  water reservoir is drained by
 the surface stream, the flow will reach a minimum or may cease
altogether. It is important in evaluating stream and spring supplies
to consider seasonal fluctuations in flow.

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Snow
  Much of the snow falling on a water shed is kept in storage on the
ground  surface until temperatures rise  above  freezing. In  the
mountainous areas of the western United States, snow storage is an
important  source  of water supply  through much  of the normal
irrigation  season.  Measures taken  to increase  the  snowpack and
reduce  the melt  rate are  usually  beneficial  to individual  water
supply systems in these areas.
QUALITY OF WATER
  Precipitation in the form of rain, snow,  hail,  or sleet contains
very few  impurities.  It  may  contain  trace amounts of mineral
matter, gases, and other substances as it forms and falls through the
earth's  atmosphere.  The precipitation,  however, has virtually no
bacterial content.
  Once  precipitation  reaches  the  earth's  surface,  many
opportunities are  presented for the introduction  of mineral and
organic substances, micro-organisms, and other forms of pollution
(contamination).1  When  water runs over or  through the ground
surface, it may pick up particles of soil. This is noticeable in the
water as cloudiness or turbidity. It also picks up particles of organic
matter and bacteria. As surface water seeps downward into the soil
and through  the underlying material to the water table, most of the
suspended particles  are filtered out. This natural filtration may be
partially  effective  in  removing  bacteria  and other particulate
materials; however,  the chemical  characteristics of the water may
change  and vary  widely  when it  comes in contact with mineral
deposits. Chemical and bacteriological analyses may be performed
by  a  State   or  local  health  department  or by  a  commercial
laboratory.
  The   widespread  use  of  synthetically  produced   chemical
compounds,  including  pesticides and  insecticides, has  caused  a
renewed interest in the  quality of  water. Many of these materials
are  known  to  be  toxic  and  others have  certain  undesirable
characteristics which interfere  with  the use of the water even when
present in relatively small concentrations. In recent years instances
of water  pollution  have been traced to a sewage  or waste water
source containing synthetic detergents.
  Substances that alter the quality of water as it moves over or
below  the surface of the earth may be classified  under four major
headings.
  Pollution as used in this manual means the presence in water of any foreign substances
(organic, inorganic, radiological, or biological) which tend to lower its quality to a point
that it constitutes a health hazard or impairs the usefulness of the water. Contamination,
where used in this manual, has essentially the same meaning.

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      I. Physical.  Physical characteristics  relate to the quality of
          water for domestic use and are usually associated  with
          the  appearance  of  water,  its  color  or  turbidity,
          temperature, taste,  and odor in particular.
      2.Chemical.  Chemical  differences  between  waters  are
          sometimes evidenced by their observed reactions, such as
          the comparative performance of hard and soft waters in
          laundering.
      3. Biological.  Biological  agents  are  very important in their
          relation to public health and may also be significant in
          modifying the physical  and chemical  characteristics of
          water.
      4. Radiological.  Radiological factors  must be  considered in
          areas  where  there is a possibility that the water may have
          come in contact with radioactive substances.
   Consequently, in the development of an individual water supply
system,  it is  necessary  to  examine carefully all the factors  that
might adversely affect the intended use of a water supply source.
Physical Characteristics
   The water  as used  should be free from all impurities that  are
offensive to  the sense  of sight,  taste,  or smell.  The  physical
characteristics of the water include turbidity, color, taste and odor,
temperature, and foamability.
   Turbidity.   The presence of suspended material such as clay, silt,
finely divided  organic  material, plankton,  and other  inorganic
material in water is known as turbidity. Turbidities in excess of 5
units are easily detectable in  a  glass of water, and are usually
objectionable  for esthetic reasons.
   Clay or other inert suspended particles in drinking water may not
adversely affect  health,  but  water  containing such  particles may
require treatment to make it suitable for its intended use. Following
a  rainfall, variations  in  the  ground  water  turbidity may  be
considered an indication of surface or other introduced pollution.
   Color. Dissolved organic  material from  decaying vegetation and
certain  inorganic matter cause  color in water.  Occasionally,
excessive blooms of algae or the growth of aquatic micro-organisms
may also impart color. While color itself is not usually objectionable
from  the  standpoint  of health,  its presence is esthetically
objectionable  and suggests  that  the  water  needs appropriate
treatment.
   Taste  and  Odor.  Taste and odor  in water can be  caused by
foreign  matter  such as organic  compounds,  inorganic salts, or
dissolved  gases.  These  materials  may  come  from  domestic,
agricultural, or natural sources. Acceptable waters should be  free
from any objectionable taste  or odor at point of use. Knowledge

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concerning  the  chemical  quality  of a  water supply  source  is
important in order to determine what treatment, if any, is required
to make the water acceptable for domestic use.
   Temperature.  The  most  desirable  drinking  waters are
consistently cool and do not have temperature fluctuations of more
than  a  few  degrees. Ground  water  and  surface  water  from
mountainous areas generally meet  these criteria. Most  individuals
find that water having a temperature between 50° and 60°F is most
palatable.
  Foamability. Since 1965 the  detergent formulations have been
changed  to  eliminate alkyl benzene  sulfonate  (ABS),  which was
very slowly degraded by nature. The more rapidly biodegradable
linear  alkylate  sulfonate  (LAS)  has been  substituted  in  most
detergents. Even LAS is not degraded very rapidly in the absence of
oxygen — a condition that exists in cesspools and some  septic tank
tile fields.
   Foam in water is usually caused by concentrations  of detergents
greater  than  1 milligram  per  liter. While  foam  itself is not
hazardous, the user  should understand that if enough detergent is
reaching  a water supply to cause a noticeable froth to appear on a
glass of water, other possibly hazardous materials of sewage origin
are also likely to be present.
Chemical Characteristics
   The nature of the rocks that form the earth's crust  affects not
only  the  quantity of  water that  may  be recovered but also its
characteristics. As surface water seeps  downward to the water table,
it  dissolves portions  of the minerals contained by soils and rocks.
Ground water, therefore, usually contains more dissolved minerals
than surf ace water.
   The chemical characteristics of water in a particular locality can
sometimes be predicted  from analyses  of adjacent water sources.
These data  are  often  available  in  published reports of the U.S.
Geological  Survey   or  from Federal,  State,  and   local health,
geological, and water agencies. In the event that the information is
not available, a chemical  analysis  of the water source should be
made. Some State  health  and  geological departments, as well as
State colleges, and many commercial  laboratories have the facilities
and may be able to provide this service.
   Information that can be obtained from a chemical analysis is -
    • The possible presence of  harmful or disagreeable substances
    • The potential for the water to corrode  parts of the water
         system
    • The tendency for the water to stain fixtures and clothing

The size of sample required and the method of collection should be

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  in  accordance  with recommendations of the  facility  making the
  analysis.
    The  following is a discussion of the  chemical characteristics of
  water based on  the limits recommended by the 1962 Public Health
  Service Drinking Water Standards.2' 3
    Toxic  Substances.  Water  may contain  toxic  substances  in
  solution.  If analysis of the water supply shows that these substances
  exceed the following  concentrations, the supply should not be
  used:
Substance

Barium (Ba) 	 	
Cadmium (Cd) . . .
Chromium (Cr+6) 	
Cyanides (CN) 	

Milligrams
per liter i
0 05
1.00
01
.05
.2

Substance
FliinHHp (P\
Lead (Pb)

Selenium (Se)
Silver (Ag) 	

Milligrams
per liter 1
(2)
005

01
05

   The term "milligrams per liter (mg/C)" replaces the term "parts per million (ppm)." For
 water, the two terms are essentially equivalent.
   2 See following table.

   The maximum concentrations of fluoride depend on the annual
 average maximum daily air temperature, as shown in the following
 table, because the temperature influences water intake:
              Annual average of maximum
                 daily air temperature
              50.0°-53.7°F.
              53.8°-58.3° F .
              58.4°-63.8° F .
              63.9°-70.6° F .
              70.7°-79.2° F .
              79.3°-90.5° F .
 Maximum allowable
     fluoride
concentration (mg/C)
      2.4
      2.2
      2.0
      1.8
      1.6
      1.4
   Chlorides.  Most waters contain  some  chloride  in  solution. The
 amount  present  can  be  caused  by   the  leaching  of  marine
 sedimentary  deposits,  by  pollution  from  sea  water,  brine,  or
 industrial and domestic  wastes. Chloride concentrations in excess of
 about  250  mg/fi  usually produce a  noticeable taste  in drinking
 water.  In areas where the chloride content is higher than 250 mg/£
 and all other criteria are met, it may be necessary to  use a water
 source  that exceeds this  limit.
   An increase in  chloride content in  water may  indicate possible
 pollution from sewage sources, particularly if the normal chloride
 content is known to be low.
 2The Drinking Water Standards are currently being revised.
 3US. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, "1962 Public  Health Service
Drinking Water Standards," Public Health Service Publication No. 956 (1962).
8

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  Copper.  Copper is found in some natural waters, particularly in
areas where these ore deposits have been mined.
  Excessive amounts of copper can occur in corrosive water that
passes  through  copper  pipes.  Copper in small amounts  is  not
considered detrimental to health,  but will impart an undesirable
taste to the drinking water. For this reason, the recommended limit
for copper is 1.0 mg/K.
  Fluorides. In some areas water sources contain natural fluorides.
Where  the  concentrations  approach  optimum  levels,  beneficial
health  effects  have been observed. In  such areas the incidence of
dental  caries has been found to be  below the rate in areas without
natural fluorides.4 The  optimum fluoride level  for  a given area
depends  upon  air  temperature,  since  that  is  what  primarily
influences  the  amount  of  water  people drink.  Optimum
concentrations from 0.7 to 1.2 mg/8 are recommended. Excessive
fluorides  in  drinking  water  supplies  may  produce  fluorosis
(mottling)  of teeth, which increases as the optimum fluoride level is
exceeded. The State or local health departments, therefore, should
be consulted for their recommendations.
  Iron. Small amounts  of iron are frequently  present  in  water
because of the large  amount of iron present in  the soil and because
corrosive water will pick up iron from pipes. The presence of iron in
water  is  considered  objectionable  because  it  imparts a brownish
color to laundered goods and affects the taste of beverages such as
tea and coffee. Recent studies  indicate that eggs spoil faster when
washed in  water containing iron  in excess of  10  mg/fi. The
recommended limit for iron is 0.3 mg/C.
  Lead. A brief or prolonged exposure of the  body to lead can be
seriously injurious to health. Prolonged exposure to relatively small
quantities may result in serious illness or death. Lead taken into the
body  in  quantities  in  excess of certain relatively low  "normal"
limits is a  cumulative  poison. A maximum concentration of 0.05
mg/£ of lead in water must not be exceeded. Excessive lead may
occur in the source  water, but the usual cause of excessive lead is
corrosive water in contact with lead-painted roofs or the use of lead
pipes.  These conditions  must be corrected to provide a safe water
supply.
  Manganese.  There are two reasons for limiting the concentration
of manganese  in drinking water: (1) to  prevent  esthetic  and
economic  damage,  and (2) to  avoid  any possible  physiological
effects  from  excessive intake.  The  domestic user  finds that
manganese produces a  brownish  color in  laundered goods,  and
impairs the  taste  of  beverages, including  coffee  and  tea. The
recommended limit for manganese is 0.05 mg/C.

  4It is a known fact that the addition of about 1 mg/fi of fluoride to water supplies will
help to  prevent tooth decay in children. Some natural water supplies already contain
amounts of fluoride that exceed the recommended optimum concentrations.
                                                              9

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   Nitrates.  Nitrate (NO3) has caused methemoglobinemia (infant
 cyanosis or "blue baby disease") in infants who have been given
 water or fed formulas prepared with water having high nitrates. A
 domestic water supply should not contain nitrate concentrations in
 excess of 45  mg/C  (10 mg/2  expressed as  nitrogen).  Nitrates in
 excess of normal concentrations, often in shallow wells, may be an
 indication  of  seepage  from livestock manure  deposits.  In  some
 polluted wells, nitrite will also be present in concentrations greater
 than  1 mg/C  and is even more hazardous  to  infants. When  the
 presence of high nitrite concentration is suspected the water should
 not be used for infant feeding. The nitrate concentration should be
 determined, and if excessive, advice should be obtained from health
 authorities about the suitability of using the water for drinking by
 anyone.
   Pesticides.  Careless  use of  pesticides  can  contaminate  water
 sources and  make the water unsuitable  for drinking. Numerous
 cases  have  been  reported  where  individual  wells   have  been
 contaminated  when the house was treated  for termite control. The
 use of pesticides near wells is not recommended.
   Sodium.  When  it is  necessary to know the  precise  amount of
 sodium present in a water supply, a laboratory analysis should be
 made. When  home  water   softeners  utilizing  the  ion-exchange
 method are  used, the amount of sodium will be increased. For  this
 reason, water that has been softened should be analyzed for sodium
 when a precise record of individual sodium intake is recommended.
   For healthy persons, the sodium content of water is unimportant
 because the intake from salt is so much greater, but  for persons
 placed on a low-sodium diet because of heart, kidney, or circulatory
 ailments  or  complications of pregnancy, sodium in water must be
 considered. The usual low-sodium diets allow for 20 mg/C sodium in
 the drinking water. When this limit is exceeded, such persons should
 seek a physician's advice on diet and sodium intake.
   Sulfates.  Waters containing high concentrations of sulfate caused
 by the leaching of natural deposits  of magnesium sulfate (Epsom
 salts)  or sodium sulfate (Glauber's salt) may be undesirable because
 of their laxative  effects. Sulfate content should  not exceed 250
 rng/2.
   Zinc. Zinc is found in some natural waters, particularly in areas
 where these ore deposits have been  mined. Zinc is not  considered
 detrimental  to health, but  it will impart  an undesirable taste to
 drinking water. For this reason, the recommended limit for zinc is
 5.0 mg/fi.
   Serious  surface   and  ground  water pollution problems  have
developed from existing and  abandoned mining operations. Among
the worst are those associated  with coalmine  operations, where
heavy concentrations of iron, manganese, sulfates, and acids have

10

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resulted from the weathering and leaching of minerals (pyrites).
Chemical Terms
  Alkalinity. Alkalinity  is  imparted  to water  by  bicarbonate,
carbonate,   or  hydroxide  components.  The  presence  of  these
compounds is determined by standard methods involving titration
with  various  indicator solutions.  Knowledge  of the  alkalinity
components is useful in the treatment of water supplies.
  Hardness. Hard  water and soft water  are  relative terms. Hard
water retards the cleaning action of soaps and detergents, causing an
expense   in  the  form  of  extra  work  and  cleaning  agents.
Furthermore, when hard water  is heated it will deposit a  hard scale
(as in a kettle, heating coils, or cooking utensils) with a consequent
waste of fuel.
  Calcium  and  magnesium  salts, which  cause hardness in  water
supplies, are divided into  two general classifications: carbonate or
temporary  hardness and noncarbonate or permanent hardness.
  Carbonate or temporary hardness is so called because heating the
water will largely remove it. When the water is heated, bicarbonates
break  down into  insoluble  carbonates  that  precipitate as solid
particles which adhere to a heated surface and the inside of pipes.
  Noncarbonate or permanent hardness is so called because it is not
removed when  water is  heated.  Noncarbonate hardness  is  due
largely to the presence of the sulfates and chlorides of calcium and
magnesium in the water.
  pH.  pH  is a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in water.
It is also a measure of the acid or alkaline content. pH values range
from 0 to  14, where 7 indicates neutral  water; values less than 7,
increasing acidity; and values greater than 7,  increasing  alkalinity.
The  pH of water in its natural state often varies from 5.5  to  9.0.
Determination of the  pH value assists in  the  control of  corrosion,
the determination of proper chemical dosages,  and adequate control
of disinfection.
Biological Factors
  Water for drinking and cooking purposes must be made free from
disease-producing  organisms. These  organisms  include  bacteria,
protozoa, virus, and helminths (worms).
Contamination of Water Supplies
  Some organisms that cause disease in man originate with the fecal
discharges  of infected individuals. It is seldom practical to monitor
and  control the activities of human disease carriers. For this reason,
it is necessary to exercise precautions against contamination  of a
normally safe water source or to institute  treatment methods which
will produce a safe water.
  Unfortunately, the specific disease-producing  organisms present

                                                             11

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 in water are not easily identified. The techniques for comprehensive
 bacteriological examination are complex and time consuming. It has
 been necessary to develop tests that indicate the relative  degree of
 contamination in terms  of an  easily defined  quantity. The  most
 widely used test involves estimation of the number of bacteria of
 the  coliform  group, which is always present  in  fecal wastes and
 outnumbers  disease-producing  organisms. The coliform group
 normally inhabits the intestinal tract of man,  but is also found in
 most domestic animals and birds, as well as certain wild species.
 Bacteriological Quality
   The  Public Health  Service   Drinking   Water Standards  have
 established  limits for the mean concentration  of coliform bacteria
 in a  series  of  water samples  and   the  frequency  at which
 concentrations may  exceed the mean.  The results are expressed
 either in terms of a direct count of bacteria per  unit volume — if the
 membrane filter (MF) procedure is used — or in terms of the "most
 probable number" (MPN). This  latter term is an estimate based on
 mathematical  formulas of probability.
   The  recommended standards for drinking  water  are  roughly
 equivalent  to restricting  the coliform concentration to not more
 than one organism for each 100 milliliters of water.5
   Application of  the  Public   Health Service  Drinking Water
 Standards to  individual water supplies  is difficult due to the low
 frequency  with  which  samples can  be  properly  collected and
 examined.  Bacteriological examinations indicate  the  presence or
 absence of  contamination in the collected sample only, and are
 indicative of  quality only  at the time of collection.  A sample
 positive for coliforms is a good indication that the source may have
 been  contaminated by  surface washings or fecal material. On the
 other hand, a negative  result cannot be considered  assurance of a
 continuously safe supply  unless the results of  a thorough sanitary
 survey of the  surrounding area,  together with subsequent negative
 samples, support this position.
 Collection of Samples for Bacteriological Examination
   For a reliable indication of the  bacteriological safety of an
 individual  water  supply,  the  owner  should  depend  on   the
 experience of  qualified public health personnel. Special precautions
 are necessary in the collection of water samples, and proper training
 and  experience are  essential in  evaluating the analytical results.
 Before  a  sample  is  collected,  the  examining facility should be
 contacted to  obtain its  recommendations. In the event that a
 procedure is not given, one should follow the suggestions found in
appendix B.
 5One hundred milliliters is about one-half cup in volume.

12

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Other Biological Factors
  Certain forms of aquatic vegetation and microscopic animal life
in natural water  may be either stimulated or retarded in their
growth  cycles  by physical,  chemical, or biological factors. For
example,  the growth of  algae,  minute green plants  usually found
floating in surface water, is stimulated by light, heat, nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphorus, and the presence of carbon dioxide as a
product of organic decomposition. Their growth may, in turn, be
retarded by changes in pH (measure of acidity),  the presence  of
inorganic  impurities, excessive cloudiness or darkness, temperature,
and the presence of certain bacterial species.
  Continuous  cycles of growth and decay of algal cell material may
result in the production of noxious byproducts that may adversely
affect the quality of a water supply. The same general statements
may be made regarding the growth cycles of certain nonpathogenic
bacteria or microcrustacea that inhabit natural waters.
  A water source should be  as free from  biological activity  as
possible. Biological activity can be avoided or kept to a minimum by:
     1. Selecting water sources  that do not normally support much
          plant or animal life.
     2. Protecting the supply against subsequent contamination by
          biological agents.
     3. Minimizing entrance of fertilizing materials, such as organic
          and nutrient minerals.
     4. Controlling the light and temperature of stored water.
     5. Providing treatment for the destruction of biologic life or its
          byproducts.
Radiological Factors
  The development and use of  atomic energy as a power source and
mining of radioactive materials have made it necessary to establish
limiting concentrations for the intake  into the body of radioactive
substances, including drinking water.
  The  effects of human exposure  to  radiation  or radioactive
materials  are  viewed as  harmful and any unnecessary exposure
should  be avoided.  The concentrations of radioactive materials
specified  in  the  current  Public  Health Service  Drinking  Water
Standards are  intended  to  limit  the  human intake of these
substances so that the total radiation exposure of  any individual
will not exceed those defined  in  the  Radiation Protection Guides
recommended by the Federal  Radiation  Council. Man has always
been exposed to  natural radiation from water, food, and  air. The
amount of radiation to  which the individual is normally exposed
varies with the amount of background radioactivity. Water of high
radioactivity is unusual. Nevertheless it is known to exist in certain
areas, either from natural or manmade sources.
                                                             13

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   Radiological data indicating both background and other forms of
 radioactivity in an area may be available in publications of the U.S.
 Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Public Health Service, U.S.
 Geological Survey, or from Federal,  State, or local agencies.  For
 information  or  recommendations  on  specific  problems,  the
 appropriate agency should be contacted.
 QUANTITY OF WATER
   One of the first steps in the selection of a suitable water supply
 source is  determining  the demand which will be placed on it. The
 essential elements  of water demand include the average daily water
 consumption and the peak rate of demand. The average daily water
 consumption must be estimated—

     1. To determine  the ability of  the  water source  to meet
          continuing  demands  over critical periods when  surface
          flows are low and ground water tables are at minimum
          elevations and
     2. For purposes  of estimating quantities of stored water that
          would sustain demands during these critical periods.
   The peak demand rates must be estimated in order to determine
 plumbing and pipe sizing, pressure losses, and storage requirements
 necessary to  supply sufficient water during periods of peak water
 demand.
 Average Daily Water Use
   Many  factors influence water use for  a  given system. For
 example,  the mere  fact  that  water  under pressure is  available
 stimulates  its use for watering  lawns and gardens,  for washing
 automobiles,  for operating air-conditioning equipment,  and  for
 performing many other utility activities at home and on the farm.
 Modern  kitchen and  laundry  appliances,  such as  food  waste
 disposers and  automatic dishwashers,  contribute to a higher total
 water  use and tend to  increase  peak  demands. Since  water
 requirements  will  influence all   features  of  an individual
 development  or improvement, they must figure prominently  in plan
 preparation. Table 1 presents a summary of average  water use as a
 guide   in preparing  estimates, with  local  adaptations  where
 necessary.
 Peak Demands
  The  rate of water use for an  individual  water  system  will vary
directly with domestic activity in the home or with the operational
farm  program.  Rates are generally  highest  in  the home near
mealtimes, during midmorning laundry periods, and  shortly before
bedtime. During the intervening daytime hours and at night, water
use may be virtually nil. Thus, the total amount of water used by a
household may be distributed over only  a few hours of the day,

14

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                    TABLE 1. - Planning guide for water use
                         Types of establishments
Airports (per passenger)  ...........................          3-5
Apartments, multiple family (per resident)  .................          60
Bath houses (per bather)    ..........................          10
Camps:
   Construction, semipermanent (per worker) ................          50
   Day with no meals served (per camper) ...................          15
   Luxury (per camper)  ...........................     100-150
   Resorts, day and night, with limited plumbing (per camper)  .......          50
   Tourist with central bath and  toilet facilities (per person)  ........          35
Cottages with seasonal occupancy (per resident)  ...............          50
Courts, tourist with individual bath units (per person) ............          50
Clubs:
   Country (per resident member)   .....................         100
   Country (per nonresident member present)   ...............          25
Dwellings:
   Boardinghouses (per boarder)  .......................          50
      Additional kitchen requirements for nonresident boarders  ......          10
   Luxury (per person)  ...........................     100-150
   Multiple-family apartments (per resident)   ................          40
   Rooming houses (per resident)  ......................          60
   Single family (per resident)   .......................       50-75
Estates (per resident)   ............................     100-150
Factories (gallons per person per shift) ....................       15-35
Highway rest area (per person) ........................           5
Hotels with private baths (2 persons per room)   ...............          60
Hotels without private baths (per person)   ..................          50
Institutions other than hospitals (per person)   ................      75-125
   Hospitals (per bed)    ...........................     250-400
Laundries, self-serviced (gallons per washing, i.e., per customer)    ......          50
Livestock (per animal):
   Cattle (drinking)    ............................          12
   Dairy (drinking and servicing) .......................          35
   Goat (drinking)   .............................           2
   Hog (drinking)  ..............................           4
   Horse (drinking)  .............................          12
   Mule (drinking)   .............................          12
   Sheep (drinking) ..............................           2
   Steer (drinking) ..............................          12
Motels with bath, toilet, and kitchen facilities (per bed space)   .......          50
   With bed and toilet (per bed space)   ...................          40
Parks:
   Overnight with flush toilets (per camper)   ................          25
   Trailers with individual bath units, no sewer connection (per trailer) •  •  •          25
   Trailers with individual baths, connected to sewer (per person)  .....          50
Picnic:
   With bathhouses, showers, and flush toilets (per picnicker)   .......          20
   With toilet facilities only (gallons per picnicker)  .............          10
Poultry:
   Chickens (per 100)    ...........................        5-10
   Turkeys (per 100)   ............................       10-18
                                                                                IS

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           TABLE 1. - Planning guide for water use - Continued
                    Types of establishments
Gallons
per day
 Restaurants with toilet facilities (per patron)    	
   Without toilet facilities (per patron)  	
   With bars and cocktail lounge (additional quantity per patron)
 Schools:
   Boarding (per pupil)  	
   Day with cafeteria, gymnasiums, and showers (per pupil)  •  •
   Day with cafeteria but no gymnasiums or showers (per pupil)
   Day without cafeteria, gymnasiums, or showers (per pupil)
 Service stations (per vehicle) '	
 Stores (per toilet room)  	
 Swimming pools (per swimmer)  	
 Theaters:
   Drive-in (per car space)  	
   Movie (per auditorium seat)    	
 Workers:
   Construction (per person per shift)   	
   Day (school or offices per person per shift)   	
   7-10
   2V4-3
     2

 75-100
    25
    20
    15
    10
   400
    10

     5
     5

    50
    15
during which  the actual  use  is much greater than the average rate
determined from Table 1.
   Simultaneous  operation  of  several  plumbing   fixtures will
determine the maximum peak rate of water delivery for the home
water system. For example,  a shower, an automatic dishwasher, a
lawn-sprinkler system, and a flush valve  toilet  all operated at the
same time would probably produce a near-critical peak.  It is true
that not all of these facilities are usually operated together; but if
they  exist on the same system, there is always a possibility that a
critical  combination  may result,  and  for design  purposes this
method of calculation is sound. Table 2 summarizes the rate of flow
which would be expected for certain household and  farm fixtures.
Special Water Considerations
   Lawn  Sprinkling. The  amount  of  water  required  for  lawn
sprinkling depends upon the size  of the lawn, type  of sprinkling
equipment, climate, soil, and water control. In dry or arid areas the
amount of water required may equal or exceed the  total used for
domestic or farmstead needs. For estimating purposes, a rate  of
approximately  Vi inch per hour of surface area is reasonable. This
amount of water can  be applied by sprinkling 30 gallons of water
per hour over each 100 square feet.
Example:

            ^7$r-X 30 = 300  gallons per hour or 5 gpm


   A lawn of 1,000 square feet would require 300 gallons per hour.

16

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 TABLE 2. - Rates of flow for certain plumbing, household, and farm fixtures
Location
Ordinary basin faucet 	
Self-closing basin faucet 	
Sink faucet 3/8 inch 	
Sink faucet 1/2 inch 	
Bathtub faucet 	
Laundry tub faucet, 1/2 inch 	 	

Ball-cock for closet 	
Flush valve for closet 	

Garden hose (50 ft., 3/4-inch sill cock) .
Garden hose (50 ft., 5/8-inch outlet) 	
Drinking fountains 	
Firehose 1-1/2 inches, 1/2-inch nozzle . . .

Flow pressure
-pounds per
square inch
(psi)
g
8
g
g
g
8
g
g
15
15
30
15
15
30

Flow rate-
gallons per
minute (gpm)
2.0
2.5
4.5
4.5
6.0
5.0
5.0
3.0
2 15-40
15.0
5 0
3.33
.75
400

  1 Flow pressure is the pressure in the supply near the faucet or water outlet while the
faucet or water outlet is wide open and flowing.
  2Wide range due to variation in design and type of closet flush valves.
   When possible, the water system should have a minimum capacity
of 500-600 gallons  per hour.  A water system  of this size may be
able to operate satisfactorily during a peak demand. Peak flows can
be estimated  by adding lawn sprinkling to peak domestic flows but
not to fire flows.
   Fire  Protection.  In areas  of individual water supply systems,
effective firefighting depends upon the facilities provided  by the
property owner. The  National Fire  Protection Association has
prepared a report   which outlines and describes ways to utilize
available water supplies.6
   The  most  important factors in successful firefighting are  early
discovery  and   immediate  action.  For immediate  protection,
portable fire  extinguishers are desirable. Such first-aid protection is
designed only for the control of fires in the early stage; therefore, a
water supply  is desirable as a second line of defense.
   The use of gravity water supplies for firefighting presents certain
basic problems.  These include (1)  the  construction of a dam, farm
pond, or storage tank to hold the water until needed, and  (2) the
determination of the size of pipeline installed from the supply. The
  6National Fire Protection Association, "Water Supply Systems for Rural Fire Protectk>n,H
National Fire Codes, vol. 8 (Boston, 1969).
                                                                17

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 size of the pipe is dependent upon two factors: (1) the total fall or
 head from the point of supply to the point of use and (2) the length
 of pipeline required.
   A  properly constructed  well  tapping  a  good aquifer can  be a
 dependable source for both domestic use and fire protection. If the
 well  is to be relied upon for fire protection without supplemental
 storage, it should  demonstrate, by  a  pumping  test, minimum
 capacity of 8 to 10 gallons per minute continuously for a period of
 2 hours during the driest time of the year.
   A more dependable installation results when motor, controls, and
 powerlines are protected from fire. A high  degree of protection is
 achieved when all electrical elements are located outside at the well,
 and there is a separate powerline bypassing other buildings.
   There are  numerous  factors  determining  the amount  of fire
 protection that should be built into a water  system. Publications of
 the  National  Fire  Protection  Association7   provide more
 information on this subject.
   The smallest individual pressure  systems  commercially available
 provide  about 210  gallons  per hour  (3V2 gallons per  minute).
 While this  capacity  will furnish a stream, through an ordinary
 garden hose, of some value in combating incipient  fires or  in
 wetting  down adjacent  buildings,  it  cannot  be expected to be
 effective on a fire that has gained any headway. When such systems
 are already installed, connections  and hose should be provided.
 When a new system is being planned or a replacement of equipment
 made, it is urged that a capacity of at  least 500 gallons an hour
 (8-1/3 gallons per minute) be specified and the supply increased to
 meet this  demand.  If  necessary,  storage should be  added.  The
 additional  cost for the  larger unit  necessary for fire protection is
 partially offset by the increased quantities  of water available for
 other uses.
 SANITARY SURVEY
  The importance of a sanitary survey of water sources cannot be
 overemphasized. With a new supply, the  sanitary  survey should be
 :nade in conjunction with the collection of initial engineering data
 covering the development of a given source and its capacity to meet
 existing and future needs. The sanitary survey should  include the
 detection  of all health hazards and the assessment of their present
and future importance. Persons  trained  and competent in  public
health engineering and  the  epidemiology of waterborne diseases
should  conduct the sanitary survey. In  the case of  an existing
supply,  the  sanitary  survey should  be made  at  a  frequency
compatible  with the  control of  the  health  hazards and  the
maintenance of a good sanitary quality.

 7Ibid.

18

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  The  information  furnished by the sanitary survey is essential to
complete  interpretation  of bacteriological  and  frequently  the
chemical data. This information  should always  accompany the
laboratory  findings. The following outline  covers the  essential
factors which should be  investigated  or considered in a sanitary
survey. Not all of the items  are pertinent to any one supply and, in
some cases, items not  in  the list would be important additions to
the survey list.
Ground Water Supplies
      a.  Character of local geology; slope of ground surface.
      b.  Nature of soil and  underlying porous strata; whether clay,
           sand,  gravel,  rock  (especially  porous  limestone);
           coarseness of sand or gravel; thickness  of water-bearing
           stratum,  depth  to  water table;  location,  log,  and
           construction  details  of  local  wells  in   use  and
           abandoned.
      c.  Slope  of water table, preferably  as determined  from
           observational wells or as indicated, presumptively but
           not certainly, by slope of ground  surface.
      d.  Extent of drainage area likely to  contribute water to the
           supply.
      e.  Nature, distance,  and  direction  of local  sources of
           pollution.
      f.  Possibility of surface-drainage water entering the supply
           and of wells becoming flooded; methods of protection.
      g.  Methods  used for protecting  the supply against pollution
           by means  of sewage treatment, waste  disposal, and the
           like.
      h. Well construction:
         1. Total depth of well.
         2. Casing: diameter, wall thickness, material, and length
               from surface.
         3. Screen  or  perforations:  diameter,  material,
               construction, locations, and lengths.
         4. Formation seal:  material (cement,   sand, bentonite,
               etc.),   depth  intervals,  annular   thickness,  and
               method of placement.
      i.  Protection of well at top: presence of sanitary well seal,
            casing  height  above  ground, floor,   or  flood  level,
            protection of  well  vent,  protection of well  from
            erosion and animals.
      j.  Pumphouse construction (floors, drains,  etc.), capacity of
            pumps, drawdown when pumps are in  operation.
       k. Availability of an unsafe  supply, usable in place of normal
            supply, hence involving danger to the public health.

                                                             19

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       1.  Disinfection: equipment, supervision, test kits, or other
             types of laboratory control.
 Surface-Water Supplies
       a.  Nature of surface geology: character of soils and rocks.
       b.  Character of vegetation, forests, cultivated  and irrigated
             land, including salinity, effect on irrigation water, etc.
       c.  Population and  sewered population  per square  mile  of
             catchment area.
       d.  Methods of sewage disposal, whether by diversion from
             watershed or by treatment.
       e.  Character  and efficiency of sewage-treatment works on
             watershed.
       f.  Proximity of sources of fecal pollution to intake of water
             supply.
       g.  Proximity, sources, and  character of industrial wastes, oil
             field brines, acid mine waters, etc.
       h.  Adequacy of supply as to quantity.
       i.  For lake or reservoir supplies: wind direction and velocity
             data, drift of pollution, sunshine data (algae).
       j.  Character and quality of raw water:  coliform organisms
             (MPN), algae, turbidity,  color, objectionable  mineral
             constituents.
       k.  Nominal period of detention in reservoir or storage basin.
       1.  Probable minimum time required for water to flow from
             sources of pollution to reservoir and through reservoir
             intake.
       m.  Shape  of reservoir, with reference to possible currents of
             water, induced by wind  or  reservoir discharge, from
             inlet to water-supply intake.
       n.  Protective  measures  in  connection  with  the  use of
             watershed to  control fishing, boating,  landing of
            airplanes, swimming, wading,  ice cutting,  permitting
            animals on marginal  shore areas and in  or upon the
            water, etc.
       o. Efficiency and constancy of policing.
       p. Treatment of water:  kind and adequacy of equipment;
            duplication  of  parts;  effectiveness  of  treatment;
            adequacy of supervision  and  testing; contact period
            after disinfection; free chlorine residuals carried.
       q. Pumping  facilities:  pumphouse, pump  capacity  and
            standby units, storage facilities.
20

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           Part II
                       Ground Water
ROCK  FORMATIONS  AND  THEIR  WATER-BEARING
PROPERTIES
   The rocks that form the crust of the earth are divided into three
classes:
    1. Igneous. Rocks that are derived from the hot magma deep
        in  the  earth. They include granite  and other coarsely
        crystalline rocks, dense igneous rocks such  as occur  in
        dikes and sills, basalt and other lava  rocks, cinders, tuff,
        and other fragmental volcanic materials.
    2. Sedimentary.  Rocks that consist  of chemical precipitates
        and of rock fragments  deposited by  water, ice, or wind.
        They include deposits of gravel, sand, silt,  clay, and the
        hardened equivalents of these - conglomerate, sandstone,
        siltstone, shale,  limestone, and  deposits of gypsum and
        salt.
    3.Metamorphic.  Rocks that are derived from both igneous and
        sedimentary rocks through considerable alteration by heat
        and pressure at  great depths. They include gneiss, schist,
        quartzite, slate, and marble.
  The pores,  joints, and crevices of the rocks in the zone  of
saturation are  generally filled with water. Although the openings in
these  rocks are usually small, the total amount  of water that can  be
stored in the subsurface reservoirs  of the rock  formations is large.
The most productive aquifers are deposits of clean, coarse sand and
gravel; coarse, porous sandstones; cavernous limestones; and  broken
lava  rock.   Some  limestones, however, are  very  dense  and
unproductive. Most of the igneous and metamorphic rocks are hard,
dense,  and  of low permeability.  They  generally  yield small
quantities of water.  Among the  most unproductive formations are
the silts and clays. The openings in these materials are too small to
yield  water, and the formations are structurally too incoherent to
maintain large openings under pressure. Compact materials near the
surface, with open joints  similar to crevices in rock, may yield small
amounts of water.

                                                            21

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GROUND WATER BASINS
   In  an undeveloped ground water basin, movement of water to
lower basins,  seepage  from and  to surface-water  sources, and
transpiration are dependent upon the water in storage and the rate
of recharge.  During periods following abundant rainfall, recharge
may exceed discharge. When recharge exceeds discharge, the excess
rainfall increases the amount of water available in storage in  the
ground water basin. As the water table or artesian pressure rises, the
gradients  to points of  discharge  become  steeper  and  outflows
increase.  When recharge  ceases, storage decrease from outflow
causes water-table levels and artesian pressures to decline. In most
undeveloped  basins the major fluctuations in storage are seasonal,
with  the  mean annual  elevation  of  water levels showing little
variation.  Thus, the average annual inflow  to  storage equals  the
average annual  outflow, a quantity  of water referred to as the basin
yield.
   The  proper  development  of a  ground  water source requires
careful consideration of the hydrological and geological conditions
of the area. The individual who wishes to take full advantage of a
water  source for domestic use  should obtain the assistance of a
qualified ground  water  engineer,  ground  water  geologist,
hydrologist, or  contractor familiar with the construction of wells in
his area. He should rely on facts and experience, not on instinct or
intuition.  Facts on the geology  and hydrology  of an area may be
available in publications of  the U.S.  Geological Survey or from
other  Federal  and State  agencies.  The  National  Water Well
Association1  also offers assistance.
SANITARY QUALITY OF GROUND WATER
  When water  seeps downward  through overlying material to the
water table, particles in suspension,  including micro-organisms, may
be removed.  The extent of removal depends on the thickness and
character of the overlying material.  Clay or "hardpan" provides the
most  effective  natural protection of ground water.  Silt and sand
also  provide  good  filtration  if  fine enough and in thick enough
layers. The bacterial quality of the water also improves during
storage in the aquifer  because storage conditions  are usually
unfavorable for bacterial survival. Clarity alone does not guarantee
that ground water is safe to drink; this can only be determined by
laboratory testing.
  Ground water found in  unconsolidated formations (sand, clay,
and  gravel) and protected by similar materials from  sources  of
pollution  is  more likely  to be  safe  than water  coming  from
consolidated formations (limestone,  fractured rock, lava, etc.).
  Where limited filtration is provided by overlying earth materials,

 188 East Broad St., Columbus, Ohio 43215.

22

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water of better sanitary quality  can  sometimes be  obtained  by
drilling deeper. It  should  be recognized, however, that there are
areas where it is not possible, because of the geology, to find water
at greater depths. Much unnecessary drilling has been done in the
mistaken belief that more and better quality water can always be
obtained by drilling to deeper formations.
  In areas without central sewerage systems,  human excreta are
usually deposited in septic tanks, cesspools, or pit privies. Bacteria
in the liquid effluents from such installations may enter shallow
aquifers.  Sewage  effluents have  been  known to find their way
directly into water-bearing formations by way of abandoned  wells
or  soil-absorption  systems.  In  such areas,  the  threat  of
contamination  may  be  reduced  by   proper  well  construction,
locating it farther from the source of contamination. The direction
of ground water flow usually approximates that of the surface flow.
It is always desirable to locate a well so that the normal movement
of ground water flow carries the contaminant away from the well.
CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL QUALITY OF GROUND WATER
  The mineral content of  ground water reflects its  movement
through the minerals which make  up  the earth's crust. Generally,
ground water in arid regions is harder and more mineralized than
water in  regions of high annual rainfall.  Also, deeper aquifers are
more  likely to contain higher concentrations of minerals in solution
because the water has had more time (perhaps millions of years) to
dissolve the  mineral rocks. For any ground water region there is a
depth below which salty  water, or brine, is almost certain to be
found. This depth varies from one region to another.
  Some  substances found naturally in ground water, while not
necessarily harmful, may impart a disagreeable taste or undesirable
property to the water. Magnesium sulfate (Epsom  salt), sodium
sulfate (Glauber's salt), and sodium chloride (common table salt)
are but a few of these. Iron and manganese are commonly found in
ground waters (see p.  9). It is an interesting fact that regular users
of  waters containing  amounts of these substances considered by
many to be excessive commonly become accustomed to the water
and consider it to have a good taste!
   Concentrations of chlorides and nitrates that are usually high for
a particular  region may be indicators of sewage pollution. This is
another reason why a chemical analysis of the water  (p. 7) should
be made periodically  and these results interpreted by someone
familiar with the area.
TEMPERATURE
   The  temperature  of  ground  water  remains nearly  constant
throughout the year. Water from  very shallow sources (less than 50
feet deep) may vary somewhat from  one season to another, but

                                                           23

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 water from deeper zones remains  quite constant, its  temperature
 being close  to that  for the  average annual  temperature  at  the
 surface.  This  is why  water from a well may seem to be warm in
 winter or cold during the summer.
   Contrary to popular opinion, colder water is not obtained by
 drilling deeper. Beyond about 100 feet of depth, the temperature of
 ground water increases steadily at the rate of about 1°F for each 75
 to 150 feet of depth. In volcanic regions this rate of increase may
 be much greater.
 DISTANCES TO SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
   All ground  water sources should  be located a safe distance from
 sources  of contamination. In cases  where sources are severely
 limited,  however,  a  ground  water  aquifer  that  might become
 contaminated may be considered for  a water supply if treatment is
 provided. After a decision has been made to locate a water source in
 an area,  it is necessary to determine the distance the source should
 be placed  from the origin of contamination and the direction of
 water movement. A determination of a safe distance  is based on
 specific local factors described in the  section on "Sanitary Survey"
 in part I of this manual.
   Because  many  factors  affect  the  determination  of "safe"
 distances between ground water supplies and sources of pollution, it
 is impractical  to set fixed distances. Where insufficient information
 is available to determine the "safe" distance, the distance should be
 the   maximum  that  economics,  land  ownership,  geology,  and
 topography will permit.  It should be noted that the direction of
 ground  water flow does not always  follow the slope  of the land
 surface.  Each installation should be  inspected by a person with
 sufficient  training and experience  to evaluate all  of  the factors
 involved.
   Since  safety  of  a  ground  water source  depends primarily  on
 considerations of good well construction and geology, these factors
 should be the guides in determining safe distances for different
 situations.   The  following  criteria  apply  only to   properly
 constructed wells  as  described in  this manual. There is no safe
 distance  for a poorly constructed well!
   When  a  properly constructed well  penetrates an unconsolidated
 formation with good filtering properties, and when the aquifer itself
 is separated from  sources  of contamination by similar  materials,
 research  and  experience have demonstrated that  50  feet is  an
 adequate distance  separating the two. Lesser distances should be
 accepted only after a  comprehensive sanitary survey, conducted by
qualified State or  local health agency officials,  has satisfied the
officials that such lesser distances are both necessary and safe.
  If  it  is proposed  to install  a  properly constructed well in
formations of unknown character, the  State  or U.S. Geological

24

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Survey and the State or local health agency should be consulted.
  When  wells must  be  constructed in consolidated formations,
extra care should always be taken in the location of the well and in
setting "safe" distances, since pollutants have been known to travel
great  distances  in  such  formations. The  owner should  request
assistance from the State or local health agency.
  The following table is offered as a guide in determining distances:
       Formations
        Minimum acceptable distance from
         well to source of contamination
Favorable (unconsolidated).
SO feet. Lesser distances only on health department
 approval following comprehensive sanitary survey of
 proposed site and immediate surroundings.
Unknown
SO feet only after comprehensive geological survey of
 the  site and  its surroundings has established, to the
 satisfaction of the  health agency, that favorable
 formations do exist.
Poor (consolidated).
Safe distances can be established only following both
 the  comprehensive geological and comprehensive
 sanitary  surveys. These  surveys also  permit
 determining the  direction in which a  well may be
 located with respect to sources of contamination. In
 no case should the acceptable distance be less than SO
 feet.
EVALUATING CONTAMINATION THREATS TO WELLS
  Conditions unfavorable to the control of contamination and that
may require specifying greater distances between a well and sources
of contamination are:
     1. Nature of the contaminant.  Human and animal excreta and
          toxic  chemical wastes  are  serious health hazards.  Salts,
          detergents, and  other substances that  dissolve  in water
          can  mix with ground water and travel with it. They are
          not ordinarily removed by natural filtration.
     2. Deeper disposal.  Cesspools, dry wells, disposal  and waste
          injection wells, and deep leaching pits that reach aquifers
          or reduce the amount of filtering earth materials between
          the  wastes  and  the  aquifer increase  the  danger  of
          contamination.
     3. Limited  filtration.  When  earth materials surrounding the
          well and overlying the aquifer are too  coarse  to provide
          effective filtration - as in limestone, coarse gravel, etc. -
          or  when  they  form  a  layer too thin,  the risk  of
          contamination is increased.
     4. The aquifer.  When the materials of the aquifer itself are
          too coarse to provide good  filtration - as in limestone,
          fractured  rock, etc. - contaminants entering the aquifer
                                                                 25

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          through  outcrops or  excavations  may  travel  great
          distances.  It is especially important in such cases to know
          the direction of ground water flow and whether there are
          outcrops of the formation (or excavations reaching it)
          "upstream" and close enough to be a threat.
     5. Volume  of  waste  discharged.  Since greater volumes of
          wastes  discharged  and  reaching  an  aquifer  can
          significantly change the slope of the water table and the
          direction of ground water flow, it is obvious that heavier
          discharges  can increase the threat of contamination.
     6. Contact surface.  When pits and channels are designed and
          constructed  to increase  the rate  of absorption -  as in
          septic tank leaching systems, cesspools, and leaching pits
          - more  separation  from  the water source will be needed
          than when tight sewer lines or waste pipes are used.
     7. Concentration  of contamination sources.  The existence of
          more than one source of contamination contributing to
          the general  area increases  the total pollution load and,
          consequently, the danger of contamination.
DEVELOPMENT OF GROUND WATER
   The  type  of ground  water development to  be undertaken is
dependent  upon  the geological  formations and  hydrological
characteristics of the water-bearing formation. The development of
ground water falls into two  main categories:
     1. Development by wells
        a. Nonartesian or water table
        b. Artesian
     2. Development from springs
        a. Gravity
        b. Artesian
  Nonartesian wells are those that penetrate formations in which
ground water is found  under  water-table conditions. Pumping from
the well lowers  the water table in the vicinity of the well and water
moves  toward  the  well  under the  pressure  differences  thus
artificially created.
  Artesian wells are those that penetrate aquifers in which the
ground water is found  under hydrostatic pressure. Such a condition
occurs in an aquifer that is confined beneath an impermeable layer
of material at an elevation  lower than that of the intake area of the
aquifer. The intake areas or recharge areas of confined aquifers are
commonly at high-level surface outcrops of the formations. Ground
water  flow  occurs  from  high-level  outcrop areas to  low-level
outcrop areas, which are areas of natural discharge. It also flows
toward points  where water levels are  lowered  artificially by
pumping from wells.  When the water level in the well stands above

26

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the top of the aquifer, the well is described as artesian. A well that
yields water by artesian pressure at the ground surface is a flowing
artesian well.
  Gravity springs occur where water percolating laterally through
permeable material  overlying an impermeable stratum comes to the
surface. They also occur where the land surface intersects the water
table.  This  type of spring  is particularly sensitive to seasonal
fluctuations in  ground water storage and frequently dwindles to a
seep   or  disappears during  dry  periods.  Gravity springs  are
characteristically  low-discharge  sources,  but  when  properly
developed they make satisfactory individual water supply systems.
  Artesian springs discharge from  artesian aquifers. They may occur
where  the confining formation over the artesian aquifer is ruptured
by a fault or where the aquifer discharges to a lower topographic
area. The flow from these springs depends on  the difference in
recharge and discharge elevations  of the aquifer and on  the size of
the openings transmitting the water.  Artesian springs are usually
more  dependable than  gravity springs,  but they are particularly
sensitive to the pumping of wells developed in the same aquifer. As
a consequence, artesian springs may be dried by pumping.
  Springs may  be further classified by the nature of the passages
through which water issues from  the source.
  Seepage springs are those in which the water seeps out of sand,
gravel, or other material that contains many small interstices. The
term as used here includes many  large  springs as well as small ones.
Some  of  the large springs have  extensive  seepage areas and are
usually marked by the presence of abundant vegetation.  The water
of small seepage springs  may be colored or  carry an  oily scum
because of decomposition of organic matter or the presence of iron.
Seepage springs may emerge along the  top of an impermeable bed,
but they occur more commonly where valleys are cut into the zone
of saturation of water-bearing deposits. These springs are generally
free   from  harmful bacteria,  but  they   are  susceptible  to
contamination  by  surface runoff which  collects in   valleys or
depressions.
  Tubular springs issue from relatively large channels, such as the
solution channels and caverns of limestone, and soluble rocks and
smaller channels that occur in glacial drift.  They are sometimes
referred to as "bold" springs because  the water issues freely from
one or more large openings. When the water reaches the channels by
percolation  through sand  or other fine-grained material, it is usually
free from contamination. When the channels receive surface water
directly or  receive the indirect  effluent of cesspools,  privies, or
septic tanks, the water must be regarded as unsafe.
  Fissure springs issue  along bedding, joint, cleavage, or  fault
planes. Their  distinguishing  feature is a break in  the rocks along

                                                             27

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which  the  water  passes.  Some  of  these  springs  discharge
uncontaminated water of deep-source origin. A  large number of
thermal springs are  of  this type. Fissure  springs,  however,  may
discharge  water which is contaminated by surface  drainage from
strata close to the surface.
DEVELOPMENT BY WELLS
  When a well is pumped, the level of the water table in the vicinity
of  the  well  will be lowered.  (See  fig.  2.)  This  lowering  or
"drawdown"  causes  the water table or artesian  pressure  surface,
depending on the type of aquifer, to take  the shape of an inverted
cone called a cone of depression. This cone, with the well at the
apex, is  measured in terms of the difference between the static
water level and the pumping level. At increasing distances from the
well, the drawdown  decreases until the slope of  the  cone merges
with the  static water table. The distance from the well at which this
occurs is called  the radius  of  influence. The radius  of influence is
not constant but  tends  to  continuously  expand with continued
pumping.  At a given pumping rate,  the shape of  the cone of
depression depends  on  the characteristics of the water-bearing
formation. Shallow and wide  cones will form in highly permeable
aquifers composed of coarse sands or gravel. Steeper and narrower
cones will form  in less permeable aquifers. As the pumping rate
increases,  the drawdown increases and consequently  the slope of
the cone steepens.
  The character of the aquifer -  artesian or water table   and the
physical characteristics of the formation which will affect the shape
of  the cone  include thickness, lateral extent, and the  size  and
grading of sands or gravels. In a material of low permeability such as
fine sand or sandy clay, the drawdown will be greater and the radius
of  influence  less  than  for  the same  pumpage from very coarse
gravel. (See fig.  2.)
  For example, when other conditions are equal for  two  wells, it
may be expected that pumping costs for the same pumping  rate will
be higher for the well surrounded by material of lower permeability
because of the greater drawdown.
  When the cones of depression overlap, the  local water table will
be lowered. (See fig. 2.) This requires additional pumping lifts to
obtain water from the  interior portion of the  group of wells. In
addition,  a wider distribution of the  wells over the ground water
basin will reduce  the  cost  of  pumping  and  will allow  the
development of a larger quantity of water.
Yield of Wells
  The amount  of water that can be pumped from any  well  depends
on the character of the aquifer and the construction of the well.
  Contrary  to  popular  belief, doubling  the diameter of a  well

28

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                EFFECT OF PUMPING ON CONE OF DEPRESSION

                                          -Discharge
Ground Surface
   Cone of Depression for
   Greater Pumping Rate
                  Cone of Depression for
\j  Draw-Down      Lesser Pumping Rate
             EFFECT OF AQUIFER MATERIAL ON CONE OF DEPRESSION

   • Discharge                                   —*. Discharge
                                                                 Ground Surface
           EFFECT OF OVERLAPPING FIELD OF INFLUENCE PUMPED WELLS

         FIGURE 2.   Pumping effects on aquifers.

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increases its yield only about 10 percent. Or, it could be said that it
decreases the  drawdown  only  about  10 percent at  the  same
pumping rate.  The  casing diameter should be chosen  to  provide
enough room for proper installation of the pump. Individual wells
seldom require  casings larger than  6  inches. Four-inch wells  are
common in many areas.
   A more effective  way of increasing well capacity is  by  drilling
deeper into the aquifer — assuming, of course, that the aquifer has
the necessary thickness. The  inlet portion of the well structure
(screen, perforations, slots) is also  important in determining the
yield  of a well in a sand or gravel formation. The amount of "open
area" in the screened or perforated portion exposed to the aquifer
is critical. Wells completed in consolidated formations are usually of
open  hole construction; i.e., there is no casing in the aquifer itself.
   It is not always possible to predict accurately the yield of a given
well before  its completion. Knowledge can be gained, however,
from  studying the geology of the area and interpreting the results
obtained  from  other  wells  constructed   in the vicinity.  This
information will  be helpful in selecting the location and type of
well most likely to be successful. The information can also  provide
an indication of the quantity or yield to expect.
  A common way to describe the yield of a  well is to express its
discharge capacity in relation to its drawdown. This relationship is
called the specific capacity of the well and is expressed in "gallons
per minute  (gpm) per foot of drawdown." The  specific capacity
may range from less than 1 gpm per foot of drawdown for a poorly
developed well  or one in a tight aquifer to more than 100 gpm per
foot  of  drawdown  for a properly developed  well  in a highly
permeable aquifer.
  Table  3  gives general  information on  the  practicality  of
penetrating various types of geologic formations by the methods
indicated.
  Dug wells can be sunk only a few feet below  the water table. This
seriously limits the drawdown that can be imposed during pumping,
which in turn limits the yield  of the well. A  dug well that taps a
highly permeable formation such as gravel may yield 10 to 30 gpm
or even more in some situations with only 2 or 3 feet of drawdown.
If the formation  is primarily fine sand, the yield may be  on the
order  of 2  to  10  gpm. These  refer  to  dug wells of the sizes
commonly used.
  Bored wells, like dug wells, can also be sunk only a limited depth
below the static water level. A penetration  of  5 to 10 feet into the
water-bearing formation can probably be achieved. If the well is
nonartesian, the available drawdown  would be 2 or 3 feet less than
the depth of water standing in the well. If the well taps an artesian
aquifer, however, the static water level will rise to some point above

30

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                                 TABLE 3. - Suitability of well construction methods to different geological conditions
Characteristics
Range of practical depths
(general order of
magnitude)
Diameter 	
Type of geologic formation:
Clay 	
Silt 	
Sand 	
Gravel 	
Cemented gravel 	
Boulders 	
Sandstone 	 \
Limestone 	 (
Dense igneous rock ....
Dug
0-50 feet
3-20 feet
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, if soft
and/or
fractured
No
Bored
0-100 feet
2-30 inches
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes, if less than
well diameter
Yes, if soft I
and/or J
fractured '
No
Driven
0-50 feet
lVf2 inches
Yes
Yes
Yes
Fine
No
No
Thin layers only
No
No
Drilled
Percussion
0-1 ,000 feet
4- 18 inches
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, when in
firm bedding
Yes
Yes
Yes
Rotary
Hydraulic
0-1, 000 feet
4-24 inches
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
(Difficult)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Air
0-750 feet
4-10 inches
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Jetted
0-100 feet
2-12 inches
Yes
Yes
Yes
Vi-inch pea gravel
No
No
No
No
No
         *The ranges of values in this table are based upon general conditions. They may be exceeded for specific areas or conditions.
<*»

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the top of the aquifer. This rise of the static water level increases
the depth of the water. The available drawdown and the yield of
the well will therefore be increased. A bored well tapping a highly
permeable aquifer and providing several feet of available drawdown
may yield 20 gpm or more. If the aquifer has a low permeability or
the depth  of  water in the  well is small, the yield may  be  much
lower.
  Driven wells can be sunk to as much as 30 feet or more below the
static water level. A well at  this depth can provide 20 feet or more
of drawdown when being pumped. The small diameter of the well,
however, limits the type of pump that can be employed, so that the
yield  under favorable  conditions is limited to about 30 gpm. In fine
sand  or sandy clay formations  of limited thickness, the yield may
be less than 5 gpm.
  Drilled and jetted wells can usually be sunk to such depths that
the depth  of water  standing  in the  well and consequently  the
available drawdown will vary from less than 10 to hundreds of feet.
In productive formations of considerable thickness, yields of 300
gpm and more are readily attained. Drilled wells can be constructed
in all  instances where driven wells are used and in many areas where
dug and bored  wells  are constructed.  The larger diameter of a
drilled well as opposed to that of a driven well permits use of larger
pumping equipment  that can  develop the full  capacity of  the
aquifer. As has already been pointed out, the capacity or yield of a
well varies greatly, depending upon the permeability and thickness
of the formation, the  construction  of the well, and the available
drawdown.
Preparation of Ground Surface at Well Site
  A properly constructed well should exclude surface water from a
ground water source to the same degree as does  the undisturbed
overlying  geologic  formation.  The  top  of the  well  must   be
constructed  so that no foreign  matter or surface water can enter.
The well site should be properly drained and adequately protected
against erosion, flooding,  and damage or contamination  from
animals. Surface drainage should be diverted away from the well.

CONSTRUCTION OF WELLS
Dug Wells
  The dug well, constructed by hand, is usually shallow. It is more
difficult  to protect  from  contamination, although if finished
properly  it  may  provide a  satisfactory  supply. Because   of
advantages  offered  by other types of wells, consideration should
first be given to one of those described in this section.
  Dug wells are usually excavated with  pick and shovel.  The
excavated material can be lifted  to the surface by a bucket attached

32

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 to a windlass or hoist. A power-operated clam shell or orange peel
 bucket may be used in holes greater than 3 feet in diameter where
 the material is principally gravel or sand. In dense clays or cemented
 materials, pneumatic hand tools are effective means of excavation.
   To prevent the native material from caving, one must place a crib
 or lining in  the  excavation  and move it downward as  the pit is
 deepened.  The  space  between  the  lining and  the undisturbed
 embankment should be backfilled with clean material. In the region
 of water-bearing formations,  the backfilled material should be sand
 or gravel.  Cement  grout  should be placed to a depth of 10 feet
 below the ground surface to prevent entrance of surface water along
 the well lining. (See fig. 3.)
   Dug wells may be lined with brick,  stone, or concrete, depending
 on the availability of materials  and the cost of labor. Precast
 concrete pipe, available in  a wide  range  of sizes, provides an
 excellent  lining.  This  lining  can be  used  as a crib as the pit is
 deepened. When the lining is to be used as a crib, concrete pipe with
 tongue^and-groove joints and  smooth exterior surface is preferred
 (See fig. 3.)
   Bell and spigot pipe may be  used  for a lining where  it can be
 placed inside the crib  or in an unsupported pit. This type of pipe
 requires careful  backfilling  to  guafantee a tight well  near the
 surface. The prime factor  with regard to preventing contaminated
 water from entering a  dug well is the  sealing of the well lining and
 otherwise excluding draining-in of surface water  at and  near the
 well.
   Most dug  wells do  not penetrate  much below the water  table
 because of the difficulties in manual excavation and the positioning
 of cribs and linings. The  depth of excavation can be increased by
 the use of pumps  to  lower the water level during construction.
 Because of their  shallow penetration  into  the zone  of saturation,
 many  dug wells  fail  in times of drought  when  the water level
 recedes or when large quantities  of  water are pumped  from the
 wells.
Bored Wells
   Bored wells are commonly constructed with earth augers turned
 either  by hand or by power equipment.  Such wells are usually
 regarded as practical at depths of less  than 100 feet when the water
 requirement  is low and the material overlying the water-bearing
 formation has noncaving properties and contains few large boulders.
 In suitable material, holes  from 2  to  30 inches in  diameter can be
 bored to about 100 feet without caving.
   In general, bored wells have the same characteristics as dug wells,
 but they may be extended deeper into the water-bearing formation.
   Bored wells may be cased with  vitrified  tile, concrete  pipe,

                                                            33

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Note:
  Pump screen to be
  placed below point
  ol maximum draw-down
                         Pump Unit
           Sanitary Well Seal

    Cobble Drain
 Reinforced Concrete
- Cover Slab Sloped
 Away From Pump
                                                   witer- 6earing Gravel
      FIGURE 3.   Dug well with two-pipe jet pump installation.

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                 Galvanized
                 Steel AI toy, or
                 Stainless Steel
                 Construction
                 Throughout
                                m
                                i
                                I
        Continuous
        Slot Type
Brass Jacket
Type
Brass Tube
Type
             FIGURE 4.  Different kinds of drive-well points.

standard  wrought iron, steel  casing,  or  other suitable material
capable of sustaining imposed loads. The well may be completed by
installing well screens or perforated casing in the water-bearing sand
and gravel.  Proper protection from  surface  drainage should be
provided  by sealing the casing with  cement  grout to the depth
necessary to protect the well from  contamination.  (See  p. 48 and
app. A.)
Driven Wells
  The simplest and least expensive of all well types is the driven
well.  It is constructed by driving  into the ground a drive-well point
which is fitted to the end of a series of pipe sections. (See figs. 4-5.)
The drive point is of forged or cast steel. Drive points are usually
11A or 2 inches in diameter. The well  is driven with the aid of a
maul, or a  special drive weight. (See fig. 5.) For deeper  wells, the
well points  are sometimes driven  into water-bearing strata from the
bottom of a bored or dug well.  (See fig. 6.)  The yield  of driven

                                                               35

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Cold Rolled Shafting
Weight 20 to 25 Ibs.

 Welded Joint

Vent Hole

Pipe-
 Weight 25 to 30 Ibs.


 Drive Cap
-Riser Pipe
                                                      Sand Screen
                                                      Driving Point
                                                                                                             Supporting Cable
Falling Weight
 40 to 50 Ibs.
1,
1
S.X VX

1
— ijuiue r\uu
^* — Drive Head
                                                                                                             Coupling
                                                                                                            Riser Pipe
                           RGURE 5.   Well-point driving methods.

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     Single Pipe (shallow well)
     Jet Pump


Sheet Plastic Separator
                                                         Reinforced Concrete
                                                         Cover Slab Sloped
                                                         Away From Pump
           FIGURE 6.   Hand-bored well with driven well point and
                        "shallow well" jet pump.
                                                                             37

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wells is generally  small to moderate. Where they can be driven an
appreciable depth below  the  water table, they are no more likely
than  bored  wells  to   be  seriously  affected  by  water-table
fluctuations. The  most suitable locations for driven  wells are areas
containing alluvial deposits of high permeability.  The presence of
coarse gravels, cobbles, or boulders interferes with sinking the well
point and may damage the wire mesh jacket.
  Well-drive points  can be obtained in a  variety of designs  and
materials. (See fig. 4.) In general, the serviceability and efficiency of
each is related to its basic design.  The continuous-slot, wire-wound
type is more resistant to corrosion and can usually be treated with
chemicals to correct problems of incrustation. It is more efficient
because of its greater open area, and is easier to develop (see p. 44)
because its design permits easy access to  the formation for cleanup.
  Another  type  has a metal  gauze wrapped around a perforated
steel pipe base and  covered by  a perforated jacket; if it contains
dissimilar metals, electrolytic corrosion is likely to shorten its life -
especially in corrosive waters.
  Wherever maximum  capacity  is  required, well-drive points of
good design are a  worthwhile investment. The manufacturer should
be consulted for his recommendation of the metal alloy best suited
to the  particular situation.
  Good drive-well points  are available with different size openings,
or slot sizes, for use in sands of different grain sizes. If too large a
slot  size  is used, it may never  be possible to develop  the well
properly,  and the  well is likely to be a "sand pumper," or gradually
to fill  in with sand, cutting off the flow of water from the aquifer.
On the other hand, if  the slot size chosen is too  small, it may be
difficult  to improve the  well capacity  by development,  and the
yield  may be too low. When the nature  of  aquifer sand  is  not
known beforehand, a medium-sized slot — 0.015 inch or 0.020 inch
- can  be  tried. If during development sand and sediments continue
indefinitely to pass through the slots, a smaller slot  size should be
used. If, however, the  water cleans up very quickly with very little
sand  and  sediment removed  during development  —  less than
one-third  of the volume of the drive point — then a larger slot size
could  have been selected, resulting in more complete development
and greater well yield.
  When a well is  driven, it is desirable to prepare a pilot hole that
extends to the maximum  practical depth. This  can be done with a
hand auger  slightly larger than the well point. After the pilot hole
has been  prepared, the assembled point  and pipe are lowered into
the hole.  Depending on the resistance afforded by the formation,
driving is accomplished  in several  ways. The pipe is driven by
directly striking the drive  cap, which is snugly threaded to the top
of the  protruding section  of the pipe. A  maul, a sledge, or a special

38

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driver  may be used to hand-drive the pipe. The special driver may
consist of a weight and sleeve arrangement which slides over the
drive cap as the weight is lifted and dropped in the driving process.
(See fig. 5.)
Jetted Wells
  A rapid and efficient method of sinking well points is that of
jetting or washing-in. This method requires a source of water and a
pressure pump. Water  forced under pressure down the riser pipe
issues  from a special washing point. The  well point and pipe are
then lowered as material is loosened by the jetting.
  The riser pipe of a jetted well is often used as the suction pipe for
the pump. In such instances, surface water may be drawn into the
well if the pipe develops holes by corrosion. An outside protective
casing may be installed to the depth necessary to provide protection
against the possible  entry of  contaminated  surface  water.  The
annular space between the casings should then be filled with cement
grout.  The protective casing is  best installed in an auger hole and
the drive point then driven inside it.
Drilled Wells
  Construction   of  a  drilled  well  (see  fig.  7)  is  ordinarily
accomplished by  one of two techniques  — percussion or  rotary
hydraulic drilling. The selection of the method depends primarily
on the geology of the site and the availability of equipment.
  Percussion (Cable-Tool) Method. Drilling by the cable-tool or
percussion method is accomplished by raising and dropping a heavy
drill bit and  stem.  The  impact of the bit crushes and dislodges
pieces of the formation. The reciprocating motion of the drill tools
mixes the drill cuttings with water into a slurry at the bottom of
the hole. This is periodically brought to the surface with a bailer, a
 10- to 20-foot-long pipe equipped with a valve at the lower end.
  Caving is  prevented as drilling progresses by driving or sinking
into the ground a casing slightly larger in diameter than the bit.
When  wells are drilled in hard rock, casing is usually necessary only
through the overburden  of unconsolidated material. A casing may
be  necessary in hard rock formations to prevent caving of beds of
softer material.
  When good drilling practices are followed, water-bearing beds are
 readily  detected  in  cable-tool  holes, because the slurry does not
 tend to seal off the water-bearing formation. A rise or fall in the
 water level in the hole during drilling, or more rapid recovery of the
 water level during bailing, indicates that a permeable bed has been
 entered. Crevices or soft streaks in hard formations are often water
 bearing.  Sand,  gravel,  limestone, and  sandstone  are generally
 permeable and yield the most water.
   Hydraulic Rotary Drilling Method.  The hydraulic rotary  drilling

                                                              39

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                                          Discharge
 Ground Surface Sloped
 to Drain Away from Well
                  ynomic (Pumping )—~T
                 Water Level
                 Drive Shoe-
                                            Packer
                                                          Sand

             FIGURE 7.  Drilled well with submersible pump.
40

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method may be used in most formations. The essential parts of the
drilling  assembly  include  a  derrick  and hoist, a  revolving table
through which the drill pipe passes, a series of drill-pipe sections, a
cutting bit at  the lower end of the drill pipe, a pump for circulation
of drilling fluid, and a power source to drive the drill.
  In the  drilling operation,  the bit  breaks  up the material as it
rotates and advances. The drilling fluid (called mud) pumped down
the drill  pipe picks  up the drill  cuttings and carries them  up the
annular space between the rotating pipe and the wall of the hole.
The mixture  of  mud and cuttings is discharged to a settling pit
where the cuttings drop to the bottom and mud is recirculated to
the drill pipe.
  When the hole is completed, the drill  pipe is withdrawn and the
casing placed. The drilling  mud is usually left in place and pumped
out after the casing and screen are  positioned. The annular space
between  the  hole wall and the casing is generally filled with cement
grout in  non-water-bearing sections, but  may be enlarged and filled
with gravel at the level of water-bearing strata.
  When  little  is  known concerning  the geology of the  area, the
search for water-bearing  formations  must  be done  carefully  and
deliberately so that  all possible formations are located and  tested.
Water-bearing  formations  may  be difficult  to recognize  by  the
rotary method or may be plugged by the  pressure of the mud.
  Air Rotary Drilling Method.  The air rotary method is similar to
the rotary  hydraulic method in that  the  same  type of  drilling
machine and tools may be used. The principal difference is  that air
is the fluid  used  rather  than  mud  or water. In  place  of the
conventional mud pump to circulate  the fluids, air  compressors are
used. Many drillers equip the  rig with a  mud pump to increase the
versatility of the equipment.
  The air rotary  method  is  well adapted to rapid  penetration of
consolidated formations, and is especially popular in regions where
limestone is  the principal source of water. It is not generally suited
to  unconsolidated  formations   where   careful sampling of  rock
materials is required  for well-screen installation. Small quantities of
water  can be  detected   readily during  drilling,  and   the  yield
estimated. Larger sources of water may impede progress.
   The air rotary  method  requires that air be supplied at pressures
from 100 to  250 pounds per square inch. To effect removal of the
cuttings,  ascending  velocities of at least 3,000 feet per minute are
necessary.
   Penetration rates  of 20  to 30 feet  per hour in very hard rock are
common with air rotary methods.
   Conventional  mud drilling is sometimes  used  to drill through
caving  formations that overlie  bedrock.  Casing may have to be
installed  through the  overburden before continuing with the air

                                                             41

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 rotary method.
   Down-the-Hole Air Hammer.  The down-hole pneumatic hammer
 combines the percussion effect of cable-tool drilling and the rotary
 movement  of  rotary  drilling. The  tool  bit  is  equipped  with
 tungsten-carbide inserts at the cutting surfaces. Tungsten-carbide is
 very resistant to abrasion.
 Water Well Casing and Pipe
   There are several kinds of steel pipe that are suitable for casing
 drilled wells. The following are the most commonly used:
     Standard pipe
     Line pipe
     Drive pipe
     Reamed and drifted (R&D) pipe
     Water well casing
   There are certain differences in sizes, in wall thicknesses, in types
 of threaded connections available, and in  methods of manufacture.
 The important thing for the  owner to know about well casing is
 that it meet certain generally  accepted specifications for quality of
 the steel and thickness of the wall. Both are important because  they
 determine resistance to corrosion, and consequently the useful life
 of the  well.  Strength  of the casing may also be important in
 determining whether certain well construction procedures may be
 successfully carried out - particularly in cable-tool drilling where
 hard driving of the casing is sometimes required.
   The most commonly accepted specifications for water well casing
 are those prepared by:
    American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
    American Petroleum Institute (API)
    American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)
    Federal Government
 Each source lists several specifications that might be used, but those
 most  likely to be called for are ASTM A-120 and A-53, API  5-L,
 AISI Standard for R&D pipe, and Federal specification WW-P-406B.'
   Table 4 lists "standard weight" wall thicknesses for standard  pipe
 and line  pipe through the sizes ordinarily used in well construction.
 Thinner  pipe  should not be  used. If conditions in the area are
 known  to  be highly corrosive,  the "extra  strong" and heavier
 weights should be used.
 Setting Screens or Slotted Casings in Wells
   Screens or slotted casings are installed in wells to permit sand-free
 water to flow into the well and to provide support for unstable
 formations to prevent caving.  The size of  the slot for the screen or
 perforated  pipe  should  be  based  on a sieve  analysis of carefully
 selected  samples of the  water-bearing formation that is  to be
developed. The analysis is usually made by the screen manufacturer.

42

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     TABLE 4. - Steel pipe and casing, standard and standard line pipe
Nominal
size
(in.)
1 ivi
m
2
3
4
5
6
8
8
10
10
10
12
12
Diameters (in.)
Outside
U<>0
1.900
2.375
3.500
4.500
5.563
6.625
8.625
8.625
10.750
10.750
10.750
12.750
12.750
Inside
1.380
1.610
2.067
3.068
4.026
5.047
6.065
8.071
7.981
10.192
10.136
10.020
12.090
12.000
Wall
thickness
(in.)
I4T5
.145
.154
.216
.237
.258
.280
.277
.322
.279
.307
.365
.330
.375
Approximate weight (Ib./ft.)
Plain ends
	 OT
2.72
3.65
7.58
10.79
14.62
18.97
24.70
28.55
31.20
34.24
40.48
43.77
49.56
Threaded and
coupled
2.30
2.75
3.75
7.70
11.00
15.00
19.45
25.55
29.35
32.75
35.75
41.85
45.45
51.10
If the slot size is too large, the well may yield sand when pumped.
If the slots are too  small, they may become  plugged with fine
material and the well yield will be reduced.  In a drilled well, the
screens  are normally  placed after  the casing has been  installed;
however, in a driven well, the screen is a part of the drive assembly
and  is  sunk  to  its final  position as  the  well is driven.
  The relationship between the open area of the screen and the
velocity  of  water through the openings  should be considered if
maximum hydraulic efficiency is desired.  Loss  of energy through
friction is kept to a minimum by holding velocities to 0.1 foot per
second or less. Since the slot size  is determined by the grain size
distribution in the aquifer sand, the required open area must be
obtained by varying the diameter - or, if aquifer thickness permits,
the length -  of the screen. Manufacturers of well screens provide
tables of capacities and other information  to facilitate selection of
the most economical screen dimensions.
   Methods  of screen  installation  in drilled wells include (1) the
pullback method, (2) the open-hole method, and (3) the baildown
method. The  pullback method of  installation is one in which the
casing is drawn back to expose a well screen placed inside the casing
at the bottom of the well. In the open-hole installation the  screen
attached  to the casing is inserted in the uncased bottom part of the
hole when the aquifer portion of the hole remains open. When the
baildown method is employed, the screen is placed at the bottom of
the cased hole and advanced into  the water-bearing formation by
bailing the sand out from below the screen.
   The pullback method is suited to bored or drilled wells, as long as
the casing can be moved, while the open-hole method is used in
most instances  with  rotary drilling. The baildown method may be
used  in wells drilled by any method where water-bearing formations

                                                             43

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 consist of sand. It is not well adapted to gravel formations.
   A screen is seldom required in wells tapping bedrock or tightly
 cemented sediments such as sandstone or limestone.
   A fourth method, adaptable primarily in rotary drilled holes, is
 the washdown method. This procedure entails the circulation of
 water, by use of the  mud  pump,  through  a special self-closing
 bottom upward around the screen  and through the annular space
 between the washpipe and the permanent casing to the surface. As
 material is  washed by  jet action  from below it, the well screen
 settles to its desired position.
   If the screen is placed after positioning  of the casing, it must be
 firmly sealed to the casing. This is generally done by swaging out a
 lead packer attached to the  top of the screen. When  the pullback
 method of installation is employed, a closed  bail bottom usually
 provides the  bottom  closure; a self-closing  bottom serves  this
 purpose  when  the washdown method  is  used.  A special plug is
 placed in the  bottom when the baildown method is employed. A
quantity of lead wool  or a small bag  of dry  cement may also be
tamped into the bottom of the screen to seal it.
Development of Wells
   Before a well is put into use, it is necessary to completely remove
silt and fine sand from the formation adjacent to the well screen by
one  of  several  processes  known as  "development."  The
 development procedure  unplugs the formation  and produces a
 natural filter  of  coarser  and more  uniform particles of  high
 permeability surrounding the well screen. After the development is
completed,  there will be a well-graded, stabilized layer of coarse
material which will entirely surround the well  screen and facilitate
the flow of water in the formation into the well.
   The simplest method of well development  is that of surging. In
this process the silt and sand grains are agitated by a series of rapid
reversals in the direction of flow of water and are drawn toward the
screen through larger  pore openings.  A well may  be surged  by
moving a plunger up and down in it. This action  moves the water
alternately into and out of the formation. When  water containing
fine granular material  moves into the well, the particles tend to
settle  to the  bottom  of the screen. They can  be removed
subsequently by pumping or bailing.
   One of  the most  effective  methods  of  development  is  the
high-velocity  hydraulic-jetting  method.  Water  under  pressure
ejected from orifices passes  through the  slot openings, violently
agitating the aquifer material. Sand grains finer than the slot size
move through the screen and either settle to the bottom of the well
(from  which  they are  subsequently removed by bailing) or are
washed out  at  the top (if the well overflows). Conventional
centrifugal or  piston pumps may be used; or the mud pump of the

44

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rotary hydraulic drill easily accomplishes this. Pressures of at least
100 psi should  be  used,  with pressure  greater  than 150  psi
preferred. In addition to the intensity of development that may be
applied by this method, it has the advantage of permitting selective
concentration of development on those portions of the screen most
in  need.  High-velocity  jetting is of most benefit in screens of
continuous  horizontal slot design. It has also proven effective in
washing out drilling mud and cuttings from crevices in hard-rock
wells. It is less useful in slotted or perforated pipe.
  Other methods  of development are interrupted  pumping and,
sometimes in consolidated material, explosives when used only by
experts. The method of development must be suited to the aquifer
and the type of well construction. Proper development is necessary
in many formations and under many conditions for the completion
of a successful well. Its importance should not be overlooked.
Testing Well for Yield and Drawdown
  In  order  that  the most  suitable pumping equipment can be
selected, a pumping test should be  made after the  well has been
developed to determine  its yield and drawdown. The pumping test
for yield and drawdown should include the determination of  the
volume of water pumped per minute or hour, the depth to  the
pumping level as determined over a  period of time at one or more
constant rates of pumpage,  the recovery of the water level after
pumping is  stopped, and the length of time the well is pumped at
each rate during  the  test procedure. When the completed well is
tested  for  yield  and drawdown, it is essential that it  be  done
accurately by the use of approved measuring devices and accepted
methods. Additional information regarding the testing of wells  for
drawdown  or yield may be  obtained from  the  U.S.  Geological
Survey, the State or local health department, and the manufacturers
of well screens or pumping equipment.
  Water table wells (see pp. 26, 28)  are more affected than artesian
wells by seasonal fluctuations in ground water levels.  When testing a
water table well for yield and drawdown, it is desirable - though
frequently not practical - to test it near the end of the dry season.
When this cannot be done, it is important to determine as nearly as
possible,  from other wells  tapping the same  formations,  the
additional seasonal decline in water levels that can be expected.
This additional decline should then be  added to the drawdown
determined  by the pumping  test, in  order to arrive at the ultimate
pumping water level.  Seasonal declines of several feet in water table
wells are not unusual, and these can seriously reduce the capacity of
such wells in the dry season.
  Individual wells should be test pumped at a constant pumping
rate that  is  not  less  than  that   planned  for  the  final  pump

                                                           45

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 installation.  The well should be pumped at this rate for not less
 than 4 hours, and the maximum drawdown recorded. Measurements
 of the water levels during recovery can then be made. Failure to
 recover completely to the original static water level within 24 hours
 should be reason to question the dependability of the water-bearing
 formation.
 Well Failure
   Over a period of time, wells may fail to produce for any of these
 main causes:
     1. Failure or wear of the pump.
     2. Declining water levels.
     3. Plugged or corroded screens.
     4. Accumulation of sand or sediments in the  well.
 Proper analysis of the cause necessitates measuring the  water  level
 before, during, and after pumping. To facilitate measuring the water
 level, one should provide for  the entrance of a tape or an electrical
 measuring device into the well  in the annular space between the
 well casing and the pump column (figs.  7-8).
   An "air line" with a water-depth indicating gage, available from
 pump suppliers, may also be used. On some larger wells, the air line
          "Pumped
          Water"
          Pipe
Drive Water"
Pipe
                                                Access
                                                Plug
             FIGURE 8.  Well seal for jet pump installation.
46

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and gage are left installed so that periodic readings can be taken and
a record of well and pump performance kept. While not as accurate
as the tape or electrode method, this installation is popular for use
in a well that is being pumped because it is unaffected by water that
may be falling from above.
   Unless the well is the pitless adapter  or pitless unit type (p.  109),
access  for  water-level  measurements can be  obtained through a
threaded hole in the sanitary well seal (figs. 8-9). This is true for
submersible and jet pump installations,  as well as for some others. If
it is not possible to gain access through the top of the well, access
may  be provided by means of a pipe welded  to the side of the
casing. (See discussion under "Installation of Pumping Equipment,"
p. 104.)
   If the well is completed as a pitless  adapter installation (p.  109),
                                   Pipe Plug
                  Drop Pipe from
                  Submersible
                  Pump —
Submersible
Pump Cable
          FIGURE 9. Well seal for submersible pump installation.
                                                               47

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 it is usually possible to slide the measuring device past the adapter
 assembly inside  the casing and on to the water below. If it is a
 pitless unit,  particularly the "spool" type (see  fig. 22, p.  112), it
 probably will not be possible to reach the water level. In the latter
 case, the well can only be tested by removing the spool and pump
 and reinstalling the pump, or another one, without the spool.
   Any  work performed within the well  — including insertion of a
 measuring line — is likely to contaminate the water with coliform
 bacteria and other organisms. The well should be disinfected (see p.
 50) before returning it to service. All access holes should be tightly
 plugged or covered following the work.
 Sanitary Construction of Wells
  The penetration of a water-bearing formation by a well provides a
 direct  route  for possible  contamination  of the  ground  water.
 Although there are different types of wells and  well construction,
 there are  basic  sanitary  aspects  that must  be  considered  and'
 followed.
     1. The annular space outside the casing should be filled with a
          watertight  cement grout  or  puddled clay from  a point
         just below the frost  line or deepest level of excavation
         near the well (see "Pitless Units and Adapters," p.109), to
         as deep as necessary to  prevent entry of contaminated
          water. See appendix A for grouting recommendations.
     2. For artesian aquifers, the casing  should  be sealed into the
          overlying impermeable formations so as  to retain the
          artesian pressure.
     3. When a water-bearing formation  containing water  of poor
          quality is penetrated, the formation should  be sealed off
          to  prevent the infiltration  of  water into the well and
          aquifer.
     4. A  sanitary well seal with  an approved vent should  be
          installed  at the  top  of the  well casing to  prevent the
          entrance of contaminated water or other objectionable
          material.
  For large-diameter wells such as dug wells, it would be difficult  to
 provide a  sanitary well  seal; consequently, a reinforced concrete
 slab, overlapping the casing and sealed to it with a flexible sealant
 or rubber gasket, should be installed. The annular space outside the
 casing should  first  be  filled  with suitable grouting  or sealing
 materials — cement, clay, or fine sand.
Well Covers and Seals
  Every well should be provided with an overlapping, tight-fitting
 cover  at  the  top  of  the casing  or  pipe sleeve  to  prevent
 contaminated water or other material from entering the well.
  The sanitary well seal in a  well exposed to  possible flooding

48

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should  be either watertight or elevated at least  2 feet above  the
highest known flood level. When  it is expected that a well seal may
become flooded, it should be watertight and  equipped with a vent
line  whose opening to the atmosphere is at least 2 feet above  the
highest known flood level.
  The seal in a well not exposed to possible flooding should be
either watertight (with an approved vent line) or  self-draining with
an  overlapping and  downward  flange. If  the seal  is  of  the
self-draining (nonwatertight) type, all openings in the cover should
be   either watertight  or flanged  upward   and  provided  with
overlapping, downward flanged covers.
  Some pump and power units have  closed  bases that effectively
seal the upper terminal of the well casing. When the unit is the open
type,  or when  it  is  located  at the side  (some  jet-  and
suction-pump-type  installations), it is especially  important that  a
sanitary  well  seal  be  used. There are several acceptable designs
consisting of  an expandable neoprene gasket compressed between
two steel plates (see figs. 8-9). They are easily  installed and removed
for well servicing. Pump and water well suppliers  normally  stock
sanitary well seals.
  If the pump is not installed immediately after well drilling and
placement of  the casing, the top of the casing should be closed with
a metal cap screwed or tack-welded  into place, or covered with a
sanitary well seal.
  A  well slab  alone is not an effective sanitary defense, since it can
be undermined  by burrowing  animals and insects, cracked from
settlement or frost heave, or broken by vehicles and vibrating
machinery. The cement grout formation seal is far more effective.
(See p. 48.) It is recognized, however, that there are situations that
call for a concrete slab or floor around the well casing to facilitate
cleaning and improve appearance. When such a floor is necessary, it
should  be placed  only after the formation seal and the pitless
installation (see p. 109) have been inspected.
  Well  covers and pump platforms should be elevated above  the
adjacent  finished  ground level.  Pumproom floors should  be
constructed of reinforced, watertight concrete, and carefully leveled
or sloped away  from the well so that surface  and waste  water
cannot stand  near the well. The minimum thickness of such a slab
or floor should  be 4 inches.  Concrete slabs or floors should be
poured separately from the cement formation seal and — when the
threat of freezing exists - insulated from it and the well casing by a
plastic  or mastic  coating or  sleeve  to  prevent bonding of  the
concrete to either.
   All water  wells should be readily accessible at the  top  for
inspection, servicing, and  testing. This requires that any structure
over the  well be easily removable to provide full, unobstructed

                                                             49

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 access for well-servicing  equipment. The  so-called  "buried seal "
 with the  well  cover  buried  under  several  feet  of  earth, is
 unacceptable  because (1) it  discourages periodic inspection  and
 preventive maintenance, (2)  it makes severe contamination during
 pump servicing and well repair more likely, (3) any well servicing is
 more expensive,  and (4)  excavation to expose the top of the well
 increases the risk of damage to the well, the cover, the vent and the
 electrical connections.
 Disinfection of Wells
   All newly  constructed  wells should be disinfected to  neutralize
 contamination from equipment,  material, or  surface  drainage
 introduced during construction.  Every well  should  be disinfected
 promptly after construction or repair.
   An effective and  economical  method of  disinfecting  wells  and
 appurtenances is that  of using calcium hypochlorite containing
 approximately 70-percent available  chlorine. This chemical can be
 purchased in granular or tablet form at hardware stores, swimming
 pool equipment supply outlets, or chemical supply houses.
   When  used  in the disinfection of  wells,  calcium hypochlorite
 should  be added in sufficient amounts to provide a dosage of
 approximately 100  mg/g of available chlorine in the well water.
 This concentration  is roughly equivalent to a mixture of 2 ounces
 of dry chemical per 100 gallons of water to be disinfected. Practical
 disinfection requires the use of a stock solution. The stock solution
 may be prepared by mixing 2 ounces of high-test hypochlorite with
 2  quarts of water.  Mixing is facilitated if a small amount of  the
 water is  first added to the granular calcium hypochlorite and stirred
 to a smooth  watery paste free of lumps. It should then be mixed
 with the remaining quantity of water. The stock solution should be
 stirred thoroughly for 10 to 15 minutes prior to  allowing the inert
 ingredients to .settle. The clearer liquid containing the chlorine
 should be used and  the inert material discarded. Each 2 quarts of
 stock solution will  provide a  concentration of approximately  100
 mg/C when added to  100 gallons of water. The solution should be
 prepared in a  thoroughly clean utensil; the use  of metal containers
 should  be  avoided,  if  possible,  as  they are corroded by  strong
 chlorine  solutions. Crockery, glass,  or rubber-lined  containers  are
 recommended.
  Where small quantities of disinfectant are required and  a scale is
 not available, the material can be measured with a spoon. A heaping
 tablespoonful  of  granular  calcium  hypochlorite weighs
approximately Vi ounce.
  When  calcium  hypochlorite is not available,  other sources of
available chlorine, such as sodium hypochlorite (12-15 percent of
volume), can be  used. Sodium  hypochlorite,  which  is  also

 50

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commonly available as liquid household bleach with 5.25 percent
available chlorine, can be diluted with one part of water to produce
the stock solution.  Two quarts of this solution can be used for
disinfecting 100 gallons of water.
  Stock solutions of chlorine in any form  will deteriorate rapidly
unless properly stored. Dark glass or plastic bottles with airtight
caps are recommended. Bottles containing solution should be kept
in a cool place and protected from direct sunlight. If proper storage
facilities are not available, the solution should alwaysibe prepared
fresh  immediately  before  use.  Commercially  available  household
bleach solutions, because of their convenience and usual reliability
as to concentration or strength, are  preferred stock solutions for
disinfecting individual water supplies.
  Table 5  shows quantities of disinfectants to be used in treating
wells  of different diameters and water depths. For sizes or depths
not shown, the next larger figure should be used.
Dug Wells
   1.  After  the casing  or  lining has been  completed, follow the
procedure  outlined  below  before placing the cover platform over
the well.
     a.  Remove all equipment and materials, including tools, forms,
          platforms,  etc., that will not form a permanent part of
          the completed structure.
     b.  Using a stiff broom or brush, wash  the interior wall of the
          casing or lining with a strong  solution (100  mg/C of
          chlorine) to insure thorough cleaning.
   2.  Place the cover over the well and pour the required amount of
chlorine solution into the well through the manhole or pipesleeve
opening just  before inserting  the pump  cylinder and drop-pipe
assembly. The  chlorine solution should be distributed over as much
of the surface  of the water as possible to obtain proper diffusion of
the chemical through the water. Diffusion of the chemical with the
well water may be facilitated by running the solution into the well
through the water hose or pipeline as the  line is being  alternately
raised and  lowered. This method should  be followed  whenever
possible.
   3.  Wash  the exterior surface of the pump cylinder and drop pipe
with  the chlorine solution as the assembly is being lowered into the
well.
   4.  After the pump has been set in position, pump water from the
well until a strong odor of chlorine is  noted.
   5.  Allow the chlorine solution to  remain in the well for not less
than  24 hours.
   6.  After 24 hours or more have elapsed,  flush the well to remove
all traces of chlorine.

                                                              51

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IJ
                         TABLE 5. - Quantities* of calcium hypochlorite, 70 percent (rows A) and liquid household
                                      bleach, 5.25 percent (rows B) required for water well disinfection
Depth of
water in
well (ft.)
5
10
15
20
30
40
60
80
100
150
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
A
B
Well diameter (in.)
2
IT
1C
it
1C
IT
K:
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
it
1C
IT
1C
3T
2C
3
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
2T
1C
3T
1C
3T
2C
ST
2C
4
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
2T
1C
2T
1C
3T
2C
4T
2C
ST
3C
8T
4C
5
IT
1C
IT
1C
IT
1C
2T
1C
3T
1C
4T
2C
5T
3C
7T
4C
8T
1Q
4 oz.
2Q
6
IT
1C
IT
1C
2T
1C
3T
1C
4T
2C
6T
2C
ST
4C
9T
1Q
4 oz.
I'AQ
6oz,
2MQ
8
IT
1C
2T
1C
3T
2C
4T
2C
6T
4C
8T
1Q
4 02.
2<2
5 oz.
2Q
7 QZ.
2'xiQ
JOoz.
4Q
10
2T
1C
3T
2C
5T
3C
6T
4C
3oz.
IKsQ
4 oz.
2Q
6 oz.
3Q
8oz,
3WQ
10 02.
4Q
1 lb.
6Q
12
• 3T •
1C
5T
2C
w
4C
3oaL
10
4 oz,
2Q
6 oz.
2ViQ
<*oz.
4Q
12 oz.
5Q
lib,
6Q
IVtlb.
2'/jG
16
5T
2C
8T
1Q
4 oz,
2Q
Soz.
254Q
8o/..
40
100Z,
4Y)Q




20
6T
4C
4 Qi.
2Q
6oz,
3'/iQ
8 02.
Hg
12 QZ.
5Q
1 lt>.
n




24
302.
5Q
6 oz,
3Q
9 Oz,
40







28
4 ot.
2Q
8oz.
4Q
12oz.
50







32
5oz.
30
10 02.
4Q
Ub.
6Q






	
36
7 02.
3Q
13oz..
6Q
IHIb,
2G







42
9 ot.
4Q
J^jlb.
80
P/ilb.
3G







48
12 oz.
50
l&.lfc.
n
m
4G







   aQuantities are indicated as: T = tablespoons; 02. = ounces (by weight); C = cups; lb. = pounds; Q = quarts; G = gallons.
   NOTE: Figures corresponding to rows A are amounts of solid calcium hypochlorite required; those corresponding to rows B are amounts of liquid household
   bleach. For cases lying in green-shaded area, add 5 gallons of chlorinated water, as final step, to force solution into formation. For those in blue-shaded area,
   add 10 gallons of chlorinated water. (See "Disinfection of Wells," pp. 50 ff.)

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Drilled, Driven, and Bored Wells
   1. When  the  well is being tested for yield,  the testpump should
be  operated until  the well water  is  as  clear and  as  free from
turbidity as possible.
  2. After the testing equipment has been removed, slowly pour
the required amount of chlorine solution into the well just before
installing  the permanent  pumping  equipment.  Diffusion  of  the
solution  with  the  well water  may  be  facilitated as   previously
described in item 2, "Dug Wells."
  3. Add 5 or  10 gallons of clean, chlorinated water  (see Table 5)
to the well to  force the solution out into the formation. One-half
teaspoon of calcium hypochlorite or one-half cup of laundry bleach
in 5 gallons of water is enough for this purpose.
  4. Wash the exterior surface of the pump cylinder and drop pipe
as they are lowered into the  well.
   5. After  the  pump has been set in position, operate  the pump
until a distinct  odor of chlorine can be  detected  in  the water
discharged.
   6. Allow the chlorine solution to remain in  the well for at least 4
hours - preferably overnight.
   7. After  disinfection, pump the well until the odor of chlorine
can no longer be noticed in the water discharged.
   In the  case  of deep wells having a high water level,  it may be
necessary  to   resort  to   special  methods  of introducing  the
disinfecting agent into the well so as to insure proper diffusion of
chlorine throughout the well. The following method is suggested.
   Place the granulated calcium hypochlorite  in  a short  section of
pipe capped at both ends. A number of small holes should be drilled
through each cap or into  the sides of the pipe. One of the caps
should  be fitted with an eye to facilitate attachment of a suitable
cable. The disinfecting agent is distributed when the pipe section is
lowered or raised throughout the depth of the  water.
flowing Artesian Wells
  The  water from  flowing artesian wells is  generally  free from
contamination as soon as the well is completed or after it has been
allowed to flow a short time. It is therefore not generally necessary
to  disinfect flowing wells.  If,  however,  analyses  show  persistent
contamination,  the  well   should  be  thoroughly disinfected as
follows.
   Use a device such  as the  pipe described in  the preceding section
or any  other appropriate device by means of which a surplus supply
of disinfectant can be placed at or near the bottom of the well. The
cable supporting the device can be passed through a stuffing box at
the top of the well. After the disinfectant  has been placed at or near
the  bottom of the  well, throttle  down the  flow sufficiently to

                                                             S3

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 obtain an adequate concentration. When water showing an adequate
 disinfectant concentration appears at the surface,  close the valve
 completely and keep it closed for at least 24 hours.
 Bacteriological Tests Following Disinfection
   If the  bacteriological examination  of water samples collected
 after  disinfection indicates that the  water is not safe for use
 disinfection should be repeated until tests show that water samples
 from that portion of the system being disinfected are satisfactory.
 Samples  collected  immediately after  disinfection  may not  be
 representative  of the  water  served  normally.  Hence,  if
 bacteriological samples are collected immediately after disinfection,
 it is necessary that the  sampling be repeated several days later to
 check on the delivered water under normal conditions of operation
 and use.  The water from  the  system  should not be used for
 domestic  and culinary  purposes until the  reports of  the  tests
 indicate that  the water is  safe for such  uses. If  after repeated
 disinfection  the water is unsatisfactory, treatment of the supply is
 needed to provide water  which always meets the  Public Health
 Service Drinking  Water Standards. Under  these conditions, the
 supply  should not be  used for drinking and culinary purposes until
 adequate treatment has been provided.
 Abandonment of Wells
   Unsealed,  abandoned  wells constitute a potential  hazard to the
 public health and  welfare of the surrounding area. The sealing of an
 abandoned well presents certain problems, the solution of which
 involves consideration of  the construction of the  well and the
 geological  and  hydrological conditions of the  area.  In  the proper
 sealing of a well, the main factors to be considered are elimination
 of  any  physical  hazard,  the  prevention of   any possible
 contamination  of  the  ground  water, the  conservation  and
 maintenance of the yield and  hydrostatic pressure of the aquifer,
 and  the prevention of any possible  contact between desirable and
 undesirable waters.
   The  basic  concept  behind the proper sealing of any  abandoned
 well is  that  of restoration,  as far  as feasible, of the  controlling
 geological  conditions  that  existed  before the well was drilled or
 constructed.  If this restoration can  be properly accomplished, an
 abandoned well will not create a physical or health hazard.
   When a well  is to be permanently abandoned, the lower portion
 of it is best protected when filled with concrete, cement grout, neat
 cement, or clays with sealing properties similar to those of cement.
When dug or bored wells are filled,  as much of the lining should be
removed as  possible  so that  surface  water will not  reach the
water-bearing strata through a porous lining or one  containing
cracks or fissures.  When any question arises, follow the  regulations

54

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and recommendations of the State or local health department.
  Abandoned wells should never be used for the disposal of sewage
or other wastes.
Reconstruction of Existing Dug Wells
  Existing wells used  for  domestic  water  supplies  subject to
contamination should be  reconstructed so as to insure  safe  water.
When reconstruction is not practicable, the water supply should be
treated or a new well constructed.
  Dug wells  with stone or brick  casings can often be rebuilt by
enclosing  existing casings with concrete  or by the use of a  buried
concrete slab.
  Care must  be exercised on entering wells because until  properly
ventilated they may contain dangerous gases or lack oxygen.
  Hydrogen sulfide gas is  found in certain ground waters and, being
heavier than  air, tends to  accumulate in excavations. It is explosive,
and nearly as poisonous as cyanide. Also, a person's sense of smell
tires quickly  in  its  presence, so that he  is unable to sense danger.
Concentrations may become dangerous without further warning.
  Methane  gas   is   also  found  in some  ground water  or  in
underground  formations.  It is the  product of the decomposition of
organic matter. It is not toxic, but is highly explosive.
  Gasoline or carbide  lanterns or  candles  may not  be reliable
indicators  of safe atmospheres within  a well,  as  many  of these
devices will continue to burn at oxygen levels well below those safe
for humans.  Also, any open flame carries the additional risk of an
explosion from accumulated combustible gases.
  The  "flame safety  lamp"  used  by  miners,  construction
companies, and  utilities service departments is a much better device
for determining  safe atmospheres. It is readily obtainable from mine
safety equipment suppliers. It should be  lowered on a  rope to the
bottom of the well to test the atmosphere. Even after the well has
passed this test, the  first person to enter the well should  carry a
safety rope tied around his waist, with two  persons standing by,
above ground, to rescue  him  at the first  sign of dizziness or other
distress.
  Improvements should be planned so that the reconstructed well
will conform as nearly as possible with the  principles  set forth in
this manual.  If there is any doubt as to what should be done, advice
should be obtained from the State or local health department.
Special Considerations in  Constructing Artesian Wells
   In order that the water may be conserved and the productivity of
an  artesian well improved,  it  is essential that the  casing be sealed
into the confining stratum. Otherwise, a loss of water may occur by
 leakage into lower  pressure permeable strata at higher elevations. A
flowing artesian well should be designed so that the movement of

                                                             55

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 water from the aquifer can be controlled. Water can be conserved if
 such a well is equipped with a valve or shutoff device. When the
 recharge area and aquifer are large  and  the number of wells which
 penetrate the aquifer are small, the flowing artesian well produces a
 fairly steady flow of water throughout the year.
 DEVELOPMENT OF SPRINGS
   There are two general requirements necessary in the development
 of a spring used  as  a source of domestic water:  (1) selection of a
 spring with adequate capacity to provide the  required quantity or
 quality of  water  for its intended use  throughout  the year,  (2)
 protection of the sanitary quality of the spring. The measures taken
 to develop a spring must be tailored to its geological conditions and
 sources.
   The  features of a spring encasement are the  following:  (1) an
 open-bottom, watertight  basin  intercepting  the   source  which
 extends to bedrock  or a system  of collection pipes and a storage
 tank, (2) a cover that prevents the  entrance of surface drainage or
 debris into  the  storage tank, (3)  provision for  the cleanout and
 emptying of the tank contents, (4) provision for overflow, and (5) a
 connection to the  distribution system or auxiliary supply. (See fig
 10.)
   A tank is usually constructed in place  with reinforced concrete of
 such dimensions as to enclose or intercept as much of the spring as
 possible. When a  spring is  located  on a hillside,  the downhill wall
 and  sides are  extended to  bedrock or to a depth that will insure
 maintenance of an adequate water level  in the tank. Supplementary
 cutoff walls  of concrete or impermeable clay extending laterally
 from the tank may be used to assist  in controlling  the water table in
 the locality of the tank. The lower portion of the uphill wall of the
 tank can be constructed of stone, brick, or other material so  placed
 that water may move  freely  into  the  tank  from the  formation.
 Backfill of graded gravel and  sand will aid in restricting movement
 of fine material from the formation toward the tank.
  The tank cover should be cast in place to insure  a good fit.  Forms
 should be designed to allow for shrinkage of concrete and expansion
 of form lumber. The cover should extend down  over the top edge
 of the  tank  at least 2 inches. The tank cover  should be heavy
 enough so  that it  cannot  be  dislodged  by  children and should be
 equipped for locking.
  A drain pipe with an exterior valve should be placed close to the
 wall of the  tank  near the  bottom.  The  pipe should  extend
 horizontally so as  to clear the normal ground  level at the point of
discharge by at least 6 inches. The discharge end of the pipe should
 be screened to prevent the entrance of rodents and insects.
  The overflow is usually  placed  slightly below  the maximum
water-level elevation  and screened. A drain apron  of rock should be

56

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                                          Perforated Pipe-
                                                                    Is urface Water\
                                                                       Diversion
                                                                         Ditch
                                                                          Fence -
                                 PLAN
                                                      Water-Bearing Gravel
t-Cleanout Drain
                             .  FIFVATION
                      FIGURE 10.  Spring protection.
                                                                                 57

-------
 provided to prevent soil erosion at the point of overflow discharge.
   The supply outlet from  the  developed spring  should be located
 about 6 inches above the drain outlet and properly screened. Care
 should be taken in casting pipes into the walls of the tank to insure
 good bond with the concrete and freedom from honeycomb around
 the pipes.
 Sanitary Protection of Springs
   Springs  usually become  contaminated when barnyards, sewers
 septic tanks, cesspools, or other sources of pollution are located ori
 higher  adjacent  land.  In  limestone  formations,   however
 contaminated material frequently  enters the water-bearing channels
 through sink holes or other large openings and may be carried along
 with ground  water for long distances. Similarly, if material from
 such sources of contamination finds access to the tubular channels
 in  glacial  drift, this  water  may retain its contamination for long
 periods of time and for long distances.
   The  following precautionary  measures  will  help  to  insure
 developed  spring water of a consistently high quality:
     1. Provide for the removal of surface drainage from the site-. A
         surface drainage ditch  should be located uphill from the
         source so as to intercept surface-water runoff and carry it
         away from  the source.  Location of the ditch and  the
         points at  which  the water  should be  discharged  are a
         matter  of  judgment.  Criteria  used should include  the
         topography, the subsurface geology, land ownership, and
         land use.
     2. Construct a fence to prevent entry of livestock. Its location
         should be guided by the considerations mentioned in item
         1.  The fence  should exclude  livestock  from  the
         surface-water drainage system at all points uphill from the
         source.
     3. Provide for access to the  tank for maintenance, but prevent
         removal of the cover by a suitable locking device.
     4. Monitor the quality of the spring water with periodic checks
         for contamination. A marked increase in turbidity or flow
         after a rainstorm is a good indication that surface runoff is
         reaching the spring.
Disinfection of Springs
  Spring encasements should be disinfected by a procedure similar
to that used for dug wells.  If the water pressure is not sufficient to
raise the water to the top of the encasement, it may be possible to
shut off the flow and thus keep the disinfectant in the encasement
for 24  hours. If the flow cannot be shut off entirely, arrangements
should be  made to supply disinfectant continuously for as long a
period  as practicable.

58

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INFILTRATION GALLERIES
  Many  recreational  or other  developments  located  in  the
mountains have access to water supplies that are located near the
headwaters of mountain streams where the watersheds are generally
heavily  forested  and uninhabited by  man.  Even under these
conditions, pathogenic bacteria — in addition to  soil bacteria - have
been found in the water.
  Some of the major problems which are encountered in operating
and maintaining these supplies are created by debris and turbidity
encountered  at the waterworks intake following spring thaws and
periods of heavy  rainfall. When practical, arrangements should be
made  to remove  this  material  before  it reaches the  intake.
Experience has demonstrated that this material can be removed
successfully,  especially when small volumes of water are involved,
by installing an infiltration gallery at or near the intake.
  Where soil formations adjoining a stream are favorable, the water
can be intercepted by an infiltration gallery located a  reasonable
distance  from  the high-water level and a safe  distance  below the
ground surface. The gallery  should  be installed so that it will
intercept  the flow  from the  stream after  flowing through the
intervening  soil formations  between the stream  and infiltration
gallery.
  A typical  installation  generally involves the  construction of an
underdrained, sand-filter trench located parallel to the stream bed
and  about 10 feet  from the high-water  mark. The sand  filter is
usually located in  a  trench with a minimum  width of 30 inches and
a depth of about 10 feet. At the bottom of the trench, perforated
or open joint tile is laid in a bed of gravel  about 12 inches  in
thickness with about 4 inches of graded gravel located over the top
of the tile to support the filtering material. The embedded tile is
then covered with clean, coarse  sand to a  minimum depth of 24
inches, and  the  remainder  of the trench backfilled  with  fairly
impervious  material. The  collection  tile  is terminated  in   a
watertight, concrete basin from where it is diverted or pumped to
the distribution system following chlorination.
  Where soil formations adjoining a stream  are unfavorable for the
location of an infiltration gallery, the debris and turbidity which are
occasionally encountered in a mountain stream can be removed by
constructing a  modified  infiltration  gallery-slow  sand  filter
combination in the stream  bed.  A typical installation involves the
construction of a  dam across the stream to  form a natural pool  or
the excavation of a pool behind the  dam. The filter is  installed in
the  pool behind  the dam  by laying perforated pipe in a bed  of
graded gravel which is covered by at least 24 inches of clean, coarse
sand. About 24 inches of free board should be allowed between the
surface  of the sand and the  dam spillway. The  collection  lines

                                                             59

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  usually terminate in a watertight, concrete basin located adjacent to
  the  upstream face of the dam from where the water is diverted to
  chlorination facilities. Experience with these units indicates that
  they provide satisfactory service with limited maintenance.
60

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           Part III
                       Surface  Water
                       for Rural Use
  The selection and  use  of surface-water sources  for  individual
water supply systems require consideration of additional factors not
usually associated with ground water sources. When small streams,
open  ponds, lakes, or open reservoirs must be used as sources of
water supply,  the danger of contamination and of the consequent
spread of enteric diseases such as typhoid fever and dysentery is
increased. As a rule, surface water should be used only when ground
water sources  are not available or are inadequate. Clear water is not
always safe, and the old saying that running water "purifies itself
to drinking water quality within a stated distance is false.
  The physical and bacteriological contamination of surface water
makes it necessary to regard such sources of supply as unsafe for
domestic  use  unless  reliable treatment, including  filtration and
disinfection, is provided.
  The treatment of surface water to insure a constant, safe supply
requires  diligent attention to operation and maintenance by the
owner of the system.
  When  ground water sources are limited, consideration should be
given to  their development  for  domestic purposes  only.
Surface-water  sources can then provide water needed for stock and
poultry  watering, gardening, firefighting, and  similar purposes.
Treatment of  surface water used for  livestock is not generally
considered essential. There is, however, a trend to provide stock and
poultry drinking  water which is free from bacterial contamination
and certain chemical elements.
SOURCES OF SURFACE WATER
   Principal  sources  of surface  water which  may be  developed
include controlled catchments, ponds or lakes, surface streams, and
irrigation canals.  Except for irrigation canals, where discharges are
dependent on irrigation  activity,'these  sources derive water  from
direct precipitation over the drainage area.
   Because of  the complexities of the hydrological,  geological, and
meteorological  factors  affecting  surface-water  sources,   it  is
recommended that  in  planning  the   development  of natural
catchment areas of more than a  few acres, engineering advice be
obtained.
                                                            61

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  To estimate the yield of the source, it is necessary for one to
consider the following information pertaining to the drainage area.
     1. Total annual precipitation.
     2. Seasonal distribution of precipitation.
     3. Annual or monthly variations of rainfall from normal levels.
     4. Annual and  monthly evaporation and transpiration rates.
     5. Soil moisture requirements and infiltration rates.
     6. Runoff gage information.
     7. All available local experience records.
  Much  of  the  required  data,  particularly  that  concerning
precipitation,  can  be  obtained from  publications  of the U.S.
Weather  Bureau.  Essential  data   such as  soil  moisture  and
evapotranspiration  requirements may be obtained from local soil
conservation and agricultural agencies or from field tests conducted
by hydrologists.
Controlled Catchments
  In  some  areas  ground  water is  so  inaccessible  or so  highly
mineralized that it is not satisfactory for  domestic use.  In these
cases the  use  of  controlled  catchments  and cisterns  may  be
necessary.   A  properly  located   and  constructed  controlled
catchment and cistern, augmented by a satisfactory filtration unit
and adequate disinfection facilities, will provide a safe water.
  A controlled catchment  is  a defined surface area from  which
rainfall  runoff is  collected.  It may be  a roof  or a paved ground
surface. The collected water is  stored in a constructed covered tank
called a  cistern or  reservoir. Ground-surface  catchments should be
fenced to prevent  unauthorized entrance by either man or animals.
There should be no possibility of the mixture of undesirable surface
drainage and controlled  runoff.  An intercepting drainage ditch
around  the  upper edge of the area  and a raised  curb around the
surface  will prevent the entry  of any undesirable  surface drainage.
  For  these controlled catchments, simple guidelines to determine
water  yield  from  rainfall  totals can  be established.  When  the
controlled catchment area has  a smooth surface or is paved and the
runoff is collected in  a cistern,  water  loss  due  to  evaporation,
replacement of soil moisture deficit, and infiltration is small. As a
general rule, losses from smooth concrete or asphalt-covered ground
catchments  average less than  10 percent; for shingled roofs or  tar
and  gravel surfaces losses should not exceed 15  percent, and for
sheet metal roofs the loss is negligible.
  A conservative design  can be based  on the assumption that the
amount of water that can be recovered for use is three-fourths of
the total annual rainfall. (See fig. 11.)
  Location.  A controlled  catchment may be suitably located on a
hillside near the edge of a natural bench. The catchment area  can be
placed on a moderate slope above the receiving cistern.

62

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  150
  130
         Runoff-0.75 Total Preciptation
                                             ~Z
                                                   ~

                                      4.000

             Horizontal Area of Catchment, (In Square Feet)
           FIGURE 11.  Yield of impervious catchment area.
6,000
  The  location  of  the  cistern  should  be  governed  by both
convenience and quality protection.  A cistern should be as close to
the point of  ultimate  use  as  practical. A cistern should  not be
placed  closer than  50 feet from any part of a  sewage-disposal
installation, and should be on higher ground.
  Cisterns  collecting water from  roof surfaces should be located
adjacent to the building, but not in  basements subject to flooding.
They may be placed below the surface of the ground for protection
against  freezing in cold climates and  to keep water temperatures
low in warm climates but should be situated on the highest ground
practicable, with  the surrounding  area graded to  provide good
drainage.
  Size.  The size of a cistern needed will depend on the size of the
family and the length of time between periods of heavy rainfall.
Daily water requirements can be estimated  from Table 1, p. 15.  The
size of  the catchment or roof will  depend on the amount of rainfall
and  the character of the surface. It is desirable to allow a safety
factor for lower than normal rainfall levels. Designing  for two-thirds
of the mean annual rainfall will result usually in a catchment area of
adequate capacity.
  The following example illustrates the procedure for determining

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the size of the cistern and required catchment area. Assume that the
minimum drinking and culinary requirements of a family of four
persons are  100 gallons per day1 (4 persons X 25 gallons per day =
100 gallons) and that the effective period2 between rainy periods is
150 days. The  minimum volume  of the cistern required will  be
15,000 gallons (100X150). This volume could be held by a cistern
10 feet deep and 15 feet square. If the mean annual rainfall is  50
inches, then the total design rainfall is 33 inches (50X2/3). In figure
11  the catchment area  required to produce 36,500 gallons (365
days X 100 gallons per day) -  the total year's requirement - is
2,400 square feet.
  Construction.   Cisterns  should  be  of  watertight  construction
with smooth interior surfaces. Manhole or other covers should  be
tight to prevent  the entrance of light, dust, surface water, insects,
and animals.
   Manhole  openings should  have a  watertight  curb  with edges
projecting  a minimum  of  4  inches  above the  level  of  the
surrounding surface. The edges of the manhole cover should overlap
the curb and project downward a minimum of 2 inches. The covers
should  be   provided  with  locks  to  minimize  the  danger  of
contamination and accidents.
   Provision   can  be  made for diverting initial runoff from paved
surfaces or  roof tops before  the  runoff  is  allowed  to enter the
cistern. (See fig. 12.)
   Inlet,  outlet,  and  waste pipes should  be effectively screened.
Cistern drains and waste or sewer lines should  not be connected.
   Underground  cisterns can  be  built  of brick or stone, although
reinforced concrete  is preferable. If used, brick or stone must  be
low in permeability and laid with full portland cement mortar joints.
Brick  should be wet  before  laying. High-quality  workmanship is
required, and the use of unskilled labor for laying brick or stone is
not advisable. Two  1/2-inch plaster coats of 1:3 portland cement
mortar on the interior surface  will aid in providing waterproofing. A
hard impervious  surface can be made by  troweling  the final coat
before it is fully hardened.
   Figure  1 2 shows a suggested design for a cistern of reinforced
concrete.  A  dense concrete should be used to obtain watertightness
and should  be vibrated adequately during construction to eliminate
honeycomb. All  masonry cisterns  should  be allowed  to wet cure
properly before being used.
  The  procedures outlined in part V of this manual should  be
followed in  disinfecting the cistern with chlorine solutions. Initial

  'Twenty-five gallons per person per day, assuming that other uses are supplied by water
of poorer quality.
  2l-ffective period is the number of days between periods ot raintull during which there is
negligible precipitation.

64

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                               Roof
                             Washer
                          Receives First
                         Runoff From Roof
                                                        Sand Filter (May be used |<;,
                                                      in place of roof washer)
FIGURE 12.   Cistern.

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  and periodic water  samples should be  taken to determine  the
  bacteriological quality  of the  water supply. Chlorination  may be
  required on a continuing basis  if the bacteriological results  indicate
  that the quality is unsatisfactory.
  Ponds or Lakes
   A pond or lake should be  considered as a source of water supply
  only after ground water sources and controlled catchment  systems
  are found to be inadequate or  unacceptable. The development of a
  pond as  a supply  source depends on  several  factors:  (1)  the
  selection of  a  watershed that  permits only water of the  highest
  quality  to enter the  pond, (2)  usage of the best water collected in
  the pond, (3) filtration of the water to remove turbidity and reduce
  bacteria, (4) disinfection of filtered water, (5) proper storage of the
  treated  water,  and  (6)  proper maintenance  of the  entire water
 system.  Local authorities may  be able  to furnish  advice on  pond
 development.
   The value of a pond or lake development is its ability to store
 water during wet periods for  use  during periods of  little or no
 rainfall.  A pond should be capable of storing a minimum of  1 year's
 supply of water.  It must be  of sufficient capacity to meet water
 supply demands during periods of low  rainfall with an additional
 allowance for seepage and evaporation losses. The  drainage area
 (watershed) should be large enough to catch sufficient water to fill
 the pond or lake during wet seasons of the year.
   Careful consideration of the location of the  watershed and pond
 site reduces the possibility of chance contamination.
   The watershed should:
     1. Be clean, preferably grassed.
     2. Be free from barns, septic tanks,  privies, and soil-absorption
         fields.
     3. Be effectively  protected  against erosion and drainage from
         livestock areas.
     4. Be fenced to exclude livestock.
   The pond should:
     1. Be not less than 8 feet deep at deepest point.
     2. Be designed to have the maximum possible water storage
         area over 3 feet in depth.
     3. Be large enough to store at least 1  year's supply.
     4. Be fenced to keep out livestock.
     5. Be kept free of weeds, algae, and floating debris.
   In many instances pond development requires the  construction of
an embankment  with an overflow  or spillway.  Assistance  in
designing a storage pond may be available from Federal, State, or
local  health agencies; the U.S.  Soil  Conservation  Service;  and in
publications from the State or  county agricultural, geological,  or
66

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soil conservation departments. For specific conditions, engineering
or geological advice may be needed.
  Intake.  A pond intake must be properly located in order that it
may draw water of the highest possible quality. When the intake is
placed too close to the pond bottom, it may draw turbid water or
water containing decayed organic material. When placed too near
the pond surface, the intake system may draw floating debris, algae,
and aquatic plants. The  depth at which it operates best will vary,
depending upon the  season of the year and the layout of the pond.
The  most desirable  water is usually obtained when the intake is
located between 12 and 18 inches below the water  surface.  An
intake located at the deepest point of the pond  makes maximum
use of stored water.
  Pond intakes should be of the type illustrated in figure 13. This is
known  as a floating intake. The intake consists  of a flexible pipe
attached  to a  rigid conduit which  passes through the pond
embankment.
  In accordance with applicable specifications, gate valves should
be installed on the main line below the dam and on any branch line
to facilitate control of the rate of discharge.
  Treatment.  The pond water-treatment facility consists  of four
general parts. (See fig. 14.)
   1. Settling Basin.  The first unit is a settling basin. The  purpose
of the basin is to allow the large particles of turbidity to settle. This
may be adequately  accomplished in  the  pond.  When this is  not
completely  effective, a properly designed  settling  basin with
provision  for coagulation may be needed. The turbid water is mixed
with a  suitable  chemical such as alum. Alum and other chemical
aids speed up the settling rate of suspended materials present in the
water. This initial process helps to reduce the turbidity of the water
to be passed through the filter. Addition of alum  will lower the  pH,
which may have to  be  readjusted with  lime if corrosion of  the
distribution piping results.
   2. Filtration  Unit.  After settling, the water moves to a second
compartment where it  passes through a filter  bed  of sand  and
gravel.  The suspended  particles  which are not removed  by
settlement or flocculation are now removed.
   3. Clear Water Storage.  After the water leaves  the filter,  it drains
into a clear well, cistern, or storage tank.
   4. Disinfection.  After water has settled and has been filtered it
must be disinfected. Proper disinfection is the most important part
of  pond-water treatment.  The  continuous  operation   and
high-quality performance of the equipment are very important.  The
different types of equipment and processes are described in  detail in
part IV. When the water is chlorinated, livestock unaccustomed to
chlorinated water may refuse to drink the water for  several days.

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FIGURE 13.  Pond.

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                             Pressure Tank
                             Automatic Chlorinator
                             Automatic Jet Pump
                             Pumphouse
               Float Valve
             Reinforced Concrete Top
               Hand Valve
To Water coagulation &
Source  Sedimentation Chamber
Washed River Sand
Screened Through 1/8" Sieve
\Purilied Water to House ;
(Below Frost Li net"
                      Concentric Piping with Outer
                      Pipe under System Pressure
                                           —1
      FIGURE 14.  Schematic diagram of pond water-treatment system.

They usually become  accustomed to it within a short  period of
time.
  Bacteriological  Examination.  After  the  treatment   and
disinfection  equipment  have  been  checked and are  operating
satisfactorily,  a  bacteriological  examination  of a water sample
should  be  made.  Before  a sample is  collected,  the  examining
laboratory  should be  contacted for its recommendations. These
recommendations should  include the type of container to be  used
and the method and precautions to take during collection, handling,
and mailing. When no other recommendations are available, follow
those given in appendix B.
  Water should not be used for drinking  and culinary purposes until
the results of the bacteriological examination show the water to be
safe.
  The frequency of subsequent bacteriological examinations should
be  based  on  any breakdown  or changes  made in the  sanitary
construction or  protective measures associated with the supply. A
daily  determination  and record  of  the  chlorine  residual  is
recommended to insure that proper disinfection is accomplished.
  Plant  Maintenance.  The treatment facility should be inspected
daily. The disinfection equipment should be checked to make sure

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  it is operating satisfactorily. When chlorine disinfection is practiced
  the chlorinator  and the  supply of  chlorine solution should be
  checked. The water supply should be  checked daily for its chlorine
  residual.  The water may become turbid after heavy rains and the
  quality  may  change.  Increases  in  the amount of  chlorine  and
  coagulants used will then be required. The performance of the filter
  should be watched closely. When the water becomes  turbid or the
  available  quantity of water decreases, the filter should be cleaned or
  backwashed.
    Protection From Freezing.  Protection against freezing  must be
  provided unless  the plant is  not operated and  is drained during
  freezing weather. In general,  the filter and pumproom should be
  located in a building that can be heated in winter. With  suitable
  topography the need for heat can be eliminated by  placement of
  the  pumproom  and filter underground  on  a  hillside.  Gravity
  drainage from the pumproom  must be possible to prevent flooding
  No matter what the arrangement, the filter and pumproom  must be
  easily accessible for maintenance and operation.
    Tastes and  Odors. Surface  water  frequently develops musty or
  undesirable tastes and odors. These are generally  caused by  the
  presence of microscopic  plants called algae. There are many kinds
  of algae. Some occur in long threadlike filaments that are visible as
 large green masses of scum; others may be separately free floating
 and entirely invisible to the unaided eye. Some varieties may grow
 in great quantities in the early spring, others in summer, and still
 others  in the fall. Tastes and odors generally result from the decay
 of dead algae. This decay occurs naturally as plants pass through
 their life cycle. For additional  discussion, see "Control of Aleae" 1«
 part IV.                                                 6    m
   Tastes and odors in water can usually be satisfactorily removed
 by passing the previously  filtered and chlorinated surface water
 through an activated carbon filter. These filters may be helpful in
 improving the taste  of small quantities of previously treated water
 used for drinking or culinary purposes. They also absorb excess
 chlorine. Carbon  filters  are  commercially available,  and  require
 periodic servicing.
   Carbon filters should not be expected to be a substitute for sand
 filtration and  disinfection. They have insufficient area  to  handle
 raw surface water and will clog very rapidly when filtering turbid
 water.
   Weed Control.  The growth  of weeds around a pond should be
 controlled by cutting or  pulling.  Before weedkillers are used, the
 local  health department should be  contacted  for advice since
 herbicides often  contain  compounds  that are highly toxic  to
 humans  and animals. Algae in  the pond should be controlled
 particularly  the  blue-green  types  that produce scum  and
70

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objectionable  odors and  that, in  unusual  instances,  may harm
livestock. (See pt. IV.)
Streams
  Streams receiving runoff from large uncontrolled watersheds may
be the only source of water supply. The physical and bacteriological
quality  of  surface water varies and  may  impose unusually  or
abnormally high loads on the treatment facilities.
  Stream intakes should be  located upstream from sewer outlets or
other sources of contamination. The water should be pumped when
the  silt  load  is low.  A low-water stage usually  means that the
temperature of the water is  higher than normal and the water is of
poor chemical quality. Maximum silt loads, however, occur during
maximum runoff.  High-water stages shortly after storms are usually
the most favorable for diverting or pumping water to storage. These
conditions vary and should be determined for the particular stream.
Irrigation Canals
  If properly  treated,  irrigation water may be used as a source of
domestic water  supply.  Water  obtained  from irrigation  canals
should be treated the  same as water from any other surface-water
source. For additional information, see part IV.
  When  return irrigation (tail water) is practiced, the water may
contain  large  concentrations of undesirable  chemicals,  including
pesticides,  herbicides,  and fertilizer. Whenever water from  return
irrigation is used for domestic purposes, a periodic chemical analysis
should be made. Because of  the poor quality of this water, it should
only be used if no other water source is available.
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           Part IV
                      Water  Treatment
NEED AND PURPOSE
  Raw   waters  obtained from  natural  sources  may  not be
completely  satisfactory  for  domestic  use.  Surface  waters  may
contain  pathogenic  (disease-producing)  organisms, suspended
matter,  or organic  substances.  Except in limestone areas, ground
water is less likely to have pathogenic organisms than surface water,
but may contain undesirable tastes and odors or mineral impurities
limiting  its use  or acceptability.  Some of  these objectionable
characteristics may  be tolerated temporarily, but it is desirable to
raise  the quality of the water to the highest  possible level by
suitable treatment. In those instances where the nearly ideal water
can be developed from a source, it is  still advisable to provide the
necessary equipment for treatment to insure safe water at all times.
  The  quality  of  surface water constantly  changes.  Natural
processes which affect water quality are the dissolving of minerals,
sedimentation, filtration, aeration,  sunlight,  and  biochemical
decomposition.  Natural  processes may  tend  to  pollute  and
contaminate or to purify the water; however, the natural processes
of purification are not consistent or reliable.
  Bacteria which are numerous in waters at or near the earth's
surface  may be reduced by  soil filtration, depletion of available
oxygen,  or   underground detention  for  long periods under
conditions unfavorable for bacterial growth or survival. When water
flows through underground fissures or channels, however, it  may
retain contamination over long distances and for extended periods
of time.
  The false belief that flowing water purifies itself after traveling
various distances has led to unjustified feelings of security about its
safety. Under certain conditions the number of micro-organisms in
flowing surface water may increase instead of decrease.
  Water treatment  incorporates, modifies,  or supplements certain
natural processes. This provides adequate assurance that the water is
free from pathogenic organisms or other undesirable materials or
chemicals. Water  treatment may condition  or reduce to acceptable
levels any chemicals or esthetically objectionable impurities which
may be present in the water.
  Some  of  the   natural treatment  processes and  manmade

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 adaptations to improve and  condition water are discussed in  the
 following sections.
 SEDIMENTATION
    Sedimentation is a process of gravity settling and deposition of
 comparatively heavy suspended material in water.
    This settling action can be accomplished  in a quiescent pond or
 properly constructed tank or basin.  At least 24 hours' detention
 time  must be provided  if a significant reduction in suspended
 matter is to  be accomplished.  The  inlet of the tank should be
 arranged so that the incoming water containing suspended matter is
 distributed uniformly across the entire width as the water flows to
 the  outlet located  at the  opposite end.  Baffles  are  usually
 constructed to reduce high local velocities  and short circuiting of
 the water.  The cleaning  and repairing of an  installation  can be
 facilitated  by the use of a  tank designed with  two  separated
 sections, each of which may be used independently.
 COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION
   Coagulation is the  process of forming flocculent particles in a
 liquid by the  addition of a chemical. Coagulation is achieved  by
 adding to the  water a chemical such  as alum (hydrated aluminum
 sulfate). The  chemical is  mixed with the turbid water and then
 allowed to remain  quiet. The  suspended particles  will combine
 physically and form a floe. The floe or larger particles will settle to
 the bottom of the basin. This may be done in a separate tank or in
 the same tank after the mixing has been stopped. Adjustment of pH
 may be required after sedimentation.  Some colors can be removed
 from  water by using proper coagulation techniques.  Competent
 engineering advice,   however,  should  be  obtained  on  specific
 coagulation problems.
 FILTRATION
   Filtration is  the  process of removing  suspended matter from
 water  as it  passes through beds of porous material. The degree of
 removal depends on the character and size of the  filter media  the
 thickness of the porous media, and the size and  quantity  of the
 suspended solids. Since bacteria can travel long distances through
 granular materials, filters  should not be  relied upon to produce
 bacteriologically safe water, even though they may greatly improve
 the quality. When  a  water source  contains a large amount  of
 turbidity,  a   large   portion  of it  can  first be  removed  by
 sedimentation.  A protected pond with gentle grassy slopes is often
 helpful in producing a reasonably clear raw water. This action will
reduce the load placed on the filters.
  Types of filters that may be used include:
  Slow Sand Filters.   Water passes slowly through beds of fine sand

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at rates averaging 0.05 gallon  per minute per square foot of filter
area.
  Pressure Sand Filters.  Water is applied at a rate at or above 2
gallons per minute  per square foot of filter area with provisions
made for frequent backwashing of the filters.
  Diatomaceous Earth Filters.  Suspended solids are  removed by
passing the water through a  layer  of diatomaceous  filter  media
supported by a rigid base septum at  rates approximately that of
pressure sand filters.
  Porous Stone, Ceramic, or  Unglazed Porcelain Filters (Pasteur
Filters). These are small household  filters that are  attached to
faucets.
  Properly  constructed slow  sand  filters require a minimum of
maintenance and can be easily adapted to individual water systems.
The length of time between cleaning will vary from a day to a week
or month; the  length of the interval depends upon the turbidity of
the  water. After an interval it is necessary to clean the filter by
removing approximately 1 inch of sand from the surface of  the
filter  and either discarding it or  stockpiling it for  subsequent
washing and  reuse.  This removal will  necessitate the periodic
addition of new or washed sand.
  Sand for slow sand filters should consist of hard, durable grains
free from clay, loam, dirt, and  organic  matter. It should have a sieve
analysis which  falls within the range of values shown in table 6.

  TABLE 6. - Recommended mechanical analysis of slow sand filter media
Material passing sieve
(percent)
99
90-97
75-90
60-80
U.S. sieve
no.
4
12
16
20
Material passing sieve
(percent)
33-55
17-35
4-10
1
U.S. sieve
no.
30
40
60
100
   Sands  with an  effective  size  of 0.20  to 0.40 millimeter  are
 satisfactory. The effective size is the size of the grain in millimeters,
 such that 10 percent of the  material, by weight, is of a smaller size.
 The  uniformity  coefficient  should be between 2.0 and 3.0. The
 uniformity coefficient is taken as the ratio of the grain size that has
 60 percent finer than itself to the size that has 10 percent finer than
 itself.
   For best results  the rate of filtration for a slow sand filter should
 be 60 to 180 gallons per day per square  foot of filter bed surface.
 The  amount of water  that flows  through the filter bed can be
 adjusted by a valve placed on the effluent line. Between 27 and 36
 inches  of  sand, with an additional 6 to  12 inches  that can be
 removed during  cleaning, is usually sufficient. Six to 8 inches of
 gravel will support the  sand and  keep  it out  of the underdrain

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system. A 1^-inch plastic pipe drilled with 3/4-inch holes facing
down  makes a  convenient underdrain system. One to  2  feet of
freeboard on the top of the filter is usually sufficient.
  Rapid sand filtration is not usually desirable for small individual
water  supplies  because of the  necessary controls  and  additional
attention required to obtain satisfactory results.  When adequate
operation and supervision are provided, pressure sand filtration can
be used successfully.
  Diatomaceous earth filters, which require periodic attention, are
of two types — vacuum or pressure. These filters are effective when
properly operated and maintained.
  The effectiveness of  filtration is monitored by measurement of
turbidity,  a  light-scattering  property  of particles suspended in
water. Filtered  water  must contain low turbidity  if  adequate
disinfection is to be accomplished.
  The possibility  must be considered that dirty stone or ceramic
faucet filters may attract bacteria and provide a  place for their
multiplication or that these filters may develop hairline cracks. For
these reasons, small household  faucet filters  cannot be depended
upon  to  remove pathogenic  bacteria, and  their  use  is  not
recommended for producing bacteriologically safe water.
  Small  pad, spool, or  wad  coarse  filters may  be useful for
low-capacity, coarse  filtration  for removal of  large suspended
particles only. Proper disinfection of water before consumption is
necessary to assure its safety.
DISINFECTION
  The most  important water treatment  process  is disinfection.
Disinfection  is necessary  to  destroy all pathogenic bacteria  and
other harmful organisms that may be present  in water. If complete
destruction of these organisms is to be accomplished, the water to
which the disinfectant  is  added  must be low in turbidity. After
disinfection,  water must be kept in suitable tanks or other  storage
facilities to prevent recontamination.
Chemical Disinfection
  The desirable  properties  for a chemical  disinfectant are high
germicidal  power, stability,  solubility,  nontoxicity  to man  or
animals, economy, dependability, residual effect, ease of use and
measurement, and availability.
  Compounds of chlorine most  satisfactorily  comply  with  the
desirable  properties  of a  chemical  disinfectant; and as a result,
chlorine is the most commonly used water disinfectant.
Disinfectant Terminology
     1. Chlorine concentration. This is expressed in milligrams per
         liter (mg/8). One  mg/£ is  equivalent to  1 milligram of

76

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        chlorine in 1 liter of water. For water, the terms parts per
        million (ppm) and mg/fi are essentially equal.
    2. Chlorine feed or dosage.  The actual amount in mg/8 fed
        into the  water  system by  feeder  or automatic dosing
        apparatus is the chlorine feed or dosage.
    3.Chlorine demand.  The chlorine fed into the water that
        combines with the impurities, and, therefore, may not be
        available for disinfection action, is  commonly called the
        chlorine  demand of the water. Examples  of impurities
        causing chlorine demand are organic materials and certain
        "reducing"  materials such  as hydrogen sulfide, ferrous
        iron, nitrites, etc.
    4.Free and  combined  chlorine.  In  addition  to  organic
        materials  that  exert a chlorine demand,  chlorine can
        combine with ammonia nitrogen, if any is present in the
        water, to form chlorine compounds that have some biocidal
        properties. These chlorine compounds are called combined
        chlorine  residual. If  no ammonia is present in the  water,
        however,  the chlorine that remains in the water once the
        chlorine  demand has been satisfied is called free chlorine
        residual.
    5. Chlorine contact time.    The chlorine contact time is the
        period of time  that elapses between  the time when the
        chlorine  is  added  to the  water and the time  when that
        particular  water is  used. Contact  time is  required for
        chlorine to act as a disinfectant.
Chlorine Disinfection
  In  general,  the  primary  factors  that  determine  the biocidal
efficiency of chlorine are as follows:
    \.Chlorine concentration. The higher the  concentration, the
        more effective the  disinfection  and  the  faster the
        disinfection rate.
    2. Type of chlorine  residual.  Free chlorine is  a much more
        effective disinfectant than combined chlorine.
    3. Contact time  between  the organism  and chlorine.  The
        longer the time, the more effective the disinfection.
    4. Temperature of the  water in  which contact is made.  The
        higher  the  temperature,  the  more  effective the
         disinfection.
    5. The pH of the water in which contact is made.  The lower
         the pH, the more effective the disinfection.
  Chlorine dosage should be great enough to  satisfy the chlorine
demand and provide a residual of 0.4 mg/K after a chlorine contact
time  of 30 minutes  or  a combined residual of 2.0 mg/8 with a
2-hour  contact time. Hypochlorinators pump  or  inject a chlorine

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solution  into the water, and, when  they are properly maintained,
provide a reliable  method for applying chlorine. Hypochlorinators
and  chlorine residual test  equipment are  available  from several
manufacturers through local dealers.
Chlorine Compounds and Solutions
  Compounds of chlorine such as sodium or calcium hypochlorite
have excellent disinfecting properties. In small water systems these
chlorine  compounds are usually added to the water in a solution
form.
  One  of the  commonly used  forms  of chlorine is calcium
hypochlorite. It is commercially available in the form of soluble
powder  or tablets.  These compounds are classed as  high-test
hypochlorites and contain  65 to 75 percent available chlorine by
weight. Packed in cans or  drums, these compounds are stable and
will not deteriorate if properly stored and handled.
  Prepared sodium  hypochlorite solution is available locally
through chemical or swimming pool equipment suppliers. The most
common type is household chlorine bleach which has a strength of
approximately 5 percent available chlorine by weight. Other sodium
hypochlorite solutions vary in  strength from  3  to 15 percent
available chlorine by weight, and are reasonably stable when stored
in a cool, dark place. These solutions are diluted with potable water
to obtain the desired solution strength to be fed into the system.
  When  hypochlorite powders are used, fresh  chlorine solutions
should be prepared at frequent intervals because the strength of
chlorine  solutions  deteriorates  gradually after preparation.  The
container or vessel used for preparation, storage, or distribution of
the chlorine solution should  be resistant to corrosion and light.
(Light produces a photochemical reaction that reduces the strength
of chlorine solutions.) Suitable materials  include  glass, plastic,
crockery, or rubber-lined metal containers.
  Hypochlorite solutions are used either full  strength as prepared or
are diluted to solution strength suited to the  feeding equipment and
the rate of water flow. In preparing these solutions, one must take
into  account the chlorine content of the concentrated solution. For
example, if 5 gallons of 2 percent solution are to be prepared with a
high-test  calcium  hypochlorite  powder or tablet  containing  70
percent available chlorine,  the high-test hypochlorite would weigh
1.2 pounds.
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  Pounds of compound required

      % strength x gallons solution xg -
     _ of solution      required
       % available chlorine in compound

     = 2X5X8.3
         70

     = 1.2 pounds

  Expressed in another way, 1.2 pounds of high-test hypochlorite
with 70 percent available chlorine would be added to 5 gallons of
water to produce a 2-percent chlorine solution.
Determination of Chlorine Residual
  Residual  chlorine can exist in water as a chlorine compound of
organic matter and ammonia or as both combined and free available
chlorine residual. When present as a chlorine compound, it is called
combined available chlorine residual, as free chlorine it is known as
free available  chlorine residual,  and as  both combined and  free
available chlorine  it is called total available chlorine residual. Thus,
"sufficient  chlorine" is that amount required to produce a desired
residual after a definite contact period, whether combined, free, or
total.
 •With  the development of the orthotolidine-arsenite  test about
1939, the practice of free residual chlorination became widespread.
This practice  consists of adding  enough chlorine  to  produce a
residual consisting almost entirely of free available chlorine.  The
orthotolidine arsenite (OTA) test, generally used as a  laboratory
control aid, distinguishes and measures quantitatively the combined
and the  free  available  chlorine residuals. Because of its many
advantages, including  ease of control, the practice of free residual
chlorination is recommended for individual water supply systems. If
ammonia is present in the water, a free chlorine residual can be
obtained by adding sufficient  chlorine to combine with all of the
ammonia  nitrogen  and  form  a compound known as nitrogen
trichloride. Once this  is done, the addition of any further chlorine
'Will produce a free chlorine residual.
  :When orthotolidine reagent is added to water containing chlorine,
a   greenish-yellow  color  develops,  the  intensity  of  which  is
proportional  to the  amount  of residual chlorine  present.  Free
available residual  chlorine  reacts  with  orthotolidine  practically
instantaneously, requiring less than  15 seconds for development of
the  color. Combined  available  residual chlorine reacts  with
orthotolidine relatively slowly, requiring 5 minutes at 70°F for full
color development.  Thus,  the presence or absence of an immediate

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 or flash color indicates the presence or absence of free available
 chlorine residual. This flash color can be determined quantitatively
 if a weak  reducing agent, such as sodium arsenite, is added to the
 sample less than 15 seconds after the addition of orthotolidine. The
 sodium arsenite  neutralizes  the combined chlorine before it can
 react with orthotolidine reagent. The flash color is not affected by
 the  sodium arsenite reagent and can be read by comparison with
 permanent standards at any time within 5 minutes.
   Commercially available residual chlorine test kits are inexpensive
 and should be used wherever chlorine disinfection is practiced.
   Complete, detailed instructions are given with each test kit. For
 those who wish to obtain further information concerning the test, a
 description  is included in Standard Methods for the Examination of
 Water and Wastewater.l

 Chlorination Equipment
 Hypochlorinators
   Hypochlorinators pump or  inject a chlorine  solution into the
 water.  When  they are  properly  maintained,  hypochlorinators
 provide a reliable method for applying chlorine to disinfect water.
   Types of hypochlorinators include positive displacement feeders,
 aspirator feeders, suction feeders, and tablet hypochlorinators.
   Positive  Displacement  Feeders.   A  common  type  of  positive
 displacement  hypochlorinator is  one  that  uses  a piston  or
 diaphragm pump to inject the solution. This type  of equipment,
 which is  adjustable during  operation,  can  be  designed  to give
 reliable and accurate feed rates. When electricity is available, the
 stopping and  starting of the hypochlorinator can be synchronized
 with the pumping unit. A hypochlorinator of this kind can be used
 with any water system; however, it is especially desirable in systems
 where water pressure is low and fluctuating.
  Aspirator Feeders.  The aspirator feeder  operates on  a simple
 hydraulic principle that employs the use of the vacuum created
 when water flows either through a venturi tube or perpendicular to
 a nozzle. The vacuum created draws the chlorine solution from a
 container into the  chlorinator unit  where it is  mixed  with water
 passing through the unit, and the solution is then injected into the
 water system. In most cases, the water inlet  line  to the chlorinator
 is  connected to receive  water from the discharge side of the water
 pump,  with the chlorine solution  being injected  back  into the
 suction side of the same pump. The chlorinator operates only when
 the pump is operating. Solution flow rate is regulated by means of a
 control valve, though pressure variations may cause changes in the
feed rate.
 'Obtainable from the American Public  Health  Association, 1740 Broadway, New York
N.Y. 10019.

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  Suction Feeders.  One type of suction feeder consists of a single
line  that runs from  the chlorine solution  container through the
chlorinator unit and connects to the suction side of the pump. The
chlorine solution is pulled from the container by suction created by
the operating water pump.
  Another type of suction feeder operates on the siphon principle,
with the chlorine solution being introduced directly into the well.
This type also consists of a single line, but the line terminates in the
well below  the water surface instead of the influent  side  of the
water  pump.   When  the  pump is  operating, the  chlorinator is
activated so that a valve  is opened and the  chlorine solution is
passed into the well.
  In  each  of these units, the  solution flow rate  is regulated by
means of a control valve and the chlorinators operate only when the
pump is operating. The pump  circuit should be  connected to a
liquid level control so that the water supply pump  operation is
interrupted when the chlorine solution is exhausted.
  Tablet  Hypochlorinators.  The  tablet hypochlorinating unit
consists of a  special pot  feeder containing calcium hypochlorite
tablets. Accurately controlled by means of a flowmeter, small jets
of feed water are injected  into the lower  portion of the tablet bed.
The slow dissolution of the tablets provides a continuous source of
fresh  hypochlorite  solution.  This  unit controls  the chlorine
solution. This type of chlorinator is used when electricity  is not
available,  but  requires adequate maintenance  for  efficient
operation. It can operate where the water pressure is low.
Gaseous Feed Chlorinators
  In installations where  large  quantities  of water  are  treated,
chlorine gas in pressure cylinders may be used as the disinfectant.
The high cost of this type  of chlorination equipment and the safety
precautions necessary to  guard against accidents  do  not  usually
justify its use  in individual water supply systems.
Solution Supply Monitor
  Sensing units which can be placed in solution containers to sound
a warning alarm when the solution goes below a predetermined level
are commercially available. This equipment can also be connected
to  the pump,  which will automatically shut off the pump and
activate a  warning bell.  On such a signal the operator  will be
required to refill  the solution container and take necessary steps to
insure proper disinfection.
Chlorination Control
   As  indicated  previously,  several factors pertaining to a water
supply system have a direct bearing on the effectiveness of chlorine.
Because of these variable  factors, it is not possible to suggest rigid

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standards of chlorine disinfection applicable to  all water supply
systems.  It  is  considered  desirable,  however,  to  suggest  the
following  practice in  this  regard  for  the guidance  of persons
responsible for water supply operation and maintenance.
Simple Chlorination
  Unless  bacteriological  or other  tests indicate  the  need  for
maintaining  higher  minimum  concentrations  of  free  residual
chlorine, at least  0.4 mg/fi  of  free residual chlorine (see p.  77)
should be in contact with the treated water for  not less than 30
minutes before the water reaches the first user beyond the point of
chlorine  application.  It  is  considered  desirable  to maintain a
detectable free chlorine residual at distant points in the distribution
system when using simple chlorination; however, the water can be
properly disinfected if a  minimum contact time of 30  minutes is
assured.
  A method known as superchlorination-dechlorination is suggested
for use in  overcoming and simplifying the problem of insufficient
contact time in such water systems. By this method chlorine is
added to the water  in increased amounts (superchlorination) to
provide a minimum chlorine residual of  3.0 mg/fi for a minimum
contact  period  of 5  minutes.  Removal of the  excess  chlorine
(dechlorination) follows to eliminate objectionable chlorine tastes.
Dechlorination equipment is commercially available.
Records
  Adequate  control  is  also dependent  on the  maintenance of
accurate  operating records of the chlorination process. The record
should serve as an indicator  that  proper  chlorination is  being
accomplished and  as  a guide in improving operations. The record
should show the amount of water treated, amount  of chlorine used,
setting of the chlorinator, time and location  of tests, and results of
chlorine residual determinations. This information should be kept
current and posted near the chlorinator.
Disinfection With Ultraviolet  Light
  Ultraviolet (UV) light produced from UV lamps has been shown
to be an effective  bactericide for both air and water. In disinfecting
water, the quantity of radiation  required is dependent on such
factors as turbidity, color, and dissolved iron salts, which adversely
effect the penetration of ultraviolet energy through  the water.  UV
light  would not be satisfactory for  disinfecting  water with high
turbidity.
  Cylindrical units with  standard plumbing fittings  have been  de-
signed for use in waterlines. They should be checked frequently for
light intensity and cleaned of any material that would block radia-
tion from reaching the water. A disadvantage of UV light is that it

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<|oes  not provide a residual in the  water as  does chlorine.  Thus,
there is no barrier against recontamination in UV-disinfected water.
Also, an uninterrupted source of electric  power is needed for UV
units. The counsel of the State health authority should be obtained
before selecting a particular unit for installation.
Other Methods and Materials for Water Disinfection
  A  number of  other materials  and   methods  are  used  for
disinfecting water. Some of these are as follows:
      1. Organic chlorine-yielding compounds
      2. Bromine
      3. Iodine and iodine-yielding organics
      4. Ozone
      5. Hydrogen peroxide and peroxide-generating compounds
      6. Silver
      7. Nontoxic organic acids
      8. Lime and mild alkaline agents
      9. Ultrasonic cavitation
     10. Heat treatment
  Some  of these are old processes  on which detailed studies have
been made; others are relatively new.
  When  a question of specific application arises, the recommenda-
tions of the State or local health department should be followed.

CONDITIONING

Iron and/or Manganese
 , The presence  of  iron  and/or  manganese in water creates  a
problem common to many individual water supply systems.  When
both are  present  beyond applicable drinking  water  standards,
Special attention should be given. Their removal or elimination
depends somewhat on type and quantity, and this influences the
procedure and possibly the  equipment to be used.
  Well water is usually clear  and colorless when drawn from the
faucet or tap. When water containing colorless, dissolved iron  is
allowed to stand in a cooking container or comes in contact with a
5Jnk  or bathtub, the iron  combines with oxygen from the  air to
form a reddish-brown precipitate commonly called rust.  Manganese
acts in a similar manner, but forms a brownish-black precipitate.
  These impurities can impart a metallic taste  to the water or  to
any food in whose  preparation such a supply is used. Deposits  of
jfon  and manganese produce rusty or brown stains on plumbing
fixtures, fabrics, dishes, or utensils. The use of soaps or detergents
^Ul not  remove these stains, and bleaches and alkaline builders
(often  sodium  phosphate) can intensify  the  staining.  After a
prolonged period,  iron deposits can build up  in  pressure  tanks,

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 water heaters, and  pipelines. This buildup reduces the available
 quantity and pressure of the water supply.
   Iron  and  manganese can  be removed by a  combination of
 automatic chlorination and fine filtration. The chlorine chemically
 oxidizes the  iron or manganese (forming a precipitate), kills iron
 bacteria, and eliminates any disease bacteria which may be present.
 The fine  filter then  removes the iron or manganese precipitates.
 Other techniques,  such as aeration  followed by filtration,  ion
exchange  with  greensand,  or  treatment  with  potassium
permanganate  followed  by  filtration, will  also remove
these materials.
   Some filters may dechlorinate also. This chlorination-filtration
method provides complete correction  of such problems and assures
disinfection as well.
   Insoluble  iron  or  manganese  and  iron bacteria will intensely
"foul" the mineral bed and the valving of a  water softener. It is
best,  therefore, to  remove  iron and  manganese before the water
reaches the softener.
   When a backwash  filter medium is used it is  essential that an
adequate  quantity of water at sufficient pressure be provided for
removing the iron precipitate.
Iron Bacteria
   Under certain conditions the removal of iron compounds from a
water supply  may be complicated by the presence of iron bacteria.
When dissolved iron  and oxygen  are present in  the water, these
bacteria derive the energy they need  for their life processes from
the oxidation of the iron to its insoluble form. These products
accumulate  within  a gelatinous  mass  which coats  submerged
surfaces. A slimy, rust-colored mass on the interior surface of flush
tanks or water closets indicates the presence of iron bacteria.
   Iron bacteria can reduce the carrying capacity of water pipes by
increasing frictional  losses. They may impart  an  unpleasant taste
and  odor to  the  water or discolor  and spot fabrics, plumbing
fixtures, and  clog pumps. A detectable slime also  builds up on any
surface with  which the water containing these organisms comes in
contact. Iron bacteria may be concentrated in a  specific location
and  may  periodically break loose and  appear at the faucet in
detectable amounts of rust.
   Iron-removal filters or water softeners can remove iron bacteria;
however,  they  often  become  clogged and fouled because of the
slime buildup. A  disinfecting solution  such as chlorine  bleach
should be injected  into the water  to control the growth of iron
bacteria. Such a solution causes a chemical reaction which allows an
iron precipitate to form. This precipitate can be removed with a
suitable fine filter.
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Softening
  Water softening  is  a  process for the removal  of the minerals,
primarily calcium and magnesium, which cause hardness.
  Softening of hard water is desirable if
     1. Large quantities of soap are needed to produce a lather.
     2. Hard scale is formed on cooking utensils or laundry basins.
     3. Hard, chalklike formations coat the interiors of piping or
         water tanks.
     4. Heat-transfer efficiency through the walls of the heating
         element or exchange unit of the water tank is reduced.
  The buildup of scale will cause an appreciable reduction in pipe
capacities and pressures. The appearance of excessive scale from
hard waters will also be esthetically objectionable. Experience has
shown that  hardness values greatly in excess of 200 mg/£ (12 grains
per gallon) may cause some problems in the household.
  Water  may be   softened  by  either the ion-exchange or  the
Kme-soda ash process,  but  both processes  increase  the sodium
content of  the water and may make it unsuitable for people on a
low-sodium  diet.
Jon Exchange
  The ion-exchange process causes a replacement of the calcium or
magnesium  ions by sodium ions. The process takes place when the
hard water containing calcium or magnesium  compounds conies in
contact  with an exchange medium.   The materials  used in the
process  of  ion exchange  are insoluble,  granular materials that
possess a unique property of ion exchange. Ion-exchange material
may be  classed  as  follows: glauconite (or greensand); precipitated
synthetic,  organic  (carbonaceous),  and  synthetic resins; or gel
zeolites.  The  last two are  the most commonly used for domestic
purposes.
  The type  of ion-exchange material used is determined by the type
of water treatment required.  For example, when a sodium zeolite is
used to soften water by exchanging the sodium ion for calcium and
magnesium   ions  in the  hard  water, the  zeolite sodium ions
eventually become of insufficient quantity to effect the exchange.
After a certain period of time determined  by the exchange rate, the
exchange material must be regenerated. The sodium ion is restored
to the zeolite by passing a salt (NaCl) or brine solution through the
bed. The salt solution  used  must contain the same  type of ions
which were displaced by the calcium and  magnesium. The solution
causes a reversal of the ion-exchange process, restoring the exchange
material to  its original condition.
   The type of regenerating material or solution which must be used
depends upon the  type of exchange  material in the ion-exchange
column.

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   The ion-exchange method of softening water is relatively simple
 and can be easily adapted  to the small or individual water supply
 system.  Only  a  portion of the  hard  water needs to be  passed
 through  the  softening  process  because  the  exchange  process
 produces water of zero hardness. The processed  water can then be
 mixed with the hard water  in proportions to produce a final water
 with a  hardness between 50 to 80 mg/£ (3 to 5 grains per gallon).
 Waters with a turbidity of more than 10 Jackson units (an arbitrary
 measure of the light-scattering properties of suspended particles in
 water)  should be  properly treated for removal to increase the
 effectiveness and the efficiency of the softening process.
   Ion-exchange softeners are commercially available for individual
 water systems. Their  capacities  range from  about 85,000 to
 550,000 milligrams of hardness that can be removed for each cubic
 foot  of  the  ion-exchange  material. Water  softeners  should be
 installed only by responsible persons in strict accordance with the
 instructions from  the manufacturer and  applicable  codes.  The
 materials and workmanship should be  guaranteed  for a specified
 period  of  time.  First  consideration  in  securing ion-exchange
 water-softening equipment  should be  given to  those  companies
 providing responsible servicing dealers permanently located within a
 reasonable distance from the  water supply system.  Note:  Zeolite
 softening is not recommended if any of the  water  consumers, for
 medical reasons, are on a restricted sodium diet.
 Lime-Soda Ash Process
   The use of the lime-soda ash process or the  addition of other
 chemicals is not practical for a small water  supply system. Water
 used for laundry purposes, however, may be softened at the time of
 use by  the addition of  certain chemicals such as borax, washing
 soda, trisodium phosphate,  or  ammonia. Commercial softening or
 water conditioning compounds of unknown composition should
 not  be  used in water  intended for drinking  or  cooking until the
 advice of the State or local health department is obtained regarding
 their safety.
 Fluoridation
   The presence of trace quantities of fluoride in the diet has been
 found beneficial in reducing dental caries in children and  young
 adults. Water  is currently an economical medium  through  which
 these trace quantities  can be assimilated through body  processes
into the enamel of the teeth.
   Equipment for fluoridating even the smallest home water supplies
has been developed and used for several years. It is  recommended,
however,  that the installer maintain the home fluoridator and test
the treated water for fluoride level. It is an economical and reliable
means  of providing  fluoridated  water if  the operation  and

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maintenance of  the  fluoridating  equipment  are  combined with
other  home water supply services; i.e., softening, iron removal,
chlorination, and the like.
  When a question of specific application arises, the recommenda-
tions of the State or local health department should be followed.

Tastes and Odors
  Tastes and odors present in an individual water supply system fall
into two general  classes - natural and man made. Some  natural
causes may be traced to the presence of or contact of water with
algae,  leaves,  grass,  decaying  vegetation,  dissolved  gases,  and
slime-forming organisms. Some of  the manmade causes  of taste and
odor may be attributed to the presence of chemicals or sewage.
,  Water having a  "rotten  egg" odor  indicates the  presence of
hydrogen sulfide and is commonly referred to as sulfur water. In
addition to its objectionable odor, sulfur water may cause  a black
stain on plumbing fixtures. Hydrogen sulfide is very  corrosive to
common metals and will react with iron, copper, or silver to form
the sulfides of these metals.
  Depending upon the cause, taste and odor can be  removed or
reduced by  aeration or by treatment with activated carbon, copper
sulfate, or an oxidizing agent such as chlorine.
<  Aeration is exposure of as much water surface as possible to the
air.  It is  described in the section entitled "Aeration." Hydrogen
sulfide  can  be  removed  by  aeration  or  by  a combination
oxidization-filtration process. A simple iron-removal filter will  also
do a good job of removing this objectionable compound when small
amounts are involved.
  The activated carbon treatment consists of passing the water to
be treated through granular carbon, or adding powdered activated
carbon to the  water. Activated  carbon adsorbs  (attracts to itself)
large quantities of dissolved  gases,  soluble organics, and finely
Divided solids.  It is therefore extremely effective in taste and odor
control.  Activated  carbon  can  be used in  carbon  filters
commercially available  from  the  manufacturers or producers of
water-conditioning or treatment equipment.  The recommendations
included with the. filter should be followed.
  Copper Sulfate. The most frequent source of taste and odors in
an individual water supply system is algae. These minute plants
produce certain biological byproducts which cause tastes and odors
in the  water.  These  tastes  and odors may be accentuated when
chlorine is added  to the water.  When they  are present in a water
supply their growth can be controlled by adding copper sulfate to
the  water source, as  described in  the section dealing with "Algae
Control."
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   Because  algae  and  other chlorophyll-containing  plants  need
sunlight to grow, the storage of water in covered reservoirs inhibits
their growth.
   Chlorine.  Chlorine is an  effective agent in reducing tastes and
odors present in water. The process used for the reduction of tastes
and odors is  the  same as described in the  section dealing with
"Superchlorination-Dechlorination."
Corrosion Control
   The control of corrosion is important not only to continuous and
efficient  operation  of the  individual  water system but also to
delivery of properly conditioned water that has not picked up trace
quantities of  metals that  may be hazardous to health. Whenever
corrosion is minimized there is an appreciable reduction  in the
maintenance  and  possible  replacement  of water  pipes,  water
heaters, or other metallic appurtenances of the system.
   Corrosion is commonly defined as an electrochemical reaction in
which metal  deteriorates  or is destroyed when  in  contact with
elements of its environment such as air, water, or soil. Whenever
this reaction  occurs there is a flow of electric current from the
corroding portion  of the metal toward the electrolyte or conductor
of electricity, such  as  water or soil.  The point at which current
flows from the metal into the electrolyte is called the "anode" and
the point at which current flows away from the electrolyte is called
the "cathode." Any  characteristic of the water which tends to allow
or increase the rate of this electrical current will increase the rate of
corrosion. The important characteristics of a water that affect its
corrosiveness include the following:
     I.Acidity. A measure  of  the water's ability  to neutralize
         alkaline  materials. Water with acidity or  low alkalinity (a
         measure of the concentration of alkaline materials) tends
         to be corrosive.
     2. Conductivity.  A measure  of  the  amount  of  dissolved
         mineral salts.  An increase in conductivity promotes flow
         of electrical current and increases the rate of corrosion.
     3. Oxygen content.  Amount dissolved  in  water promotes
         corrosion by destroying the  thin protective hydrogen film
         that is present on the surface of metals immersed in water.
     4. Carbon dioxide.  Forms carbonic acid, which tends to attack
         metallic surfaces.
     5. Water temperatures. The corrosion rate increases with water
         temperature.
Corrosion and Scale Relationship
  Corrosion and scale are associated problems, but their effect and
cause should not be  confused. The essential effect of corrosion is to
destroy  metal; scale, on the other hand, tends to clog open sections

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and line  surfaces with deposits. The products of corrosion  often
contribute  to  scale formation  and aggravate the problem of its
treatment.
Prevention of Corrosion
  When corrosion  is caused by the acidity of the water supply, it
can be effectively controlled by installing an acid neutralizer ahead
of a water softener. Another method of controlling corrosion is that
of  feeding  small amounts  of commercially available film-forming
materials such as  polyphosphates or silicates. Other methods for
controlling  corrosion are the installation of dielectric or insulating
unions, reduction of velocities and pressures, removal of oxygen or
acid constituents, chemical  treatment to decrease the acidity, or the
use of nonmetallic  piping and equipment.
pH Correction or Neutralizing Solution
  The pH  of  water may be increased by  feeding  a neutralizing
solution so that  it no  longer attacks parts of the water system or
contributes to  electrolytic corrosion. Neutralizing solutions may be
prepared by mixing soda  ash (58%  light  grade) with water - 3
pounds soda ash to 4  gallons  of water. This solution may be fed
into   the  water  supply  with  feeders  as  described  under
"Chlorination,"  and may  be  mixed  with  chlorine solutions to
accomplish  both pH  correction  and  disinfection with the  same
equipment. Soda ash is  available at chemical supply houses.
Nuisance Organisms
  Organisms that have been known  to cause problems in water supplies
include several species  of algae, protozoa, and diatoms that produce
tastes and odors and clog filters. Iron bacteria plug water well intakes
and clog pipes  in distribution systems (see Iron Bacteria, p. 84). Still
other nuisance organisms are copepods, whose eggs pass through filters;
midge larvae or bloodworms; and snails and mollusca. These organisms
vary in complexity  and  size. They  are uncommon or absent in ground
water, but are common in surface waters.
  Perhaps none of the organisms is injurious to health. Interference with
water treatment processes, and unpleasant taste, odor and appearance
constitute the chief complaints against them.
Control  of Algae
  Growths of algae can  be controlled by treating the water with copper
sulfate (blue stone  or blue vitriol)  or, when feasible, by covering th;
storage unit to  exclude sunlight. Maintenance of an adequate chlorine
residual will effectively control the growth of algae and other organisms
wherever storage is covered and protected from contamination. The
particular control method, or combination of methods, is determined
by studying each case to assess the probability for success and the costs
involved.
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   Copper sulfate has been used successfully for the control of algae
 since  1900. Temperature, pH and  alkalinity all affect the solubility of
 copper in water. From this it can be seen that the dosage required de-
 pends on the chemistry of the water treated  and the susceptibility to
 copper of the particular nuisance organism present. Dosage rates of 1
 ounce of copper sulfate (CuSO4 • 5H2O) for each 25,000 gallons of water
 have proven effective where  the total alkalinity of the water does not
 exceed 40 mg/1 (40 ppm). For more alkaline waters, the dosage can be
 increased to 5.5 pounds of copper sulfate per acre of surface water
 treated regardless of depth.
   Frequency of treatment depends on temperature, amount of sunlight,
 and nutrients in the  water. Systematic application of the calculated
 amount  of chemical over the  entire surface area ensures that serious
 algal blooms do not reappear. Several treatments per season are  gen-
 erally  required, with treatments as frequent as twice a month during the
 growing season not being unusual.
   The most practical method of application for small ponds is by spray-
 ing a solution on the surface. Or, a burlap bag of copper sulfate can be
 dragged through the water. Rapid and uniform distribution of the chemi-
 cal is important.
   It should be noted that sudden kill of heavy growths of algae may be
 followed by decomposition on a scale that depletes the oxygen content
 of the  water. If the removal of oxygen is excessive, a fish kill may result.
   Any chemical applied to control  a problem with nuisance organisms
 must be used with caution. The concentrations recommended above will
 affect only a portion of the biotic system. Excessive amounts of chemi-
 cal may endanger other life systems in the environment. If there is any
 doubt  about the effects which treatment might have on other life  sys-
 tems, advice should be sought from responsible environmental agencies.
Aeration
   Aeration is the process of bringing about the intimate contact
between air and a liquid such as water.
   Many methods are available for obtaining effective  aeration,
including spraying water into the air, allowing water to fall  over a
spillway in a turbulent stream, or  distributing water  in multiple
streams Or droplets through  a series of perforated plates. Although
the aeration of water  may  be accomplished in an open system,
adequate precautions should be exercised to  eliminate possible
external contamination of the water. Whenever possible, a totally
enclosed system should be provided.
   Aeration  may be used to oxidize iron or manganese and remove
odors  from water, such as those  caused by hydrogen  sulfide  and
algae. It is also effective in increasing the oxygen content of water
deficient in dissolved oxygen. The  flat taste of cistern water and

90

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distilled water may be improved by adding oxygen. Carbon dioxide
and other gases  that  increase the corrosiveness of water  can  be
eliminated largely by effective aeration, although the increase in
corrosion  because  of increased oxygen  may  partially offset the
advantage of the decrease in carbon dioxide.
   Aeration of water results in partial oxidation of its dissolved iron
or manganese and thereby changes the iron into an insoluble form.
Sometimes a short period of storage permits the insoluble material
to settle; at other times the precipitated iron or manganese cannot
be removed successfully except by filtration.
   A simple cascade device or a coke tray (wire-bottom trays filled
with activated carbon)  aerator can be incorporated into a water
supply system. In addition to aerating,  the coke tray will reduce
tastes and odors.
   Insects such as the  chironomus fly may lay  eggs in  the stagnant
portion of the aerator tray. The eggs develop into  small red worms,
which is the  larvae stage of this insect. Proper encasement of the
aerator  prevents  the development  of  this situation. Adequate
screening  will provide,  in addition, protection  from windblown
debris.
                                                             91

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            PartV
                       Pumping,  Distribution,

                       and Storage
PUMPING

Types of Well Pumps
  Three types  of pumps are commonly used in individual water
distribution  systems. They are the  positive  displacement, the
centrifugal, and the jet. These pumps can be used in a water system
utilizing either  a  ground or surface source. It is desirable in areas
where electricity or other power (gasoline, diesel oil, or windmill) is
available to use a power-operated pump.  When a power supply is
not  available,  a  hand pump  or some other manual method of
supplying water must be used.
  Special types of pumps  with limited application for  individual
water-supply systems include air lift pumps and hydraulic rams.
positive Displacement Pumps
  The positive  displacement pump forces or displaces  the water
through a pumping mechanism. These pumps are of several types.
  One type  of positive displacement pump is  the  reciprocating
pump. This pump consists  of a mechanical device which moves a
plunger back and  forth in a closely fitted cylinder. The  plunger is
driven by the  power source, and the  power motion is  converted
from a rotating action to a reciprocating motion by the  combined
work of a speed reducer, crank, and a connecting rod. The cylinder,
composed of a cylinder wall, plunger, and check valve,  should be
located  near  or below the  static water level to eliminate the need
for priming. The pumping action begins when the water  enters the
cylinder  through a check valve. When the piston moves,  the check
valve closes, and in so doing forces the water through a check valve
in the plunger. With each subsequent  stroke, the  water is forced
toward the surface through the discharge pipe.
  Another type of positive displacement  pump  is the  helical or
spiral rotor.  The  helical rotor consists of a shaft with a helical
(spiral) surface  which rotates in a rubber sleeve. As the shaft turns,
it pockets or traps the water between the shaft and the  sleeve and
forces it to the upper end of the sleeve.
  Other  types  of positive  displacement  pumps  include the
regenerative  turbine  type.  It  incorporates a rotating  wheel or
impeller  which has a series of blades or fins (sometimes called

                                                          93

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buckets) on  its  outer  edge and a  stationary  enclosure  called a
raceway or casting. Pressures several times that of pumps relying
solely on centrifugal force can be developed.
Centrifugal Pumps
  Centrifugal  pumps are  pumps  containing a rotating  impeller
mounted  on a shaft  turned by  the  power source. The  rotating
impeller increases the velocity of the water and discharges it into a
surrounding casing shaped to slow down the flow of the water and
convert the velocity  to  pressure. This decrease of the  flow further
increases the pressure.
  Each impeller and  matching casing is called a stage.  The number
of stages necessary for  a particular installation  will be determined
by the pressure needed  for the operation of the water system, and
the height  the water must  be raised from  the surface of the water
source.
  When  the  pressure  is  more than  can  be  practicably  or
economically furnished  by  a single stage, additional stages are used.
A pump with more than one stage is called a multistage pump. In a
multistage pump water passes through each stage in succession, with
an increase in pressure at each stage.
  Multistage pumps commonly used in individual water systems are
of the turbine and submersible types.
  Turbine Pumps.  The vertical-drive turbine pump consists of one
or more stages with the pumping unit located below the drawdown
level of the water source.  A vertical shaft connects the pumping
assembly  to a  drive  mechanism  located above the  pumping
assembly. The discharge casing, pumphousing, and inlet screen are
suspended from the pump base at the ground surface. The weight of
the rotating portion of  the pump is usually suspended  by a thrust
bearing located in the pump head. The intermediate pump bearings
may be lubricated by  either oil or water. From  a sanitary  point of
view, lubrication of  pump  bearings by water  is  preferable, since
lubricating oil may leak and contaminate the water.
  Submersible Pumps.  When  a centrifugal pump  is  driven by a
closely coupled electric motor constructed  for submerged operation
as a single unit, it is called a submersible pump. (See fig. 15.) The
electrical wiring to the submersible motor must  be waterproof. The
electrical control should be properly grounded to minimize the
possibility of shorting and thus damaging the entire unit. The pump
and motor assembly are supported by the discharge pipe; therefore,
the  pipe should  be  of such size that there is no possibility of
breakage.
  The  turbine or submersible  pump forces water directly  into the
distribution system; therefore, the pump assembly  must be located
below the maximum drawdown level. This type of pump can deliver
94

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           Power Cable
            Drop Pipe Connection
 •    «M« *
CJjkui ,*~'_

.Check Valve



  • Pump Casing

  'Inlet Screen
                 Diffusers 8 Impellers
                    ' Inlet Body
                      Power Leads
                       Motor Shaft
                    Motor Section
            Lubricant Seal
  FIGURE 15.  Exploded view of submersible pump.
                                                       95

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water across a wide range of pressures with the only limiting factor
being the size of the unit and the horsepower applied. When sand is
present or anticipated  in  the  water source,  special precautions
should be taken before this type of pump is used since the abrasion
action of the sand during pumping will  shorten  the life of the
pump.
Jet (Ejector) Pumps
  Jet pumps  are actually combined centrifugal and ejector pumps.
A portion  of the  discharged water from  the centrifugal pump is
diverted through a nozzle and venturi tube. A pressure zone lower
than  that  of the  surrounding area exists in  the venturi  tube;
therefore, water from the source (well)  flows into this  area of
reduced pressure. The velocity of  the water from the nozzle pushes
it through the pipe toward  the surface where the centrifugal pump
can lift it by  suction. The centrifugal pump then forces it into the
distribution system. (See fig. 16.)
Selection of Pumping Equipment
  The type of pump selected for a particular installation should be
determined   on  the   basis  of   the  following  fundamental
considerations.
      1. Yield of the well or water source.
      2. Daily needs and instantaneous demand of the users.
      3. Size of pressure or storage tank.
      4. Size and alinement of the well casing.
      5. Total  operating  head pressure  of the pump  at  normal
          delivery  rates, including lift and all friction losses.
      6. Difference in elevation between ground level and water
          level in the well during puniping.
      7. Availability of power.
      8. Ease  of maintenance and availability of replacement parts.
      9. First  cost and economy of operation.
     10. Reliability of pumping equipment.
  The rate of water delivery required depends on the time of
effective pump operation as related to the total water consumption
between  periods of pumping. Total water use can be determined
from  table 1, page  15. The period of pump operation depends upon
the quantity  of water on  hand to meet peak demands and the
storage  available.   If the well yield  will permit, a pump with a
minimum capacity  of 600 gph should be used for the average home
water system.
  When  the  well  yield  is low in  comparison to peak demand
requirements,  an  appropriate  increase in  the  storage capacity  is
required. The life of an  electric drive motor will be reduced  when
there  is excessive starting  and   stopping.   The  water  system,
therefore, should be  designed so that the interval between  starting

96

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   Centrifugal Pump—-f©~®0
                                                  Pressure
                                                x Switch
                                                  -—-^Discharge

                                        Sanitary Well Seal
FIGURE 16.   "Over-the-well" jet pump installation.
                                                               97

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and stopping is as long as is practicable but not less than 1 minute.
  Counting the number of fixtures  in  the home permits a ready
determination  of required  pump capacity  from  figure  17.  For
example,  a home with kitchen sink, water closet, bathtub, wash
basin, automatic clothes washer, laundry tub and two outside hose
bibs, has a total of eight fixtures. Referring to the  figure, it is seen
that eight fixtures correspond  to a  recommended pump capacity
between 7 and  9  gallons per minute.  The lower value  should be the
minimum.  The higher value might be preferred if additional  fire
protection (see  p. 17) is desired, or if garden irrigation (see "Lawn
Sprinkling," p. 16) or farm use (table  7) is contemplated.
(Note:  This simple  calculation does  not take  into  account  the
possibility that low well capacity may limit  the  size  of pump that
should be  installed. In this case, the system can be  reinforced by
providing  additional storage to help cover periods of peak demand.
See "Storage,"p. 124.)
  The total operating head of a pump consists of  the lift (vertical
distance from pumping level of the water source to the pump), the
friction losses in  the pipe and fittings from water source  to pump,
and the discharge pressure at the pump. (See fig. 18.)
  Pumps  that  cannot be  wholly submerged during  pumping  are
dependent  on  suction to  raise  the water from  the source  by
reducing the pressure in the pump column, or  creating a suction.
The vertical distance from the source (pumping level) to the axis of
the pump is called  the  suction lift, and for  practical  purposes
cannot exceed  between 15 and 25 feet, depending  on the design of
the pump and the altitude above sea level where it is used.
  Shallow well pumps should be installed with a foot valve at the
bottom of the  suction line or with a check valve in the suction line
in order to maintain pump prime.
  The selection of a  pump for any  specific installation should be
based on  competent advice.  Authorized factory representatives of
pump manufacturers are among those best qualified to provide this
service.
Sanitary Protection of Pumping Facilities
  The pump equipment for either power-driven  or manual systems
should be so constructed and installed as to prevent the entrance of
contamination  or objectionable material either into the well or into
the water that is being pumped. The  following factors should be
considered.
     1. Designing  the  pump  head or  enclosure so  as to prevent
         pollution of the  water by lubricants or  other maintenance
         materials  used   during  operation of the  equipment.
         Pollution from  hand  contact,  dust,  rain, birds,  flies,
         rodents or  animals,  and  similar  sources should  be
98

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           6      8       10      12
             NUMBER  OF FIXTURES
14
16
FIGURE 17.   Determining recommended pump capacity.

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TABLE 7.-Information on pumps
Type of pump

Reciprocating:
1. Shallow well . ...
2 Deep wen









Cutrifupl:
1. Shallow well 	
i. Straight
oantrifufal
(single star)






b. Regenerative vane
turbine type (single
impeller)



2 Deep well .
a. Vettkal line ihaf t
turbine (multi-
stage)







Practical suction
MAI
mi*

22-25 ft
12-25 ft.











20 ft. max.








28ft.rau.






Impellers sub-
merged*








Usual well-
••i in (Una ilaitlli
pumping depth

22-25 ft.
Up to 600 ft.











10-20 ft.








28ft






50-300 ft.









Usual praam
i, * j.
MMS

100-200 ft.
Up to 600 ft
•bore cylinder










100-150 ft








100-200 ft.






100-800 ft









AdrantaiM


l.Poative action.
2. Discharge against
variable heads.
3. Pumps water con-
taining and and silt
4. Especially adapted to
low capacity and
high arts.





1. Smooth, even flow.
2. Pumps water con-
taMn( sand and silt.
3. Pressure on lystem is
even and free from
shock.
4. Low-startnf torque.
5. Usually reliable and
food service life.
l.Same as straight
centrifugal except
not suitable for
pumping water con-
taining sand or lilt.
2.They are self-
priming.
1. Same as shallow wen
turbine.
2. A 11 electrical com-
accessible, above
ground.





Disadrutaces


1. Pulsmtinf 
-------
b. Submersible turbine
( multistage)
Jet:
2 Deep well
Rotary:
1 Shallow well 	
(•ew type)
2 Deep well
(helical rotary type).
Pump and motof
submerged.
15-20 ft. below
ejector.
15-20 ft. below
ejector.
22ft.
Usually
submerged.
50-400 ft.
Up to 15-20 ft.
below ejector.
25- 120 ft.
200 ft. max.
22ft.
50-500 ft.
50-400 ft.
80- 150 ft.
SO- 150 ft.
50-250 ft.
100-500 ft.
1 . Same as shallow well
turbine.
2. Easy to frost-proof
installation.
3. Short pump shaft to
motor.
4. Quiet operation.
5. Well straightness not
critical.
1. High capacity at low
heads.
2. Simple in operation.
3. Does not have to be
installed over the
well.
4. No moving parts in
the well.
1. Same as shallow well
jet.
2. Well slraightness not
critical.
1. Positive action.
2. Discharge constant
under variable heads.
3. Efficient operation.
1 . Same as shallow well
rotary.
2. Only one moving
pump device in well.
1. Repair to motor ot
pulling from well.
2. Sealing of electrical
water vapor critical.
3. Abrasion from sand.
1. Capacity reduces as
lift increases.
2. Air in suction or re-
turn line will stop
pumping.
1. Same as shallow well
jet.
especially at greater
lifts.
1. Subject lo rapid wear
sand or silt.
2. Wear of gears reduces
efficiency.
I. Same as shallow well
rotary except no gear
wear.
1.3500 RPM models.
because of smaller dri-
ft meters or greater
vulnerable to wear
and failure from sand
and other causes.
1. The amount of water
returned to ejector
creased lift - 50% of
total water pumped
at 50-ft lift and 75%
at 100-ft. lift.
1. A cut less rubber
stator increases life
of pump. Flexible
drive coupling has
been weak point in
pump. Best adapted
for low capacity and
high heads.
1 Practical wction lift at sea level. Reduce lift I foot for each 1,000 ft. above tea level.

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FIGURE 18.  Components of total operating head in well pump installations.



102

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         prevented  from reaching the water chamber of the pump
         or the source of supply.
    2. Designing the pump base or enclosure so as to facilitate the
         installation of a sanitary well seal within the well cover or
         casing.
    3. Installation of the pumping portion of the assembly near or
         below the static water level in the well so that priming will
         not be necessary.
    4. Designing  for frost  protection, including  pump  drainage
         within the well when necessary.
    5. Overall design consideration so as to best facilitate necessary
         maintenance and  repair, including overhead clearance for
         removing the drop pipe and other accessories.
  When  planning for sanitary protection  of a pump, specific types
of installations must be considered. The following points should be
considered for the different types of installations.
  Check  Valves.  The  only  check  valve  between  the pump and
storage should  be located within the well  (see fig. 24, p. 114), or at
least upstream  from any portion of a buried discharge line. This will
assure that the discharge line at any point where  it is in contact
with soil or a potentially contaminated medium will  remain  under
positive  system pressure - whether or not the pump is operating.
There should be no check  valve at the inlet to the pressure tank or
elevated storage  tank.  This  requirement would  not  apply to  a
concentric piping system,  with the external pipe constantly  under
system  pressure. (See fig. 14, p. 69; fig. 22,  p. 112; and fig.  23, p.
113.)
   Many  pumps  (submersibles, jets)  normally have check  valves
installed within the well.
   Well  Vents.  A well vent is recommended on all wells not having a
packer-type jet pump. The vent prevents a partial vacuum inside the
well casing as  the  pump lowers the  water level  in  the well. (The
packer-type jet installation cannot have a well vent, since the casing
is subjected to positive system pressure.) The  well vent - whether
built into the  sanitary  well  cover or conducted to a point remote
from the well  - should be protected from mechanical damage, have
watertight connections, and be resistant  to corrosion, vermin, and
rodents. (See fig. 7, p. 40; fig. 9, p. 47; and fig.  24, p. 114.)
   The opening of the  well vent should be located not less than 24
inches above  the highest known flood level. It should be screened
with durable  and corrosion-resistant materials (bronze or stainless
steel no. 24  mesh) or  otherwise  constructed  so  that openings
exclude insects and vermin.
   Miscellaneous.  Certain  types of power pumps require that the
 water be introduced into  the pumping system, either to prime the
 pump or to lubricate rubber bearings that have become dry while

                                                             103

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the  pump was inoperative. Water used for priming or lubricating
should be free of contamination.
   It is desirable to provide a water-sampling tap on the discharge
line  from power pumps.
Installation of Pumping Equipment
   Where and how the pump and power unit are mounted depend
primarily on the  type of pump employed.  The vertical turbine
centrifugal pump,  with power source located directly over the well
and  the pumping assembly submerged within the well, is gradually
being replaced by  the submersible unit, where  both the power unit
(electric  motor)  and  the  pump are  submerged within the well.
Similarly, the jet pump is gradually giving way to the submersible
pump    especially for deeper installations - because of the latter's
inherently superior performance and better operating economy.
   Vertical  Turbine  Pumps.  In  the  vertical  turbine  pump
installation, the power unit (usually an electric motor) is installed
directly over the well casing. The pump portion is submerged within
the well, and the two are connected by a shaft enclosed within the
pump column.  The pump column supports the bearing system for
the drive shaft and conducts the pumped water to the surface. (See
fig- 19.)
   Since the long shaft must  rotate at high speed (1,800  to 3,600
rpm), correct alinement of the motor, shaft, and pump is vital to
good performance and long life of the equipment. There are two
main points to consider in obtaining a proper installation:
     1. Correct and stable positioning of the power unit.
     2. Verticality and straightness of the pump column within  the
         well.
Since concrete slabs  tend to  deteriorate, settle, or crack from
weight and vibration,  it is usually  better  to  attach  the discharge
head to the well casing. Figure  19  shows one way to accomplish
this. For smoothest operation and minimum  wear, the plate (and
discharge head) should be mounted perpendicular to the axis of the
pump column as pump and column hang in the well. If the casing is
perfectly plumb, the pump column axis and the well  axis coincide,
and  a perfect installation results. It sometimes happens, though,
that  the  well is not plumb, or that it  is crooked. In this case, it is
necessary to adjust the position of the plate so that the axis of the
pump column lies as  close as possible to  the  axis of the well. If
there is  enough room inside  the casing (and this  is one  of  the
reasons  for installing  larger casing), there is a better chance  that
pump and column  will be able to hang plumb    or at least be able
to operate smoothly.  Once the  correct position of the plate is
determined, it is welded to the  well casing. The discharge head is
then bolted securely to the support plate.
  As explained  under "Sanitary  Construction of Wells" on  p. 48,

104

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     Bolt
    Lock
    Washer
                                      Pump
                                      Discharge
                                      Head
                                           Weld, Inside
                                           and Out
     Gasket
1/2"
Support
Plate
    Flat
    Washer

    Lock
    Washer
     Nut
    *Adequate for 6"and  smaller  wells

FIGURE 19.  Vertical (line shaft) turbine pump mounted on well casing.
                                      Well
                                      Casing
                                                        105

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sanitary well seals or covers are available for installation to seal the
well casing against contamination entering  at this point.  Some
designs, however, make it difficult or impossible to measure water
levels within  the well. This  deficiency should  be corrected  by
welding to  the  side of the casing an access pipe, which permits
introduction of a water-level measuring device. A hole is first cut in
the casing at a point far enough below the top to permit clear access
past the discharge head of the pump. The angle between the access
pipe and the casing should be  small enough to permit free entry of
the measuring line. Minimum inside diameter of the pipe should be
3/4 inch, and larger when possible. Before welding the pipe in place,
any sharp edges  around the hole through the casing should be filed
smooth so  that  the  measuring device will  slide  freely through
without catching or becoming scratched. An inclination angle of
one unit horizontal to  four units vertical provides a good access —
or, in other words, for each foot down from the top of the casing,
the access pipe will be inclined outward 3 inches horizontally from
the top.
   Some engineers and well service technicians recommend that all
wells  be equipped with such access pipes because  of the ease of
introducing and  withdrawing  measuring devices and because the
pipe permits chemical treatment of the well without removing the
sanitary well seal and pump.
   The welding around the access pipe should be at least as thick
and resistant to corrosion as the well casing itself. This is especially
important  if  the  connection  will  be located  below the ground
surface.
   Submersible Pumps.   Because all moving parts of the submersible
pump are located within the well in a unit, this pump can perform
well in casings  that  might be too crooked for vertical turbine
pumps.  If  there  is little difference  between  the inside  casing
diameter and  the outside diameter of the pump, the pump might
stick in the well casing, with the possibility that it could be damaged
during installation. If  there is any doubt about whether there is
room,  a "dummy" piece of pipe  whose dimensions are slightly
greater than those of the pump should first be run through the
casing to  make sure that  the  pump will pass freely to the desired
depth of setting.
   The entire weight of the pump, cable, drop pipe, column of water
within  the pipe, and reaction  load  when  pumping  must  be
supported by the drop pipe itself.  It is important, therefore, that
the drop pipe and couplings be of good quality steel, galvanized,
and of standard  weight. (See  "Casing and Pipe," p. 42.) Cast-iron
fittings should not be  used where they must support pumps  and
pump columns.
   The entire load of  submersible pumping equipment is normally

106

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suspended from the sanitary well seal or cover. An exception to this
would be the "pitless" installation. (See p. 109.)
  Jet Pumps. Jet pumps may be installed directly over the well, or
alongside it. Since there are no moving parts in the well, straightness
and  plumbness  do not affect the jet pump's performance.  The
weight of equipment in the well is relatively light, being mostly pipe
(often plastic),  so that loads are supported easily by the sanitary
well seal.  There are also a number of good  "pitless adapter" and
"pitless unit" designs for both single and double pipe jet systems.
(Seep. 109.)
  Hand  Pumps.  The  pump heads  on  most  force  pumps are
designed with a stuffing box  surrounding the pump rod. This design
provides reasonable protection against contamination. Ordinary lift
pumps with slotted pump head tops are open to contamination and
should not be used. The pump spout should be closed and directed
downward.
  The pump base should be designed to serve a twofold purpose:
first, to provide a means of  supporting the pump on the well cover
or casing top; and second, to protect the well opening or casing top
from the  entrance of contaminated water or other harmful or
objectionable material. The  base should be of the solid, one-piece,
recessed type, cast integrally with or threaded to the pump column
or stand. It should be of sufficient diameter and depth to permit a
6-inch well casing to extend at least 1 inch above the surface upon
which the  pump base is to rest. The use of a  flanged sleeve
embedded in  the concrete well cover  or  a  flange  threaded or
clamped on the top of the casing to form a  support for the pump
base is recommended. Suitable  gaskets  should be used to insure
tight closure.
   The  protective closing of the  pump head, together with the
pollution hazard incident to pump priming, makes it essential that
the  pump  cylinders  be  so installed that priming  will not be
necessary.
Pumphousing and Appurtenances
   A pumphouse installed above the surface of the ground should be
used. (See fig.  20.) The pumproom  floor should be of watertight
construction, preferably concrete, and should slope uniformly away
in  all directions from the well  casing or pipesleeve.  It should be
unnecessary to  use an  underground discharge connection if an
insulated,  heated  pumphouse  is  provided.  For  individual
installations  in rural   areas,  two  60-watt  light  bulbs,  a
 thermostatically controlled  electric heater, or a heating cable will
generally  provide adequate protection  when  the  pumphouse  is.
 properly insulated.
   In  areas  where  power  failures   may  occur,  an  emergency,

                                                           107

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                 Removable
                 Roof/Walls
                                                               Shingles &
                                                               Sheathing
                        FIG ORE 20.   Pumphouse.
108

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gasoline-driven power  supply or pump  should  be considered. A
natural disaster, such as a severe storm, hurricane, tornado, blizzard,
or flood, may cut off power for hours  or even days. A gasoline,
power-driven electrical  unit could supply the power requirements of
the pump, basic lighting, refrigeration, and other emergency needs.
Lightning Protection
  Voltage and current surges  produced in powerlines by  nearby
lightning discharges constitute  a serious  threat to electric motors.
The high  voltage can  easily perforate  and burn the insulation
between motor windings and motor frame. The submersible pump
motor is somewhat more vulnerable to this kind of damage because
it is submerged in ground water - the natural "ground" sought by
the  lightning discharge.  Actual failure  of  the  motor may be
immediate, or it may be delayed for weeks or months.
  There are  simple lightning arresters available to protect  motors
and appliances from "near miss" lightning strikes. (They are  seldom
effective against  direct hits.) The two types available are the valve
type and the expulsion type. The  valve  type should  be  preferred
because  its  "sparkover" voltage remains constant with repeated
operation.
  Just  as important as selecting  a good arrester is installing it
properly. The device  must be installed according to instructions
from the manufacturer and connected to  a good ground. In the case
Of  submersible   pumps, this good ground  can be  achieved by
connecting the ground terminal of the arrester to the submersible
pump motor frame by  means of a no. 12  stranded bare copper wire.
The low resistance (1 ohm or less) reduces  the voltage surge
reaching the  motor windings to levels that it can resist.
  If steel well casing extends into the ground water, the ground can
be improved still further by also connecting the bare copper wire to
the  well  casing.  IMPORTANT  NOTE.  Connecting the  ground
terminal of the arrester to a copper rod driven into the ground does
not satisfy grounding requirements. Similarly, if a steel casing that
does not reach the ground water is relied upon, the arrester may be
rendered ineffective.)
  Additional advice on the location and installation of lightning
arresters can be obtained from the power company serving the area.
pitless Units  and  Adapters
  Because of the pollution hazards involved, a well pit to house the
pumping equipment or to permit accessibility to the top of the well
is not recommended. Some States prohibit its use.
   A commercial unit known as the "pitless adapter"  is available to
eliminate  well pit construction. A specially designed connection
Between the underground  horizontal discharge pipe and the vertical
casing  pipe makes  it  possible  to  terminate  the  permanent,

                                                            109

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watertight casing of the well at a safe height (8 inches or more)
above the  final grade  level.  The underground  section of the
discharge pipe is permanently  installed and  it is not necessary to
disturb it when repairing the pump or cleaning the well (See figs
21-24.)
  There are numerous makes and models of pitless adapters and
units available.  Not  all are of good  design,  and a few  are  not
acceptable to some States. The  State or local health department
should be consulted first to learn what is acceptable.
  Both  the  National  Sanitation  Foundation1  and  the Water
Systems Council2  have  adopted  criteria  intended to assure  that
quality  materials   and  workmanship  are  employed  in  the
manufacture and installation of these devices. Unfortunately, the
safety of these installations  is  highly dependent on the quality of
workmanship applied during their attachment in the field. For this
reason, additional precautions and suggestions are offered here.
  There are two  general  types  of pitless installations. One, the
"pitless adapter," requires cutting a hole in the side of the casing at
a predetermined depth below the ground surface (usually below the
frost line). Into this opening there is inserted and attached a fitting
to accommodate the discharge line from the pump. Its design varies
according to  whether it is for a  pressure line alone or for  both
pressure and suction  lines (two-pipe jet pump  system with pump
mounted away from well). The other part of the adapter, mounted
inside  the  well,  supports  the  pumping  components  that  are
suspended in the well. Watertight  connection is accomplished  by a
system  of rubber  seals compressed by clamps or by the weight of
the equipment itself.
  The second type -  the "pitless unit"  - requires cutting off the
well casing  at the required depth and mounting thereon  an entire
unit with all necessary attachments preassembled at the factory.
  Regardless  of the  type of device employed, certain problems
arise, calling for special care. Some of these are described below,
with suggestions for their correction:
  1. Welding  below  ground,  in  cramped  quarters and under
all-weather  conditions,  is not conducive  to good workmanship. If
welding must be done,  the welder should be  an expert pipe welder,
and  he should have ample room for freedom  of movement  and ease
of visual inspection. A clamp-on, gasketed  pitless adapter is easier to
install, but requires a smooth and clean surface for the gasket.
  2. The  pitless unit  is  manufactured and  tested under factory
conditions.  However,  its  attachment to the  casing may present
special problems. If the well casing is threaded and coupled (T&C),
 'National Sanitation foundation. Post Office Box 1468, Ann Arbor, Mich. 48106.
 2Water Systems Council, 221 North LaSalle St., Chicago, 111. 60601.

110

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                            Lift-Out Device
  Snifter
  \falve
                                         "0-Ring Seab
                                                   Discharge Line
                                                   (System Pressure)
Submersible
Pump Power
Cable
 FIGURE 21.  Clamp-on pitless adapter for submersible pump installation.
                                                                Ill

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                           Lift-Out Device
                                     Threoded Field Connection
                                                       Grout
                                                  motion  Seal
       FIGURE 22.   Pitless unit with concentric external piping
                           for jet pump installation.
112

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                    Lift-out Device
                                Water-tight Weld on all Sides
                                       0-Ring Seal
                                             Space between Pipes Under
                                           /  System Pressure
                                           Suction Line
                                           (Reduced Pressure)
                                                 To Pump


                                           (Excavation)
FIGURE 23.   Weld-on pitless adapter with concentric external piping for
                         "shallow well" pump installation.
                                                                   113

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   Pros
                         -Sanitary Wen Cover (Vented)
                                             •Basement Wall
                                              Power
                                              Fused Disconnect Switch
                                              or Circuit Breakers
                                               Pump Controls
                                                        Pressure Tank
                      — Submersible Pump
                                                                     Outlet
     FIGURE 24.   Pitless adapter with submersible pump installation for
                                  basement storage.
114

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it may be possible to adjust the height of one of the joints so that it
is about right for the attachment of the unit. If the height cannot
be adjusted, or if welded joints have been made, the casing must be
cut off at the proper depth below ground and then threaded.
  Power-driven  pipe-threading machines can  be  used  to thread
casing "in place" in sizes up  to and including 4 inches. Between 10
and  12  full threads should be cut on the casing to make a good,
strong joint.  The threads should be good quality,  cut with dies in
good condition.
  When it is  necessary to weld, the first requirement is that  the
casing  be  cut  off square.  This  cut  can  be  made  by special
casing-cutting tools working inside the casing, or by "burning" with
an acetylene torch from outside. If the torch method is  used, it is
better  to  use a jig that  attaches to the casing,  supporting and
guiding the torch as the casing is burned off.
  A  competent welder should  be able to make a strong weld if
given enough room in which to work.  It is not  so easy to  get a
watertight joint under these conditions. Two or three "passes"
around  the  pipe should   be   made,  following recommended
procedures for pressure pipe welding. The final welded connection
should  be  at least as thick, as strong, and as resistant to corrosion as
the well casing itself.
   3. Clamps  and gaskets are used for attachment of both adapters
and  units. These  devices  have been  criticized  by some  health
departments  because  of their  relative  structural weakness  as
compared  with other  connections. It  is feared  by some that the
joint is more  easily broken or caused to leak  by mechanical damage,
or by frost-heave acting on the casing or the well slab.3
   It  is apparent  that a  watertight joint  requires  good contact
between the  gasket  and  the surfaces  against which it  is to seal.
Corrosion-resistant, machined surfaces provide better conditions for
this  seal.  When the  rubber  gasket is  required to seal  against the
casing, special care must  be  taken to assure that the contact surface
is  clean and smooth. Clamp-and-gasket  connections  should be
 designed  so  that  forces resulting from  weight,  misalinement,
 twisting, settlement, and  vibration are resisted by the  metal parts,
 and not by the rubber gaskets.
   4. Materials  used  in adapters, adapter  units, and   accessories
 should be selected carefully  for strength and resistance of corrosion.
 Corrosion potential is  high in the earth formations found closest to
 the surface and where there is moisture and  air. To use metals of
 differing  "potential"  in  contact  with each  other in  a corrosive
 environment is to invite  rapid  destruction  of one of them by
 electrolytic  corrosion. For  example, steel  clamps would be  more
  3Some States prohibit the use of "Dresser type" connections for pitless units.

                                                             115

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compatible with steel casing than most other metals or alloys. Some
metals that by  themselves  resist  corrosion  — e.g., bronze, brass,
copper, aluminum — may corrode, or cause others to corrode, when
placed in contact with dissimilar metals. Different metals placed in
a corrosive  environment should be insulated from  each other by
rubber, plastic, or other  nonconductor. Care should be taken in the
selection of welding materials; the welded connection is frequently
the point where corrosion begins.
  Cast iron is more resistant to corrosion than steel  under many
conditions of soil and water corrosiveness. However, some grades of
cast iron are unable to resist severe stresses resulting from tension,
bending, and impact. Metals used in castings subjected to such loads
should  be  selected, and   the   parts  designed,  to  meet  these
requirements.  The  consequences of breakage  can be serious and
expensive, especially if pumping equipment,  pipes, and accessories
fall into the well.
  For the  same  reasons, plastics should be  used in adapters and
units  only where they are not subjected to severe forces of bending,
tension, or shear.
  5. Extensive excavation around the well produces unstable soil
conditions, and later settlement is to be expected. Settlement of the
discharge line, unless at  least a  portion  of the line is flexible, will
place  a load on the adapter connection that could cause it to break
or leak. If for some reason  the use of rigid  pipe is necessary, the
connection should be by means  of a "gooseneck," a "swing joint,"
or  other  device  that   will  adjust  to  the settlement without
transferring  the load to the  adapter. The best fill material to use to
minimize settlement of the discharge  line  is  fine to medium sand,
washed into place. With a correctly placed cement grout seal around
the casing and below the point of attachment (see fig. 25), the sand
will not find its  way into the well. Sand  does not shrink or crack in
drying, and several feet of it  form  an efficient barrier  against
penetration by bacteria.
  6. Once a pitless unit has been installed and tested, there remains
the risk of accidental damage to the buried connection.  Numerous
cases  of breakage  by bulldozers  and  other  vehicles have been
documented. Until all construction and grading around the area
have been completed, the well should be marked clearly with a post
and flag. A "2 x 4" 3 or 4 feet  long, clamped  or wired securely to
the well casing and bearing a red  flag, has proved effective.
  If the well is located in an area where motor vehicles are likely to
be  operated, the  final installation should include protective pipe
posts  set in concrete. The posts should be just high enough to
protect the well, but not  so high  that they would interfere with well
servicing.
116

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                                         Pressure Gage

                                           Snifter Valve for
                                           Positive Pressure Test
                                                     Petcock Valve
Hose Fitting
for  Negative
Pressure Test
    Sanitary Well Seal
                                         Air Line to
                                         Test Plug
         Safety Chain
         Attached to
         Test Plug
           ft Aluminum
                                        Capped  Discharge
                                        Connection
            I-1/* 0Aluminum
                                       Plumbers Test Plug
                                       Inflated to Manufacturer's^
                                       Recommended       /  ,
                                       Pressure
           Field Connection
FIGURE 25.   Pitless adapter and unit testing equipment.
                                                                  117

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Inspection and Testing of Pitless Devices
  Pitless adapters and units are installed within the upper 10 feet of
the well structure — the zone of greatest potential for corrosion and
contamination. Procedures for inspecting and testing are  therefore
important.
  The buyer should select an adapter or unit that not only satisfies
health department  requirements and the design criteria above, but
whose manufacturer will stand behind it.
  Hiring a contractor with a reputation for good work is probably
the best assurance of getting the job done right. The owner should
insist that the contractor guarantee his  work for at least 1 year.
Some State and local health departments maintain lists of licensed
or certified contractors authorized by law to construct wells and
install pumping systems.
  Field connections  on pitless adapters and units can  be  easily
tested with the equipment shown in figure 25. The lower plug is
first positioned just below the deepest joint to be tested, and then
inflated to  the  required  pressure.  The  sanitary well seal is then
positioned in the top of the well and tightened securely to form an
airtight seal. This  isolated section of the  casing or unit is then
pressurized through the discharge fitting, or through a fitting in the
sanitary well seal. (See fig. 25.) A pressure of 5 to 7 pounds per
square inch should be applied and this pressure maintained, without
the addition of more air, for 1 hour. Warning: Do not hold face
over  well seal  while  pressurized!  While under  pressure, all field
connections should be tested for leaks with soap foam. Any sign  of
leakage — either by loss of pressure or by  the appearance of bubbles
through the soap —  calls for repair and retesting.
  Adapters and units that depend  on rubber or plastic seals in the
field  connection should  also  be  tested under negative pressure
conditions. This can be accomplished by connecting the hose fitting
(fig. 25) to a source of vacuum. The negative pressure is read on the
vacuum gage.
  Positive pressure  may be applied to the isolated section by means
of a tire pump, but a powered source makes the job much easier
and encourages better testing. If an  air compressor is not available
or handy, a tire-inflation kit of the kind that uses automobile
engine compression will be found convenient. The  plumber's test
plug should only be inflated by  means of a hand-operated tire
pump.
  Negative pressure is most readily applied by connecting a length
of vacuum hose (heavy wall, small bore) between the hose fitting in
the well seal and the vacuum system of an automobile engine. To
reach the  desired  negative pressure range (10 to 14 inches  of
mercury vacuum), it may be necessary to accelerate the engine for a
period  of  time.  Once the desired range  is reached,  the hose is

118

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clamped shut or plugged, the engine disconnected, and the vacuum
gage  observed over a period of 1  hour to see whether there is any
detectable loss of negative pressure.
   Leaks found  in rubber  or  plastic  seals should  be closed by
tightening the clamps, if possible. In case a cement sealant must be
applied, it should be of a kind that will provide a strong yet flexible
bond between the sealing surfaces, and should be compounded to
provide long service when buried.
   A negative pressure of 10 inches of mercury vacuum is equivalent
to about 11.3 feet of flood water over the joint in question when
the well casing is at atmospheric pressure.

pISTRIBUTION
pipe and Fittings
   For  reasons of economy and ease of construction, distribution
jjnes for small water systems are ordinarily made up with standard
threaded,  galvanized iron or steel pipe and fittings. Other types of
pipes used are cast  iron,  asbestos-cement, concrete, plastic, and
copper. Under certain conditions and in certain areas, it may  be
necessary  to use protective coatings, galvanizing, or have  the pipes
dipped or wrapped.  When  corrosive water or soil is encountered,
copper, brass,  wrought iron, plastic or  cast iron pipe,  although
usually more expensive initially, will have a longer, more useful life.
Cast iron is not usually available in sizes below 2 inches in diameter;
hence, its use is restricted to the larger transmission lines.
   Plastic pipe for cold water piping is usually simple to install, has a
low initial cost, and  has good hydraulic properties. When used in a
domestic  water system, plastic pipe  should  be certified by  an
acceptable  testing laboratory (such  as the National Sanitation
Foundation) as being nontoxic and non-taste-producing.  It should
be  protected  against  crushing  and  from  attack by  rodents.
Asbestos-cement pipe for water systems, available in  the  sizes
required,  has the  advantages of ease of installation  and  moderate
resistance to corrosion.
    Fittings are usually  available in the  same sizes and materials as
 piping, but  valves are  generally cast in bronze or other  alloys. In
 certain soils the use of dissimilar metals in fittings  and  pipe may
 create electrolytic corrosion problems. The use of nonconductive
 plastic inserts between pipe  and fittings or  the  installation of
 sacrificial anodes is helpful in minimizing such corrosion.
    Pipes should be  laid as straight as  possible in  trenches, with
 air-relief valves or hydrants  located at the high points on the line.
 Failure to provide for the release of accumulated air in a pipeline on
 hilly ground may greatly reduce the capacity of the line. It is
 necessary that  pipeline trenches  be  excavated  deep enough  to
 prevent freezing in the winter. Pipes placed in trenches at a depth of

                                                              119

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more than 3 feet will help to keep the water in the  pipeline cool
during the summer months.
Pipe Capacity and Head Loss
  The pipeline selected should be adequate to deliver the required
peak flow of-water without  excessive loss of head;  i.e., without
decreasing the  discharge  pressure below a desirable minimum. The
normal operating water  pressure for household or domestic use
ranges from 20 to 60 pounds  per square inch,4 or about 45 to 140
feet-of.head at the fixture.
  The •• capacity of a pipeline is determined by its  size, length, and
interior surface condition. Assuming that  the length of the pipe is
fixed and its interior condition established by the type of material,
the usual problem in design of a pipeline is that of determining the
required diameter.
 •The correct pipe size can be selected with the aid  of figure 26,
which gives size as a function  of head loss, H, length of pipeline, L,
and  peak discharge, Q. As an example  of the use of figure 26,
suppose that a home and farm installation is served by a reservoir a
minimum'distance of 500  feet from  the  point of use,  one whose
surface elevation  is at least 150 feet above the level of domestic
service, and in which a minimum service pressure of 30 pounds per
square inch is required. It  will be necessary first to determine the
maximum operating head loss, i.e., the difference in total head and
the required pressure head at the service.

               H=l 50-2.3X30=150-69=81 feet

The maximum peak demand  which  must be  delivered by the
pipeline is determined to be 30 gallons per  minute.

                    Q=30 gallons per minute

The hydraulic gradient is 0.162 foot  per foot.

            ;      H  81
                  -p=cQQ=0.162 foot per foot


Entering figure 26, with the computed values of  H/L and Q, one
finds  that the required  standard  galvanized  pipe size  is
approximately  1-3/8 inches.  Since  pipes are  available  only  in
standard dimensions, standard pipe of 1 '/2 inches in diameter (the
next size) should be used.
  Additional head losses may be expected from the  inclusion of
 - One pound per square inch is the pressure produced by a column of water 2.31 feet high.

120

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    O.I
  0.09
  008
  007
  0.06
  0.05
  0.04
   0.01
 0.009
 0.008
 0.007
 0006
  0.001
00009
00008
0.0007
0.0006
0.0005

00004
            (Hazen-William Formula C-100)
              3/4'      1°    1-1/4°  1-1/2'    2"  2-1/2°

             Nominal Diameter-Standard Galvanized Pipe
              FIGURE 26.  Head loss versus pipe size.
                                                                 121

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 fittings in the pipeline. These losses may be expressed in terms of
 the equivalent to the length and size of pipe which would produce
 an equivalent loss if, instead of adding fittings, we added additional
 pipe.  Table 8  lists some  common  fitting losses in terms  of an
 equivalent pipe length.

  TABLE 8. - Allowance in equivalent length of pipe for friction loss in valves
                             and threaded fittings
Diameter
of fitting
Inches
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
1-1/4
1-1/2
2
2-1/2
3
3-1/2
4
5
6
90° std.
eU
Feet
1
2
2.5
3
4
5
7
8
10
12
14
17
20
45° std.
eU
Feet
0.6
1.2
1.5
1.8
2.4
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
90° side
tee
Feet
1.5
3
4
5
6
7
10
12
15
18
21
25
30
Coupling
01 straight
run
Feet
0.3
0.6
0.8
0.9
1.2
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.6
4
5
6
Gate
valve
Feet
0.2
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.3
1.6
2
2.4
2.7
3.3
4
Globe
valve
Feet
8
15
20
25
35
45
55
65
80
100
125
140
165
Angle
valve
Feet
4
8
12
15
18
22
28
34
40
50
55
70
80
  In  the example given above  the  inclusion of two gate valves
(open),  two standard  elbows, and  two  standard  tees  (through)
would produce  a head loss equivalent to  15 feet of Ite-inch pipe.
From figure 26 one  finds that by using 515 feet of 1%-inch pipe
instead of the actual  length of 500 feet (H/L=0.157), the capacity
of the system for the same total head loss is about 38 gallons per
minute, a satisfactory discharge.
  It can be seen from  this example that fitting  losses are  not
particularly important  for  fairly long pipelines, say greater  than
about  300 feet.  For  pipelines less than 300 feet, fitting losses are
very  important  and have  a  direct  bearing  on  pipe  selected-
therefore, they should be calculated carefully.                     '
  Globe valves  which  do  produce  large  head losses  should  be
avoided in main  transmission lines for small water systems.
  Interior piping, fittings, and accessories should conform  to the
minimum requirements for plumbing of the National  Plumbing
Code5  or equivalent applicable plumbing code of the locality.
Protection of Distribution Systems
  The sanitary  protection  of  new  or repaired pipelines can  be
facilitated by proper attention to certain details of construction. All

 'Obtainable at the  American  Society of Mechanical Engineers, United
Center, 345 East 47th St., New York, N.Y. 10017.

122

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 connections should be made under dry conditions, either in a dry
 trench or, if it is not possible  to  completely dewater the trench,
 above  the  ground  surface. Soiled piping sliould  be thoroughly
 cleaned and disinfected before  connections are made. Flush valves
 or cleanouts  should be  provided at low points where there is no
 possibility of flooding.
   When not properly designed or installed, frostproof hydrants may
 permit contamination to  enter the water system.  Such hydrants
 should be provided with  suitable  drainage to a free  atmosphere
 outlet where possible. The drainage from the base of the hydrant
 should not  be connected to  a seepage  pit which is subject to
 pollution or to a sewer.  The water-supply inlet to water tanks used
 for stock, laundry tubs, and other similar installations should be
 placed with an air gap  (twice  pipe diameter) above the  flooding
 level of the fixtures to prevent danger of back siphonage. There
 should be no cross-connection, auxiliary intake,  bypass, or other
 piping  arrangement  whereby  polluted  water   or water  of
 questionable quality can be discharged or drawn into the domestic
 water supply system.
   Before a distribution system is placed in service it should be
 completely flushed and disinfected.

 Disinfection of Water-Distribution System
 General
   These instructions cover the disinfection of water distribution
 systems and attendant standpipes or tanks. It is always necessary to
 disinfect a water system before placing it in use under the following
 conditions:
     1. Disinfection of a  system  that has been in service with raw or
         polluted water, preparatory  to transferring the service to
         treated water.
     2. Disinfection  of a new  system  upon  completion  and
         preparatory to  placing in  operation with treated water or
         water of satisfactory quality.
     3. Disinfection of a system after completion of maintenance
         and repair operations.
procedure
   The  entire  system,  including  tank  or standpipe, should  be
 thoroughly flushed with water  to  remove any sediment that may
 jkave collected during operation  with raw water. Following flushing,
 the system should be filled with a  disinfecting solution of calcium
 jiypochlorite and treated water. This solution is prepared by adding
 1.2 pounds of high-test 70 percent calcium hypochlonte to each
 1,000 gallons of  water,  or by  adding 2  gallons  of ordinary
 household liquid bleach  to each 1,000 gallons of water. A mixture

                                                            123

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 of this kind provides a solution having not less than 100 mg/fi of
 available chlorine.
   The  disinfectant  should be  retained in the  system, tank,  or
 standpipe, if included, for not  less  than 24 hours, then examined
 for residual chlorine  and drained out.  If no  residual  chlorine is
 found present, the process should be repeated. The system is next
 flushed with treated water and put into operation.

 STORAGE
 Determination of Storage Volume
   Three types of storage facilities  are  commonly employed  for
 individual  water  supply systems. They are pressure tanks, elevated
 storage tanks, and ground-level reservoirs and cisterns.
   When ground  water  sources with sufficient capacity and not
 requiring treatment  are used, only a small artificial storage  facility
 may  be  needed  since the  water-bearing  formation  tapped
 constitutes a natural storage area.
   Pressure Tanks.  Pressure in  a distribution system served by a
 pneumatic tank  is maintained  by pumping water directly to the
 tank from the source. This pumping action compresses a volume of
 entrapped  air. The air pressure  equal to the water pressure in the
 tank can be controlled between  desired limits by means of pressure
 switches which stop the pump at the maximum setting and start it
 at  the minimum  setting. The capacity of pressure tanks is  usually
 small when compared  to the total daily water consumption. Tanks
 are customarily designed  to accommodate only momentary peak
 demands  because only  10  to  20  percent  of tank capacity  is
 available. The maximum steady  demand which  can be delivered by
 a pneumatic system is equal to the pump capacity.
  Generally, the  pressure tank should be approximately 10 times
 the  pump capacity  in gallons  per minute. When the  well yield
 permits, it  is advisable to select a pump large enough to satisfy the
 peak demand periods.
  Pressure  tanks  for individual  home installations should  have a
 capacity of at least 42 gallons or about 10 or 15 gallons per person
 served.
  The following equation is suggested for use in estimating the size
 of a pressure storage tank needed in larger water supply systems
The volume can be computed with the aid of the following formula.6
 *J. A. Sdvato, h., Environmental SantttOon (New York, John Wiley A Sons, 1958).

124

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Where Q is the tank volume in gallons, Qm is equal to 15 minutes of
storage at peak rate, P, is the minimum absolute operating pressure
(gage pressure plus atmospheric pressure or 14.7 pounds per square
inch), and  P2 is the maximum absolute pressure. As an example of
the use of the equation, suppose that a pressure tank was to be used
for a larger water system which has a peak demand of 30 gallons per
minute and that the gage pressure on the tank could be allowed to
vary from 40 to 60 pounds per square inch. Then

                       Pi-40+14.7
                      Tt 60+14.7 °'73

and

             Qm  = 15 min. X 30 gpm = 450 gallons

Substituting these values in the first equation, above, gives

                       450
                  Q = j _Q73 = 1.667 gallons

the minimum tank size needed.
  When a pressure tank is provided in the distribution system there
is no difficulty with water hammer. Otherwise, it may be necessary
to provide an  air chamber on the discharge line from  the well
located  near the  pump to minimize the effects  caused by  water
hammer.
  Elevated Storage.   Elevated tanks should have a capacity which is
at least  equal to 2 days' average consumption requirement. Larger
storage volume may be necessary to meet special  demands such as
firefighting or equipment cleanup operations.
  Ground-Level Reservoirs and  Cisterns.  Reservoirs  that receive
surface  runoff should generally  be large  enough to  supply the
average  daily demand over a drought period of maximum length.
Cisterns  are customarily  designed  with sufficient  capacity  to
provide water during periods less than 1 year in duration.
Protection  of Storage Facilities
  Suitable  storage  facilities for relatively small systems may  be
constructed of  concrete, steel, brick, and sometimes of wood above
the land surface, or of concrete or brick if partially or wholly below
the ground surface. Such storage installations should receive the
same care  as cistern installations in the selection of a suitable
location  and provision against contamination. Asphalt  or tar for
waterproofing the interior of storage units is not recommended
because of the objectionable taste imparted to the water and the

                                                           125

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possibility of undesirable chemical reaction with the materials used
for treatment.  Specifications covering the painting of water tanks
are  available   from  the  American  Water  Works Association.7
Appropriate  Federal,  State, or  local health  agencies should  be
consulted relative to approved paint coatings for interior tank use.
  All storage tanks for domestic water supply should be completely
covered and so constructed as to prevent the possibility of pollution
of the  tank  contents by outside water  or other foreign matter.
Figures 27 and 28 show some details for manhole covers and piping
connections  to prevent the entrance  of pollution  from surface
drainage. Concrete  and brick tanks should be made watertight by a
lining of rich cement mortar. Wood tanks are generally constructed
of redwood or cypress and while filled they will remain watertight.
All tanks require  adequate screening of any  openings to protect
against  the entrance  of small animals, mosquitoes, flies, and other
small insects.
  Tanks containing  water to  be used  for  livestock should  be
partially covered and  so constructed that cattle will not enter the
tank. The  area around the tank should  be sloped  to  drain  away
from the tank.
   Figure 27  shows a typical concrete reservoir with screened inlet
and  outlet pipes. This  figure also illustrates the sanitary manhole
cover. The cover should overlap by at least 2 inches a rim elevated
at least 4 inches to prevent drainage from entering the reservoir.
This type of manhole frame and cover should be designed so that it
may be locked to prevent access by unauthorized persons.
   The water in storage tanks,  cisterns, or pipelines should not be
polluted with an emergency water supply  that has been polluted at
its source or in transit.
   Disinfection of  storage  facilities subsequent to construction or
repair  should  be  carried   out  in  accordance with the
recommendations  stated under "Disinfection of Water Distribution
System" in this part of the manual.
  7American Water Works Association, 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y. 10016.

126

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                     Lock
Screened Overflow-,
and Vent        /
                         \
                                                    Switch Control.
                                       Screened Drain
                                           Slope Floor to Drain
                  FIGURE 27.  Typical concrete reservoir.
                                                                               127

-------
     Overlapping,  Circular Iron Cover
              Iron Cover
         Galvanized Sheet Metal
          Over Wooden Cover
            Concrete Cover

           MANHOLE COVERS
                                                                   Foot Piece or Brick
                          TYPICAL VALVE AND BOX
          '!!'







s
•w r
: •• ' •'. < '
•lif'V
t * v
r V •*
1 r ,
f|'^.>.
M 'J.v *••
Y'Vr:,
«U £ '
l£gi



— Rf




  -No.  16 Mesh
     Copper Screen

-Reservoir or
 Cistern Wall
                                                                             Coupling
                                                         Pipe Connection With
                                                         Anchor Flange Casting
                                                                       Topof Cistern
                                                                       or Reservoir
            OVERFLOW AND VFNT                       VENT

 FIGURE 28.   Typical valve and box, manhole covers, and piping installations

128

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                             Bibliography

     List  of References  on  Individual  Water
                          Supply  Systems
American  Public Health  Association,  American Water Works  Association, and Water
  Pollution Control Federation, Standard Methods for  the Examination of Water and
  Waste Water, 13th ed., American Public Health Association, New York, N.Y. (1971).

American Water Works Association, Water Quality and Treatment. 3d ed., American Water
  Works Association, New York, N.Y. (1971).

American Water Works Association, American Society  of Civil Engineers, and Conference
  of  State Sanitary Engineers, Water Treatment Plant Design,  American Water Works
  Association, New York, N.Y. (1969).

American Water Works Association, Committee on Viruses in Water, "Viruses in Water,"
  Journal of the American  Water Works Association, Vol. 61, No. 10, pp. 491-494 (1969).

Anderson, Keith E., Water Well Handbook,  Missouri Water Well and  Pump Contractors
  Association, Rolla, Mo. (1971).

Baker, R. J., Carroll. L. J., and Laubusch, E. J., Water Chlorination Handbook, American
  Water Works Association, New York, N.Y. (1972).

Capitol Controls Co.,  "Chlorination Guide," Capitol Controls Co.,Colmar, Pa. (undated).

Chang, S. L., "lodination of Water," Boletin de la Oficina Sanitaria Panamericana, Vol. 59,
  pp. 317-331 (1966).

Departments of the Army and the Air I-'orce, Well Drilling Operations (TM 5-297, AFM
  85-23), U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (Sept. 1965).

Gibson, U. P..  and Singer, R. D., Water  Well Manual,  Premier Press, Berkeley, Calif.
  (1971).

Goldstein, Melvin.  McCabe, L.  J., Jr., and  Woodward,  Richard L.,  "Continuous-Flow
  Water  Pasteurizer  for   Small  Supplies,"  Journal  of  the  American  Water Works
  Association, Vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 247-254 (Feb. 1960).

 Hill,  R.  D., and  Schwab, G. O.,  "Pressurized  Filters  for Pond Water Treatment."
  Transactions  of the ASAE, Vol. 7, No.  4, pp.  370-374, 379, American Society of
  Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich. (1964).
                                                                          129

-------
 Hodgkinson, Carl, Removal of Coliform Bacteria from Sewage by Percolation through
  Soil, University of California, Sanitary Engineering Research Laboratory, IER Series 90
  No. I.Berkeley,Calif. (1955).

 Hooker, Dan, "How to Protect the Submersible Pump from Lightning Surge Damage "
  Bulletin DPED-27, General Electric Co., Pittsfield, Mass. (1969).                    '

 Inter-Agency Committee on Water Resources, "Inventory  of Federal Sources of Ground
  Water Data," Notes on Hydrologic Activities, Bulletin No. 12, U:S. Geological Survey
  Washington, D.C. (1966).

 Joint Committee on Plastics.  Thermoplastic Materials, Pipe, Fittings,  Valves,  Traps, and
  Joining Materials (Standard No.  14), National Sanitation Foundation  Ann Arbor Mich
  (1965).

 National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors, National Standard
  Plumbing Code, National Association of Plumbing, Heating, and Cooling Contractors
  Washington, D.C. (1971).

 National Fire Protection Association, "Water Supply Systems for Rural Fire Protection "
  National Fire Codes, Vol. 8, Boston, Mass. (1969).

 National Sanitation Foundation Testing Laboratory, Seal  of Approval Listing of Plastic
  Materials, Pipe, Fittings and Appurtenances for Potable Water and Waste Water, National
  Sanitation Foundation, Ann Arbor, Mich, (revised annually).

National Water Well  Association, "The Authoritative Primer: Ground Water Pollution,"
  Water Well Journal, Special Issue, Vol. 24, No. 7 (1970).

Olin Corporation, "Hypochlorination of Water," Olin Corporation - Chemicals Division,
  New York, N.Y. (1962).

Tardiff, R. D., and  McCabe,  L. J.,  "Rural Water Quality Problems and the Need for
  Improvement," Second Water Quality Seminar Proceedings, pp. 34-36, American Society
  of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich. (1968).

Todd, D. K.,  The Water Encyclopedia, Water Information Center, Manhasset Isle, Port
  Washington, N.Y. (1970).

U. O. P. Johnson Division, Ground Water and  Wells, U. O. P. Johnson Division, St. Paul,
  Minn. (1972).

U.S.  Department  of  Health,  Education,  and  Welfare,  "A   Guide to  Reading on
  Fluoridation,"  U.S. Public Health Service Pub. No. 1680, Environmental  Protection
  Agency National Environmental Research Center, Cincinnati, Ohio (1970).

U.S. Department of  Health, Education, and Welfare, "Environmental Health  Guide for
  Mobilehome  Communities,  with  a  Recommended  Ordinance,"  Mobile  Homes
  Manufacturers Association, 6650 N. Northwest Highway, Chicago, 111. 60631 (1971).

U.S. Department of  Health, Education, and Welfare, "Policy Statement on Use of the
  Ultraviolet Process for Disinfection of Water," Environmental Protection Agency, Water
  Supply Division, Washington, D.C. (Apr. 1, 1966).
130

-------
U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, "Minimum Property Standards for
 One and Two Living Units," Federal Housing Administration, U.S. Government Printing
 Office, Washington, D.C. (1966).

U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, "A Primer on Ground Water," U.S.
 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (reprinted annually).

U.S. Department of  the  Interior,  Geological Survey, "A  Primer  on Water,"  U.S.
 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (reprinted annually).

U.S. Department of the Interior, Geological Survey, "A Primer on Water Quality," U.S.
 Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (reprinted annually).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and  American Water Works Association, "Control
 of Biological  Problems in Water Supplies," Environmental Protection Agency, Water
 Supply Division, Denver, Colo. (1971).

U.S.  Environmental Protection  Agency,  "Fluoridation Engineering Manual,"
 Environmental Protection Agency, Water Supply Division, Washington, D.C. (1972).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Health Guidelines for Water and Related Land
 Resources Planning, Development and Management," Environmental Protection Agency,
 Water  Supply Division, Washington, D.C. (1971).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "List of Publications Concerning Water Supply
 Problems," Environmental Protection Agency, Water Quality Office, Cincinnati, Ohio
 (1971).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Manual for Evaluating Public Drinking Water
 Supplies," U.S. Public Health Service Pub. No. 1820, U.S. Government Printing Office,
 Washington, D.C.  (1971).

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, "Sanitary Survey of Drinking Water Systems on
 Federal Water Resource Developments - A Pilot Study," Washington, D.C. (1971).

Wnitsell, W. J., and Hutchinson, G. D., "Seven Danger Signals for Individual Water Supply
 Systems," Transactions of the American  Society of Agricultural Engineers (in press).
 American Society of Agricultural Engineers, St. Joseph, Mich. (1973).

Winton, E. F., "The  Health Effects of Nitrates in Water," Proceedings of the Twelfth
 Sanitary Engineering Conference,  Nitrate and Water Supply: Source and Control,
  Urbana,IU. (1970).

Woodward, R.  L., "The Significance of Pesticides in Drinking Water," Journal of the
 American Water Works Association, Vol. 52, No. 11, pp. 1367-1372 (1960).
                                                                             131

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                         Appendix A

      Recommended Procedure for Cement

   Grouting  of Wells for Sanitary Protection1
  The annular open space on the outside of the well casing is one of
the  principal avenues  through  which  undesirable  water  and
contamination may gain access to a well. The most satisfactory way
of eliminating this hazard  is to fill  the  annular space with  neat
cement  grout. To accomplish this satisfactorily, careful attention
should be given to see that:
    1. The grout mixture is properly prepared.
    2. The grout material is  placed in one continuous mass.
    3. The grout material is placed upward from the bottom of the
        space to be grouted.
  Neat cement  grout should be a mixture of cement and water in
the proportion of 1  bag of cement (94 pounds) and 5 to 6 gallons
of clean water. Whenever possible, the water content should be kept
near the lower limit  given. Hydrated lime to  the extent of 10
percent  of the volume of cement may be  added  to make the grout
mix more fluid and thereby facilitate placement by the pumping
equipment. Mixing of cement or cement and hydrated lime with the
water must be thorough. Up to 5 percent by weight of bentonite
clay may be added to reduce shrinkage.
GROUTING PROCEDURE
  The grout mixture must be placed in one continuous mass; hence,
before starting the operation, sufficient materials should be on  hand
and other facilities  available to accomplish  its placement without
interruption.
  Restricted  passages will result in clogging and failure to complete
the grouting operation.  The minimum  clearance  at  any point,
including  couplings, should not  be less than  1% inches. When
grouting through the  annular space,  the grout pipe should not be
  This information has been taken principally from a pamphlet of the Wisconsin State
 Board of Health entitled "Method of Cement Grouting for Sanitary Protection of Wells."
 The subject is discussed in greater detail in that publication. (NOTE: Publication is out of
 print.)

                                                          133

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 less than 1-inch nominal diameter. As the grout moves upward  it
 picks  up  much  loose  material  such  as  results  from  caving
 Accordingly, it is desirable to waste a suitable quantity of the grout
 which first emerges from the drill hole.
  In grouting a well so that the material will move upward, there are
 two general procedures that may be followed. The grout pipe may
 be  installed within  the well casing or in the annular space between
 the casing and drill hole if there  is sufficient clearance to permit
 this.  In  the latter case,  the grout pipe is installed in the annular
 space to within a few inches of the bottom. The grout  is pumped
 through  this pipe,  discharging into the annular space, and moving
 upward around the casing, finally overflowing at the land surface
 In  3 to 7 days the grout will be set, and the well can be completed
 and pumping  started. A waiting period of only 24 to 36 hours is
 required if quick-setting cement is used.
  When  the grout pipe is installed  within the well casing, the casing
 should be supported a few inches above the bottom during grouting
 to  permit grout to flow into the annular space. The well casing is
 fitted at the bottom with an  adapter threaded to receive the grout
 pipe and a check valve  to prevent  return of grout  inside of the
 casing. After grout  appears at the  surface, the casing is lowered to
 the bottom and the grout pipe is unscrewed immediately and raised
 a few inches. A suitable quantity of water should then be pumped
 through  it, thereby flushing any remaining grout from  it and the
 casing. The grout pipe is then  removed from the well and 3 to 7
 days are allowed for setting of the grout. The well is then  cleared by
 drilling out the adapter, check valve, plug, and grout  remaining
 within the well.
  A modification of this procedure is the use of the well  casing
 itself to convey  the grout to  the  annular space. The casing  is
 suspended in the drill hole and  held  several feet off the bottom. A
 spacer is inserted  in the casing. The casing is  then  capped and
 connection made  from it to grout pump. The estimated quantity of
 grout, including a suitable allowance for filling of crevices and other
 voids, is then pumped into the casing. The spacer moves  before the
 grout, in turn  forcing the water in the well ahead of it. Arriving at
 the lower casing terminal, the spacer is forced to the bottom  of the
 drill hole, leaving sufficient clearance to permit flow of  grout into
 the annular space and upward through it.
  After the desired amount  of grout has  been  pumped into  the
 casing, the cap is removed and a  second spacer is inserted in the
 casing. The cap is then replaced and a measured volume of water
sufficient to fill all  but a few feet  of the casing is pumped into it.
Thus all but a small quantity of the grout is forced from the casing
into the annular space. From  3  to  7  days are allowed for setting of
the grout. The spacers and grout remaining in the casing and drill

 134

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hole are then drilled out and the well completed.
  If the  annular space is to be grouted for only part of the total
depth of the well, the grouting can be carried out as directed above
when the well reaches the desired depth, and the well can then be
drilled deeper by lowering the tools inside of the first casing. In this
type of construction, where casings of various sizes telescope within
each  other,  a  seal   should be  placed at the level  where  the
telescoping begins, that is,  in the annular space between the  two
casings. The annular space  for grouting between two casings should
provide a clearance of at least 1 ¥2 inches, and the depth of the seal
should be not less than 10 feet.
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                         Appendix B

                Bacteriological  Quality
SAMPLING
  In  the  event that bacteriological  samples must be  obtained
without technical  assistance, it  is possible to insure satisfactory
results by following these steps carefully:
    1. Use  a  sterile sample bottle provided by the laboratory that
        will  examine the sample.
    2. Be  very careful  so  that  nothing  except  the water to be
        analyzed will come in contact with the inside of the bottle
        or the cap. Do not rinse the bottle.
    3. Inspect the  outside of the faucet. If water leaks around the
        outside of the faucet, a different sampling point should be
        selected.
    4. Allow  the water to run for sufficient time to permit clearing
        of the service line before the sample of water is collected.
    5. When  filling the bottle, be sure that the bottle is held so that
        no water which contacts the hands runs into the bottle.
    6. Deliver the  sample immediately to the laboratory. If samples
        cannot be processed within 1 hour, the use of iced coolers
        for  storage  of samples  during transport is recommended.
        In no case should the time elapsing between collection and
        examination exceed 30 hours.
EXAMINATIONS
  At  the present time there are two methods used for determining
the bacteriological quality of a water supply: the  multiple-tube
fermentation  technique and the membrane filter technique.
  The multiple-tube fermentation technique for determining the
presence of coliform bacteria requires 2 to 4 days to obtain results
after  the sample is received in the  laboratory. It also requires the
use of trained personnel and centralized laboratory facilities.
  In addition, the  membrane filter technique is a standard method
for making coliform determinations.  This technique permits the
examination  of a greater number of samples than the multiple-tube
test,  with  increased sensitivity  in  coliform  detection. The  most

                                                           137

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 important  benefit derived from the use of this technique is that
 definite results are obtained in 18 to 20 hours, a much shorter time
 than  with  the multiple-tube  procedure. The membrane filter
 method also permits field testing with self-contained portable kits
 that are commercially available.  The  membrane filter technique
 may be used in disasters  and in emergencies such as those arising
 from  floods or hurricanes,  where the  time which elapses before
 results  of the  examination are  available is  an  important
 consideration in the prompt initiation of protective measures.
138

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                         Appendix C

               Emergency Disinfection
  When ground water is not available and surface water must be
used, avoid  sources containing floating material or water with a
dark color or an odor. The water tank from a surface source should
be  taken  from a  point upstream from any inhabited area  and
dipped, if possible, from below the surface.
  When the home  water supply system is interrupted by natural or
other forms of disaster,  limited amounts of water may be obtained
by draining the hot water tank or melting ice cubes.
  In case of a nuclear attack, surface water should not be used for
domestic purposes unless it is first found to be free from excessive
radioactive fallout. The  usual emergency treatment procedures do
not  remove such  substances. Competent radiological monitoring
services as may be available in local areas should be relied upon for
this information.
  There  are two  general methods by which small quantities of
water can be effectively disinfected. One method is by boiling. It is
the most positive method by which water can be made bacterially
safe to drink. Another method is chemical treatment. If applied
with care, certain chemicals will make most waters free of harmful
or pathogenic organisms.
  When emergency disinfection is necessary, the physical condition
of the water must be considered. The degree of disinfection will be
reduced in water that is turbid. Turbid or colored water should be
filtered through clean  cloths or allowed to settle, and the  clean
water drawn off before disinfection. Water prepared for disinfection
should be  stored only  in  clean,  tightly covered, noncorrodible
containers.
METHODS OF EMERGENCY DISINFECTION
   1. Boiling.  Vigorous  boiling for  1 full  minute will kill  any
disease-causing bacteria present in  water. The flat taste of boiled
water can be improved by pouring it back and  forth from one
container into another,  by  allowing it to stand for a few hours, or
by adding a small pinch  of salt for each quart of water boiled.

                                                           139

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  2. Chemical Treatment.  When boiling is not practical, chemical
disinfection should be used. The two chemicals commonly used are
chlorine and iodine.
     a. Chlorine
       (1) Chlorine Bleach.  Common household  bleach contains a
chlorine  compound that will disinfect water. The procedure to be
followed is  usually written  on the  label.  When  the  necessary
procedure is not given, one should find the percentage of available
chlorine  on the label  and use the information  in  the  following
tabulation as a guide:
Available chlorine1
1%
4-6%
7-10%
Drops per
quart of
dear water
10
2
1
               'if strength is unknown, add 10 drops per quart to
             purify.
               ^Double amount for turbid or colored water.

  The treated  water should be  mixed thoroughly and allowed to
stand for 30 minutes. The water should have a slight chlorine odor;
if not, repeat  the dosage and  allow the water  to stand  for  an
additional 15 minutes. If the treated water has too strong a chlorine
taste, it can be made more palatable by allowing the water to stand
exposed  to the air for a few hours or by  pouring it from one clean
container to another several times.
       (2) Granular Calcium Hypochlorite.  Add and dissolve one
heaping  teaspoon of high-test  granular  calcium  hypochlorite
(approximately 1/4  ounce)  for  each 2  gallons of  water.  This
mixture  will produce a stock chlorine solution of approximately
500 mg/2, since the calcium hypochlorite has an available chlorine
equal  to 70 percent of  its  weight.  To  disinfect water, add  the
chlorine  solution in the ratio of one  part of chlorine  solution to
each  100 parts of water  to be treated.  This is roughly equal to
adding 1 pint  (16 oz.) of stock  chlorine solution to  each 12.5
gallons of  water to be disinfected. To remove any objectionable
chlorine  odor, aerate the water as described above.
       (3)  Chlorine  Tablets.  Chlorine   tablets containing  the
necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can be purchased
in a commercially  prepared form. These tablets are available from
drug and sporting goods stores and should be used as stated in the
instructions. When instructions are not available, use one tablet for
each quart of water to be purified.
140

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    b. Iodine
       (1) Tincture of Iodine.  Common household iodine from the
medicine chest or first aid package may be  used to disinfect water.
Add five drops of 2 percent  United States Pharmacopeia (U.S.P.)
tincture of iodine to  each quart of clear water. For turbid water add
10 drops and let the solution stand for at least 30 minutes.
       (2) Iodine  Tablets.   Commercially  prepared iodine tablets
containing the necessary dosage for drinking water disinfection can
be  purchased at drug and  sporting goods stores. They should be
used  as stated  in  the instructions. When  instructions  are not
available, use one tablet for each quart of water to be purified.
  Water to be  used for  drinking, cooking, making  any prepared
drink, or brushing the teeth should be properly disinfected.
                                                             141

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                        Appendix D

                 Suggested Ordinance
  The  following  is suggested for consideration in drafting  an
ordinance for  local application,  subject to the approval of the
appropriate legal authority, to permit the exercise of appropriate
legal controls over non public ground water supply systems used for
domestic purposes,  to  assure  that the quality  of such  water  is
protected by the proper  construction  and installation of wells,
pumping equipment and appurtenant pipelines.
  This suggested  legislation has  been adapted from U.S. Public
Health   Service  Publication  No.  1451,  "Recommended State
Legislation and Regulations" (July 1965).
  Persons using  this draft as a guide are urged to  familiarize
themselves  with applicable legal requirements  governing  the
adoption of ordinances  of this kind  and to adapt the suggested
language as may be necessary to meet such requirements.

       SUGGESTED LEGISLATION  FOR WATER WELL
         CONSTRUCTION AND  PUMP INSTALLATION

          [Title should conform  to State requirements]

Be it enacted, etc.

Section 1. Short Title
  This Act shall be known and may be  cited as the "[State] Water
Well Construction and Pump Installation Act."
Section 2. Findings and Policy
  The  [State]  legislature  finds  that improperly  constructed,
operated, maintained, or abandoned  water wells and  improperly
installed pumps and pumping equipment can  affect  the public
health adversely. Consistent with the  duty to safeguard the public
health of this State, it is declared to be the policy of this State  to
require that the location, construction, repair, and abandonment of
water wells, and  the installation and repair of pumps and  pumping
equipment conform to  such reasonable requirements  as  may  be
necessary to protect the public health.
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 Section 3. Definitions
   As used in this act:
     (a) Abandoned  water well means a well whose  use  has been
 permanently discontinued.  Any well shall  be deemed abandoned
 that  is in such  a  state of disrepair that  continued use for  the
 purpose of obtaining ground water is impracticable.
     (b) Construction of water  wells means all acts necessary to
 obtain ground water by wells, including the location and excavation
 of the well,  but  excluding the installation of pumps  and  pumping
 equipment.
     (c) Department means the [designated agency presently having
 authority to  regulate sanitary practices within the State, usually the
 State department of health].
     (d) Ground water  means water occurring naturally in under-
 ground formations that  are saturated with water.
     (e) Installation of pumps and pumping equipment means the
 procedure  employed  in  the  placement   and  preparation  for
 operation  of  pumps  and  pumping  equipment,   including  all
 construction involved in  making entrance  to  the well  and
 establishing seals, but  not  including  repairs, as defined in this
 section, to existing installations.
     (0 Municipality means  a  city,  town, borough, county, parish,
 district, or other  public body created by or pursuant  to State law,
 or any combination thereof acting cooperatively or jointly.
     (g) Pumps  and pumping equipment mean any  equipment or
 materials used  or intended for use in  withdrawing  or obtaining
ground water, including, without limitation, seals and  tanks,
 together with fittings and controls.
     (h) Pump installation contractor means any person,  firm, or
 corporation engaged in  the business of installing or repairing pumps
and pumping equipment.
     (i) Repair  means any action  that  results in  a breaking  or
opening of the well seal  or replacement of a pump.
     (j) Well  means any excavation  that is drilled, cored, bored,
 washed,  driven, dug, jetted, or otherwise  constructed when  the
intended use of such excavation is for the location, extraction, or
artificial recharge of ground water;  but such term does not include
an excavation made for the purpose of obtaining or for prospecting
tor oil, natural  gas, minerals, or products of mining or  quarrying, or
for inserting media  to  repressure oil or natural gas bearing for-
mation or for storing petroleum, natural gas, or other products.1
     (k) Water well contractor  means any person,  firm, or  corpora-
tion  engaged in the business of constructing water wells.
 'Some States may wish to include within the coverage of this definition seismologies!,
geophysical, prospecting, observation, or test wells.

144

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    (1) Well seal means an approved arrangement or device used to
cap a well  or  to  establish  and maintain a junction between the
casing or curbing of a well and the piping or equipment installed
therein, the purpose or function of which is to prevent pollutants
from entering the well at the upper terminal.

Section 4. Scope
  No person shall  construct, repair, or abandon, or cause to be
constructed, repaired, or abandoned, any water  well, nor shall any
person install, repair, or cause to be installed or repaired, any pump
or pumping equipment contrary to the provisions of this act and
applicable rules and regulations, provided that this act shall not
apply to any distribution of water  beyond the point of discharge
from the storage or pressure tank, or beyond the point of discharge
from  the pump  if no tank  is employed, nor to wells used or
intended to  be  used as a source of water supply for municipal water
supply systems, nor to any well, pump, or other equipment used
temporarily  for dewatering purposes.

Section 5. Authority to Adopt Rules, Regulations, and Procedures
  The Department shall adopt, and from time to time amend, rules
and regulations governing the location, construction, repair, and
abandonment  of water wells, and the installation,  and repair of
pumps and  pumping  equipment, and shall be responsible for the
administration of this act. With respect thereto it shall:
    (a) Hold public hearings, upon not less than sixty (60) days'
prior  notice published in  one or  more newspapers, as  may be
necessary to assure general circulation throughout  the State, in
connection  with  proposed rules  and regulations and amendments
thereto.2
    (b) Enforce  the   provisions  of this act and any rules  and
regulations adopted pursuant thereto.
    (c) Delegate, at its  discretion,  to any municipality any of its
authority under  this act in the administration of the rules and
regulations adopted hereunder.
    (d) Establish procedures and forms for the  submission, review,
approval, and rejection of applications, notifications,  and  reports
required under this act.
    (e) Issue  such additional regulations,  and take  such other
actions as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this act.
  2This requirement should be consistent with the general practice for publication re-
quirements in the State and with any State administrative procedure act that may apply.


                                                             145

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Section 6. Prior Permission and Notification
    (a) Prior permission shall be obtained from the Department for
each of the following:
       (1) The construction of any water well
       (2) The abandonment of any water well
       (3) The first installation of any pump or pumping equip-
             ment in any well
in any geographical area where the  Department determines such
permission to be reasonably necessary to protect the public health,
taking into consideration other applicable State laws, provided that
in any area where undue hardship might arise by  reason  of such
requirement, prior permission will not be required.
    (b) The Department shall be  notified of any of the following
whenever prior permission is not required:
       (1) The construction of any water well
       (2) The abandonment of any water well
       (3) The first installation of any pump or pumping equip-
             ment in any well
       (4) Any repair, as defined in this act, to any water well or
             pump
Section 7. Existing Installations
  No well or pump installation in existence on the effective date of
this act shall be required to conform to the provisions of subsection
(a)  of section  6  of this act, or any rules or  regulations adopted
pursuant thereto; provided,  however, that any well now or hereafter
abandoned, including any well deemed to have been abandoned, as
defined in this act, shall  be brought into  compliance with  the
requirements of this act and any applicable rules or regulations with
respect to  abandonment of wells;  and further provided, that any
well or pump installation supplying water that is determined by the
Department to be a health  hazard must comply with the provisions
of this act  and applicable rules and regulations within a reasonable
time after notification of such determination has been given.
Section 8. Inspections
    (a) The Department is authorized to inspect any water well,
abandoned water well, or  pump  installation  for any  well. Duly
authorized representatives  of the Department may at  reasonable
times enter upon, and shall be given access to, any premises for the
purpose of such inspection.
    (b) Upon the basis of such inspections, if the Department finds
applicable laws, rules, or regulations have not been complied with,
or that a health hazard exists, the Department shall disapprove the
well and/or pump  installation. If disapproved,  no well or pump
installation shall thereafter be used until brought into compliance
and any health hazard is eliminated.

146

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    (c) Any person aggrieved by the disapproval of a well or pump
installation  shall be  afforded  the  opportunity of  a hearing as
provided in section 13 of this act.
Section 9. Licenses
  Every person  who wishes to engage in such business as a water
well contractor  or pump  installation contractor, or both,  shall
obtain from the Department a license to conduct such business.
    (a) The Department may adopt, and  from time to time amend,
rules  and  regulations  governing  applications  for water  well
contractor  licenses  or pump installation  contractor  licenses,
provided  that  the Department  shall license,  as a  water  well
contractor or pump installation contractor,  any  person properly
making application therefor, who is not  less than twenty-one (21)
years of age, is of good moral character, has knowledge of rules and
regulations adopted under  this act, and has had not less  than two
(2) years' experience  in the work for which he is applying for a
license; and provided further, that the Department shall prepare an
examination that each such applicant must pass in order to qualify
for such license.
    (b) This section shall not apply  to  any  person who performs
labor or services at the direction and under the personal supervision
of a licensed water well contractor or pump installation contractor.
    (c) A county, municipality, or other political subdivision of the
State engaged in well drilling or pump installing  shall be licensed
under this act, but shall be exempt from paying the license fees for
the drilling or installing done by regular employees  of,  and with
equipment owned by, the governmental entity.
    (d) Any person who was engaged in the business of a water
well  contractor or pump  installation contractor, or both, for a
period of two (2) years immediately prior to (date of enactment)
shall, upon  application  made within twelve (12) months of (date of
enactment), accompanied  by  satisfactory proof  that he  was so
engaged, and accompanied by payment of  the required fees, be
licensed as a water well contractor, pump installation contractor, or
both, as provided in subsection (a) of this section, without fulfilling
the requirement that  he pass any examination prescribed pursuant
thereto.
     (e)Any person whose application for a license to  engage in
business as  a water well contractor  or pump installation contractor
has been denied, may request, and shall be granted, a hearing in the
county where such complainant has his place of business before an
appropriate  official  of [insert the name of  the  hearing  body
designated in section 13 of this act].
     (0 Licenses issued pursuant to this section are not transferable
and shall expire on	of each year.  A license  may be renewed

                                                            147

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without examination for an ensuing year by making application not
later than thirty (30) days after the expiration date and paying the
applicable fee. Such application shall have the effect of extending
the validity  of the current license until a new license is received or
the applicant  is notified by the Department  that it has refused to
renew his license. After	of each year, a license will be renewed
only  upon  application and payment  of the  applicable fee plus a
penalty of $	
    (g) Whenever the Department determines  that  the holder of
any  license issued  pursuant  to  this  section  has  violated  any
provision of this act, or any rule or  regulation adopted pursuant
thereto, the Department is authorized to suspend or  revoke any
such license. Any order issued pursuant to this subsection shall be
served upon  the  license  holder  pursuant to  the  provisions of
subsection  (a) of section 12  of this act. Any  such  order shall
become effective	days after service thereof, unless a written
petition requesting hearing, under the procedure provided in section
13, is filed sooner. Any person aggrieved by any order issued after
such  hearing  may appeal  therefrom  in any court  of competent
jurisdiction as  provided by the laws of this State.
    (h) No  application for a license issued pursuant  to this section
may be made within one (1) year after revocation thereof.
Section 10. Exemptions
    (a) Where  the Department  finds  that  compliance with  all
requirements  of this  act would  result in  undue hardship,  an
exemption  from any  one or  more  such requirements may  be
granted by  the Department to the extent necessary to ameliorate
such  undue hardship  and to  the extent such exemption  can be
granted without impairing the intent and purpose of this act.
    (b) Nothing in this act shall prevent a  person who has not
obtained  a license  pursuant  to  section  9  of this act  from
constructing a well  or installing a pump on  his own or  leased
property intended for use only in a single family house that is his
permanent residence, or intended for use only for  farming purposes
on his farm, and where the waters to be produced are not intended
for use by the public or in any residence other  than  his own. Such
person shall comply with all rules and regulations as to construction
of wells and installation of pumps and pumping equipment adopted
under this act.
Section 11. Fees
  The following fees are required:
    (a) A fee  of  $	shall  accompany each  application for
permission required under section 6(a) of this act.
    (b) A fee of $	shall  accompany each application for a
license required under section 9 of this act.

148

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Section 12. Enforcement
    (a) Whenever the  Department has reasonable grounds for
believing that there has been a violation of this act, or any rule or
regulation  adopted  pursuant thereto,  the Department shall give
written notice to the person or persons alleged to be in violation.
Such  notice  shall identify the provision of this act, or regulation
issued hereunder, alleged to  be violated and  the  facts alleged to
constitute such violation.
    (b) Such notice shall be served in the manner  required by law
for the service of process upon person in a civil action, and may be
accompanied  by an order of the Department requiring described
remedial action,  which, if taken within the time specified in such
order, will effect compliance with the requirements of this act and
regulations issued hereunder. Such order shall become final unless a
request for hearing as  provided in section 13 of this  act is made
within	days from the date of service of such order. In lieu of
such  order,  the  Department may require  the person  or persons
named in such notice to appear at a hearing, at a time and place
specified in the notice.
Section 13. Hearing
   [Unless  already prescribed in State law, this section should be
used to specify procedures for administrative hearing.]
Section 14. Judicial Review
   [Unless  already prescribed in State law, this section should be
used to specify procedures for judicial review.]
Section 15. Penalties
   Any person who violates any provision of this act, or regulations
issued hereunder, or order pursuant hereto, shall  be subject to a
penalty of $	Every day, or any part thereof, in which such
violation occurs shall constitute a separate violation.
Section 16. Conflict With Other Laws
   The  provisions of any law,  or regulation of any municipality
establishing standards affording greater  protection to the public
health  or safety, shall  prevail  within  the  jurisdiction  of such
municipality over the provisions of this act and regulations adopted
hereunder.
Section 17. Severability
   [Insert severability clause.]
Section 18. Effective Date
   [Insert effective date.]
                                                             149

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                                   Index

                  A                     Casing for water wells (see  also
Abandoning wells 	23,54   Ktiess adapters and units).... 19,42,43
ABSinwater   	7 Catchments  	62
Access pipe on well casing  	106 Cement grouting
Acidity  .		11,88,89   ofweUs  	48,49,54,116,133-135
Activated carbon  	70, 87 Centrifugal pumps  	94, 96
Adapters, pitless  	109-119 Ceramic fater8  	75
Aeration 	87, 91 CH4 (methane) in water  	55
Aggressive water  	88,89,91 Check valm	103
^k jjjjg  	46 Chemical analysis of water   	7, 23
Air rotery drilling	41 Chemical characteristics:
Air tightness in wells (see also                 of ground water  	23
  Vent, well)	  118    of water  	  7-11
Algae  	13, 20, 70, 87-89, 91 Chemical disinfection
Alkalinity 	11   of water  	67, 76-83, 139-141
Alkyl benzene sulfonate (ABS)	7 Chlorides in water  	8, 23
Analysis of water:                        Chlorinated hydrocarbons
   bacteriological ... 12,54,69,137,138   («« also Pesticides)	5,10
   chemical  	7, 23 Chlorination 	67, 76-82, 87,140
   radiological 	6,13 Chlorination equipment   	80,81
Aquifer	1-4, 21-32 Chlorine:
Arsenic  	8    demand 	77
Artesian aquifers and                        residual  	77, 79, 90
  wells  	22,26-29, 53, 55 Chromium  	8
                                        Churn drill (cable tool drill)  	39
                  B                     Cisterns   	4, 6246, 91,125
Bacteria:                                COj (carbon dioxide) in water   	91
   coliform   	12 Coagulation  	74
   in water   	12, 22 Color in water  	6, 27
Bacteriological analysis                   Conditioning, water  	   83-91
  of water	12, 54, 69,137 Cone of depression  	28
Barium in water  	8 Cone of influence  	28
Bentonite clay 	133 Consolidated formations  .  21, 22, 25, 41
Bleach for disinfection .  51, 78,123, 140 Consumption, water	   14-18
"Blue baby" disease	10 Contamination:
Blue stone (blue vitriol)	  87,89    sources of 	  19, 20, 24, 25
Bored wells   	  30-33, 53    threats to wells 25, 26, 48, 98,109,118
"Buried seals"  	50    water supplies  	  11, 24-26
                   C                   Copper in water  	9, 87
                                        Copper sutfate in algae control  ...  87, 89
Cable tool drilling  	39 Corrosion:
Cadmium in water 	8    in pitless installations .. 115,116, 118
Calcium hypochlorite  ..  50, 78,123,140    of pipe lines  	119
Calcium in water 	85    of well casing  	   42,106,115,116
Calgon (polyphosphates)  	89 Corrosive water   	  7, 88, 89, 91
Canals as source of water  	71 Covers:
Carbon, activated 	70, 87    sanitary well .19,4649,98-103,106-107
Carbon dioxide in water  	91    spring box 	56-58
Carbonate hardness 	11 Cyanide in water   	  8

                                                                            151

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                   D
Dechlorination  	82
Demand, water, for various uses  . .  14-18
Destroying (abandoning) wells	54
Detergents in drinking water 	7
Development of wells  	44
Diatomaceous earth filters  	75
Diatoms in water   	89
Disinfection:
   of springs  	58
   of water  	67, 76-83, 139-141
   of water-distribution systems  .... 123
   of wells  	  50-52
Distances, "safe," between water source
  and source of contamination.. 19,  24, 25
Distribution system  	  119-124
Distribution system, disinfection of  . 123
Down-the-hole air hammer   	42
Drawdown  	28
Drilled wells  	 30, 39-44, 53
Drilling equipment and methods  ..  28-45
Drinking Water Standards USPHS  .. 8, 54
Drive (well) points  	  35-39
Driven wells  	 31, 35-39, 53
Dug wells  	 30-33,  51, 55
Dynamic (total operating) head	98
                   E
Efficiency, pump   	100, 101
Epsom salts in water  	10, 23
Equipment, chlorinatkm  	80, 81
Equipment, pumping  	  93-119
   housing of	  107-109
   installation of   	  49,104-107
   selection of  	  96-98
Farm livestock water needs 	15, 90
Fast-setting cement   	133
Federal Radiation Council 	13
Fertilizers, mineral, in water   	13
Filters for water treatment   62, 67, 74-76
Filtration, natural  	22,  25, 73
Fire protection	17, 125
Fish tolerance to copper  	90
"Flame safety lamp"  	55
Flooding of wells 	19, 49, 123
Flowing artesian wells  	27, 53
Fluoridation of water  	86, 87
Fluorides in water  	  8, 9,  86, 87
Foaming in water	7
Formation seal 	  19, 48, 49, 116
Formations:
   consolidated  	22,  25, 41
   unconsolidated  	22,  24, 41
Freezing protection for:
   wells 	49, 107
   discharge lines	107, 119
   pumping equipment  	70, 103, 107
Friction (head loss, energy loss)
 in pipes and fittings 	120-122
                  G
Gas in well water 	55
Geological survey 	  18-20, 25
Geological Survey, U.S	7, 22, 24
Geology and
 ground water..  19, 21, 22, 24, 25, 30-32
Glauber's salt  	10, 23
Greensand   	85
Ground water:
   basins   	22
   movement  	3, 4
   quality   	  5,22-24
   temperature  	23
Grouting, cement,
 of wells	  19, 48, 49, 116, 133
                   H
Hand pumps	107
Hardness:
   in ground water   	23
   in water  	11, 85
   treatment for  	85, 86
Head:
   dynamic  	120
   operating, of pumps  	98
   pressure	98, 120
Head loss  	  98, 120-122
Herbicides   	70, 71
High-test calcium
  hypochlorite(HTH) ... 50, 78, 123, 140
Home water needs	  14-18
H2§ (hydrogen sidfide) in
  well water  	55, 91
                    I
Infiltration galleries  	59
Inspection:
   of pitless installations 	118
   of proposed well sites (sanitary
     and geological surveys) . 18-20, 24, 25
   of wells 	49, 50, 118
Interference between wells   	28, 29
Iodine for disinfection of water  .  83, 141
Ion exchange  	85
Iron bacteria  	34
Iron in water  	 9,23,27,83,87,91
Irrigation canals as source of water  ... 71
                   J
Jet pumps   	  49, 93, 96,107
152

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Jetted wells	32, 39
Jetting, development of wells by	44
                   L
Lakes, as source of water  	66
Lawn sprinkling, water required for  .. 16
LAS in  water  	7
Lead  in water 	8
Lead  packer (seal)  	44
Legislation, suggested, for water well
  construction and pump
  installation  	   143-149
Light, effect on algae  growth  	13, 89
Lightning, protection of pumps
  against 	109
Lime-soda ash process for
  softening  	85, 86
Lubrication of pumps  	94, 98
                   M
Magnesium in water  	23, 85
Manganese in water  	  9, 23, 83, 91
Membrane filter (MF)  	12
Methane gas in water  	55
Methemoglobinemia  	10
Minerals in
  water  	 5, 7-11, 83-86, 88, 89, 91
Mining, pollution from  	10
Most probable number (MPN) 	12, 20
Mud rotary drilling  	  39-41
                   N
National Fire Protection
  Association  	17, 18
National Water Well Association  	22
Nitrates in water  	10, 23
Nonartesian wells  	26
Noncarbonate hardness 	11
                   0
Odors in water  	 6, 23, 70, 87, 91
OTA (orthotolidine)   	79
Ozone in water disinfection	83
 Painting water storage tanks  	126
 Percussion (cable tool) drilling   	39
 Permanent hardness  	11
 Permeability,  effect on wells 	28
 pH   	11, 77
 Pesticides in water  	5, 10
 PHS  Drinking Water Standards   .... 8, 54
 Piezometric surface  	37
 Pipe:
    and fittings,  friction loss in   .  120-122
    for distribution  systems  	119
    for well casing  	42, 43
    plastic  	119
Pitless adapters and units  47, 48, 109-119
Pitless installations, testing   	118, 119
Pit, well  	109
Pneumatic pressure systems  	18, 124
Pollution, sources of  	  19, 20, 24-26
Polyphosphatee  	89
Ponds and lakes  	66
Positive displacement pumps  	93
Pressure filters  	75
Pressure,  operating  	120
Pressure tanks  	124
Priming of pumps   	103, 107
Protecting pumps against lightning  ... 109
Protection, sanitary:
   of springs  	58
   of wells  .. 22, 24-26, 48, 98,109,118
Pump:
   alinement in wells	104, 106
   lubrication  	94, 98
   platforms  	49
   priming  	103, 107
Pumphouses 	 19,  107-109
Pumping:
   equipment, selection of  	  96-98
   facilities, sanitary protection of  ...  98
Pumps:
   centrifugal	  94-96
   hand   	107
   helical or spiral rotor  	93
   installation of  	49, 104
   jet 	  49, 93, 96,107
   line-shaft (vertical) turbine 	104
   positive  displacement  	93
   shallow  well   	98
   submersible  	94, 95,106
   vertical turbine 	93, 94
 Quality:
    of ground water  	22, 23
    of surface water  	4-14, 18, 20, 61
 Quantity of water needed for
  various uses  	  14-18
 Quick-setting cement  	133
                    R
 Radiation Protection Guides 	13
 Radioactivity in water  	6, 13
 Radiological factors  	6, 13
 Radius of influence  	28
 Rates of flow for various fixtures  . 16,17
 Reciprocating pumps  	93
 Reconstruction of dug wells 	55
 "Red water" (see Iron in water)
 Repair of wells	49, 116
 Rights, water  	1
                                                                               153

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Rock formations, classification of 	21  Survey, geological	  24, 25
Rotary drilling methods	  39-42  Survey, U.S. Geological  	 7,22,24
Rust (iron) in water	  9, 23, 83, 91                    T

                                          Taste and odor in water .. .6, 23,70, 87, 91
                                          Temporary hardness 	11
                                          Temperature:
                                             of ground water	23
                                             of water	7
                                          Testing:
                                             pitless adapters and units
                                              for leaks  	118,119
                                             water for bacteria   	11, 54, 69,137
                                             water for minerals  	7, 23
                                             wells for capacity   	45
                                          Tincture of iodine	141
                                          Toxic substances in water	8
                                          Treatment of water	73
                                          Turbidity in water  	6, 20,70,141
"Safe" distances between water source
  and contamination sources  . .  19, 24-26
Salt in water (see Sodium; Chlorides)
Sand in well water  	  38, 42-45
Sand (well) points  	  35-38
Sanitary covers:
   for spring boxes, cisterns  .. 58, 64, 65
   for wells  	19, 46-49, 106, 107
Sanitary protection:
   of distribution systems  . 103, 122, 123
   of springs  	56, 58
   of storage  	64, 66, 125
   of wells 	24-26, 98, 109, 118
Sanitary quality of  ground water	 22
Sanitary survey  	 18-20
Screens, well  	19, 30, 35-38, 42-44
   installation of  	42
   selection of  	 38, 42-44
Seal, cement grout
  (formation) 	  19, 48, 49, 116
Seal (cover), sanitary well  	
              19, 46-49, 98-103, 106, 107
Sedimentation in water treatment  . 67, 74
Selenium in water   	8
Servicing  wells  	48, 103, 116
Settling basins  	67
Silver  in water  	8, 83
Site selection for wells	 19, 20, 24-26
Slab, well  	49, 104, 107
Slow sand filters   	75
Sodium arsenite, use in testing for
  residual chlorine   	79
Sodium hypochlorite  	50, 78, 140
Sodium in water   	10, 23, 85
Softening of water  	85, 86, 87
Sources of water   	1
Specific capacity of wells   	30
Springs  	 4, 27, 56-58
Staining of clothing and fixtures  .. 83, 84
 Standards, USPHS  Drinking Water . . 8, 54
 Static water level  	28
 Steel pipe for casing  	42, 43
 Storage of water	
             14,17,18, 66,67,91,124-128
 Storage tanks, painting of   	126
 Stream as source of water  	71
 Sutfates in water  	10, 23
 Sulfur (hydrogen sulfide)
   in water	55, 91
 Superchlorination	82
 Surface water supplies 	4, 20, 61-71
                                                             U

                                          Ultraviolet light for disinfection
                                            of water	82
                                          Unconsolidated formations  ....  22, 25,41
                                          U.S. Geological Survey  	7, 22,24
                                                             V
                                          Valves:
                                             air relief	119
                                             check	103
                                          Vent, well	19,103
                                          Vertical turbine pumps	104
                                                             W
                                          Water conditioning	  83-91
                                          Water consumption (demand)	14-18
                                          Water disinfection	67,76-83,139-141
                                              with chemicals .... 67, 76-83,139441
                                              with ultraviolet light  	82
                                          Water quality   	5-14
                                          Water rights  	1
                                          Water table (nonartesian) wells	26, 28
                                          Water treatment  	73-91
                                          Water use  	14-18
                                          Weed control   	70
                                          Well:
                                              abandonment (destruction) ....  23, 54
                                              casing  	19,42,43
                                              construction  ..  19,2844,55,109-119
                                              coven  	19,48,98-103,106,107
                                              development (see also Well construction;
                                               Site selection for  wells)   	44
                                              disinfection 	50-54
                                              failure  	46
                                              grouting	19,49, 54,116,133-135
                                              inspection  	18,20,49,50,118
 154

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   log	  19     for leaks  	•	118
   pits  	109
   points  	35-38                   Y
   repair	49,116  yield-
   screens 	19,30,35-38,42       '   „                            ,ft
   seals	19,48,49,106,107     ££r*dUte	JJ
   slabs  	49,104,107       St"*   "* °  	
   straightness  	104, 106
   yield  	28,45                   Z
Well testing:                             Zeolite softening	85
   for capacity  	45  Zinc in water  	10
                                                                            155

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              ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
                         REGIONAL OFFICES
REGION 1-Connecticut, Maine,
  Massachusetts, New Hampshire,
  Rhode Island, Vermont
John F. Kennedy Federal Building
Boston, Mass. 02203

REGION H-New Jersey, New
  York, Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands
Federal Building
26 Federal Plaza
New York, N.Y. 10007

REGION III-Delaware, District
  of Columbia, Maryland, Penn-
  sylvania, Virginia, West Virginia
Curtis Bldg., 6th & Walnut Streets
Philadelphia, Pa. 19106

REGION IV-Alabama, Florida,
  Georgia, Kentucky, Mississippi,
  North Carolina, South Carolina,
  Tennessee
1421 Peachtree Street, NE.
Atlanta, Ga. 30309

 REGION V-Dlinois, Indiana,
  Michigan, Minnesota, Ohio,
  Wisconsin
 1 North Wacker Drive
 Chicago, 111. 60606
REGION VI-Arkansas, Louisiana,
  New Mexico, Oklahoma, Texas
1600 Patterson Street
Dallas, Tex. 75201

REGION VH-Iowa, Kansas,
  Missouri, Nebraska
1735 Baltimore Avenue
Kansas City, Mo. 64108

REGION VIII-Golorado,
  Montana, North Dakota,
  South Dakota, Utah,
  Wyoming
Lincoln Tower Building
1860 Lincoln Street
Denver, Colo. 80203

REGION IX-Arizona, California,
  Hawaii, Nevada, Guam,
  American Samoa, Trust
  Territory of Pacific Islands
100 California Street
San Francisco, Calif. 94111

 REGION X-Alaska, Idaho,
  Oregon, Washington
 1200 Sixth Avenue
 Seattle, Wash. 98101
                           * U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 19TI O - m-*T6

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