Technical Note
ORP/LV-75-1
RADIOACTIVITY IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
A LITERATURE REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gregory G. Eadie
April 1975
U. S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
Las Vegas Facility
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
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Technical Note
ORP/LV 75-1
RADIOACTIVITY IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
A LITERATURE REVIEW AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Gregory G. Eadie
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Radiation Programs
Las Vegas Facility
P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
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PREFACE
The Office of Radiation Programs of the Environmental
Protection Agency carries out a national program designed to
evaluate population exposure to ionizing and non-ionizing
radiation, and to promote development of controls necessary
to protect the public health and safety. This literature
survey was undertaken to assess the extent of the exposure
of the population to naturally occurring radionuclides pres-
ent in building materials and to provide a basis for further
studies. Readers of this report are encouraged to inform
the Office of Radiation Programs of any omissions or errors.
Comments or requests for further information are also invited.
lOs
Donald W. Hendricks
Director, Office of
Radiation Programs, LVF
111
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
INTRODUCTION 1
SUMMARY 2
CONCLUSIONS 3
RADIOACTIVITY IN CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS 5
RADIATION SURVEYS 8
RADON AND RADON DAUGHTER PRODUCT CONCEN-
TRATIONS INSIDE BUILDINGS 14
SURVEY OF BUILDINGS WHERE URANIUM MILL
TAILINGS HAS BEEN USED FOR CONSTRUCTION
PURPOSES 17
SPECIAL STUDIES IN AREAS OF HIGH RADIATION
BACKGROUND 18
BIBLIOGRAPHY 20
Table 1. GONADAL DOSE EQUIVALENT TO THE
U.S. POPULATION FROM NATURAL RADIATION 9
Table 2. GAMMA EXPOSURE RATES INSIDE
BUILDINGS 13
V
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INTRODUCTION
A literature search has been conducted to evaluate the
exposure of the population to levels of naturally occurring
radionuclides present in construction materials.
A bibliography of pertinent references has been com-
piled from the bibliographies by Lowder (1965) and Klement
(1965 and 1970), and has been supplemented by searching the
Nuclear Science Abstracts (NSA) through Volume 31, Number 4
(February 1975).
This bibliography on radioactivity in construction ma-
terials contains, to a large extent, articles from the early
1950"s to the present, since few surveys were reported in
the literature prior to 1950. A brief description of impor-
tant topics dealt with in each article has been provided
with the reference source for those articles which have been
reviewed.
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SUMMARY
Surveys to determine the radioactive content of specific
building materials used in the United States have not been
reported in the literature. The external dose to the United
States population from exposure to natural radioactive mater-
ials (exclusive of uranium mill tailings) contained in United
States building materials has not been evaluated, and the
possibly significant external exposure from the use of by-
product gypsum and fly-ash materials should be evaluated.
The effects of various construction materials on the attenu-
ation of cosmic and terrestrial radiation have been evaluated
in a limited number of surveys in the urban areas of Boston,
New York, and Livermore, California. The measurement of
radon and radon daughter product concentrations has only
been reported for a few dwellings and several multi-story
office buildings in Boston and in several State-owned build-
ings in North Carolina. This literature search has found a
lack of meaningful data for use in evaluating the U.S. popu-
lation exposure from building materials.
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CONCLUSIONS
1. The article by Hamilton (1971) is the only signifi-
cant report of data on the radioactivity content of specific
building materials.
2. Radioactivity in building materials used in the
United States has received very little attention. Except
for the studies to find construction materials of very low
background, there are no reports of radiological surveys of
any United States building materials which are used by the
general population for construction purposes. Also, there
are no reports of United States studies on the possible use
of by-product gypsum and fly-ash products for construction
materials.
3. The reports by Solon, et al., (1960); Yeates, et al.,
(1970 and 1972); and Lindeken, et al., (1971 and 1973) pro-
vide the only data on radiation measurements made inside
United States buildings.
4. The reports by Yeates, et al., (1970 and 1972) and
Aldrich and Conners (1974) are the only reported data of
radon daughter product concentration measurements made in-
side United States buildings (exclusive of measurements made
to study uranium mill tailings material usage).
5. The documentation of the evaluation of radiological
hazards associated with the use of uranium mill tailings
material for construction purposes in the United States has
not been reported in the open literature [except for the
report by Duncan and Eadie (1974)].
6. Dose assessments of radiation exposures inside
dwellings and evaluation of the internal dose due to the
inhalation of radon daughter products in the air inside
dwellings have been reported in a number of articles from
foreign countries. These reports indicate that radon and
radon daughter product concentrations in air inside dwellings
of concrete or granite construction probably exceed a working
level value of 0.01, which is the lower limit of the exposure
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guideline currently recommended for the remedial action
program in Grand Junction, Colorado (JCAE, 1971), where
uranium mill tailings material has actually been used for
construction purposes.
7. Table 1, taken from Oakley (1972) , represents the
best summary of the gonadal dose equivalent to the United
States population from natural sources and concludes that
the total dose equivalent is 88 mrem/yr.
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RADIOACTIVITY IN CONSTRUCTION
There are only a few published reports which specifi-
cally discuss the concentration of radionuclides in building
materials such as brick, gypsum board, concrete, etc. The
article by Hamilton (1971) reports the concentrations of
potassium, thorium, uranium, and radium for various build-
ing materials used in the United Kingdom. The results are
expressed in "ppm" and, for comparison purposes, the con-
centration results were converted to a "radium equivalent"
unit. This expresses the summation concentrations of potas-
sium, thorium, and uranium in terms of the concentration of
radium which gives the same gamma-ray emission per gram of
material. Gypsum board, derived as a by-product of the
manufacture of superphosphate fertilizers, had the highest
radium equivalent of all building materials, 17.0 picocuries
per gram (pCi/g). Natural gypsum products in the nnited
Kingdom had a radium equivalent of 1.2 pCi/g. Clay bricks,
the most commonly used building material, had a concentra-
tion of 1.4 pCi/g. There is some indication that concrete
blocks produced from fly ash (i.e., a mixture of coal clinker,
ash, and cement) have a radium equivalent greater than other
brick products. As a result of Hamilton's report, the
United Kingdom has considered legislation to limit the aver-
age concentration of radium in by-product gypsum materials
for use in the construction industry to less than 25 pCi/g
(O'Riordan, et al., 1972).
In a report to the United Kingdom's National Radiolog-
ical Protection Board, O'Riordan, et al., (1972), evaluated
the dose rate from the use of by-product gypsum material.
Considering that the typical radium content of by-product
gypsum material is 25 pCi/g, the corresponding gamma-ray
dose rate to the gonads and bone marrow of the occupants of
a standardized, house was calculated to be 30 mrad per year.
The beta-ray dose rate to the skin and lens of the eye was
less than 20 mrad per year. An evaluation of the lung dose
due to radon and radon daughter products produced from the
use of the by-product gypsum indicated an annual exposure
of 0.04 working level months (WLM). The report summarized
that the radiation exposures due to the use of by-product
gypsum products are about one-tenth of the annual dose limits
for exposure to members of the general public as recommended
by the International Commission on Radiological Protection.
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Standards for natural radioactive substances in build-
ing materials have been established in the Soviet Union and
are contained in the Soviet Sanitary Regulations, Numbers
437 through 463. In summary, the maximum permissible con-
centration of naturally radioactive substances in Soviet
building materials is less than 20 pCi of the total radium-228,
rad.ium-226, thorium-228, thorium-230, uranium-234, lead-210,
and polonium-210 content per gram of material.
The article by Krisyuk, et al., (1974) also discusses
gamma-spectrometric analyses of various building materials
used in the USSR and predicts exposure rates inside buildings.
Suggested permissible concentrations of radium-226, thorium-232r
and potassium-40 are 10, 7, and 126 r>Ci/g, respectively,
based on external gamma radiation levels inside structures.
In the article by Afanas'ev and Krisyuk (1967), the
exposure of occupants due to increased levels of radon and
thorium and their decay products in indoor air is discussed.
The article concludes that measurements of specific radon
and thorium liberation rates should be evaluated on all new
building materials, e.g., by-product gypsum boards. Also,
different air-change factors and the influence of paint or
sealants on the emission rates inside structures should be
considered.
Data on the potassium, uranium, and thorium content of
building materials of Taiwan are given in the article by
Chang, et al., (1974). The results are expressed in parts
per million per kilogram and, from these values, it was
estimated that the external gamma radiation from a typical
concrete building was 52 milliroentgen per year (mR/y).
Other articles dealing specifically with radioactivity
in building materials are listed below:
Author Country
Aten, et al., (1961) Netherlands
Bergstram and Wahlberg (1967) Sweden
Kominek (1972) Czechoslovakia
Krisyuk, et al., (1974) Soviet Union
Lindell and P.eizenstein (1964) Sweden
Roehnsch (1974) Germany
Safonov (1972) Soviet Union
Stretta and del Arenal (1963) Mexico
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Several other articles deal with the use of radio-
isotopes as tracers in building materials or their use in
radiography of construction projects:
Author Country
Hilaire and Le Gallic (1971) France
Ramos Rodriquez (1970) Spain
Toyer (1972) France
With respect to radioactivity in building materials
used in the United States, there are three articles by
Wollenberg and Smith (1960, 1962, and 1966) which report
the determination of the natural radioactivity content of
materials used in concrete or concrete aggregate mixes.
These studies were undertaken to determine the lowest back-
ground materials for use in constructing a room for a whole-
body counting chamber and are, therefore, not representative
of typical building materials. Schiager (1974) also dis-
cusses the selection of low-background building materials
(concrete and aggregate mixes) which were used to construct
a photographic film storage facility having an exposure rate
less than 11 microroentgens per hour (yR/h).
Other articles which report the natural radioactivity
content of various rocks and soils of the United States are
listed in the bibliography. The articles by Harley and
Lowder (1971) and Oakley (1972) provide good summary reports
of the natural radionuclide content and dose rates from com-
mon rocks and soils, but these conditions are representative
only of outdoor terrestrial exposures.
Although extensive surveys have been conducted in the
United States to determine the radioactivty of water sup-
plies and foodstuffs, very little information on the radio-
activity analysis and the radiation exposure conditions of
specific United States building materials, such as gypsum
products, concrete, brick, etc., has been reported in the
literature. No reports were found which correlate the
radioactivity content of the building materials to the
radiological exposure conditions measured inside the buildings
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RADIATION SURVEYS
The following references are concerned with surveys
of the outdoor measurement of cosmic and terrestrial back-
ground radiation exposure for different sections of the
United States:
Author
Beck, et al., (1964)
Golden, Jr. (1968)
Harley and Lowder (1971)
Keefer and Dauer (1970)
Kinsman (1958)
Levin and Stoms (1969)
Lindeken, et al., (1971,
1972, & 1973)
Lowder, et al., (1964)
McLaughlin (1972)
Moxham (1963)
Oakley (1972)
Patterson, et al., (1958)
Pinkerton, et al., (1964)
Segall and Reed (1963)
Soion (1958)
Stephens and Patterson (1961)
Wolienberg and Smith (1960)
Area, of Survey
Southeast, Central,
& Western U.S.
Florida
General
Florida
General
Michigan, Colorado,
& Minnesota
California
New England states
General
Maryland
General
San Francisco Bay area
Maryland
New England states
General
San Francisco Bay area
San Francisco Bay area
Oakley (1972) summarized the results of studies of
cosmic and terrestrial radiation exposure rates in the United
States. The average dose equivalent to the United States
population, considering the population distribution with re-
spect to elevation, the influence of housing and biological
shielding, and the contribution from internal emitters, are
presented in table 1, from his report.
Oakley based his calculations of the terrestrial com- !
ponent of the United States background exposure rate on the'
results of the Aerial Radiological Measurement Surveys ,
(ARMS), which were conducted from 1958 to 1963 by the U.S.
Geological Survey and EG&G, Inc., under U.S. AEG sponsorship.
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Table 1. GONADAL DOSE EQUIVALENT TO THE U.S.
POPULATION FROM NATURAL RADIATION
DOSE EQUIVALENT
SOURCE (mrem/yr)
External
Terrestrial 26
Housing factor = 0.80
Screening factor = 0.80
Cosmic 44
Internal
Potassium-40 16
Other nuclides 2
Total 88
*Taken from D. T. Oakley (1972).
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The effects of different building materials on the
attenuation of the natural background radiation was taken
into account by introducing a "housing factor" which was
defined as the average factor by which indoor living reduces
man's exposure to natural external radiation. Oakley re-
viewed the available literature which includes both U.S.
and foreign surveys, and concluded that the ratio of the
indoor to outdoor dose rates for wood structures ranged
from 70 to 82 percent. Similar ratios for homes of masonry
construction ranged from 72 to 106 percent. Oakley there-
fore assumed that the ratio of inside to outside dose rates
for wood dwellings was 70 percent and for masonry buildings
it was 100 percent. Other conditions were also considered
in the selection of parameters for the calculation of the
housing factor. The type of housing (single-family versus
multiple-family dwellings), type of construction (wood versus
masonry structure), and occupancy time estimates for at-
home versus away-from-home activities were considered in
the derivation of the average housing factor of 0.8.
The following articles report the results of surveys
conducted to evaluate the radiation exposure rates inside
United States buildings:
Author Area of Survey
Jones, et al., (1971) California
Lindeken, et al., (1971 & 1973) Livermore, California
Lowder and Condon (1965) Vermont, New Hampshire
McLaughlin (1972) General
Neher (1957) General
Oakley (1972) General
Solon, et al., (1960) New York City
Yeates, et al., (1970 & 1972) Boston
Neher (1957) reported the results of measurements made
inside various buildings using an ionization chamber. The
average exposure rate (cosmic radiation contribution sub-
tracted) was 60 mR/yr for wood structures and 130 mR/yr
for concrete buildings.
Solon, et al., (1960) also used an ionization chamber
to survey dwellings in the metropolitan New York area and
reported the results of the survey as cosmic plus terres-
trial radiation. Measurements on the first floor of wood-
frame dwellings (for three dwellings surveyed) showed a
range of 76 to 97 mR/yr. Measurements on the first floor
of brick and stone structures (for six dwellings surveyed)
ranged from 70 to 84 mR/yr. Radiation measurements were
also made in the upper floors of a brick apartment building,
10
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but it is difficult to reach a definite conclusion from the
data reported. Radiation levels outside of the surveyed
structures were also reported and it appears that, in gen-
eral, the radiation level inside the structure was somewhat
lower than outside.
The article by Lowder and Condon (1965) discusses radi-
ation surveys conducted in Vermont and New Hampshire, but
only the results of outdoor measurement are reported.
Although the authors present the conclusion that "the mean
indoor levels were close to 70 percent of the corresponding
outdoor levels in each area," no data were reported for the
measurements made inside structures and it is, therefore,
difficult to verify this conclusion.
The report by Yeates, et al., (1970) concludes that
the ratio of the indoor to outdoor dose rates for wood
structures is 82 percent (for five dwellings, first floor
measurements), and a range of 87 to 106 percent for steel
and concrete office buildings (for four structures surveyed),
Yeates, et al., (1972) also discussed data from the 1970
report and has included data of gamma exposure rates inside
single- and multiple-family dwellings and for several multi-
story office buildings in Boston. The dose rates inside
wooden single-family dwellings were from 25 to 50 percent
lower than outdoor levels. For masonry multiple-family
dwellings, the inside dose rate was about 10 percent lower
than the outside measurement. The gamma exposure rates in
multi-story office buildings x^ere reported, but the data
fail to show any significant change of the radiation level
with height inside the building.
Lindeken, et al., (1971 and 1973) used TLD dosimeters
to record the background radiation exposure in about 100
residences (mostly wood-frame structures) in the vicinity
of Livermore, California. A median annual exposure rate
of 63 mR, with a range of 52 to 120 mR/yr, was reported.
Radiation levels on the second floor of the dwellings were
slightly lower than the ground floor levels. Jones, et al.,
(1971) also reported TLD gamma surveys inside dwellings.
The article, "Radiation Levels Inside and Outside
Buildings," by Goldin is included in the reference of
McLaughlin (1972). Goldin summarizes the work in the
United States by Yeates and presents a summary table of
the radiation measurements inside dwellings in Sweden, East
Germany, and Scotland. Some discussion of radon daughter
concentration measurements inside buildings is reported by
Hultquist (Sweden) and Yeates (United States).
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The Second Workshop on the Natural Radiation Environment,
W. M. Lowder, ed.,(1974) , contains several articles which
discuss environmental gamma radiation surveys and also radon/
radon daughter evaluations made indoors in Grand Junction,
Colorado.
In summary, the analysis of the few reported United
States surveys can only lead to general conclusions regard-
ing the attenuation of background radiation by United States
building materials. Wood structures tend to have lower
radiation levels inside compared to the outside levels.
Single-story concrete or brick structures may have inside
radiation levels higher than the outside levels due to the
presence of natural radioactivity in the construction materials
The second floor of any type of structure (i.e., wood or
masonry construction) seems to have a slightly lower radia-
tion level than does the first floor. The ground-level
floors of multi-story buildings have higher radiation levels
inside than outside; but, in the higher stories, the radia-
tion levels inside the building may be less than the outside
radiation levels.
The following references report the results of surveys
conducted to evaluate the radiation exposure rates inside
dwellings in several foreign countries:
Author Country
Cardinale, et al., (1971) Italy
Gustafsson (1969) Finland
Hultquist (1956 & 1965)
(in Swedish) Sweden
Kametani, et al., (1970)
(in Japanese) Japan
Kurokawa (1971) (in Japanese) Japan
Ohlsen (1969 & 1970) (in German) East Germany
Pensko, et al., (1969)
(in Polish) Poland
Spiers (1960) Scotland
Storruste and Rlinstad (1965) Norway
Yamashita, et al., (1966) Japan
Yeates and King (1973) Western Australia
The results of most of these reports are summarized
in table 2.
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Table 2. GAMMA EXPOSURE RATES
INSIDE BUILDINGS - mR/yr
LOCATION
AND REFERENCE
East Germany
(Ohlsen, 1970)
TYPE OF
BUILDING
AVERAGE RANGE REMARKS
Finland
(Gaustafsson,
1969)
Italy
(Cardinals,
et al., 1971)
Norway
(Storruste
and Reinstad,
1965)
Frame (old) 110
Brick (old) 110
Brick (new) 97
Stone (old) 140
Industrial
Const.(new) 92
Wood 81
Unclassified
Wood 87
Concrete 117
Brick 129
30-240
40-200
40-150
40-260
40-150
78-88
(cosmic of
28 mR/yr
incl.)
105-263 (cosmic of
37 mR/yr
incl.)
66-118 (cosmic of
81-152 25 mR/yr
91-158 incl.)
Scotland
(Spiers, 1960)
Sweden
(Hultquist,
1956)
W. Australia
(Yeates and
King, 1973)
Stone
(Edinburgh)
Stone
(Dundee)
Granite
(Aberdeen)
Wood
Brick
Concrete
Wood
Brick
Concrete
48
64
85
80
137
206
52
65
67
25-70
45-80
70-110
70-150
70-220
130-520
—
—
53-91
*Parts of this table were taken from the article by
A. S. Goldin in the report by J. E. McLaughlin (1972).
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RADON AND RADON DAUGHTER PRODUCT
CONCENTRATIONS INSIDE BUILDINGS
The only reported radon and radon daughter product
concentrations measured inside United States buildings are
contained in the articles by Yeates, et al., (1970 and
1972), and Aldrich and Conners (1974). Yeates measured the
radon daughter product concentrations inside dwellings and
inside multi-story buildings and compared the results to
the outside measurements. The radon daughter product con-
centrations measured inside the dwellings (first and second
floors) were comparable to the outdoor concentrations, but
the concentrations in the basements were about a factor of
five higher than outside. In the office buildings, the radon
daughter product concentrations were low due to the effec-
tiveness of the ventilation system for changing and filtering
the air.
In the article by Aldrich and Conners (1974), data are
reported on evaluations of the indoor radon daughter prod-
uct concentrations for 32 State-owned office buildings in
North Carolina. Only 5 out of 32 structures surveyed had
working level values in excess of 0.01 WL; the highest value
being 0.028 WL for the Old Senate Chamber of the State Capi-
tol Building (granite, marble construction with no ventila-
tion system).
Other authors [Barton, et al., (1973); Bunce (1966);
Gesell (1973); Harley (1973); and Johnson, et al., (1973)]
have considered the exposure of inhabitants of dwellings
as a result of unvented combustion products from the use
of natural gas in unvented appliances. The average concen-
trations of radon in natural gas were estimated to be about
20 pCi/1, whereas maximum concentrations of about 1,000 pCi/1
have been measured. Other articles dealing with radon in
natural gas are to be published in the Proceedings of the
Noble Gases Symposium which was held in September 1973 in
Las Vegas, Nevada.
Oakley (1972) also considers the internal exposure of
organs, other than the lung, of an individual due to the
inhalation of radon daughter products in the air inside a
dwelling. Based on the UNSCEAR Report (1966) , Oakley con-
cluded that the internal exposure from the inhalation of radon
daughter products would be less than 2 mrem/yr, gonadal dose
equivalent.
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Auxier, et al., (1974) describe a study on the effects
of using plaster, asphalt, or paint on concrete surfaces to
reduce the radon emission rates. Plaster and asphalt coat-
ings did not reduce the radon emission rate. Epoxy paints
did reduce the emission rate; however, this resulted in a
buildup of radon daughter products at the paint to concrete
interface which resulted in an increased gamma exposure rate.
This study does not discuss the radioactivity content of
building materials.
Kerr, et al., (1974) report on alpha-particle spectrom-
eter measurements of indoor radon daughter products in Grand
Junction, Colorado. This study was conducted to evaluate
the remedial action program in nine structures where uran-
ium mill tailings material had been used for construction
purposes.
Hultquist (1969) reported the results of radon concen-
tration measurements inside Swedish dwellings. For wooden
structures (for eight buildings surveyed), a mean radon level
of 0.53 pCi/1 (ranging from 0.18 to 0.90 pCi/1) was measured.
Brick structures (25 surveyed) had a mean radon level of
0.91 pCi/1 (ranging from 0.18 to 4.1 pCi/1). Dwellinas
built mostly of concrete (28 surveyed) had a mean radon
level of 1.86 pCi/1 (ranging from 0.28 to 5.8 pCi/1).
Sievert (1965) reported results of surveys of the radon
and thoron content of air inside Swedish houses of different
construction types. Measurements were made before and then
after the room was ventilated. The data presented by Sievert
are given as the percentage of dwellings (by construction
type) which were found in various radon concentration ranges
(ranging from less than 0.5 pCi/1 to the range of 15 to 30
pCi/1). Therefore, it appears that poor ventilation leads
to high concentrations of radon inside dwellings regardless
of construction type, and that concrete structures have a
higher radon content than do brick dwellings, with wooden
structures having the lowest radon content of any type of
dwelling surveyed.
Toth (1972) reported on the determination of short-
lived radon decay products in the air of unventilated living
rooms in Hungary. Analyses for 841 locations completed in
14 different towns indicated mean concentrations for Ra-A,
Ra-B, and Ra-C of 3.05, 2.64, and 2.49 pCi/1, respectively.
On the basis of these radon daughter product concentrations,
and of certain assumptions concerning occupancy time and
dose conversion factors, Toth estimated that the Hungarian
population receives a dose of 800 mrem/yr to the bronchial
epithelium and 120 mrem/yr to the whole lungs.
15
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Hague and Collinson (1967) also reported annual doses
for different parts of the respiratory system for various
radon and radon daughter concentrations in dwellings sur-
veyed in London [Hague, et al., (1965)].
Four other articles concerned with the measurement
of radon concentrations inside dwellings in foreign countries
have also been reported:
Author
Mikhaylov, et al./
Shem'i-zade (1970)
Toth (1968)
Truelle (1971)
(1967)
Country
Bulgaria
Soviet Union
Hungary
Czechoslovakia
Another report of possible interest, Snihs (1973) , is
to be published in the Proceedings of the Noble Gases Sym-
posium held in Las Vegas, Nevada, in September 1973.
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SURVEY OF BUILDINGS WHERE URANIUM MILL TAILINGS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN USED FOR CONSTRUCTION PURPOSES
The extensive radiological surveys conducted by State
and Federal agencies (e.g., U.S PHS, U.S. AEC, U.S. EPA,
and the State of Colorado) to evaluate the hazards associ-
ated with the use of uranium mill tailings material for
construction purposes have not been published in the open
literature. Detailed reports have been issued to each State
where tailings material has been determined to have been
used for construction purposes. These State reports include
the results of a mobile gamma-scannina survey (used to de-
note locations with suspected tailings use) and the results
of portable instrument radiation surveys completed inside
and outside of selected dwellings. For some dwellings,
where the use of tailings material could not be completely
evaluated from the gamma radiation surveys only, measure-
ments of the indoor radon and radon daughter product concen-
trations (reported in units of "Working Level") were made
and the results reported in the state reports. The extent
of the problem resulting from the use of uranium mill tail-
ings material for construction purposes is recorded in the
Hearings by the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (October
1971).
Auxier (1973) also considered the problems associated
with the use of uranium mill tailings for construction pur-
poses. Duncan and Eadie (1974) present data on the evalua-
tion of the indoor working level values and also some indoor
gamma radiation survey results for structures built immedi-
ately adjacent to a uranium mill tailings pile located in
Salt Lake City, Utah. >
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SPECIAL STUDIES IN AREAS OF HIGH RADIATION BACKGROUND
Several articles are included in the bibliography which
discuss radiological surveys conducted in areas (in India
and Brazil) which have high natural radiation background.
Little information concerning the radiological exposure con-
ditions, which result from the use of sands and rocks of high
radioactivity content for construction purposes, has been
reported in these articles.
Bharatwal and Vaza give the results of gamma radiation
surveys conducted inside houses in a monazite sand area,
and conclude that, irrespective of the construction material
used in the dwelling, the gamma exposure rate inside was
almost the same as that outside. No studies have been re-
ported which evaluate the radon levels inside dwellings in
these areas of high radium and thorium bearing soils.
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19
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, J. A. S., J. K. Osmond, and J. W. Rogers. The geochemistry of
thorium and uranium. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Ch. 3:
pp. 298-348. 1959.
Adams, J. A. S. and W. M. Lowder, (eds.). The Natural Radiation Environ-
ment. Proc. International Symposium on the Natural Radiation Environ-
ment. Held at Houston, Texas, April 10-13, 1964. Chicago, U. of Chicago
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45
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TECHNICAL REPORT DATA
(Please read Instructions on the reverse before completing)
^REPORT NO.
ORP/LV 75-1
4.TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Technical Note: Radioactivity in Construction
Materials—A Literature Review and Ribliograph'
\B. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION CODE
3. RECIPIENT'S ACCESSIOf*NO.
5. REPORT DATE
April 1975-Issuing Date
7. AUTHOR(S)
Gregory C-. Eadie
8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NO
). PERFORMING ORG \NIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
Office of Radiation Programs—
Las Vegas Facility, P.O. Box 15027
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
10. PROGRAM ELEMENT NO.
11. CONTRACT/GRANT NO.
12. SPONSORING AGENCY NAME AND ADDRESS
Environmental Protection Agency
National Environmental Research Center
Las Vegas, Nevada 89114
13. TYPE OF REPORT AND PERIOD COVERED
Final
14. SPONSORING AGENCY CODE
15. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES
16. ABSTRACT • ' "
Surveys to determine the radioactive content of specific building
materials used in the United States have not been reported in the
literature. The external dose to the U.s. population from exposure
to natural radioactive materials (exclusive of uranium mill tailings)
contained in U.S. building materials has not been evaluated, and
the possibly significant external exposure from the use of by-product
gypsum and fly-ash materials should be evaluated. The effects
of various construction materials on the attenuation of cosmic
and terrestrial radiations have been evaluated in a limited number
of surveys in the urban areas of Boston, New York, and Livermore,
California. The measurement of radon and radon daughter product
concentrations has only been reported for a few dwellings and several
multi-story office buildings in Boston and in several State-owned
buildings in North Carolina. This literature search has found
a lack of meaningful data for use in evaluating the U.S. popula-
tion exposure from building materials.
KEY WORDS AND DOCUMENT ANALYSIS
DESCRIPTORS
b.lDENTIFIERS/OPEN ENDED TERMS C. COSATI Field/Group
natural radioactivity, building
materials, radiation surveys,
population exposures, background
radiation, radium
8. DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT
Release to Public
19. SECURITY CLASS (ThisReport)
Unclassified
21. NO. OF PAGES
45
20. SECURITY CLASS (This page)
Unclassified
22. PRICE
EPA Form 2220-1 (9-73)
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